Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape

Transcription

Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra
Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering
Plants in Urban Areas
and Landscape
Nitra 2014
–1–
Tirážna strana
–2–
MANIFESTATIONS CAUSED BY SALT AEROSOL ON SHOOTS AND BUDS
OF STREET SIDE LIMES
Jacek BOROWSKI*, Małgorzata Pstrągowska, Tatiana Swoczyna
Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW, Poland
The aim of this work is to examine whether salt aerosol and the distance of tree planting have an impact on the development
of shoots and buds of lime trees planted beside main communications arteries in Warsaw. Examined trees grew at different
distances from the edge of the roadway (3 m, 10 m, 30 m). The level of the salinity was examined with the conductometry
method, and the development of trees was measured by direct observation. Examinations showed that road salt in the form
of saline spray, as well as the distance of planting from communications arteries have an impact on the normal development
of trees and the amount of salt ions accumulated by them.
Keywords: Salt spray, deformation of tree crowns, salinity of shoots, salinity of buds, Tilia sp.
Introduction
In recent years, there has been observed considerable
increase the degradation of urban trees, in particular
those planted close to roads. One of the main reasons
for this is the increase in the amount of salt used in the
chemical de-icing of streets. The early days of combating
snow and ice chemically, in the winter of 1969/1970,
68.6 tons of mixture made up of 95% NaCl and 5% of
CaCl2 were used. By 1970 damage to the city‘s trees was
already noticeable. Instructions were then prepared to
specify how chemicals should be applied. Road salt it
still being used, in spite of the fact that it destabilises the
balance of the soil, and is clearly a cause of the death of
trees (Czerwiński, 1978).
The intention of the regulations issued by the Polish
Minister of the Environment from 2005 was that various
substances could be used on the city‘s roads and squares,
including chemicals, but in practice salt is used almost
exclusively.
The use of salt can cause damage in various ways.
A common phenomenon is the necrosis of the edges of
leaves, evident as early as August. A second symptom is
a delay in the growth of young shoots, followed by them
quickly dying back and falling off (Bach and Pawłowska,
2007). It has also been observed that at the end of
August there were considerably fewer leaves remaining
compared to those evident in spring. A large proportion
of leaves showed damage and fell, some of which were
replaced by young leaves which showed peripheral
damage through necrosis.
The deformations were also evident in the crowns
of trees, in particular their central parts. In some up to
*Correspodence:
80–90% dying shoots were observed. Similar results were
observed by researchers analyzing the health of limes
at the Avenue of Our Lady in Częstochowa (Bach et al.,
2007). These phenomena were without doubt as a result
of an overdose of salt, not only in the soil (Ruge, 1978).
Salinity seems to be one of the most serious causes of
dieback and death in Polish street trees.
Much research, among others Dmuchowski and
Badurek (2004), indicated that the application of
Sodium Chloride affects the chemical make up of leaves,
however that the reaction of plants can be variable
(Breś, 2008). Marosz and Nowak (2008) stated that limes
are particularly sensitive. Zimmerman and Jull (2006)
claimed that the buds of limes are the most vulnerable
to saline spray of three species tested. Salt acts not only
through the roots. The salt distributed on the road or as
saline solution, as a result of traffic, becomes spray and
settles on the shoots and buds of trees. Pracz (1990),
Cunningham et al. (2007) and Borowski and Pstrągowska
(2010) wrote about this negative influence on the growth
of trees.
The snowy and long winter of 2009/2010 meant
that the streets of Warsaw were treated with salt many
more times than in previous years. c. 72 million złoty
(over 17 million euro) was spent, twice what was spent in
2006/2007. It was after that winter of 2009/2010 that we
conducted our research.
The aim of this research was to show the scope and
influence of salt in the form of spray on the development of
two species of lime growing along main communication
arteries of Warsaw.
Jacek Borowski, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW, Department of Environmental Protection,
ul. Nowoursynowska 159, 02-776 Warszawa, Poland, e-mail: [email protected]
Jacek Borowski, Małgorzata Pstrągowska, Tatiana Swoczyna: Manifestations caused by salt aerosol on shoots and buds of street side limes, pp. 3–6
–3–
Material and methods
Choice of trees
Figure 1
Salinity on the surface of buds of lime trees at different distances from
the street, and in the forest
Source: http://botany.cz/cs/cornus-mas/s
Figure 2
Salinity on the surface of shoots of lime trees at different distances
from the street, and in the forest
Figure 3
Tilia cordata and T. platyphyllos
were chosen as the limes to be the
subject of salt spray research along
Władysław Sikorski and Żwirki and
Wigury avenues as well as Jan III
Sobieski street. These chosen arteries
belong to amongst the busiest
streets: 3116–3487 vehicles / hour,
1477–3791 vehicles / hour, 1133–1648
vehicles during evening rush hour
(according to the Planning Office for
the Development of Warsaw). By way
of verification trees were assessed in
the Kabaty Forest reserve in southern
Warsaw, this is the largest forest
reserve in the Mazowia Voivodship.
On all of these streets the distance
between the roadway and the nearest
row of trees was less than 3 m. On two
of these streets material was used
from trees growing 10 and 30 metres
from the road. Shoots and buds were
taken from both the road side of
the tree and from the side farthest
away from the road (that nearest the
pavement). The samples were taken
in spring at the time of bud break.
The measurement of the level
of salinity on the surface of buds
and shoots
6 grams of buds were added to 40 ml
of distilled water and mixed for 60
seconds, the shoots were submerged
Salinity on the surface of buds (left) and shoots in the crowns (right) of lime trees from the street and pavement
–4–
in distilled water so that they displaced 20 cm3 of water.
After 60 minutes the EC of the mixture was measured.
All of the trees were observed, anomalies were noted
regarding their appearance and growth. Data were
subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) procedures
(STATISTICA v. 10). Mean separations were performed by
pairwise Fisher-test comparisons at p <0.05.
Results and discussion
The average level of salinity on the surface of the lime
buds was varied depending on the distance from the
roadway. The salinity of the surface of the buds clearly
reduced in relation to the distance from the street, and
the difference (over 20 times) was statistically relevant
between trees growing close to the street and the
remainder (Fig. 1). The same represents the difference in
salinity on the shoots surface, several times greater (Fig.
2). Regarding trees growing nearest the street, there was
considerably greater salinity on buds and shoots on the
roadside, than those on the opposite side, nearer the
pavement (Fig. 3, table 1 and 2).
Previously recorded drying and dying of shoots
and later appeared leaves and shoots from sleeping
buds. New shoots were unnaturally extended and were
bunched on the periphery of the crowns of trees. Many
Table 1
leaves appearing in spring, quickly began to turn yellow,
and then died and fell. New leaves grew in their place in
bunches.
The form of street limes differs considerably from
those growing in the Kabaty Forest. Their crowns were
irregular, frequently deformed on one side (Fig. 4). The
density of the crowns was greater due to the presence
of the previous year‘s and older shoots. The form of
lime trees clearly differed in summer, depending on its
location. Those limes growing by the street had leaves
closer together and facing different directions (Fig. 5).
In urban planting, the most vulnerable to
environmental factors are trees, and most often native
tree species (Borowski, 2008). This is confirmed by our
observations and research. In spring on the trees that
we researched, salt crystals were clearly visible – the
remains of winter street de-icing. Dead and dry branches,
leaves and buds were clearly visible. This is confirmed
by observations by Bach et al. (2007) and Borowski and
Pstrągowska (2010). It was observed that there were
many examples of deformed crowns on the street side,
which clearly confirm that salt not only penetrates
through soil, but also through saline spray, which was
shown by Cunningham et al. (2007). Spray is blown about
by air movements due to the traffic. This phenomenon
Salinity on the surface of buds of lime trees at different distances from the street, from both sides of trees (from
the street and pavement), and in the forest
Distance from the
street in m
Side of trees
Salinity
in µS/cm
Stat. error
-Stat. error.
+Stat. error
N
Homogeneous
groups
3
from pavement
349,625
76,2635
273,361
425,889
24
b
3
from street
1194,917
76,2635
1118,653
1271,180
24
c
10
from pavement
34,867
96,4666
-61,600
131,333
15
a
10
from street
45,733
96,4666
-50,733
142,200
15
a
30
from pavement
26,933
96,4666
-69,533
123,400
15
a
30
from street
34,600
96,4666
-61,867
131,067
15
a
51,089
124,5378
-73,449
175,627
9
a
Kabaty Forest
Table 2
Salinity on the surface of shoots of lime trees at different distances from the street, from both sides of trees
(from the street and pavement), and in the forest
Distance from the
street in m
Side of trees
Salinity
in µS/cm
Stat. error
-Stat. error.
+Stat. error
N
Homogeneous
groups
3
from pavement
186,6250
7,55038
179,0746
194,1754
24
b
3
from street
264,1250
7,55038
256,5746
271,6754
24
c
10
from pavement
41,6667
9,55057
32,1161
51,2172
15
a
10
from street
45,8000
9,55057
36,2494
55,3506
15
a
30
from pavement
39,7333
9,55057
30,1828
49,2839
15
a
30
from street
46,2667
9,55057
36,7161
55,8172
15
a
20,9222
12,32973
8,5925
33,2519
9
a
Kabaty Forest
–5–
Figure 4, 5, 6 Growth anomalies causing deformaties in the crowns of street limes (left). Leaves that have developed late, and
dead shoots of street limes, is a typical symptom of salt damage (centre). In spring due to the solution that was
present on buds and shoots of street trees, the salinity is extremely high (right)
Photo: J. Borowski
is considerably reduced as the distance from the street
increases. Shoots and buds with salt deposits do not
develop as they should and frequently die. Buds die
during bud break, when young leaves make contact with
dense NaCl solution (Fig. 6). The opinion of Zimmerman
and Jull (2006) that buds are at their most vulnerable in
March is confirmed. A similar phenomenon relates to
fragile young shoots, which are covered with very thin
and vulnerable bark. In this way we can confirm why
there are so many dead buds and shoots in street trees,
particularly after harsh and snowy winters.
Conclusion
yy The close proximity of main roads has a considerable
impact on those parts of trees above the ground, which
causes a changing in number of shoots in their crowns.
yy The dying and deformation of buds and shoots of street
limes is directly a consequence of saline spray.
yy The high density of salt deposits causes the equilibrium
of water in buds and leaves to be disturbed, leading to
their death.
yy After many years the effects of saline spray, mean that
the crowns of street limes differ considerably from
those growing in more natural environments.
yy One should not plant species which are susceptible to
saline spray (limes in particular) closer than 10m from
the street.
yy The amount of salt used should be limited in the
de-icing of streets; otherwise we will loose a significant
number of street trees.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to than Anna Pawłowska and
Martyna Stępień, SGGW students for their help.
References
BACH, A. – FRAZIK-ADAMCZYK, M. – PAWŁOWSKA, B. – PNIAK,
M. 2007. Wpływ warunków miejskich na zdrowotność lip (Tillia x
europaea) ‘Pillidia‘ w Alei Najświętszej Marii Panny w Częstochowie.
Rocz. AR Pozn. In Ogrodnictwo, vol. 383, 2007, no. 41, p. 11–16.
BACH, A. – PAWŁOWSKA, B. 2007. Wpływ zanieczyszczenia
środowiska na stan roślinności drzewiastej w Krakowie.
Międzynarodowy kongres polskich architektów krajobrazu “Sztuka
ochrony i kształtowania środowiska”. Kraków, 2007, p. 114.
BOROWSKI, J. – LATOCHA, P. 2006. Dobór drzew i krzewów do
warunków przyulicznych Warszawy i miast centralnej Polski. In:
Rocznik Dendrologiczny, 2006, no. 54, p. 83–93.
BOROWSKI, J. 2008. Wzrost rodzimych gatunków drzew przy
ulicach Warszawy. Warszawa : Wyd. SGGW, 2008.
BOROWSKI, J. – PSTRĄGOWSKA, M. 2010. Effect of street
conditions, including saline aerosol, on growth of the
Small-leaved limes. In: Rocznik Polskiego Towarzystwa
Dendrologicznego, vol. 58, 2010, p. 15–24.
BREŚ, W. 2008. Czynniki antropopresji powodujące zamieranie
drzew w krajobrazie miejskim. In: Nauka Przyroda Technologie,
vol. 2, 2008, no. 4, p. 31.
CUNNINGHAM, M. A. – SNUDER, E. – YONKIN, D. – ROSS, M. –
ELSEN, T. 2007. Accumulation of deicing salts in soils in an urban
environment. In: Urban Ecosyst. 2007. DOI 10.1007/s11252-0070031-x. [23.09.2010].
CZERWIŃSKI, Z. 1978. Wpływ chemicznej technologii
odśnieżania ulic na gleby i roślinność. W: Rozprawy Naukowe,
Warszawa : Wyd. SGGW-AR,Warszawa, 1978, p. 104.
MAROSZ, A. – NOWAK, J. 2008. Effect of salinity stress on
growth and macroelements uptake of four tree species. In:
Dendrobiology, vol. 59, 2008, p. 23–29.
PRACZ, J. 1990. Reakcje drzew i krzewów na zasolenie chlorkiem
sodu. Warszawa : Wyd. SGGW, 1990.
RUGE, U. 1978. Physiologische Schäden durch Umweltfaktoren.
W. F. H. Meyer red. Bäume in der Stadt. E. Ulmer Stuttgart, 1978,
p. 121–126.
ZIMMERMAN, E. M. – JULL, L. G. 2006. Sodium Chloride Injury
on Buds of Acer platanoides, Tilia cordata and Viburnum lantana.
In: Arboriculture & Urban Forestry, vol. 32, 2006, no. 2, p. 45– 53.
–6–
STOMATAL RESPONSES OF DROUGHT AND HEAT STRESSED
LINDEN (TILIA SP.) LEAVES
Márk STEINER*, Endre György TÓTH, Ágota JUHÁSZ, Magdolna Sütöriné DIÓSZEGI, Károly HROTKÓ
Corvinus University of Budapest, Hungary
Leaf gas exchange was investigated on six linden cultivars from Tilia cordata Mill., T. platyphyllos Scop., T. tomentosa Moench
and T. americana L. After the morning peak rapid stomatal closure was detected on leaves of T. cordata ’Savaria’, ’Greenspire’
and T. platyphyllos ’Favorit’. The stomatal conductance on leaves of T. tomentosa ’Szeleste’ after the midday drop was significant
higher, while highest was on T. americana ’Redmond’ leaves during the whole day. According to the effect of leaf surface
temperature on stomatal conductance three groups of the examined linden cultivars were appointed. Corresponding
to their drought and heat adaptability the performance of leaves of T. tomentosa cultivars showed intermediate level of
transpiration. The large cultivar differences in the performance of leaf gas exchange should be considered at evaluation of
drought stress adaptability and environmental benefits (CO2 fixation, O2 and vapor release) of Tilia cultivars.
Keywords: CO2 assimilation, environmental benefits, transpiration, urban forestry, water use
Introduction
Linden species (Tilia sp.) are important in urban forestry of
Central Europe (Radoglou et al. 2008) and are widespread
planted in form of different cultivars. The following species
are commonly planted for urban forestry in Hungary:
T. cordata Mill. and T. platyphyllos Scop. (native to Europe
forming climax forest); T. tomentosa Moench, (native
to Southern Europe and Asia); T. americana L. (cultivars
were introduced recently). Despite of their importance,
there is little and inconsistent knowledge on the drought
tolerance and leaf gas exchange performance of linden
cultivars under urban conditions.
Most of the authors agree on wider adaptability
of T. cordata Mill. (Hölscher, 2004; Hölscher et al., 2005;
Radoglou et al., 2008), while data of Köcher et al. (2009)
indicate moderate drought sensitivity. Results of Fini
et al. (2009) indicate that T. tomentosa and T. cordata
are more drought tolerant during establishment than
T. platyphyllos. Similarly inconsistent data are available
on drought tolerance of T. americana (Abrams et al., 1998;
Klos et al., 2009; Gustafson and Sturtevant, 2012; Gilman
and Watson, 2012).
Water stress results in stomatal closure and reduced
transpiration rates, decrease in the water potential of
plant tissues, and diminish the photosynthesis. Stomatal
control of leaf transpiration is considered as short
term dynamic adaptation to water stress; the reduced
transpiration contributes to avoiding decrease of leaf
water potential (Sperry, 2000; Bréda et al., 2006). The
above leaf gas exchange characteristics influence the
*Correspodence:
drought adaptability and some major environmental
benefits (CO2 fixation, O2 and vapor release) of urban
trees. Since there are little and inconsistent data on
drought adaptability of linden cultivars we aimed in
this work to evaluate the leaf gas exchange, stomatal
performance of leaves on different linden taxa under
drought stress conditions in order to gain information
on the diurnal course of stomatal conductance.
Materials and methods
Site conditions
The investigations were carried out in Soroksár Station of
Experimental Farm of Corvinus University of Budapest.
Soroksár station (47° 38’ LN; 19° 14’ LE, 103 m above the
sea level) is located in Central Hungary, South-East of
Budapest. The yearly average temperature is 11.3 °C, and
the total sunshine is 2079 hours. Average annual rainfall
is about 550 mm falling mainly in May and June. The
soil type is light sandy, lime content is around 2.5 %, soil
organic matter is low (0.8–0.9 %), pH is 7.7.
An automatic weather system was installed close to the
investigated trees (~300 m) to measure meteorological
variables at 10 minutes interval, recorded by Campbell
CR 100 data loggers. Temperature and relative humidity
were observed by Vaisala HMP35 in the research station
(Fig. 1). 2011 was extremely droughty year in Hungary.
The month August is characterized by increasing air
temperature and decreasing air humidity. Further on
the low amount of rain measured on the investigated
Márk Steiner, Corvinus University of Budapest, Faculty of Horticultural Science, Department of
Floriculture and Dendrology, Hungary, Budapest, 1118. Villányi út 29–43, phone +36-1-4826271,
e-mail: [email protected]
Márk Steiner et al.: Stomatal responses of drought and heat stressed linden (Tilia sp.) leaves, pp. 7–10
–7–
on T. americana cultivars, except for the late afternoon
hours (16:00–20:00). In the next group of Tilia cordata
cultivars there are significant differences within the group
in the early hours; between 12:00 – 14:00 all the T. cordata
cultivars showed similarly mesic leaf temperature. The
highest leaf temperature was measured in each time
interval on T. tomentosa cultivars, while T. platyphyllos
’Favorit’ showed leaf temperature between T. cordata and
T. tomentosa cultivars.
The daily course of stomatal conductance (gs) showed
a performance typical to drought stressed plants (Fig. 3).
The daily maximum was achieved between 8:30 to 9:30,
followed by rapid decrease to very low level, but with
considerably large cultivar differences.
In the early morning (6:30 to 7:30) low stomatal
Figure 1
Global radiation, air temperature and vapor
pressure deficit (VPD) on the days of conductance was measured on leaves of T. platyphyllos
investigations in 2011
’Favorit’ and on both T. cordata cultivars, compared to the
control (T. tomentosa ’Szeleste’). In the daily maximum
area (total 2.2 mm precipitation in the whole month of period from 8:30 to 9:30 the stomatal conductance
August 2011) increased the drought.
of T. cordata ’Savaria’ was significant lower, while
T. americana ’Redmond’ was higher than that of control. In
Plant material and methods of leaf gas exchange
the following sections of the day until 19:30 the stomatal
measurements
conductance of T. americana ’Redmond’ leaves remained
Six linden cultivars propagated by budding, were
involved in the trial: Tilia americana ’Redmond‘, Tilia
cordata ’Greenspire‘, T. c. ’Savaria‘, Tilia platyphyllos
’Favorit‘, T. tomentosa ’Szeleste‘ and T. t. ’Zentai Ezüst‘.
The investigated linden trees were planted in first
week of December 2009, with a trunk circumference
120–140 mm.
The parameters of leaf gas exchange were
investigated by using portable infrared gas analyzer
(LCi, ADC BioScientific Ltd). Healthy and well developed
trees were chosen to take the measurements; four trees
from each cultivars. We measured the leaf gas exchange
on four leaves from each tree, possibly with similar PAR
exposition, according to the points of the compass, on
each side of trees. The measurements were taken in
Performance of leaf temperature on linden
2011 august 25 and 26, with very similar meteorological Figure 2
cultivars
characteristics (Fig. 1). The measurements
started at
6:30 AM and finished at 7:30 PM. Measurements of one
series (four leaves on one tree of the six cultivars) took
one hour and were repeated in two hour intervals from
6:30 AM to 7:30 PM. Data were analyzed with SPSS 2.0,
Repeated measures ANOVA and One-way ANOVA were
used. Data of species and cultivars were compared
to T. tomentosa ’Szeleste‘, which is one of the most
widespread planted registered cultivar in Hungary.
The temperature of measured leaves on different linden
cultivars showed in each time intervals significant
differences (Fig. 2). There are distinct groups of cultivars,
where the leaf temperature showed more or less similar
performance. The lowest leaf temperature was measured
Figure 3
Daily course of stomatal conductance of
linden leaves in mol m-2 s-1
–8–
(A) (B)
(C) (D)
(E) (F)
Figure 4
Regression analysis (n = 56) of the six Tilia cultivars stomatal conductance (gs) by leaf temperature (A – T. a. ’Redmond’,
B – T. c. ’Greenspire’, C – T. c. ’Savaria’, D – T. p. ’Favorit, E – T. t. ’Szeleste’, F – T. t. ’Zentai Ezüst’)
higher than that of control during the whole day. On the
other hand, T. cordata ’Savaria’ and T. platyphyllos ’Favorit’
showed significant lower stomatal conductance in the
afternoon period from 14:30 to 19:30 (Fig. 3). By the end
of the day, as the global radiation reduced to minimum,
similar differences remained between cultivars.
The six examined linden cultivars may be divided into
three different groups under the relationship between
leaf surface temperature and stomatal conductance
(Fig. 4). The leaf surface temperature of T. americana
‘Redmond’ did not climb over 41 °C, and nor the
stomatal conductance declined beneath 0.05 mol m-2
s-1. At same time, the temperature of measured leaves
on T. cordata ’Greenspire’, T. c. ’Savaria’ and T. platyphyllos
’Favorit was higher, while their stomatal conductance
was close to zero.
The third group is constituted by T. tomentosa
‘Szeleste’ and T. t. ‘Zentai Ezüst’. Their leaf temperature was
the highest (45 °C), however their stomatal conductance
remained relative high (0.03 mol m-2 s-1).
The leaves showed a diurnal course of stomatal
conductance typical to water stressed plants: the daily
maximum was around 8:30, than decreased to the
minimum. The leaves of T. cordata ’Greenspire’, ’Savaria’
and T. platyphyllos ’Favorit’ showed low level of stomatal
conductance during the whole day. This strategy as
a short term dynamic adaptation to water stress may
efficiently contribute to the water saving (Sperry et al.
2002; Yordanov et al. 2003; Bréda et al., 2006). The largest
conductance was measured during the whole day on
T. americana ’Redmond’, which is in correspondence
with its low leaf temperature (Fig. 2 and Fig. 3). Both
T. tomentosa cultivars produced a second minor peak in
the afternoon.
The above observation suggests considerable cultivar
differences in adaptability to water stress conditions.
Cultivars of T. cordata and T. platyphyllos showed an
efficient short term dynamic adaptation to water stress
by stomatal control (Sperry, 2000; Bréda et al., 2006),
while cultivars of T. tomentosa and T. americana could
maintain the transpiration of leaves on a relative higher
level and produce a second peak after the midday
drop. The high stomatal conductance and transpiration
of T. americana ’Redmond’ leaves support the Gilman
–9–
and Watson’s (2012) statement on drought tolerance
of this cultivar. Maintaining the steady water status of
T. americana ’Redmond’ leaves requires double amount
of water supply.
Strong correlation was found between leaf
temperature and stomatal conductance (Fig. 4). Although
the leaf transpiration alone is not an appropriate indicator
of drought tolerance of linden cultivars, the differences
between cultivars in leaf gas exchange characteristics
suggest need on further investigations. The performance
of T. tomentosa and T. americana indicate that in the
soil-plant-air complex of these species there might be
a more efficient mechanism in water uptake or larger
water reservation and supply capacity, which allows
maintaining the higher level of transpiration. The above
leaf gas exchange characteristics strongly influence
the drought adaptability, ornamental value and the
environmental benefits (CO2 fixation, O2 and vapor
release) of the investigated Tilia cultivars under stress
conditions.
Acknowledgment
Our research was supported by TÁMOP-4-2.1.B-09/1/
KMR-2010-0005 project and by Hungarian Scientific
Research Funds OTKA 109361.
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KÖCHER, P. – GEBAUER, T. – HORNA, V. – LEUSCHNER, C. 2009.
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Special Issue, p. 187–206
– 10 –
PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS IN HIPPOPHAË RHAMNOIDES LEAVES
COLLECTED FROM HEAVY METALS CONTAMINATED SITES
Ewa MUSZYŃSKA*, Katarzyna KAŁUŻNY, Ewa HANUS-FAJERSKA
University of Agriculture in Krakow, Poland
We examined total phenols, phenylopropanoids, flavonols and anthocyjanins content in leaves of sea buckthorn (Hippophaë
rhamnoides L., Elaeagnaceae) growing in different heavy metals contaminated areas. Leave samples were collected in
spring, and in autumn from female specimens. In the spring the concentration of total phenolic compounds in samples
collected from specimens growing in the city center was on the control level (material from unpolluted area). The analogous
concentration in samples taken in autumn was different in particular contaminated sites, and amounted from 240 to
300 mg 100 g-1 f. w. Regardless of the season and site anthocyanins content reached 5 mg 100 g-1 f.w. In the course of time
the content of phenolic compounds increased in leaves of plants growing on the waste heaps, especially concentration of
phenylopropanoids and flavonols.
Keywords: contamination, heavy metals, phenols, sea buckthorn, urban areas
Introduction
In different urban areas, plants are exposed to direct
influence of various stress factors that have a negative
impact on living organisms and lead to numerous
metabolic dysfunctions. In these sites to the most harmful
and dangerous is included increasing concentration of
heavy metals ions, mainly lead and cadmium, generated
during the combustion of gasoline, oil and diesel oil as
well as the abrasion of tires and road surfaces and other
activities (Akbar et al., 2006; Gupta et al., 2010; Lu et al.,
2010).
In the course of numerous experiments it has been
shown that elevated level of heavy metals is toxic for
living organisms (Peltarta et al., 2001; Banddh and Singh,
2011; Evangelon et al., 2012). In plants heavy metals
affect physiological processes such as transpiration,
photosynthesis, electron transport, and cell division which
lead to inhibition of growth and development (Qufei
and Fashui, 2009; Nagajyoti et al., 2010; Pourrut et al.,
2012). Another, well-documented effect is uncontrolled
production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) causing
oxidative stress (Karuppanapandian et al., 2011; Biesiada
and Tomczak 2012). Excessive amounts of ROS result
in lipid peroxidation, the enzymes and other proteins
inactivation and DNA damage (Karuppanapandian et
al., 2011; Sharma et al., 2012). To prevent the negative
effects of high ROS content, intracellular plant defense
mechanisms are activated among which synthesis of
phenolic compounds should be mentioned. They are
known for their antioxidant properties, and ability to
*Correspodence:
free radicals’ scavenging (Michalak, 2006). Thus phenols
counteract the effects of stress induced by balast
metal ions. In addition, they may also take part in the
accumulation of such ions by their coordination binding
(Lavid et al., 2001a, b). For above mentioned reasons
there were scheduled analyses of phenolic compounds
concentration in Hippophaë rhamnoides leaves exposed
to heavy metals from different sources.
Representative leave samples of sea buckthorn
(Hippophaë rhamnoides L., Elaeagnaceae) were
collected in spring, and in autumn 2013 from female
specimens growing in polluted areas: (1) Grzegórzecka
Street in Krakow, Poland (described as GS) where the
average traffic per hour is high (about 1000 cars), (2)
waste heap (described as WH) obtained after zinc and
lead ore flotation in Bukowno near Olkusz (southern
Poland). As a control, reference samples were taken
from plants (described as CTR) growing outside
contaminated areas. In plant material the concentration
of phenolic compounds were analysed according to
the Fukumoto and Mazza (2000) protocol, based on the
method of UV-Vis spectrophotometry. Samples were
homogenized in methanol. The content of total phenols,
phenylopropanoids, flavonols and anthocyjanins were
calculated by measuring the absorbance at 280, 320,
360 and 520 nm respectively. To identify the different
classes of phenolic compounds, the following standards
were used: chlorogenic acid (total phenols), coffee acid
Ewa Muszyńska, University of Agriculture in Krakow, Institute of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, Unit
of Botany and Plant Physiology, Al. 29 Listopada 54, 31-425 Krakow, Poland, e-mail: emuszynska@ogr.
ur.krakow.pl
Ewa Muszyńska, Katarzyna Kałużny, Ewa Hanus-Fajerska: Phenolic compounds in Hippophaë rhamnoides leaves collected from heavy metals ..., pp. 11–14
– 11 –
been more than three times lower in comparison to the
control. In the case of flavonols, quite similar relationship
was observed (Fig. 3). Their highest content (about 59
mg 100 g-1 f.w.) was determined in the spring in samples
from Grzegórzecka street and from those from control
Hippophaë rhamnoides plants. In autumn, flavonols
concentration in waste heaps’ leaves was not statistically
different from the control ones (45 mg 100 g-1 f.w.).
In the present experiment the concentration of phenolic Regardless of the season, anthocyanins concentration
compounds, as the low molecular weight antioxidants in tested material was similar (Fig. 4). In the course of
protecting plants cells from negative impact of ROS, time, the phenolic compounds content in the leaves
was evaluated. It was found that in samples collected of examined plants decreased, with the exception
in spring from specimens growing close to main of leaves from plants growing on the waste heap. In
Krakow road (GS) the total phenols concentration was these material quite the contrary interdependence was
three times higher in comparison to waste heap taken ascertained. The concentration of total phenols as well
samples (Fig.1), whereas in respect to the analogous as phenylopropanoids and flavonols increased in the
concentration concerning samples taken in autumn, the autumn.
difference between the contaminated sites was proved
Possibilities of plants existence in the specific
to be statistically insignificant, and amounted to almost environment, and their ability to grow and develop there
240 and 300 mg 100 g-1 f.w. respectively. Considering depends on the level of resistance to local stress factors.
phenylopropanoids, their concentration in samples On areas degraded as a result of industrial activity or
collected at the beginning of the year from Grzegórzecka areas located close to main roads and highways plants
street (GS) was similar to concentration ascertained in are exposed to different level of large variety of toxic
leaves taken from plants growing outside the polluted substances. Heavy metals are ranked to the most
areas (CTR, Fig. 2), and lower during the autumn. In dangerous. They frequently cause the imbalance of
both periods the concentration of phenylopropanoids redox processes which lead to excessive generation,
in leave samples collected from waste heap (WH), has and further accumulation of free radicals in particular
(phenylpropanoids), quercetin (flavonols) and cyanidin
(anthocyanins).
One-ways analysis of variance (ANOVA) test was
used separately for spring and autumn data. Statistical
significance of the results and means were evaluated
according to the Tukey’s test at α = 0.05.
600.0
[WARTOŚĆ] c
[WARTOŚĆ] b
500.0
[WARTOŚĆ] c
400.0
300.0
200.0
[WARTOŚĆ] b
[WARTOŚĆ] b
50.0
[WARTOŚĆ] b
[WARTOŚĆ] a
[WARTOŚĆ] a
20.0
10.0
0.0
0.0
GS
WH
spring
WH
spring
autumn
CTR
autumn
Flavonols in mg 100 g-1 f.w..
[WARTOŚĆ] b
6.0
[WARTOŚĆ]
a
[WARTOŚĆ]
a
[WARTOŚĆ] a
[WARTOŚĆ] a
GS
WH
5.0
[WARTOŚĆ] b
[WARTOŚĆ] ab
[WARTOŚĆ] b
[WARTOŚĆ] a
[WARTOŚĆ] a
4.0
3.0
[WARTOŚĆ] a
[WARTOŚĆ] a
2.0
1.0
0.0
GS
WH
spring
CTR
autumn
Phenylopropanoids in mg 100 g-1 f.w.
Figure 1–4
GS
CTR
Total phenols in mg 100 g-1 f.w.
90.0
80.0
70.0
60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
[WARTOŚĆ] b
30.0
[WARTOŚĆ] a
100.0
60.0
40.0
[WARTOŚĆ] b
[WARTOŚĆ] a
70.0
spring
CTR
autumn
Anthocyanins in mg 100 g-1 f.w.
Phenolic compounds content in Hippophaë rhamnoides leaves collected in two periods (spring and autumn) from
plants growing on Grzegórzecka street in Krakow (GS), waste heaps in Olkusz (WH) and polluted site (CTR)
– 12 –
reactive oxygen species (ROS) (Groppa and Benavides,
2008; Biesiada and Tomczak, 2012). Plant damage occurs
when the amount of ROS production is higher than
the capacity of antioxidant processes or detoxification
mechanisms (Michalak, 2006). In presented work the
content of phenols was evaluated, because they both
carry out ROS in their inactive derivatives and inhibit
their formation and thus counteracting the effects of
heavy metals stress. The obtained results have shown
that the concentration of phenolic compounds was
different in examined objects. In the spring, variation of
phenols concentration in Hippophaë rhamnoides leaves
collected from plants growing down the main road in
Krakow and control site was low. Futhermore, in the
autumn, differences between phenylopropanoids and
flavonols content in leaves from waste heaps plants
and control ones were insignificant. Similar results have
been obtained using Adhatoda vasica, Cassia fistula and
Withania somnifera plants grown in two contrasting
environmental conditions – copper mining site and
unpolluted site (Maharia et al., 2012). In this material
total phenolic content and total flavonoid content in
specimens from mining site and from control site did
not reveal significant differences. Opposite results
regarding the increased biosynthesis of phenolic
compounds have been noted by Smeets et al. (2005) in
Phaseolus vulgaris treated with Cd ions and by PawlakSprada et al. (2011) in Lupinus albus under the influence
of Cd and Pb ions. Phenolic compounds were also the
first line of defense against Cu stress in experiment
with red cabbage and radish (Sakihama et al., 2002;
Posmyk et al., 2009). Moreover, accumulations of this
antioxidants were observed not only in shoots but also
in roots of maize (Shemet and Fedenko, 2005) and scot
pine (Schützendübel et al., 2001) under Cd treatment.
Also in halophytic plant called Aeluropus littoralis, the
protective function of these compounds against heavy
metals (Cd, Pb, Ag, Co) stress was demonstrated (Rastgoo
and Alemzadeh, 2011). The increasing levels of toxic
metals resulted in a general increase in levels of total
phenolic contents also in the cells of other taxon, such
as Phaeodactylum tricornutum diatom and Amanita
caesarea, Clitocybe geotropa and Leucoagaricus pudicus
fungi (Sarikurkcu et al., 2010; Rico et al., 2013). In examined
sea buckthorn leaves collected from plants growing in
industrial areas, the content of phenolic compounds
increased in the course of the season and it decreased in
leaves taken from other sites. Probably, it was the result
of successive stress factors changes with the time. On the
open spaces of waste heaps, plant species are subjected
not only to heavy metals ions but also to drought, strong
winds and high radiation which could influence on
higher flavonoids and phenylopropanoids concentration
in comparison to plants growing in the city (Przedpełska
and Wierzbicka, 2007; Rakov and Chibrik, 2009; Fini et
al., 2011; Agati et al., 2012). Another complexion on
the matter is put by the fact that some studies have
also shown that the concentration of phenols strongly
depends on the type of tissue and of respective organs,
the development stage, the metabolic activity of
analyzed material (Michalak, 2006; Augustynowicz et al.,
2011; Agati et al., 2012). Therefore, to clearly determine
the role of antioxidant compounds in Hippophaë
rhamnoides response to stress caused by heavy metals
further detailed study should be conducted.
On the other hand fruits of Hippophaë rhamnoides
are known for their medical properties mainly due
to the high level of phenolic substances (Gao et al.,
2000), so probably not only fruits but also leaves can
be relatively rich in antioxidant compounds. For this
reason, reported experiment high concentration of total
phenolic compounds, phenylopropanoids and flavonols
were observed in the control, and their concentration
decreased in autumn. Similarly, decreased content of
phenolics with increased maturity of sea buckthorn fruits
was noticed by Gao et al. (2000).
Conclusion
On terrains degraded by industrial activities as well as
close to main roads and highways, plants are frequently
exposed to elevated concentration of heavy metals
and to other stress factors that affect negatively their
metabolism. Therefore monitoring of the physiological
status should be the key factor during the selection of
proper material to be grown in contaminated areas.
Acknowledgement.
Support of experimental work by the Ministry of Science
and Higher Education of Republic of Poland (DS 3500/
WO/2013) is gratefully acknowledged.
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– 14 –
GROWTH AND PHYSIOLOGICAL PERFORMANCE OF YOUNG URBAN
TREES OF EIGHT TAXA IN WARSAW
Tatiana SWOCZYNA*, Jacek BOROWSKI, Stefan PIETKIEWICZ, Hazem M. KALAJI
Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW, Poland
Unfavourable urban environmental conditions prove to be detrimental for street trees. Many species used in urban
plantations are not able to cope with environmental stresses. The aim of the study was to evaluate the usefulness of 8
tree species/cultivars for urban street plantings. The assessment of tree growth was done based on trunk girth and crown
volume increment measurements. Physiological performance of trees was evaluated using chlorophyll a fluorescence
technique. Three of 8 taxa, Gleditsia triacanthos, Platanus × hispanica ‘Acerifolia’ and Pyrus calleryana ‘Chanticleer’, revealed
sufficient tolerance to urban and street-side environments. On the contrary, Acer campestre, Tilia cordata ‘Greenspire’, Tilia ×
europaea ‘Pallida’, Quercus rubra and Ginkgo biloba trees did not stand those conditions and thus, should not be planted in
extremely harmful street-side environments.
Keywords: chlorophyll fluorescence, urban plantings, street trees, species selection
Introduction
The short lifespan of urban trees impedes maintenance of
urban forest resources and results in worsening of urban
microclimate and usually, in European cities only few
species predominate (Pauleit et al., 2002). Many of used
species, especially the indigenous ones, are susceptible to
harsh urban environmental conditions (Borowski, 2008;
Borowski and Pstrągowska, 2010). Therefore, the proper
tree species selection for urban plantings is needed to
be studied, including introduced species, focussing on
climate adaptation properties and environmental stress
tolerance (Sæbø et al., 2003; Borowski and Latocha,
2006). In preceding years several species and cultivars,
which were never or seldom used before as street trees,
were planted in Warsaw. However, their tolerance to
urban environments in climatic conditions of Warsaw
was assessed mostly on the basis of literature review. The
proper tree species should be able to continue tree growth
and crown development despite abiotic stress factors
like water deficit, soil compaction, road-side salinity etc.
Therefore the evaluation of growth parameters in situ is
an important constituent to determinate species value
for urban plantings (Borowski, 2008). Environmental
factors should not disturb physiological stability of
planted trees, which leads to gradual weakening of the
specimens (Kalaji and Pietkiewicz, 1993). Photosynthesis
mechanisms are generally susceptible to numerous
stress factors (Kalaji et al., 2012), additionally they are
responsible for production of carbohydrates, which are
necessary as an energy source for next-year growth as
*Correspodence:
well as for any recovery processess. Thus the evaluation
of photosynthetic apparatus efficiency is an important
indicator of tree physiological state (Kalaji et al., 2012).
The maximum quantum yield of photosystem II (FV/
FM) is a commonly used parameter for the evaluation of
photosynthetic apparatus state. Bach et al. (2007) noticed
that in lime trees slightly and strongly affected by soil
salinity in a city avenue FV/FM values were below 0.78
and 0.68, respectively, while in control trees exceeded
0.80. Measurements of FV/FM values under stress allowed
Percival et al. (2006) to distinguish drought-tolerant and
drought-susceptible species and cultivars of Fraxinus. In
young containerised trees of drought-tolerant species FV/
FM values did not diminish despite 2-week cessation of
watering, whilst in young trees of drought-susceptible
species/cultivars FV/FM values decreased up to 60% of the
initial value of 0.77–0.8.
This investigation was conducted in cooperation with
the Environment Protection Department of the Capital
City of Warsaw. The aim of the study was to examine
growth and physiological performance of young newly
planted trees of 8 selected tree species and cultivars in
order to evaluate their usefulness in urban plantings.
Young trees of 8 species and cultivars, Acer campestre
L., Ginkgo biloba L., Gleditsia triacanthos L., Platanus ×
hispanica Mill. ex Münchh. ‘Acerifolia’, Pyrus calleryana
Decne ‘Chanticleer’, Tilia cordata Mill. ‘Greenspire’, Tilia ×
europaea L. ‘Pallida’ and Quercus rubra L., planted during
Tatiana Swoczyna, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW, Department of Environmental
Protection, ul. Nowoursynowska 159, 02-776 Warszawa, Poland, e-mail: [email protected]
Tatiana Swoczyna et al.: Growth and physiological performance of young urban trees of eight taxa in Warsaw, pp. 15–19
– 15 –
2003–2005 in Warsaw along streets (except 15 trees of
A. campestre planted in autumn 2006), were selected
for the experiment. Trees were divided into two groups:
trees in close proximity to a road (1–3.5 m) (B-trees)
and away from a road (minimum 8 m) (A-trees). A-trees
were planted in wide lawns, B-trees grew in lawn strips
along streets or in planting pits with an area of 2 to 4 m2,
surrounded by pavement surface. All the trees were
planted by contractors of the Metropolitan Authority of
Parks, Greenery and Cleaning, Warsaw (ZOM) according
to ZOM’s procedures.
The climatic data were obtained from Department
of Meteorology and Climatology WULS-SGGW, Warsaw,
Poland. Soil samples at 0–20 cm depth from tree
surroundings were taken for electrical conductivity
measurement using a CX-551 multifunction meter
(ELMETRON Sp.j., Zabrze, Poland) in order to determine
soil salinity. Soil compaction was examined using
a portable Eijkelkamp penetrometer (Eijkelkamp
Agrisearch Equipment, Giesbeek, The Netherlands).
Tree trunk circumference at 1.3 m above the soil
surface was measured at the end of winter in 2006,
2007 and 2008. A photographic method described by
Borowski et al. (2005) was used to obtain tree crown
volume increment in each year.
Measurements of chlorophyll a fluorescence were
performed on 5 trees selected randomly in one A-site
and one B-site for each species. Three (on 16–19th June
2008) or six mature leaves (on 5–6th August and 4–5th
September) were selected in each tree crown. A Handy
PEA chlorophyll fluorimeter (Hansatech Instruments
Ltd., King’s Lynn, Norfolk, UK) was used for maximum
quantum yield of photosystem II (FV/FM) measurement.
Student’s two-sample t-test was performed to
compare roadside trees and reference trees within each
Figure 1
species using STATISTICA 8.0 software (StatSoft, Inc.,
Tulsa, OK, USA).
Results and disscussion
The winter preceding 2006 was very cold with the
minimum -27 °C on the 24th of January and the winter
2006/2007 was mild. The late spring and the beginning
of summer in 2006 were very dry (Fig. 1). However, in
May precipitation slightly exceeded evapotranspiration
and was sufficiently abundant in August 2006. The
precipitation in 2007 reached 124% of twenty-year mean
precipitation (1981–2000).
In most locations penetration resistance in soils
surrounding newly planted trees was 2–3.5 MPa.
However, in some sites it exceeded 4 MPa (G. triacanthos
and Q. rubra A-trees), 5 MPa (T. cordata both A- and
B-trees and T. × europaea A-trees), 6 MPa (G. triacanthos
and Q. rubra B-trees) or 7 MPa (in G. biloba B-trees).
Soil salinity measured conductometrically in July
2008 in B-sites was 1.0–2.0 mS cm-1 except A. campestre
(0.79 mS cm-1). In A-sites EC did not exceed 0.8 mS cm-1.
In 2006 16.2% of total 444 young trees died. Many
trees suffered and partially lost their branches due to
drying. Died branches were lopped in July. Although the
trees developed new shoots, in some species tree crowns
diminished on average 14–80%. In 2007 most of the
stressed trees recovered their crown volumes, except T. ×
europaea and A. campestre B-trees (Fig. 2). T. × europaea
B-trees were not able to continue their growth.
Comparing the trunk circumference increment in
every species between A- and B-trees the examination
showed higher increment in both Tilia species in
A-trees. The proximity to roads did not restrict the
trunk circumference increment in A. campestre, Q. rubra,
G. triacanthos and P. calleryana (Table 1).
Gaussen-Walther climatic diagram of 2006, 2007 and 2008
Source: Data from Department of Meteorology and Climatology WULS-SGGW
– 16 –
Table 1
Comparison of trunk circumference increment in % between trees planted away from roads (A) and in close
proximity to roads (B). Significantly higher means (at p <0.05) are highlighted in bold
Species
Year
Tilia cordata ‘Greenspire’
Tilia × europaea ‘Pallida’
Acer campestre
Quercus rubra
Gleditsia triacanthos
Pyrus calleryana ‘Chanticleer’
Platanus × hispanica ‘Acerifolia’
Ginkgo biloba
Figure 2
A
B
p
N
Mean
SE
Mean
SE
A
B
2006
4.43
0.30
1.64
0.19
0.000
30
26
2007
4.85
0.37
1.95
0.18
0.000
29
26
2006
4.45
0.36
0.93
0.14
0.000
30
12
2007
2.97
0.28
2.14
0.20
0.019
30
32
2006
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2007
3.22
0.21
5.36
0.86
0.024
15
24
2006
0.63
0.15
5.37
1.22
0.001
25
23
2007
0.78
0.19
6.02
1.43
0.001
25
23
2006
4.86
0.45
8.81
1.09
0.002
23
21
2007
6.32
0.63
10.42
1.15
0.004
23
21
2006
4.64
0.45
7.36
0.94
0.018
16
13
2007
3.88
0.65
12.24
1.42
0.000
16
13
2006
17.53
2.52
8.34
2.45
0.035
23
10
2007
19.03
1.64
18.27
1.17
0.724
23
18
2006
1.05
0.18
1.48
0.29
0.210
29
42
2007
1.96
0.36
6.18
1.29
0.003
29
42
Crown volume increment in 2006 and 2007; means and SE. A-trees
planted away from, B-trees planted in close proximity to roads
In most species the performance of
photosynthetic apparatus, expressed
by FV/FM ratio, was not different
between A- and B-trees (Fig. 3). Only
in G. biloba the FV/FM ratio in B-trees
revealed the poor performance
during the whole growing season.
In T. cordata marked decrease in
FV/FM occurred in the end of the
growing season. Road-side trees of A.
campestre revealed good condition of
PSII until September, while in A-trees
the PSII condition weakened. The
highest values of FV/FM were noted
in G. triacanthos, P. × hispanica and
P. calleryana inspite of the location.
Newly planted trees in cities
are subjected to numerous stress
factors. Although basic maintenance
is carried out, i.e. the trees are
watered and pruned, there are
some environmental factors which
seem to be out of city arborists’
control. Soil compaction of the street
surroundings is the consequence of
road building technology. It occures
both in old streets and in new ones,
however its magnitude is not the
same in different sites, it depends also
on local soil properties (Alberty, 1984).
The values of 3–4 MPa are considered
– 17 –
Figure 3
Maximum quantum yield of PSII (FV/FM) in trees planted away (A) and in
close proximity to roads (B) in 2008; means and SE
to be detrimental for root growth,
although some species are able to
continue it at the values exceeding
3–4 MPa (Sinnet et al., 2008).
We expected that the close
proximity to roads would affect
tree growth and physiological
performance due to higher soil
salinity. The EC values measured
in July were not much higher than
in the sites of the greater distance
to a road. However, Cekstere et al.
(2008) noted that before spring
precipitation mean concentrations
of Na+ and Cl- ions in road-side
soils were twice or threefold higher
than in July and contrary, leaf
concentrations of Na+ and Cl- ions
increased in the months following
the spring development of leaves.
It might be the reason of poor
physiological performance in roadside trees in T. cordata and G. biloba.
The climatic conditions seem to be
the most important factor affecting
the young trees. The precipitation
in May 2006 was not very high and
in June and July was extremaly low.
This resulted in shrivelling of young
leaves and branches. Trees obtaining
insufficient watering partially lost
their crowns. According to Bühler
et al. (2006) road-side trees need
about 640 L of water apart from
precipitation. In our research the
applied amount of watering, i.e. 20
L per week in dry period (maximum
10
weeks)
supported
only
approximately 200 L of additional
water supply during the growing
season. Treder (2000) noted that
in newly established orchards the
proper irrigation determined growth
and yielding in the following years
due to successful root development,
crucial for future nutrition of the
whole organism. In our examination
the period of effective root forming
in the trees planted in 2005 was
too short to develop sufficient root
system. Trees planted in former
years continued their growth. The
climatic conditions in 2007 were
more favorable to the young trees
and trees of some species recovered.
Only T. × europaea and A. campestre
road-side trees were not able to
continue the growth. Presumably
the drought stress in the previous
year preceded the threshold of their
tolerance. The poor growth of trunk
volume in both Tilia road-side trees
in both 2006 and 2007 indicates that
these species can hardly cope in
road-side environments (Borowski
and Pstrągowska, 2010).
FV/FM
parameter
is
considered to be the universal
physiological parameter for every
photosynthetising material with
the optimal values of around 0.83
(Maxwell and Johnson, 2000; Kalaji
et al., 2012). Our examination
revealed the clear division into the
“best performers” and the “week
performers”.
Three
introduced
species G. triacanthos, P. × hispanica
and P. calleryana reached FV/FM values
approximate to optimum regardless
of the location and date. The high
values of soil compaction did not
disturb physiological performance in
G. triacanthos. Likewise, in T. cordata
and T. × europaea trees planted
away from a road the higher FV/
FM values indicate that the both
Tilia species are able to adjust
their physiological performance
to unfavourable soil compaction
provided that the trees obtain
sufficient watering. The road-side
locations are subjected to increased
soil salinity which diminishes access
to the soil water and results in
harmful ions accumulation (Cekstere
et al. 2008). The latest leads to leaf
structure injuries and disturbances
– 18 –
of photosynthetic performance (Kalaji and Pietkiewicz,
1993; Percival et al., 2003). The worst values in G. biloba
were probably the result of synergic influence of soil
salinity, water scarcity and extremal soil compaction. The
soil compaction was presumably the reason of either
poor growth and worse physiological performance of Q.
rubra trees.
Conclusions
On the basis of the results the folllowing conclusions can
be made:
1. In harsh urban environments tree species differ both
in growth intensity and physiological vitality.
2. Close proximity to roads leads to diminishing of both
Tilia species growth.
3.Road-side conditions and high soil compaction may
affect negatively the physiological performance of
Ginkgo biloba.
4. Acer campestre is able to adapt to severe environmental
conditions, keeping photosynthetic apparatus in good
condition, however in extremely harsh environments
the development of tree crown may be restricted.
5. Close proximity to a road does not limit the growth of
Gleditsia triacanthos, Platanus × hispanica ‘Acerifolia’
and Pyrus calleryana ‘Chanticleer’ and Quercus rubra,
however high soil compaction in conjunction with
summer drought may influence negatively the
photosynthetic apparatus efficiency in Quercus rubra.
6.For newly planted trees water availability has the
crucial meaning, other stresses like soil compaction or
soil salinity also play a significant role.
7. Taking into consideration the three factors influencing
young trees, the species/cultivars Gleditsia triacanthos,
Platanus × hispanica ‘Acerifolia’ and Pyrus calleryana
‘Chanticleer’ are sufficiently tolerant to be cultivated
in urban environments. Acer campestre, Tilia cordata
‘Greenspire’, Tilia × europaea ‘Pallida’, Quercus rubra and
Ginkgo biloba trees should not be planted in extremely
harmful conditions.
Acknowledgements
The research was supported by the Environment Protection
Department of the Capital City of Warsaw (Biuro Ochrony
Środowiska Miasta Stołecznego Warszawy) and the
Metropolitan Authority of Parks, Greenery and Cleaning,
Warsaw (Zarząd Oczyszczania Miasta, Warszawa).
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– 19 –
SOME PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES IN AUTUMN LEAVES
OF PARTHENOCISSUS INSERTA GROWING IN URBAN CONDITIONS
Renata WOJCIECHOWSKA*, Katarzyna SKOWRONEK, Anna KOŁTON, Monika CZAJA
Discoloration of leaves during autumn is the result of changes in the metabolism of trees and shrubs of temperate climate
before winter. Leaves of Parthenocissus inserta growing in different habitats in Cracow were investigated in five terms from
July to October. Selected physiological changes: anthocyanin content, chlorophyll content, the state of the cytoplasmic
membrane were analyzed in every term of investigation. All of the analysis had two combinations depending on the leaf
position in the crown. In the conditions similar to natural coloration of leaves were faster than along the busy thoroughfare
where anthocyanin synthesis proceeded very slowly. Directly sunlit leaves were characterized by lower content of
assimilation pigments as compared to the shaded leaves.
Keywords: senescence, chlorophyll breakdown, anthocyanins, electrolyte leakage
Introduction
Autumnal leaf color change is a decorative feature, but
the intensity of colors in this period is not always the
same. Physiological processes that determine the colors
of autumn leaves are affected by many factors, including
weather conditions (Feild et al., 2001; Archetti et al.,
2009). Red color of the leaves is caused by anthocyanins,
which synthesis is stimulated by night temperature falls
(up to a few degrees above zero) followed by sunny
weather. During autumn low temperature accelerates
the chlorophyll breakdown, revealing the yellow-orange
carotenoids.
An important factor in the selection of species
is a similar color change regardless of the weather
fluctuations. One of these species is Parthenocissus
inserta – Thicket Creeper – fast growing, expansive
rambler, climbing by tendrils, with green young shoots,
reaching up to 20 m in height (Seneta and Dolatowski,
2008). In addition to the strong spring-summer shoot
growth, and quick cover of different areas, the main
decorative advantage of P. inserta is intense red leaf color
in the autumn. It is successfully planted in urban areas,
enduring the pollution of soil and air and water shortages
(Borowski, 1996).
The compact construction of the city center, including
transport routes are the warmest areas of Cracow, while
the coldest – water reservoirs surface, large forests and
parks, including “Las Borkowski” area (Matuszko, 2007).
The aim of the study was to examine selected
physiological changes (pigment content, the state of
the cytoplasmic membrane), occurring especially in
*Correspodence:
the autumn leaves of Parthenocissu sinserta, growing in
three different positions in Cracow. The aim was also to
determine how the tested parameters are affected by the
location of the plant leaves in the crown.
The object of the study was Parthenocissus inserta
(Vitaceae). Plants growing in three habitats differ in the
environmental conditions were used into research. The
first position (BOREK) is located nearby the average busy
traffic street along the little forest “Las Borkowski”. The
second research location (OLSZA) is located in the district
of housing estate “Olsza”. Third object of the research
(OPOLSKA) is located along one of the most intensively
busy road in Cracow, Opolska street, growing 0.5–1 m
from the road lane on acoustic screen on the south side.
The study was conducted in 2009 in 5 dates:
July 2nd (first term of research), followed by August
3rd (midsummer), September 7th (end of summer),
September 28th (beginning of autumn discoloration)
and October 16th (end of discoloration and leaf fall).
Leaves were collected from the south direction, located
in the outer part of the plant crown, directly exposed to
environmental factors (SUN) and in the inner part of the
crown – leaves constantly shaded (SHADE).
In each period, from each combination 15–20 pieces
of representative leaves (healthy, fully developed,
neither the youngest nor oldest) were harvested. The
content of assimilation pigments (Wellburn, 1994) and
anthocyanins (Hackett and Murray, 1991) were analyzed
spectrophotometrically with extraction in acetone and
Renata Wojciechowska, University of Agriculture in Krakow, Faculty of Horticulture, Al. 29 Listopada 54,
31-425 Krakow, Poland, e-mail: [email protected]
Renata Wojciechowska et al.: Some physiological changes in autumn leaves of Parthenocissus inserta growing in urban conditions, pp. 20–23
– 20 –
buffer, respectively. Dry matter and electrolyte leakage
were also determined. Statistical analysis was performed
with Statistica 8, using the LSD Fisher test at significance
level α = 0.05.
Leaves of climber growing along the Opolska street
were less discolored in compare to other investigated
places in the end of September and in October. Visual
observations were confirmed by analysis of anthocyanin
content (Table 1). Autumn leaves of P. inserta showed
intense anthocyanin synthesis. The first red leaves were
observed in the location BOREK. In October, there was
found a large increase of these pigments in all of the
investigated positions, the largest in the OLSZA. The
minimum content of anthocyanins occurred in autumn
leaves growing along OPOLSKA acoustic screens (Table
1). In this location, the differences in the level of the
October anthocyanins in leaves located outside and
inside the crown of climber were small.
The greatest amount of assimilation pigments was
found in the leaves of P. inserta growing in the OLSZA
location, while the least content of chlorophyll pigments
demonstrated the climber in the OPOLSKA (Table 2). It is
worth noting that the lowest degree of damage to the
cytoplasmic membrane characterized P. inserta growing
Table 1
in the BOREK area. Furthermore, the leaves of the plants
in this area showed the highest content of dry matter.
The leaves growing in a shady conditions (Table 3)
showed a significantly (more than twice) higher content
of chlorophyll pigments (chl a, chl b and total chl)
compared to the leaves growing in direct sunlight. In the
case of carotenoids there was no significant difference
between the sunlit and shaded leaves. However,
electrolyte leakage from leaves grown in full sun was
about 58% higher than in shaded leaves.
The content of chlorophyll a and b, calculated per
gram of fresh weight is generally greater in the leaves
growing under lower radiation intensity (Boardmann,
1997; Goncales et al., 2001). This relation is confirmed
by the results of this work. Shaded leaves contain more
chlorophyll a and b than those growing in full sunlight.
According to Lichtenthaler et al. (2013) sun leaves
present higher values of the chl a:b ratio and lower
values for the total chlorophylls to total carotenoids
ratio as compared to shade leaves. These relations are
confirmed by the results of presented study. According
to Hall and Rao (1999) chloroplasts of leaves growing in
a strong sunlight environment contain a higher amount
of carotenoids, because of their protective role in relation
to chlorophyll pigments. The results presented in this
study did not confirm this phenomenon, there was no
Anthocyanin content in the P. inserta leaves in different terms presented in mg of cyanidine in 100g of fresh
weight
Location
Leaves position
July
August
September begining
September end
October middle
sun
0*
1.0
2.1
42.9
103.1
shade
0
0
2.7
17.6
30.2
sun
0
0
0.5
0
134.1
shade
0
0
1.3
0
56.0
sun
0
0
0.2
0.9
6.4
shade
0
0
0
0
7.2
BOREK
OLSZA
OPOLSKA
*not detected
Table 2
The influence of the P. inserta growth position on selected physiological parameters (data were averaged for
all five terms of investigation)
Parameter/Location
BOREK
OLSZA
OPOLSKA
Chlorophyll a in mg 100 g-1 f.w.
0.61 a*
0.79 c
0.51 a
Chlorophyll b in mg 100 g-1 f.w.
0.25 b
0.31 c
0.22 a
Chl a + b in mg 100 g-1 f.w.
0.86 b
1.1 c
0.73 a
chl a : b ratio
2.32 a
2.34 a
2.50 b
Carotenoids in mg 100 g-1 f.w.
0.17 b
0.22 c
0.16 a
Carotenoids to chlorophyll ratio
0.23 a
0.24 a
0.28 a
Electrolyteleakage in %
33.1 a
49.7 b
45.3 b
Dryweight in %
22.5 b
21.1 ab
19.3 a
* means marked with the same letters did not differ with α = 0.05
– 21 –
Table 3
Influence of the leaves position in the crown on selected physiological parameters regardless of the position
of growth and terms of analysis (data were averaged for all five terms of investigation, for all locations)
Parameter/Leaves position
Insolated leaves
(sun)
Shaded leaves
(shade)
Chlorophyll a in mg 100 g-1 f.w.
0.61 a
0.66 b
Chlorophyll b in mg 100 g f.w.
0.23 a
0.29 b
Chl a + b in mg 100 g f.w.
0.85 a
0.95 b
-1
-1
chl a : b ratio
2.6 b
2.2 a
Carotenoids in mg 100 g-1 f.w.
0.18 a
0.19 a
Chl sum to carotenoids ratio
4.72 a
5.00 b
Electrolyte leakage in %
57.6 b
27.8 a
Dry weight in %
22.5 b
19.5 a
significant differences in the level of carotenoids in sun
and shade leaves.
Autumnal increase in anthocyanin content is
associated with their protective function against photooxidation of chlorophyll in conditions of lowering
temperatures and high solar radiation, as reported by
Gould et al. (2000) and Archetti (2009). In the OLSZA
location, anthocyanins were detected only in October,
when the sunlit leaves reveal the largest number of
those pigments in compare with other objects. Along
the OPOLSKA thoroughfare P. inserta leaves coloration
was very weak and sparse. No typical phase of autumn
discoloration in the Parthenocissus leaves was also
reported for the Warsaw agglomeration by Borowski and
Lachota (2006).
Previous researches indicated that the growth
of anthocyanin content in leaves during autumn is
influenced by a chill in the range of 5 °C (Wojciechowska
et. al., 2008). Such temperature decrease in presented
research occurred in the second decade of October (Fig.1).
Figure 1
In result intense synthesis of anthocyanins in positions
BOREK and OLSZA was observed. At both locations
the wind and temperature reduction are stronger than
in a sheltered place, such as OPOLSKA. Therefore, the
effects of autumn coloration in these growth conditions
were the least effective.
Regardless of the growth location, leaves growing in
direct sunlight demonstrated a greater degree of damage
to the cytoplasmic membrane measured by electrolyte
leakage than in shaded leaves. Leaves exposed to direct
light are more susceptible to oxidative stress, which
generates the formation of free radicals. Free radicals
cause damage to the fatty acids in the cytoplasmic
membranes leading to their gradual degradation, which
results in uncontrolled release of ions (Starck et al., 1995).
The slightest damage to the cytoplasmic membrane was
observed in the leaves of P. inserta growing in conditions
most similar to the natural ones (BOREK). Sunlit leaves
have a higher dry matter content than the shaded
(Boardmann, 1977), as a result of adaptation to the
structure and function of stress conditions. This relation is
also confirmed by the results obtained in the experiment.
In addition, the leaves of ramblers growing in the position
of forest BOREK demonstrated significantly higher dry
matter content than those in the OPOLSKA area. These
observations may indirectly indicate an unfavorable
effect of the urban conditions on the photosynthetic
productivity in plants.
The results obtained in Cracow confirm that if the
purpose of P. inserta planting is to highlight its decorative
coloration in the autumn, the location should be chosen
carefully (with a cooler microclimate), which will help
to create the right conditions for the anthocyanins
synthesis.
Conclusions
yy Discoloration of P. inserta autumn leaves was not
simultaneous for different sites and differs in the
duration
– 22 –
yy In the conditions similar to natural (BOREK) coloration
of leaves were faster than along the busy thoroughfare
(OPOLSKA) where anthocyanin synthesis proceeded
very slowly even in October
yy The leaves of P. inserta growing in the OPOLSKA area
had significantly lower concentration of assimilation
pigments, percentage of dry matter and also a greater
degree of cytoplasmic membrane damage than the
leaves of plants growing in conditions similar to the
natural ones
yy Sunlit leaves were characterized by a greater chlorophyll
a to b ratio, lower content of assimilation pigments (per
unit mass), increased anthocyanin concentration, dry
matter content and greater damage to the cytoplasmic
membranes as compared to the shaded leaves.
References
ARCHETTI, M. 2009. Unraveling the evolution of autumn
colors: an interdisciplinary approach. In Trends in Ecology and
Evolution, vol. 24, 2009, pp. 166–173.
BOARDMANN, N. K. 1977. Comparative photosynthesis of sun
and shade plants. In Annual Review of Plant Physiology, vol. 28,
1977, pp. 355–377.
BOROWSKI, J. – LACHOTA, P. 2006. Dobór drzew i krzewów do
warunków przyulicznych Warszawy i miast centralnej Polski. In
Rocznik Dendrologiczny, vol. 54, 2006, pp. 83–93.
FIELD, T. – LEE, D. – HOLBROOK, M. 2001. Why leaves turn red in
autumn. The role of anthocyanins in senescing leaves of redosier dogwood. In Plant Physiology, vol. 127, 2001, pp. 566–574.
GONCALES, J. F. – MORENCO, R. A. – VIEIRA, G. 2001.
Concentration of photosynthetic pigments chlorophyll
fluoresces of Mahogany and Tonka bean under two lights
environments. In Revista Brasiliera de Fisiologia Vegetal, vol 13,
2001, no. 2, pp. 149–157.
GOULD, K. S. – MARKHAM, K. R. – SMITH, R. H. – GORIS, J. J. 2000.
Functional role of anthocyanins in leaves of Quintinia serrata. A.
Cunn. In Journal of Experimental Botany, vol. 51, 2000, no. 347,
pp. 1107–1115.
HALL, D. O. – RAO, K. K. 1999. Fotosynteza. Warszaw :
Wydawnictwo Naukowo-Techniczne, 1999.
LICHTENTHALER, H. – BABANI, F. – NAVRATIL, M. – BUSCHMANN,
C. 2013. Chlorophyll fluorescence kinetics, photosynthetic
activity and pigment composition of blue-shade leaves
as compared to sun and shade leaves of different trees. In
Photosynthesis Research, vol. 117, 2013, pp. 355–366.
MATUSZKO, D. 2007. Klimat Krakowa w XX wieku. Kraków :
IGiGP UJ. 2007.
MURRAY, J. – HACKETT, W. 1991. Dihydroflavonol reductase
activity in relation to differential anthocyanin accumulation in
juvenile and mature phase Hedera helix L. In Plant Physiology,
vol. 97, 1991, pp. 343–351.
SENETA, W. – DOLATOWSKI, J. 2008. Dendrologia. Warszawa
PWN. 2008.
STARCK, Z. – CHOŁUJ, D. – NIEMYSKA, B. 1995. Fizjologiczne
reakcje roślin na niekorzystne czynniki środowiska. Warszawa :
SGGW, 1995.
WELLBURN, A. R. 1994. The spectral determination of
chlorophylls a and b, as well as total carotenoids, using various
solvents with spectrophotometers of different resolution. In
Journal of Plant Physiology, vol. 144, 1994, pp. 307–313.
WOJCIECHOWSKA, R. – KOBYŁKO, T. – HOSTYŃSKA, A. 2008.
Some physiological changes in Waldsteinia trifolia (Roch.)
leaves in different month of the year. In Acta Agrobotanica, vol.
61, 2008, no. 2, pp. 85–91.
– 23 –
INVESTIGATIONS ON ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS OF URBAN TREES
AT CORVINUS UNIVERSITY OF BUDAPEST
Károly HROTKÓ*1, Márk STEINER1, Mihály FORRAI1, György Endre TÓTH1, Máté VÉRTESY1,
Ádám LEELŐSSY2, Levente KARDOS1, Magdolna Diószegi SÜTÖRINÉ1, Lajos MAGYAR1, Róbert MÉSZÁROS2
Corvinus University of Budapest (CUB), Hungary
2
Eötvös Loránd University (ELU), Hungary
1
Urban trees play important role in diminishing of air pollution, but the interactions between atmospheric contamination
and trees may involve both positive and negative effects. Evaluation the environmental benefits of urban trees in a complex
model require in situ measurements, but such measurements and data are almost completely missing. The characterization
of interactions in this system will provide a conducing framework for predicting microclimatic factors and useful data of
urban drafting and planning urban tree plantations. This is planned in the joint research project of Corvinus University
of Budapest and Eötvös Lorand University. Based on our preliminary results we can conclude that the planned research
promise collection of missing data and in the model simulation we can elaborate a complex model of interactions in the
“plant – air pollution – urban site“ multiple system.
Keywords: air pollution, LAI, photosynthetic activity, stomatal conductance, transpiration
Introduction
Performance of Leaf Area Index (LAI) during the year
It is commonly accepted that urban trees play
important role in diminishing of air pollution, but the
interactions between atmospheric contamination and
trees may involve both positive and negative effects.
The atmospheric pollution under urban conditions
causes serious human health disorders; however,
related effects like discomfort and smog alerts both in
winter and summer can cause complications in urban
life. The evaluation of elements in a complex model
requires in situ measurements on interaction, but
such measurements and data are almost completely
missing. The characterization of interactions in this
system will provide a conducing framework for
predicting microclimatic factors and useful data of
urban drafting and planning urban tree plantations.
Micrometeorological,
plant
physiological
and
atmospheric contamination measurements as well as
detailed deposition, local scale dispersion and chemical
models are intended to describe the status, the spatial
and temporal variability, and the connections of the
vegetation-atmosphere complex system in urban
environment. Considering the complexity of the
theme, researchers of the two universities (ELU and
CUB) decided to cooperate in this topic; the research is
supported by National Scientific Research Funds (OTKA).
Our paper gives an overview on the preliminary results
and plans of cooperative research.
In our temperate climate conditions, the most urban trees
and shrubs produce deciduous leaves. The influence of
the leaf mass is effective only in limited period regularly
from April to November. The changes in the leaf mass
and leaf characteristics depend on species, cultivar, and
vary by age and location. There is little information in
the literature on the performance of leaf growth and
distribution within the canopy of trees and shrubs of
different ages. Radó (2001) refers to 3.4 to 9.6 LAI in closed
forest stands, depending on age, but his data show the
*Correspodence:
Figure 1
Performance of LAI on 30 years old Acer
platanoides ’Faassens Black’ and ’Globosum’
during the year (x axis: day of the year)
Károly Hrotkó, Corvinus University of Budapest (CUB), Department of Floriculture and Dendrology,
Hungary, e-mail: [email protected]
Károly Hrotkó et al.: Investigations on environmental benefits of urban trees at Corvinus University of Budapest, pp. 24–27
– 24 –
Investigation of microclimatological characteristics
in typical urban areas
We plan measuring meteorological variables (air
temperature, VPD, wind speed) at different height
both above artificial surface such as asphalt, concrete,
pathway or streets and above vegetation in downtown
and suburb or outskirt conditions. Leaf temperature is
the outcome of the energy balance at leaf level, which
depends on leaf mass, size, shape, angle, reflectance
properties, and on physical (incoming radiation, air
temperature, wind speed) and biological (transpiration
controlled by stomatal conductance) phenomena. From
a human perspective, foliage temperature of urban
trees is of particular interest due to their cooling effect
on urban climate (Pauleit, 2003). According to Leuzinger
et al. (2009) tree crown temperatures ranged from 24 °C
(Aesculus hippocastanum trees located in a park) to 29 °C
in Acer platanoides trees, located in a street.
Leaf gas exchange characteristics of urban tree
species and cultivars
Knowledge about the CO2 fixation and water vapour
emission of trees and shrubs has to be confirmed
with onsite instrumental examinations to get actual
information. There are little reliable data about LAI
values and photosynthetic activity of such trees and
shrubs which are exposed to various stress factors
(air pollution, drought, human impacts) in different
environmental conditions (Radó, 2001). Urban climate,
of course, creates different environmental conditions.
Table 1
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Photosynthetic rate (μmol m-2 s-1)
LAImax only, so do not give information about dynamics of
LAI performance within the year. Our preliminary results
(Gyeviki et al., 2012; Steiner et al., 2012) show considerable
changes in the dynamics of the LAI performance during
the year (Fig 1). In the frame of this project, we plane to
specify the dynamics of LAI performance and other plant
parameters in urban environment.
13,03 a
9,48 ab10,25 a
4,91 c
Figure 2
3,82 c 4,35 c
5,70 bc
4,37 c
Photosynthetic rate in μmol m-2 s-1 with the mean
values of the measured plants
Several studies emphasized the importance of
environmental conditions for leaf gas exchange. Endres
et al. (2009) found that light environment influence
the CO2 fixation. Fini et al. (2010) studied the effect of
light environment to leaf gas exchange and found that
response to shade is species-specific. Several studies on
woody species have found increased photosynthetic
activity in elevated CO2 in controlled circumstances
(Ceulemans and Mousseau, 1994; Curtis, 1996; Heath and
Kerstiens, 1997).
By our preliminary investigations there are
considerable differences found in net photosynthetic
rate and transpiration rate in leaves of different species
and genera (Fig. 2). As a consequence these plants
provide different capacity of environmental benefits. We
showed that transpiration rate was strongly influenced
by leaf temperature, PAR, and stomatal conductance.
Since these parameters are variable during the day and
the vegetation period, an accurate comparison of genera,
species or cultivars would be needed.
Electric conductivity and concentration of some pollutants measured in soaking water of woody plant leaves
in Budapest collected from Buda Arboretum (suburb) and traffic charged downtown streets (2013)
Species/location
Acer/Budai
Arborétum
Acer/Krisztina krt
Tilia/Budai
Arborétum
Tilia/ Karolina út
Distilled water
EC
in uS cm-1
Salt total
in mg dm-3
c (NO3-)
in mg dm-3
c (NH4+)
in mg dm-3
c (Cl-)
in mg dm-3
c (SO42-)
in mg dm-3
average
67.10
33.20
9.00
0.11
34.32
9.62
deviation
3.34
1.37
1.00
0.00
4.10
0.64
average
150.40
75.83
8.33
0.18
53.25
6.56
deviation
4.88
3.00
0.58
0.06
3.55
0.47
average
32.73
16.47
6.00
0.28
28.40
3.12
deviation
9.12
4.55
0.00
0.06
0.00
0.27
average
49.37
24.77
4.67
0.46
41.42
4.60
deviation
13.14
6.71
3.79
0.34
2.05
0.39
average
11.21
7.59
1.00
1.01
19.05
0.00
– 25 –
9
6
500
13,01
11,17
4,84
8,40
400
7,77
6,09 300
8,53
200
3
100
0
0
Time (h)
Diurnal course of average
photosynthetic rate in August 2011
15
500
12
400
Photosynthetic rate
(µmol m-2 s-1)
12
Concenration of air CO2
(vpm)
Photosynthetic rate
(µmol m-2 s-1)
15
Figure 3 C
Diurnal course of average
photosynthetic rate in August 2011
9
6
3 1,19
0
4,85
3,86
Andrássy Street
300
3,09
3,42
Time (h)
200
1,64 100
2,82
0
Concenration of air CO2
(vpm)
A
Ménesi Street
Diurnal course of average photosythetic rate and atmospheric CO2 concentration on Fraxinus excelsior ’Westhof’s
Glorie’ on Andrássy (A) and Ménesi Street (C) in August of 2011
The photosynthetic activity of leaves under different
site conditions
Several publications are known about the photosynthetic
activity of temperate zone trees, which are planted
in urban conditions too, but none of them reports on
measurements in situ urban conditions. Authors has
reported on large differences between species, canopy
and leaf position and environmental conditions. Our
preliminary studies (Fig. 3) confirmed the large differences
(Forrai et al., 2012a). Urban climate obviously creates
different environmental conditions, which can modify
the leaf gas exchange. Our preliminary investigation for
leaves of Fraxinus excelsior ‘Westhofs Glory’ in downtown
conditions showed higher photosynthetic rate compared
to suburb (Forrai et al., 2012b). The net CO2 assimilation of
leaves during the light period of the day showed similar
course to PAR exposition and stomatal conductance (Fig.
3). Leaves of trees in the downtown location received
higher PAR, and showed higher stomatal conductance,
and similar course in CO2 assimiltion compared to suburb
conditions.
As the LAI changes during the year, the dynamics
of photosynthetic capacity show certain seasonal
variability. To describe these temporal changes, we plan
investigation during the whole vegetation period. Further
measurements should focus on capacity differences
of species and cultivars (some of the urban trees are
grafted urban tolerant cultivars) and on site conditions of
different locations (park, suburb streets, severe polluted
downtown conditions).
Monitoring the deposition on the leaf surface caused
by urban pollution
The atmospheric pollution under urban conditions
impacts the human health however, related effects like
discomfort and smog alerts both in winter and summer
can cause complications in urban life. The major source
of urban air pollution is the traffic by emitting CO2,
CO, Cl-, NOx and dust, soot particles causing several
environmental damages on vegetation, buildings
and human health. Trees are very efficient in trapping
atmospheric particles, which is especially important for
urban areas. Plant leaves have been used as indicators
and/or monitors of trace metal pollution. Large
differences in polluting deposition are found between
location and tree species. Pollutant ion deposits are
larger on leaves of trees in downtown conditions, but the
differences between species are considerable too: ion
deposits are larger on Acer platanoides ’Globosum’ leaves
than on Tilia tomentosa, except for (NH4+).
Summarizing our preliminary results we can
conclude that the planned research promise collection
of missing data and in the model simulation (Mészáros
et al., 2009, 2010) we can elaborate a complex model
of interactions in the “plant – air pollution – urban site“
multiple system. The characterization of interactions
in this system will provide a conducing framework for
predicting microclimatic factors and useful data of
urban drafting and planning urban tree plantations. The
results of this project would also be very useful for the
further development and refinement of environmental
models.
Acknowledgment
Our research was supported by TÁMOP-4-2.1.B-09/1/
KMR-2010-0005 project and by Hungarian Scientific
References
CEULEMANS, R. – MOUSSEAU, M. 1994. Effects of elevated
atmospheric CO2 on woody plants. In: New Phytologist, 1994,
no. 127, p. 425-446.
CURTIS, P. S. 1996. A meta-analysis of leaf gas exchange and
nitrogen in trees grown under elevated carbon dioxid. In: Plant,
Cell and Environment, 1996, no. 19, p. 127–137.
ENDRES, L. – CAMARA, C. A. – FERREIRA, V. M. – SILVA, J. V. 2009.
Morphological and photosynthetic alterations in theYellow-ipe,
– 26 –
Tabebuia chrysotricha (Mart. Ex DC.) Standl., under nursery
shading and gas exchange after being transferred to full
sunlight. In: Agroforest Syst., 2009, no. 78, p. 2887–298.
FINI, A. – FERRINI, F. – FRANGI, P. – PIATTI, R. – AMOROSO,
G. 2010. Effects of shading on growth, leaf gas exchange and
chlorophyll fluorescence of three container grown shrubs. In:
Acta Hort. (ISHS), 2010, no. 885, p.109–117.
FORRAI, M. – DIÓSZEGI, S. M. – LADÁNYI, M. – HONFI, P. –
HROTKÓ, K. 2012a. Studies on estimation of leaf gas exchange
of ornamental woody plant species. In: Applied Ecology and
Environmental Research, vol. 10, 2012, no. 2, p. 195–206. http://
www.ecology.uni-corvinus.hu
FORRAI, M. – SÜTÖRINÉ, D. M. – JUHÁSZ, Á. – HROTKÓ, K.
2012b. A kőris (Fraxinus excelsior ’Westhof‘s Glorie‘) leveleinek
gázcseréje különböző alkalmazási környezetben. Fenntartható
fejlődés, Élhető régió, Élhető települési táj 3. tanulmánykötet.
BCE kiadványa, 2012, p. 261–271. ISBN 978-963-503-504-5
GYEVIKI, M. – STEINER, M. – JUHÁSZ, Á. – SZABÓ, V. – HROTKÓ,
K. 2012. Intenzív cseresznyeültetvény, mint mesterséges
ökoszisztéma és biológiailag aktív felület értékelése CO2
megkötés és vízhasznosulás szempontjából. Fenntartható
fejlődés, Élhető régió, Élhető települési táj 1. tanulmánykötet.
BCE kiadványa, 2012, p. 45–65. ISBN 978-963-503-506-2.
HEATH, J. – KERSTIENS, G. 1997. Effects of elevated CO2 on leaf
gas exchange in beech and oak at two levels of nutrient supply:
consequences for sensitvity to drought in beech. In: Platn, Cell
and Environment, 1997, no. 20, p. 57–67.
LEUZINGER, S. – VOGT, R. – KÖRNER, C. 2009. Trees surface
temperature in an urban environment. In: Agric. Forest
Meteorol., 2009. AGMET-4144.
MÉSZÁROS, R. – ZSÉLY, I. GY. – SZINYEI, D. – VINCZE, CS. –
LAGZI, I. 2009. Sensitivity analysis of an ozone deposition
model. In: Atmospheric Environment, 2009, no. 43, p. 663–672.
MOLNÁR, F. Jr. – SZAKÁLY, T. – MÉSZÁROS, R. – LAGZI, I. 2010.
Air pollution modelling using a Graphics Processing Unit
with CUDA. In: Computer Physics Communications. 2010.
DOI:10.1016/j.cpc.2009.09.008
PAULEIT, S. 2003. Urban street tree plantings: indentifying the
key requirements. In: Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers-Municipal Engineer, 2003, no. 156, pp. 43–50.
RADÓ, D. 2001. A növényzet szerepe a környezetvédelemben.
In: Budapest kiadó, 2001, p. 9–20.
STEINER, M. – GYEVIKI, M. – JUHÁSZ, Á. – HROTKÓ, K. 2012.
Intenzív cseresznyeültetvény gázcseréjének alakulása 2011ben. TÁMOP műhelytanulmány (kézirat). Budapesti : Corvinus
Egyetem, 2012.
URBAN ALLEY TREES IN BUDAPEST
Vilmos SZALLER2, Veronika SZABÓ1, Magdolna Sütöriné Diószegi1*, Lajos MAGYAR1, Károly HROTKÓ1
2
FŐKERT Nonprofit ZRT, Budapest, Hungary
1
Integration and landscaping of Budapest started after the union of Buda, Óbuda and Pest in year 1873. In this time more than
50 % of planted trees were Robinia pseudo-acacia, following by Acer platanoides and Aesculus hippocastanum with number
of 6000–7000, and species of Fraxinus excelsior, Ailanthus glandulosa, Celtis orientalis, Ulmus effuse and Acer negundo with
number of 1000–2000. In World War I and II, lot of trees were cut. The remained parks needed the fast-growing species such
as poplar (Populus), ash-leaved maple (Acer negundo) or silver maple (Acer saccharinum). The aims in this investigation were
to monitoring the planting materials, supporting of alleys, healthy states of trees as summarizing survival rate under urban
conditions. The effects of urban environments conspire to the old trees damage, the average age of trees in alley calculated
about 29.1 year in Budapest. The life cycle of a tree is short. In present-day the alleys in Budapest contain 39 species with more
than 100 cultivars. The ideal trees bear shade, drought, poor soil, continuously pruning of roots and shoots, the injuring, the air
pollination, the salting and the dog urine. These strong requirements decreased the planting number of sycamores (Platanus)
and horse-chestnuts (Aesculus). It is recommended to keep trees assessing, to maintain them and change the salting materials
under wintertime. The heavy environmental conditions determine the applicable tree species in cities.
Keywords:
Introduction
A committee for public parks in Budapest was established
by Palatine (Governor prince) József supported by King
Ferenc I. Its aim was to develop the green surfaces in city,
*Correspodence:
to plant new alleys (Budapest Lexicon, 1973). The most of
main public parks had got shape in this time (City Park,
Margaret Island). The landscaping had started firstly on
the Danube bank of Pest and Buda and city part of Pest
(Radó, 1981). The injury of flooding in 1837 took in the
Magdolna Sütöriné Diószegi, Corvinus University of Budapest, Faculty of Horticultural Sciences,
Department of Floriculture and Dendrology, H-1118 Budapest, Villányi str. 29-43, Hungary, e-mail:
[email protected]
Vilmos Szaller et al.: Urban Alley Trees in Budapest, pp. 27–30
– 27 –
banks of Danube and all of Margaret
Island. After flooding this committee
and Hungarian nobility were lavish in
the fast regenerating of concerned
area. In this time, landscaping of
bigger area in downtown started.
The Palatine József was died in 1847,
and then the works of his committee
decreased.
The great comeback was the
era after the of Austro-Hungarian
compromise in 1867 when Franz
Josef was crowned to Hungarian
King. City Gardening, what is working
since this year, was established by Emil
Fuchs. Integration and landscaping of
Budapest started after the union of
Buda, Óbuda and Pest in year 1873.
The development of public transport
improved the area of public parks
– mainly in suburb. Landscaping
of Buda also started in this time
(most of alleys in Buda were setting).
Landscaping bounding to Millennium
Celebration was significant. More
than 50 % of planted trees were
Robinia pseudo-acacia, following
by Acer platanoides and Aesculus
hippocastanum with number of
6000–7000, and species of Fraxinus
excelsior, Ailanthus glandulosa, Celtis
orientalis, Ulmus effuse and Acer
negundo with number of 1000–2000
(Statistical Yearbook, 1898). The most
of present-day public parks were
evolved or shaped in this era.
12000
root
crow n
stem
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
healthy
piece
Figure 1
restricted
strongly
restricted
visible
injuries
strong rotting
deficient,
died
The health status of root, crown and stem of trees managing by FŐKERT
(Capital Gardening) (Budapest, 2009)
1400
spring
autumn
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
19
98
Figure 2
19
99
20
00
20
01
20
02
20
03
20
04
20
05
20
06
20
07
20
08
20
09
20
10
Tree plantings from 1998 to 2008
20
11
20
12
20
13
In World War I, lot of trees in
downtown were cut because of lack
of coal to heating – for example
from the 1883 established alley in
Andrássy Avenue only one sycamore
tree (Platanus) survived it because
of armed guards. The developments
of landscaping were improved by
Károly Räde in late 1920s (Radó,
1985). In his era lots of streets and
alleys were planted with trees.
Reports of that time noted 502 alleys
with detailed list of tree species
(Räde, 1929). Károly Räde was
followed by Dezső Morbitzer, who
finished the landscaping of Gellért
Hill, formed gardens of Tabán and
Városmajor (Kiácz, 1968). Reports of
late 1930s showed 212 tree-planted
walks in Budapest with more than
160 000 planted trees. In that time
the planted tree species were the
same as the species at landscaping
of Millennium Celebration (Statistical
Yearbook, 1898), however from the
middle of 1920s the following tree
species were planted: Acer campestre,
genus of Sorbus, Fraxinus and Tilia,
which species are native in Hungary
(Morbitzer, 1937).
In World War II, the trees were hard
injured under siege of capitol city. The
reconstruction of areas was carried
out with building-rubble covered or
mixed with soil in most times (Kiácz
1968). The reconstruction works of
landscape were finished in late 1940s
(Radó 1993).
After reconstruction the structure
of city was rebuilt hard, building of
council blocks in the outskirts of city
started. The maintenance of these
areas was attended to capitol of
Budapest from the middle of 1950s
to the end of 1980s. Blocks of flats,
shops and covered surfaces took the
places from old houses with garden
and public parks. The remained parks
needed the fast-growing species
such as poplar (Populus), ash-leaved
maple (Acer negundo) or silver maple
(Acer saccharinum). Professional
replanting of overage trees started
from the middle of 1960s. Besides
the most planted trees in 1930s
– 28 –
investigation of vitality. Each aspect
has got five rating grade from one to
five. Number one means unhealthy
or died part of trees, number five
means healthy part of trees with
good condition.
Tree planting
Figure 3
Distribution of trunk diameter of alley trees (Budapest, 2009)
(Morbitzer, 1937), silver linden (Tilia
tomentosa) and mountain ash (genus
Sorbus) were planted (Schmidt,
2006).
Nowadays the growing number
of inhabitants in Budapest, the
technological improvements and
more and more cars increase the
environmental pollutions in cities.
However from 1980s the financial
funds of landscaping was decreasing,
the tendency in present-day is again
increasing. The financial fund of city
landscaping is near by two thousands
millions, however this amount is only
1% of total cost of Budapest in 2013
(financial regulation in 2013).
The aims in this investigation
were to monitoring the planting
materials, supporting of alleys,
health status of trees as summarizing
survival rate under urban conditions.
Data were collected by Vilmos Szaller
(FŐKERT Nonprofit Zrt., Nonprofit
Gardening Company of Budapest)
and evaluated in cooperation with
Department of Floriculture and
Dendrology of Corvinus University
of Budapest. All of trees in Budapest,
about 12 000 trees, were subject of
evaluation. Assessments were based
on EU-methods (Radó, 1999).
There are five monitoring
aspects, what are noted by letters (A,
B, C, D, E). The semantic contents are
the follows: A: roots, growing space,
B: state of trunk, C: state of crown,
D: the degree of maintenance, E:
4500
4000
3500
Figure 4
Platanus genus
Celtis occidentalis
Populus genus
Fraxinus genus
Acer genus
Sophora japonica
0
Tilia genus
500
Aesculus genus
1000
others
1500
ornamental pears
2000
Robinia pseudoacacia
2500
Koelreuteria paniculata
3000
Composition of species among trees managed by FŐKERT (Capital
Gardening) (Budapest, 2009)
In 1920s there were more
requirements of tree planting
considering the direction and the
width of streets, the size of buildings,
the influence of covered areas, the
pipes and cables of public services
in the air and in the ground and the
planting with trees of the bounded
lines in public transport such as
trams and suburban railways. Ninety
years ago, the fire prevention and
view of bee-keeping also belonged
to requirements of tree planting
(Csérer, 1928). The difficulties of tree
planting in city are much the same.
The 70% of alley trees in Budapest
do not meet the requirements of
Csérer (1928). In the last century the
original ground remained under the
trees, however nowadays there is
not any healthy, unbroken ground
to planting. This is the reason
why the soil change is necessary
before planting. The changing of
transport, the spreading of great
transportations and cables of the
mass media are decreasing the
possible fields of planting. These
effects conspire to the old trees
damage, the average age of trees in
alley calculated about 29.1 year in
Budapest (Developmental Concept
of Landscaping, 2009). It could
mean just as well that the renewal
timing of alley trees is optimal;
the injured trees are changed
continuously. Unfortunately, it is
not right. The health status of the
most of the young trees runs down
so fast, that they do not reach the
older age (Figure 1). This run-down
of trees is caused by the endurance
of environmental pollination. The
trunk diameter categories of these
trees show the same picture (Figure
– 29 –
3). The high rate of young trees means that the life cycle
of a tree is short. The number of tree planting is varying
yearly (Figure 2). It is typical that we can see larger tree
plantings in a 4-years-period.
Species of trees
Csérer (1913) noted 14 species later (1928) 23 species in
details from alleys in Budapest. Räde (1928) mentioned
15 species. Csérer (1928) recommended to planting more
tree species in city because the trees have got different
environmental requirements. In present-day the alleys in
Budapest contain 39 species with more than 100 cultivars.
The 80 % of all the trees in Budapest are common species
(Figure 4). The ideal alley trees need to suit more and
more requirements. The ideal trees bear shade, drought
all of the grounds (poor soil too), continuously pruning
of roots and shoots, the injuring, the air pollination, the
salting and the dog urine. Their wounds are healing fast
and well and they are not susceptible to rot. They do not
cause allergy and do not litter wit their flowers, leaves and
fruits. These strong requirements decreased the planting
number of sycamores (Platanus) and horse-chestnuts
(Aesculus) (Statistical Yearbook 1898 compared to Report
of Capital Gardening, 2010).
Managing of alleys
It involves pruning, irradiance, nutrient supply, tilling
and protection. The pruning has got more reasons
(make visible traffic sign or camera, cleaning way for cars
and buses, for open wire line, injuring under buildings
or alleviating of injury). The optimal irrigation under
vegetation time is essential (Schmidt, 2006; Szaller, 2010).
Not only the space of crown, but the space of root is
also limited in cities. It is caused by different pipes and
tubes of public services and their repairing with turning
of ground. The injuries by human are also a huge problem
in public places (Figure 1). It is recommended to keep
trees assessing, to maintain them and change the salting
materials under wintertime.
Conclusions
yy The heavy environmental conditions determine the
applicable tree species in cities.
yy Although professional attendance, the healthy state of
urban trees is run-down.
yy The planting time strongly depends on election periods
and politics.
Acknowledgements
Authors acknowledge the support by National Research
Funds OTKA K 109361.
References
BUDAPEST KIEMELT Zöldterületek Közterületi Faállomány
Megújításának Fejlesztési Koncepciója. 2009. FŐKERT Nonprofit
Zrt. 2009. http://fokert.hu/dokumentumok/kozerdeku/2010_
kozhasznusagi_jelentes.pdf
p.
43.
http://fokert.hu/
dokumentumok/kozerdeku/EMAS_nyil.pdf p. 115.
BUDAPEST LEXIKON, 1973. Akadémiai Kiadó. pp.1335.
BUDAPEST FŐVÁROS Önkormányzat Közgyűlésének 21/2013.
(III. 20) számú önkormányzati rendelete Budapest Főváros
Önkormányzata. 2013. évi összevont költségvetéséről.
BUDAPEST SZÉKESFŐVÁROS Statisztikai évkönyve 1895 és
1896. II. évf. 1898. Budapest Székes Főváros Statisztikai Hivatala.
Budapest. Grill Károly Kir. Udvari Könyvkereskedése. pp. 196.
CSÉRER, G. 1913. Az útak és terek fásítása. Kolozsvár. Ajtai K.
Albert Könyvnyomdája, 1913. p.8–25
CSÉRER, G. 1928. A város és a falu fásítása. Budapest. M. Kir.
Belügyminisztérium Kísérleti Nyomdája, 1928. p.6–30
KIÁCZ, G. 1968. A Fővárosi Kertészet száz éve. In: Mezőgazdasági
kiadó, 1968. p.44
MORBITZER, D. 1937. Városi szemle: Közlemények a városi
közigazgatás és statisztika köréből. 23. évf. 1. sz. Budapest.
Budapest Székesfőváros Házinyomdája, 1937. p. 103–120
RADÓ, D. 1981. Fák a betonrengetegben. Budapest.
Mezőgazdasági kiadó, 1981. p. 250
RADÓ, D. 1985. Budapesti parkok és terek. Magyar Nemzeti
Galéria. Budapest, 1985. p. 138
RADÓ, D. 1993. 125 éves a Főváros kertészete (részletek).
In: Országépítő, a Kós Károly Egyesülés folyóirata. 93/3. sz.
Budakeszi : S-PRINT KFT, 1993. p.33.
RADÓ, D. 1999. ’Bel-és külterületi fasorok EU-módszer szerinti
értékelése’ (Assessment of alley in downtown and the outskirts
based on EU-method). In. Enclosure of a periodical, called
Lélegzet, 1999, no. 7–8, p. 12.
RÄDE, K. 1929. Budapest Székesfőváros Kertészetéhez tartozó
Park-Sétány és Kertek Tervei. Fasorok Kimutatása. Kimutatás
a székesfővárosi kertészet fasorairól. Budapest : Székesfőváros
Házinyomdája, 1929.
SCHMIDT, G. 2006. Budapesti fák élete és halála. In: Budapest
Folyóirat, vol. 61, 2006, no. 8, p. 2–6.
SZALLER, V. 2010. Az épített környezetben élő fák
állapotleromlásának biotikus és abiotikus okai. Szakdolgozat,
2010. pp. 106.
– 30 –
CYPRESS BORER (LAMPRODILA FESTIVA), A NEW URBAN PEST IN HUNGARY
Gabor SCHMIDT, Magdolna Sütöriné DIÓSZEGI*, Veronika SZABÓ, Károly HROTKÓ
The most popular evergreens in parks and home gardens, Thuja occindentalis, T. plicata, Platycladus orientalis (syn. Thuja
orientalis), are stressed by dry and hot summers of last seasons. Then these weak, vulnerable trees were injured by secondary
pests. During investigations in June 2013 and January 2014 at the Central Conifer Collection of Corvinus University Budapest,
the highest injuries of the cypress borer (Lamprodila festiva) were detected on Thuja occidentalis cultivars ‘Asplenifolia’,
‘Bodmeri’, ‘Recurva Nana’, ‘Rheingold’, ‘Smaragd’, Platycladus orientalis ‘Juniperoides’, while the other cultivars, especially
the columnar T. o. ‘Henezia’ and ‘Fastigiata’, the yellow-leaved T. o. ‘Yellow Ribbon’ and ‘Sunkist’, the globular cultivars, and
practically all the T. plicata and the remaining Platycladus orientalis cultivars proved to be saved (yet) by the borer. (Total
number of inspected Thuja and Platycladus cultivars was 108). From the genus Chamaecyparis (altogether 69 cultivars) only
some juvenile forms, wile from the genus Juniperus (altogether 218 cultivars) Juniperus scopolorum ’Skyrocket’ were injured.
Keywords: Lamprodila festiva, sensitivity, Thuja, Platycladus, cypress beetle
Introduction
Thuja cultivars are the most popular evergreen
ornamental trees in Hungary. Among these trees Thuja
occidentalis (eastern arborvitae, white cedar), what has
got plenty of colour and size to wide usage. Thuja plicata
(giant arborvitae) and Thuja orientalis (oriental arborvitae,
the current latin name is Platycladus orientalis) are
frequently planted, too (Tóth, 2012; Schmidt and Tóth,
2006). Thuja trees, planted out to parks and gardens,
are stressed by dry and hot summers lately. The summer
heat waves stressed these trees so much that plants run
dry even under irrigated conditions because of shallow
roots. As the balance between foliage and root mass
is lost, some trees ran dry, but majority of them are
underdeveloped and showed drought stress symptoms.
These weak plants are injured by secondary pests, such as
cypress beetle (Lamprodila festiva) from Mediterranean,
what occurred the biggest injuries currently (Bodor,
2012; Németh, 2012; Maráczi, 2013).
The species of jewel beetles are numbered 119 in
Hungary (Németh, 2013a, 2013b). In 1999, cypress beetle
was firstly found in Landscape Protector Area of Old
Juniper Woodland, Barcs (Muskovits, 2001), shortly it was
protected. Two years ago, cypress beetle was detected
en masse in region of Budapest, elsewhere trees killed
by cypress beetle were found – especially where lots of
arborvitae was planted.
The life cycle of cypress beetle takes one year. The
identification of injury (drying starting from top of
plants, the green colour of shoots fading, and then light
brown from inside to outside, in the end run dry fully) is
*Correspodence:
complicated and needs some skill. The oval emergence
holes and the adult beetles can be observed and define
exactly May and June of next year after the starting of
injuring.
Our preliminary observation suggests that infection
of cypress beetle is different on each species of Thuja.
This suggests that some of them are less vulnerable
against cypress beetles. The aim of our investigations
was monitoring Thuja and Platycladus (earlier belongs
to genus Thuja) cultivars on the susceptibility to cypress
beetle (Lamprodila festiva). Less vulnerable species could
be recommended for propagators and customers based
on this investigation.
Materials and Methods
This trial was carried out in Experimental and Research
Farm of Corvinus University of Budapest, Faculty of
Horticultural Science. The farm is located in Central
Hungary on light sandy soil with pH of 7.8, the yearly
average temperature is 11.3 °C, the hours of sunlight
are 2079 and annual precipitation is 550 mm. Central
Coniferous Collection is located on 2 hectares. The
collection amounts 584 conifers, from them there are 108
Thuja and Platycladus species and cultivars. Each taxa has
got 5–5 stools in two replicates with optimal spacing to
growth representatively.
Monitoring had done in June 2013 and it was
continued with more details from late January to early
February 2014. In the first stage in June 2013, the cypress
beetle was identified on these trees in Central Coniferous
Collection. In the second stage from late January to early
Magdolna Sütöriné Diószegi, Corvinus University of Budapest, Faculty of Horticultural Sciences,
Department of Floriculture and Dendrology, H-1118 Budapest, Villányi str. 29–43, Hungary, e-mail:
[email protected]
Gabor Schmidt et al.: Cypress borer (Lamprodila festiva), a new urban pest in hungary, pp. 31–33
– 31 –
February 2014, the injury of cypress beetle in percent
was assessed on each and every species of Thuja. As
a secondary investigation, the monitoring covered other
evergreens with scale-like foliage, such as Chamaecyparis
and Juniperus, and some taxa were evaluated by the
symptoms of cypress beetle injuries.
The results of valued injuries on investigated trees are
found in Table 1. There were 17 injured taxa from the
rich collection of Thuja and Platylcadus with 108 taxa.
The most injured trees were all the cultivars of Thuja
occidentalis, especially ‘Smaragd’, ‘Spiralis’, ‘Semperaurea’,
‘Asplenifolia’, ‘Barabits Gold’ and ‘Bodmeri’.
The above mentioned cultivars of Thuja occidentalis
(‘Smaragd’, ‘Spiralis’, ‘Semperauera’, ‘Asplenifolia’, ‘Barabits
Gold’ and ‘Bodmeri’) are very susceptible against cypress
beetle injuring. All of these cultivars – except ‘Barabits
Gold’ – are selections from West-Europe with humid
climate. We concluded that they are more vulnerable
under Hungarian continental, semiarid climate and
under shaded conditions. The changing climate (more
and more warmer) forecasts that the area of cypress
beetle will be spreading (Moraal, 2010).
The injury was minimal on all the cultivars of Thuja
plicata (Table 1). Only on ‘Juniperoides’ cultivar, belongs
to Platycladus orientalis (earlier Thuja orientalis) was found
injury in 40%, whereas all the others from species of
Platycladus orientalis were particularly free from cypress
beetle. However, on these trees was occurring Kabatina
thujae, where the shoots covered each others.
Generally we can conclude that species and cultivars
with closed branching and crowded crown (especially
Table 1
low, compact globular and oval shapes) kept full healthy,
whereas the trees with horizontal, loose branching and
juvenile forms were more or less injured.
Chamaecyparis lawsoniana ‘Silvania’ and ‘Stewartii’
cultivars from the genus Chamaecyparis were injured in
40% respectively in 10%. From Chamaecyparis pisifera
cultivars the following were particularly deadly injured:
‘Boulevard’, ‘Plumosa Aurea’ and ‘Squarossa Lombarts’.
From the 33 cultivars of Juniperus communis only
‘Bakony’ and ‘Hibernica’ showed some symptoms of
injury where the trees were shaded. However, the
identification of injuries was complicated because of
similar symptoms (emergence hole with frass) of cypress
beetle and Phloeosinus thujae (arborvitae bark beetle)
(Seybold et al., 2008). The cultivar Juniperus scopulorum
‘Skyrocket’ only was injured in 100%.
Actually, there are differences of tolerance or
resistance against environmental conditions and cypress
beetle injuring between genus Thuja and Platycladus.
The vulnerability of cultivars against cypress beetle is
definitely different. It can be caused by the branching
of crown and by the physiological processes in plants.
Where the evaporating surface was less exposed through
the compact canopy, the trees could survive with more
chances the summer heat waves and drought stress.
Prevention will be the first to protect coniferous evergreen:
keeping plants healthy can minimize injury from secondary
pests (Buss and Foltz, 2009). Hayes et al. (2008) mentioned
that secondary metabolites are changed in a weaken trees,
what change is liked by borers.
The juvenile forms from genus Chamaecyparis are
very sensitive to drought and evaporate more as it is
well-known, that’s why they are susceptible to injuring
Degree of injury of cypress beetle (Lamprodila festiva) in Central Coniferous Collection, Soroksár, Budapest,
Hungary, 2013–2014
Latin name
Degree of
injury in %
Chamaecyparis lawsoniana ’Silvania’
40
Latin name
Degree of
injury in %
Thuja occidentalis ‘Gold Fassel’
10
Chamaecyparis lawsoniana ’Stewartii’
10
Thuja occidentalis ‘Hoersholmiensis’
80
Chamaecyparis pisifera ’Boulevard’
100
Thuja occidentalis ‘Malonyana’
5
Chamaecyparis pisifera ’Plumosa Aurea’
100
Thuja occidentalis ‘Recurva Nana’
90
Chamaecyparis pisifera ’Squarossa Lombarts’
100
Thuja occidentalis ‘Rheingold’
40
Juniperus communis ’Bakony’
50
Thuja occidentalis ‘Semperaurea’
40
Juniperus communis ’Hibernica’
50
Thuja occidentalis ‘Smaragd’
70
Thuja occidentalis ‘Stelina’
15
Thuja occidentalis ‘Szőlősi klón’
5
Thuja occidentalis ‘Yellow Ribbon’
30
Juniperus scopulorum ’Skyrocket’
100
Platycladus orientalis ‘Juniperoides’
40
Thuja occidentalis ‘Barabits Gold’
100
Thuja occidentalis ‘Bodmeri’
40
Thuja plicata ‘Gelderland’
5
Thuja occidentalis ‘Columna’
5
Thuja plicata ‘Gold Perle’
10
Thuja occidentalis ‘Europe Gold’
10
Note: Names with bold letters show the highest degree of injury
– 32 –
of cypress beetle. The injury of Juniperus scopulorum
‘Skyrocket’ cultivar was caused by its popularity in
country, so the cypress beetle could specialize on this
cultivar.
Only two cultivars were injured by cypress beetle
from Juniperus communis cultivars in our investigation.
However these injuries appeared in shaded site, while
cypress beetles like sunshine and warm (Németh, 2012).
The question is still to be answered: this beetles like
sunshine, but the injuries appear in shaded sites. This
topic requires more interest and further studies.
Conclusions
1. Actually, there are differences of resistance or tolerance
against environmental conditions and cypress beetle
injuring between genus Thuja and Platycladus.
2. In all the taxa we found some cultivars what show
less vulnerability. We can recommend the following
cultivars. Thuja occidentalis ‘Henezia’ and ‘Fastigiata’ for
columnar shape, Thuja occidentalis ‘Yellow Ribbon’ and
‘Sunkist’ together with Thuja plicata and Platycladus
orientalis cultivars with yellowish foliage.
3. The cypress beetle likes the stressed, weaken plants,
that’s why it is important to plant coniferous evergreen
under optimal conditions.
4. Juniperus communis cultivars are less susceptible
against cypress beetle.
Acknowledgements
This work was supporting by Magnolia Agárd Kert-Park
Kft. We would like to render thanks for Prof. Dr. Gábor
Schmidt who was our excellent colleague, leader, teacher,
and an outstanding horticultural specialist. We will be
treasuring him in our mind.
References
BODOR, J. 2012. A tuják kártevői – Kertészet és Szőlészet. In:
Pests of genus Thuja, 2012, no. 34, p. 24–26.
BUSS, E. A. – FOLTZ, J. L. 2009. Insect borers of Trees and Shrubs.
University of Florida. IFAS Extension, 2009, p. 7. http://edis.ifas.
ufl.edu/mg007.
HAYES, J. L. – JOHNSON, P. L. – EGLITIS, A. – SCOTT, D. W. –
SPIEGEL, L. – SCHMITT, C. L. – SMITH, S. E. 2008. Response of
bark and woodboring beetles to host volatiles and wounding
on western juniper. In: Western Journal of Applied Forestry,
2008, no. 23, p. 206–215.
MARÁCZI, L. 2013. Díszfák, díszcserjék védelme – Nyugatdunántúli Díszfaiskolások Egyesülete Szombathely. Protect of
ornamental trees and shrubs. 2013, pp. 626.
MORAAL, L. G. 2010. Infestitations of the cypress bark beetles
Phloeosinus rudis, P. bicolor and P. thujae in The Netherlands
(Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae). In: Entomologishe
Berichten, vol. 70, 2010, no. 4, p. 140–145.
MUSKOVITS, J. 2001. Somogy megye díszbogarai (Coleoptera:
Buprestidae). In: Ábrahám L. (szerk.): Somogy fauna katalógusa –
Natura Somogyiensis. In: Jewel beetles in county Somogy, 2001,
no. 3, p. 169–178.
NÉMETH, T. 2012. Védett bogárból tujakártevő – National
Geographic Online. http://www.ng.hu/Termeszet/2012/08/
vedett_bogarbol_tujakartevo
(Hozzáférés:
2013.VI.11.)
A protected beetle turns into pest on Thuja, 2012.
NÉMETH, T. 2013a. A főváros repülő ékkövei – Élet és Tudomány.
In: Flying jewels in capital town, vol. 68, 2013, no. 15, p. 454–456.
NÉMETH, T. 2013b. A boróka-tarkadíszbogár (Lamprodila festiva)
megjelenése és kártétele Budapesten – Növényvédelem,
Appearance and injury of cypress beetle Lamprodila festiva in
Budapest, vol. 49, 2013, no. 8, p. 367–369.
SCHMIDT, G. – TÓTH, I. 2006. Kertészeti Dendrológia. In:
Mezőgazda Kiadó, Horticultural Dendrology, 2006, no. pp. 404.
SEYBOLD, S. J. – PAINE, T. D. – DREISTADT, S. H. 2008. Bark
beetles. Integrated Pest Management for Home Gardeners and
Landscape Professionals. California : University of California
Agriculture and Natural Resources, 2008, pp. 7.
TÓTH, I. 2012. Lomblevelű díszfák, díszcserjék kézikönyve –
Tarkavirág Kereskedelmi és Szolgáltató Kft. Dunaharaszti. In:
Manual of deciduous ornamental trees and shrubs, 2012, pp.
789.
– 33 –
PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS OF AILANTHUS ALTISSIMA (MILL.)
SWINGLE AT DIFFERENT URBAN AREAS
Ewa ZARAŚ-JANUSZKIEWICZ*, Barbara ŻARSKA, Beata FORNAL-PIENIAK, Edyta ROSŁON-SZERYŃSKA
Warsaw University of Life Sciences (SGGW), Poland
Urban space, due to its specific habitat conditions, is the space where the trees have difficult to grow. Therefore, a new species
of trees are planted in cities. These species must cope with difficult urban conditions. Unfortunately, it oftenhappens that
these new tree species well feeling in the city, begin to grow uncontrollably. These plant speces start to behave as invasive
plants, they exclude other plant species from urban spaces, substantially affect the rate of biodiversity loss. There is also the
possibility of passing such invasive plants from the cities to natural spaces (eg. Acer negundo and Robinia pseudoacacia).
Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle is such a new and potentially dangerous species. Ailanthus alitissima may also appear in
unusual places for its ecological optimum in the example of Warsaw. Ailanthus is a species of thermophilous and therefore
urban conditions (heat island effect) favor the development of trees and increase its population size. Nevertheless, for
several years occurence of Ailathus outside the Warsaw city are recorded. An example of such a position are urban forests
at the northern border city. Observations were carried out since 2000. Such a location of the species may be indicative of
adaptation to climatic conditions and the possibility of transition to natural stands. The main research tool are phenological
observations of Ailanthus altissima at different urban areas. They allow us to conclude that plants growing in the central parts
of the city have longer vegetation and stronger growth comparing to other urban areas observed. However, in locations
situated on the outskirts of the city and urban forests trees plants often remain in the form of shrubs.
Keywords: Ailanthus altissima, invasive species, tree of heaven, phenology, urban conditions
Introduction
Invasive plants and animals are in the modern world
very important issue. Invasive species were considered
second, after the destruction of habitats, the direct
reason for the reduction of biodiversity. It is believed that
invasive alien species could cost the global economy up
to 5 % of global GDP (Pimental et al., 1999). Statistically,
10 species introduced to cultivation of one “escapes” to
grow one “escapes”. For 10 “fugitives” one bears fruit and
reproduce. On 10 fruiting (naturalized) one is invasive.
Invasive alien species are plants, animals, pathogens
and other organisms that are not native to the
ecosystem and may cause damage to the environment
or the economy or adversely affect human health. In
particular, invasive alien species have negative effects
on biodiversity, including the reduction or elimination
of populations of native species through competition,
food, predation or transmission of pathogens and
interfering with the functioning of ecosystems. Invasive
alien species imported or spread outside their natural
habitats, impact on native biodiversity nearly all
ecosystems of the earth and are one of the biggest
threats to this diversity. From the seventeenth century,
invasive alien species have contributed inter alia to the
extinction of almost 40 % of animal species and many
species of plants.
*Correspodence:
The problem of invasive alien species is constantly
growing, mainly due to the expansion of global trade,
transport and tourism, which may facilitate the introduction
and spread of alien species in the environment. If for
a given species new environment is sufficiently similar to
the native, this species can survive and reproduce. Without
encountering natural enemies or other restrictions species
can become invasive: increase the area of its occurrence
and displace native species. The damage increase further
as a result of climate change, pollution, habitat loss and
transforms environment by man.
Species can “travel” different ways using different
“natural” media. Alien species get into the environment
through deliberate or accidental release into the
environment of animals and plants grown at home or in
home gardens.
The most important sources of threat of biological
diversity of introducted species are the plants, that
after introduction into the wild nature reveal an ability
to become established and spontaneous mastery and
transformation of plant communities. The introduction of
trees and shrubs is particular importance in this respect,
because they can lead to long-term transformation of
floristic composition and structure of forest and scrub
phytocoenoses, especially if they are held for a long
time, repeatedly and over large areas. A number of
Ewa Zaraś-Januszkiewicz, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (SGGW), Faculty of Horticulture,
Biotechnology and Landscape Architecture, Department of Environmental Protection, Poland, e-mail:
[email protected]
Ewa Zaraś-Januszkiewicz et al.: Phenological observations of Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle at different urban areas, pp. 34–38
– 34 –
species used in forestry and agriculture were introduced
deliberately by man in order to increase productivity and
competitiveness in the market (eg Quercus rubra) or has
been planted as ornamental plants in gardens and parks
(eg Acer negundo). Often, these species just got out of
control they expand and even spread in invasive manner.
An example of such tree species is Ailanthus altissima.
Material and method
Ailanthus altissima, commonly known as tree of heaven,
ailanthus, or in Standard Chinese as chouchun (Chinese:
臭椿; pinyin: chòuchūn; it means “foul smelling tree”), is
a deciduous tree in the Simaroubaceae family. It is native
to both northeast and central China and Taiwan. The
tree grows rapidly and is capable of reaching heights of
15 metres in 25 years. However, the species is also short
lived and rarely lives more than 50 years. In China, the tree
of heaven has a long and rich history. It was mentioned
in the oldest extant Chinese dictionary and listed in
countless Chinese medical texts for its purported ability
to cure ailments ranging from mental illness to baldness
(Hu, 1979). The roots, leaves and bark are still used today
in traditional Chinese medicine, primarily as an astringent.
In addition to its use as an ornamental plant, the tree
of heaven is also used for its wood, medicinal properties,
and as a host plant to feed silkworms of the moth Samia
cynthia, which produces silk that is stronger and cheaper
than mulberry silk, although with inferior gloss and
texture. It is also unable to take dye (Duke, 1983). This
type of silk is known under various names: “pongee”, “eri
silk” and “Shantung silk”. Its production is particularly well
known in the Yantai region of that province (Gill, 2004).
The pale yellow, close-grained and satiny wood of
Ailanthus altissima has been used in cabinet work. It is flexible
and well suited to the manufacture of kitchen steamers,
which are important in Chinese cuisine for cooking mantou,
pastries and rice. It is also considered a good source of
firewood across much of its range as it moderately hard and
heavy, yet readily available. The wood is also used to make
charcoal for culinary purposes (Barclay, 2013). Because the
trees exhibit rapid growth for the first few years, the trunk
has uneven texture between the inner and outer wood,
which can cause the wood to twist or crack during drying.
Although the live tree tends to have very flexible wood, the
wood is quite hard once properly dried (Keeler, 1900).
In Europe, the plant first appeared in 1751. In Poland
1808 in the Cracow Botanical Garden (Seneta, 1991), and
the status of this specie is domesticated anthropophyte.
It is typically a thermophilic species, because in many
Polish cities is more and more areas.
Ailanthus alitissima may also appear in unusual places
for its ecological optimum in the example of Warsaw.
Nevertheless, from several years locations of Ailathus
outside the city are recorded. An example of such
a position are urban forests in the northern border city.
The aim of this paper is to demonstrate the presence of
Ailanthus altissima in Warsaw at three different urban zones:
centrum, districts located peripherally and suburban areas.
Further aim of the study is to demonstrate the strength
grade adaptations to environmental conditions (mainly
thermal) expressed as phenoloical phases duration at
Ailanthus altissima at different urban zones.
The work was made observations regarding the
presence of Ailanthus altissima in Warsaw. Spot on the city
reported the presence of the specimen in the lane NS and
EW-striking in the central part of the city. Belts had a width
of about 2 km. Belts stretched from the border of the
suburb area in the north of the city to the suburban area to
the south of Warsaw. Similarly, on the east-west direction.
The main research tool are phenological observations.
Phenological observations were carried out on mature
individuals. Observations took place in 2005–2011.
They were a group of individuals in to the town center
(highly urbanized zone), are outside the city center and
suburban area. The description of the main phenophases
are as follow:
V – the growing phase (V1 – swelling and cracking
buds; V2 – leaf stage; V3 – Phase fall leaves).
Fl – flowering phase.
Fr – fruiting phase (from fruit set to maturity).
The recorded duration of the given phases at each of
the three locations were averaged and plotted.
Occurrence of Ailanthus alitissima in Warsaw
They allow us to conclude that plants growing in the
central parts of the city have longer vegetation period
and stronger growth. However, in locations situated on
the outskirts of the city and urban forests growing period
is shorter, and plants often remain in the form of shrubs.
As a result of the observation noted that Ailanthus
altissima definitely prefers locations associated with the
onset of the heat island phenomenon. Locations are
primarily the central part of the city, with a high degree
of urbanization. Very often, the trees appear in the
cracks between sidewalks and buildings, the hardened
surfaces (eg concrete slab). They form dense thickets
through intensive sprawling root system. In the central
part of Warsaw, covered by the observations we reported
97 groups or individual trees. Most positions formed
a group in which one can distinguish some plants planted
intentionally (eg, parks, squares and green street-adjacent)
and a group of spontaneously proliferating plants. These
spontaneously occurring specimens are developed in
vegetative (root suckers) or generative (seeds) way.
Away from the city center Ailanthus altissima
frequency of occurence decreases. There has been
following number of grupus or individual trees of
Ailanthus altissima in parts: S – 14 (including 4 positions
– 35 –
in the outer part of the city), N – 12 (including 2 positions
in the outer part of the city), W – 17, E – 9.
However, the most interesting is the presence of
Ailanthus altissima in suburban zone, including forests
within urban forests, such as the Mlociny Park north of
Warsaw. As explained by phenological observations,
the averaged results are presented in the form of charts,
Ailanthus shows a certain, limited ability to adapt to
growth in terms of less conducive thermal conditions.
Comparing the average duration of each phenological
phases can be seen that the specimens growing in central
parts of the city have increased the length of the vegetative
and generative phases in relation to the other location. In
case V2 phase difference between the copies of rising in
the center of the city and suburban areas is up to 20 days.
Similarly, the phase Fr – fruits in the center were formed
earlier and ripened earlier than in the suburban area.
These observations show that the environmental
conditions in the central parts of the city assisting the
processes synanthropisation and confirm the thermal
preferences of the species. However, do not preclude
the adaptation of the species to a less comfortable
thermal conditions. In the case of specimens growing
in the outer parts of the city can be observed that the
plants do not create the form of trees. Probably stronger
Figure 1
Figure 2
Ailanthus in central part of Warsaw [Lok. 1] – the
duration of each phonological phases (number
of days with the standard deviation)
Ailanthus in peripheral districts [Lok. 2] – the
frosts, especially those from the early autumn period and
spring, which take place in Polish climatic conditions,
effectively limit the growth of plants. As a result, the
plants are retained on the stage of the shrubs.
It should be emphasized that the adverse thermal
conditions for this species does not eliminate it, and do
not constitute an obstacle to the self-renewal plants
and independent distribution in terms natural or seminatural. The Ailanthus propagules are seeds, but the tree
forms many root suckers, through which plants form
dense clusters.
With the length of each phenological phases can
draw a very important conclusion. Copies of growing
in the center of the city start to vegetate earlier (this is
a difference of up to about 7 to 10 days). Similarly, the
end of the growing season – specimens growing in
the suburban area of vegetation end about 14 earlier
compared to specimens growing in the city center.
Currently on Polish territory is cultivated more than
2500 species (warieties no included) of trees and shrubs,
what represents the number of about 10-fold higher
than the number of native woody species. Relatively few
of them so far revealed an ability to become established,
Figure 3
Ailanthus in suburban zone [Lok. 3] – the
Figure 4
Comparison of the duration of the all
phenological phases at all locations
– 36 –
Figure 5
Self-seeding Ailanthu altissimas at the street curb
on the car parking in central part of Warsaw
Figure 6
Photo: Zaraś-Januszkiewicz, 2011
but can not be ruled out that others in the future
demonstrate such a property, because in the case of the
above mentioned group of plants it can develop after
several decades after the introduction.
From the point of view of the diversity of local or
regional alien species is always a real or potential threat
to indigenous species: introduces new interactions in
ecosystems, habitats is often acts reductively on native
species, where it is often difficult to know in advance the
degree of aggressiveness and ability to penetrate alien
species into natural or semi-natural ecological systems
(Olaczek, 2000). Such a phenomenon has been observed
in the case of Ailanthus altissima. Ailanthus altissima is
extremely competitive: producing up to 350 000 seeds
per year, a very fast growing, drowning out other plants
growing near, and even special producing toxins that
prevent their development. Its root system is so strong
that it can cause destruction of the foundations and
sewers.
The process of synantropisation is especially intensive
in urban areas. Due to the specific habitat conditions they
are somewheat, difficult to accept by native vegetation,
but acceptable to the species of foreign origin, recruiters
from areas of similar habitat conditions for urbanareas,
particularly in terms of heat. Interest in the flora of urban
areas has been shown for almost 200 years (Jackowiak,
1998; Pyšek, 1989; Sudnik-Wójcikowska, 1998a). The
species composition of urban vegetation and its function
in the urban ecosystem as well as the role of man are
significant because these factors affect ecological
conditions and changes in urban areas.
In Warsaw tree-of-heaven, like in Wrocław, grew in
a variety of habitats. The greatest number of its locations
were found in quarters with high-rise and high-density
residential areas, it means in central part of city, where
the highes occurrence was recorded.
Downtown areas, they often grew in places associated
with streets green areas, because Ailanthus tolerates soil
salinity conditions. Tree of heaven grew also in industrial
Thickes of Ailanthus altissima root suckers
Photo: Zaraś-Januszkiewicz, 2011
quarters, Ailanthus are especially often found in the
vicinity of parks, which have been deliberately planted.
The vegetation of the city keeps undergoing
transformation over time as a result of the changing
ecological conditions.
The hemeroby structure of habitats where tree-ofheaven grows in Warsaw, Poznań or Wrocław agrees with
data from Berlin, where the tree was also usually found in
the same habitats (Kowarik and Böcker, 1984).
The center of a big city is warmer than the
surrounding areas. There occurs the so – called urban
thermal island. Its formation is controlled by a variety
of factors, like the warming effect of buildings resulting
from heat absorption during the day and its emission in
the evening, additional heat emission sources generated
by industry, and most importantly, the heating of
houses. A consequence of the thermal island existence
is the appearance of thermophilic plant species, i.e., with
higher temperature requirements, and locally even an
expansion of some of them. Those species include treeof-heaven, traveller’s-joy (Czekalski and Kidawska, 2003)
and buddleia (Kownas, 1958). The distribution of treeof-heaven in Warsaw, like in Wrocław in 1998–2001, was
concentrated in areas where air temperature was higher.
Presumably the heat factor had a decisive influence on
such a distribution, because tree-of-heaven has been
shown to be a typical thermal indicator associated the
warmest areas of Central European cities and highly
industrialised regions, e.g., in Duisburg, Berlin, Leipzig,
Halle and Zurich, as well as on the French coast of the
Mediterranean and the Ruhr Basin in Germany (Kowarik,
1983a, 1983b; Kowarik and Böcker, 1984; Kunick,
1984; Landolt, 1991a, 1991b; Sudnik-Wójcikowska and
Moraczewski, 1993; Sudnik-Wójcikowska, 1998a). In
Poland data on distribution tree-of-heaven in urban
areas were presented by Pacyniak (1976) and SudnikWójcikowska (1998b) for Warsaw and Łódź.
However, in the last decade there apperance the
Ailanthus outside the urban heat island. This may indicate
– 37 –
either climate change, expressing a growing balance
of thermal and systematic warming of the climate, as
well as the adaptation of the species to less favorable
thermal conditions. This phenomenon is extremely
unfavorable, because the species is characterized by
a large expansiveness, begins to appear in semi-natural
and natural forest complexes.
The Wrocław population of the tree-of-heaven,
the largest in Poland, is probably associated with its
introduction to Berlin in 1797 (Kowarik and Böcker, 1984).
The tendency of population will increase Ailanthus can
also be seen in other Polish cities, but the population from
Wrocław of tree-of-heaven is excellent subject for studies
on the biology, ecology and possible applications of treeof-heaven in urban areas. In Poland, it is recommended
for planting along broad avenues and streets, and in
squares and parks of western, central and southern
Poland (Bugała et al., 1984). Its soil requirements are
modest; it can grow in dry, low fertility, and trans-formed
antropogenic soils with a high admixture of rubble. It
often sows itself and regenerates in places where other
plants are unable to grow. It displays an excellent ability to
adapt, also to the difficult urban and industrial conditions
continually changing under the human impact. Sukopp
(1972) and Sudnik-Wójcikowska (1998a, 1998b) classified
tree of heaven as a thermophilic species, i.e., growing the
warmest areas in many Central European cities.
Conclusion
1.The central part of the city, with the associated heat
island, represent the most advantageous place for selfgrowth plant, sow and create thickets by root suckers.
This process each year is increasing and the trend is
noticeable expansion of the population of Ailanthus.
2. The duration of the growing season of Ailanthus in the
central part of the city comes to about 180 days. In the
case of suburban areas, this period is reduced to about
150 days.
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– 38 –
EVALUATION OF PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES
OF PLANTS CORNUS MAS L. TO WATER DEFICIT
Helena LICHTNEROVÁ*, Viera ŠAJBIDOROVÁ, Daniela BARTOŠOVÁ KRAJČOVIČOVÁ
Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Slovakia
The pot experiment with the selected plants of Cornus mas L. was carried out in 2013. The aim of the experiment was
to assess the impact of water scarcity in the substrate on the physiological condition of the monitored plants. Following
physiological characteristics: the leaf stomatal conductance and chlorophyll fluorescence were tested. We have seen the
value of Fv/Fm in the range of 0.75–0.85, which represent the optimum values of Fv/Fm. Values of ΦPSII and the values of
Rfd decreased due the impact of water deficit. By measuring leaf stomatal conductance (gs), we reported a decrease in the
values of the variant with lower levels of saturation of the substrate. We can deduce that the photosynthetic activity of the
plants Cornus mas L. was affected by lower levels of saturation of the substrate.
Keywords: Cornus mas L., leaf stomatal conductance, chlorophyll fluorescence
Introduction
Modern concepts in landscape planning are focused
on the usage of native species plants from nature in the
urban areas and landscape. Under natural conditions
plants are exposed to environmental stressors with
mutual interaction. Water regime of plants is a key
factor affecting their survival and expansion in terms of
progressive drought.
The study of drought-tolerant species of herbs and
plants is a means for their effective use in landscape
planning. Cornus mas L. is one of the spectacular native
species of plants used in landscape planning, due to its
early flowering period and its tolerance to drought and
heat. It can resist to the habitat with sandy-loam soil
rather than permanent waterlogged. It is widespread in
southern and south-western Europe, extends into central
Germany, the Czech Republic and Slovakia, Ukraine,
Crimea and the Caucasus. It occurs on hillsides and in light
forests on the limestone from lowlands to uplands (http://
botany.cz/cs/cornus-mas/). The aim of the experiment is
to evaluate the impact of water scarcity in the substrate
on the selected physiological characteristics – the leaf
stomatal conductance and chlorophyll fluorescence.
These characteristics are indicators of the plant´s
physiological state.
Material and metods
The selected plants Cornus mas L. come from generative
propagation. One-year old seedlings were grown in
containers. A part of the plants were exposed to 30%
of the substrate saturation (variant with reduced water
content in the substrate, stress variant) and another part
*Correspodence:
of the plants were further hydrated as control variant
in 60% of the substrate saturation. The plants were
cultivated into the substrate Klasmann TS3 standard
clay +20 kg m-3, pH 5.5–6 + fertilizer 1 kg m-3 under the
foiled cover. A different irrigation regime was set from
August to September 2013. Within a pot experiment we
monitored physiological responses of plants in relation
to water scarcity. We chose the non-destructive methods
of monitoring the impact of the lack of water in the
soil to plants, specific measurement of leaf stomatal
conductance and modulated chlorophyll fluorescence.
During the period of the differentiated water regime,
we conducted two analyses to determine the selected
parameters. The first analysis was conducted on the
August 12th 2013, the next on the September 26th 2013
after 41 days. 20 pieces of plants reporting taxon were
chosen, 10 pieces of plants of variant control (60 % of
saturation of the substrate), 10 pieces of plants of variant
with lower levels of substrate saturation.
When measuring modulated chlorophyll fluorescence
a the fluorometer Hansatech FMS 1 was used with lasting
1 second light pulses of red light with an intensity
of 895 μmol m-2 s-1 with 30 minutes of the necessary
adaptation of samples to the dark. The intensity of
actinic light was 34 μmol m-2 s-1 and the saturation light
pulse was 10 000 μmol m-2 s-1. Dark-adapted leaf is most
commonly used to characterize the photosynthetic
apparatus of measured leaf and plants (Procházka et al.,
1998). From the measured values were evaluated the
following parameters: Fv/Fm – the maximum quantum
efficiency of PSII, ΦPSII – the effective quantum yield of
PSII and Rfd – the chlorophyll fluorescence decrease ratio
Helena Lichtnerova, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape
Engineering, Department of Planting Design and Maintenance, Slovakia, e-mail. Helena.Lichtnerova@
uniag.sk
Helena Lichtnerová, Viera Šajbidorová, Daniela Bartošová Krajčovičová: Evaluation of physiological responses of plants Cornus mas L. to water deficit, pp. 39–42
– 39 –
(decrease from the maximum fluorescence (Fm) to the
steady-state fluorescence (Fs).
When measuring the leaf stomatal conductance (gs)
were used Delta T leaf porometer AP4. Measurement of
loss of water vapor through the stomata of leaves took
place before midday (best conditions for measurement
were between 8:00–10:00 am). The leaf stomatal
conductance was determined in mm s-1, together with
the recording the current time, light intensity in μmol m-2
s-1 and the current temperature in °C.
The statistic importance of relations between
the amount of irrigation (30% and 60% of substrate
saturation) and the selected parameters – Fv/Fm, ΦPSII, Rfd
and leaf stomatal conductance (gs) were observed by
way of a statistic programme STAT GRAPHIC Centurion
XV, a analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the Fisher LSD
homogenity test on the level of importance α 0,05.
In the year 2013 we evaluated then impact of water scarcity
in the soil on the values of chlorophyll fluorescence and
leaf stomatal conductance of the woody plant Cornus
mas L. We have found that water deficit set at 30 %
saturation of the substrate had a significant effect on
the chlorophyll fluorescence parameters, as well as the
values of the leaf stomatal conductance.
The maximum quantum efficiency of PSII (Fv/Fm)
represents the maximum photochemical capacity of PSII
(Tomeková, 2010), the authors Björkman and Demming
(1987) and Váňová et al. (2006) considered it as a screening
indicator of plant responses to stress. The values fall
below 0.75 due to impact of environmental stress, the
optimum range of values is from 0.75–0.85. During
the reported period, although reporting a significant
difference between the variants, but their average values
ranged from 0.75–0.85, which represent the optimal
values of the maximum photochemical capacity of PSII
(Table 1). We evaluate the plants of the selected taxon
were able to tolerate the water regime at 30 % saturation
of the substrate. Also Šajbidorová (2013) studied the nonsensitivity of Fv/Fm at reduced water content in the soil in
Cornus stolonifera Michx. ´KELSEYI‘ and Spiraea japonica
L. ’LITTLE PRINCESS‘, as well as Flagella et al. (1998) for
Table 1
Variant
The results of analysis of variance (LSD test) of
statistically significant differences of mean
values of Fv/Fm
Count
Mean
Homogeneous
Groups
1
10
0.761
X
3
10
0.769
2
10
4
10
Triticum aestivum L. and Secale cereale L., Munné-Bosch et
al. (1999) for Rosmarinus officinalis L., Nar et al. (2009) for
Ctenanthe setosa (Roscoe) Eichl. and Brestič and Živčák
(2013) in Triticum aestivum L.
The effective quantum yield of PSII (ΦPSII) is a real
yield of active PSII reaction centers in the processing
of absorbed light energy (Schreiber, 2004). It is known
that the impact of environmental stress causes decrease
of values ΦPSII. The difference between variants with
a different irrigation regimes was significant throughout
the period. Values of ΦPSII were significantly lower for the
variant with lower levels of saturation of the substrate
(Table 2).
Gallo et al. (2007) found a decrease of ΦPSII under water
deficit in Quercus pubescens Willd., as well as PegueroPina et al. (2008) in Quercus coccifera L. Weak response of
ΦPSII to drought presents Šajbidorová (2013) on Cornus
stolonifera Michx. ´KELSEYI‘ and Spiraea japonica L. ’LITTLE
PRINCESS‘, Gallo and Feller (2007) in Fagus sylvatica L. and
Munné-Bosch et al. (1999) for Rosmarinus officinalis L.
The chlorophyll fluorescence decrease ratio (Rfd)
is considered as the vitality index of photosynthetic
apparatus (Lichtenhaler et al., 1997; Lichtenhaler,
2000). It is the ratio between the value of the maximum
fluorescence (Fm) and the value of the steady-state
fluorescence (Fs). Rfd = Fd/Fs, where Fd = Fm - Fs (Hlízová,
2008). The effect of different stress conditions increases
the steady-state fluorescence (Fs), thereby decreasing the
value of Fd, as well as the value of the Rfd (Procházka et al.,
1998). Decline in the values of Rfd watching in response
to various suboptimal conditions. Higher values reflect
Table 2
Variant
values of ΦPSII
Count
Mean
Homogeneous
Groups
3
10
0.065
X
1
10
0.066
X
2
10
0.113
X
4
10
0.126
X
1, 3 variant stress; 2, 4 control variant, the p-value <0.05
Table 3
Variant
values of Rfd
Count
Mean
Homogeneous
Groups
3
10
0.884
X
XX
1
10
0.890
X
0.794
XX
2
10
1.254
X
0.805
X
4
10
1.417
X
1, 3 variant stress, 2, 4 control variant, the p-value <0.05
1, 3 variant stress, 2, 4 control variant, the p-value <0.05
– 40 –
higher photosynthetic activity (Lichtenhaler et al., 2005)
and signal adaptive capacity of plants. By Pukacki and
Modrzyňski (1998) plants under optimal conditions
reach values of Rfd ≥2.3, when exposed to abiotic factors,
values are falling. Lichtenhaler and Rinderle (1988) state
that the values of Rfd ≥3 presents a high speed and
efficiency of photosynthesis. In our experiment, the
plants in the control treatment did not reach values of Rfd
≥2.3 as the authors say by woody plants under optimal
conditions (Pukacki and Modrzyňski, 1998; Lichtenhaler
and Rinderle, 1988), but the mean values of the variant
with lower saturation of the substrate at Cornus mas
L. were significantly lower than the mean values of the
control variation throughout the period (Table 3). We can
deduce that the photosynthetic activity of plants Cornus
mas L. was affected by lower levels of saturation of the
substrate.
Leaf stomatal conductance (gs) is a physiological
parameter, which we can assess the management of
the plant with water. A decrease in photosynthesis as
a result of mild to moderate water stress, is primarily
due to stomata closure. The lower values of stomatal
conductance show the adaptation of plants to extreme
conditions under which the plant limits the exchange
of gases (Živčák, 2006). The response of stomata is one
of the most important mechanisms for the protection
of plants against water deficit (Tardieu and Davis, 1993
in Živčák, 2006). Živčák (2006) observed the varietes of
Triticum aestivum L. that have been stressed by a lack
of water. During progressive dehydration of plants he
reported decreased water vapour permeability values of
leaves.
When assessing stomatal conductance of Cornus
mas L. we also confirmed the statistical significance
supporting differences of 95% between the variants.
Mean values of stomatal conductance were lower in the
variant with lower levels of saturation of the substrate
after 45 days of duration of water deficit (Table 4).
Table 4
values of gs
Variant
Count
Mean
Homogeneous
Groups
3
10
0.522
X
1
10
0.529
X
2
10
0.656
X
10
1.405
X
4
1, 3 variant stress; 2, 4 control variant, the p-value <0.05
Conclusion
In 2013 the pot experiment with the selected plants
Cornus mas L. was carried out to evaluate the impact
of water scarcity in the substrate on the physiological
condition of plants and subsequently determine their
level of tolerance to drought in urban areas as well as in
landscape. Based on the applied experimental methods,
we came to the following conclusions:
1.Dehydration of plants limiting irrigation to 30 % of
full water capacity does not affect the values of the
maximum quantum efficiency of PSII (Fv/Fm). It is
known that decrease of Fv/Fm is observed only at lethal
levels of water deficit.
2. Values of ΦPSII and values of Rfd were significantly lower
for the variant with lower saturation of the substrate
than the control treatment that can be concluded that
plants were affected due to water deficit in soil.
3.Measurement of the leaf stomatal conductance can
be concluded that dehydration of plants by limiting
the irrigation to 30 % of the full water capacity leads
to a reduction in the stomatal conductivity of leaves,
indicating adaptation of the plants to extreme
conditions.
Based on the one-year results, we can deduce that
the photosynthetic activity of plants Cornus mas L. was
affected by lower levels of saturation of the substrate.
To confirm these conclusions another experiments are
required.
Acknowledgement
VEGA 1/0246/13 “Strategies of the water utilization
by xerophytic woody plants and perennials in urban
conditions and landscape” from Slovak Grant Agency for
Science.
This work was co-funded by European Community
under project no 26220220180: Building Research Centre
“AgroBioTech”.
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412–421.
GALLÉ, A. – HALDIMANN, P. – FELLER, U. 2007. Photosynthetic
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http://botany.cz/cs/cornus-mas/
http://www.delta-t.co.uk/product-display.asp?id=AP4%20
Product&div=Plant%20Science
– 42 –
ADAPTATION OF SPIRAEA JAPONICA L. ´LITTLE PRINCESS´ TO WATER
DEFICIENCY IN SOIL
Viera ŠAJBIDOROVÁ*, Daniela BARTOŠOVÁ KRAJČOVIČOVÁ, Helena LICHTNEROVÁ
Water deficiency in soil is one of the most considerable limitating factors for successful plant cultivation. An intentional
selection of species of woody plants and herbs resistant to the environment with changed conditions requires experimental
verification of their adaptation mechanisms. In a selected woody plant of the species Spiraea japonica L. ´LITTLE PRINCESS´
we have observed its adaptation mechanisms which play a crucial role in case of water deficiency in soil. By way of particular
laboratory methods we have evaluated the changes in water regime and their impact on the content of assimilation
pigments, on the content of dry mass in the above-ground part of plants and also on the relative water content in the
leaves. We evaluated a decrease in the weight of dry mass in the above-ground part of plants due to reduced irrigation.
Water regime has not excerced any considerable influence on relative water content in the leaves. With reference to water
deficit, we have detected an increase in the total content of chlorophylls and carotenoids. Through experimental methods,
we have confirmed that the selected taxon of woody plant is capable of adaptation to water deficiency in soil.
Keywords: Spiraea japonica L. ´LITTLE PRINCESS´, water deficit, adaptation mechanisms
Introduction
The impacts of climate change now represent one of the
most significant environmental, social and economic
problems. The consequences of increasing temperatures,
changes in the amount and frequency of rainfall affect
different sectors of economy. Drought represents one
of the most limiting factors for a plant. Plants are able to
adapt to water deficiency in soil due to their adaptation
mechanisms. More recently, emphasis is placed mainly
on a targeted selection of the appropriate species of
trees and herbs in the environment with less favorable
conditions. The aim of our experiment is by way
laboratory methods to verify the adjustment capacity
of the selected species of Spiraea japonica L. ´LITTLE
PRINCESS´ to a lack of water in the soil. We focused on
changes in the content of chlorophylls and carotenoids,
relative water content (RWC) in the leaves and dry matter
content of the aboveground parts of plants, which are
the crucial indicators of the adaptive capacity of plants in
conditions of reduced presence of water in soil.
Material and metods
The investigated plant material of Spiraea japonica L. ´LITTLE
PRINCESS´ was acquired from a nursery (through vegetative
reproduction). The specimen are approximately five to six
years old. After the winter, the plants were replanted into
the substrate Klasmann TS3 standard + clay 20 kg m-3; pH
5.5–6 + fertilizer 1 kg m-3 and acclimatised under the foiled
cover in standard conditions. After rooting, we set a different
irrigation regime based upon the content of water in the
*Correspodence:
substrate, which had been determined by a gravimetric
method. A half of the plants were irrigated by 60% water
capacity (a control variant) and a half by 40% water capacity
(a variant with a lower level of substrate saturation; in the
pictures referred to as a stress variant). A different irrigation
regime was set through the whole vegetation period from
June to September 2012. The specimen of an investigated
cultivar were growing under a plastic cover. During the
reporting period, we made three analyses to determine the
selected parameters. The initial analysis was performed on
6 June 2012, another one after 36 days (12 July 2012) and
the last one after 69 days (14 August 2012) post the initial
analysis. Within the experiment, there were 25 samples
of reference taxon to be divided into tree analyses. Five
samples were included in the initial analysis, ten samples
(a 5 samples control variant, a 5 samples variant with lower
levels of saturation of the substrate) were used in the first
analysis performed 36 days after the initial analysis and ten
samples (a 5 samples control variant, a 5 samples variant
with lower substrate saturation) in the second analysis
performed 69 days after the initial analysis.
Determination of chlorophylls and carotenoids
was carried out using the methoad Šesták and Čatský
(1966). From the randomly selected leaves from all the
parts of the plant, we have cut off the butts, which were
subsequently homogenized in an 80 percent acetone
solution. Chlorophyll absorbance values were measured
with a spectrophotometer SPEKTROVANT VEGA 400. The
content of chlorophylls and carotenoids were calculated
according Hojčuš et al. (1975) in units of mg m-2. Relative
Viera Sajbidorová, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape
Engineering, Department of Planting Design and Maintenance, Slovakia, e-mail. Viera.Sajbidorova@
uniag.sk
Viera Šajbidorová, Daniela Bartošová Krajčovičová, Helena Lichtnerová: Adaptation of Spiraea japonica L. ´Little PRINCESS´ to water deficiency in soil, pp. 43–45
– 43 –
car xc (mg.m-2)
450,0
400,0
350,0
300,0
250,0
200,0
150,0
100,0
50,0
0,0
90,0
80,0
70,0
60,0
50,0
40,0
30,0
20,0
10,0
0,0
car xc (mg.m-2)
variant control
car xc (mg.m-2)
variant stress
0 0 0 0 0 36 36 36 36 36 69 69 69 69 69
69
69
36
69
36
0
chl a+b (mg.m-2)
variant control
chl a+b (mg.m-2)
variant stress
0
0
chl a+b (mg.m-2)
Day
Day
Figure 1
Changes in total chlorophyll content in the Spiraea
japonica L.´LITTLE PRINCESS´ at 0, 36 and 69 days of
the duration of a differentiated water regime
water content of leaves (RWC) was determined according
to the method of Mata and Lamattina (2001). The leaves
were weighed (FW), then saturated with distilled water
for three hours and after saturation were weighed (SW)
and dried in an oven at 80 °C for 48 hours. We found out
the weight of leaves in a dry state (DW). The obtained
data were fit to the formula for calculating the relative
water content. Equation for the calculation of the relative
water content RWC (%) = 100 × FW - DW/SW - DW, where
FW is the fresh weight of leaves, DW is the dry weight of
leaves and SW is the weight of leaves after saturation.
The dry matter content in the aboveground part of the
plants was determined gravimetrically. The aboveground
part of the plants after the analysis was dried in an oven
at 105 °C to constant weight. For statistical evaluation, we
used the dry weight of samples in grams.
The statistical significance of relations between
the amount of irrigation (40% and 60% of substrate
saturation) and the selected parameters – the content of
chlorophylls and carotenoids, the content of dry mass in
the aboveground part of plants and also relative water
content in the leaves was observed by way of a statistical
programme STAT GRAPHIC Centurion XV, a analysis of
variance (ANOVA) and the Fisher LSD homogenity test on
the level of importance α 0.05.
During the reported period, we found a significant
increase in chlorophyll and carotenoids content by
plants from the variant with lower substrate saturation
of 40% after 69 days of duration of differentiated water
Table 1
Figure 2
Changes in carotenoids content in the Spiraea
japonica L.´LITTLE PRINCESS´ at 0, 36 and 69 days
of the duration of a differentiated water regime
regime (Fig. 1, 2). Although as stated by Ashraf (2003)
and Lei et al. (2006), water stress results mostly in the
decrease in chlorophyll content, as determined by the
results of Pukacki and Kamiňska-Rožek (2005) in Picea
abies (L.) Karst., Lei et al. (2006) in Populus przewalskii
Maximowicz and Gallé and Feller (2007) in Fagus sylvatica
L. Authors Raček et al. (2009), Bakay (2010), PegueroPina et al. (2008) and Gallé et al. (2007) found also the
high level of assimilation pigments in the selected tree
species under water deficit. The changes in chlorophyll
content are considered a sign of adaptability of plants to
extreme conditions (Maslova et al. 1993), which has been
confirmed by the findings.
Relative water content in leaves (RWC) was not
a significant indicator of a lack of water in soil of Spiraea
japonica L. ´LITTLE PRINCESS´. The average values of RWC
of plants of variant with lower levels of saturation of
the substrate after 69 days of the duration of the water
deficit reached 92.44 % (Coefficient of variation 1.99 %
minimum = 90.40 %, maximum = 94.90%). The control
variant was recorded at RWC level of 92.10% (Coefficient
of variation 0.98 %, minimum = 90.81%, maximum =
93.12 %). Our findings confirm that the decrease of RWC,
but also the decrease in chlorophyll content is lower,
respectively absent in a species resistant to a lack of water
in the soil substrate (Keyvan, 2010).
We examined the impact of reduced water content in
soil on dry matter content in the aboveground part of the
plants. Water is one of the limiting factors of the formation
of dry mass in plants. Reduction in dry matter accumulation
is due to a significant slowdown in the process of growth
Summary statistics for the dry matter content of aboveground parts of plants in the Spiraea japonica L. ´LITTLE
PRINCESS´; the results of analysis of variance – LSD test at 95% strength level of significance
Variant Count Average P-value Standard Coeff. of Min
deviation variation
The dry matter content of
aboveground parts in g after 36 days
C
5
7.32
S
5
3.46
The dry matter content of
aboveground parts in g after 69 days
C
5
10.59
S
5
7.546
0.0015*
0.0632
Max
Range
9.63
3.15
1.31
17.95%
6.48
1.29
37.20%
1.39
4.86
3.47
1.39
13.08%
8.63
12.11
3.48
2.84
37.60%
4.10
11.36
7.26
* statistically significant difference, C – control variant, S – stress variant
– 44 –
and photosynthesis during water stress (Kostrej et al., 2000).
After 36 days of the duration of differentiated irrigation
regime we observed a significant reduction in dry matter
content in the aboveground part of plants of the variant
with lower levels of saturation of the substrate (Tab. 1).
After 69 days of the duration of a differentiated irrigation
regime we reported a reduction in the dry matter content,
which was statistically insignificant. The impact of drought
on the amount of dry matter content accumulated in the
aboveground part and also at the level of the roots was
studied by Tsialtas (2001), Willekens (1995), Steinberg et al.
(1990) on several species of woody plants.
Conclusion
In 2012 we investigated on Spiraea japonica L. ´LITTLE
PRINCESS´ the effect of reduced water presence in soil
at 40% of substrate saturation on content of assimilation
pigments, of dry matter content in the aboveground
parts of plants and also the relative water content in
leaves. In case of a variant with lower levels of saturation
of the substrate, we have seen an increase in the total
content of chlorophylls and carotenoids for the duration
of a differentiated water regime. The dry matter content
in the aboveground parts of plants declined in course
of the period. There was no significant impact of water
deficit set at 40% of substrate saturation to reduce the
relative water content in the leaves (RWC). We assume
that notably the increase in chlorophylle and caroteinoid
content while currently reducing the weight of dry mass
and maintaing relatively higher water content in the
leaves can be considered as adaptive manifestation of
the plants in conditions of available water deficit in soil.
Acknowledgment
The research was supported by reseach grant projects
VEGA 1/0426/09 “Plant adaptability and vitality as criteria
of their utilization in urban environment“ and VEGA
1/0246/13 “Strategies of the water utilization by xerophytic
woody plants and perennials in urban conditions and
landscape“ from Slovak Grant Agency for Science.
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and during recovery. In Physiologia Plantarum, vol. 131, 2007,
pp. 412–421.
GALLÉ, A. – HALDIMANN, P. – FELLER, U. 2007. Photosynthetic
performance and water realtions in young pubescent oak
(Quercus pubescens) trees during drought stress and recovery.
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– 45 –
ADAPTABILITY OF PYRUS PYRASTER AND SORBUS DOMESTICA TO DROUGHT
AS PREREQUISITE OF THEIR UTILIZATION IN URBAN ENVIRONMENT
Viera PAGANOVÁ*, Zuzana JUREKOVÁ, Helena LICHTNEROVÁ
The aim of study was identification and assessment of the adaptive responses of roots and shoots of two tree species Pyrus
pyraster and Sorbus domestica to water scarcity in the juvenile stage of their growth. One-year old seedlings were placed in
the plant boxes filled with fertilized peat substrate and maintained (for 170 days) in a differentiated water regime with two
variants of the substrate saturation at 40% and 60% of the full water capacity. For each taxon were analysed 10 plants in
both variants of the water regime. Following characteristics were examined: dry weight of above-ground organs (leaves +
shoots) DWS, dry weight of roots DWR, dry weight of whole plant DWP, total water content of above-ground organs TWCS, the
total water content in the root system TWCR, specific leaf area SLA (the ratio of leaf area to dry mass) and shoot to root ratio
(S : R). According to the obtained results adaptability of the studied tree species to water scarcity is different. Pyrus pyraster
in both variants of water regime maintained balanced values for all parameters of dry matter, distributed them evenly to
aboveground organs and roots. Under drought created smaller and thicker leaves and significantly invested more resources
to root growth (S : R = 0.42). Sorbus domestica has fast growth – created almost three times higher amount of dry matter
compared with pear, but lower potential for adaptability to water scarcity. In reaction to water scarcity significantly reduced
the total dry matter and dry matter of roots (S : R = 0.71). In drought created thinner leaves.
Keywords: adaptability, drought, dry mass, urban conditions, water regime
Introduction
Just little research is devoted to relationship between
tree roots and aboveground organs, especially in the
urban environment (Johnson and Thornley, 1987;
Coder, 1998; Tworkoski and Scorza, 2001; Day et al.,
2010). Nevertheless, the characteristics of the roots and
aboveground organs can be important criteria within
selection of the species, or clones intended for urban
environment as well as for management of their nutrition,
irrigation, and planting density.
Beside this, relationships between plant organs
indicate and describe plant adaptations to stand
conditions, especially humidity conditions in the soil (Lyr
and Hoffman, 1967).
According the obtained knowledge in this field, the
root growth probably reflects the need to increase the
absorptive surface of the plant, which is particularly
active during absence of water (Kuhns et al., 1985). But
the ratio of roots and aboveground organs changes also
during the year, depending on seasonal changes which
respond to climate in the place of origin of particular
species.
In terms of function, the size and function of aboveground organs is comparable with the size and function
of the root system. According to Richards and Rowe
(1977) there is a functional balance between them. The
*Correspodence:
role of shoots is utilize and convert carbon in the process
of photosynthesis and on the plant structural substances
and a part of them transport to the root. The role of the
root is to utilize these substances for their own growth,
as well as to capture water and minerals from the soil and
transport them to the shoots
Giovannini et al. (1994), and Tworkoski Scorza (2001)
studied distribution of dry matter within differentiated
organs of the peaches. There was confirmed that dry
matter distribution is correlated with root morphology.
The basic model of these relationships is changed under
unfavourable environmental factors (soil compaction,
changes of the physical and chemical properties of soil,
soil contamination, and impact of organic pollutants,
pesticides, urea and drought).
The paper is devoted to identification and assessment
of the adaptive responses of roots and shoots of two
woody plants (Pyrus pyraster and Sorbus domestica) to
water deficit in the juvenile stage of their growth.
Pyrus pyraster and Sorbus domestica are considered to be
a light-demanding tree species. They naturally appear
also on xerophytic habitats with negative water balance
during the growing season. Therefore we suppose tha
both taxa have adaptability to drought and resistance
Viera Paganová, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape
Engineering, Department of Planting Design and Maintenance, Slovakia, e-mail. Viera.Paganova@
uniag.sk
Viera Paganová, Zuzana Jureková, Helena Lichtnerová: Adaptability of Pyrus pyraster and Sorbus domestica to drought as prerequisite of their ..., pp. 46–50
– 46 –
to the limited amount of available
Figure 1
Average values of dry weight per plant (DWP) and dry weight of roots
(DWR) in particular variants of water regime
water in the substrate. These qualities
are crucial for plant establishment
and successful growth in extreme
conditions of urbanized area.
In the juvenile stage of growth
the response to water scarcity of both
taxa was verified under experimental
conditions. Plant material comes
from the original stands in Slovakia
(Table 1), which represent typical
habitats of the analysed taxa (Pyrus
pyraster and Sorbus domestica).
Seeds are extracted from the fruits
immediately after harvest. After
cleaning seeds were stored for short
time and treated by cold stratification
at temperatures of -5 °C to +5 °C.
Then germinated in plastic seed
trays filled with sowing substrate
based on peat.
In the phenological growth stage
“expanded cotyledons“ Šenšel and
Paganová (2010) seedlings were
placed in the plant boxes filled
with fertilized peat substrate (white
sphagnum, pH 5.5–6.5, fertilizer 1.0
kg m-3). The construction of metal
Table 1
root boxes with special pull-out
front wall enabled careful extraction
of the whole plants for analysis and
detailed study of the root system and
its structures (Fig. 1).
The plant boxes were placed
under a polyethylene cover with
60% shading and maintained in a
differentiated water regime with two
variants of the substrate saturation
at 40% and 60% of the full water
capacity. Variant“Stress“ was supplied
with water at 40% of full substrate
saturation and variant “Control“ at
60% of full substrate saturation.
The model of differentiated water
regime was maintained for 170 days
(from April to the end of September
2013). At the end of the experimental
period, all plants were removed from
the root boxes. In both variants of
the water regime for each taxon
were analysed 10 plants. Several
characteristics were examined: dry
weight of above-ground organs
(leaves + shoots) DWS, dry weight
of roots DWR, dry weight of whole
plant DWP. There were also measured
total water content of above-ground
organs TWCS, the total water content
in the root system TWCR, specific
leaf area SLA (the ratio of leaf area to
dry mass) and leaf dry weight ratio
of aboveground and underground
organs (S : R).
A statistical assessment of
the data was conducted using
software Statgraphics Centurion XV
(StatPoint Technologies, USA, XV
(license number: 7805000000722).
The impact of drought, as well as
significance of the interspecific
differences of the studied parameters
was evaluated by analysis o variance
ANOVA.
The aim of study was quantification
of the dry matter created by young
plants during the growing season, as
well as studies of their ability retain
water in shoots and root system.
Reliability of the found differences
between taxa (Pyrus pyraster /
Sorbus domestica) and variants with
different levels of the substrate
saturation (Control / Stress) were
evaluated by multifactor analysis of
variance. There was assessed impact
of drought on growth and dry
matter content in aboveground and
underground organs of analysed
woody plants. Quantitative data
for all studies parameters have
a normal distribution (Shapiro
Wilk‘s test at significance level α =
0.001) and meet the assumption
of homogeneity (Leven’s test at
significance level α = 0.05).
Based on the results of analysis
of variance it was possible to reject
the hypothesis of equality of mean
values for the parameters of dry
matter content in plant organs
Climate-geographic description of the original stands of analysed woody plants /3/
Pyrus pyraster L. Burgsd.
Sorbus domestica L.
Location
Altitude
in m
Exposure
TI. in ºC
TVII in ºC
Precipitation
in mm
Type
Subtype
Slatinka
350
SE
-2
18
700
W
W7
Kosihovce
250
S-SE
-2
19
600
W
W4
TI. – average temperature in January, TVII. – average temperature in July, Precipitation – annual sum of precipitation, W – warm
climate
– 47 –
(Table 2). Significant differences between wild pear
(Pyrus pyraster) and service tree (Sorbus domestica) were
identified for dry weight of whole plant ANOVA (F (1.35)
= 9.77, p = 0.0036), dry weight of roots ANOVA (F (1.37)
= 7.38, p = 0.0009), dry weight of above-ground organs
(F (1.35) = 16.50, p = 0.0003), as well as for the parameter
distribution of dry matter into shoots and roots S : R (F
(1.35 ) = 7.41, p = 0.0100). The hypothesis of equality of
mean values was rejected for the majority of evaluated
parameters in different variants of water regime (Control
/ Stress). The null hypothesis was accepted only for
parameter S : R (Table 2).
The results of quantitative analysis of the accumulation
of dry matter are documented by multiple range test.
There was applied the Bonferroni test (Table 3), because
of unequal number of observations (18, 20).
The seedlings of Sorbus domestica compared to Pyrus
pyraster created nearly double amount of dry matter
per plant (3.48 g), and have higher weight of dry matter
in roots (2.28 g) compared to the dry matter of aboveground organs (1.20 g). The production of dry matter
has been significantly influenced by the regulated water
regime. In the variant “stress“ plants created just half
of the dry weight per plant (1.75 g) compared with the
control (3.61 g).
Interesting is detailed analysis of dry matter in both
species at different levels of the substrate saturation
(Fig. 1). The reduction of watering in the juvenile stage
of growth has not been negatively expressed with
parameters of dry matter of Pyrus pyraster, as in the
variant “Stress“ pear has created 1.91 g of total dry
matter per plant and in the “Control“ just 1.85 g. Under
the influence of drought pear invested more to growth
Table 2
of the root system, that is documented by higher mean
value of the dry weight of roots DWR = 1:35 g versus
control (1.19 g). Sorbus domestica in “Control“ created
significantly (three times) higher amount of dry matter
per plant (DWP = 5.61g) compared to Pyrus pyraster
(DWP = 1.85g). However, Sorbus domestica responded to
drought by significant reduction of the total dry matter
(DWP = 1.85g) and dry matter of root system.
In the juvenile stage of growth significant differences
were found between analysed species. Service tree
produced more dry matter than pear in the control
variant, but the lack of water significantly reduced
production of dry matter in aboveground organs and
roots of this taxon. Wild pear in both variants of water
regime maintained balanced content of all parameters
of dry matter. Distribution of dry matter to aboveground
and underground organs within regulated water
regime was evaluated by one-way analysis of variance
separately for each taxon. Pear in the variant “Stress“
significantly (p = 0.0078) more invested to growth
of root system (S : R = 0.42). The distribution of dry
matter to aboveground organs and roots of service
tree was significantly (p = 0.0157) more balanced, in
the variant “Stress“ (S : R = 0.71) compared to “Control“
(S : R = 0.51). The ability of plants to survive drought
also depends on their ability maintain water in above
variants with different level of water regime the null
hypothesis of equality of mean values of water content
in aboveground and underground organs was rejected.
In variant “Stress“ seedlings had significantly higher
water content in the root system (TWCR = 54.71%) and
in the aboveground organs (TWCS = 55.06%) compared
to the “Control“.
Multifactor analysis of variance for parameters of dry matter production and distribution for one-year old
seedlings of Pyrus pyraster and Sorbus domestica in the differentiated water regime at 40% and 60% of substrate
saturation
Parameter
DWP
Source of variation
Taxon
Substrate saturation
DWR
DWS
S:R
F-value
p-value
F-value
p-value
F-value
p-value
F-value
p-value
9.77
0.0036**
7.38
0.0102*
16.50
0.0003**
7.41
0.0100*
13.22
0.0009 **
11.63
0.0016**
16.11
0.0003**
0.36
0.5499 n.s.
DWP – dry weight of whole plant, DWR – dry weight of roots, DWS – dry weight of above ground organs, S : R – shoot to root ratio
Table 3
Average values of the analysed parameters and 95% Bonferroni test for studied taxa (Pyrus pyraster/Sorbus
domestica) and for two variants of the substrate saturation (Control/Stress).
DWP in g
DWR in g
DWS in g
TWCS in %
Pyrus pyraster L. Burgsd.
1.88 A
1.27 A
0.61 A
53.59 A
52.34 A
20.53 A
0,48 A
Sorbus domestica L.
3.48 B
2.28 B
1.20 B
54.55 A
53.92 A
22.44 B
0,62 B
Control
3.61 B
2.41 B
1.20 B
53.08 A
51.54 A
21.52 A
0,53 A
Stress
1.75 A
1.14 A
0.61 A
55.06 B
54.71 B
21.45 A
0,57 A
Parameter
TWCR in % SLA in m2 kg-1
Source of variation
S:R
Values with the same letter are not significantly different
– 48 –
Table 4
Multifactor analysis of variance for parameters of water content and specific leaf area of the one-year old
seedlings of Pyrus pyraster and Sorbus domestica in the differentiated water regime at 40% and 60% of water
saturation of substrate
Parameter
TWCR
Source of variation
Taxon
Substrate saturation
TWCS
SLA
F-value
p-value
F-value
p-value
F-value
p-value
1.11
0.2986 n.s.
1.87
0.1807 n.s.
5.00
0.0318*
4.45
0.0421*
7.90
0.0080*
0.01
0.9397 n.s.
TWCR – total water content in roots, TWCS – total water content of shoots, SLA – specific root area
Differences in the water content
of the organs of analysed tree
species at different levels of water
regime were tested by one-way
analysis of variance. The null
hypothesis was accepted for wild
pear, because different saturation
levels of the substrate did not affect
significantly the water content
of above-ground organs (TWCS),
neither in the root system (TWCR)
(Fig. 2). The mean values in both
variants “Control“ and “Stress“ are
very similar for this taxon and the
differences in the obtained data
are not statistically significant. In
the variant “Stress“ service tree had
significantly higher water content
in the roots (TWCR = 58%) and in
above-ground organs (TWCS = 54%)
compared to the “Control“. Results of
analysis of variance for this woody
plant allow reject the hypothesis
of equality of mean values of the
water content in plant organs under
60
the influence of different saturation
levels.
The water scarcity has been
manifested in decrease production of
dry matter of service tree. However,
in the variant “Stress“ service tree
maintained significantly higher
water content in the aboveground
and underground organs compared
with pear.
The interspecific differences were
found even for parameter specific
leaf area (SLA), whose values are
generally reduced under water
scarcity. Analysed tree species have
different values of the mentioned
parameter. The average value of
specific leaf area (SLA) for pear was
20.53 m2 kg-1 and for service tree
SLA = 22.44 m2 kg-1. Pear has smaller
leaf area and thicker leaves compared
with service tree. Results of the
multifactor analysis of variance did
not confirm the significant impact of
the water supply on values of SLA.
58
58
56
56
54
%
53
52
53
52
54
53
50
50
48
46
TWCR
Pyrus ‐ Control
Figure 2
Pyrus ‐ Stress
TWCS
Sorbus ‐ Control
Sorbus ‐ Stress
Average values of total water content in roots (TWCR) and total water
content in shoots (TWCS) for Pyrus pyraster and Sorbus domestica in
particular variants of water regime
A detailed analysis of the
drought impact on the values of SLA
documented for wild pear decline
of the mean value (19.21 m2 kg-1)
compared to control (21.85 m2 kg-1).
Because production of dry matter
and its accumulation in the aboveground organs were not negatively
influenced by water scarcity, under
drought pear created smaller but
thicker leaves. In variant “Stress“ the
mean value of SLA of service tree was
significantly higher (23.69 m2 kg-1)
than in “Control“ (20.87 m2 kg-1). In
drought service tree created larger
and thinner leaves.
Conclusions
The results of experimental research
confirmed that adaptability of
the studied tree species to water
scarcity is different. It is expressed
by differences in the production
and distribution of dry matter
to the plant organs, what in the
juvenile stage of growth changes
their growth, shoot to root ratio and
shoot architecture.
In the juvenile stage of growth
Pyrus pyraster has potential for
adaptation to water scarcity, what is
reflected in the following parameters:
a)In both variants of water regime
maintained balanced values for all
parameters of dry matter. Created
volume of dry matter distributed
evenly to aboveground organs
and roots.
b)In conditions of water scarcity
significantly invests more resources
to root growth (S : R = 00 : 42).
c)Had significantly lower values of
the specific leaf area than service
tree, under drought created
thicker leaves.
– 49 –
In the juvenile stage Sorbus domestica has fast growth
but low potential for adaptability to water scarcity, which
resulted in the following parameters:
a) in conditions of the sufficient water-supply created
almost three times higher amount of dry matter
compared with pear. The dry matter preferentially
distributed to roots to the detriment of aboveground organs (S : R = 0.51).
b) In reaction to water scarcity significantly reduced the
total dry matter and dry matter of roots. (S : R = 0.71).
c) Service tree had significantly higher values of specific
leaf area (SLA) than pear, under drought created
thinner leaves.
Both tree species are adaptive to water scarcity and
can be used for plantings in urban conditions even as
street trees. Sorbus domestica is rather “fast-growing”
specimen, that can significantly reduce production of
dry mass in drought. Pyrus pyraster did not display any
significant changes of dry matter production.
Acknowledgement
The research is supported by grant project VEGA
1/0246/13 entitled “Water-use strategies of the
xerophytic woody plants and perennials in urban
conditions” and was co-funded by European Community
under project no 26220220180: Building Research
Centre “AgroBioTech“.
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and potential for application in research and practice. In: Acta
horticulturae et regiotecturae, vol. 13, 2010, spec. issue, p. 21–
23. ISSN 1335-2563.
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characteristics of Peach Trees with different Growth Habits. In:
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– 50 –
STOMATAL RESPONSE TO WATER STRESS IN HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS
Dagmar HILLOVÁ*, Magdaléna TAKÁCSOVÁ, Helena LICHTNEROVÁ
The stomatal conductance, total leaf area, specific leaf area (SLA), relative water content (RWC), leaf dry matter content,
total chlorophyll (Chl), total carotenoid content were measured during drought treatment on Brunnera macrophylla and
Stachys macrantha. Drought treated plants showed great tolerance to levels of drought, avoiding desiccation by decreasing
stomatal conductance (B. macrophylla by 66.4%, and S. macrantha by 76,4%). SLA of Brunnera macrophylla significantly
decreased by 14.7%, the leaf area significantly decreased by 54.4% (Brunnera macrophylla) and by 72.3 (Stachys macrantha).
Drought stress decreased total chlorophyll content by 18.2% (Brunnera macrophylla) and by 20.6% (Stachys macrantha). The
carotene content was found to increase with drought treatment of Brunnera macrophylla (by 22.1%. The better adaptive
mechanisms on drought stress show B. macrophylla. S. macrantha is less drought resistant plant.
Keywords: herbaceous perennials, stomatal conductance, water stress, drought, SLA, chlorophyll, carotenoid, RWC
Introduction
Herbaceous perennials planting have been popularly
used in urban places, particularly in low water use
landscaping because of their dynamic nature, low
maintenance – cost saving and aesthetic appeal.
To develop and maintain sustainable low water use
landscape, we need to understand drought tolerance
and drought responses of many ornamental plants,
especially herbaceous perennials. During drought stress
plants typically minimize water loss. Some methods
of water conservation include decreases in stomatal
conductance, differential growth of roots, shoots, and
leaves, and changes in carbohydrate partitioning.
Reduced stomatal conductance may lead to reduced
photosynthesis (Prevete, Fernandez and Miller, 2000).
Characterizing herbaceous perennials water deficit
stress response mechanisms can inform selection
of drought-tolerant herbaceous perennial species
appropriate for urban landscape. Herbaceous perennials
that avoid drought trough wilting, dormancy or dieback
are less acceptable than species that tolerate drought by
maintaining intact foliage (Zollinger et al., 2006). Some
drought tolerance responses are better suited to urban
landscapes. Deep-rooted, drought-avoiding species that
become stressed and lose visual quality in shallow urban
soils would be less suitable than species that withstand
drought through stomatal closure and dehydration
tolerance (Kjelgren, Wang and Joyce, 2009).
Stomatal response to water stress was assessed for
example for few ornamental herbaceous perennials:
Echinacea purpurea, Gaillardia aristata, Lavandula
*Correspodence:
angustifolia, Leucanthemum × superbum ‘Alaska’, Penstemon
barbatus var. praecox nanus rondo, and Penstemon × mexicali
‘Red Rocks’ (Zollinger et al., 2006), Echinacea purpurea,
Rudbeckia fulgida var. Sullivantii., Monarda didyma and
Helianthus angustifolius (Chapman and Auge, 1994), Boltonia
asteroides `Snowbank‘, Eupatorium rugosum and Rudbeckia
triloba (Prevete, Fernandez and Miller, 2000).
We sought to investigate drought responses of Stachys
macrantha (C. Koch) Jalas and Brunnera macrophylla
(Adams) IM Johnston., which are popular species of
ornamental perennials grown commercially in nurseries.
Experimental design
The study was conducted at the Experimental Station of
Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Faculty in Nitra,
over a 2-year period (2011–2012). The two experiments were
arranged as a split plot complete block design, with species
and variant of experiment subplot. Each main plot consisted
1.5 l containers arranged in 3 rows with 15 replications.
The first experiment (two rows) was based on
retaining stable drought level of soil water content: 30%
and 60% soil water content. We retained stable drought
level by adequate watering 3 times per week, without
rainfall affect, because experiment was located in
sheltered conditions (Clingfilm tunnel). The weight of the
substrate determination at different soil water content at
the beginning of the experiment was the key to watering
amount. Each pot was regularly weight out before
watering and adequate water content was replenished
to the required level (30% and 60% soil water content).
Dagmar Hillová, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape
Engineering, Department of Planting Design and Maintenance, ul. Tulipánová 7, 949 01 Nitra, Slovakia,
phone: 00421-37-641 54 34, e-mail. [email protected]
Dagmar Hillová, Magdaléna Takácsová, Helena Lichtnerová: Stomatal response to water stress in herbaceous perennials, pp. 51–55
– 51 –
The second experiment (third row) was unirrigated,
moisture in the soil drying up progressively from
saturated soil condition to 30% soil water content.
Plant material
Stachys macrantha (C. Koch) Jalas and Brunnera
macrophylla (Adams) IM Johnston. were planted in 1.5 l
pots. Individual pots were filled with trade peat-clay
medium Klassman TS-3. The weight of each planted
pots and dry soil was determined for possibilities of
calculation desired soil moisture content of trial pots. All
plants were allowed to establish being kept well watered
by saturating the growing media during the first month.
Drought treatments
Treatments of 30% and 60% soil water content
(gravimetric measured as grams of water per gram of
oven-dried soil) in trial pots were applied for two weeks
in June 2011 and 2012. Necessary irrigation water was
supplied to each trial pots according to foreordination,
different in individual pots.
Data collection
Stomatal conductance, as an index of plant stress and
indicator of photosynthetic activity, was measured with
an AP4 Leaf Porometer. Measurements were taken on two
fully expanded leaves of one plant with 10 replications
per treatment between 7.00 and 15.00 hours.
Plants were harvested in mid-September. Leaves
and stems were separated. All leaves per plant were
detached to determine their relative water content
(RWC). After cuttings, the petiole was immediately
immersed in distilled water inside of a glass tube, which
was immediately sealed. The tubes were then taken to
the laboratory where the increased weight of the tubes
was used to determine leaf fresh weight (FW). After 4
h, the leaves were weighed to obtain the turgid weight
(TW). The dry weight (DW) was then measured after oven
drying at 80 ºC for 48 h, and RWC was calculated as:
RWC = 100(FW - DW)/TW - DW
Table 1
Leaf area was measured for green leaf tissue using the
scanner, and then calculated by free software ImageJ.
Specific leaf area (SLA) was calculated as the plant leaf
area divided by the dry mass of leaves. Photosynthetic
pigments like Leaf chlorophylls and carotenoids were
extracted destructive method from fresh leaves with
85% acetone and estimated spectrophotometrically as
describe by Šesták and Čadský (1966).
Statistical analysis
Statistical analyses of experimental data were performed
using Statgraphics Plus 4.0® (Statistical Grafics Corp.,
Herndon, Va. U.S.A.). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was
performed to estimate statistically significant differences
between their averaged values at a confidence level
of 95% (P-value <0.05). A multiple range test of least
significant difference test (LSD tests) was used to analyze
the existence of homogenous samples.
The present study was aimed at better understanding the
physiological and morphological response of this species
to drought stress, so that to their recommendation to low
water use landscaping. Brunnera macrophylla showed
great tolerance to levels of drought, avoiding desiccation
by decreasing stomatal conductance as water became
limiting (Zollinger et al., 2006). Compared to control
plants of (60% soil water content) stomatal conductance
was reduced by 67.7% and 65.1% (table 1) during two
observation years. We got the same results with Stachys
macrantha, when stomatal conductance was reduced by
48% and 76.4% (only one year significantly) (table 1).
Stomatal conductance linearly decreased during the
drying cycle in Brunnera macrophylla (table 2, Figure
1) and Stachys macrantha (table 3, Figure 2). Stomatal
conductance of Brunnera macrophylla fell most rapidly.
Traditionally, leaf water potential has been considered to
be the primary parameter controlling stomatal behavior
during drought, but others have indicated that stomatal
closure was better correlated with leaf turgor potential,
Stomatal conductance (gs) in mm s-1 across species and drought treatments
Species
Observation year
2011
B. macrophylla
2012
2011
S. macrantha
2012
Drought treatment
(% soil water content)
Stomatal conductance
in mm s-1
30
1.48 a
60
4.58 b
30
1.42 a
60
4.06 b
30
2.62 a
60
5.0 a
30
1.37 a
60
5.8 b
Values are ± standard error. Different letter indicate significant differences in stomatal conductance (P ≤0.05) between drought
treatments for each species
– 52 –
Stomatal conductance of Brunnera macrophylla with progressive soil drying
mm.s-1
20
y = 0,1296x - 4,3011
R2 = 0,3477
15
10
5
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
% soil water content
Figure 1
Simple correlation among % soil water content and stomatal conductance of Brunnera macrophylla
mm.s-1
Stomatal conductance of Stachys macrantha with progressive soil drying
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
y = 0,0636x - 1,2117
R2 = 0,1736
0
Figure 2
10
20
30
40
50
80
90
environmental conditions (Maroco, Pereira and Chaves,
2000). It could by hypothesized that all investigated
species with low SLA have more photosynthetic
machinery per unit leaf area and hence potential for
greater assimilation under drought stress because thicker
leaves usually have a greater photosynthetic capacity
compared with thinner leaves (Painawadee et al., 2009).
Investigated plants show poorly, mainly non significant
decreased SLA (Brunnera macrophylla by 5% and 14.7%*,
and Stachys macrantha by 2.2%, and non significant
increased by 0.3% in 2012). The consistency of SLA makes
this parameter useful for use as a selection criterion in
drought resistance plants for low water use landscaping.
The leaf area was most affected at the drought stress
for all species. Differences between the control (60%
Simple correlation among % soil water content and stomatal conductance of Brunnera macrophylla
Brunnera macrophylla
Stomatal conductance in mm s-1
1
Stomatal conductance in mm s
-1
Table 3
70
Simple correlation among % soil water content and stomatal conductance of Stachys macrantha
recent investigations suggest that stomatal closure is
directly linked to soil drying (Chapman and Auge, 1994).
All species were poorly morphological response to
the drought stress. We observed significant differences
between drought treatment (table 4) on Brunnera
macrophylla and Stachys macrantha only in leaf
morphology (leaf area and leaf dry matter content).
Specific leaf area (SLA), an indicator of leaf thickness,
has often been observed to be reduced under drought
conditions (Marcelis, Heuvelink and Goudriaan, 1998).
Low SLA is preferable as it indicates higher drought
resistance (Painawadee et al., 2009). A decrease in SLA
may also occur in response to drought in herbaceous
leaves as a result on an increased investment in structural
tissues, allowing increased resistance to unfavorable
Table 1
60
0.589635275
1
Simple correlation among % soil water content and stomatal conductance of Stachys macrantha
Stachys macrantha
Stomatal conductance in mm s-1
1
Stomatal conductance in mm s
-1
0,416649038
1
– 53 –
soil water content) and drought stressed plants were
significantly detected for Brunnera macrophylla and
Stachys macrantha. Drought stress decreased leaf area by
55.8 %* and 52.9%* (Brunnera macrophylla) and by 67.2%*
and 77.4%* (Stachys macrantha) compared to the control
(table 2). Reduce leaf area is part of adaptive mechanism
on drought stress (Liu and Stutzel, 2004). Stomatal
acclimation would by more ornamentally desirable, than
the plants acclimate by reducing total transpiration via
drastically eliminating leaf area (Zollinger et al., 2006),
especially for ornamental plantings. Our conclusion
based on this consideration is that Brunnera maccrophylla
can withstand better moderate water losses without
aesthetic deprivation than Stachys macrantha.
Table 4
Drought stress increase leaf dry matter and sugar
content (Schut And Ketelaars, 2003). All drought treated
plants in our study had higher dry weights of leaves
than controls, in case Stachys macrantha and Brunnera
macrophylla significantly. Leaf dry matter content
significantly increased by 18.5% and 16.7% (Brunnera
macrophylla) and by 12% (Stachys macrantha).
Relative water content (RWC) compares the water
content of a leaf with the maximum water content at
full turgor. RWC, as a stress indices allow consideration
the quantity of water in the plants (Ceccato et al., 2001),
reflected the metabolic activity in tissues and used as
a most meaningful index for dehydration tolerance
(Anjum et al., 2011). RWC of leaves is higher in the
Leaf areas, Specific leaf area, Relative Water content (RWC), Leaf dry matter content across species and drought
treatments
Observation
year
Species
Drought treatment
Leaf area
in cm2 plant-1
SLA
in cm2 g-1
RWC
in %
Leaf dry matter
content in g
input
377 ±156 b
336 ±38 b
87 ± 4 b
17 ± 2 a
30
186 ± 84 a
228 ±19 a
70 ± 9 a
27 ± 6 c
60
421 ± 123 b
240 ± 45a
72 ± 11 a
22 ± 4 b
input
555 ± 158 b
303 ± 38 c
85 ± 3 b
19 ± 1,2 a
30
378 ± 66 a
221 ± 22 a
81 ± 3 a
24 ± 0,9 c
60
803 ± 45 c
259 ± 14 b
79 ± 3 a
20 ± 0,6 b
input
352 ± 144 b
291 ± 20 a
80 ± 5 a
21 ± 1 a
30
94 ± 36 a
268 ± 37 a
78 ± 10 a
24 ± 4 b
60
287 ± 73 b
274 ± 22 a
77 ± 4 a
22 ± 1 ab
input
389 ± 112 b
291 ± 38 b
84 ± 3 a
19 ± 2 a
30
129 ± 46 a
241 ± 26 a
74 ± 7 a
25 ± 2 c
60
572 ± 138 c
233 ± 22 a
73 ± 23 a
22 ± 1 b
2011
B. macrophylla
2012
2011
S. macrantha
2012
Values are ± standard error. Different letter indicate significant differences in leaf area, specific leaf area (SLA), relative water content
(RWC), Leaf dry matter content, (P ≤0.05) between drought treatments for each species
Table 5
Total chlorophyll and total carotenoid across species and drought treatments
Species
Observation year
2011
B. macrophylla
2012
2011
S. macrantha
2012
Drought treatment
Total Chl
in mg m-2 leaf area
Total carotenoid
in mg m-2 leaf area
input
431 ± 41 c
95 ± 9 c
30
260 ± 35 a
77 ± 15 b
60
318 ± 67 b
60 ± 8 a
input
508 ± 40 b
111 ± 8 b
30
408 ± 49 a
99 ± 9 a
60
452 ± 70 a
102 ± 15 ab
input
336 ± 64 a
81 ± 15 a
30
288 ± 71 a
70 ± 14 a
60
327 ± 38 a
72 ± 8 a
input
413 ± 33 b
91 ± 6 c
30
285 ± 59 a
65 ± 12 a
60
359 ± 85 b
81 ± 12 b
Values are ± standard error. Different letter indicate significant differences in totalchlorophyll and total carotenoid content (P ≤0.05)
between drought treatments for each species
– 54 –
initial stages of leaf development and declines as the
dry matter accumulates and leaf matures. RWC related
to water uptake by the roots as well as water loss by
transpiration (Anjum et al., 2011). Drying soil led to
continuous decrease in RWC of leaf, but decreasing rate
varied with different species. There was no significant
difference in leaf RWC for Brunnera macrophylla and
Stachys macrantha. The drought-tolerant plants, with
higher RWC displayed superior water maintenance and
hydraulic conductance abilities to drought-sensitive
one (Gong et al., 2010). The result show, that Brunnera
macrophylla and Stachys macrantha can withstand
moderate water losses, because RWC remained the same
in drought treatment.
The finally study aim was investigation of physiological
response on drought treatment by evaluation the levels
of chlorophylls and carotenoids (Table 5). Chlorophyll
and carotenoid absorb radiant energy, which is used
for photosynthesis. In many observed cases chlorophyll
content declines under stress conditions (Nazarli, Faraji
and Zardashti, 2011).
Chlorophyll loss is a negative consequence of stress,
on the other hand, it has also been considered as an
adaptive feature in plants grown under extreme climatic
conditions. Chlorophyll loss may also contribute to
the survival of severely stressed plants by reducing the
amount of photons absorbed by leaves, which leads to
an enhanced photoprotective and antioxidant capacity
of leaves per amount photons absorbed (Munné-Bosch
and Alegre, 2000). The significant differences in leaf
chlorophyll (Chl) contents were detected between
drought stressed and control plants (Table 5). Drought
stress decreased total chlorophyll content by 18.2%* and
9.7% (Brunnera macrophylla) and by 11.9% and 20.6%*
(Stachys macrantha).
Carotenoids show multifarious roles in drought
tolerance including light harvesting and protection from
oxidative damage caused by drought. Thus, increased
contents specifically of carotenoids are important for stress
tolerance (Painawadee et al., 2009). The carotene content
was found to increase (table 5) with drought treatment of
Brunnera macrophylla (by 22.1%*) but contrariwise results
was found with drought treatment of Stachys macrantha,
when carotene content was decrease (by 19.8%*).
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Ministry of Education,
Science, Research and Sport of the Slovak Republic VEGA
1/0246/13
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– 55 –
SELECTED PROBLEMS OF AILANTHUS ALTISSIMA (MILL.) SWINGLE PRESENCE
IN URBAN SPACES: THE CASE OF THE CITY CENTRE OF KRAKÓW
Izabela KRZEPTOWSKA-MOSZKOWICZ*, Łukasz MOSZKOWICZ
Instytut Architektury Krajobrazu, Kraków, Poland
The objective of the study was to record features of the oldest and largest specimens of tree of heaven in the centre of
Krakow and to determine the factors affecting their condition, reproduction, condition, and aesthetical values, as well as
the importance of this tree species in an urban space. The methodology of research included inventorying the individual
trees and studying their surroundings, as well as performing correlation and regression analyses of selected variables. The
analyses and observations made provided the basis for our conclusions. The evaluation of selected parameters of locations
permits the conclusion that the studied factors affect tree of heaven specimens only to a limited extent. Their condition is
also associated with direct actions by humans e.g. nursing measures, as well as with purely climatic factors. The presence of
very large specimens with a circumference of the trunk exceeding 200 cm were found, which may testify to the beneficial
effect of the urban climate on the extended longevity of individual trees of this species. At the same time, their condition
deteriorates with age.
Keywords: Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle, Krakow, urban trees, invasive species
Introduction
Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle is an endemic tree
species occurring in China and northern Vietnam. It
was brought to Europe around THE mid-18th century, by
a French monk, Pierre Nicolas d’Incarville. The species was
initially introduced into France and England (Kowarik et
al., 2007). The first records concerning the introduction
of the tree of heaven in Poland date back to 1808, when
it was planted in the Botanical Garden in Krakow. Soon
after that it was introduced into more localities. In the
second half of the 19th century, the species was offered
in the catalogues of tree nurseries, and its popularity is
confirmed by the fact that it appeared in these offers
for many years without interruption (Seneta, 1991). In
one of the well-known books on gardening it stated
that Ailanthus altissima in Poland often succumbs to
frost, but sprouts easily from its roots, which implies
that it has more been often seen as a shrub than as a
tree form. At that time, the decorative value of the
plant was emphasised, above all for its large feathery
leaves (Jankowski, 1888). Freezing shoots during winter
had an additional effect of enlarging the leaves which
gave the plant a more exotic appearance. In order to
achieve this effect it was even recommended that the
plants be cut at ground level every year (Seneta, 1991).
In the 20th century it was found that the species has low
environmental requirements and great resistance to
air pollution, therefore making it highly suitable as an
urban tree, particularly in industrial regions, although
in Poland it was not used in great numbers. According
*Correspodence:
to Pacyniak (1976) who reports the locations of this
species, it was planted in a scattered manner almost
across the whole country, except for in the eastern
and northeastern regions. The mature trees were also
valued for their decorative flowers and fruits. However,
less recommended were individuals with male flowers
because of their unpleasant castor oil smell (Seneta,
1991). Towards the end of 20th century interest in this
tree species in Poland waned owing to an increase
in publicised information concerning the invasive
nature of the species, its uncontrolled spread, and
its emergence in the forests of a number of European
countries (Eliáš, 2011; Kowarik et al., 2007).
The data on the occurrence of Ailanthus altissima in
Polish towns and the issues associated with its migration
and settlement, are sparse. A small amount of data are
available for Warsaw (Sudnik-Wójcikowska, 1998), and
Wrocław (Bąbelewski et al., 2005). Detailed data on
the location of these tree plants in Krakow, although
only within the narrow city centre, was provided by
Bogdanowski (1997).
The objective of the study was to record the features
of the oldest and largest specimens within the centre
of Krakow and to determine the factors affecting their
condition, aesthetical values, as well as the importance
of trees of heaven within the urban space.
Study area
The study was conducted in the oldest part of the city of
Krakow i.e. its narrow centre limited by the second ring
road. The area selected is historically the earliest within
Izabela Krzeptowska-Moszkowicz, Instytut Architektury Krajobrazu, ul. Warszawska 24, 31-155 Kraków,
el.: (+48-12) 6282469, phone/fax: (+48-12) 6282061, e-mail: [email protected]
Izabela Krzeptowska-Moszkowicz, Łukasz Moszkowicz: Selected problems of Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle presence in urban spaces: the case ..., pp. 56–62
– 56 –
the city, which has started to expand its boundaries
intensively since 1910. The second half of the 19th and the
beginning of the 20th century coincides with the period
of greatest interest in this species in Poland. The area is
characterised by dense, compact, and medium-height
buildings, with the presence of parks, fragments of urban
greenery, and numerous gardens within the perimeters
of buildings and yards. Certainly, it was not possible to
find all localities of the studied species, meaning that
the data has to be augmented by more detailed work
directed to this particular objective.
The elevation of the study area ranges between 206 to
212 m a. s. l. From the viewpoint of a geological structure
it is situated within the so-called ice marginal valley of
the Vistula river (Tyczyńska, 1967b), on an accumulation
terrace which emerged in the Pleistocene or Holcene,
divided by the edge of numerous river terraces, which
are covered by Miocene sediments (Tyczyńska, 1967a).
Krakow is situated on the border between the
moderately warm vertical climatic zone of the
Carpathians, in the basin-type of climatic variety (Hess,
1969). Autumns have higher temperatures than springs.
The vegetation period with above-zero temperatures
lasts 222 days per year. The frost-free period lasts
155 days. In terms of mean monthly temperatures, the
lowest (-3.1 °C) is that of January, whereas the highest
(18.5 °C) – of June. The minimum temperature recorded
is -33.1 °C, and the maximum is 37.4°C. In a year, there is
an average number of 22 days with freezing cold (below
-10 °C) with 37 days recording below-zero temperatures,
whereas there are 38 hot days (temperatures above
25 °C). Thermal inversions can occur in more than
hundred days in a given year. Such days cause increased
concentrations of air pollutants especially in places
at lower elevations, including some in the study area.
Presently, in line with the global tendencies, the
increase in mean temperatures has been also observed
in Krakow. Additionally, the increasing urbanisation
results in higher amplitudes of temperatures, both in
winter and summer (Obrębska-Starklowa et al., 1994;
Trepińska, 1997).
The mean precipitation in Krakow is 665 mm. The
highest levels occur in June, and the lowest – in January
and February. Snow cover occurred on an average of
66 days per year. The frequent thaws are typical of the
climate of Krakow which result in periods without snow
cover in winter (Hess, 1967).
Soils of the study area are derived in great measure
from fertile alluvial-type soils with various levels of
transformation (Komarnicki, 1967). A significant portion
of the urban area is occupied by buildings. There is
a significant degree of heavy metal contamination and
salinity in soils which is not a rare phenomenon in urban
areas (Bach and Pawłowska, 2007).
Methods
Larger specimens with a circumference of 1 m or
greater were inventoried. Younger trees, and sometimes
numerous root sprouts of various age were omitted but
their presence was recorded. This choice of the sample
aimed at the analysis of selected factors affecting adult
individuals of the species. Locations of individual trees
were noted, and such features as: height, width of crown,
trunk circumference, and height of trunk to the crown,
were recorded. Also determined were the condition
of the trunk and crown, amount of deadwood, visible
symptoms of diseases, damage, and the size of cuts
made. The occurrence of seedlings and root sprouts, as
well as of fruits were recorded.
In order to determine the reproductiveness and
condition of trees, the two following variables were
created on the basis of data obtained:
yy the variable describing reproductiveness was given
according to the following scale: 0 – lack of fruits and
root sprouts; 1 – root sprouts and fruits present or in
small numbers; 2 – numerous sprouts and fruits present;
3 – highly numerous fruits or sprouts;
yy the variable describing the condition of trees was given
according to the following scale: 1 – cracks present
in trunk, depletion of part of the crown, trunks partly
rotten; 2 – significant amount of deadwood, evident
fungal diseases or significant depletion in the crown;
3 – deadwood present, depletion associated with
nursing measures; 4 – very good condition.
Additionally, the features of the surroundings were
determined such as: functional characteristics of space,
surrounding of the tree from each direction, light
conditions (pertaining to the crown) based on the scale
given by Zarzycki (1998), and light exposure – as the
direction from where the light directly reaches the tree.
The granulometric composition and compactness of the
surface layer of soil were also determined. Apart from
these, the presence of herbs occurring below the tree
or immediately near it, or the degree of development
of herbal vegetation and its species richness, were
recorded, where present. The following variables for the
analysis showing a significant degree of diversity were
developed:
yy presence of herbs or development of herbal layer acc.
to the following scale: 0 – lack of herbs or only traces
– trampled, compact soil, or surfaced; 1 – thinned out
green, small groups of plants of herbal layer; 2 – compact
green, ground cover plants, significant coverage of
substrate by plants of herbal layer; 3 – abundant herbal
layer with numerous species of native herbs;
yy covering of the locality (degree of sheltering): 0 – open
area; 1 – open, with wall of a building on one side, or
near half of the side sheltered by trees; 2 – surrounded
by a tree stand, or partly open but with a building wall
– 57 –
sheltering it on at least one side; 3 – sheltered by a tree
stand, and additionally by a building and walls; 4 –
closed with buildings of various heights from all sides;
yy availability of sunlight: 0 – individuals shaded from all
sides by buildings, direct sunlight not reaching them
for certain parts of the year; 1 – individuals shaded
Trunk circumference in m
Width of crown in m
Height of trunk to the
crown in m
Presence of herbs or
development of herbal layer
(acc. to scale in text)
Availability of sunlight
Covering of the locality
(degree of sheltering)
1
50.07171 19.94107
17
2.07
12.5
3.5
0
4
3
2
50.07140 19.94152
15
1.26
12
1.8
0
4
2
3
50.06466 19.93902
23
3.4
17
7
2
4
4
4
50.06163 19.94347
13
1.05
10
3
2
3
2
5
50.05884 19.94014
19
2.86
19
5
2
3
2
6
50.05448 19.93883
14
1.77
16.5
1.8
2
1
3
7
50.06382 19.95474
17
2.33
16
6.5
2
0
2
8
50.06290 19.95089
12
1.56
13.5
2
1
1
1
9
50.06235 19.95040
14
1.43
13.5
1
1
2
3
10
50.06211 19.95775
18
1.86
13
7.5
3
1
2
11
50.06293 19.95838
14
1,14
10.5
7.5
1
3
2
12
50.06324 19.95785
18
1.15
16.4
7.5
1
1
1
13
50.06991 19.94186
21
1.53
11.9
6
3
3
2
14
50.06991 19.94186
22
1.63
9.4
4,5
3
3
2
15
50.07000 19.94197
19
1.03
8.6
7
3
3
2
16
50.07005 19.94192
16
1.24
9.4
4
2
3
3
17
50.07005 19.94200
11
1.08
8
5
1
4
3
18
50.06996 19.94224
13.5
1.35
20.3
2.5
2
1
3
19
50.06994 19.94245
14
0.97
11
2.5
1
3
3
20
50.06998 19.94262
21
1.53
11.2
5.5
3
4
2
21
50.06998 19.94266
21
1.06
6.8
4
3
4
1
22
50.07001 19.94255
21
1.63
13
4.5
3
4
1
23
50.07011 19.94243
15.5
2.07
12.5
5
1
2
2
24
50.06978 19.94085
15
2.1
13
3
0
3
2
25
50.07018 19.94126
13
1.5
10
5
3
3
2
26
50.07022 19.94126
13
1.5
8
5
3
2
2
27
50.06444 19.92457
14
1
11
6
1
2
3
28
50.06444 19.92457
16
0.98
14
4
1
2
3
29
50.06506 19.92517
16.5
1.9
13
7
0
3
4
Lp.
Height in m
Parameters of inventoried individuals of tree of heaven, and the selected factors of tree surroundings
Position GPS in º
Table 1
from the south, or surrounded by a dense tree stand
much higher than they are; 2 – individuals shaded from
the south but on one side, except the north, open or
surrounded by a well-spaced tree stand; 3 – individuals
only partly shaded from the south, with good exposure
to east or west; 4 – individuals directly exposed to
– 58 –
sunlight from the south and additionally from the east
or west.
Statistical analyses were performed in order to
determine the relationships between the parameters
of individual trees and the factors affecting these
parameters. For the variables describing the features of
trees such as: height, circumference of trunk, width of
crown, condition and reproductiveness, as well as for the
variables describing the parameters of the surroundings,
the Pearson coefficients of correlation were calculated.
For the correlation coefficients, the degrees of statistical
significance (alpha) were determined.
In order to find the relationships between the
parameters of individuals and the selected factors of the
immediate surroundings, the analysis of linear regression
was performed. Because of the selection of samples,
some variables showed a high degree of skewness.
The variables were logarithmically transformed which
resulted in a satisfactory symmetrisation of variables for
the regression analysis. The statistical significance (alpha)
was checked and provided for partial coefficients of
regression. The statistical significance of the R2 coefficient
was also tested.
A number of factors which are very similar in the
studied locations were omitted, such as: presence of
green plants or development of herb layer, sheltering of
the location, and availability of sunlight were included as
descriptive variables.
During the inventory made in the study area, 29 trees
were found which had trunks with circumferences equal
Table 2
or higher than ca. 100 cm. The most important inventory
data are compiled in Table 1.
The correlations obtained among the studied
individuals show obvious relationships, such as a positive
correlation between the circumference of trunk and the
height of an individual (Table 2). They additionally show
that the height of an individual correlates with its higher
reproductiveness and better condition. The damaged
trees most often had a part of the crown destroyed as
well as poorer viability, which resulted in a decreased
number of sprouts as well as fruits. This was also
confirmed by a positive correlation between condition
and reproductiveness. The circumference of the trunk
shows a strong correlation with the width of the crown,
which can be explained by the superior development
shown by older individuals.
The independent variables were derived from
the parameters of tree surroundings which showed
a significant level of diversity. They were chosen in a way
that prevented correlations appearing among them. The
statistically significant exception was the relationship
between shielding the location with the development
of a herbal layer and the presence of herbs, where the
coefficient of correlation amounted to -0.35401 for
the level of significance alpha of 0.02. Perhaps such
a situation supported the occurrence of better conditions
for vegetation e.g. higher humidity or lower level of soil
drying by the wind.
On the basis of the results of regression analysis it
can be stated that in the studied sites, the location of
individual trees of heaven had only a limited effect on
their parameters. The factors defined in the analysis
Correlation coefficients of dependent variables
Height of trees
Height of trees
Trunk circumference
Trunk
circumference
Width of crown
Reproductiveness
x
0.40046**
x
–
0.54546***
x
Reproductiveness
0.16438*
–
–
x
Condition of trees
0.29767*
–
–
0.25676**
Width of crown
Condition
of trees
x
*: 0.5 > P > 0.05 ; **: 0.05 ≥ P > 0.001 ; ***: P ≤ 0.001
Table 3
Partial coefficients of linear regression.
Covering of the locality
(degree of sheltering)
Availability
of sunlight
Presence of herbs or
development of herbal layer
R2
Height of trees
0.05265*
-0.00765+
0.07746*
0.27
Trunk circumference
0.0762+
Width of crown
0.0586+
0.04
-0.1105**
-0.0491+
0.31
Reproductiveness
0.5646**
0.15
Condition of trees
0.2484**
0.13
+: 0.1 > P > 0.05 ; *: 0.05 ≥ P > 0.01 ; **: 0.01≥ P >0.001
– 59 –
explain a small percentage of variability i.e. 15–31%,
and – in the case of trunk circumference or condition
of the tree i.e. 4–13% regression equitation produce
a statistically significant low value. The beneficial
effects can be provided by conditions advantageous
for the vegetation of plants, less disturbed by humans,
where herbs also develop better. These conditions are
advantageous to reproductiveness, and they affect
the condition of an individual tree and also – to a very
little extent – its growth. In the studied locations,
there is minor effect resulting from access to light
which can slow down growth, whereas shielded
locations can support greater heights of individuals.
The remaining factors affecting the conditions on the
studied locations were not diversified enough to be
subjected to analysis.
During the study, several larger, older specimens
were found in the area of the city centre. The majority
of them were in a poor condition. It was noted that the
condition of trees deteriorates with age and injuries
appear. Some individual trees were severely trimmed,
often had the main boughs cut out, or had trunks that
were cracked and internally rotten. Because the species
was planted in large numbers at the end of the 19th
and the beginning of the 20th century, the reason for
their present condition can be their short longevity in
the climatic conditions prevailing in Krakow. Severe
winters occurring once in a while can cause older
specimens to die out or incur major injuries. Perhaps,
as a result of the tendency towards climate warming
(Obrębska-Starklowa et al., 1994; Obrębska-Starklowa
and Trepińska, 1992; Sukopp and Wurzel, 2003) more
favourable climatic conditions will emerge for the
development of this species in Poland. At present, a
high percentage of thermophilic plant species can
be observed in town centres (Gutte, 1972; SudnikWojcikowska, 1998).
The specimens recorded in the inventory occur at
shielded sites or these exposed to sunlight. In most
cases these individuals are shielded by walls on at least
one side, or by other trees. The individuals growing
in places which are not shielded may be more often
exposed to the effects of various adverse factors,
including low temperatures, and it is probable that
injuries occur then which can also lead to the death
of trees. One example could be the park in Kórnik near
Poznań where four of the largest specimens were froze
to death in the 1928/1929 winter (Seneta, 1991). In
Krakow, the oldest and most impressive tree of heaven
is located in the very centre of the Old Town on St. John
street. It is one of the largest specimens in Poland and
was placed under protection as a natural monument
under the Nature Conservation Act of 2004 (Ustawa...,
2004). The tree is shielded on all sides and additionally it
is well-exposed on the south side, particularly the crown
of it. It was found to be in a very good condition. The
surrounding of the yard by a wall of tenement houses
and high solid fences engenders higher temperatures
on the site, resulting from a heating up of the walls and
reducing the possibility of heat loss. Ailanthus altissima
is classified as a thermophilic species, growing in the
warmest locations of European cities (Kunick, 1982;
Kowarik, 1984; Kowarik, 1992; Kowarik and Böcker,
1984; Modranský and Benčať, 2003; Sukopp and Wurzel,
2003; Sudnik-Wójcikowska, 1998). It is also confirmed
by the data from Wrocław where a concentrations
of locations of this species was reported in an area of
densely arranged buildings characterised by the highest
temperatures (Bąbelewski et al., 2005).
Pacyniak (1976) reports, that the sprouts from the last
growth increment can be frozen during severe winters.
In our studies, the occurrence of deadwood in the tree
crowns was found in a number of individuals (90%)
and pertained to both young increments and entire
branches. This has an obvious deteriorating effect on the
decorative value of the trees. It also worsened their value
particularly as a component of urban areas because of the
possible danger of dry branches falling down (Senata and
Dolatowski, 2011). In the climatic conditions prevailing
in Krakow, this state of affairs forces the tree keepers to
carry out permanent annual nursing measures involving
the removal of any dead branches.
The emergence of root sprouts around most of the
trees (77%) was found, even when the sprouts were
systematically destroyed. The trees in poor condition
grow fewer sprouts. However, because the new trees are
not recorded proportionally to the number of sprouts,
one can infer that the mortality of young individuals is
very high, which can be associated with their intolerance
to light deficit e.g. under the canopy of trees (Knapp and
Canham, 2000; Kowarik, 2007; Pennington et al., 2010),
as well as with the susceptibility to frost among young
individuals (Kowarik et al., 2007; Seneta, 1991).
It was found that frequent removal of descendant
individuals from around the parental tree, means that
the possibility of uncontrolled spread of the species is
much reduced. The area of the Botanic Garden of the
Jagiellonian University is an example. Annual nursing
measures are carried out there around the trees every
year.1 Only few new small individuals growing from
the roots were found there. On the contrary, in the
cases where leaving the surroundings without any
intervention this results in the emergence of a high
number of descendant plants of various ages. A similar
phenomenon was observed around the oldest specimen
where the nursing measures were not carried out for
1 The authors wish to thank Mr. Krzysztof Kapała, employee
of the Botanic Garden, for information.
– 60 –
several years in a row. The rapid growth of the young
tree of heaven individuals may facilitate the winning of
the competition for access to light with other seedlings
(Knapp and Canham, 2000; Kowarik et al., 2007; Radtke
et al., 2013).
It was also found that the tree of heaven releases
allelopathic compounds (Csiszár, 2009; Heisey, 1996;
Kowarik et al., 2007) which can again result in eliminating
plants susceptible to them, and augment the prospect
of spreading the species. Immediately under the
specimens of tree of heaven in the Jalu Kurek Park an
abundant spring herbal layer occurred, whereas in the
Botanic Garden of the Jagiellonian University, under
one of the specimens, various summer herbs were
growing. In these places no allelopathy phenomenon
was observed.
The evaluation of selected parameters of locations
warrants a statement that the studied parameters
have only a limited effect on the trees of heaven
individuals. Their condition is directly associated
with human action e.g nursing measures, and also by
typical climatic factors. Recently, there has been no
purposeful introduction of this species into Krakow’s
urban space. Because of the small number of older
specimens of this species within the city centre, it seems
justified to protect these trees and to keep them in
good condition, through nursing them and monitoring
their surroundings in order to curb uncontrolled
dissemination of the species.
Conclusions
This study can be summarised as follows:
yy the analyses performed indicate that good availability
of sunlight can slow down growth. The sheltered
locations can favour taller individuals. The specimens
found in the inventory exercise always occurred in
zones somewhat sheltered to a certain degree;
yy a correlation was found which indicated that the
viability and reproductiveness of individuals and their
condition are better in individuals surrounded by herb
vegetation, and in those that are taller;
yy in the climatic conditions prevailing in Krakow, injuries
to crowns were found in many individuals, probably
associated with the great susceptibility of this species
to low temperatures which adversely affecting their
decorative value and necessitates the frequent
application of nursing measures;
yy in the studied sample, a considerable proportion of
individuals had in their surroundings, higher or lower
number of young individuals. These were mostly ramets
derived from the roots growing immediately beneath
the soil surface. It was observed that nursing measures
can significantly reduce their numbers;
yy the presence in the city centre of very large specimens
with a trunk circumference exceeding 200 cm, can also
testify to the beneficial effect of the urban climate on
the longevity of individuals of this species. At the same
time, the condition of trees deteriorates with age, and
injuries appear, although this was not found in the
oldest specimen.
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– 62 –
EVALUATION OF THE SUGAR AND STARCH CONTENT IN THE LEAVES OF SOME
MEDITERRANEAN WOODY SHRUBS GROWING IN DIFFERENT CONDITIONS
Maryam I. S. ALKURDI*, Jan SUPUKA
The study was carried out in 2011–2013 in Botanical garden of Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Slovak Republic.
three species of Mediterranean evergreen shrubs Pittosporum tobira L, Trachycarpos fortunei (HOOK) H.WENDL and Laurus
nobilis L. were planted in two types of plantings, plants planted in the ground and plants planted in pots which is removed
during the winter time (10.11–25.03) in side the greenhouse average temperature was 8 °C during the winter time. The
sample of young, one year leaves had been taken in end of January when temperature was (-3 °C) at 9 am. The study
showed that starch and total sugar affected by planting type, planting in greenhouse led to increase starch and total sugar
significantly comparing with planting outside during the winter time. The best result was obtained in Laurus nobilis which
Showed supremacy in the entire studied characteristic, lowest value of starch and total sugar were found in Trachycarpos
fortunei.
Keywords: Mediterranean woody shrubs, growing condition, sugar, starch
Introduction
Many plant species introduced by humans to areas
outside their natural ranges. Mediterranean woody
plants are very popular in central Europe countries in
landscape and garden architecture as the composition
element, also for oil, tea and as medical plants. Hot, dry
summers and mild to cool, wet winters are the characters
of the Mediterranean climate, the identification of
common morphological, life history and reproductive
traits found among different plant species assemblages
living under similar environmental conditions, have
often been interpreted as a consequence of adaptive
processes (Verdu et al., 2003). The climatic factors include
rainfall and water, light, temperature, relative humidity,
air, and wind. They are a biotic components, including
topography and soil, of the environmental factors that
influence plant growth and development. In general,
plants survive within a temperature range of 0 °C to
50 °C. Enzyme activity and the rate of most chemical
reactions generally increase with rise in temperature. Up
to a certain point, there is doubling of enzymatic reaction
with every 10 °C temperature increase. Temperature
effects at different levels of organization, biochemical,
physiological, morphological, and agronomic and
systems – are considered, the changes in the enzyme
activities were followed during fall, winter, and spring
in relation to the changes in starch content and frost
hardiness. Starch levels were negatively correlated
with hardiness whereas most soluble sugars were
positively correlated in grapevines (Jones et al., 1999).
*Correspodence:
Low temperature lead to increase of the raffinose family
oligosaccharides (RFO) proportion in total carbohydrate
in Olea europaea (Rejškova et al., 2007). Nowadays we
have much information about Mediterranean woody
plants. Main aim of this study is to determine the effect
of low temperature on sugar and starch contents of
selected Mediterranean ever green shrubs grow under
Slovak republic climate condition.
The study was carried out in 2011–2013 year at Botanical
garden of Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Slovak
Republic. Three species of Mediterranean evergreen
shrubs were planted in two kinds of planting, plant
planted in the ground and plant planted in pots which is
removed during the winter time inside the greenhouse
average temperature was 8 °C, as shown in the (Table
1). Air temperature and rainfall were received from
dates of metrological station of Botanical garden during
study period as shown in (Table 2). The sample of young
(one year) leaves was taken in 5. 3. 2013 at 9.00 am and
the average temperature was -3 °C. Total sugar was
determined according to Somogyi (in Michlik et al.,
1978 and Frederick, 1989). In this procedure the 1 ml
samples were combined either with 10 mg substrate and
1 ml citrate buffer (0.1 M, pH 5.0) or with 1 ml substrate
solubilized in 0.1 M citrate buffer (pH 5.0) at 1% (w/v) in
50 ml Folin tubes. A control for each sample was prepared
with substrate and buffer. Tubes were incubated at
40 °C for 24 h. After incubation, 2 ml of copper reagent,
Maryam I. S. Alkurdi, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape
Engineering, Department of Garden and Landscape Architecture, Tulipanova 7, 949 76 Nitra, Slovak
Republic, e-mail: [email protected]
Maryam I. S. Alkurdi, Jan Supuka: Evaluation of the sugar and starch content in the leaves of some Mediterranean woody shrubs growing ..., pp. 63–66
– 63 –
consisting of 4 parts KNa tartarate: Na2CO3 : Na2SO4 :
NaHCO3 (1 : 2 : 12 : 1.3) and 1 part Cu-SO4 · 5H2O : Na2SO4
(1 : 9), was added to each tube. Both copper reagents
must be prepared by boiling to completely dissolve
the components; they can then be stored at room
temperature. They were mixed together just prior to
use. After 1 ml of sample was added to the appropriate
control tubes, all tubes were boiled for 10 min in a water
bath. The tubes were then cooled completely, 2 ml of
arsenomolybdate reagent (25 g ammonium molybdate
in 450 ml H2O + 21 ml H2SO4 + 3 g Na2HASO4 · 7H2O
dissolved in 25 ml H2O) was added to each tube, and
the tubes were shaken thoroughly before adjusting the
final volume to 25 ml with water. Individual samples
were filtered through filter paper, and colorimetric
measurements were determined by transmitted light at
500 nm in a spectrophotometer. The results of sugar and
starch content in leaves are expressed in% of dry weight
(d. w). The starch content was determined according to
the polarimetric method of Ewers (Michalik et al, 1978).
A portion of 5 g of a homogenised sample is weighed in
a 100 ml Kohlrausch volumetric flask and its content is
mixed with 25 ml of 1.124% HCl solution. After addition
of another 25 ml of 1.124% HCl solution, the suspension
is heated on a boiling water bath for 15 min (after 3 min
the content of a volumetric flask is mixed to avoid
coagulation). Once the hydrolysis is finished, 20 ml of
1.124% HCl solution is added. After fast cooling (using
a stream of flowing water), clarification using 5 mL of
Carrez I (30% ZnSO4 solution ) and 5 ml of Carrez II (15%
K4[Fe(CN)6] solution ) solutions is performed. Finally,
a volumetric flask is filled up by distilled water, its content
is properly mixed, and filtrated using a filtration funnel.
The obtained filtrate is then transferred to a polarisation
tube (2 dm) and measured using a polarimeter. The
extent of polarisation is related to the concentration of
the optically active molecules in solution by the Eq. 1
α = [α] tλ ⋅  ⋅ c . Where a is the measured angle of rotation,
[α]tλ is the optical activity (which is a constant for each
type of molecule),  is the path length and c is the
concentration. The overal angle of rotation depend on
the temperature and awvelength of light used and olso
these parameters are usually standarddised (e.g. 20 °C
and 589.3 nm (the D-line for sodium). The obtained value
is firstly corrected for a laboratory temperature (t) drift
using Eq.2 acrrected = ameaured S - 0.0144(t - 20) S followed
by multiplying by a factor of 0.3462. The amount of starch
[
]
[]
()

(X) in the sample is calculated using Eq.3  X =

1 0 4 .α 
.
[α] tλ ..m 
Where a is calculated value of optical rotation, [α ]tλ is
the optical activity (specific rotation) depending on the
discharge lamp and wavelength of light used and variety
Table1. The studied species list their ages and origin
Family
Pittosporaceae
Species
Origin
Age of plants
Pittosporum tobira L
Japan
6
Palmaceae
Trachycarpos fortunei (HOOK) H. WENDL
China
6
Lauraceae
Laurus nobilis L.
Mediterranean
6
Table 2
Average temperature in °C and Sum of rainfalls in mm (Nitra, 2011–2012–2013)
Average temperature in °C
Sum of rainfalls in mm
Month
2011
2012
2013
Month
2011
2012
2013
January
-0.90
1.36
-0.8
January
25
61.1
71.2
February
-0.60
-2.49
1.5
February
6
23.5
75.6
March
5.90
7.41
3.1
March
27
2.8
113.9
April
12.70
11.23
12.1
April
13
36.1
20.4
May
15.80
17.29
15.6
May
48
19.6
77.8
June
19.80
20.86
19.3
June
91
70.1
46.7
July
19.70
22.77
22.8
July
122
61.4
2.1
August
20.90
21.47
21.9
August
152
7.3
73.9
September
17.70
17.02
14.7
September
92
32.7
60.0
October
9.90
10.46
12.1
October
37
76.1
30.5
November
3.00
7.45
6.8
November
1
34.6
71.3
December
2.20
-0.91
2.3
December
42
44.4
11.0
Year Average
Temperature
10.51
11.16
11.0
Year sum of
Rainfalls
656
469.7
654.4
– 64 –
Laurus nobilis and Pittosporum tobira
in total sugar content see Table 4.
Planting in pots led to increase each of
starch and sugar content in plants and
value was (6.70% in dry weight total
sugar and (4.18% in dry weight) starch
content (Figure 1 and 3). Laurus nobilis
showed significant deference in starch
and sugar content comparing with
other species see Figure 2 and 4.
Planting in pots led to increase
each of starch and sugar content in
4,5
4
3,5
3
2,5
2
1,5
1
0,5
Planting in pots
Figure 1
Planting in the ground
Starch % in dry
weight
of starch,  is the path lenght (2 dm),
and m is the sample weight (5 g).
For a mercury discharge lamp and
a wavelength (λ) of 546.1 nm, the
[α]tλ values are 214.7, 216.3, 213.3,
213.1, 218.5, 217.0 and 215.5 for
wheat, rye, barly, oat, rice, maize and
unknown cereal starch, respectivly.
(Not: the correction for moisture is
not account in the equation). Samples
randomly picked out from all parts of
the plants. The starch and total sugar
were measured. An experiment was
laid out as Randomized Complete
Design (RCD) in three replications,
the data were analyzed with the
general linear model procedures in
Statistical Analysis System (SAS), and
Duncan test at level 0.05 was used
for the means separation.
0
Starch content in the leaves affected by planting type
Table 3
4
3,5
3
2,5
2
1,5
1
0,5
Starch % in dry
weight
The data in (Table 3) showed that the
highest sugar content was found in
Pittosporum tobira which were planted
in pots (12.92 % in dry weight) and the
lowest was in Trachycarpos fortunei
which were planted in the ground
(0.40 % in dry weight). The highest
starch content was found in Laurus
nobilis which were planted in pots
(5.12 % in dry weight) and the lowest
starch content was in Trachycarpos
fortunei (0.8 % in dry weight) there
are no significant difference between
0
Laurus nobilis
Figure 2
Trachycarpos
fortunei
Pittosporum
tobira
Starch content in the leaves affected by species
Planting type affected on total sugar in different ever green species
Factor species
Total sugar % in dry weight
Factor
planting types
Trachycarpos fortunei
(HOOK) H. WENDL
Laurus nobilis L
Mean
planting
planting in the ground
2.26de 0.40e 9.83b 4.16b planting in pots
12.92a 2.99d 7.86c 6.70a 7.59a 1.69c 8.85a 5.43
Mean species
*Means not followed by the same letters are significant at 5% level of probability
Table 4
Planting type affected on starch in different ever green species
Starch % in dry weight
Factor
planting types
Mean species
planting in the ground
planting in pots
Factor species
Mean
planting
Trachycarpos fortunei
(HOOK) H. WENDL
Laurus nobilis L
2.41cd 0.8e
2.76c
2.79b
4.5ab 1.65de 5.12a
4.18a
3.46bc 1.25d 3.94a
3.49
*Means not followed by the same letters are significant at 5% level of probability
– 65 –
Acknowledgement
6
5
4
3
2
1
Planting in pots
Figure 3
0
Total sugar % in dry
weight
7
Total sugar content in the leaves affected by planting type
6
5
4
3
2
1
Planting in pots
Figure 4
0
Total sugar % in dry
weight
7
Total sugar content in the leaves affected by species
plants. Low temperature is one of the
important a biotic stress that affected
survival, growth, reproduction and
geographic distribution of plants.
Temperature
factor
influence
all plant growth processes such
as photosynthesis, respiration,
transpiration, breaking of seed
dormancy, seed germination, protein
synthesis, and translocation. This is
agree with (Pressman et al, 1989) Long
term low temperature treatment
led to a sharp decrease in the sugar
content in Asparagus. Probably low
temperatures can affect plants in
several ways, temperatures near
the minimum for plant growth will
reduce the plant‘s rate of metabolism
and growth. If the temperature, and
therefore the metabolism, remain
low for an extended period. A
strikingly linear relationship between
starch breakdown and temperature
is observed in Populus canadensis
(Sauter, 1988). The highest value of
starch and total sugar found in Laurus
nobilis, while the lowest value of starch
and total sugar found in Trachycarpos
fortunei. Plants are composed of
a variety of compounds, besides
water, certain plant organs have high
concentrations of carbohydrates,
proteins and lipids that can vary in
different organs in the plant and
between species. Paganová (2003)
obtained that there has been found
new information about distribution of
Sorbus domestica in growth abilities.
Conclusion
Through this study we found that
starch and total sugar affected by
planting type, planting in greenhouse
led to increase, starch and total sugar
significantly comparing with planting
out side during the winter time, Laurus
nobilis showed the highest value of
starch and total sugar content. But the
lowest value of was in Trachycarpos
fortunei comparing with other species.
Paper was elaborated thanks
financial supporting by grant project
KEGA No.003SPU-4/2014 of Ministry
of Education, Science, Research and
Sport of the Slovak Republic, and
project COST TD1106-UAE.
References
FREDERICK, G. – CAROL, A. – TERRY, L.
1989. Adaptation of the Nelson- Somogyi
Reducing- Sugar Assay to a Microassay
Using Microtiter Plates. In: Analytical
Biochemistry, 1989, no. 182, p. 197–199.
JONES, K. S. - PAROSCHY, J. – MCKERSIE,
B. – BOWLEY, S. R. 1999. Carbohydrate
Composition and Freezing Tolerance
of Canes and Buds in Vitis vinifera. In:
Journal of plant physiology, vol. 155,
1999, no. 1, p. 101–106.
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MAXIANOVÁ, A. – LOŽEK, O. 1978.
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biologického materiálu a pôdy. Nitra :
VŠP, 1978, p. 89–95.
PAGANOVÁ, V. 2003. Výskyt a uplatnenie
jarabiny oskorušovej (Sorbus domestica L.)
na Slovensku. s. 151–156. ISBN 80-8069297-1. Dostupné na internete: <http://
www.slpk.sk/eldo/tradicne_netradicne_
druhy_rastlin/paganova.pdf>.
PELIKÁN, M. – SUKOVÁ, M. 1998.
Hodnocení a využití rostlinných produktu
(Návody do cvičení). České Budějovice :
JU, 1998, 118 s. ISBN 80-7040-279-2.
PRESSMAN, E. – SCHAFFER, A. –
COMPTON, D. – ZAMSKI, E. 1989. The
Effect of Low Temperature and Drought
on the Carbohydrate Content of
Asparagus. In: Journal Plant Physiology,
1989, no. 134, p. 209–213.
REJŠKOVA, A. – PATKOVÁ, L. –
STODÚLKOVA, E. – LIPAVSKÁ, H.
2007. The effect of a biotic stress on
carbohydrate status of olive shoots (Olea
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P. – FLORES-HERNANDEZ, N. – VALIENTEBANUET, A. 2003. Convergent’ traits of
Mediterranean woody plants belong
to pre-Mediterranean lineages. In:
Biological Journal of the Linnean Society,
2003, no. 78, p. 415–427.
– 66 –
FRUITMAP AND FALLING FRUIT – TOOLS FOR MAPPING URBAN
FRUIT TREES IN THE CITY OF NITRA
Ladislav BAKAY
Fruiting tree species are not planted often in urban areas. Planners often avoid the selection of fruit trees, but local initiatives
and inhabitants started activities, which prefer urban fruit trees and activities such as open source urban fruit maps makes
us rethink the role of fruiting trees in urban conditions. In total we found 7 open source fruit tree maps with useful databases.
We excluded Google fruit trees maps, because they were regionally limited to a small area and some of them were merged
into bigger e-platforms such as Fallingfruit. The most important open source fruit map from the view of data utilization in
policy making and governance is Fallingfruit, with more than 230 data sources.
Keywords: urban fruit, open source maps, urban tree
Introduction
When choosing urban tree species, landscape architects,
planners and decision makers try avoiding species such
as with highly allergenic pollen, fruiting (especially trees
with large or odorous fruits), poisonous or invasive ones.
The current planting design concepts are therefore
aimed at natural plant communities with a high potential
adaptability to extremes in the environment (Paganová
and Jureková, 2012; Sudzina and Rovná, 2014). As Kollár et
al. (2009) and Pejchal (1991) mention, correct tree species
selection into urban environment has a significant impact
on the health and vitality of urban trees what is reflected
in management. In the last decade questions about food
security, urban horticulture, resilient urban communities
arise also terms as urban horticulture, guerilla grafting,
urban orchard, urban edible forest, “edible” roof gardens
(Lipovská, 2013; Ettinger, 2012; Takáčová and Klimantová,
2011; Mezey, 2005) and activities such as open source
urban fruit maps makes us rethink the role of fruiting
trees in urban conditions. There are even small cities like
Table 1
Modrý Kameň in Slovakia, which build up their urban
image by growing fruit trees (sweet chestnut) inside the
city (Pástor, 2013). A new approach towards urban fruit
trees must therefore be found. The aim of this paper is to
analyze the occurrence of open source fruit maps as tools
of their mapping.
Framework and methodology
We searched open source fruit tree maps with the Google
search tool. We used the keywords – “urban, fruit, tree,
map, urban orchard”. The found open source urban fruit
tree maps were analyzed from aspects of users.
In total we found 6 open source fruit tree maps:
1.City Fruit is a Seattle (USA) based initiative of an NGO,
which is active since 2008 and promotes the cultivation
of urban fruit in order to nourish people, build
community, protect the climate, grow healthy fruit,
provide assistance in harvesting and preserving fruit,
promote the sharing of extra fruit and work to protect
Fruit harvest costs from the annual report of Cityfruit
Harvested Sites/
Years
Lbs of
Fruit
Cost to
Harvest & Sell
Fuit sales
Income
Net cost
after sales
Cost per lb of
Donated Fruit
Notes
2009
–
10,213
$8,512.00
–
$8.512.00
$0.83
Dept. of Neighborhoods Grant
2010
122
10,121
$14,000.00
$750.00
$13.250.00
$1.31
Dept. of Neighborhoods Grant
2011
104
6,635
$5,680.00
$1.400.00
$4.280.00
$0.65
–
2012
190
18,414
$13,583.00
$2.230.00
$11.353.00
$0.62
DON Grant to add 3rd
neighborhoods
2013
151
10,017
$9,831.00
$3.588.00
$6.243.00
$0.62
Extremely low yield year
Total
567+
55,400
$51,606.00
$7.968.00
$43.638.00
$0.79
–
Source: http://cityfruit.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/2013-City-Fruit-Annual-Report.pdf
*Correspodence:
Ladislav Bakay, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape
Engineering Department of Planting Design and Maintenance, Tulipánová 7, Nitra, 949 01, Slovakia,
Ladislav Bakay: Fruitmap and Falling fruit – tools for mapping urban fruit trees in the city of Nitra, pp. 67–69
– 67 –
urban fruit trees. City Fruit works neighborhood by
neighborhood to harvest extra fruit and distribute it
to food banks, meals programs, senior centers, schools
and others who can use it (www.cityfruit.org). This
initiative has a strong financial background described
by Ettinger (2012) (Tab. 1).
2. Fruit city is an UK initiative and its aim is to search for fruit
production surplus in urban areas. It is an open source fruit
tree map (Fig. 1). Volunteers can add basic information
about fruit trees. The database is growing quickly and the
website provides also additional information from tree
determination to recipes (www.fruitcity.co.uk).
3.Fallingfruit is the most comprehensive open source
fruit map with a large dataset. Nowadays 230 Google
fruit tree map datasets are imported from different
localities on a global scale. The database contains
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 1
Fruit city map – detail from London
Source: www.fruitcity.co.uk
Falling fruit
Source: www.fallingfruit.org
except of the localization information about varieties,
Fruitmap
Source: www.fruitmap.at
– 68 –
harvest time, property information (public, semiprivate, private, but branches lean over the fence etc.)
The information in this database is the most reliable
from the found open source maps (Fig. 2).
4.Fruitmap.at is a platform created by TU Graz and mainly
focuses its activity in this region. The aim of this open
source fruit map is to create an inventory of fruit trees
growing in the city which can be harvested. The database
gives the user additional info about the property and
land ownership, where the trees can be found.
5.Fruitmap.sk is a very basic open source map created
as a graphic design project in Slovakia. The data are
simple and the map is poor on information, but has
a global coverage.
6. Neighborhood Fruit is a smartphone application,
which provides an easy tool for the application users
to share the position and quality of urban fruit. The
users can add trees, but also search in the terrain (Fig. 4).
7. Obststadt is an initiative in the city of Wiener Neustadt,
which closely cooperates with the Austrian fruitmap.
at; the webpage is interlinked and similar to fruitmap.
at. The negative aspect of the database is its reduced
geographical area (within Wiener Neustadt) (Fig. 5).
Conclusion
In total we found 7 open source fruit tree maps with
useful databases. We excluded Google fruit trees maps,
because they were regionaly limited to a small area and
some of them were merged into bigger e-platforms
such as Fallingfruit. The most important opoen source
fruit map from the view of data utilization in policy
making and governance is Fallingfruit, with more than
230 data sources. Open source fruit tree maps should be
considered as a good and cheap opportunity for local
authorities to implement data gained in these databases.
Acknowledgements
The article was written with the help of KEGA 012SPU4/2013 Lifelong learning program for arborists in Slovakia.
References
Figure 4
Neighborhood Fruit smartphone application
Figure 5
Obststadt
Source: www.neighborhoodfruit.com
Source: www.obststadt.at
ETTINGER, J. 2012. Seattle Building Massive Edible Forest Filled
with Free Food. Available from: http://www.organicauthority.
com/blog/organic/seattle-building-massive-edible-forestfilled-with-free-food [Accessed 12th August 20013]
JOHNSON, N. 2014. Urban farms won’t feed us, but they just
might teach us, Grist, 29/4/2014, Available from: http://grist.org/
food/urban-farms-wont-feed-us-but-they-just-might-teach-us/
KOLLÁR, J. – HRUBÍK, P. – TKÁČOVÁ, S. 2009. Monitoring of
harmful insect species in urban conditions in selected model
areas of Slovakia. In: Plant Protection Science 45.3, 2009, p.
119–124
LIPOVSKÁ, B. 2013. The fruit of garden tourism may fall over
the wall: Small private gardens and tourism. In: Tourism
Management Perspectives, 2013, no. 6, p. 114–121.
MEZEY, J. 2005. Ovocie z vlastnej záhrady. 1. vyd. Bratislava :
Computer Press, 2005. ISBN 80-251-0433-8
PAGANOVÁ, V. – JUREKOVÁ, Z. 2012. Woody Plants in Landscape
Planning and Landscape Design. Landscape Planning, Dr. Murat
Ozyavuz (Ed.)
PÁSTOR, M. 2013. Dendrologicko-ekologická analýza
aktuálneho stavu pestovania gaštana jedlého (Castanea sativa
Mill.) v oblasti Modrého Kameňa: diplomová práca. Zvolen:
Technická univerzita, 2013, 89 s.
SUDZINA, M. – ROVNÁ, K. 2014. Poradca pre správcov zelene
v mestách a obciach – mesiac marec. In: Komunálna technika,
roč. 8, 2014, č. 2. ISSN 1337-9011.
TAKÁČOVÁ, A. – KLIMANTOVÁ, I. 2011. Aplikovaný dizajn
v záhradnej a parkovej tvorbe v mestskom prostredí. 1. vyd.
Nitra : SPU, 2011. ISBN 978-80-552-0638-7.
TÓTH, A. 2014. Cost Action Urban Agriculture Europe:
Urban Agriculture and Resilient Urban Food System in
Christchurch, New Zealand, Short Scientific Report on the
ReciprocalShort Term Scientific Mission, Christchurch, New
Zealand 20/01-16/02/2014 Available from: http://www.
urbanagricultureeurope.la.rwthaachen.de/files/cost_uae_
rstsm_short_scientific_report_attila_toth_s.pdf
– 69 –
ALIEN PEST SPECIES ON WOODY PLANTS IN URBAN
CONDITIONS OF SLOVAKIA
Ján KOLLÁR
In 2006–2014 research on the phytophagous insects of ornamental woody plants (trees and shrubs) was carried out in
various urban areas, which are located in west part of the Slovak Republic. During research was found on ornamental woody
plants 437 species and 5 varieties of animal pests. From that number the alien species accounted 59 species. During years
2006–2014 were recorded 16 new alien pest species for Slovakia. The highest number of alien species in Slovakia comes
from Asia area (23 species). Many species expand to Slovakia also from North America (18 species) and Mediterranean
(15 species). The least number of alien species comes from Africa. Two recorded alien species have unknown origin. From
the all recorded alien pest species the orders Hemiptera (25 species) and Lepidoptera (15 species) accounted the highest
number. Many invasive and introduced pest species better adapted to temperature amplitude in Slovakia and they find
optimal conditions to reproduction.
Keywords: alien pest, woody plants, Slovakia, climate change
Introduction
The changes in global and also in urban climate and
increased levels of primary and secondary pollutants
components in air create a new environment conditions
for growth and development of woody plants in forests,
landscape and Urban areas. These factors create new
possibilities for using of woody plants from warmer
conditions. In present a lot of introduced woody plants
are in use. It is a result of successful woody plants
introduction and acclimatization (Supuka, 2007; Sidorová
et al., 2013). The attention of scientific and professional
public in the past decade was especially attracted by
invasive and alien organisms, because they represent
significant factors of ecosystem degradation and threaten
the plant production (Glavendekić and Mihajlović, 2007).
Invasions of alien organism species continue. This effect is
connected with increased frequency of goods transaction
(truck) (increased trade and economy production of
SR) and with climate changes raiding (Zúbrik, Kunca
and Vakula, 2007). Biological invasions by alien species
are presently recognised as the second cause of loss in
biological diversity, following the destruction of habitats,
and have also large economical consequences (Vitousek
et al., 1996, 1997; Perings et al., 2000; Pimentel et al., 2000).
This movement has precipitated a substantial increase in
biological invasions by allowing organisms to pass the
natural barriers that limit their dispersal (Liebhold et al.,
1995; Levine and D’Antonio, 2003).
In Europe region apprehensions from random
introduction of non-indigenous plants and biotic pests
*Correspodence:
species increases. Because of native enemies absence and
changed ecological conditions accidentally introduced
pest species may begin behave quite abruptly in a new
environment (Hrubík, 2002). Some of these pest species
also cross on native woody plants and in cooperation
with other unfavourable environment factors they may
cause mortification of whole forest woody plants vesture.
However majority of non-indigenous pests is fixed only
to city environment.
In an urban environment, which is characterized by
specific unfavourable conditions, the negative influence
of insect pests raises. Research has found out that the
individual factors actuating in city greenery objects have
a different signification for specific species and for whole
terrestrial vertebrate families, mainly in dependence on
their migration and adaptation abilities. In industrial
cities with high pollution environment degree we can
observe that multitude of insects with secret manner
of life (mining and gall-forming species, midges, scales)
increases, and contrariwise, the multitude of predators
and parasitic species which are more sensitive on
these conditions decreases (Hrubík, 1988). The most
informations about insect invasions come from North
America or Australasia. In other regions (e.g. Europe,
South America, Asia, Africa), the ecological impact of
invasive insects has been much less studied, partly
because insect invasions have been less critical for the
environment in these regions than in North America,
Australasia and most oceanic islands (Kenis and Pere,
2007). In 1994, Mattson et al. (1994) estimated that there
Ján Kollár, Slovak University of Horticulture in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape
Engineering, Department of Green’s biotechnics, Tulipánová 7, 949 01 Nitra, Slovak Republic, phone: +
421 376 415 434, e-mail: [email protected]
Ján Kollár: Alien pest species on woody plants in urban conditions of Slovakia, pp. 70–73
– 70 –
were more than 368 alien phytophagous species in
wooded areas of America north of Mexico. In contrast,
insect invasions in forests are much less documented in
Europe (Roques, 2007).
In care of city and forest greenery it is important to
dedicate higher attention to protection, justification and
to timely damage causes discovery. Premise of successful
protection to harmful factors are correct diagnosis,
knowledge and harmful factor classification according to
symptoms which we detected on damaged woody plant.
Another justification premise is control and prognosis on
its basis (Zúbrik, Novotný et al., 2004).
In 2006–2014 research on the phytophagous insects
of ornamental woody plants (trees and shrubs) was
carried out in interest areas in Nitra, Topoľčany, Komárno,
Partizánske, Prievidza, Piešťany, Trnava, Bratislava,
Mlyňany arboretum SAS. All these cities are located
in the western part of the Slovak Republic. They are
components of the Danubian lowland region and they
are characterized by semi-arid and humid climate. The
average annual total precipitation is about 600 mm. The
average annual temperature is in the range of 8–11 °C.
The research aim was the analysis of the phytophagous
entomofauna composition on autochthonous and
allochthonous woody plants. Especially the alien species
were evaluated.
We realised the monitoring of woody plant damage
in the examined localities 2–3 times per growing season.
Table 1
In the field we took the samples of damaged parts,
and adults or larvae for further determination. For the
purposes of determination publications by Skuhravý
and Skuhravá (1998), Csóka (1997, 2003), Blackman and
Eastop (1994), Schnaider (1976), Laštůvka and Laštůvka
(1997), Péricart (1998) were used.
During research we found on ornamental woody plants
437 species and 5 varieties of animal pests. From that
number the alien species accounted 59 species. During
years 2006–2014 were recorded 16 new alien pest species
for Slovakia (Table 1).
After pest species quantification according to their
origin, the highest number of alien species in Slovakia
comes from Asia area (23 species). Many species expand
to Slovakia also from North America (18 species) and
Mediterranean (15 species). The least number of alien
species comes from Africa. Two recorded alien species
have unknown origin (Figure 1). In the last years alien
species spread to Slovakia area mainly from asian and
mediterranean region.
From the all recorded alien pest species the orders
Hemiptera (25 species) and Lepidoptera (15 species)
accounted the highest number (Figure 2).
Many invasive and introduced pest species better
adapted to temperature amplitude in Slovakia and they
find optimal conditions to reproduction.
On pest species occurence influenced mainly species
composition of woody plants and ecological conditions
as well as.
List of new alien pest species for Slovak Republic
Order
Species
Origin
Host plant
Year of first record
in Slovakia
Hemiptera
Pseudaulacaspis pentagona (Targioni – Tozzetti, 1887)
Asia
Catalpa sp.
2007
Hemiptera
Pulvinaria hydrangeae Steinweden, 1946
Asia
Tilia sp., Hydrangea sp.
2011
Hemiptera
Myzocallis walshii (Monell, 1879)
North America
Quercus sp.
2007
Hemiptera
Cinara curvipes (Patch, 1912)
North America
Abies sp.
2007
Hemiptera
Leptoglossus occidentalis Heidemann, 1910
North America
Pinus sp.
2005-2006
Diptera
Obolodiplosis robiniae (Haldemann, 1847) North America
Robinia sp.
2005-2006
Elaeagnus sp.
2006
Diptera
Amauromyza elaeagni (Rohdendorf-Holmanová, 1959) Mediterranean
Diptera
Agromyza demeijerei Hendel, 1920
Mediterranean
Laburnum sp.
2006
Hymenoptera Eurytoma amygdali Enderlein 1907
Asia
Amygdalus sp.
2009
Hymenoptera Nematus tibialis Newman 1837 North America
Robinia sp.
2007
Prostigmata Aceria pyracanthi (Canestrini, 1890)
Mediterranean
Pyracantha sp.
2006
Coleoptera Bruchidius siliquastri (A.Delobel, 2007) Asia
Cercis sp.
2006
Coleoptera
Megabruchidius tonkineus (Pic, 1904)
Asia
Gleditsia sp.
2011
Coleoptera
Acanthoscelides pallidipennis (Motschulsky 1873)
Asia
Amorpha sp.
2012
Coleoptera
Scobicia chevrieri (Villa & Villa 1835)
Mediterranean
Quercus sp.?
2014
Lepidoptera
Cydalima perspectalis (Walker, 1859)
Asia
Buxus sp.
2012
– 71 –
Origin
Asia
37,3
North America
30,5
Mediterranean
27,1
Africa
1,7
Unknown
3,4
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Number of species [%]
Figure 1
Percentage of alien pest species according to origin
Order
Hymenoptera
5
Coleoptera
8,5
Diptera
8,5
Acknowledgement
42,4
Hemiptera
Lepidoptera
25,4
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Number of species [%]
Figure 2
Supported by the KEGA project:
Program of the lifelong learning for
arborists in Slovakia, No. 012SPU4/2013, and project APVV-0421-07.
References
10,2
Acarina
indigenous pest on that aforesaid
woody palnts species. The important
role in plant protection in Europe
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occur in Slovakia, but they were
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Anoplophora glabripennis Motsch.,
planthopper
Metcalfa pruinosa
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2007). In the last years occur mainly
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Although many of them are not
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potential risk. Roques et al. (2009)
also mentioned, that the new
discovered mediterranean species
in northern and western areas of
Europe are very significant.
In the past and also in present
were woody plants introduced from
Asia and America, therefore the
most number of pests has origin in
these areas. However, many alien
pest started they harmfull activity
in longer time period. Hrubík (1988)
mentioned, that in the past were
any pests species on asian and
american woody plants, or they
occur very sporadically (Cercis
canadensis L., Cotoneaster dammeri
Schneid., Elaeagnus angustifolia L.,
Robinia pseudoacacia L., R. hispida
L., Tilia americana L., ...). In present
we acounted some alien and
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locust gall midge Obolodiplosis robiniae
(Haldeman) (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)
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– 73 –
EXAMINATION OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DIFFERENT DENDROMETRIC
QUANTITIES OF HOSTS AND MISTLETOE BUSH NUMBER
Tivadar BALTAZÁR1*, Ildikó VARGA2, Gergő Gábor NAGY3, Miloš PEJCHAL1
Mendel University in Brno, Czech Republic
2
University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
3
Corvinus University of Budapest, Budapest, Hungaryia
1
The monitoring of presence of European mistletoe (Viscum album) was carried out between the years 2011 to 2013 in winter
period in castle park in Lednice. The most common host taxa belong to genera Acer, Tilia, Crataegus, Juglans and Robinia.
For statistical evaluation of collected data we used linear and exponential regression models. Our results confirmed that
the mistletoe bush number was higher with increased tree height, diameter at breast height, crown volume and crown
projection. In some cases (e.g. Tilia cordata or Tilia platyphyllos) the regression analysis showed higher relationship (ca. 25–
35 %) between the mistletoe number per tree and diameter at breast height and crown volume. There is big difference
among the hosts within similar dendrometric quantities, consequently, some host taxa are more sensitive for infection. The
strongest relationship was observed in case of Juglans nigra (max. 45 %), which probably will be the most endangered host
in the whole park.
Keywords: Viscum album, host woody species, mistletoe infection, regression analysis
Introduction
European or White berry mistletoe (Viscum album L.) from
the family Viscaceae (Santalaceae sensu lato; Nickrent et
al., 2010) is a globular evergreen, perennial, epiphytic and
hemiparasitic shrub with persistent haustoria in the host
(Zuber, 2004). It is able to infect 452 (mostly deciduous)
woody species, subspecies, varieties and hybrids
belonging to 96 genera of 44 families. Spontaneous
infections of the hardwood mistletoe in Europe were
reported on 384 taxa, including 190 alien, introduced
trees and shrubs (Barney et al., 1998).
The distribution of Viscum album is quite uneven
in Europe but it is one of the most common branch
parasites in the Old World. Its vertical and horizontal
distribution depends primarily on temperature which is
needed for its optimal growth (Dobbertin et al., 2005
Zuber, 2004). Within this area its distribution depends
primarily on the hosts, birds and man (Wangerin, 1937).
Other factors (e.g. individual differences among host
trees) are less obvious, but also may play an important
role in explaining local abundance and distribution of
mistletoe plants (Kartoolinejad et al., 2007). Our previous
studies (Baltazár et al., 2013a) confirmed that the
likelihood of infection increases with the age of trees or
lowering vitality of tree. In case of Parrotia persica (DC.)
C. A. Mey., the infection intensity has positive significant
relationship with diameter at breast height (DBH),
distance to conspecificity and locating in the stand edge,
*Correspodence:
but no correlation was found between tree height and
infection intensity. In other cases (Baltazár et al., 2013b)
it was proved that the infected trees are bigger and have
a greater crown volume than uninfected trees. There is
also different intensity of infection in each host (Baltazár
et al., 2013a; Kartoolinejad et al., 2007).
The main aim of this study was to find relationship
between some dendrometric quantities and number of
mistletoe bushes on tree and to confirm the hypothesis
that number of mistletoe bushes will be higher with
increased e.g. tree height or crown volume.
The research locality Lednice is situated in southern
Moravia at an altitude of 165 m above the sea level
and its average annual temperature is about 9 °C and
approximately 500–650 mm of rainfall per year. The field
investigation was focused on the spread of European
mistletoe (Viscum album L.) in the castle park and it was
usually carried out in winter periods (from December
to March) of the years 2011 to 2013. All trees were
individually evaluated and the pre-eminently following
data were recorded:
yy Identification of individuals, which included: serial
section number, serial department number, serial
number of the element in a department, element type,
taxon (for this purpose we used the nomenclature
according to Erhardt et al., 2008).
Tivadar Baltazár, Mendel University in Brno, Faculty of Horticulture, Department of Planting Design and
Maintenance, Valtická 337, 691 44 Lednice, Czech Republic
Tivadar Baltazár et al.: Examination of the relationship between different dendrometric quantities of hosts and mistletoe bush number, pp. 74–77
– 74 –
yy Basic dendrometric quantities: tree height, crown
width, diameter at breast height (DBH). Measured in
practice by common methods (Machovec, 1982).
yy Crown projection: was calculated as the area of ellipse:
A = π × a × b, the possible damage of crown was
deducted (percentage estimate).
yy Crown volume: was calculated as the volume of
ellipsoid: V = 4/3 × (π × a × b × c), the possible damage
of crown was deducted (percentage estimate).
yy Exact number of mistletoe bushes.
The data analysis was carried out only with these
infected host taxa which occurred in the park most
frequently. For characterization of the relationship
between the dendrometric quantities and the mistletoe
bush number, linear and exponential regression analysis
was performed, where mistletoe number was used as
the dependent variable and dendrometric quantities
Table 1
as the explanatory variables. The best-fitting curve
was obtained by the method of ordinary least squares
(OLS). Coefficient of determination (R2) was used for
measurement of how close the data are to the fitted
regression line. The data processing and evaluating was
carried out in Microsoft Office Excel 2010 and statistical
analyses were performed using the statistical program R
version 3.0.2. (R Core Team 2013), for editing R scripts the
Tinn-R code editor was used (Faria, 2013).
Results
Due to our results we can conclude that there is no or
small relationship between the selected dendrometric
quantities and mistletoe bush number. However, the
mistletoe bush number is higher with increased e.g. tree
height, DBH etc., as predicted. The average percentage
value of this correlation was between 10 and 20.
Relationship between the mistletoe bush number and dendrometric quantities with different host taxa
Type of relationship
Tree height (x) and
mistletoe number
(y)
Diameter at breast
height (x) and
mistletoe number
(y)
Crown projection
(x) and mistletoe
number (y)
Taxon
Linear regression model
R2
Exponential regression model
R2
Acer campestre
y = -3.23 + 1.52x
0.07
y = 2.28e0.09x
0.08
Acer platanoides
y = -20.14 + 3.05x
0.17
y = 1.51e
0.12x
0.14
Acer pseudoplatanus
y = 5.64 + 1.61x
0.05
y = 5.50e
0.06x
0.04
Crataegus monogyna
y = -14.46 + 4.29x
0.16
Crataegus pedicellata
y = 0.58 + 1.05x
Juglans nigra
0.17x
y = 2.56e
0.08
0.01
y = 1.87e
0.12x
0.01
y = -20.47 + 4.55x
0.36
y = 5.65e
0.11x
0.33
Robinia pseudacacia
y = -2.15 + 0.83x
0.18
y = 1.47e
0.09x
0.20
Tilia cordata
y = -23.30 + 4.38x
0.22
Tilia platyphyllos
y = -6.20 + 1.97x
Acer campestre
1.48x
y = 4.40e
0.21
0.08
y = 3.34e
0.06x
0.06
y = 0.19 + 0.44x
0.14
Acer platanoides
y = -4.40 + 0.73x
Acer pseudoplatanus
0.02x
y = 3.21e
0.13
0.19
y = 3.14e
0.03x
0.14
y = 2.45 + 0.72x
0.17
y = 5.75e
0.03x
0.10
Crataegus monogyna
y = -13.28 + 1.55x
0.31
y = -0.97 + 0.72x
Juglans nigra
0.07x
y = 2.31e
0.19
0.15
y = 1.52e
0.09x
0.15
y = -3.23 + 1.49x
0.44
y = 8.52e
0.04x
0.40
Robinia pseudacacia
y = 3.16 + 0.19x
0.21
y = 2.51e
0.02x
0.24
Tilia cordata
y = -3.35 + 1.17x
0.30
y = 7.39e0.03x
0.27
Tilia platyphyllos
y = -19.86 + 0.94x
0.40
y = 1.96e0.03x
0.36
Acer campestre
y = 6.94 + 0.18x
0.13
y = 4.58e0.01x
0.12
Acer platanoides
y = -4.40 + 0.73x
0.19
y = 3.14e0.03x
0.14
Acer pseudoplatanus
y = 2.45 + 0.72x
0.17
y = 5.75e0.03x
0.10
Crataegus monogyna
y = -13.28 + 1.55x
0.42
y = 2.31e0.07x
0.19
y = -0.97 + 0.72x
0.15
y = 1.52e0.09x
0.15
Juglans nigra
y = 24.66 + 0.39x
0.44
y = 19.08e0.008x
0.40
Robinia pseudacacia
y = 3.16 + 0.19x
0.21
Tilia cordata
y = -3.35 + 1.17x
Tilia platyphyllos
y = -19.86 + 0.94x
y = 2.51e
0.02x
0.24
0.30
y = 7.39e
0.03x
0.27
0.40
y = 1.96e
0.03x
– 75 –
0.36
Figure 1
Regression plot between different dendrometric quantities and mistletoe bush number in case of Juglans nigra
Conversely, there is bigger difference among the hosts,
because in some cases (e.g. Juglans nigra) we found
stronger correlation (max. 45 %). There is also no big
difference between the fitting of linear and exponential
regression model. The following table (Tab. 1) represents
the equation of linear and exponential regression
line with coefficient of determination, where y is the
dependent variable (always mistletoe bush number) and
x is the explanatory variable (dendrometric quantities).
Fig. 1 also shows these relationships in case of Juglans
nigra.
Discussion and conclusion
From our results it is obvious that we observed none or
small relationship when we individually analysed the
influence of local factors. However, when we analysed
these factors together, the multiple regression analysis
showed higher (but not very strong) relationship between
these dendrometric quantities and mistletoe number.
Probably, these or other local factors (e.g. vitality of tree,
tree age) together may influence the rate of infection in
the park and therefore they cannot be studied separately.
There is big difference among hosts with similar
dendrometric quantities which proves that hosts react
to the infection in different ways and some hosts are
more sensitive than others. Similar results were obtained
by Baltazár et al. (2013a), in case of Tilia cordata the
average number of mistletoe bushes on a tree was five
times higher than in case of Acer campestre with similar
quantities. The analyses proved the strongest relationship
in case of diameter at breast height and tree volume used
as an explanatory variable. Juglans nigra will be the most
endangered host in the whole park and Tilia cordata and
Tilia platyphyllos will be more sensitive to infection than
other tree species.
Several other studies were obtained in case of other
taxa of the family Viscaceae. Aukema and Martínez del
Río (2002) on Phoradendron californicum Nutt., Donohue
(1995) on Plicosephalus curviflorus (Benth. ex Oliv.),
Overton (1994) on Phrygilanthus sonorae (S. Watson)
– 76 –
Standl. and Reid and Smith (2000) on Amyema preissii
(Miq.) Tiegh. found a weak relationship between host
size and infection intensity. This pattern appears to be
typical for bird-dispersed taxa (Roxburgh and Nicolson
2007), because Nowak and McBride (1992) found more
Arceuthobium campylopodum Engelm. on smaller
host trees. This plant is not dispersed by birds and has
explosively dispersed seeds that are likely to land on
smaller trees close to a host tree (Roxburgh and Nicolson,
2007).
Overton (1994) suggested that size-prevalence
relationship would occur simply because larger trees are
older and have had more time to be infected. Roxburgh
and Nicolson (2007) claimed that unequivocally
separating the effects of tree age and tree size is
difficult as they are tightly correlated. However, their
result proves that taller trees in the same age are more
frequently parasitized. Overton (1994) also affirmed
that the mistletoe infection intensity of a tree can be
considered as an indicator of the attractiveness of a tree
to a disperser.
Our results did not answer the question which
dendrometric quantities have the most important role to
mistletoe distribution in model area. In the near future
we are going to study the influence of other factors (e.g.
vitality, development stage, exact location of host in park)
and difference among hosts for better understanding the
mistletoe occurrence and its distribution.
Acknowledgement
This publication was supported by project No.
DF11P01OVV019 – Landscape architecture’s methods and
tools for spatial development which meets the thematic
priority TP 1.4. of Applied Research and Development of
National and Cultural Identity Programme, funded by
Ministry of Culture of the Czech Republic.
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COMPARISON OF DEVELOPMENT OF CHLOROPHYLL IN THE LEAVES
OF GINKGO BILOBA L. USING DESTRUCTIVE AND NON-DESTRUCTIVE ANALYSIS
Marcel RAČEK*, Helena LICHTNEROVÁ, Jana ČERNÁ
The research defines the time depended differentiation of chlorophyll in the leaves of Ginkgo biloba L. seedlings using
destructive and non-destructive methods. Water regime was induced for plants at the stage of growth of shoots at the
beginning of June. Moisture of the substratum was 70% of saturation of the soil, and was regulated three times a week.
Water regime was maintained for seven measurements. Sampling for analysis of chlorophyll content in leaves was carried
out at three week intervals. First sampling was conducted immediately after the establishment of experiments in midJune. The last collection was conducted in mid-September. By using different methods for measuring the chlorophyll in the
leaves was found that changes in chlorophyll content can be identically recorded by destructive as well as non-destructive
methods. The advantage of using non-destructive methods is less of subjects needed for the analysis and elimination of
errors caused by the individual characteristics of plants.
Keywords: chlorophyll content index, leaf, Ginkgo biloba L. seedlings
Introduction
Ginkgo biloba L. is one of the phylogenetically oldest tree
species which comes from Southeast Asia. Its homeland
is the in province of Sichuan in China, but also grow in
other countries of East Asia and since 1730 is growing in
Europe (http://ohioline.osu.edu/sc157/sc157_13.html). It
is characterized by slower growth, is relatively resistant
to immission load and de-icing salts. It is generally
considered one of the most adaptable species in our
climate (http://ohioline.osu.edu/sc157/sc157_13.html).
For this reason is ginkgo subjected to review its response
to various stress factors, particularly the response to
water scarcity (Raček et al., 2009a). One of the potential
secondary indicators of the reaction on dryness are
changes in chlorophyll, which was confirmed in the
experiments with seedlings of Pyrus pyraster Burgsd L.
and Sorbus domestica L. Paganová (2008) and Paganová
(2009), and at the seedlings of Acer davidii ssp. Grosseri
Pax de Jong (Raček, 2009b). For herbaceous species were
recorded similar results by Jureková et al. (2003) when
examining Lycopersicum esculentum Mill.
To confirm the changes in chlorophyll content is
necessary for defining of the optimal development of
chlorophyll content during ontogenesis of leaves and for
detection of factors which influence synthesis. For that
reason, was the goal of study to define and compare the
time depended differentiation of chlorophyll content
in the leaves of Ginkgo biloba L. seedlings by using
destructive and non-destructive methods.
Plant material was produced from seeds from parent
plants growing in the park of Topoľčianky. It were oneyear old seedlings grown in plastic one-litter containers
in a substrate TS 3 Standard (pH 5.5 to 6.0 + fertilizer
1 kg m-3) enriched by clay fraction (0–25 mm/m clay 20 kg
m-3). At the beginning of June in the phenological stage
of rapid shoot growth irrigation regime was induced. The
level of soil substratum saturation was 70%. Substratum
was irrigated three times a week. Irrigation regime was
maintained for eighty five days. The sampling was made
seven times per growing season. The first collection
took place immediately after the induction of irrigation
regime. The last sampling took place at the beginning
of September after eighty five days of differentiated
irrigation regime. Five seedlings were analysed for one
analysis. Analysis of chlorophyll content in leaves was
carried out according Šesták and Čatský (1966). For each
analysis were used all leaves of the plant. Parallel was on
the collected leaves measured chlorophyll content by
chlorophylmeter Opti Science CMC-200th. Chlorophyll
content was expressed by means of the CCI (Chlorophyll
Content Index). Results were analyzed for one growing
season.
*Correspodence:
The results obtained by destructive analysis were
compared with those obtained by measuring with
chlorophyllmeter Opti Science CMC-200th.The comparison
Marcel Raček, Slovak University of Agriculture, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering,
Department of Planting Design and Maintenance, Tulipánová 7, 949 76 Nitra, Slovakia, phone:
+421/37/6415433, e-mail [email protected]
Marcel Raček, Helena Lichtnerová, Jana Černá: Comparison of development of chlorophyll in the leaves of Ginkgo biloba L. using destructive ..., pp. 78–79
– 78 –
25
mg.m -2
20
development of
chlorophyll content
in the leaves
15
10
5
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
measurement
Figure 1
Time depended development of chlorophyll content in the leaves of
bilobadevelopment
L. in mg m
Time Ginkgo
depended
of chlorophyll content in the
leaves of Ginkgo biloba L. in CCL
-2
300
250
CCl
Acknowledgement
The research was supported by
grant project VEGA 1/0246/13
Entitled „Water-use strategies of
the xerophytic woody plants and
perennials in urban conditions“ and
was co-Funded by the European
Community under project no
26220220180: Building Research
Centre “Agro-Bio-Tech”
References
350
development of
chlorophyll content in
the leaves
200
150
100
50
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
measurement
Figure 2
results. By using chlorophyllmeter
is in comparison with destructive
methods possible to moderate
measurement errors caused by the
individual characteristics of plants.
Time depended development of chlorophyll content in the leaves of
Ginkgo biloba L. in CCI2
between the corrected curves
(Figure 1 and Figure 2) confirmed
the identical time differentiation of
chlorophyll in the leaves of Ginkgo
biloba L. seedlings during late spring
and summer. When measured by
chlorophyllmeter in comparison
with destructive methods had a less
pronounced deviation distance
expressed by a polynomial curve
of the measured values (Figure 1
and Figure 2). Chlorophyll content
varied, depending on the course of
the vegetation. Chlorophyll content
peaked in mid-July. In the coming
days and weeks there has been
measured a decrease of chlorophyll
content. Decrease in chlorophyll
content was gradual and even up to
the last measurement, which took
place in mid-September. By using
different methods for measuring
the chlorophyll in the leaves was
found that changes in chlorophyll
content can be recorded relatively
identically by both destructive
and non-destructive methods. The
advantage of using non-destructive
methods is less of subjects needed
for the analysis and elimination
of errors caused by the individual
characteristics of plants.
Conclusions
The results obtained suggest that
the chlorophyll content in leaves
of one-year seedlings of Ginkgo
L. culminates around mid-July. In
subsequent weeks was recorded
a gradual decline in its content.
Measurement also confirmed that
the use of destructive methods
by Šesták and Čatský (1966) and
non-destructive
measurements
using
chlorophyllmeter
Opti
th
Science CMC-200 leads to identical
http://ohioline.osu.edu/sc157/sc157_13.
html
JUREKOVÁ, Z. et al. 2003. Tvorba
voľného prolínu v genotypoch rajčiaka
jedlého
(Lykopersicum esculentum.
Mill.) stresovaných vodným stresom. In:
Nové poznatky z genetiky a šľachtenia
poľnohospodárskych rastlín. Piešťany :
VÚRV, 2003. s. 63 – 65
PAGANOVÁ, V. et al. 2008. Vodným
stresom indukované fyziologické reakcie
semenáčikov hrušky planej (Pyrus
pyraster L. Burgsd). In: Biotechnology.
Scientific Pedagogical Publishing, 2008.
ISBN 80-85645-58-0.
PAGANOVÁ, V. et al. 2009. Physiological
responses of service tree (Sorbus
domestica L.) in conditions of the
differentiated water regime. In: Acta
horticulturae et Regio Tecturae, 2009,
mimoriadne číslo, s. 31–33. ISSN
1335-2563.
RAČEK, M. – LICHTNEROVÁ, H. –
DRAGÚŇOVÁ, M. 2009a. Reakcie Ginkgo
biloba L. na zmeny životných podmienok.
In: Dendrologické dni v Arboréte Mlyňany
SAV 2009. Nitra : SAV, 2009. s.186–189.
ISBN 978-80-970254-4-1.
RAČEK, M. – LICHTNEROVÁ, H. –
DRAGÚŇOVÁ, M. 2009b. The Influence
of Water Regimes on Indicators of
Adaptability of the Acer davidii ssp.
grosseri Pax de Jong. In: Acta horticulturae
et Regio Tecturae, 2009, mimoriadne
číslo, s. 37–38. ISSN 1335-2563.
ŠESTÁK, J. – ČATSKÝ, J. 1966. Metody
studia fotosyntetické produkce rostlin.
Praha : Akademia, ČSAV, 1966, 393 s.
Marcel Raček, Helena Lichtnerová, Jana Černá: Comparison of development of chlorophyll in the leaves of Ginkgo biloba L. using destructive ..., pp. 78–79
– 79 –
SITE EVALUATION AND TREE SELECTION FOR URBAN ENVIRONMENT
Katarína ROVNÁ
Selecting the right tree for a particular place can avoid costly disappointments later. There is no one perfect tree for any
situation. Urban trees provide a variety of “ecosystem services” or direct environmental benefits for people. The most
successful approach is to select trees to match site conditions and limitations, based upon a thorough site assessment.
Diversity is one key to a successful tree planting program. Over-planting of one species in an area can result in monocultures
that encourage the build-up of insect populations and diseases that can destroy an entire planting.
Keywords: urban trees, site evaluation, tree selection
Introduction
Close to 56 percent of the Slovak population lives in city
areas and depends on the essential ecological, economic,
and social benefits provided by urban trees and forests.
Street is the first public space of the city. It should
provide an opportunity for all and, if properly designed,
can become an economic, social and environmental
asset of the city (Sidorová a i., 2013).
Site evaluation
The basic way to begin a site evaluation is to walk
around the town to find out which species grow well in
landscapes with similar site attributes. It is important to
keep in mind that no two sites are exactly alike. Various
conditions affect the success of a particular tree species
(Bakay, 2007; Bakay and Kollár, 2014; Bassuk et al., 2009;
Sandifer and Givoni, 2002).
Many authors described site evaluation as the first
step in selecting proper trees for a planting site. It is
important to consider above-ground and below-ground
site attributes. Many times creators use to skip the site
evaluation process, which explains why trees planted in
urban areas do not so often prosper (Bakay and Kollár,
2014; Bakay and Paganová, 2013; Dirr, 1998). If there
is no one perfect tree, it is because there is no one
homogeneous urban environment or site. The urban
environment is a conglomeration of soils, microclimates
and other site conditions. All conditions can change
dramatically in the very small space (http://www.galk.
de/arbeitskreise/ak_stadtbaeume/webprojekte/sbliste/;
Phillips, 2010).
A comprehensive site assessment should occur
which considers plant requirements such as climate
and microclimate considerations (hardiness zone,
*Correspodence:
light conditions, heat, wind), soil factors (pH, texture,
compaction levels, drainage characteristics, yearly
salt application), above-ground limitations (wires,
proximity to structures), and below-ground limitations
(rooting space, utility issues). Only when there is
a thorough understanding of the environmental
variables at a potential planting site we will be able to
make appropriate tree selections (Bakay and Paganová,
2013; Gilman and Sadowski, 2007). It is important to
note that some trees are adaptable to a wide range of
environmental conditions while others have a narrow
range in which they will grow well.
Trees in urban areas provide a number of benefits to
the public. Besides their aesthetic value, they provide a
number of tangible environmental benefits that often go
unrecognized (Bassuk et al., 2009; Gilman and Sadowski,
2007; Phillips, 2010).
Some of the benefits of urban trees:
yy Trees improve the environment:
yy reduce pollution (O3, NO2, SO2, CO2),
yy improve air quality.
yy Aesthetic value.
yy Reduce topsoil erosion, improve water quality.
yy Save energy.
yy Reduction in storm water runoff and required
infrastructure.
yy Increases in private real estate market values.
yy Urban trees are found to be the most important
indicator of attractiveness in a community (Bassuk et
al., 2009; Dirr, 1998; Gilman and Sadowski, 2007).
How it works?
Trees and vegetation help cool urban climates through
shading and evapotranspiration. Leaves and branches
Katarína Rovná, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape
Engineering, Department of Planting Design and Maintenance, Tulipánová 7, Nitra, Slovakia, e-mail:
[email protected]
Katarína Rovná: Site evaluation and tree selection for urban environment, pp. 80–83
– 80 –
reduce the amount of solar radiation that reaches the
area below the canopy of a tree or plant. The amount of
sunlight transmitted through the canopy varies based
on plant species (Gilman and Sadowski, 2007; Phillips,
2010). As an example of shading, American experts did
multi-month study. They measured maximum surface
temperature reductions ranging from 11–25 ºC for walls
and roofs at two buildings (Akbari, Kurn and Hanford,
1997). Another study examined the effects of vines on
wall temperatures and found reductions of up to 20 ºC
(Sandifer and Givoni, 2002). A third study found that tree
shading reduces the temperatures inside parked cars
by about 25 ºC (Scot, Simpson and McPherson, 1999).
Evapotranspiration cools the air by using heat from the
air to evaporate water. To reduce the wind speed, trees
and other large vegetation can also be use as windbreaks
or wind shields.
Urban trees and vegetation reduce air pollution and
greenhouse gas emissions. In addition to saving energy,
the use of trees and vegetation as a mitigation strategy
For site evaluation we should note north arrow, soil
factors as pH levels, texture (clayey, sandy, loamy),
sunlight levels (full sun, partial sun, shade), visual
assessment of trees (species, cultivar, size (height, width))
(Bassuk et al., 2009). Before selecting the tree it must be
also evaluated location of overhead wires, underground
utilities, buildings and pavement, as well as problem
drainage areas.
Results
Selection of the most frequently used urban trees in
the climatic conditions of Slovakia is shown in table
1. Characteristics show species and cultivar name, the
width and height of trees, crown brightness, lighting
requirements and brief comments.
Crown
brightness
Lighting
requirements
Acer campestre
‘Elsrijk’
6–12
(15)
4–6
middle
–»
–– straight continuous stem, growth in narrow and
uniform, dense, compact crown
2
Acer platanoides
‘Cleveland’
10–15
7–9
low
–»
–– such as the type, with oval, aged broad ovoid, compact
and regular crown
3
Acer platanoides
‘Globosum’
to 6
5–8
low
–»
–– densely branched, closed ball crown, pay attention to
gauge, hard frost, heat and drought tolerant, wind resistant
and shade tolerant, suitable for pots and containers
4
Acer platanoides
‘Olmsted’
10–12
(15)
2–3
low
–»
–– narrow, columnar; suited for tight spaces in exposed,
dry air inside the village
5
Acer platanoides
‘Royal Red’
to 15
(20)
8–10
low
–»
–– leaves sprouting in red, then purpleblackred constant
until the autumn, shiny, very hardy, tolerates heat,
wind resistant
6
Acer pseudoplatanus
‘Erectum’
15–20
(25)
6–8
low
–»
–– Such as the type, later grows stronger in the width
7
Acer pseudoplatanus
‘Leopoldii’
12–20
12–20
low
–»
–– the leaves are sprouting yellowish or pink copper, later
green with white or yellowish areas
8
Acer pseudoplatanus
‘Rotterdam’
22–25
20–25
low
–»
–– such as the type, but columnar, frusto-conical crown
when young, later broadly conical
9
Aesculus × carnea ‘Briotii‘
10–15
8–12
low
–»
–– such as the type, but strong colored flower
10
Aesculus hippocastanum
‘Baumannii’
15–28
15–20
(25)
low

–– such as the type, but longer and double flowered, no
fruiting
11
Carpinus betulus
‘Fastigiata‘
15–20 4–6 (10)
low
»
–– columnar falling apart to conical and dense crown, at
the age
12
Carpinus betulus ‘Frans
Fontaine’
10–15
4–6
low
13
Crataegus laevigata
‘Paul’s Scarlet’
4–8
4–6
middle
Comments
Width
1
No.
Height
Assortment of recommended urban trees in the Slovak climate conditions
Scientific
name
Table 1
can provide air quality and greenhouse gas benefits.
Leaves remove various pollutants from the air. Trees and
vegetation remove and store carbon.
–– as Carpinus betulus ‘Fastigiata’, but columnar in age,
crown in the youth does not fully close

–– regular, broad-conical, aged more rounded crown with
wide spreading lateral branches, straight central shoot
– 81 –
Crown
brightness
Lighting
requirements
5–7
5–7
middle

15
Fraxinus excelsior ‘Atlas’
15–20
10–15
strong
–– such as the type, but more compact, narrower crown
16
Fraxinus excelsior ‘Nana’
3–5
3–5
middle
–– such as the type, but small and spherical, with densely
branched crown, slow growing, note gauge, suitable
for pots and containers
17
Fraxinus excelsior
‘Westhof’s Glorie’
20–25
(30)
12–15
strong
–– such as the type, but very late foliation, therefore
hardly late frost, straight, continuous stem
18
Fraxinus ornus
‘Meczek’
5–7
19
Ginkgo biloba
‘Fastigiata Blagon’
15–20
4–6
strong
–– narrowly conical, dioeciously, note the case of the fruit
of the female insect, autumn color
20
Ginkgo biloba
‘Princeton Sentry’
15–20
4–6
strong
–– in youth slow-later, very regular and compact crown,
acute upright aspiring, evenly branched branches,
narrowly conical, pointed straight trunk
21
f. inermis
10–25
8–15
(20)
strong
22
‘Skyline’
10–15
10–15
23
‘Sunburst’
8–12
24
Malus ‘Evereste’
25
3–4
middle

Comments
Width
Crataegus × lavallei
‘Carrierei’
Scientific
name
14
No.
Height
Continuation of Table 1
–– broad-conical shape, shoots with strong spines, longadhering, shiny leathery, dark green foliage, suitable
for pots and containers
–– small, spherical, very frugal, urban climates, pay
attention to gauge, beautiful flower

–– such as the type, but thorn less variety, in the later
thorns can be made in individual cases, sensitive to
frost as a young tree
strong

–– such as the type, but equally compact crown with
distinguished branches, thorn less variety, in which
can be made in individual cases subsequently thorns,
is no fruit from
6–8
strong

–– such as the type, but spineless, pale yellow bud, later
green, pay attention to gauge
4–6
4–5
middle
–– wide-upright crown, overhanging side branches,
gauge note the age, small orange-red fruits, low flesh
firmness, for tubs and containers suitable
Malus ‘Red Sentinel‘
4–5
3–4
middle
–– note slender crown, deep overhanging side branches,
gauge, dark red fruits, low flesh firmness, suitable for
pots and containers
26
Malus ‘Rudolph’
5–6
4–5
middle
–– upright crown, broad-ovate to roundish, note gauge later,
orange yellow fruits; low flesh firmness, tends to superficial
cracks in the bark, suitable for pots and containers
27
Populus simonii
28
Prunus avium ‘Plena’
10–15
29
Prunus sargentii
‘Accolade’
30
middle

–– narrowly conical, wide at the age and round, shortlived, snow breakage due to early bud
8–10
low

–– such as the type, but regular pyramidal, dense, compact
crown, double flowered, no fruits urban climates
5–8
3–5
middle
–– roundish to slightly funnel-shaped crown, pay attention
to gauge, attractive flowers and autumn color
Prunus serrulata
‘Kanzan’, ‘Hisakura’
7–12
4–8
middle
–– wide funnel-shaped, later spreading crown, making sure
gauge, attractive flowers and autumn color, rarely fruiting
31
Prunus subhirtella
‘Autumnalis’
5–8
3–5
middle

–– small tree suitable with striking blooms and fall color,
pay attention to gauge, for pots and containers
32
Pyrus calleryana
‘Chanticleer’
8–12
(15)
4–5
middle

–– narrow conical crown, later loosely, broadly pyramidal,
leaf fall after heavy frost (snow breakage), isolated
fruiting, early senescence
33
Pyrus communis
‘Beech Hill’
8–12
5–7
middle
12–15 6–8 (10)
–– initially straight upright growing, later falling apart,
fire risk from fire, some regions pear rust, fruiting
– 82 –
Comments
Lighting
requirements
Crown
brightness
Width
Height
No.
Scientific
name
The second Table 1 continued
34
Quercus robur
‘Fastigiata’
15–20
5–7
low

–– broadly conical crown, wide spreading, long-adherent,
slowly rotting foliage, planting not before December,
tolerates flooding, responds to lowering of ground
water with tops drought, frost hardy
35
‘Bessoniana’
20–25
10–12
strong

–– aged broad rounded and densely branched crown,
usually straight continuous main trunk, and only a few
small spines, rarely flowering
36
‘Umbraculifera’
4–6
4–6
low

–– dense, tubby, more broadly oval, note gauge the age,
can withstand radical pruning, no flower, suitable for
pots and containers
37
Sorbus aria
‘Magnifica’
8–10
4–7
middle

–– such as the type, but smaller and narrower, wider with
regularly constructed crown, at the age
38
Tilia cordata ‘Erecta’
15–18
8–10
low
–– such as the type, but slow growing small and regular
crown, small leaves, as a young tree
39
Tilia cordata ‘Greenspire’
18–20
10–12
low
–– narrow, regular and dense crown, aged broad,
branches ascending, urban climates
40
Tilia cordata ‘Rancho’
8–10
5–6
low
–– such as the type, but with narrow ovate, broadly rounded
at the age, regular crown, slow and compact growth
41
Tilia cordata ‘Roelvo’
12–15
8–12
low
–– such as the type, but broadly conical to rounded
crown, not so compact growing as ‘Rancho’
42
Tilia tomentosa ‘Brabant’
20–30
15–22
low

–– broad conical crown dense and regular structure,
selection with straight continuous strain
Source: http://www.galk.de/arbeitskreise/ak_stadtbaeume/webprojekte/sbliste/; Dirr, 1998 and own research data
Conclusion
Urban trees are a various and valuable elements of
the city’s infrastructure. The benefits of urban trees are
often unnoticed. As was mentioned before they provide
a number of valuable services for the public.
The information in this paper has been collected
from many sources. Among them are Dirr’s Hardy Trees
and Shrubs by Dirr (1998) and GALK street tree list, query
from 9. 21. 2014 workgroup city trees.
Acknowledgement
This paper is supported from KEGA 012SPU-4/2013
Program of the lifelong learning for arborists in Slovakia.
References
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256. ISBN 978-80-8094-205-2.
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non-traditional tree taxa for urban greenery. In: The walking
urban forest, European forum on urban forestry, 2013, p. 118.
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Recommended urban trees: Site assesment and tree selection
for stress tolerance. Urban Horticulture Institute : Cornell
University, 2009, 128 p.
DIRR, A. M. 1998. Dirr’s Hardy Trees and Shrubs. Oregon : Timber
press, 1998, 493 p.
GILMAN, F. E. – SADOWSKI, P. L. 2007. Choosing suitable trees for
urban and suburban sites: site evaluation and species selection.
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woody/documents/EP310.pdf
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PHILLIPS, D. 2010. Assessment of Ecosystem Services Provided
by Urban Trees: Public Lands within the Urban Growth
Boundary of Corvallis, Oregon (Technical report). In: http://
www.itreetools.org/resources/reports/Corvallis_Urban_Tree_
Assessment_Tech_Report.pdf
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Temperatures – Comparing Laboratory and Field Collected
Data. In SOLAR 2002, Proceedings of the Annual Conference of
the American Solar Energy Society. Reno, NV, 2002.
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– 83 –
ASSESSMENT OF POSSIBILITIES OF THE USE OF STRUCTURAL SOILS WITH ADDITION
OF MUNICIPAL WASTE FOR PLANTING TREES AND SHRUBS
Edward MELLER*, Ryszard MALINOWSKI, Adam SAMMEL, Marcin KUBUS, Andrzej ŁYSKO
West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, Poland
In municipal agglomerations is necessary create profitable the conditions for the growth of trees. In order to improve the
conditions of the growth of trees, more and more frequently new technologies of arboriculture are used the stone-soil
mixtures called structural soils. While preparing structural soils it is important to ensure, besides physical parameters, their
adequate chemical composition. In the paper the use of poor in organic matter structural soils and compost of municipal
waste was proposed for composing substrate for planting trees and shrubs. On basis of conducted analyses was affirmed,
that the completion of structural soils is proposed with composts of municipal waste in an amount up to 5% of the weight
was the most optimum. Such a share of composts guarantees an approximate to the required for this type of substrates
share of the organic material. What is more, the applied composts enrich the structural soils with macro- and microelements
accessible for the plants.
Keywords:
Introduction
In municipal agglomerations, due to the tight built-up
soil surface decreasing the inflow of precipitation water,
the underground infrastructure limiting the surface of
roots development, and the chemical contamination
of environment, the conditions for the growth of trees
are unfavourable (Łukaszkiewicz, 2008; Malinowska,
2012). In order to improve the conditions of the growth
of trees, more and more frequently new technologies
of arboriculture are used e.g. aeration and irrigation
systems, elements of anti-compressive modules filled
with the solum, and the stone-soil mixtures called
structural soils. These systems ensure first of all the space
for the development of the trees root system, and good
water, air and chemical conditions in the soil (Bassuk
and Trowbridge, 2004; Garczarczyk, 2008; Grabosky et
al., 2005). While preparing structural soils it is important
to ensure, besides physical parameters, their adequate
chemical composition. To achieve adequate physicalchemical properties of the substrates it is purposeful to
use the compost of waste which is very popular with
consumers (Lewandowska, 1998).
The aim of this paper was to show proportions of
the chosen components for creating the substrate for
planting trees and shrubs in urban agglomerations and
degraded areas.
Method
In the paper the use of poor in organic matter structural
soils and compost of municipal waste produced
*Correspodence:
in Gorzów Wlkp and Kołobrzeg was proposed for
composing substrate for planting trees and shrubs. It was
proposed to create substrate on the basis of the essential
element – the structural soils with addition of compost
in the following amounts: 1, 5, 10, 20 and 30% of the
weight. An initial analysis of potential physical-chemical
properties of such substrate was carried out basing on
the fundamental features of the components.
The paper shows the results of studies concerning the
assessment of possibilities of the use of the structural
soils with addition of the compost of municipal waste for
planting trees and shrubs in urban agglomerations and
degraded areas.
In the study two structural soils by Tegra (Hydralit ZN
and ZU) with addition of compost in the amounts of 1, 5,
10, 20 and 30% of the weight were proposed.
The Hydralit ZN mixture is the mixed material that
consists of 72% of gravel and 28% of earth of light loamy
sands character. The soil skeleton is made up mainly of
broken brick fragments, quartz and glaze resembling
gravel (according to the producer it is lava), the task of
which is stabilization of the structural soils (limitation of
excessive compaction and regulation of water and air
relations). The Hydralit ZU mixture consists of the soil
skeleton (gravel) – 81% and fine earth of light loamy sand
character which constitutes the remaining percentage of
the structural soils. Moreover, this mixture contains the
addition of a root activator, Radolix. Both mixtures are
Edward Meller, West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, Department of Soil Science,
Grassland and Environmental Chemistry, Słowackiego st. 17, 71-434 Szczecin, Poland, e-mail: edward.
[email protected]
Edward Meller et al.: Assesment of possibilities of the use of structural soils with addition of municipal waste for planting trees and shrubs, pp. 84–87
– 84 –
Table 1
Essential physical-chemical parameters of components for creating substrates (structural soil and composts
made from municipal waste in Gorzów Wlkp. and in Kołobrzeg)
Component
Organic substance pH KCl C org N total
%
g kg
C:N
P
-1
K
Mg
Ca
Na
g kg
-1
Compost from Kołobrzeg
39.54
7.44
212.6
16.69
12.7
2.99
3.82
2.88
39.71
3.17
Compost from Gorzów
Wlkp.
39.47
7.63
203.6
9.51
21.4
2.34
6.33
27.1
3.34
4.15
Hydralit ZN
4.53
7.51
30.2
1.81
16.7
0.48
3.76
1.52
10.78
1.66
Hydralit ZU
2.02
7.74
12.6
0.72
17.5
0.31
3.18
1.44
12.51
1.06
Table 2
The content of heavy metals in components for creating substrates (structural soil and composts made from
municipal waste in Gorzów Wlkp. and in Kołobrzeg)
Fe
Component
Mn
Zn
Cu
Pb
Ni
Co
Cd
mg kg
-1
Compost from Kołobrzeg
7 623
194
567
134.7
93.7
28.79
3.89
1.92
Compost from Gorzów Wlkp.
11 420
407
1364
254.2
163.1*
57.32
6.08
3.14
Hydralit ZN
9 080
153
69
21.2
26.4
17.53
5.64
0.76
9 730
157
46
40.3
20.0
12.81
4.51
0.65
Mg
Ca
Na
Hydralit ZU
* exceeded standards in Regulation of the Minister of Agriculture and Rural Development (2008)
Table 3
Component
Essential physical-chemical parameters of the proposed substrates
Organic substance
pHKCl
C org
N total
P
%
K
g kg
-1
The share of composts – 1% of the weight
ZN + K
4.88
7.51
32.02
1.96
0.51
3.76
1.53
11.07
1.68
ZU + K
2.40
7.74
14.60
0.88
0.34
3.19
1.45
12.78
1.08
ZN + G
4.88
7.51
31.93
1.89
0.50
3.79
1.78
10.71
1.68
ZU + G
2.39
7.74
14.51
0.81
0.33
3.21
1.70
12.42
1.09
ZN + K
6.28
7.51
39.32
2.55
0.61
3.76
1.59
12.23
1.74
ZU + K
3.90
7.73
22.60
1.52
0.44
3.21
1.51
13.87
1.17
ZN + G
6.28
7.52
38.87
2.20
0.57
3.89
2.80
10.41
1.78
ZU + G
3.89
7.73
22.15
1.16
0.41
3.34
2.72
12.05
1.21
ZN + K
8.03
7.50
48.44
3.30
0.73
3.77
1.66
13.67
1.81
ZU + K
5.77
7.71
32.60
2.32
0.58
3.24
1.58
15.23
1.27
ZN + G
8.02
7.52
47.54
2.58
0.67
4.02
4.08
10.04
1.91
ZU + G
5.77
7.73
31.70
1.60
0.51
3.50
4.01
11.59
1.37
ZN + K
11.53
7.50
66.68
4.79
98
3.77
1.79
16.57
1.96
ZU + K
9.52
7.68
52.60
3.91
0.85
3.31
1.73
17.95
1.48
ZN + G
11.52
7.53
64.88
3.35
0.85
4.27
6.64
9.29
2.16
ZU + G
9.51
7.72
50.80
2.48
0.72
3.81
6.57
10.68
1.68
1.93
19.46
2.11
ZN + K
15.03
7.49
84.92
6.27
1.23
3.78
ZU + K
13.28
7.65
72.60
5.51
1.11
3.37
1.87
20.67
1.69
ZN + G
15.01
7.55
82.22
4.12
1.04
4.53
9.19
8.55
2.41
13.26
7.71
69.90
3.36
0.92
4.13
9.14
9.76
1.99
ZU + G
ZN – Hydralit ZN; ZU Hydralit ZU; K – compost from Kołobrzeg G – compost from Gorzów Wlk
– 85 –
characterized by a very small amount of organic matter,
alkaline reaction, very high or high content of available
by plants forms of magnesium and potassium, and an
medium or low content of phosphorus (Kubus et al.,
2009; Malinowski et al., 2012).
The characteristic feature of the composts made from
municipal waste of Gorzów Wlkp. is their structure of
earthy and brown colour (Meller et al., 2007a, b). Their
dominating component (56.7% of the mass) is fine earth
(∅ <1.0 mm). The remaining components are weakly
processed organic particles (∅ >1.0 mm – 36.0 % of
the weight) and ballast (mainly plastic and glass – 7.3%
of the weight). The content of organic substance in
these composts is very high (from 31.2 to 50.1%), and is
approximate to values ascertained in similar composts
(Meller et al., 2006). The content of some analyzed heavy
metals in the studied composts exceeds allowable values
Table 4
Component
shown in Regulation of the Minister of Agriculture and
Rural Development of 19 October 2008 (particularly
those for cadmium, lead and nickel).
Composts made from municipal waste in the
composting plant in Kołobrzeg contain on average
48.8 % of fine earth (∅ <1.0 mm), weakly processed
organic particles (∅ >1.0 mm – 7.4 % of the weight) and
ballast (mainly glass and plastic – 43.8% of the weight).
The content of organic substance in these composts
(on average 39.5%) is approximate to its amounts in the
composts made from municipal waste in the ZUO (Waste
Utilization Plant) in Gorzów Wlkp. The amounts of macroelements in both proposed for use composts remain at
a similar level. Composts made from municipal waste in
the composting plant in Kołobrzeg do not exceed the
content of heavy metals (Cd, Pb and Ni) determined in
Regulations of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural
The content of heavy metals in the proposed substrates
Fe
Mn
Zn
Cu
Pb
mg kg
Ni
Co
Cd
-1
ZN + K
9 065
153
74
22.3
27.1
17.64
5.62
0.77
ZU + K
9 709
157
52
41.2
20.7
12.97
4.50
0.66
ZN + G
9 103
156
82
23.5
27.8
17.93
5.64
0.78
ZU + G
9 747
160
59
42.4
21.4
13.26
4.53
0.67
ZN + K
9 007
155
94
26.9
29.8
18.09
5.55
0.82
ZU + K
9 625
159
72
45.0
23.7
13.61
4.48
0.71
ZN + G
9 197
166
134
32.9
33.2
19.52
5.66
0.88
ZU + G
9 815
170
112
51.0
27.2
15.04
4.59
0.77
ZN + K
8 934
157
119
32.6
33.1
18.66
5.47
0.88
ZU + K
9 519
161
98
49.7
27.4
14.41
4.45
0.78
ZN + G
9 314
178
199
44.5
40.1
21.51
5.68
1.00
ZU + G
9 899
182
178
61.7
34.3
17.26
4.67
0.90
ZN + K
8 789
161
169
43.9
39.9
19.78
5.29
0.99
ZU + K
9 309
164
150
59.2
34.7
16.01
4.39
0.90
ZN + G
9 548
204
328*
67.8
53.7
25.49
5.73
1.24
ZU + G
10 068
207
310*
83.1
48.6
21.71
4.82
1.15
20.91
5.12
1.11
ZN + K
8 643
165
218
55.3
46.6
ZU + K
9 098
168
203
68.6
42.1
17.60
4.32
1.03
ZN + G
9 782
229
458*
91.1
67.4
29.47
5.77
1.47
ZU + G
10 237
232
442*
104.5
62.9
26.16
4.98
1.40
ZN – Hydralit ZN; ZU Hydralit ZU; K – compost from Kołobrzeg G – compost from Gorzów Wlk
* exceeded standards in Regulation of the Minister of the Environment (2002) k
– 86 –
Development of 18 June 2008 concerning some rules of
the act on fertilizers and fertilizing.
The addition of composts made from municipal waste
resulted in an increase in the organic matter in substrates
produced in this way (Table 3). Both components show
alkaline reaction, thus different proportions of the used
components do not affect significantly their reaction.
An increasing percent share of the composts causes
a proportional growth in the content of macro-elements.
The proposed structural soils of Hydralit of the ZN and
ZU type with 20% and 30% addition of composts made
in Gorzów Wlkp. contain a norm exceeding amount of
zinc (Regulation of the Minister of the Environment of 9
September 2002 on standards for soil quality and land
quality standards). The remaining mixtures of Hydralit
and composts do not exceed the allowable values
defined in the regulation.
The above described results show that the most
optimal addition to both the structural soils of Hydralit
ZN and ZU is a 5% share of composts of municipal waste.
The presented theoretical assumptions should be verified
in experiments.
Conclusion
For composing substrates for planting trees and shrubs
in urban agglomerations on the basis of the carried out
analysis, the completion of structural soils is proposed
with composts of municipal waste produced in Gorzówie
Wlkp. and in Kołobrzeg in an amount up to 5% of
the weight. Such a share of composts guarantees an
approximate to the required for this type of substrates
share of the organic material. What is more, the applied
composts enrich the structural soils with macro- and
microelements accessible for the plants, and at the
proposed rate the safe amounts of heavy metals in the
substrate will not be exceeded.
References
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site assessment, design and installation. New Jersey : John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, 2004.
GARCZARCZYK, M. 2008. The application of stone-soil mixture
to planting street trees. Contemporary and historic greenery
of towns and villages. From promenade to motorway –
communication with nature. In: A. Greinert, M. E. Drozdek,
Sulechów-Kalsk : ZKTZ IZiIR PWSZ, 2008, p. 232–238.
GRABOSKY, J. – BASSUK, N. – TROWBRIDGE, P. 2005. Using
CU-Structural Soil in the Urban Environment. Ithaca : Cornell
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E. 2009. The assessment of the Tegra Hydralit stone-soil
mixture applied to planting trees in urban areas. Degraded
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physiological parameters of some trees in Szczecin. Szczecin :
West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, 2012,
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(Dz. U. nr 165, poz. 1359), 2002.
REGULATION of the Minister of Agriculture and Rural
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– 87 –
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE VISUAL METHOD OF HAZARD TREE ASSESSMENT
(WID METHOD) IN THE MANAGEMENT OF URBAN TREES
Edyta ROSŁON-SZERYŃSKA*, Piotr SIKORSKI, Ewa ZARAŚ-JANUSZKIEWICZ
Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
This article aims at assessing the effectiveness of the WID method, developed in 2006 by Rosłon-Szeryńska, in the monitoring of
urban trees. Although, the method has found its application in experts research, its development continues with verification
of the established criteria. The performance aspects of the method verified so far are: the time consumed for an assessment
and the repeatability of the results in varying seasons. A survey was conducted on 125 trees, growing by the Rozbrat street
in Warsaw. The sample underwent two evaluations with the interval of 6 months (January, July). The attained data was put
through a comparative analysis, investigating differences in the intensity of the analyzed tree characteristics, the hazard
tree risk score and the time required for an assessment in winter and summer. On the basis of the results, effectiveness and
repeatability of the WID method were determined. High consistency marked the score of the likelihood of breakage in the
base of the trunk (96%) and in the fork (83%). Significant differences were observed in the evaluation of the likelihood of
breakage in the crown (Chi2 = 0.001). The risk of an accident caused by hazard tree score was consistent throughout both
surveys (from 49% for windthrows to almost 100% for breakage in the base of the trunk). Discrepancies in the results were
caused by the lack or existence of foliage, the seasonal appearance of tree fungus and insects, and the snow cover in the
root zone. The research was compared with the results of an inspection by the trees administrator, which declared three
times more trees to be removed than the WID method would allow.
Keywords: hazard tree, visual method, tree risk, tree assessment, urban trees
Introduction
Regular tree condition and hazard assessments are
essential in preventing threats caused by tree failure
and breakages. Tree risk assessment is a broad area of
expertise which combines many disciplines. There is a
large body of scientific literature about biomechanics,
impact of the wind, soils, wood decay, and other topics
that relate to tree risk assessment. Several internal
defect detection technologies have been adapted for
arboriculture and used to evaluate the risk of tree failure,
for example:
yy a static load test (pull test) (Wessolly and Erb, 1998),
yy a single-path stress wave equipment (Fakopp
Microsecond Timer),
yy an acoustic tomography (Picus Sonic Tomograph),
yy a resistance microdrill (IML Resistograph) and
other.
There are major gaps in research which are directly
applicable to professional practice. There is no single
piece of equipment which could provide a complete
assessment.
Commonly, in routine assessments of urban tree the
visual methods are applied. The first methods of urban
tree assessments were developed in the 70’s in Germany
and the USA (Paine, 1973). The time consumed for a single
tree assessment with visual method can vary greatly
*Correspodence:
(5 to 60 minutes) and depends on the specific method
(Rosłon-Szeryńska, 2006). The methods so far developed
can be placed in a threefold classification:
1. The methods of assessment of the tree stability, based
on the laws of biomechanics (Mattheck and Breloer,
1994; Wessolly and Erb, 1998 and others).
2. The methods based on qualitative assessment of the
exterior symptoms and structural defects which lead
to tree failure (Siewniak and Kusche, 1996 and others).
3. The methods of risk assessment, including safety of
people and property protection, popular in the USA
(Robbins, 1986; Ellisson, 2005 and others).
Though many methods have been developed, and
some, like the VTA- method (Visual Tree Assessment),
have gained international renown, it is still believed that
there is not one ideal method which would consider all
the possible occurrences of tree damage.
The visual method of hazard tree assessment ‘WID’
by Rosłon-Szerynska (2006), was developed in Poland
on the basis of a critical analysis of the European and
American research between 1951 and 2005, as well as
a close study of 261 cases of windfalls and windthrows
in Masovia. Likewise the American methods, the WID
method focuses on risk assessment. In the development
of the method elements of the fault tree analysis (FTA)
and event tree analysis (ETA) were used, which aim at
Edyta Rosłon-Szeryńska, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Department of Landscape Architecture, ul.
Nowoursynowska 159, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland, e-mail: edyta_roslon_szerynska(at)sggw.pl
Edyta Rosłon-Szeryńska, Piotr Sikorski, Ewa Zaraś-Januszkiewicz: The effectiveness of the visual method of hazard tree assessment..., pp. 88–92
– 88 –
identifying specific relations between the causes and
a combination of events which can result in creating
a hazard situation and contribute to the damaging
process itself. Due to the complex nature of the source
of hazard, an additional logical modeling technique
was established based on the compiled cases of tree
damage and the concurrent symptoms/structural defects,
tree shapes, as well as the characteristics of the habitat
which contribute to windfalls and windthrows (RosłonSzeryńska, 2009, 2012). Up till 2014, the WID method has
been used to evaluate over 1500 trees growing in the
urban areas. The disadvantage of the method is the lack of
time-efficiency in its application, therefore it is planned to
develop programs which will support the summary of the
data. The aim of this article is to assess the effectiveness of
WID method in routine control of urban trees.
A number of performance aspects of the WID method
was verified: the time consumed for an assessment and
the results’ repeatability in varying seasons. A survey
was carried out on 125 trees, among which 69% were
of the Fraxinus pennsylvanica kind, 28% of the Fraxinus
excelsior, and 3% of Carpinus betulus ‘Fastigiata’ growing
by the Rozbrat street in Warsaw. This sample underwent
two evaluations with the interval of 6 months. The first
survey was performed in the dormant season, between
8th and 11th January, with the air temperature varying
between -13 and 0 ° C. The second survey was performed
in the period of tree vegetation (8th–11th July, 15–26 °C).
In both assessments a questionnaire was used which
comprised the evaluation of the following areas: tree
silhouette, canopy, base of the trunk, the trunk, the
branch structure of the crown, and the crown. With the
application of a qualitative scale it was aimed to measure
the intensity of defect symptoms, and the intensity of
characteristics of the tree and of its vicinity. The scale
was prepared in accordance with the criterion of the
likelihood of tree failure (F) and applied to each of the
five potential hazard events: windthrow (FW), breakage
in the base of the trunk (FB), breaking of the trunk (FT),
breakage in the fork (FF), breakage in the crown (FC). The
assessment of each separate event was based on 5–6
individual criteria concerned with the tree silhouette
(height, slenderness, crown’s force resistance, crown’s
asymmetry, lean), characteristics of the species, the
habitat, damages and structural defects (decay, cracks,
open cavities, v-shaped forks and other). The final score
of risk of an accident caused by a hazard tree (R) was
based on four parameters: the likelihood of tree failure
(F), the likelihood of consequences of an event (C), the
exposure to threat (E), and the possibility of avoiding the
consequences of the event (A). The risk of an accident
(RF) assessment scale was standardized from scope of
1–100 pt to 0–10 pt.
To finalize the evaluation, the results of WID assessment
were compared with the an inspection carried out by
the trees administrator (Department of Sanitation). The
previous inspections of trees by Rozbrat street were
conducted with the use of a subjective method of expert
assessment similar to the one developed by Siewniak
and Kusche (1996).
In the surveyed sample defects were most often found
in the tree trunk (bark tears, dead wood, cavities,
discoloration and other symptoms of wood decay) and
the crown (traces of cuts in the thick branches with
symptoms of decay and cavities). The intensity of those
defects seemed to vary with the seasons.
In the first survey (winter) the trunk was assessed to
have 3% less damage than in the second one. Moreover,
almost 50% less trees showed medium intensity defects
(covering 25–50% of the trunk). In the second survey
(summer) almost 11% of the trees were affected by
conks, whereas in the winter there were only few traces
of the fungus presence. During the second survey it was
possible to carry out a detailed examination of decay
symptoms, such as sap runs, discoloration, presence of
ants and the wood dust which indicated presence of
other insects. The variation in the results was also noted
in the case of crown’s force resistance. In the summer
the percent of trees with a high crown shape parameter
was considerably higher than in winter. There were
also visible differences in the quantities of deadwood
in the canopy. The summer survey presented actual
amounts of deadwood spread, whereas the numbers
in the winter survey were being over or understated,
in fact, there were cases of providing different results
for the same tree. An example can be provided by
the tree nr 40, which initially was considered dead,
but in the summer survey the deadwood appeared
to spread only on 50–75% of the canopy. Tree groups
with small and large quantities of deadwood presented
most noticeable differences. The results of winter
survey indicated that only 3% of trees have deadwood
spreading on >50% crown’s surface, whereas the results
of the summer survey showed that as much as 13% of
the trees belongs in that group.
The surveys also investigated the root system, which
was evaluated through the analysis of the soil under the
tree cover. Also in this case the rough winter weather
conditions (snow) had a negative influence on the
precision of the survey. The damage to the roots and
cavities in the base of the trunk (often filled with snow
and ice) seemed much more extensive than it was in
reality. The snow cover, however, had its advantage in
allowing for an accurate mapping of the district heating
distribution lines, which was not possible in the summer
survey. The parameters which were the most consistent
– 89 –
Figure 1
Tree assessment score distribution for RFC
parameter – the risk of an accident in correlation
to breakage in the crown FC [Chi2 = 0.001]
throughout two surveys were: slenderness and height,
which are easy to measure.
Subsequently, the distribution structure of the data
from both surveys was analyzed and compared using
the parameters of the likelihood of tree failure (F) in
correlation to five potential hazard events (breakage
in the crown (FC); breakage in the fork (FF); windthrow
(FW), breakage in the base of the trunk (FB), breaking of
the trunk (FT)). Moreover, an assessment was made of
potential risk of an accident caused by the damage to
each of the five investigated areas (RF).
The scores for F and RF parameters in correlation to
breakage in the crown (FC) seem to vary, especially in the
case of the former. In the investigated sample the trees
with low and medium score of 0–3 pt are predominant.
The structure of the sample in correspondence to the
above mentioned factors has an asymmetrical rightward
skewed distribution. Out of all trees 60% were classified
as a group with medium risk of an accident, and 40%
were assessed to have a low chance of breakage in the
crown (0–1 pt). There were few instances of trees with
score >5 pt, but not yet presenting extremely high levels
of breakage risk (FC) which would allow for their removal.
The risk of an accident (RF) is lower than the likelihood
of an FC event. The assessment of RF in winter indicated
that almost 82% of trees pose low or medium risk, whereas
Figure 2
Tree assessment score distribution for FC
parameter – the likelihood of breakage in the
crown [Chi2 = 0.710]
in the summer, only 52% were classified in those groups.
The value of Chi2 for likelihood of crown breakage (FC) is
0.710, which means that the score distribution for winter
and summer surveys overlaps in 71% (fig. 1). Whereas the
score of the risk of accident (RFC) is inconsistent (Chi2 =
0.001), as a result of varying data for trees with full foliage
and lack of foliage (fig. 2).
The score for F and RF parameters in correlation to
breakage in the fork (FF) also vary slightly. The first survey,
covering the assessment of F parameter, indicated the
predominance of trees with low and medium risk of an
accident (1–4 pt). A couple percent of trees received
>5 pt. Comparing the FF and RFF scores in varying seasons
shows no statistically significant differences. The value of
Chi2 for RFF is 0.798, and for FF – 0.828, which means that
the data distribution of both surveys is close to identical,
overlaps in 80% (fig. 3 and 4).
The scores for F and RF parameters in correlation
to windthrows (FW) show a right skewed distribution.
The population of trees is predominated by low and
medium risk groups. Result of the first survey show an
1.7 pt average risk of an accident caused by windthrow,
whereas the average RF score of the second survey is at
1.34 pt. All of the analyzed criteria of tree assessment
achieved higher scores in winter, indicating more hazard
than in the summer. The comparative analysis of the data
Figure 3
Tree assessment score distribution for RFF
to breakage in the fork [Chi2 = 0.798]
Figure 4
Tree assessment score distribution for FF
fork [Chi2 = 0828]
– 90 –
Figure 5
Tree assessment score distribution for RFW
parameter – the risk of an accident in
correlation to windthrows [Chi2 = 0.493]
distribution for both seasons shows 50% consistency.
The value of Chi2 for FW is 0.496, and for RFW – 0.493 (fig.
5 and 6).
The score for the F and RF parameters in correlation
to breakage in base of the trunk (FB) remains close
for both surveys. In the investigated sample there is
a predominance of stable trees with very low risk of
breakage (0–1 pt). Out of the whole sample 6% showed
high risk of breakage, and 3% was extremely likely to
fail (7.30–10 pt), and as such could be removed if the
minimizing risk measures were unsuccessful. Comparing
Figure 6
Tree assessment score distribution for FW
parameter – the likelihood of windthrow
occurrence [Chi2 = 0.496]
the score distribution for winter and summer surveys
shows a consistency of 95–99%. The value of Chi2 for FB
is 0.959, and for RFB – 0.996 (fig. 7 and 8).
The score for the F and RF parameters in correlation
to breaking of the trunk (FT) shows a slight discrepancy
between the first and second survey. This is caused by the
difference in severity of accident consequences, which
corresponds to the weight of the part of the tree that can
potentially cause the accident. Trees classified in the high
and significant risk group make up 17% of the whole
sample. Within that group 2% is of high risk and 1% of
Figure 7
Tree assessment score distribution for RFB
to breakage in the base of the trunk [Chi2 = 0.996]
Figure 8
Figure 9
Tree assessment score distribution for RFT
to breakage in the trunk [Chi2 = 0.585]
Figure 10
Tree assessment score distribution for FT
trunk [Chi2 = 0.559]
– 91 –
Tree assessment score distribution for FB
base of the trunk [Chi2 = 0.959]
extremely high risk, thus their removal can be allowed if
other measures of safety improvement fail. Comparing
the score distribution of winter and summer seasons
shows a consistency of 56–59%. The value of Chi2 for FT is
0.559, and for RFT – 0585 (fig. 9 and 10).
Finally, the time and results of the surveys were
compared with an inspection carried out by the trees
administrator. Inspectors of the Department of Sanitation
merely assessed the trees with severe damages, and
as a result of their evaluation 31 trees were declared to
be removed. The avarage time spend on a single tree
assessment was about 3 minutes. With the WID method
it was assessed that removal of 8 out of the 31 trees could
be avoided should other threat minimizing methods be
used. The average time spend on a single tree assessment
was about 10 minutes, to which the time spend on
analyzing the data should be added.
Conclusion
Despite the minor differences in the data of winter and
summer surveyes, the Chi-square test based on the score
distribution proved high repeatability of the results:
49–100% for the R parameter (risk of an accident) and
50–96% for the F parameter (the likelihood of tree failure).
The likelihood of breakage in the crown was the only
exeption from the above (Chi2 = 0.001). High consitency
of the results was observed especially in correlation
to breakage at the base of the trunk (95–100%) and
breakage in the fork (80–83%).
The tree characteristics consistent for both surveys
were: slenderness and height of the tree, which are easy
to assess. The over or understated results of the winter
survey resulted from the presence of snow cover which
interfered with accurate assessment of the tree trunks
and the soil under the canopy. The snow cover had the
advange of allowing a precise mapping of the district
heating distribution lines. The summer survey enabled
a more precise observation and analysis of wood decay
symptoms, such as sap runs, discoloration, presence of
ants and the wood dust which indicates the presence
of other insects. The differences in results of the surveys
were also apparent in the assessment of the quantity of
deadwood and crown’s force resistance, which are easily
misjudged in the winter due to lack of foliage.
Worth mentioning is the lower score for risk of
accidents caused by hazard trees (RF) in comparison to
the the likelihood of tree failure (F), which is a result of
WID specific parameter – the possibility of minimizing risk
of an accident (specific to WID method). This encourages
the assessor to evaluate all possible measures of safety
improvement and increases the chances of avoiding of
the unnecessary removal.
The WID method by Rosłon-Szeryńska is extremely
precise (more in the summer). It focuses on a particular
event which is of the highest risk and hazard to safety
of people and property. The method stands out among
other developed so far as it allows to spot the risk
sooner and subsequently save a larger number of trees.
The inspections carried out with other methods, so far
assessed three times more trees to be removed than
the WID method would allow. The disadvantage of the
method is the lack of time-efficiency in its application
(due to comprehensive data processing), which is hoped
to be improved with the help of computer programs.
References
ELLISON, M. J. 2005. Quantified tree risk assessment used in the
management of amenity trees. In: Journal of Arboriculture, vol.
31, 2005, no. 2, p. 57–65
MATTHECK, C. – BRELOER, H. 1994. The body language of trees, a
handbook for failure analysis. London : Her Majesty’s Stationary
Office. 240 p. ISBN 0-11-752867-0.
PAINE, L. 1971. Accident hazard: Evaluation and control
decisions on forested recreation sites. 1971, US For. Serv. Res.
Pap. Pacif. Sthwest. For. Range Exp. Sta. No. PSW-68, 1971, pp. 11.
ROBBINS, K. 1986. How to recognize and reduce tree hazards in
recreation sites. USFS, Northeast Area, 1986, pp. 28. NA-FR-31
ROSŁON-SZERYŃSKA E. 2006. Opracowanie metody oceny
zagrożenia powodowanego przez drzewa o osłabionej statyce.
Maszynopis, Warszawie : Biblioteka SGGW, 2006, p. 267.
ROSŁON-SZERYŃSKA, E. 2009. Using logic diagrams to
determine a method for evaluation of probability of tree fall
or break. In: Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences –
SGGW Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, 2009, no. 30,
p. 173–181.
ROSŁON-SZERYŃSKA,
E.
2012.
Ocena
zagrożenia
bezpieczeństwa ludzi i mienia powodowanego przez drzewa
o osłabionej statyce. Uprawa i Ochrona Drzew nr 27, Kluczbork :
Międzynarodowe Towarzystwo Uprawy i Ochrony Drzew, 2012,
p. 90
SIEWNIAK, M. – KUSCHE, D. 1996. Baumpflege heute. Berlin,
Hannover : Platzer Verlag, 1996, 320 pp.
WESSOLLY, L. – ERB M. 1998. Handbuch der Baumstatik und
Baumkontrolle. Berlin : Platzer Verlag, 1998, pp. 270. ISBN
3876170931.
– 92 –
GROWTH AND PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON HUNGARIAN
ND FOREIGN LINDEN VARIETIES
Endre Gy. TÓTH, Máté VÉRTESY, Magdolna Sütöriné DIÓSZEGI,
Lajos MAGYAR, Márk STEINER, Károly HROTKÓ*
Corvinus University of Budapest, Hungary
In Central Hungary at Department of Floriculture and Dendrology, Corvinus University of Budapest Faculty of Horticultural
Science in December 2009, using multiple Tilia taxa an alley was planted with the aim of comparison of new cultivars
occurring in Hungarian nurseries. The climate is typical of the central Hungarian flatland; yearly average temperature is
11.3 °C, total sunshine is 2079 hours per year, and precipitation is 560 mm per year. The soil type is light sandy, lime content
is around 2.5 %, soil organic matter is low (0.8–0.9 %), pH is 7.7–8.1. The Tilia taxa are as follows: Tilia americana ’Redmond‘,
Tilia cordata ’Greenspire‘, ’Savaria‘, Tilia platyphyllos ’Favorit‘ Tilia tomentosa ’Szeleste‘, ’Zentai Ezüst‘. Comparative evaluation
is planned primarily for their site adaptability and stress-tolerance. For the cultivar evaluation we plan to carry out detailed
investigations on phenology (date of sprouting, sprouting dynamics, bloom dynamics, leaves drying, coloration of the
leaves at the beginning of autumn, leaf fall) and trunk diameter. We also measured the yearly height growth of the selected
cultivars. The aim of the research is the selection of the most tolerant taxa.
Keywords: Tilia cultivars, phenology, stress tolerance, tolerance to urban conditions, adaptive strategies
Introduction
The importance of the urban trees is increasing because
of their environmental benefits: shade, improved
microclimate, dust and other pollutants deposition,
CO2 fixation, O2 and vapor release. These benefits can
be expected only from well-developed healthy trees,
adapted well to site and climate. The global climate
change resulted larger extremities in climatic conditions,
especially in urban climate.
Linden trees are hardy and well adopted to
Hungarian climate (Krüssmann, 1986; Retkes and Tóth,
2005; Tóth and Schmidt, 2006; Schmidt, 2008). Tilia taxa
are popular in Hungary and are widely planted as urban
trees. Moreover, several new cultivars are introduced by
nurseries from different origin (Ifju, 2009; Barabits, 2010;
Izer, 2010). Thus it is an urging task to evaluate their
adaptability to our climate and soil condition as well as
testing their urban tolerance.
As the aim of these studies, the Department of
Floriculture and Dendrology, Corvinus University
of Budapest in Soroksár Experimental Farm in early
December 2009 using multiple taxa a Tilia alley was
planted. After planting we have started detailed
measurements on trunk diameter growth and height
growth besides phenology, such as date of sprouting,
sprouting dynamics, bloom dynamics, leaf drying,
coloration of the leaves at the beginning of autumn
and leaf fall. This paper presents the first results on
phenological observations from early 2011 until 2014.
In Central Hungary at the experimental farm of Corvinus
University of Budapest Faculty of Horticultural Science
in December 2009, using multiple Tilia taxa an alley was
planted with the aim of comparison of new cultivars
occurred in Hungarian nurseries. The orientation of the
alley is N – S, the location is: N 47° 22’, E 19° 09’, elevation
above sea level 103 m. The climate is typical of the
central Hungarian flatland; yearly average temperature
is 11.3 °C, total sunshine is 2079 hours per year, and
precipitation is 560 mm per year. The soil type is light
sandy, lime content is around 2.5 %, soil organic matter
is low (0.8–0.9 %), pH is 7.7–8.1.
The trees were planted with 12/14 cm trunk
circumference size in autumn 2009. In this research 48
trees were evaluated, 8 from each cultivar.
Trunk circumference has been measured each spring
from 2010 to 2014. Measurement of height growth
was carried out in 2013, early spring and late autumn.
Phenological studies (sprouting dynamics, blossom
dynamics, growth, fruit formation, leaf fall) in 2011 and
2013 were carried out by rating. The observations were
continued on a weekly basis. The day of the main phases
were indicated (Day of the Year – DOY) based on the results
of the rating. Quantity of fruit formation was rated as 1 =
there were maximum one or two fruits on shoots; 2 = there
were more than two fruits on each shoots; 3 = two or more
fruits were found in each nodes. The data was evaluated
using Microsoft Excel software. One-way analysis of
*Correspodence:
Károly Hrotkó, Corvinus University of Budapest, Faculty of Horticultural Science Department of
Floriculture and Dendrology, 1118 Budapest, Villányi út 29-43, phone: +36 1/482-6271, Hungary,
Endre Gy. Tóth et al.: Growth and phenological observations on hungarian ND foreign linden varieties, pp. 93–95
– 93 –
variance (ANOVA) was carried out in
SPSS 18 (PASW 18) to see significant
differences between the cultivars.
Short description of the investigated Tilia taxa, in alphabetical order:
yy Tilia americana ’Redmond‘: Conical
canopy, dense and compact
growth. Young shoots are red. The
leaves of T. a. ‘Redmond’ are slightly
lighter green than the leaves on T. a.
‘Nova’ (Ifju, 2009–2010, Krüssmann,
1986; Schmidt and Tóth, 2006).
yy Tilia cordata ’Greenspire‘: Straight
trunk, 15–20 m high tree. Regular
cone-shaped crown. Leaves are
rounded and 6–10 cm in size,
shiny dark green (Izer, 2010–2011;
Krüssmann, 1986; Retkes and Tóth,
2005; Tóth and Schmidt, 2006).
yy Tilia cordata ’Savaria‘: Hungarian
selection. Conical canopy. The tip of
young shoots slightly reddish, later
turns brownish red. Characterized
by many fragrant flowers (Izer,
2010–2011; Retkes and Tóth, 2005;
Tóth and Schmidt, 2006).
yy Tilia platyphyllos ’Favorit‘: Hungarian
selection. 10 to 15 meters high,
medium growth vigor, tall slender
tree. Autumn leaves are yellowish
(Schmidt, 2008).
yy Tilia tomentosa ’Szeleste‘: Old
Hungarian selection. A vigorous
growing variety, narrow oval, then
expanded tree canopy, 20–25 m
height. Young branches are
greenish gray. The leaves are more
or less rounded (Izer, 2010–2011;
Retkes and Tóth, 2005; Tóth and
Schmidt, 2006).
yy Tilia tomentosa ’Zentai Ezüst‘:
Hungarian selection. In the first
years very slender with conical
canopy, later columnar shaped
variety. Conspicuously silvery leaves,
tolerates polluted environment
(Young, 2009–2010; Retkes and
Tóth, 2005; Schmidt and Tóth, 2006).
Figure 1
Trunk growth of linden trees between 2010 and 2014
Figure 2
Height growth of linden cultivars in 2013
Based on the results of the past five
years, the largest trunk circumference
gain was observed on T. tomentosa
cultivars. T. cordata varieties and T.
Americana ‘Redmond’ showed only
modest growth. The less increase
was observed on the T. platyphyllos
’Favorit‘ variety. Fig. 1 shows the total
growth of the linden cultivars trunk
circumference.
Similar results were obtained
with height growth (Fig. 2) in 2013.
The biggest increase in this case
is shown by T. tomentosa varieties.
The smallest increase was observed
on T. cordata ’Greenspire‘ cultivar.
According to Krüssmann (1986) and
Tóth and Schmidt (2006) Tilia cordata
grows relatively slowly but Tilia
cordata ‘Greenspire’ variety grows
Table 1 Phenological stages of linden cultivars in 2011, based on the DOY
T. a. ‘Redmond’ T. c. ‘Greenspire’ T. c. ‘Savaria’
T. p. ‘Favorit’
T. t. ‘Szeleste’
T. t. ‘Zentai Ezüst’
105
97
95
95
112
119
111
105
107
148
161
no Flowers
150
168
168
314
307
307
314
314
314
Elongated stage of buds
with closed scales
93
100
Fully spread leaf
106
Opening stage of flowers
Complete leaf fall
– 94 –
Table 2 Phenological stages of linden cultivars in 2013, based on the DOY
T. a. ‘Redmond’ T. c. ‘Greenspire’ T. c. ‘Savaria’
T. p. ‘Favorit’
T. t. ‘Szeleste’
T. t. ‘Zentai Ezüst’
Elongated stage of buds
with closed scales
99
108
110
105
98
105
Fully spread leaf
114
115
119
114
114
115
Opening stage of flowers
154
160
165
146
165
165
Complete leaf fall
304
297
297
304
304
304
modern instruments. The differences
between domestic selected varieties
and adaptation features are visible
on the current results. Domestic
environmental conditions differ
from the other countries so the
species performance can be specific.
Although we cannot draw a final
conclusion about the past few year’s
data, the species which were bred to
the domestic conditions, seemingly
better adapted to the local site and
climatic conditions, therefore their
use can be recommended.
Figure 4
Fruit formation of linden varieties in 2011 and 2013
fast. This deviation can be an effect
of the growing site.
The particular phenological stages
are showed in Table 1 and 2. Based
on two years results of sprouting
dynamics
strong
tendencies
cannot be found. Although in both
years T. americana ’Redmond‘ and
T. tomentosa ’Szeleste‘ varieties
sprouted first. The latest budburst
was observed on Tilia cordata
’Savaria’ variety. The sprouting
process was the fastest in case of
Tilia cordata ’Greenspire’. The last
stage of the budburst was observed
in both year on Tilia americana
’Redmond’ and Tilia platyphyllos
’Favorit’ cultivars firstly. Tilia cordata
’Greenspire’ was sprout a week
later and Tilia tomentosa cultivars
came afterwards. The blossom of
the investigated cultivars reached
over 20 days in both years, starting
with Tilia americana ‘Redmond’ and
T. platyphyllos ‘Favorit’, followed by
T. cordata cultivars. Both T. tomentosa
cultivars opened flowers as last of all
cultivars. Tilia cordata ’Savaria’ was
not flourished in the year of 2011.
The sequence for flowering of Tilia
platyphyllos, Tilia cordata and Tilia
tomentosa cultivars is coinciding with
details written by Tóth and Schmidt
(2006) and Tóth (2012) but according
to these sources Tilia americana
cultivars are flowering in the same
time as Tilia tomentosa. The autumn
leaf fall completed for the two Tilia
cordata cultivars at the earliest, the
other varieties a week later.
Fig. 3 shows that in both
years Tilia americana ’Redmond’
and Tilia platyphyllos ’Favorit’
cultivars produced the most fruits.
Furthermore in 2011 Tilia tomentosa
’Szeleste’ also produced a significant
amount. In the other cases the
amount of fruits on the trees was
significantly less. In the year of 2011
on Tilia cordata ’Favorit’ trees were no
fruit formation (No Fruit – NF).
The evaluation of linden tree
varieties is an important research
area, and we plan to continue the
research. We intend to repeat the
phenological observations with
additional evaluation of leaf surface,
leaf canopy measurements using
Acknowledgement
Our research was supported by
TÁMOP-4-2.1.B-09/1/KMR-2010-0005
project and by Hungarian Scientific
References
BARABITS, E. 2010–2011. Alsótekeresi
Faiskola Kft. Faiskolai árjegyzék. Enying.
IZER, G. 2010–2011. Prenor Kertészeti
és Parképítő Kft. Díszfaiskolai árjegyzék.
Szombathely.
IFJU, Z. 2009–2010. Tahi Faiskola Kft.
Faiskolai árjegyzék. Botanika Kft. Leányfalu.
KÁRPÁTI, Z. 1968. Kertészeti növénytan.
Budapest : Mezőgazdasági Kiadó, 1968.
KRÜSSMANN, G. 1986. Manual of
cultivated broad-leaved trees and shrubs.
Oregon : Timber Press, 1986.
RETKES, J. – TÓTH, I. 2005. Lombos fák,
cserjék. Budapest : Botanika Kft, 2005.
SCHMIDT, G. 2008. Tanulmány, 3. sz.
részfeladat,
Magyar
Dísznövények
Gondnoksága:
Specifikus
fajták
meghatározása és kiválasztása: http://
www.magyardisznoveny.hu/magyar/hirek/
tanulmanyok/25/19/25/25/1/1
SCHMIDT, G. – TÓTH I. 2006. Kertészeti
dendrológia. Budapest : Mezőgazda
Kiadó, 2006.
TÓTH, I. 1969. Díszfák, díszcserjék.
Mezőgazdasági Kiadó : Budapest, 1969.
TÓTH, I. 2012. Lomblevelű díszfák,
díszcserjék. Tarkavirág Kereskedelmi és
Szolgátató Kft. Dunaharaszti.
– 95 –
METHODOLOGY OF CLIPPED WOODY VEGETATION ELEMENTS ASSESSMENT
Michaela SPĚVÁČKOVÁ*, Lukáš ŠTEFL, Miloš PEJCHAL
Clipped woody vegetation elements are an integral part of most historical gardens and parks and they play a significant role
in the modern garden and landscape architecture. Given their importance, it is necessary to develop tools for understanding
their real state. The aim of this paper is to present the complex methodology of assessment of clipped woody vegetation
elements in objects of garden and landscape architecture. This methodology is a tool you can use to determine the current
qualitative state and potential of these objects. Subsequent evaluation of observed facts allows you to suggest adequate tree
care and regeneration measures. This methodology is fully applicable also when mutually comparing objects or evaluating
changes of individual objects over time. Results obtained using this methodology may serve as a basis for the design of
adequate tree care and regeneration measures in practice. This methodology may be also used for a deeper understanding
of individual factors that are involved in the resulting quality of clipped woody vegetation elements.
Keywords: clipped woody plant, assessment methodology, current state, quality, potential
Introduction
Clipped woody vegetation element (hereinafter
referred to as CWVE) is defined as an element of artificial
compositional characteristics for a given taxon and site.
Its habitus as well as variability are specific because of
periodically repeated clipping, pinching or leading of
shoots or even removing buds (Pejchal and Šimek, 2012a).
Using of CWVEs is an integral part of garden and
landscape design in almost all its development stages.
CWVEs have become a major compositional element
as early as during the Renaissance and Baroque
periods and still are an integral part of most historical
gardens and parks. They have a significant importance
in contemporary creation, too. A significant portion
of CWVEs begin to die or are in a poor condition. It is
therefore necessary to have a tool that would point to
their current qualitative state and potential.
One of the last publications in the Czech Republic on
assessment of CWVEs is Methodology of woody species
assessment for the purposes of historic preservation
(Pejchal and Šimek, 2012a), from which I partially
proceeded when creating the methodology presented
in this paper. Earlier paper (Šonský, 1987) addresses
this issue only partially because it mainly focuses on
suitability of taxa for clipped hedges. Foreign publication
Kendal et al. (2008) deals with the evaluation of selected
woody plant taxa used for creation of clipped hedges
from different perspectives of the climatic conditions of
Australia. Inspiring approaches may be methodologies
of assessment of unclipped taxa applicable for clipping
in terms of the growth quality, survival quality and
*Correspodence:
aesthetic quality exposed to various landscape exposure
(Le Duc, 2000), in terms of the influence of light to both
quantitative and qualitative characteristics (Taheri and
Abdinejad, 2011); or studies investigating the effects
of different light intensity on the physiological and
morphological change (De Jong et al., 2012; Letts et al.,
2012).
The aim of this paper is to present the current
methodology of assessment of CWVEs in objects of
garden and landscape architecture.
Development of this methodology of CWVE assessment
carried out in several steps:
a)First were identified and studied historical as well
as contemporary sources or methodologies of
assessment of a given issue.
b)
By means of adoption, modification and
supplementing several sources (Pejchal, 2008; Pejchal
and Šimek, 2012b; Burian, 2013) it was worked out this
methodology proposal.
c) Using this methodology, there has been assessed 2524
pcs of CWVEs with total clipped area of 261 195 m² in
21 important historical objects in the Czech Republic.
d)Experiences gained in field evaluation of CWVEs were
incorporated into the current form of methodology of
clipped woody elements assessment.
The methodology of clipped woody elements assessment
is a set of several groups of attributes that are necessary
Michaela Spěváčková, Mendel University in Brno, Faculty of Horticulture, Department of Planting
Design and Maintenance, Valtická 337, 691 44 Lednice, Czech Republic, e-mail: xspevack@node.
mendelu.cz
Michaela Spěváčková, Lukáš Štefl, Miloš Pejchal: Methodology of clipped woody vegetation elements assessment, pp. 96–99
– 96 –
to determine the current qualitative state of CWVEs and
their potential. Overview of attribute groups with their
further characterization or division is described in Table
1. Attributes that need to be characterized extensively
are described in text below the table.
Further characteristics of attributes from Table 1:
a)Character
yy Point – one individual or CWVE compound of
more individuals with common cover whose
height is equal to the width or exceeds it. The
length is usually equal to the width or is not
significantly higher.
Table 1
Overview of attribute groups of methodology of CWVE assessment
Attribute group
Attribute
Object
Serial number
Identification data
–– continuous numerical series
Type
–– part of the text (see b)
Taxon
–– genus, species, intraspecific unit (in case of multispecies CWVE give all the
present taxa and their percentage composition)
Height
–– total height of CWVE from base to peak; measured in places of the last cut
Length
–– in case of linear CWVEs, length is measured from the beginning to the end;
in case of point and surface CWVEs, length is determined by the distance
of two parallel tangents touching the opposite of outermost points of the
CWVE; measured in places of the last cut
Width
–– in case of linear CWVEs, width is measured: (a) in base of CWVE, (b) peak
of CWVE; in case of point and surface CWVEs, width is measured at their
widest parts perpendicular to the longitudinal axis; measured in places of
the last cut
Shading
Unclipped parts of cover
–– the average distance from each individual plant
–– part of the text (see c)
–– expressed in % of unclipped part of the cover: (a) on the sides, (b) on the
upper side
Clipped area of cover
–– in m² (calculated from mensurational data)
Development stage
–– categories: (a) newly planted individuals, (b) rooted individuals, (c)
stabilized maturing individuals, (d) mature individuals, (e) old individuals;
in the sense of PEJCHAL, ŠIMEK (2012b)
Horizontal canopy
–– part of the text (see d)
Vertical canopy
Qualitative data
–– place of assessment
–– part of the text (see a)
Planting distance
Descriptive data
Detailed characterization of attributes
Character
Mensurational data
–– part of the text (see e)
Physiological vitality
–– categories: (a) optimal, (b) slightly reduced, (c) moderately reduced, (d)
strongly reduced, (e) very strongly reduced; in the sense of PEJCHAL,
ŠIMEK (2012a)
Biomechanical vitality
–– categories: (a) optimal, (b) slightly reduced, (c) moderately reduced, (d)
strongly reduced, (e) very strongly reduced; in the sense of PEJCHAL,
ŠIMEK (2012a)
Growing state
–– (a) clipping technique, (b) weed infestation, (c) maintaining the desired
shape; mentioned specific characteristics evaluated separately on a scale:
optimal / satisfactory / unsatisfactory
Landscaping value
Other data
yy Linear – CWVE compound of more individuals,
clearly (at least twice) longer than wide and the
height is equal to the width or exceeds it. Either
without common cover (usually a line of point
objects – see below – which do not touch each
other) or with common cover (e.g. hedge or wall).
yy Surface – CWVE compound of more individuals,
at least twice wider than taller; this width to height
ratio can be even greater in case of elements
whose length is a multiple of the width. Either
without common cover (e.g. grid of point objects)
or with comon cover (e.g. green architecture).
Note
–– part of the text (see f )
–– any other additional information on CWVE
– 97 –
b)Type
yy Point – point elements, depicted as basic or
compound geometric shapes, figural forms,
stylized trees etc. Applied as solitaires (point
character) or as part of a lineaer or surface
elements without a common cover.
yy Surface cover – low CWVE of a surface character
whose height does not form an optical barrier.
yy Hems, small hedge – CWVE of a linear character
to a height of 0.5 m.
yy Low hedge – CWVE of a linear character with
a height from 0.5 to 1 m.
yy Medium-high hedge – CWVE of a linear character
with a height from 1 to 3 m.
yy High hedge, wall – CWVE of a linear character
higher than 3 m.
yy Green architecture – CWVEs of a point, linear or
surface character that are by the way of their use
similar to some (building) elements of architecture
and may have a construction, e.g. arches, gates,
arbour, “green” chambers, colonnades etc.
yy Other objects – cannot be classified into the
above.
c)Shading
– five-pont scale based on the shadow depth and
length of the shading of CWVE during the day. When
combining the following properties of a shadow among
categories, the evaluator will be inclined to the degree
that is more characteristic for a shadow.
yy Very low – moderate shadow, CWVE is shaded
only a few hours of daylight.
yy Low – moderate to medium deep shadow, CWVE
is influenced by the so called “wandering shadow”.
yy Medium – medium deep shadow, CWVE is shaded
for one third of the daylight.
yy High – medium deep to deep shadow, CWVE is
shaded for most of the daylight.
yy Very high – deep shadow; CWVE is shaded
throughout the daylight.
d)Horizontal canopy
– closing of upper part of CWVE layer. For technical
reasons it is evaluated only for elements to the height of
circa 1.5 m.
e) Vertical canopy
– when evaluating, CWVE is divided into quadrants
according to cardinal directions (N, S, E, W), vertical
canopy in each quadrant of the cardinal direction is then
evaluated separately in three zones – lower third (zone 3),
medium third (zone 2) and upper third (zone 1).
For evaluation of both canopies applies the following
scale:
yy Very high – covered at least 95 % of the CWVE
surface.
yy High – covered at least 90 % of the CWVE surface.
yy Medium – covered at least 80 % of the CWVE
surface.
yy Low – covered at least 60 % of the CWVE surface.
yy Very low – covered maximally 60 % of the CWVE
surface.
f) Landscaping value
– total value of CWVE in terms of garden and
landscape architecture (current state and potential)
resulting from its biological nature and way of growing.
It summarizes the information on development stage,
cover quality, physiological and biomechanical vitality
and growing state. Total value of CWVE is expressed
using the following scale:
yy Very valuable CWVE – already adult CWVEs,
exceptionally CWVEs at the end of the
development stage 3 and at the beginning of the
development stage 5. Individuals are absolutely
healthy and not damaged, full of vitality and
long-term perspective, of high quality in terms
of growing, with very high both vertical and
horizontal canopy.
yy Above-average valuable CWVE – CWVE with
some imperfections that do not significantly
detract from their value, exceptionally CWVEs at
the beginning of the development stage 5, fully
correspond to both growing and compositional
needs, are long term-perspective and their both
vertical and horizontal canopy is high or very high.
yy Average valuable CWVE – CWVE with assumption
of medium to long-term existence, individuals
possibly with lower vitality and health condition,
usable in terms of growing. Both canopies of
CWVEs are at the medium level or one of them
may fall into the category of high or very high.
yy Below-average valuable CWVE – vitality is
significantly reduced due to old age, diseases
and pests or damage, the probable existence
is just a short-term. CWVE with the low vertical
canopy, horizontal canopy is usually medium to
very low.
yy Very little valuable CWVE – vitality is so reduced
due to old age, diseases and pests or damage is
so reduced that prerequisites just of short-term
existence are missing. To this category fall also
the exemplars to be removed immediately for
safety or phytopathological reasons (dangerous
infectious diseases). Both canopy categories
are on the very low degree, horizontal canopy is
exceptionally low.
The results of the search for methodologies of clipped
woody vegetation elements assessment – there were
found only three similar sources (Kendal et al., 2008;
Pejchal and Šimek, 2012a; Šonský, 1987) – suggest
– 98 –
that the topic of qualitative state of CWVEs is rare.
Presented methodology was inspired by Pejchal and
Šimek (2012a) and was modified and supplemented.
Afterwards, it had been verified on several hundreds
of CWVEs in a number of historical objects. The
restuls of these assessment shown suitability of this
methodology when investigating the current state of
CWVE. Species-conditioned specifics of individual taxa
are an important factor that influences the assessment.
Function and meaning of specific CWVE in an object,
its current state, taxonomic composition and the
assumption of its further development must be taken
into account when suggesging future care or a way of
recovery. This methodology can be useful after editing
for assessment of pollarded trees. In common practice
can be used simplified version of this methodology.
Conclusion
The methodology of woody elements assessment is
a set of several groups of attributes that are necessary to
determine the current qualitative state of CWVE and its
potential. Results obtained using this methodology may
serve as a basis for the design of adequate tree care and
regeneration measures in practice. This methodology
may be also used for a deeper understanding of individual
factors that are involved in the resulting quality of CWVE.
Acknowledgement
This publication was supported by project no.
DF11P01OVV019 – Landscape architecture’s methods and
tools for spatial development which meets the thematic
priority TP 1.4. of Applied Research and Development of
National and Cultural Identity Programme, funded by
Ministry of Culture of the Czech Republic.
References
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In: Journal of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, 2011. ISSN
0976-9919.
– 99 –
EVALUATION OF VEGETATION AS USEFUL METHOD OF CLASSIFICATION TREES
VALUES IN AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPE
Beata FORNAL-PIENIAK*, Ewa ZARAŚ-JANUSZKIEWICZ, Barbara ŻARSKA
Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Poland
Agricultural landscape are still modified by human. Trees are very important elements in agricultural ecological network.
The purpose of the study was vegetation evaluation on example of Sokolow Podlaski commune. Sokolow Podlaski area with
dominated agriculture area are located on east part of Poland. Methodology included field research, divided study areas
into special-landscape units and vegetation evaluation. It was distinguished native, exotic and cultivated tree species with
different vegetation values.
Keywords: evaluation of vegetation, agricultural landscape, Sokolow Podlaski commune
Introduction
Diversity of tree species depend on many natural,
historical and political influences. Trees are very
necessary elements in agricultural landscape (Marsall
and Moonen, 2002) and may also be valuable for their
possible function as “corridors” and “stepping stones’ to
facilitate species dispersal.
In many areas on the Word a dramatic decrease in
biological diversity of agricultural landscape can be
observed as a result of human pressure. Many plant and
animal species typical for agricultural landscape are rare
and on the verge of extinction (Robinson and Sutherland,
2002). Refuges, especially linear ones, such as hedgerows,
play an important role as ecological corridors (Le Cour et
al., 2002).
The purpose of the study was evaluation of
vegetation as useful method of classification trees
values in agricultural landscape on example of Sokolow
Podlaski commune in Poland. Rural landscape with many
fields and meadows are dominated types of land uses in
Sokolow Podlaski commune. Classification of tree species
values it is very important for shaping Sokołów Podlaski
rural landscape which is still influenced by human
pressures.
Figure 1
Location of study area
vegetation. Border of special landscape unities were
located along the main roads of Sokolow Podlaski
commune. Vegetation evaluation included five main
criteria: It was done evaluation of vegetation including
five criteria of assessment as number of plant species,
origin of trees, type of plantings, tree-covered areas,
health of plantings (tab. 1) with bonitation points as:
2 points – minimum value,
4 points – medium value
6 points – high value.
Plant species and their origin were grouped according
to Matuszkiewicz (2007).
Sokolow Podlaski commune (137.18 km² area) is
located on the east part of Poland. This area belongs to
Mazowiecko-Poleski Section according to Matuszkiewicz
(1993).
Research was done on agricultural landscape without
forest, parks and cemeteries areas on Sokolow Podlaski
commune during 2011–2012. Field study was included
division rural landscape into special landscape unities,
characteristic of tree species, distinguished types of
Plant species were represented by 4 syntaxonomic
classes and companion species. Most of the plants were
from Querco-Fagetea community. It was distinguished
14 plant species from Querco-Fagetea like Acer
campestre L., Carpinus betulus L., Fraxinus excelsior L.,
2 species from Salicetea purpureae, one specie from
Epilobietea angustifolii and Vaccinio-Piceetea. Native,
exotic and cultivated plants were occurring in the study
area (tab. 2).
*Correspodence:
Beata Fornal-Pieniak, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Horticulture, Biotechnology and
Landscape Architecture, Department of Environmental Protection, Nowoursynowska 161, 02-787
Warsaw, Poland, e-mail: [email protected]
Beata Fornal-Pieniak, Ewa Zaraś-Januszkiewicz, Barbara Żarska: Evaluation of vegetation as useful method of classification trees values..., pp. 100–103
– 100 –
Table 1
Evaluation of vegetation
Criteria
Bonitation points
above 4 tree species
6
Number of tree species
3-4 tree species
4
1-2 tree species
2
Origin of trees
(dominated in each
specila-landscape units)
n – native species
6
c – cultivator species (planted trees)
4
ex – exotic species (introduced artificiall
2
avenues, group of trees, single trees
6
group of trees, single trees
4
only single trees
2
above 25%
6
11–25%
4
5–10%
2
good (mostly without canopy losses, trees hallows, diseases)
6
medium (sometimes with canopy losses, trees hallows, diseases)
4
bad (many canopy losses, trees hallows, diseases)
2
Types of plantings
Tree-covered areas (%)
Health of plantings
Table 2
Tree plant species in agricultural landscape of Sokolow Podlaski commune
Latin name
Syntaxonomic class
Status in Poland*
Acer campestre
Querco-Fagetea
n
Acer platanoides
Querco-Fagetea
n
Acer pseudoplatanus
Querco-Fagetea
n
Acer pseudoplatanus Atropurpureum
companion specie
ex
Aesculus hippocastanum
companion specie
ex
Alnus glutinosa
Salicetea purpureae
n
Betula pendula
companion specie
n
Carpinus betulus
Querco-Fagetea
n
Corylus avellana
Querco-Fagetea
n
Euonymus verrucosa
Querco-Fagetea
n
Fagus sylvatica
Querco-Fagetea
n
Fraxinus excelsior
Querco-Fagetea
n
Malus domestica
companion specie
c
Padus avium
Querco-Fagetea
n
Pinus sylvestris
Vaccinio-Piceetea
n
Populus alba
Salicetea purpureae
n
Prunus avium
Querco-Fagetea
n
Prunus domestica
companion specie
c
Prunus mahaleb
companion specie
ex
Quercus robur
companion specie
n
Quercus rubra
companion specie
ex
companion specie
ex
Epilobietea angustifolii
n
Querco-Fagetea
n
Querco-Fagetea
n
Sambucus nigra
Tilia cordata
Ulmus laevis
*n – native species (occurring in central Europe), ex – exotic species (introduced artificially), c – cultivated species (planted trees)
– 101 –
areable land
forest
settelments
borders of special
landscape units
Figure 2
Origin of trees in the study area
1, 2 – number of special landscape units, a – area with high vegetation value,
b – area with medium vegetation value, c – area with low vegetation value
areable land
forest
settelments
borders of special
landscape units
Figure 3
Special landscape units and vegetation evaluation
1, 2 – number of special landscape units, a – area with high vegetation value,
b – area with medium vegetation value, c – area with low vegetation value
Native
species
like
Acer
pseudoplatanus, Fraxinus excelsior,
Alnus glutinosa dominated in
the Sokolow Podlaski commune
(72%). Exotic (20%) and cultivated
(8%) species were observed less
frequently in the study area. Exotic
plants were represented by Acer
pseudoplatanus ‘Atropurpureum’ L.,
Aesculus hippocastanum L., Prunus
mahaleb L., Malus domestica Borkh.
and Prunus domestica L. were typical
for cultivated plants in the Sokolow
Podlaski commune.
Arable land was divided into
13 special-landscape units (Fig. 3).
Vegetation evaluation included
five main criteria: number of plant
species, origin of trees, type of
plantings, tree-covered areas, health
of plantings. It was distinguished
areas with high (25–30 points),
medium (19–24 points) and low
(<19 points) planting values. Areas
with high planting values are located
in the south-east part of Sokolow
Podlaski commune. Diversity of plant
species, dominated of native species,
avenues, groups of trees, single trees,
tree-covered above 25% of unit
and good health of plantings were
mostly characteristic of four units
with high vegetation values (units: 5,
6, 10, 11). It was occurring also four
areas with medium vegetation areas
on the central and the south-east
part of the commune (units: 2, 9,
12, 13) (Fig. 3). Less group of trees
and single trees were characteristic
for these units. 5–10% tree-covered
areas with mostly single, exotic plant
species were occurring in units with
low vegetation values (units: 1, 3, 4,
7, 8) (Tab. 3). These areas are located
on the west and the south part of
Sokolow Podlaski commune.
Plants
colonization
process
mostly depended on time, type use
of land and history (Peterken and
Grame, 1984; Flinn and Vellend,
2005; Honnay et al., 2005). Despite
the strong human pressure in
agricultural areas native plants
dominated (Orłowski and Nowak,
2007). The same results were
– 102 –
Table 3
Plantings evaluation of Sokolow Podlaski commune
Criteria
Number of special landscape units
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Number of plant species
4
4
4
2
6
4
4
6
4
6
4
4
4
Orgin of trees [dominated]
2
4
6
2
6
6
2
2
4
6
6
4
4
Types of plantings
4
6
2
4
6
6
4
2
4
6
6
4
4
Tree-covered areas
2
2
2
2
6
6
2
2
4
6
6
4
4
Health of plantings
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
Sum
16
20
18
14
28
26
16
16
20
28
26
20
20
observed on Sokolow Podlaski commune. Group of
trees and single trees are the most popular types of
planting on arable land. Trees have also aesthetic value
in landscape. Moreover old trees are occurring on
agricultural landscape. At the time of land use changes
in landscape structure observed in many regions of the
world (Le Cour et al., 2002; Marshall and Moonen, 2002),
old trees are also a highly endangered element of various
ecosystems (Jim, 2004; Orlowski and Nowak, 2007).
It is very important shaping of ecological corridors in
agricultural landscape of communes (Żarska, 2006).
Nowadays ancient and old forests do not take a large
areas so plantings should be protected (Liro and Szacki,
1993; Shields et al., 2000). Tree plantings as one of the
landscape elements have impact for keeping microbes,
insects, plants, birds, and animals biodiversity. Ecosystems
with greater biodiversity are considered by many to be
more resilient to physical disturbances, natural disasters,
and invasive species. Diverse ecosystems also provide
ecological services that are expensive to replicate, like
air and water purification, attracting pollinators, and
providing natural material for advances in science and
medicine. (http://www.epa.gov/greenacres/conf12_04/
conf_knwldge.html).
Conclusion
1. Groups and solitary native plant species from QuercoFagetea class dominated in the Sokolow Podlaski
agricultural landscape
2.It was observed good condition of evaluated
vegetation inspit of still human pressures.
3.It is necessary to continue research focus on green
corridors because these planting should be included
in the ecological structure of Sokolow Podlaski
commune.
References
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communities in postagricultural landscapes. In: Front. Ecol.
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habitat for the conservation of old trees in agricultural
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– 103 –
CLASSIFICATION OF URBAN HABITATS OF TOWNS
OF THE UDMURT REPUBLIC (RUSSIA)
Ekaterina N. ZYANKINA, Olga G. BARANOVA*
Udmurt State University, Russia
The purpose of this study is to discover the species composition of urban floras through studying and comparing certain
partial floras. The object of our research is flora of small towns in Udmurtia. We have developed methodological approaches
for analysis of different urban habitats. These approaches are significant for identifying of plants species composition in
cities. This study is based on the method of partial floras. The term “partial flora” is understood in the interpretation of
Boris A. Yurtsev. This method is widely used in Russia (Yurtsev, 1982). We’ve created the classification of habitats groups
based on examination of cartographic material, aerial and satellite photography, primary analysis of the flora habitats.
We have distinguished two types, 16 classes and 43 habitats kinds. The Type of natural and semi-natural habitats with
little disturbance of vegetation is divided into 7 classes of habitats: meadow, forest, forest-steppe, swamp, water, coastal,
naturally bare habitats. The type of anthropogenically – transformed habitats includes 9 classes: communicationly-tape,
erosion, slotted, agricultural, water, artificial tree plantation, landfills, landscape gardenings, cemeteries Preliminary lists of
kinds of partial flora habitats are made. Both native and alien species of plants are allocated there. Alien flora fraction was
divided into groups according to the degree of danger for biodiversity. Typical species were pointed out for all habitats.
Keywords: urbanflora, Russian flora, flora of habitats
Introduction
Urban areas have a large number of places suitable
for plants growth and having different environmental
conditions. Therefore, they are the hotbed of concentration
of alien plants. The activity of these species in certain
urban partial floras can be seen when studying floristic
structure of different habitats. Partial floras (Yurtsev, 1982)
are the sets of species occurring in ecologically similar
subdivisions of the landscape, i.e., habitat types (Khitun,
2013). Development of habitat structure classification
is one of the stages of partial floras studying. There are
several different classifications of urban habitats, based on
different criteria: individual characteristics of settlement,
allocation of plants depending on the type of urban
area, period and features of building system, intensity of
anthropogenic impact, phytocenotic features of areas, etc.
(Gamulya and Zvyagintseva, 2010; Berezutski and Panin,
2007; Maher and Hamilton, 2012; Pysek, 1995; Mosyakin,
1996). Taking into account peculiarities of flora formation
in small towns, similar and different types of habitats,
we have tried to classify urban habitats depending on
phytocenotic characteristics of flora and on the degree
of anthropogenic influence on it. In 2012 we started
studying flora of three towns (Votkinsk, Kambarka and
Mojga) in Russia (Udmurtia). By the phyto-geographical
regionalization of the European part of Russia the studied
area is the part of West Siberian-Ural taiga province of
Eurasian taiga region (Isachenko and Lavrenko, 1980.). The
*Correspodence:
purpose of this study is to identify the species composition
of urban floras through studying and comparing
particular partial floras.
Material and Metods
Research was conducted in 2012–2013 on the territory
of three towns (Votkinsk, Kambarka, Mojga) Udmurtia
(Russia). Urban population is relatively small. Votkinsk
population is 98 thousand people., Mozhga – 49 thous.,
Kambarka – 10 thousand people. The material was
collected by the method of partial floras and a routing
method. Urban areas were studied within their
administrative boundaries.
Basing on a comprehensive analysis (study of
cartographic material, satellite images, primary analysis
of flora habitats) we developed a classification of plant
habitats groups. In the results you can see the list of all the
habitats recorded within the town, including the overall
extent of each. Running wild cultivated plant species are
not taken into account while compiling floristic lists.
The estimation of each species by its origin is required
to analyze the results of the study of urban floras. In
this basis we have divided entire set of plant species of
urban areas into aboriginal and alien parts. Furthermore,
the group of alien species was divided by the degree
of impact on natural biodiversity. Two groups were
Olga G. Baranova, Udmurtia State University, Faculty of Biology and Chemistry, Department of botany
and plant ecology, Russia, e-mail: [email protected]
Ekaterina N. Zyankina, Olga G. Baranova: Classification of urban habitats of towns of the Udmurt Republic (Russia), pp. 104–106
– 104 –
distinguished: passive alien species that do not pose
a serious threat and active alien species which include
species transformers and invasive plant species. We have
allocated two types of habitats (The Type of natural and
semi-natural habitats with little disturbance of vegetation
and The type of anthropogenically-transformed habitats)
and divided them into 16 classes and 43 kinds. Thus,
we have allocated 43 combined partial floras. For each
partial flora we have pointed alien species list.
Type of natural and semi-natural habitats
with little disturbance of vegetation
This type includes remains of natural phytocenosis, and
areas with a low level of human impact. Species that
grow here, form stable plant communities, represented
mainly by native species. This type of habitats includes
7 classes of habitats:
1.Meadow habitats class. 4 kinds of habitats were
distinguished (riparian, upland, steppe, pasture).
Partial flora of meadow habitats is mostly represented
by native species. The group of passive alien species in
floodplains is weak and represented by such species
as Carduus nutans L., Chamomilla suaveolens (Pursh)
Rydb., Collomia linearis Nutt., et al. The group of active
alien species is represented by species-transformers:
Acer negundo L., Aster salignus Willd., Heracleum
sosnowskyi Manden, Hordeum jubatum L. etc.
2.Forest habitats class. It consists of three kinds of
habitats (coniferous and deciduous forests, parks with
natural vegetation). The basic role in the composition
of the flora of this class is played by a forest of aboriginal
plant species. This class of habitats is characterized by
invasive species such as: Acer negundo L., Amelanchier
spicata (Lam.) C. Koch, Malus baccata (L.) Borkh.
3.Forest-steppe habitats Class. It includes two kinds of
habitats (forest and marginal forest).
Partial flora of these areas is characterized by presence
of such species as Eremogone saxatilis L., Еryngium
planum L., Pulsatilla uralensis (Zämelis) Tzvelev. Alien
flora fraction can be presented here by Collomia
linearis Nutt., Conyza сanadensis (L.) Cronqist.
4.Marsh habitats Class.2 kinds were distinguished (fens
and sphagnum bogs). Partial flora of these areas is
represented by a large number of aboriginal species
with prevalence of Cyperaceae family plants. The alien
flora is not spread here, although on the edge of marshes
there can be met Bidens frondosa L., Juncus tenuis Willd.,
Phalacroloma annuum (L.) Dumort. On the territory of
Kambarka there is a sphagnum bog, which is included
in the Emerald book of Russian Federation (Baranova,
Dedyuhyn and Tyulkyn, 2013). This marsh meets
specifications of Annex 1 of the EU (EU Annex I habitat).
5.Coastal habitats class. 2 kinds were distinguished
(quagmire and coastal habitats). There are certain
conditions that contribute to the resettlement
and establishment of most dangerous invasive
plant species from the group of transformers: Acer
negundo L., Heracleum sosnowskyi Manden., Impatiens
glandulifera Royle and others. These species often
form homogenous communities along the rivers.
6.Naturally bare habitats class. It includes 1 kind of
habitats – naturally bare. This kind of habitats is
presented by territories exposed by constant erosion
(steep slopes, ravines etc.). Partial flora is poor.
Equisetum arvense L., Herniaria glabra L., Scleranthus
annuus L. are among aboriginal species found here.
Alien fraction is presented by Conyza canadensis
(L.) Cronqist, Oenothera rubricaulis Kleb., Puccinellia
distans (Jacq.) Parl.
7. Aquatic habitats Class. 2 kinds were distinguished (flow,
and poorly flowing water). Partial flora is represented
mainly by native species. A group of invasive species is
presented by Elodea canadensis Michx.
The type of anthropogenically-transformed habitats
with intensively transformed vegetation
Species growing here, do not form stable communities.
Human activity is a determining factor in development
of the flora of these habitats. 9 classes of habitats are
counted in this type.
1. Communication-tape habitats Class. This class includes
ecotopes located along different ways of traffic. We
have distinguished 4 kinds of habitats (rail, road,
heating mains, trails). Partial flora is represented by a
huge variety of alien species. The group of passive alien
species is characterized by the presence of Echinochloa
crus-galli (L.) Beauv., Lactuca tatarica (L.) C.A. Mey.,
Echium vulgare L. The group of active alien species is
presented by Echinocystis lobata (Michx.) Torr. et Gray.,
Hordeum jubatum L., Puccinelia distans (L.) Parl. Heating
mains are territories with special temperature regime.
2. Erosional habitats class. It includes 4 kinds of habitats
(yard, constructional, industrial vacant lots and
stadiums). These areas are characterized by constant
anthropogenic impacts, leading to disruption of
the soil cover. Partial flora of these habitats is poor.
Aboriginal fraction is represented mostly by ruderal
species. There can be met such passive alien species
as Amaranthus retroflexus L., Echinochloa crus-galli (L.)
Beauv., Solanum nigrum L. Active alien species here
are, Bryonia alba L., Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronqist,
Solidago serotinoides A. Love & D. Love.
3.Slit habitats class. 2 kinds were distinguished (wall
and curbs). This class includes by gaps in asphalt and
concrete surfaces. Partial flora of this habitats is poor
and represented by those species which are capable
of growing on limited territories with lack of nutrients.
Alien fractions of wall and curb habitats differ. In the
flora of wall habitats we noticed weed alien species,
whereas curbs habitats are often represented by plants
– 105 –
running wild: Petunia × hybrida, Calendula officinalis L.,
Alyssum maritimum Lam., Xanthoxalis stricta (L.) Small.
4.Agricultural habitats Class. 4 kinds of habitats were
distinguished (gardens, fields, land new fences,
gardens). This class determines territories cultivated
by a person. Group of passive alien species includes
running wild cultivated plants: Anethum graveolens
L., Artemisia purshiana Boss., Syringa vulgaris L., and
weed speciesAvena fatua L., Chaenorhinum minus (L.)
Lange., Fumaria officinalis L. Since these territories
are constantly cultivated, invasive species are not
common and are represented by such species as
Aquilegia vulgaris L., Echinocystis lobata (Michx.) Torr. &
A. Gray., Galinsoga parviflora Cav.
5. Aquatic habitats class. 1 kinds – stagnant ponds (manmade ponds, fire ponds, puddles, etc.) is identified.
Aboriginal fraction is represented by Lemna minor
L. and species of genus Potamogeton. Partial flora of
these reservoirs of small towns is not divers, thus alien
species are often represented only by one invasive
species Elodea canadensis L.
6.Artificial tree plantations Class. 4 kinds of habitats
were distinguished (squares, treelines, planting trees
in courtyards, shelterbelts along the roads). All these
kinds of habitats are characterized by varying degree
of anthropogenic pressure. Partial floras of these
habitats are often presented by such invasive species
as: Amelanchier spicata (Lam.) K. Koch, Acer negundo L.,
Malus baccata (L.) Borkh.
7.Dumps habitats class. 2 kinds were distinguished
(household wastes dumps and industrial waste
dumps). Partial flora of these habitats includes a small
number of aboriginal species. They often get here
from neighboring habitats. Household wastes dumps
are often represented by landfills, as well as small piles
of garbage in towns. A group of passive alien species
is presented in great abundance and includes Citrullus
lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. et Nakai, Datura inoxia Mill.,
Mirabilis jalapa L. Among invasive species Thladiantha
dubia Bunge and Echinocystis lobata (Michx.) Torr. et
Gray. should be mentioned. Industrial landfill dumps
are industrial sites, as well as heaps of sand and gravel.
There is also a large number of representatives of the
genus Chenopodium, Corispermum, Salsola,.
8. Landscape gardening Class. Includes 2 kinds habitats
(flowerbeds, lawns). In partial flora of these habitats
a large proportion of adventitious passive species
is presented by running wild ornamental plants:
Kоchia scoparia (L.) Schrad., Lobularia maritima (L.)
Desv., Tagetes patula L. Together with peat and earth
invasive species are imported, among them: Galinsoga
parviflora Cav., Heracleum sosnowskyi Manden.
9.Cemetery habitats class. 2 kinds were distinguished
(open and forested cemetery). Partial flora of
cemeteries is characterized by passive alien species
such as Hemerocallis fulva (L.) L., Hylotelephium
spectabile (Boreau) H. Ohba, Sempervívum tectorum L.
Invasive species are common for edges, or abandoned
territories. One can often see here Aster salignus Willd.,
Oenothera rubricaulis Kleb., Solidago canadensis L.
Thus, small towns flora is a complex of partial floras of
various habitats, which differ by abundance and structure
of aboriginal and alien plants. For deeper uncovering of
the species composition of the partial floras and for their
comparison the research should be continued.
The scheme, that we have developed allows to
identify the most complete floristic composition of the
urban area by the method of partial floras.
The research is fulfilled within the government task
of ministry of Education and Science of the Russian
Federation (1. 1. 2404).
References
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– 106 –
QUALITY INDICATORS OF STATUS AND MAINTENANCE OF URBAN GREENERY
Lukáš ŠTEFL
The study deals with the evaluation of quality indicators of vegetation elements forming urban greenery areas. There
were detailed evaluation indicators of quality defined for individual vegetation elements and also the indicators of their
maintenance care quality. Detailed field survey was done in selected areas of greenery of residential complexes in Ostrava
(Czech Republic). There were 2005 pieces of vegetation elements assessed on a total area of 17.71 hectares. The results of
the study highlighted the differences in quality of individual elements as well as in the quality of achieved maintenance care.
The worst average values of qualitative indicators were determined at the groups of trees. 60.59 % of the evaluated groups
of trees were in poor qualitative condition and 50.48 % of the groups of trees showed poor quality of the maintenance care.
The results also demonstrated the influence of the quality of maintenance care on the qualitative status of the individual
elements. The proposed indicators and results of this study have direct applicability on the management of urban green
spaces.
Keywords: urban greenery, vegetation elements, qualitative indicators, maintenance care, residential areas
Introduction
Evaluation indicators are current tool in the area of
a residential greenery management, sustainable
development and other horticultural and environmental
fields. The most important use is found in the monitoring
of changes in individual indicators over time and also in
the possibility of comparison of the objects, settlements,
etc. In the global context, there are in addition to
indicators evaluating the spatial structure of residential
green spaces (e.g. Zhou and Wang, 2011) also relevant
indicators of the state of urban populations of trees (e.g.
Cumming et al., 2008). Set of 25 indicators for evaluating
the urban population of trees defined Kenney et al.
(2011). Indicators included for example the tree health
condition, the portion of trees with tree inventory
and tree risk assesment. Based on the results of the
assessment of individual trees growing in the City of New
York (USA) was compiled qualitative indicator condition
of trees (collectively revealing the health state and vitality
of trees) by Peper et al. (2007). Chen and Jim (2008)
assessed quality population of trees in Nanjing (China)
by using the indicator condition of trees. Results of both
studies showed a high variability of this indicator in
different types of urban green areas Other compositional
elements of green space, except the trees, were given
only marginal or no attention.
The assessments made in the Czech Republic (CZ)
focused on selected green residential areas of Prague
and the Central Bohemian Region were implemented
by Sojková and Knotková (2008) and Sojková and Hrubá
*Correspodence:
(2006). The obtained results highlighted inappropriate
sortimental composition of the trees and a high
proportion of trees in unsatisfactory quality status. The
evaluation of the level of maintenance care in different
cities of the Czech Republic was carried out by Šimek
(2010). The results of his study indicated different levels
of maintenance at different types of vegetation elements
and even at different functional types of green areas. The
Slovak authors describing possible approaches to the
general evaluation of urban greenery were Supuka and
Feriancová (2008).
The aim of the study is to apply evaluation indicators
to know actual state of selected area of urban greenery.
The model area
The field evaluation was done on public green areas of
selected residential elements of Ostrava (Czech Republic).
Greenery of residential complexes was defined by Šimek
(2001) as areas of vegetation within a concentrated
residential areas, immediately following built-up areas and
intended for the use of residents of housing estates. There
were assessed 2005 pieces of vegetation elements (VE) in
total, which represented an area of 17.71 hectares. The
total length was 4 916 m in the case of linear VE. This field
evaluation ran for a period from June till September 2013.
Classification of composite elements
Individual VE forming the evaluated objects of green areas
were passportized and subsequently categorized into
Lukáš Štefl, Mendel University in Brno, Faculty of Horticulture, Department of Planting Design and
Maintenance, Valtická 337, 69144 Lednice, Czech Republic
Lukáš Štefl: Quality indicators of status and maintenance of urban greenery, pp. 107–111
– 107 –
Table 1
Qualitative assessment of VE status – rating scale
Status of VE
Description of the state – vegetation elements (VE)
1
Very good
–– Plants forming the VE are fully vital, healthy, having typical or desired habitus, without symptoms of
damage
–– VE is fully functional in terms of meeting the required functions, perspective and stable
2
Good
–– Plants forming VE have minor flaws in comparison to the previous category, but do not significantly
reduce the performance of their required functions, perspective and stability
3
Average
4
Poor
–– Plants forming VE have due to their age, damage, disease or pests substantially reduced vigor, and/or
health status
–– Implementation of the required functions, perspective, stability is significantly reduced
5
Very poor
–– Plants forming VE have due to their age, damage, diseases or pests, totally reduced vigor, and/or very
bad health status. There is no assumption of even a short existence. Elements do not fulfill their function
at all, they are completely unstable
–– Plants forming VE have moderately reduced vitality, signs of damage and impaired health status
–– Meeting the required functions, perspective and stability are only partially reduced
Vitality and health status was assessed according to the methodology Pejchal (2008). Detailed description of the evaluated
attributes and individual levels see Pejchal (2008)
Table 2
Qualitative evaluation of maintenance care – rating scale
Quality of Care
Description of maintenance care quality
1
Very high
2
High
3
Average
4
Poor
5
Very poor
–– No signs of deficiencies in maintenance care
–– VE show signs of partial, minor deficiencies in maintenance care
–– VE show signs of partial, serious deficiencies in the maintenance care
–– VE show signs of significant deficiencies in the maintenance care
–– VE show signs of very significant deficiencies in the maintenance care or its complete absence.
Evaluation criteria quality of maintenance care were evaluated according to the methodology Šimek (2010) and were related to the
five-point rating scale
areal VE (groups of trees, groups of shrubs, flower beds,
lawn areas), linear VE (alleys, shaped hedges) and point VE
(solitary tree, solitary shrub). The solitary tree category was
divided into sub-categories: solitary tree – an adult tree
(further mentioned as a solitary tree) and solitary tree –
new plantings (further mentioned as new plantings). The
structure and representation of the VE shows Tab. 3.
Qualitative status of elements
There was a 5-point scale used for evaluation of the
qualitative status of each element (Tab. 1). The areal
and linear VE were also evaluated from the perspective
of their integrity (failures, blanks). There was also the
vertical and horizontal canopy taken into account in the
case of shaped hedges.
The qualitative state of maintenance care
For each VE, the quality of maintenance care was assessed
(see Tab. 2). The principals for the evaluation were inspired
by the work of Šimek (2010), but it was slightly modified
and extended. For each type of VE there were developed
detailed evaluation criteria, which reflected the typical
characteristics of quality care maintenance. E.g. at the
VE consisting of trees, there was evaluated an absence
of tree maintenance care (presence of dead branches,
presence of hazardous trees, absence of thinning). The
shaped hedges were assessed as complying with the
Table 3
The structure and amount of tested categories
of VE
Vegetation
element type
Pieces
Area
in m2
Length
in m
Solitary tree
422
New plantings
52
Solitary shrub
284
Group of trees
105
11 606
Group of shrubs
138
6295
Flower-bed
26
612
Lawn area
730
158 166
Alley
32
1 414
Shaped hedge
216
426
3 502
Overall
2005
177 105
4 916
optimum growing shape. According to above mentioned
scale, the flower-beds and lawn areas were evaluated in
terms of the degree of weed infestation, maintenance of
edges and watering.
Statistical evaluation of the impact of quality of
maintenance care on quality of VE
Pearson‘s chi-square test of independence, at
a significance level of 0.05 was used for test of the
– 108 –
Table 4
Representation of quality for each vegetation element type
Vegetation
element type
Solitary tree
1
2
3
4
5
Quality of Quality of Quality of Quality of Quality of Quality of Quality of Quality of Quality of Quality of
element
care
element
care
element
care
element
care
element
care
0.47
1.90
13.74
35.55
39.34
34.83
43.60
24.88
2.84
2.84
New plantings
32.69
30.77
28.85
32.69
26.92
15.38
11.54
21.15
0.00
0.00
Solitary shrub
0.35
7.75
34.86
35.21
25.00
32.04
39.44
25.00
0.35
0.00
Group of trees
0.00
0.95
5.71
15.24
33.33
33.33
60.95
50.48
0.00
0.00
Group of shrubs
0.72
1.45
22.46
28.26
35.51
38.41
41.30
31.88
0.00
0.00
Flower-bed
0.00
3.85
73.08
65.38
23.08
30.77
3.85
0.00
0.00
0.00
Lawn area
0.00
0.00
13.97
26.16
70.68
65.47
14.38
8.36
0.96
0.00
Alley
0.00
6.25
15.63
12.50
68.75
59.38
15.63
21.88
0.00
0.00
Shaped hedge
0.00
0.93
12.96
8.80
24.54
28.70
62.50
54.63
0.00
6.94
Average in %
3.80
5.98
24.58
28.87
38.57
37.59
32.58
26.47
0.46
1.09
dependence between the variables. The conditions for
using the Chi-square test were not met, the test was
repeated using Monte Carlo analysis. To determine the
strength of the relationship between the two attributes
was used Cramer contingency coefficient V and
contingency coefficient. Data were analyzed using the
program R, version 3.0.1 (R Core Team, 2013) with the
optional package “vcd“ (Meyer et al., 2012). For writing R
scripts was used Tinn-R script editor (Faria, 2012).
Qualitative indicators of vegetation elements
Table 4 shows representation of quality for each
vegetation element type. Predominant representation of
the quality of VE and the quality of care is highlighted black
for each VE. In the overall average, the most represented
were the values of category 3, which shows the average
quality (38.57 % for the quality of VE and 37.59 % for the
quality of care). A high proportion of values represented
category 4, indicating poor quality of VE (32.58 %) and
poor quality of care (26.47 %) and then the values of
category 2, indicating good quality of VE (24.58 %) and
a high quality of care (28.87 %). Categories 1 and 5 occured
in only a few cases of evaluated sample. Among the best
rated VE in terms of quality belonged flower-beds and
new plantingss. The quality of lawn areas and alleys was
mostly average. The solitary shrubs showed balanced
distribution of quality in categories 2 and 4 of qualitative
scale. Solitary trees, groups of trees, groups of shrubs and
shaped hedges were predominantly evaluated within the
qualitative category 4. In terms of quality of care, the top
rated VE were flower-beds and new plantings. It should
be noted that at the same time, 21.15 % of new plantings
belonged to category 4, which refers to the poor quality
of care. Relatively uniform distribution of the percentage
in categories 2, 3 and 4 was shown in the case of solitary
shrubs and solitary strees and groups of shrubs. Groups
of trees and shaped hedges predominantly represented
the category number 4.
Lower quality of trees groups and shrubs groups
is due to the absence of thinning. Lower quality is
also caused by the low number of maintenance care
interventions in groups of trees to trees that have strong
competitive growth defects in habitus (V-forked branch,
asymmetric unstable crown, etc.). Competitive growth
and negative manifestations are not typical for solitary
trees so demands on the amount of maintenance care
may be lower.
These results can be partially compared with the
results of other authors. Qualitative status of trees
growing in New York (USA) was evaluated by Paper et al.
(2007) using the indicator condition of trees. Excellent
condition (hereinafter referred to as the quality): 23.9%,
good: 66.4%, poor 8.3%, dead 1.4%. Results of the
condition indicator of trees quality in study Chen and Jim
(2008) assessing in Nanjing (China) is as follows: excellent
15%, good: 50%, fair: 29%, poor: 5%, dying: 1%. In this
work (Ostrava) was much higher portion of poor quality
trees than in two cited studies. A higher portion of better
quality of trees (Chen and Jim, 2008; Paper et al., 2007) may
be caused by high quality of maintenance care in selected
locations of their occurrence (habitate type). This follows
from the conclusions of the cited works. Localization of
trees in a recently constructed parts of the city may also
have effect in case of study Chen and Jim (2008).
In the study by Šimek (2010), the quality of care for VE
in the green areas of residential complexes interfaced the
average and below average (poor) quality. In this work,
the most abundant were VE showing average quality
of care (37.59 %) with a balanced overlap to the aboveaverage quality (high quality) and also to below-average
quality (poor quality). In the case of groups of trees and
shaped hedges outweighed poor quality of care. It can be
concluded that the results of these two works are similar.
– 109 –
The above mentioned statement is also proved by
the work of Sojková and Knotková (2008) carried out
in a greenery of residential complexes. According to
the cited results, 72 % of trees showed average quality
and 24 % of trees showed poor quality, 67.5 % of VE
consisting of shrubs showed unsatisfactory quality level.
Unsatisfactory growing conditions were observed at
47 % of assessed trees and shrubs. When compared with
the results of this work, it is evident that in both cases
VE consisting of trees and shrubs achieved average and
substandard values of the qualitative status and also
the quality of care. This identical finding should be an
impulse for the management of residential green spaces
and the introduction of systematic steps to improve the
situation.
The reason for the lower percentage of compliance
between qualitative categories 2 and 3, and especially
between 4 and 5, is the effect of other factors that may
affect the qualitative status of VE. Lawn areas were often
damaged by trampling, excavations, etc. VE consisting of
trees and shrubs were often influenced by inappropriate
choice of taxon due to unfavorable habitat conditions.
New plantings and groups of shrubs were in several cases
damaged by vandalism. Specific VE could thus show
significant decrease in their qualitative status, in spite of
even high or average quality of care. This situation shows
that quality of care is important, but not the only factor
that affects the quality of VE.
Conclusions
The final match between the degree of quality of
element and the same level of quality of care is shown
in Tab. 5. Combinations marked with the symbol “–”
were not present on the evaluated area. The strongest
consensus between both assessed attributes was found
at the qualitative category no. 1. 95.24% of all VE in the
1st qualitative category had concurrently the care of
qualitative category 1. Other categories showed lower,
but still high conformity. The biggest differences between
the quality level of element and the same quality level of
care were found at solitary trees (in categories 2 and 4),
new plantings (category 3), lawns (category 2), groups of
trees and groups of shrubs (category 4).
The study presented evaluation indicators for assessing
the quality of VE and related maintenance services.
Obtained results demonstrated differences in the
quality of maintenance care among individual VE and
the quality of each VE. The quality of VE and the quality
of maintenance care is different for each VE. The most
elements achieved average quality of both indicators.
The worst average values of both qualitative indicators
were determined for groups of trees. The best quality
of both indicators were determined for flower beds and
new plantings. The results showed a correlation between
quality of maintenance care and quality of VE. Results
and principles of this work are fully utilized primarily by
the management of urban greenery and they will find
application when comparing greenery, and design of an
appropriate method of care management.
Table 5
References
Relationship between quality of element
and quality of care
Quality
of element
Correspondence between quality of element
and quality of maintenance care in %
Quality of maintenance care
1
2
3
4
5
1
95.24
4.76
–
–
–
2
8.26
63.36
25.90
2.48
–
3
0.43
27.25
63.73
8.58
–
4
–
9.96
30.76
56.61
2.67
5
–
6.25
31.25
6.25
56.25
Effect of quality of maintenance care to the quality
status of VP. Based on the results of the Pearson chisquare test of independence is possible to conclude that
there is the statistically significant relationship between
the quality of VP and quality of maintenance care: χ2 (16,
N = 2005) = 2002.12; p <0.001. The result is statistically
significant even when using the Monte Carlo method
(with 2000 replications) χ2 (NA, N = 2005) = 2002,12;
p <0.001. The correlation between two attributes is strong
(Cramer contingency coefficient V: 0.50 and contingency
coefficient: 0.71).
CUMMING, A. B. – TWARDUS, D. B. – NOWAK, D. J. 2008.
Urban Forest Health Monitoring: Large-Scale Assessments. In:
Arboriculture & Urban Forestry, vol. 34, 2008, no. 6, p. 341–346.
FARIA, J. C. 2012. Resources of Tinn-R GUI/Editor for R
Environment. Brasil : UESC, Ilheus, 2012.
KENNEY, W. A. et al. 2011. Criteria and Indicators for Strategic
Urban Forest Planning. In: Arboriculture & Urban Forestry, vol.
37, 2011, no. 3, p. 108–117.
MAYER, D. – ZEILEIS, A. – HORNIK, K. 2012. Visualizing Categorical
Data. R package version 1. 2012, p. 2–13.
CHEN, S.S. – JIM, C. Y. 2008. The Urban Forest of Nanjing City: Key
Characteristics and Management Assessment. In: CARREIRO, M.,
SONG, Y., WU, J. (eds). Ecology, planning, and management of
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R CORE TEAM. R. 2013. A language and environment for
statistical computing. Vienna : R Foundation for Statistical
Computing, 2013. ISBN 3-900051-07-0.
SOJKOVÁ, E. – HRUBÁ, T. 2006. Panelová sídliště v malých
městech Středočeského kraje. In: Město – zeleň a bydlení, 2006,
s. 29–35. ISBN 80-86950-00-X.
SOJKOVÁ, E. – KNOTKOVÁ, I. 2008. Hodnocení zeleně obytných
souborů. In: Acta Pruhoniciana, 2008, č. 90, s. 35–42. ISBN
978-80-85116-64-9.
– 110 –
SUPUKA, J. – FERIANCOVÁ, Ľ. 2008. Koncepčné prístupy
v plánovaní vegetačných štruktúr, štandardy a regulatívy.
In: SUPUKA, J. – FERIANCOVÁ. Ľ. et al. Vegetačné štruktúry
v sídlach: parky a záhrady. Nitra : SPU, 2008, s. 101–142. ISBN
978-80-552-0067-5.
ŠIMEK, P. 2001. Městská zeleň. In ŠRYTR, P. Městské inženýrství.
2. vyd. Praha : Academia, 2001. s. 183–225. ISBN 80-200-0440-82.
ŠIMEK, P. 2010. Východiska pro posuzování úrovně údržby
zeleně v systémech zeleně sídel. In: Acta horticulturae et
regiotecturae, roč. 13, 2010, mimoriadne číslo, s. 42–46. ISSN
1336-2563.
PEJCHAL, M. 2008. Arboristika I: obecná dendrologie. 1. vyd.
Mělník : Vyšší odborná škola zahradnická a střední zahradnická
škola, 2008. 170 p.
PEPER, P. J. et al. 2007. New York City, New York, Municipal Forest
Resource Analysis – Technical Report. New York, Center for
Urban Forest Research, USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest
Research Station, 2007, 65 p.
ZHOU, X. – WANG, Y. 2011. Spatial-temporal dynamics of urban
green space in response to rapid urbanization and greening
policies. In: Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 100, 2011, no.
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TERESTRICAL LASER SCANNING APPLIED TO ANALYSES OF PUBLIC SPACES
Dominika TITKOVÁ*, Monika JANČOVIČOVÁ, Lukáš ŠTRBA, Roberta ŠTĚPÁNKOVÁ, Ľuboš MORAVČÍK
This paper introduces a system of terrestrial laser scanning as a part of an analysis of two different types of public spaces,
one in the city of Nitra (Župné Námestie) and the other in ruralPodhorany (a square connected to a street), presenting. The
system and advantages of the process. The obtained data were processed with Leica Cyclone software. After importing the
data, RGB point values of the photographs that had been obtained with an internal camera scanner were assigned to all the
scans. Point Cloud data gathered in Podhorany was registered manually, while Župné square in Nitra was scanned from a
single stand-point, so no manual processing was necessary. Interactive documents, which offer opportunities to measure
the distance, size and RGB values of various components of the places, were created from complex point clouds, with Leica
TruView SiteMap being used to create such documents. The advantage of this technology is that it saves time, the application
is simple and there is no need for terrain map documentation, measure-tapes, observations and data origination. It offers
easy views, section monitoring and exactly shows the visual impact of various elements. Data are saved in memory and
the values can be re-measured anytime, if necessary. It is also possible to create views in different perspectives or a precise
image of a plan view in a very short time. Scanning technology records the current condition of spaces, though movement
cannot be measured. Collected pictures and data show the actual condition, values and changes over time.
Keywords: terestrical laser scanning, public spaces, analyses of public spaces
Introduction
A large bibliography that describes the topic of public
spaces is available (Aghostin-Sangar, 2007; Gehl and
Gemzoel, 2004; Gehl, 2010; Jacobs, 2010; Kristiánová
2011; Madanipour, 2003; Miková, Paulíková and
Pauliniová, 2010; Šilhánková, 2008; Tilley, Šilhánková and
Navrátilová, 1996). It is necessary to know the condition
of a public space when creating it, so an analysis should
be done. Data can be divided into exact measurable
values (height, distance, traffic and values) and observed
values (paths of pedestrians, qualitative values of the
buildings, genius loci of the place, safety, quality of
greenery...). Terestrical scanning saves the most time, is
accurate and the optimal methodology for gathering
important information.
Scanning took place on 25th March, 2014 between, 12:00
noon and 2:00 pm. A Leica C10 laser scanner was used.
Two types of public places were analyzed: one in the
rural village of Podhorany – Sokolníky (a public square in
front of the village church connected to a street for cars
and pedestrians) and the other in the city of Nitra (Župné
Square).
In order to choose optimal scanning positions, an
initial reconnaissance of the selected area has to be
done. In Podhorany three scanning positions were
selected, while only position was used in the case of
Župné Square.
Field vision was set to H360° V270° and mediumquality density measurement was performed since this
*Correspodence:
Dominika Titková, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape
Engineering, Department of Garden and Landscape Architecture, Tulipánová 7, 949 01 Nitra, Slovakia
Dominika Titková et al.: Terestrical laser scanning applied to analyses of public spaces, pp. 111–114
– 111 –
Figure 3
Figure 1
Scanning process
level of detail is sufficient for the needs of the areas to
be analyzed. Photos obtained with the scanner’s internal
camera were taken with an automatic exposure setting.
No HDS targets were used in the scanning, making the
work considerably more efficient.
Terrestrial laser scanning is quite well known, working
on the principle of detailed non-selective gathering of
Figure 2
Point cloud without and with adding of RGB
values (Podhorany)
spatial data that is based on a spatial-polar method using
a non-prism rangefinder. There are several options to
process the obtained data (point clouds). In each case
of processing, there has to be registration, which means
transforming particular point clouds into a single grid
system.
The obtained data were processed with Leica Cyclone
software. After importing the data, RGB point values of the
photographs acquired with an internal camera scanner
Manual registration of point clouds – common point – church tower
– 112 –
Figure 4
Point cloud without and with adding of RGB values (Župné Square)
complex point clouds. These views
can also be published online. The
available data can be used to analyze
public spaces with the option of
measuring distances and sizes,
or of observing the RGB values of
individual objects and views. Such
data was created with a Leica TruView
SiteMap application.
Techniques of gathering data for
spatial analyses of public places and
data for the architecture and buildings
are diverse, where the difference is
mainly in the level of detail.
Specific constructions requiring
high accuracy is demanded for
specific constructions and objects.
The documents that are acquired are
then used by structural engineers,
restorers, historians and architects
as materials. Analyzing public spaces
does not demand such detailed
materials. When scanning a public
space in a city, a disadvantage is the
presence of more disturbing elements
(moving people and vehicles, rain)
that leads to timeconsuming data
filtration.
Conclusion
Figure 4
Site Map of partial scans (Podhorany, Župné Square)
were assigned to each camera
scan. Point Cloud data gathered in
Podhorany was registered manually.
Joining the obtained data requires
a determination of the common
points in the space. In Podhorany, this
was the church tower between the
first and second standpoint, while
the third standpoint was the corner
of a office building. An absolute
transformation error of 9 mm was
generated. Župné Square in Nitra
was scanned from one standpoint,
so no manual processing necessary.
Documents in the form of an
interactive view were created from
Terestrical laser scanning was
used to gather, analyze, process
and evaluate data at two specific
public spaces, one in the village of
Podhorany village and the other at
Župné Square in the city of Nitra.
The advantage of this technology
is that it saves time, the application
is simple and there is no longer any
need for terrain map documentation,
measuring tapes, observations and
data origination. It offers easy views
and section monitoring, exactly
showing the visual impact of various
elements on the space. Date can be
obtained anytime when is required.
Data are saved in memory and can
be re-measured any time when
necessary. It is also possible to create
views in different perspectives or
a precise image of a plan view in
a very short time.
Only an expert or trained engineer
can work with the technology that
has been described, so it is necessary
– 113 –
Acknowledgement
The contribution was elaborated
thanks financial supporting by the
grant No. KEGA 001SPU-4/2014 and
VEGA 1/0769/12.
References
Figure 6
Interactive view with the option of distance measurement between
particular points (Podhorany)
Figure 7
Interactive view with the option of distance measurement between
particular points (Župné Square)
Figure 8
Heavy traffic at Župné Square
to know and understand the process
and the principle of data processing.
The technology records the
current condition of the spaces.
Movement cannot be measured
AGHOSTIN-SANGAR, V. 2007. Human
behaviour in public spaces. Thesis.
Sydney. str. 8. [online]. Dostupné na:
http://w w w.be.unsw.edu.au/sites/
default/files/upload/pdf/schools_and_
engagement/resources/_notes/5A2_1.
pdf
GEHL, J. – GEMZOE, L. 2004. Public
Spaces, Public Life. Danish Architectural
Press. ISBN 978-87-7407-305-5.
GEHL, J. 2010. Cities for People. Island
Press. ISBN 978-1597265737.
JACOBS, A. B. 1995. Great streets. MIT
Press, 1995 in Better streets plan. San
Francisco. Policies and Guidelines for the
pedestrian realm, 2010, p. 7.
KRISTIÁNOVÁ, K. 2011. Vegetačné
štruktúry vidieckeho sídla ako súčasť
genia loci a predmet obnovy vidieka. In:
Urbanistické, architektonické a technické
aspekty obnovy vidieka X. Obnova
duchovného, kultúrneho a ekonomického
potenciálu vidieka. Zborník referátov
z konferencie s medzinárodnou účasťou.
Bratislava : STU, 2011, p. 15–19. ISBN
978-80-227-3536-0.
MADANIPOUR, A. 2003. Public and
Private Spaces of the city. London, New
York : Routlege. Taylor and French Group,
2003
MIKOVÁ, K. – PAULÍKOVÁ, M. –
PAULINIOVÁ, Z. 2010. Verejné priestory.
Ako tvoriť priestory s príbehom, pre ľudí
a s ľuďmi. Nadácia Ekopolis, 2010. ISBN
978-80-89505-00-5.
ŠILHÁNKOVÁ,
V.
2008.
Veřejné
prostory našich měst. In: Veřejná
správa. 2008. [online]. Dostupné na:
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TILLEY, J. – ŠILHÁNKOVÁ, V. –
NAVRÁTILOVÁ, J. 1996. Metodika
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zlepšení
veřejného
prostoru. Výpis. 1996. United States Peace
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architekta, Magistrát města Brna (ÚHA
MMB) Brno, 1996.
with this application. The collected
pictures and data show the actual
condition, values and changes over
time.
– 114 –
USE OF TERRESTRIAL LASER SCANNING IN THE PRECISE DETERMINATION
OF GEOMETRICAL FEATURES CHANGES OF GINKGO BILOBA L.
Ľuboš MORAVČÍK
This contribution is aimed at utilization of terrestrial laser scanning for geometrical feature extraction of the single tree,
whereby the basic geometrical properties like tree height, shape and volume of the stem and crown, orientation and length
of primary branches were under examination. Modern computer graphics like point clouds postprocessing and 3d vector
graphics was used for precise determination of spatial and geometrical changes of the tree parameters in the period of two
years.
KEYWORDS
Keywords:
Introduction
High speed 3D-laser scanners measure up to 1 million
points/second between the instrument and its
surrounding at regular horizontal and vertical angles
(Shan and Thoth, 2008), which increased the resolution
of the resulting 3D-point clouds dramatically, so this
method can be used for measuring of complete tree
structure from both terrestrial and mobile equipment.
Data acquisition with remote sensing is coming to the
front of attention, because technics based on laser and
optical sensors like laser scanning and photogrammetry
provide spatial and metric data for further extraction and
derivation of various information.
The objective of this contribution is an extraction
of precise geometric data from single tree point model
obtained from high resolution ground laser scanning.
Following parameters of the tree models were evaluated:
(1) Diameter of the trunk at breast height; (2) Height
of the tree; (3) Canopy shape and volume; (4) Primary
branches layout and length.
sections in closed forms like polygons (Wezyk et al., 2007)
or circles (This and Spiecker, 2004). The trunk detection
in this contribution is based on horizontal cross-sectional
slices derivated from the point cloud model of the tree.
The tree height can be calculated as the vertical distance
between the projected ground point and highest point
of the tree.
The acquisition of the point model of Ginkgo biloga
L. tree was performed by 3D laser scanner Leica C10,
whereby the 2 measurements from two opposite sides
were taken (Fig. 2). The particular scans were registered
Material
The terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) was performed on
the single Ginkgo biloba L. whereby tree point model
acquisition in two different period of time 04/2012 and
03/2014 was done. The scanning was accomplished on
360°/270° degree (horizontal/vertical field of view with
a “high“ resolution (0.05 m/0.05 m on 100 m). The data
acquisition (scanning/picture taking), registration, point
cloud cleaning and multi image applying were done by
author.
Method of Reconstruction and Modeling
Single tree parameter estimations are commonly based
on points height above the ground. The crown shape
can be described by the set of horizontal and/or vertical
*Correspodence:
Figure 1
Vector model of the Ginkgo biloba L. tree (crown
shape modeling by the set of closed horizontal
polygons)
Ľuboš Moravčík, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape
Engineering, Department of Garden and Landscape Architecture, Tulipánová 7, 949 01 Nitra, Slovakia
Ľuboš Moravčík: Use of terrestrial laser scanning in the precise determination of geometrical features changes of Ginkgo biloba L., pp. 115–117
– 115 –
Figure 2
Southern-side view on the registered point cloud model of the Ginkgo biloba L.
in HDS-Cyclone/Register software and the final point
cloud was cleaned and cut around the tree. A binary form
of point cloud *.PTS was exported from HDS Cyclone
software and trough Autodesk RECAP utility prepared
for importing into AutoCAD vector editor for final
postprocessing.
The horizontal sections of the final point cloud were
performed at the bottom of the trunk, brest height
(+1.30 m above the ground) and at additional elevations
in the vertical distance of +1.00 m (Fig. 1).
The vector model of the tree trunk was created by
the means of lofting function applied on the block of
Figure 3
Horizontal slice of the point cloud model of the
Ginkgo biloba L. (03/2012) at the +6.30 m height
front view (above) and top view (below)
Figure 4
– 116 –
Axonometric view on vector model of Ginkgo
biloba L. tree (consisting of stem and primary
branches)
Figure 5
Extraction and modeling of the trunk diameter at the breast height
(DBH)
Table 1
Evaluation of derivated and calculated geometrical features
changes of the Ginkgo biloba
Geometrical parameter
Value of parameter
Increase 2012–2014
investigation of single tree. The
measurements of leafless Ginkgo biloba
L. tree were taken in time-period of 2
years (03/2012 and 03/2014), whereby
the specific geometrical parameters
like primary branch lengths, stem
diameter and heading, crown volume,
etc. were compared. For the graphical
postprocessing of point clouds the
vector editor AutoCAD 2015 and
point cloud software HDS Cyclone
were used. Further research will be
aimed at automated extracting of
geometrical parameters from point
model of single tree obtained by
terrestrial laser scanning.
Acknowledgements
This work was co-funded by
European Community under project
no. 26220220180: Building Research
Centre “AgroBioTech”.
03/2012
03/2014
absolute
relative
12.97
13.33
0.36
2.78%
226
236
10
4.42%
References
0.14405
0.14577
0.00172
1.19%
Crown volume in m3
128.18
137.12
8.94
6.97%
Total primary branches
length (summary in m
127.87
128.79
0.92
0.72%
BROLLY, G. B. 2013. Locating and
parameter retrieval of individual trees
from terrestrial laser scanner data. Ph.D.
Dissertation. Sopron : The University of
West Hungary, 2013, pp. 101.
PFEIFER, N. – WINTERHALDER, D. 2004.
Modeling of tree cross sections from
terrestrial laser scanning data with free
form curves. In: International Archives of
Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and
Spatial Information Sciences, vol. 36, no.
8/W2, pp. 76–82.
SHAN, J. – TOTH, C. (Eds). 2008.
Topographic Laser Ranging and Scanning,
CRC Press.9 Soudarissanane, In: S.,
Lindenbergh R, Gorte, B. 2008 Reducing
the error in terrestrial laser scanning by
Optimizing the measurement set-up,
ISPRS Congress, 2008, no. B5, pp. 615.
THIES, M. – SPIECKER, H. 2004. Evaluation
and future prospects of terestrial
laser scanning for standardized forest
inventories. In: Thies, M., Koch, B., Spiecker,
H., Weinacker, H. (ed), Laser Scanners
for Forest and Landscape Assessment.
International Archives of Photogrammetry,
Remote Sensing and Spatial Information
Sciences, vol. 36, 2004, no. 8/W2.
WEZYK, P. – KOZIOL, K. – GLISTA, M. –
PIERZCHALSKI, M. 2007. Terestrial laser
scanning versus traditional forest inventory
first results from the polish forests. ISPRS
Workshop on Laser Scanning 2007 and
Silvilaser 2007, Espoo, Finnland, September
12–14, 2007, pp 424– 430.
Tree hight in m
DBH in mm
Stem volume in m
3
12 circles. The CAD-model of the
tree crown is represented as a group
of horizontal polygons forming the
envelopes of the points cloud at
corresponding elevations (Fig. 3). The
primary branches were generated
manually and represented in the
form of 3d-polylines connected to
trunk model (Fig. 4).
The basic feature extracted from the
registered point cloud model was
the diameter of the trunk at brest
height (Fig. 5). Additionally other
geometrical parameters like tree
height, stem and crown volume
and length of primary tdifference
between the highest measurement
point and the ground height at trunk
location. In order to get the ground
height, DTM was used.
The result is a compared
parameters of the reconstructed tree
stem, crown and primary branches.
The differences in evaluation of
specified parameters are shown in
Table 1, which contains compared
parameters of the investigated
tree graphically derivated from
high resolution point models. The
differences are given in both relative
and absolute values.
Conclusions
This paper presents an approach to
extract geometrical parameters (like
primary branch lengths, stem and
crown volume, etc.) from precise
single Ginkgo biloba L. tree model
based on the terrestrial laser scanning
and graphical postprocessing. On
selected tree measurements were
taken in time interval of two years
(03/2012 and 03/2014).
This contribution deals with use
of modern information technologies
like terrestrial laser scanning and
3d graphical postprocessing in the
process of geometrical changes
– 117 –
CURRENT METHODS OF ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION
OF URBAN TREES IN SLOVAKIA
Zuzana ĎURÁNOVÁ, Viera PAGANOVÁ
This article provides an overview of the methods for inventory, assessment and economic evaluation of the urban trees in
Slovakia, according to the possibility of its application. The objective of this paper is to identify current methods used and
determinate the reason why they are used in practice. We analysed what causes the problem in decision-making process of
urban trees.
Keywords: urban tree inventory, methods of visual assessment, economic value of urban trees
Introduction
In Slovakia the various methods of inventory, assessment
and evaluation of urban trees have been applied for
a large range of the purposes including planning,
maintaining and monitoring of the trees growing in
urban areas. These methods differ from each other
not only in the type of input data, but especially in the
character of the obtained information describing the
current state, functions, benefits, ecosystem services and
value of urban trees.
According to Raček and Činčurová (2008), the oldest
method used in landscape architecture was compiled by
Machovec (1987). This method deals with dimensional
parameters of the trees – tree height, perimeter of the
trunk, diameter of the crown, estimates the age of the
tree, and its aesthetic value including actual condition
of the tree with respect to signs of senescence and
damage. Pejchal (1997, 2005) elaborated method for
assessment of the “tree vitality” which takes measure
on physiological (damage and reaction to damage)
and biomechanical mechanical (resistance to break)
part Method for phytopathological assessment of the
trees in urban areas has been elaborated by Juhásova
and Serbinová (1997). The other authors (Supuka, 1997;
Reháčková and Pauditšová, 2006) dealt with methods of
the evaluation of vegetation in the urban environment for
landscape planning. Kubišta (2011) focused on greenery
in historic parks with respect to its compositional value.
For effective management of urban trees the
reliable information about their actual condition is
important. According to Horáček (2012) each design and
maintenance of urban trees respecting the law must be
based on inventory and visual assessment. Each method
for assessment of the urban trees should correspond to
the particular objective of the study and use appropriate
*Correspodence:
parameters that would clearly describe condition and
specific value of the tree. This raises the question what
method should be selected for what specific purpose to
make a correct decision making concerning the urban
trees.
The objective of this work is to identify the most
commonly used methods of inventory, assessment and
evaluation of urban trees and determine the objective of
its applications in practice in Slovakia.
43 documents elaborated by experts and professionals
dealing with trees (published on line on web) were used
as data source for study of the purposes of inventory,
assessment and evaluation of urban trees in Slovakia
during the last ten years. The methodology is based on
literature review. The obtained information was assorted
in the table according to the rate of the application and
objectives. Within the analysis of the obtained data we try
to understand the different approach of the practitioners
and experts working with urban trees and establish the
basic principles for choice of the representative method
of tree assessment.
Results
Based on analysis of 43 documents for planning and
maintenance of urban trees in Slovakia it is possible to
declare that:
1. There are several methods for assessment and
evaluation of trees used by professionals in Slovakia.
They often represent a combination of the same, or
similar parameters combined each other.
The most frequently used method is Methodology
for determination of “social value of tree”, which is
established by Act No. 543/2002 of Collection of Acts
Zuzana Ďuránová, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape
Engineering, Department of Planting Design and Maintenance, Tulipánová 7, 949 76 Nitra, Slovakia,
Zuzana Ďuránová, Viera Paganová: Current methods of assessment and evaluation of urban trees in Slovakia, pp. 118–121
– 118 –
about protection of the nature and landscape (“Act about
protection of the nature and landscape”). “The social
value of tree” expresses biological, ecological and cultural
value of the protected plant species, trees and habitats.
This parameter is determined by rarity, endangerment
of the species and performance of the non-production
functions” (§ 95 of the Act). Edict of NC SR No. 24/2003of
listed Act determinates the economic value of urban trees
according to species and dimensions of trees. This value
depends on “relative age” of tree (it is estimated for longlived or short-lived trees). Methodology for assessment
of the social value of tree considers also some indexes.
The index of damage and negative impact of tree (on
static conditions of buildings, utilities etc.) reduces the
monetary value of particular tree. Other indexes, based
Table 1
on functional impact of tree in surrounding area, its rarity
or cultural and historical value can increase the monetary
value of tree.
2. The same method of inventory, assessment or
evaluation of urban trees is applied for different purposes
in practice. One method is often used with multiple
objectives.
Table 1 describes the scale of different purposes to
which the methods of inventory, visual assessment and
evaluation of urban trees are applied in practice.
The basic characteristics of a tree (location, taxonomy,
dendrometric parameters etc.) are included under each
of these methods. Acquired information is suitable for
calculation of the ”social value of tree” and standard
maintenance cost. But these parameters are usually
Aims and purposes for the visual assessment of urban trees that has been done in Slovakia between years
2003–2013
Aims and purposes
Applied methodology
Machovec
(1987)
Pejchal
(1997, 2005)
Juhásová
(2009)
Dobrucká
(2011)
Social value
of tree
Tree inventory
Identification of number of trees in the area
Identification of species structure
Identification of age structure
Measurement of dendrometric parameters
Assessment of current state of tree
Assessment of damage of trees
Assessment of vitality (condition) of trees
Assessment of biomechanical stability (static)
of trees
Assessment of future perspective
(vigorousness) of trees
Assessing the aesthetic (landscaping)
value of trees
Evaluation of economic value (price or cost) of trees
Calculation of the economic value of trees in €
Calculation the price of the replacement
plantings in €
Calculation of the compensation for damaged
or felled trees in €
Calculation of the maintenance costs
Decision making
Making decision for tree felling
Making materials for development
of urban reality
Making Environmental Impact Assessment
Making Land Use Planning Document
(Document of Tree Care)
The measured/estimated parameter is presented in grey colour
– 119 –
used in Slovakia by professionals is
the methodology for determination
of the “social value of tree”
established by “Act about protection
of the nature and landscape” and
its later regulations (Edict of NC SR
No. 24/2003 and No. 158/2014).
It includes similar parameters
than other methodologies. It can
be applied for tree inventory,
assessment of tree damage and
economic evaluation of urban trees.
The exact data from the inventory are
used to determinate the monetary
value of tree. This value changes
according to the other more or less
subjective parameters (evaluation of
site, function, protection etc.). More
detailed description of damage of
tree is missing in this methodology.
Obtained knowledge will be
useful for making further research
direction what will be oriented on
determination of different types of
habitual defects and damages of
trees in urban areas.
Figure 1
Number of documents with methodology applied for inventory,
assessment and evaluation of urban trees in Slovakia between years
2003–2013. Quantification was done from 43 on-line documents
elaborated for greenery planning and management
obtained using different equipment
and various scale of measurement
depending on applied methodology.
Assessment of the current state of
a tree is more complicated. According
to Hrubík et al. (2011) each method
is specific and has different demand
on time, knowledge, experience and
skills. The methods based on some
parameters (tree damage, vitality,
stability etc.) are hardly comparable,
what leads to misunderstanding
between them and non-uniform
interpretation of the results (Horáček,
2012). The obtained information
is then rather subjective and
assessment that is done according
to non-reliable parameter cause
problem in decision-making.
The economic evaluation of trees
is represented by the “Social value of
tree” (given in euros). It is provided
according to the prevailing Edict of
NC SR No. 158/2014 of Collection of
Acts.
This methodology include the
assessment of damage of a tree
(hard damage – more than 60%
damaged tree, strong damage – tree
is damaged in range between 26%
and 60%, slight damage – damage
of tree is very low between 11% and
25%). But this methodology does not
contain more detailed information
about how to determine the damage
of tree.
Conclusion
The results showed what methods of
inventory, assessment and evaluation
of urban trees are currently used in
Slovakia and for what purpose they
are applied in praxis.
The method for inventory,
assessment and evaluation of urban
trees which is the most frequently
Acknowledgements
This work is supported by grant
KEGA 012SPU-4/2013 Program of
the lifelong learning for arborists in
Slovakia (2013–2015).
References
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about protection of nature and landscape.
EDICT of NC SR No. 24/2003 of Collection
of Acts.
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Collection of Acts.
DOBRUCKÁ, A. 2011. Invertarizácia
drevín, krajinno-architektonické úpravy
obce Lukáčovce. [online] Dostupné na:
<http://www.lukacovce.sk/data/File/
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v pohledu na stromy aneb vizuální
hodnocení stromů stejne a přesto jinak.
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způsoby a praktické využití hodnocení
stromů. Praha : SZKT, 2012, pp. 11–14.
ISBN 978-80-86950-12-9.
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TKÁČOVÁ, S. – MŇAHONČÁKOVÁ, E. 2011.
– 120 –
Kvalitatívna inventarizácia, klasifikácia a hodnotenie
zdravotného stavu dřevin pre účely záhradno-architektonickej
a krajinárskej tvorby. Nitra : SPU, 2011, 99 pp. ISBN
978-80-552-0651-6.
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TREES IN URBAN STRUCTURE OF RURAL RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS –
THE CASE OF BRATISLAVA, SLOVAKIA
Katarína KRISTIÁNOVÁ*, Katarína GÉCOVÁ, Eva PUTROVÁ
Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Slovakia
Suburbanisation processes and various aspects of their manifestation belong to the most discussed topics in contemporary
urban and landscape planning. One of the characteristic features of suburban residential urban structures is the homogeneity
of mono-function private residential parcels and absence of public space and its diversity. These architectural and urban
design characteristics predetermine the possibilities of woody plants – trees existence within the urban spatial structure.
The paper describes the characteristics of urban structure of suburban residential areas as a factor creating basic spatial
preconditions for tree performance and presents the results of the research in the cadastral areas of village settlements near
Bratislava.
Keywords: urban trees, suburban residential structure, urban greenery
Introduction
Suburbanization is most often characterized as a process
of moving city dwellers to the city suburbs or into the
surrounding rural village settlements. The beginnings
of this process occurred in Slovakia since the nineties
of the 20th century. Apart from the seventies and
eighties, when people moved into cities, in the nineties
the concentration tendencies began gradually to
change and the deconcentration tendencies started to
*Correspodence:
manifest themselves by moving the city population to
the countryside. The villages, where the processes of
suburbanization exhibit themselves most sharply, are
located in the hinterland of the largest Slovak towns. The
process of suburbanization is linked with agglomeration
tendencies, too – the nuclear town attracts into its
hinterland immigrants from distant regions (Sopirová,
2011). In Slovakia, the processes of suburbanization and
agglomeration are most characteristic for the villages in
Katarína Kristiánová, Institute of Landscape and Garden Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Slovak
University of Technology in Bratislava, Slovakia, e-mail: [email protected]
Katarína Kristiánová, Katarína Gécová, Eva Putrová: Trees in urban structure of rural residential suburbs – the case of Bratislava, Slovakia, pp. 121–124
– 121 –
the hinterland of the capital Bratislava. Negative aspects
of suburbanisation processes, for example conflicts
with interests of landscape protection, agricultural land
preservation, or changes of the character and identity of
the rural landscapes and rural settlements (Štěpánková
and Bihuňová, 2013), etc., belong to the most discussed
topics in contemporary urban and landscape planning
(Štěpánková and Kristiánová, 2012). Suburbanization
and agglomeration processes cause rapid growth of the
rural village settlements around nuclei towns and cause
significant changes of the village settlements urban
structure, especially on borders, in the landscape contact
areas (Sopirová, 2011). The design of the urban spatial
forms of suburban residential housing often does not
meet the desires “to get closer to nature” (Vitková and
Kollár, 2007).
The processes of suburban residential development
also significantly affect the character of vegetation
structures typical for village settlements, which are
traditionally perceived as a factor in a significant way
creating genius loci, or identity of „rurality” associated
with village settlements. Vegetation, greenery of family
private gardens, cemeteries, churches, school campuses,
vegetation of historic parks and gardens, landscape
greenery of surrounding countryside infiltrating into
urban structure, etc., creates an essential part of the
traditional heterogeneous multifunctional urban
structure of rural settlement (Gécová, 2013). However,
the characteristic feature of the new development of
suburban residential structures is the homogeneity
of mono-functional small-sized private residential
parcels and the absence of public space and its diversity
(Štěpánková and Kristiánová, 2012).
We presume that these characteristics of urban
structure influence the characteristics of vegetation
structures in rural suburban residential areas. The
architectural and urban design characteristics of the rural
suburban residential areas predetermine the possibilities
of woody plants – trees existence within the urban
spatial structure. We presume that the spatial limits of
small-sized parcels of suburban residential zones, limited
spatial dimensions of streets and absence of diverse
public spaces markedly limit the opportunities and
possibilities of woody plants – trees existence within the
urban spatial structure and the use of woody plants –
trees in landscape design.
aerial photographs of the area of suburban residential
structures have been used. Available urban planning
documents and projects of residential zones have been
examined, as well as, the research on particular sites
has been conducted. The research followed main steps:
1. identification of the contemporary patterns and the
spatial potential of trees and tree formations existence
within public spaces of suburban residential structure,
2. identification of the contemporary patterns and the
spatial potential of trees and tree formations existence
within private garden spaces of suburban residential
structure.
1. The research of contemporary patterns and the spatial
potential of trees and tree formations existence within
public spaces of suburban residential structure shows,
that in public space the possibilities for the use of trees,
or their spatial formations, as tree alleys or groups of
trees, are limited. In most of the cases, the public space is
reduced only for the needs of communication function.
Prevailing typological form of public space is street, and
The relationships between spatial conditions of public
and private spaces and tree existence and performance
have been examined in the cadastral areas of suburban
residential zones of village settlements near Bratislava,
on the development axis towards Senec – Ivánka pri
Dunaji, Bernolákovo, Veľký Biel, Chorvátsky Grob, and
Slovenský Grob. For the purposes of the research, the
The results of the research of the residential suburban
structures in the cadastral areas of the villages – Ivánka
pri Dunaji, Bernolákovo, Veľký Biel, Chorvátsky Grob,
Slovenský Grob Ivánka pri Dunaji, Bernolákovo, Veľký
Biel, Chorvátsky Grob and Slovenský Grob prove the
characteristic feature of suburban residential quarters –
absence of diversity of public spaces and homogeneity
of mono-functional small-sized private residential
parcels. The urban structure is usually composed in
forms of streets and private plots of family houses, and
the dimensions of public space of street structure and
dimensions of private parcels follow the economic and
financial interest of developers towards land use (Fig. 1).
Figure 1
Typical urban structure of rural residential
suburbs in Chorvátsky Grob – Čierna Voda:
homogeneity of mono-functional small-sized
private residential parcels and absence of public
space and its diversity limit spatial possibilities of
tree existence
Source: Google Earth
– 122 –
Figure 2
Typical street of rural residential suburbs in Chorvátsky Grob – Čierna
Voda, its parameters allow only traffic access
Photograph: Kristiánová, 2014
Figure 3
The spatial conditions of urban structure limit the size of trees.
Chorvátsky Grob – Čierna Voda
Figure 4
Density of the low-rise residential structure does not allow the woody
plants to exceed the height of the roofs of the family houses. Chorvátsky
Grob – Čierna Voda
its parameters, usually 6 m wide
corridor, most often allow only
traffic access, without the possibility
of accompanying greenery, also
in respect to restrictions put by
technical infrastructure, which uses
the street corridor, too. In some
cases trees of small dimensions, with
limited spatial parameters (height,
size of crown), in tree row or tree alley
formations are applicable (Figure 2).
Specific conditions of public
space of suburban environment
create only very limited possibilities
for the trees and their spatial
formations utilization and for the
woody plant species and cultivars
choice. Lack of typological diversity
of public spaces means the lack of
public greenery in urban structure.
Only few cases in the examined area
are found, which bring diversification
into public spaces – for example
by integration of commercial
services – shopping centres, or
by use of different concepts of
residential housing with common
green public spaces, what gives
spatial opportunities for existence of
sizeable solitaire trees or tree groups
performance. In examined area, for
example the project Triangel offers
an artificial pond as a„central relaxing
zone“, fulfilling aesthetic-relaxation
function, and in the same time
catch-water and hydro-melioration
function for the whole residential
area.
2. The research of the contemporary
patterns and spatial potential of
trees and tree formations existence
in private garden spaces of suburban
residential structure shows that in
private space of the private gardens
the possibilities for the use of trees
are limited, too. Index of built
up area of the small-area parcels
(ranging from 450 m2 to 650 m2,
mostly around 500 m2) is high, from
0.35 to 0.55 in average, again giving
only limited spatial conditions for
sizeable solitaire trees or tree groups
performance. Only small-sized trees
or trees kept small by pruning have
– 123 –
been found in the private gardens of the examined area.
The height of trees does not exceed the height of roofs of
the family houses (Figure 3 and 4).
The research of residential suburbs in hinterland of
Bratislava proved the assumption, that the spatial limits
of small-sized parcels of suburban residential zones,
limited spatial dimensions of streets and absence of
diverse public spaces markedly limit the opportunities
and possibilities of woody plants – trees existence
within the urban spatial structure and the use of woody
plants – trees in landscape design. The urban structure
of examined rural suburban residential areas does not
give spatial conditions for existence of sizeable solitaire
trees or sizeable tree groups performance both in public,
as well as private space. Only trees of small dimensions,
with limited spatial parameters, or trees of managed size
are applicable. Sizeable trees, so typical for traditional
heterogeneous multifunctional urban structure of rural
settlements – in public spaces around churches, central
social spaces or village squares (Bašová, 2004), cannot
find their place in suburban residential structures.
The research focused on spatial aspects of tree
performance within urban structure of rural residential
suburbs, but there are other interesting aspects. While
for the private family gardens of traditional historical
urban structure of village settlements is still typical their
production use (Supuka, Feriancová and Tóth, 2013),
represented for example by various fruit trees associated
with identity of village settlements, the private gardens
of residential suburbs fulfil mostly recreation, relaxation
and aesthetic functions, what is reflected in assortment
of woody plants – introduced, exotic, or evergreen are
very popular.
Conclusion
Vegetation structures represent an important element,
able to enhance aesthetic, architectural, cultural and
ecological qualities of village settlements. Urban
structure creates basic specific preconditions for
utilization of trees as spatial elements in urban structure
and creates specific requirements for utilization of tree
species and their cultivars. The processes of suburban
residential development significantly affect the character
of vegetation structures typical for village settlements.
According to the research results, it appears that
creation of multifunctional heterogeneous environment,
or application of various residential urban planning
schemes, which are able to bring spatial differentiation
into both public and private premises of urban structure,
in the same time means better spatial conditions for trees
existence and performance within urban structure.
References
SOPIROVÁ, A. 2011. Rezidenčná suburbanizácia a jej odraz
vo vidieckych sídlach ležiacich v zázemí mesta Bratislavy. In:
Člověk, stavba a územní plánování 5, Praha : ČVUT, 2011, pp.
57–65. ISBN 978-80-01-04753-8.
ŠTĚPÁNKOVÁ, R. – KRISTIÁNOVÁ, K. 2012. Verejné priestory
v urbanistickej štruktúre vidieckych rezidenčných suburbií
Bratislavy. In: Člověk, stavba a územní plánování 6. Praha : ČVUT,
2012, pp. 178–182. ISBN 978-80-01-05025-5. VITKOVÁ, Ľ. – KOLLÁR, M. 2007. Koncepcia obytného prostredia
v podmienkach vidieckych sídiel: Nové formy obytných
štruktúr pre vidiek. In: Urbanistické, architektonické a technické
aspekty obnovy vidieka VI.: Obnova duchovného, kultúrneho
a ekonomického potenciálu vidieka. Bratislava : SvF STU, 2007,
pp. 167–173. ISBN 978-80-227-2780-8.
ŠTĚPÁNKOVÁ, R. – BIHUŇOVÁ, M. 2013. Urbanistickoarchitektonické dôsledky suburbanizácie obce Veľké Zálužie. In:
Životné prostredie, vol. 46, 2013, no. 6, pp. 320–323.
GÉCOVÁ, K. 2013. Rozvoj vidieckeho sídla verzus verejná
zeleň. In: Ekologické štúdie, vol. 4, 2013, no. 2, pp. 15–23. ISSN
1338-2853.
SUPUKA, J. – FERIANCOVÁ, Ľ. – TÓTH, A. 2013. Mestské
poľnohospodárstvo – tradície a nové cesty rozvoja. In: Životné
prostredie, vol. 47, 2013, no. 4, pp. 237–241. ISSN 1338-2853.
BAŠOVÁ, S. 2004. Vidiecke námestie: charakter a funkcia
reprezentačného spoločenského priestoru. In: Národná osveta,
vol. 14, 2004, no. 11, pp. 12–13. ISSN 1335-4515.
– 124 –
NOTEWORTHY EXAMPLES OF GREENERY IN THE TOWN WITH
A GREAT TOURISTIC POTENTIAL
Katarzyna KAŁUŻNY*, Anna ZAJĄC, Ewa HANUS-FAJERSKA, Anna PINDEL
With diminishing greenery areas in European cities there should be paid much attention to the art of sustainable public
space creating. As covering buildings with vegetation is lately becoming popular approach, noteworthy examples of such
modern greenery are presented on the example of Valencia city, vigorously developing capital of Autonomous Community
of Valéncia. The inventory of ornamental plant species is also presented.
Keywords: landscape architecture, green walls, modern gardens, public space
Introduction
The Region of Valencia belongs to seventeen autonomous
region of Spain, and Valencia city is intensively developing
capital of Autonomous Community of Valéncia, localized
in eastern part of the country. The population inside
administrative borders of the city is above eight hundred
thousand, with population density 8 100 persons per
square kilometer, so presently it is third largest Spanish
city (Gallego et al., 2011; Goerlich and Cantarino, 2013].
Moreover, it is large urban centre with numerous
historically important monuments, beautifully located
on the Mediterranean seashore which attracts tourists
from all over the world. In addition there are numerous
interesting examples of modern architecture.
Nowadays buildings are designed and constructed
in such a way that the space between each other is very
limited. Frequently there is literally neither possibility
to admire the landscape nor to secure inhabitants to
be taken with nature. Thus complementary green belt,
and innovative ideas on its arrangement are necessary to
supply all aesthetic, emotional, and intellectual demands
of cities inhabitants (CABE Space, 2005; Peckowska,
2007; Wong and Chen, 2010). Newly created buildings
are planned with the aim of protect the existing forms of
green. The greenery are step by step becoming the integral
part of the architectural designs. Therefore the objective
of the study was to present some interesting examples
of composing greenery within architecture. Valencia, the
Spanish town with great touristic potential was chosen
because this city can also attracts tourists by interesting
implication of ornamental plants in urbanized space.
The area of investigation was noteworthy examples of
Valencia modern greenery. As objects of the study were
*Correspodence:
chosen the site-specific public buildings, representing
the examples of contemporary architecture. During
the field-study performed in 2012 the inventory of the
ornamental plant species, and the photographic record
of analyzed objects were accomplished. The area of
investigation was chosen taken into consideration
current, rapidly developing approaches, when greenery
are closely connected with architecture of the city. It
leads to inventing quite new solutions of the use of plant
material in urban space. The particular objects were
typical of public buildings localized in main roads with
heavy traffic.
Research building of Valencia
University Botanical Garden
Valencia University Botanical Garden (Jardí Botànic de
la Universitat de Valéncia) founded in 1567 for over two
hundred years was mainly used to grow medicinal plants
for students and their tutors (www.jardibotanic.org). The
location of the Botanic Garden has been changing up to
1802, when it was transferred to Huerto de Tramoyeres
near The Torres de Quard, where is currently situated
(www.valencia.es). At present time the plant species
grown in collection exceed in number three thousand
of species originated from all five continents. The main
are tropical trees, especially palms, and desert plants
collections.
In the year 1987 as reconstruction of the buildings was
urgently needed people at positions of authority decided
to restore the glory of El Botànic. The new building
designed by two architects Carlosa Bento and Luisa Gay
became modern center of science and a place for study.
The most interesting concept of the building was design
it in such a way as to keep growing specimen of South
Katarzyna Kałużny, University of Agriculture in Krakow, Faculty of Horticulture, Institute of Plant Biology
and Biotechnology, Unit of Botany and Plant Physiology, Al. 29 Listopada 54, 31-425 Kraków, Poland,
Katarzyna Kałużny et al.: Noteworthy examples of greenery in the town with a great touristic potential, pp. 125–128
– 125 –
Figure 1
Forms of landscape architecture in Valencia. A–C: Botanical Garden (phot. A. Zając); D–F: Estación de Telemando
(phot. K. Kałużny); G–H: Estación Depuradora (G – phot. www.abc.es, H – A. Zając); I–J: Ciudad Politécnica de la
Innovación (I – phot. www.via-arquitectura.net, J – phot. A. Zając); K–L: Palau de les Arts Reina Sofía (phot. A. Zając)
– 126 –
American Celtis australis – the tree,
used to be located at the entrance
to the garden which creates special
atmosphere there (Fig. 1 A–B). Roofs
over the galleries are planted with
vines hanging down in the courtyard
in harmony with the rest of the
vegetation, which really adorns the
entrance to the garden (Fig. 1C).
Green walls and roofs
of buildings of Central Operativa
de Saneamiento del Ciclo
Integral del Agua
Green roofs have been made in April
2010 on buildings located along
Avenida del Mediterráneo and Calle
del Doctor Lluch, which belong to the
Central Operativa de Saneamiento
del Ciclo Integral del Agua (Estación
Depuradora, Fig 1. G–H). At the
same time green walls have also
been accomplished (Estación de
Telemando, Fig. 1. D–F). According to
the Mayor of Valencia – Rita Barbera,
this project has to launch ecofriendly trend that will be continued
(www.valencia.es). The city has
decided on such a solution not only
for aesthetic, but also eco-friendly
and economic reasons as green
roofs and walls provide isolation
from noise and heat. Application of
green cover reduces in the summer
the temperature on average about
5–8 ºC, while in winter allows to
keep the temperature of the outside,
increasing the energy efficiency
of the building. Moreover, thanks
to the large amount of absorbed
carbon dioxide can reduced the
occurrence of “heat islands” on the
heavily urbanized areas (Wong and
Chen, 2010; Kowalczyk, 2011), so as
many as three walls of the Estacion
de Telemano building were covered
by plants (Fig. 1. D–F). The plant
material was chosen not only for
the appropriate climatic zone, but
also paying attention to the whole
composition. Yellow (e.g. Bulbinella,
Santolina) or rouge (Dianthus)
flowering species were combined
with eye-catchnig green background
formed from Pittosporum and
Asparagus species and varieties
(Fig. 2). As a result, the green walls
with high decorative qualities were
obtained.
Park of Science in the Technical
University in Valencia (Ciudad
Politécnica de la Innovación)
Park of Science at the Technical
University in Valencia was designed
by Luís Manuel Ferrer Obanos at the
same time as a thoughtful, uncluttered
layout
(www.via-arquitectura.
net). The aim of CPI is to combine
the science with the business,
conducing advanced research and
promotion of innovation. Despite
dense architecture in the urban
area, the place for greenery was
found. Numerous, evenly, planted
deciduous trees whit white pebbles
tightly covering the ground, fit into
the climate of modern architecture.
The paths arranged between bases
made with wooden sleepers in order
to make the space more comfortable
and friendly (Fig. 1J). The only
green element of the CPI space
except woody plants, is overgrown
with grasses, which emphasize the
minimalistic architecture (Fig. 1I).
Bulbinella sp.
20%
45%
Dianthus sp.
Santolina sp.
5%
Figure 2
10%
20%
Pittospoum sp.
Asparagus sp.
Genus inventory of the front wall of Estación Depuradora
The Palace of Art Queen Sofia
(Palau de les Arts Reina Sofía)
Palau de les Arts Reina Sofía (Fig.
1K), designed by Santiago Calatrava
(www.lesarts.com), is one of the
buildings belonging to the Ciudad
de las Artes y las Ciencias (City of
Arts and Sciences). It is included
to mostly visited places in the city
of Valencia. Its construction was
completed in October 2005 and
since then it become the cultural
centre of Valencia. It held numerous
theatrical performances, banquets
and concerts, it is also the Opera and
the Orchestra of the Autonomous
Community of Valencia. The
architecture of the Palace of Arts
Reina Sofía attracts with the sight
of futuristic shape. On its specially
exposed terraces numerous of plant
species were placed , including the
tall palms, which gave the spectators
the substitute of a hanging garden.
The aerodynamics shape of the Palau
de les Arts Reina Sofía contrasts with
the vertical form of cypress trees,
which were planted around the
building (Fig. 1L).
Nowadays greenery becomes an
integral part of architecture. Without
being able to integrate the buildings
with the landscape it is properly
impossible to ensure residents with
greater contact with nature. Covering
of buildings fronts or roofs with
plant material may be the solution.
As stated by Peck and Callaghan
(1999) or Trzaskowska (2010) the
use of suitable plant material
affects on building by protecting
them from sunlight, extensively
low
temperatures,
moreover
definitely it helps to improve urban
microclimate. According to the
“Green Roofs” report the potential for
biodiversity conserving in such areas
is enormous (Myszak, 2010). The idea
of garden creating on building’s roof
has been discovered in ancient times,
so it is almost as old as architecture
(Kowalczyk, 2011; Szczepańska,
2010). Another interesting solution
to the management of vertical
– 127 –
planes in the urban space could be vertical gardens, so
called Green Walls designed for the first time in the 20th
century by Patrick Blanc. Additionally, vertical surface
of the building is usually larger than the roof, therefore
green walls affect better on urban microclimate.
Conclusion
Although the space in the modern minimalistic building
complexes is used to its maximum, it is possible to design
there some interesting elements of greenery. The already
existing projects or individual specimens of plants can be
the inspiration to create some interesting architectural
solutions. The arrangement of the vertical and horizontal
planes with a suitable plant material is a solution which
affects positively the urban environment, and at the
same time increases the decorative values and aesthetic
feelings of the dwellers.
Acknowledgement
Support of Erasmus Programme in Universitat Politécnica
de Valéncia (Spain) and Research Special-purpose Fund
of the University of Agriculture in Krakow are gratefully
acknowledged.
References
CABE Space. 2005. Start with the park. Creating sustainable
urban green spaces in areas of housing growth and renewal.
In: Commission for Architecture & Built Environmen, 2005. ISBN
1-84633-0000-9.
GALLEGO, F. J. – BATISTA, F. – ROCHA, C. – MUBAREKA S. 2011.
Disaggregating population den city of the European Union with
CORINE land cover. In: International Journal of Geographical
Information Science, vol. 25, 2011. no. 12, pp. 2051–2069. DOI:
10.1080/13658816.2011.583653.
GOERLICH, F. J. – CANTARINO I. 2013. A population density
grid for Spain. In: International Journal of Geographical
Information Science, vol. 27, 2013, no. 12, pp. 2247–2263. DOI:
10.1080/13658816.2013.799238.
KOWALCZYK, A. 2011. Zielone dachy szansą na zrównoważony
rozwój terenów zurbanizowanych. In: Zrównoważony Rozwój –
Zastosowania, vol. 2, 2011, pp. 66–81.
MYSZAK, A. 2010. Architektura, której integralną częścią jest
zieleń. In: Budownictwo i Architektura, vol. 6, 2010, pp. 91–104.
PECK, S. W. – CALLAGHAN, C. 1999. Greenbacks from green roofs:
forging a new industry in Canada. Status report on benefits,
barriers and opportunities for green roof and vertical garden
technology diffusion. In: Canada Mortgage and Housting
Corporation, Peck and Associates, 1999, pp. 9–17.
PECKOWSKA, A. 2007. Zielona estetyka. Miasto. In: Czasopismo
techniczne, Architektura, vol. 104, 2007, no. 1A, pp. 147–153.
SZCZEPAŃSKA, M. 2010. Green roof – an unusual place of rest
and recreation. www.studiaperigetica.pl/pub.10_4_2010.
TRZASKOWSKA E. 2010. Wykorzystanie roślin w projektowaniu
architektonicznym (pnącza, ogrody wertykalne). In: Teka. Kom.
Arch. Urb. Stud. Krajobr, OL PAN, 2010, pp. 110–121.
WONG, N. H. – CHEN, Y. 2010. The role of urban greenery in highdensity cities. In Ng, E. (Ed.) Designing high-density cities for
social & environmental sustainability. London : The Cromwell
Press Group, 2010, pp. 227–262. ISBN 978-1-84407-460-0.
www.abc.es – Diario ABC
www.jardibotanic.org – Jardí Botànic de la Universitat de
Valéncia
www.lesarts.com – Palau de les Arts Reina Sofía
www.valencia.es – Ajuntament de Valencia
www.via–arquitectura.net – Via Arquitectura
– 128 –
PLANTING SUSTAINABILITY? ON THE MANAGEMENT OF HEDGEROWS
IN ALPINE BOCAGE LANDSCAPES
Peter KURZ
Vienna University of Technology, Austria
The paper deals with hedgerows as a building material in cultural landscapes, focusing on the role of maintenance
and management for their sustaining. Based on investigations carried out in several alpine regions, where hedgerow
management has traditionally been an integrated of peasant farming systems, a typology of hedgerows has been
elaborated and linked to certain patterns of management. Historical and current economic contexts of peasant farming
systems have been considered. The presented “cycle of maintenance and rejuvenation” – founded on the basic techniques
of trimming, pollarding and coppicing – subsumes some general and recurring principles of hedgerow management, as
practiced by mountain farmers. Taking this scheme as groundwork, ongoing dynamics in alpine bocage landscapes could
be identified and linked to the transformations in alpine farming systems. By retracing changes in hedgerow management
and their economic backgrounds we may reconsider possible success or failure of current efforts in implementing new
hedgerows in alpine landscapes, in order to improve their ecological and aesthetic qualities. It is argued that planting of
hedgerows may only contribute to sustainability and diversity of rural landscapes, if they are integrated into the current
farm households` practice, their farming systems and the underlying economies of labour. It can be observed that without
adequate maintenance and management, planting of hedgerows is not only reduced to decoration, but beyond may even
become a serious problem for cultivation of the agricultural land. The paper summarizes some central aspects from research
that has been published in more detail in a book project.
Keywords: cultural landscape, landscape management, agro-ecosystems, green infrastructure
1. Hedgerows as an outcome of cultivation
Hedgerows are constitutive design elements of the rural
countryside. They have been acknowledged for their
various effects on agricultural ecosystems, as well as for
their significance for landscape aesthetics. Baudry et al.
(2000) have figured out their importance for biodiversity,
microclimate, soil-stabilisation and water regulation in
various regions of the world. They have emphasized the
multifunctional character of hedgerows, but – beyond
that – have pointed out their integrated role within agroecosystems: Hedgerows function as living fences, in order
to separate arable- from pastureland, and they provide
facilities to produce various kinds of wood, fodder and
litter (see also: Kurz and Machatschek, 2001). Rackham
(1988), Burel (1996) and many other have reminded us,
that bocage landscapes are the outcome of political
movements, aiming at the enclosure of open common
land, in order to intensify agricultural production, and
to optimize natural resource management in the age
of pre fossil agro-ecosystems. In alpine regions, bocage
landscapes have been established to replace and
compensate peasants` various utilization of extensive
forests (pasturing, wood, littering...) to provide the
support for mining industries (Bauer, 1925; Koller, 1970;
*Correspodence:
Kurz et al., 2011). On that background, hedgerows
have become an integrated part of peasant farming
economies. Peasant farmers have been developing
techniques and knowledge on their maintenance and
management, referring to biological preconditions,
economies of labour and the products to be harvested
out of the hedgerows (Busch, 1989). All this underlines
the fact, that hedgerows are cultural elements of
landscape, not naturally stable, but being dependent
on recurrent maintenance and management. Peasant
farmers have been developing typical management
patterns to sustain hedgerows in their morphology and
to regenerate their natural productivity. They have found
ways of rejuvenating hedges over decades and even
centuries (Baudry et al., 2000; Kurz et al., 2011). However,
currently we find considerable evidence for dynamics in
bocage landscapes, having their reasons in changes in
hedgerow management and its abandonment. On the
other hand, efforts of nature conservation and landscape
planning on conserving established bocage landscapes
and promoting the planting of new hedgerows are well
known. Debates on the concept of “green infrastructure”,
have only recently updated the interest in hedgerows
on European level (European Union, 2013). Within the
Peter Kurz, Vienna University of Technology, Faculty of Architecture and Planning, Operngasse 11, 1040
Vienna, Austria, e-mail: [email protected].
Peter Kurz: Planting sustainability? On the management of hedgerows in Alpine bocage landscapes, pp. 129–134
– 129 –
“green infrastructure”-approach to
landscape, planting of hedges is
suggested as a measure to improve
urban and rural countryside in terms
of multifunctionality and resilience.
This paper focuses on the
management of hedgerows in
alpine landscapes and their changes
in time. We provide an outline of
the basic principles of hedgerow
management, as it has been practiced
and perfected by peasant farmers
over centuries. We further highlight
some economic backgrounds and
sketch linkages between various
types of management, referring to
groves most frequently employed
in alpine hedgerow landscapes.
Based on that analysis we figure out
evidence for ongoing changes in
hedgerow management, trying to
set them in context to developments
in the history of regional agricultural
land uses. Concluding, we take
our insights as a starting point for
discussing the preconditions for
sustainability of current efforts in
planting hedgerows in agricultural
landscapes as an attempt to improve
landscape qualities.
at a reconstruction of traditional
knowledge
on
hedgerow
management in context to the
agricultural systems. Results of the
investigations were organised in a
typology of hedgerows, reflecting
different management practices and
regarding the diverse characteristics
of wood species employed in alpine
regions. d) Investigations on landuse history contained evaluation on
historical archive data and literature
on regional land-use history.
3. Results
Chapters 3.1. to 3.3. summarize
some of the basic findings from our
studies: 3.1. presents a synthesis of
management patterns that form
the groundwork of maintenance
and rejuvenation in alpine bocage
landscapes. 3.2. sets these patterns
in relation to the most widespread
groves in alpine hedgerows and their
utilisation, referring to their ecological
and biological characteristics. In 3.3.
a chronology of hedgerows and their
management in the alpine regions
is retraced by reconnecting current
types of management to evidence in
land-use history.
3.1 Hedgerow morphology
and management patterns:
The cycle of regeneration
Fig. 1 gives an outline of the practices
of hedgerow management and their
effects on morphology and growth
shaping alpine hedgerow types.
The graphic schema is based on
generalized depiction from crosssection perspective. Management is
based on the practices of trimming
(cutting of leaves and seasonal
growths in annual frequency),
pollarding (cutting of perennial
wooden growths from an aged
framework in 2–5 year frequency)
and coppicing (utilizing the
hedgerow as a linear coppice wood,
cutting it down as a whole each
10–15 years). These management
types express different economies of
labour, providing different products
out of the hedgerow (Fig. 1).
yy The trimmed types
Trimmed types have been established
to get dense, narrow hedges that
2. Material and methods
The paper is based on an explorative
study
conducted
in
several
alpine regions (Salzkammergut,
Eisenwurzen, Salzachtal, Lungau,
Hohe Tauern).Research formed the
groundwork for a book project on
hedgerows and their management
in the alpine area (Kurz et al.,
2011). Investigations were carried
out on various levels: a) Around
60 hedgerows were analysed in
a comparative survey on their
morphology, their management and
their phytosociological structures,
containing graphical mapping and
photographic documentation. b)
Phytosociological analysis was based
on 200 records, adopting the method
by Braun-Blanquet, 1964c) Empirical
evidence was complemented by
interviews with farmers, discussing
current management strategies
and former utilisations, aiming
Figure 1
Management patterns and the cycle of management and regeneration
– 130 –
function as fences, require little
space and can be maintained using
hand tools. These characteristics
particularly were (and in some cases
still are) important with smallholder
peasant economies, poorly equipped
with agricultural land. Products out
of trimmed hedges are leaves for
additional fodder and litter. These are
the most labour-intensive types and
nowadays rarely found in the rural
countryside. By reducing the labour
input, they can without any difficulty
be transformed into pollarded types.
yy The pollarded types
Forming a stable framework with
a narrow basis, pollarded types
also require little space while
forming rather dense hedgerows.
By rotational cutting the perennial
wooden growths each 2–5 years, not
only labour inputs can be regulated,
but beyond pole crop and wood for
various tools is to be harvested out of
the hedgerow. Yield depends on the
species cultivated and their wood
characteristics. Particular variations
of trimmed and pollarded types
contain various layed and wattled
types, where the living branches get
formed, in order to achieve certain
qualities of the hedgerow resp. its
crops.
yy The coppiced types
Coppiced types are characterised
by their long periods of turnover,
going hand in hand with strong
dynamics in morphology. Stems
are cut down near the ground level,
which means that the hedgerow has
to be re-shaped totally. Coppicing
allows rejuvenating (trimmed or
pollarded) hedgerows that have
become jagged after long periods
of continuous utilisation. After
coppicing a new framework for a
hedgerow can be built by trimming
and pollarding. However, currently
the majority of alpine hedgerows are
maintained by coppicing, harvesting
crop or firewood.
yy Labour economies and the
effects of abandonment
The outer circle of the management
schema in Fig. 1 depicts the
development paths most frequently
to be observed in our survey.
These contain transformations into
tree-shaped types, emergence of
gapped and atrophied forms as a
result from mechanical shredding
and formation of abandoned types,
gradually expanding in their breadth
and height (Fig. 2).
3.2 The groves of the hedgerow,
their biology
and their economy
Tab.
1
compiles
ecological
characteristics,
constitutive
management
practices
and
important utilizations within peasant
economies for the most widespread
hedge groves in alpine landscapes.
It figures out hazel (Corylus avellana)
as the dominant grove in alpine
hedgerows of the investigated
regions. Hazel combines a wide
spectrum of traditional uses with
broad ecological amplitude and
strong abilities to recover, which
causes
its
competitiveness.
Coppicing, the predominant current
management practice, additionally
fosters expansion of hazel. Other
groves, such as hornbeam (Carpinus
betulus), or Beech (Fagus sylvatica)
which had been promoted as
hedgerow groves historically (Koller,
1970), are currently seeing decline
due to changes in management.
While trimming and pollarding fit
well to those species, recurrent
coppicing weakens their ability to
rejuvenate. It seems remarkable,
that most of the peasant hedgerows
are built from one single, or just a
few species. The idea of the diverse
hedgerow has to be seen as a rare
exception to the rule. It also may
be a question of labour economy
to organise management around
one or a few groves with similar
attributes and qualities. Mixed,
diverse hedgerows – on the other
hand – can be found as a result from
abandoned management, when
cultivation factors get replaced by
natural competition between grove
species. This could be proofed by
phytosociological analysis (Kurz and
Machatschek, 2001), Tab 1.
3.3 Changing economies
Figure 2
Tracing the history of the
establishment of hedgerows in
alpine regions, we could identify
several periods, being connected
with the expansion of alpine mining
industries. From 1600 to 1800
many new settlers were introduced
as labourers, cultivating former
common land, while – on the other
hand – forestry for mining issues
was intensified and peasant usage
rights on wood and pasturing was
gradually reduced (Bauer, 1925). In
these times, hedgerows may have
Pollarded Hedgerow
– 131 –
Table 1
Characteristics of important groves in alpine bocage landscapes
Species
Hazel
(Corylus avellana)
Blackthorn
(Prunus spinosa)
Site specifics
Growth characteristics
–– Most widely dispersed –– pioneer plant,
species in hedgerows
highly recoverable
of the alpine regions
vegetatively and
–– Broad ecological
competitive, fast
amplitude, prefers
growing; produces
fertile, but well drained numerous saplings
soils
after coppicing
–– Demand for summery
warm, preferentially
fertile and alkaline
soils
Management practice
Utilization
Coppicing type
–– basket weaving and
–– (5–15 years) frequently
other basketry
becomes dominant in –– barrel hoops for
extensively maintained transportation in salt
and abandoned
and iron industries
hedgerows
–– wood for tools
–– firewood
–– leaves for fodder and
littering
–– Intensively branched
–– Trimming (2–5 years)
shrub, slowly growing,
or coppicing type,
well developed storing
pollarding or frequent
capacities in the root
coppicing may cause
wood
rotting of stems and
create gaps in the
dense body of the
hedgerow
and pollarding type;
reacts also well to
laying
–– turning wood
–– rake wood
–– living fence
Hawthorn
(Crataegus
monogyna,
C. laevigata)
–– Important wood in
–– Not too fast growing,
hedgerows, but certain root- and stem
demands on soils and
storing type of wood;
intensively branched
climate; in the alpine
regions restricted to
and dense growth
character
warmer sights with
alkaline soils
Dogwood
(Cornus sanguinea,
C. mas)
–– Well aerated soils in
lower and warmer
regions of the alpine
area
Hornbeam
(Carpinus betulus)
–– Second most widely
spread hedgerow
wood in alpine
regions, historically
–– Moderately growing,
strongly promoted
intensively branched
by planting; broad
and dense growth.
ecological amplitude,
but constrained to the
lower regions of valleys,
up to 700 meters.
Beech
(Fagus sylvatica)
–– Needs well developed, –– Adaptable in its
fertile and humid, but
growth behaviour
well drained soils.
to management:
develops a dense
character when
trimmed frequently.
or pollarding type
(candelabra shape),
rejuvenation through
coppicing
Field maple
(Acer campestre)
–– Moderately fertile,
–– Moderately growing,
stony and loamy
well adaptable to
sands, but restricted
frequent trimming
to the lower regions of
the alpine area
–– Trimming, pollarding –– leaves for fodder and
or coppicing type,
littering
as well as laying or
–– living fence
wattling types; very
mutable
Elder
(Alnus incana, A.
glutinosa)
–– Prefers moist and
wet soils with high
groundwater level.
–– Slowly growing shrub
with strong abilities
of rejuvenation; well
developed storing
capacities in the root
wood
–– living fence
or pollarding type
(candelabra shape),
coppicing
–– fruits
–– wood for turning and
carpenting
or pollarding type
(candelabra shape),
coppicing, frequent
coppicing may cause
rotting of stems and
create gaps
–– wood for various
utilizations: tools,
turning wood, wagon
making
littering
–– living fence
–– Quickly growing;
–– Coppicing type,
produces numerous
rotational cutting
saplings after
(10–15 years) forms
coppicing, from which
the foundation for
later on only few
rejuvenation
remain as stems, while
the rest gets rotten
furniture
littering
–– living fence
water buildings
littering
–– stabilisation of banks
–– draining
– 132 –
Continued Table 1
Species
Site specifics
Black cherry
(Prunus padus)
Ash
(Fraxinus excelsior)
Growth characteristics
Management practice
–– Coppicing type
(10–15 years)
–– Growth optimum on
fertile, deep, moist
and wet soils; on
floodplains
–– Quickly growing and
competitive;
–– Moisted, deep and
fertile, preferably
alkaline soiles,
from lower up to
mountainous areas.
–– Quickly growing tree
–– Pollarding type, if
with strong abilities
not pollarded grows
of rejuvenation by
quickly as a tree
pollarding; ability to fix and can displace
moving soils on slopes
other woods in the
hedgerow
Utilization
–– barrel hoops
–– firewood
–– draining
furniture
littering
–– stabilisation of banks
and slopes
Trimming type
Pollarding type
Coppicing type
Medieval colonisation
periode
Figure 3
2050
2000
1950
1900
1850
Expansion of alpine mining Cultivation of
industries
former common
land
Introduction of
Introduction of oil
artificial fertilizers heatings in rural
areas
Chronology of hedgerow management
served as multifunctional features of pre-fossile peasant
farming systems (Kurz et al., 2011). The loss of importance
of hedgerows probably started with introduction of
artificial fertilizers, beginning in the second half of the
19th century. Improvement of the fodder base for livestock
devaluated the harvest of leaves as additional fodder and
promoted transformations from trimming to pollarding
Figure 4
1800
1750
1700
1650
1600
1550
1500
Abandoned type
and coppicing (Koller, 1970). Another considerable break
can be identified from the 1950ies, when oil heating
successively reached rural households and started
the decline of wood as energy source. This assigned
– in combination with ongoing mechanisations and
technical rationalisations in land-use – the replacement
of coppiced hedges by abandoned types (Fig. 3).
Reforestation initiated by abandoned hedgerows in the Salzachtal, Austria
– 133 –
4. Discussion and conclusions
Sustainable landscapes by planting
hedgerows?
Hedgerows are cultivated nature, incorporating practical
skills and knowledge on usage, stabilisation and
regeneration. Management skills have been accumulated
by generations of peasant farmers. Techniques and crafts
are rooted in economic demands of sustaining the
productivity of hedgerows as an integrated feature of
farming systems, of keeping them stable in morphology
and habitus. With advanced loss of economic
backgrounds, we have to observe transformations in
the appearance of hedgerows, influencing the character
of whole landscapes as well: In mountain areas former
hedgerows frequently have become the initial points
for comprehensive processes of reforestation. One may
question if these dynamics are appreciated effects in
development of alpine cultural landscapes (Fig. 4).
In any case, the historical perspective claims
critical and differentiated assessment of present
initiatives in implementing hedgerows as a form of
“green infrastructure” in rural landscapes. To improve
multifunctionality, biodiversity and sustainability of the
rural countryside, we should at any rate avoid trendy
installations that either produce maintenance cost
and waste, or contribute to the set-aside of farmland.
Framework conditions for sustainability of newly
introduced hedgerows shall be scrutinized thoroughly
in every single case. Only if plans for the maintenance
and a concept for management are already considered
in the forefront of planting, a newly installed covey will
contribute to sustainability. Beyond technical questions
of stabilisation this will also require reasoning on the
overall economy of possible generated yields. We agree
with Hartke, who already had reminded us in the early
1950ies, that “Hedgerows are not a nostrum for our
cultural landscapes. It is not enough to install or copy
them to gain quick success, and to disclaim exhausting
scientific labour in the run-up” (Hartke, 1951).
References
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BRAUN-BLANQUET, J. 1964. Die Pflanzensoziologie. Vienna,
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RACKHAM, O. 1988. Trees and woodland in a crowded
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– 134 –
LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE CHANGES WITH REGARD TO LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
AND ECOLOGICAL VALUES
Jan SUPUKA
Landscape structural changes were studied at Oponice cadastral territory within three time horizons of 1869, 1949 and
2010 years. For assessment were used historical and contemporary maps, aerial photos and supported by field research.
Identified changes shows almost balance proportion in forest, arable land and water elements within study horizons. To
the category, where landscape element proportions were increased belong built-up areas, roads, gardens and vineyards
and non forest woody vegetation. Proportion of grassland has been decreased rapidly from almost 10% to 1% within 1869
and 2010s. Landscape architecture changes and values show in mosaic plot structure, when small size were alternated
by large scale ones. The all identified changes are close related to social economy development land use form and
management technology intensification. During 60s of last century passed hard process of agricultural collectivisation
related to land consolidation and land ownership changes. Many small groves were cute down, wet-lands drainages, and
grassland plough-up and new wind breaks established by planting of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) predominantly.
Landscape variability and colourfulness were decreased. New technical human works were constructed as three dimension
space elements. Culture historical values were suppressed and landscape being enriched by new elements as reflection of
standard landscape development. Contribution describes particular landscape changes and values.
Keywords: landscape structure, changes, values, assessment
Introduction
In the recent period, there are several authors who
study development changes in the land use. They
assess the secondary landscape structure in different
time periods. The reason consists in the identification of
changes and the trend development in land use forms,
cultural and historic value of the landscape, landscape
image, ecological stability of the landscape, natural and
cultural diversity, biodiversity and the gene-pool value
of the landscape. Pucherová (2004) presents the results
of landscape structure development and changes by
the example of 5 cadastral territories of the Nitra Selfgoverning Region. She compares the period of the 2nd half
of the 19th century (1863, 1879 and 1892) with the year
2002. Petrovič (2005) deals with landscape development
in a dispersedly settled area by the example of Pohronský
Inovec and Tribeč in 1783, 1956 and 2002, Šolcová (2012)
assesses the development of a dispersedly settled
landscape in the region of Nová Baňa in five time periods
(1780, 1844, 1956, 1992 and 2008). By the example
of the Nitra city and its contact area, the changes
between 1995 and 2004 are assessed and published by
Mišovičová (2008). A land cover assessment is elaborated
and published by Ivanová (2013) by the example of the
hinterland of the Zemplínska Šírava dam in 1956, 1991,
2005 and 2009.
*Correspodence:
However, human activities are dominantly visible
on land use and land cover changes, floristic and
phenological composition of the vegetation cover of
natural or cultivated character. These changes appear
not only in urban areas but also in their contact zones,
in the agricultural and forest landscape (Feriancová and
Schlampová, 1998; Jančura and Kočík, 2003; Pucherová,
2004; Reháčková and Ružičková, 2004; Supuka et al.,
2008).
One land use form replaces the other one, usually
the more progressive the less progressive one. This
process is generally called alternative (Alternative = the
possibility to choose between two forms, alternation,
substitution).
Land reforms, variable ownership relations, farming
methods, intensification processes, all of these have had
a direct impact on the landscape image development,
which can be defined in following landscape-structural
expressions:
yy land segregation and separation,
yy land consolidation,
yy change in land shapes and sizes in time and space,
yy reduction of covers, lines and solitaries of woody
plants and natural biotopes,
yy change in the structure of road networks,
Jan Supuka, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering,
Department of Garden and Landscape Architecture, Tulipánová 7, 949 01, Nitra, Slovakia, e-mail: Jan.
[email protected].
Jan Supuka: Landscape structure changes with regard to landscape architecture and ecological values, pp. 135–139
– 135 –
yy change in the scale of the landscape,
yy change in the landscape mosaics and
colourfulness,
yy change (reduction) in visual, aesthetic and
perceptual values of the landscape
The geo-ecological potential, the form of land
use and the transformation level of the original
landscape represent basic criteria to classify the cultural
landscape (Hrnčiarová, 2004; Supuka et al., 2008).
Many elements of the cultural landscape bear the
marks of historic continuity. They document forms and
methods of land use, ownership relations, technological
and knowledge level of utilisation or extraction of
natural resources, building of settlements, technical
constructions and other human artefacts. Their
presentation and physical allocation in the landscape
represent historic landscape structures. These can
be also an initial criterion for cultural landscape
classification (Huba, 2004).
All identified and described types of the historic
landscape are bounded up with the form and intensity
of natural resource utilisation and the economic activity
of man in the landscape (Chalupová, 2004; Supuka et al.,
2004). In principle, they are linked to the forms of land
use and categories of socioeconomic activities of the
human society. These underlie the differentiation of
geographic and cultural regions in Europe (Agnoletti,
et al. 2010; Coeterier, 1996; Dower, 1998) as well as in
Slovakia, including diverse types of cultural landscapes
like urban, mining, agricultural, viticulture, religious
and other landscapes (Drdoš, 1995; Hrnčiarová, 2004;
Kozová, Hrnčiarová and Oťaheľ, 2008; Kraková, 2001;
Štefunková, 2004; Supuka, Verešová, Šinka, 2011;
Verešová, 2011). A specific type of cultural landscape
are the so called composed or designed landscapes,
landscape parks, historic style parks and gardens, which
are richly represented mainly in historic cultural regions
but also in Slovakia (Majdecki and Majdecka-Strzezek,
2010).
Urban landscape has also been passed over changes
during development time, but mostly after industrial
revolution and second war world one. The city content
involves buildings, built-up areas and green structure.
Each of them passed on development and changes.
European cities have had similar changing ways and
other than American and Asia because other history and
style backgrounds. In Europe to the typical historical
style buildings and inner urban structure has been
added to outskirts new urban structure elements as were
housing estate zones, family house, industrial, sport and
recreation zones, as well as shopping centres. Cities have
become enhanced in size density, and vertical dimension
(also), the new urban structure, architecture-style, colour
and construction materials are seen nowadays (Antrop,
2004; Pivko and Špaček, 2007).
Green structure from tradition historical parks and
gardens have been advanced and classified to the
new system representing green net and open spaces
(Fabos, 2004; Feriancová, 2008). They have been served
many positive ecology and environmental functions
according to area size, natural origin or cultural level
changes and location in city structure. New forms and
green components contributes to the urban architecture
features, aesthetic and environmental quality (Supuka,
2011; Tóth and Feriancová, 2013).
Landscape structure in different time periods were
assessed by mapping landscape elements showed
in the elaborated maps. They represent historical
landscape development and continual changes due to
different land use form. The second part of landscape
changes is focussed to landscape architecture elements
and composition feature changes, as well as culture
historical landscape elements in antropogenous and
natural level. For assessment of defined landscape
feature changes was chosen the Oponice cadastral
territory located on south boundary of Topoľčany
district in Nitra Self-governing Region. For this area
the elements of landscape structure and architecture
changes were evaluated based on available maps from
the year of 1869, 1949 and 2010 and field valuation and
description in 2010 as well. More particular methodical
approaches are published in science monograph
(Supuka et al., 2013).
Results and discussions
The historical landscape structure of the Oponice
cadastral territory was analysed from 2nd military
mapping of 1869 year, secondary landscape structure
from aerial photo of 1949s and contemporary landscape
structure from the orthophoto map of 2010 year.
The results are presented according to 11 classification
landscape element units (Table 1).
Historical layer of 1869s has been documented low
level of agricultural technologies and land use mostly
on suitable relief conditions. As dominant landscape
element is being seen arable land in 54.02% located
mostly at lowland and medium slope inclination.
Second position takes forests by 29.41% proportion
in the south eastern part of studied cadastre. Surveyed
forests are represented by oak-hornbeam and beachoak stands predominantly. High proportion takes
grassland cover and achieved 9.35%. This landscape
element was located at flooded flats close to Nitra
river as meadows and at the boundary to the forests.
Built-up areas cover mostly Oponice village intravilane
by 1.17% only that has been reflected also in small areas
of gardens as a part of family houses. From interested
landscape elements taking into account as composition
– 136 –
Table 1
Historical and current landscape structure in the Oponice cadastral territory
Landscape element
Area in ha according to years
Area in % according to years
1869
1949
2010
Proposal 2010
1869
1949
2010
Proposal 2010
Arable land
665.82
685.60
647.92
642.97
54.02
55.62
52.17
52.15
Grasslands
115.24
80.91
10.51
10.51
9.35
6.56
0.85
0.85
Orchards
–
–
20.15
20.15
–
–
1.63
1.63
Vineyards
0.00
15.66
18.82
18.82
0.00
1.27
1.53
1.53
Non forest woody
vegetation
38.94
36.73
64.24
+4.95
69.19
3.16
2.98
5.21
5.57
Forests
362.52
334.94
362.23
362.23
29.41
27.17
29.39
29.39
Water streams and areas
11.25
21.58
13.96
13.96
0.91
1.75
1.13
1.13
Gardens
19.68
26.17
45.23
45.23
1.60
2.12
3.67
3.64
Built-up areas
14.41
22.60
43.50
43.50
1.17
1.83
3.53
3.53
Roads
4.69
8.36
9.49
9.49
0.38
0.68
0.77
0.77
–
–
1.45
1.45
–
–
0.12
0.12
1232.55
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
Other areas
Sum
Figure 1
1232.55 1232.55 1232.55
Aeral photo of historical landscape structure of the Oponice cadastral territory from 1949 year. Elaborated by
K. Šinkaa
– 137 –
and ecological landscape stability are categories of
non-forest woody vegetation covered by 3.16% of
agriculture landscape that is considered as low cover
proportion.
Distribution of landscape element in cadastral area
is showed at aerial photo where the space distribution
of land-use forms and landscape element structure
were assessed by elaborated time layer of map of 1949
years (Figure 1). Aerial photo from 1949s shows interesting
two categories of agriculture landscape plots. Western
part of cadastral territory cover small size mosaic plots
represented small former land property. Eastern part of
cadastral territory shows large size plots belongings to
feudal lordship of the Aponyi family residing in the manor
house in Oponice village.
Regarding changes between time horizons 1869 and
1949 according to landscape elements during 80s has
been increased proportion of arable land, vineyards, water
streams and basins, built-up areas and accompanying
family house gardens and road net as well. On the other
hand area size had decreased at forest cover grassland
and non forest woody vegetation landscape elements.
The all identified changes are close related to social
economy development land use form and management
technology intensification.
During 60s of last century passed hard process of
agricultural collectivisation related to land consolidation
and land ownership changes. Many small groves
were cute down, wet-lands drainages, and grassland
plough-up and new wind breaks established by planting
of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) predominantly.
Those processes finally caused rapid decreasing of
grassland, small decreasing of arable land and water
areas. Significantly increased proportion areas of
vineyards, non forest woody vegetation, forests, built
up areas and gardens (Figure 1, Table 1). More particular
presentation of the landscape structure changes by map
documents from 1869, 1949 and 2010 are have published
in monograph of Supuka et al. (2013).
Regarding culture-historical features of landscape
the soft small size plots were substituted by large size
plots and many old regional fruit trees were disappeared
mostly on plough-up grasslands. Landscape-ecological
stability decreased over creation of large size arable land
culture blocks.
Regarding to landscape architecture changes and
values in horizontal layers to mosaic plot structure, land
variability and colourfulness has been decreased. Road
net straight forward water stream and non forest woody
vegetation lines have occurred. New technical human
works were constructed as three dimensional elements
as are power energy lines and masts, telemetric and
transmission towers, chimneys and vertical water globes,
2–3 (or more) story buildings, family and block houses.
Building façade and roof colourfulness have got turned
to better and more variable. The arranged and designed
open spaces, ornamental gardens and parks in village
urban structure have became as more frequent features
of culture and landscape-architecture values.
Landscape changes are being normal visible features
of assessed time layers in Oponice cadastral territory
in open landscape and built up village structure.
Some historical marks were disappeared and a new
elements and human works have arisen and spaces are
being enriched by them. On the other hand ecological
stability has decreased caused by large size arable plots
arrangement.
Similar landscape changes were identified at many
cadastral territory in eastern part of Tribeč hills (Pucherová,
2004) and Čajkov Cadastre and south pant of Štiavnické
hills (Verešová, 2011). Intensity and structure of landscape
changes in sense of architectonical composition and
ecological stability depend on land ownership and
economy activities in assessed region (Chalupová, 2004).
Conclusion
Landscape development changes were assessed at the
study cadastral territory of Oponice in upper Nitra sub
region. The compared time horizons were 1869, 1949
and 2010 years. Dominant tool for landscape structure
assessment were historical and contemporary maps
and aerial photos. Changes are seen in agriculture plot
structure, proportion of landscape elements, changes
in landscape architecture features and social economy
development of study territory.
Acknowledgement
The contribution was elaborated thanks financial
supporting by the grant No. KEGA 003SPU-4/2014.
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REVITALISATION OF THE PARK AT THE SCHOOL IN CERVENY HRADOK
Ľubica FERIANCOVÁ
The primary school campus in Cerveny Hradok (CH) was designed and realised according to landscape garden principles on an
area of about 2.2 ha by the landscape architect Ivan Tomasko. From the originally planted 1,049 woody plants, there are currently
only 350 (documented in the inventory of woody plants). This is a consequence of the absenting maintenance, as well as weather
calamity situations in recent years. The proportion of domestic and introduced species is approximately 50 : 50. The domestic
species composition is dominated mainly by deciduous species and the introduced are mostly coniferous. The inventory results
prove that without the recommended interventions (cutting down 130 trees of bad health conditions) there is no development
perspective. The 4 design projects aim at a conversion of the area to a space for sport, leisure, relax and education.
Keywords: inventory, landscape architecture, park design, school garden, woody plants
Introduction
School gardens are an important component of
urban areas and an essential part of each educational
establishment since the beginning of modern education
system in Slovakia. They are important components of the
urban green infrastructure (Tóth, 2013) and create not only
natural environment for students but if the functions are
properly designed, they can be involved in the educational
process as well (Supuka, Feriancová a i., 2008).
These are the main reasons for revitalisation of these
areas and their sufficient and ongoing maintenance to
prevent their degradation. The topicality of this issue is
proved by the dilapidated state of some of them. Among
these may be included also the park at the primary
schools and kindergarten in CH. It’s a pity as it was
designed and realised by professionals from the Mlynany
Arboretum using their plants (1964–1970). The plants
from that time are now of mature age, but unfortunately
due to lack of maintenance, there are some aged veteran
plants with the following features: disintegration of their
structure, loss of main branches and an evidence of
pathogens. All such plants as well as those that are not in
accordance with the compositional aim of the design have
been proposed for felling. The main goal of the presented
research was to develop a park revitalisation project which
meets the requirements of school areas considering their
educational, leisure and cultural functions.
Original planting documents were not available. According
to one of the available documents “Inventory list of
ornamental trees and shrubs located in the area of the
primary school in CH”as at June 30 1970, there were 84 woody
*Correspodence:
plant species and a total number of 1,049 woody plants.
Based on the field survey, the woody plants with health
or static problems were identified and mapped (1 : 500).
An additional field survey aimed biometric measurements
(tree height, the diameter d1.3 m, crown width), the landscape
architectural value, state of health, damage category, and
treatment proposals. Some trees were determined for felling
in terms of negative selection (dead, damaged, unhealthy)
(Feriancová, 2013). The inventory was conducted according
to the modified assessment methodology by Machovec
(1987) and Juhásová (2002).
yy Natural conditions
There are brown soils with neutral to slightly acidic reaction
(pH 6.5 to 7.5). In terms of the original natural vegetation,
the area belongs to the Carpathian oak-hornbeam forests
but in terms of the present landscape structure, it is part of
an intensively used agricultural landscape.
yy The current state of the area
The school area is situated on the edge of the village at
the 3rd-class road from Vráble to Veľké Vozokany. The
whole area has a slight height difference – the terrain rises
from the southeast to the northwest. The school area is
an important part of the village green infrastructure and
has the character of a local bio-centre. There is a dense
composition of woody plants, which divides the area from
the surrounding agricultural landscape. Thus, the area is
protected and hidden on three sides by a thick greenbelt. A
considerable part of the area is dedicated to playgrounds.
Besides the primary school and kindergarten buildings,
there is a gyms and warehouse and a bicycle shed.
The buildings, paths and other paved areas have been
renewed. There is also site furniture for children. Due to the
Lubica Feriancova, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape
Engineering, Department of Garden and Landscape Architecture, Tulipanova 7, 949 76, Nitra, Slovakia,
Ľubica Feriancová: Revitalisation of the park at the school in Cerveny Hradok, pp. 140–142
– 140 –
congested composition of plants, there are no views. Their
application is desirable and possible by felling of selected
trees. The school building dominates the composition
and is located on the main compositional. A negative
component of the composition is the alley of thujas leading
to the main entrance. The most frequented pedestrian
route is the entrance to the school, kindergarten and gym.
A partial maintenance is done by the pupils, teachers and
janitor. Felling trees is proposed due to safety and hygiene
reasons. These are plants with substandard health status
and low landscaping value. There are 130 trees proposed
for felling from a health perspective and 42–79 trees
proposed for felling from a compositional perspective
(ranging according to the 4 different design solutions). All
studies have proposed to cut down the 22 thujas along the
pedestrian entrance to the area (Hrdličková, Kopponová
and Mlynarčíková, 2013; Petruchová, Slušný and Surovka,
2013; Slezáková et al., 2013).
The predominant species are Acer platanoides, Pinus
sylvestris, Picea abies, Pinus nigra, Thuja occidentalis
‘Malonyana’, Populus nigra ‘Italica’ and Quercus robur. The
identified diseases and damages indicate that certain species
may be problematic for the site (Supuka, 2011). Cameraria
ohridella was identified on all Aesculus hippocastanum
specimens, scab on Sorbus aucuparia. The results of
the inventory prove that without the recommended
interventions to plantations, a perspective development is
not possible (Kuczman and Feriancová, 2013).
Results
Within the inventory of woody plants, 350 individuals
were documented according to the described
methodology, using the method of negative selection.
From these, approximately the half was represented by
native and the other half by introduced species. The
group of native species was dominated by deciduous
woody plants and the group of alien species by
coniferous woody plants. The inventory resulted into
the decision to remove 130 woody plants due to their
insufficient health condition.
The winning project design outlines
(Blašková, Brodanský and Rožko, 2013)
yy The representative area in front of the school – the
project includes plantings of perennials and grasses and
placing benches. The flower plantings include a wooden
sculpture in the form of two maple leaves.
yy Playgrounds – next to the gym, there is designed
a multifunctional playground for volleyball, basketball,
football, badminton etc. The football field is located in
the same area as at present, but partially offset due to a
new running track around the field.
yy Path System – the concrete path at the gym is extended
to the football field. The terrain elevation towards the
field is made accessible through concrete stairs. The
current concrete path leading from the kindergarten
to the park is replaced in the project by gravel path
that continues along the property line and serves as an
educational trail with signs of trees and their fruits as
well as elements to sit from stumps of the felled trees.
Small architecture elements
yy A roofed fireplace with sitting in the rear of the
property is roofed with a wooden construction of
circular floor plan and with wooden seats and tables.
yy A platform for various school performances serves also
as a playground for children from the kindergarten.
Its design includes decking boards made of wood
composite. The stage is accompanied by wooden
seating in the form of leaf venation.
yy Bicycle racks are located to the left of the entrance to
the complex, under the trees.
yy Fencing: the front fence is in good condition and does
not require any adjustment. Other parts of the fence are
proposed to be reconstructed.
yy Site furniture
Wooden chimes welcome children when entering
the area; Site furniture for children games behind
the kindergarten: there are wooden components to
support and develop creative thinking, motor skills and
imagination, e.g. compounding words by rotating cubes,
counting by turning circles etc., water element and
sandpit: along the path towards the fireplace, there is
a system of wooden troughs connected to the well and
alternatively leading to the sandpit; stylised mushrooms
are placed in the back, at the path – these are playful
wooden elements with images of dangerous toxic species;
The sitting on stumps also serves to support the slope and
as little arc “tribunes” to observe games on the playground.
An open air classroom is furnished using stumps, furniture
and lighting: there are new benches and trash cans to be
placed in the representative part in front of the school
and also at the multifunctional playground. The lighting
allows the use of the site also in the evening.
yy Interventions into the woody plant composition
The revitalization of the area is determined by
pruning the invasive vegetation. Although the peripheral
parts provide a good insulating function as they protect
the area from external influences, but by thinning in
designated areas, a visual link to the adjacent landscape
scenery could be achieved. We consider the removal
of trees near the main school building as an important
intervention aiming at improving the illumination of
classes. In the entrance part of the area, the proposed
fellings aim at opening the views of the school building.
The proposed circular gravel path also requires pruning.
This has to be done to achieve the desired illumination
of this part of the site. Along the route, there are located
entertainment and educational tables depicting trees,
– 141 –
their leaves, flowers and fruits with brief descriptions.
The path leading to the fireplace is lined by birches,
which release a large portion of sunlight; the colour and
texture of the bark are interesting elements contrasting
with the greenery. The lilacs behind the football field are
acceptable – the proposal foresees their regeneration
and additional plantings. In front of the school, there are
plantings of weigela, which improves the colourfulness
and lightness of the space. On condition of proper and
regular maintenance, it blooms almost all year.
The current composition of woody plants contains
some good basic (main) tree species and shrub
plantings, which are retained in the design project and
supplemented by new plantings.
yy Perennial plantings – in front of the school there
is a perennial bed. The spring aspect is provided by
geophytes. The summer colourfulness is ensured
by the perennials. The autumn aspect is provided
by late flowering species of Anemone. The winter
aspect is created by ornamental grasses. The flower
bed is surrounded by low sheared hedges of Buxus
sempervirens. There will be new lawns after the fellings
creted by new grassing after terrain modifications.
yy Terrain improvements – the terrain is modified along
the gravel path. This alleviates the existing elevation
differences to a smooth slope. The other adjustments
are rather small like terrain preparation before placing
the elements of small architecture.
Discussion and conclusion
The fact that the 21st century draws us into the virtual
world of computers and the Internet more than we want
to admit it – allows us to appeal to the creation of more
interesting spaces for children and youth as a desired
counterpoint to their sitting in front of the computer
screens. Our mission is to attract not only children but also
the elderly into the natural environment in which they
have the opportunity to learn about trees, shrubs, flowers.
All four design projects elaborated in the studio have
fulfilled this ambition. In each of these projects, several
educational elements appear that also serve for practical
learning in a playful way. Pupils can learn about natural
systems, to recognise and grow basic plants in gardens.
The school garden provides space for sport, culture
and leisure in a cultivated environment. Requirements
expressed by the client were fulfilled and it was interesting
to follow how difficult was the decision making when
choosing the project for realisation. The ideas for
designing spaces for games of children and youth and
for staying of adults are represented in the proposals also
by less traditional approaches, which allow developing
imagination and skills, the natural curiosity of children
and an active leisure of adults visitors (e.g. permaculture
plots, complementary plantings of fruit trees, etc.).
It is a common attribute of all the four studies that
they include various versions of open spaces that are
compositionally well designed, healthy and safe with
a priority for pupils‘ active stay in the cultural environment
of the school. The winning design engaged the school
management mainly by its simplicity, clear disposition, open
spaces and utilisation of interactive educational elements
(Blašková, Brodanský and Rožko, 2013). The other 3 design
projects (Hrdličková, Kopponová and Mlynarčíková, 2013;
Petruchová, Slušný and Surovka, 2013; Slezáková et al.,
2013) were compositionally more complicated and did
not consider the linkage between the school area and
its surroundings as significantly as the winning design
(Blašková, Brodanský and Rožko, 2013). The revitalised park
will improve the village green infrastructure and thus has the
potential to contribute to a sustainable rural development
which agrees with the findings of Tóth (2012).
Acknowledgement
The paper was elaborated within the research project
KEGA No 001SPU-4/2014
References
BLAŠKOVÁ, Z. – BRODANSKÝ, M. – ROŽKO, M. 2013. Sadovnícko
architektonický návrh areálu ZŠ s MŠ v obci Červený Hrádok.
Ateliéry tvorby verejnej zelene ZS 2013/14. Projektová
dokumentácia, Nitra : SPU, CD, nepublik.
JUHÁSOVÁ, G. 2002. Výsledky hodnotenia zdravotného
a kondičného stavu drevín v parku Topoľčianky. In: Folia
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FERIANCOVÁ, Ľ. 2013. Ateliéry verejnej zelene, skladba
dokumentácie. Sylabus predmetu. Nitra : SPU, nepublikované.
HRDLIČKOVÁ, M. – KOPPONOVÁ, J. – MLYNARČÍKOVÁ, A. 2013
Sadovnícko architektonický návrh areálu ZŠ s MŠ v obci Červený
Hrádok. Ateliéry tvorby verejnej zelene ZS 2013/14. Projektová
KUCZMAN, G. – FERIANCOVÁ, Ľ. 2013. Zásady tvorby zelene vo
vidieckych sídlach. Nitra : SPU, 2013, 186 s. ISBN 978-80-552-1122-0.
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parcích. In: Životné prostredie, roč. 21, 1987, č. 3, s. 134–139.
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SLEZÁKOVÁ, B. – ŠUBOVÁ, V. – MRVOVÁ. N. – TURANOVIČOVÁ,
M. 2013 Sadovnícko architektonický návrh areálu ZŠ s MŠ v obci
Červený Hrádok. Ateliéry tvorby verejnej zelene ZS 2013/14.
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– parky a záhrady. Nitra : SPU, 2008, 499 s. ISBN 978-80-552-0067-5.
TÓTH, A. 2013. Green Infrastructure Planning for Sustainable Rural
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– 142 –
CULTURE LANDSCAPE WITHIN RECREATIONAL LANDSCAPE PARK IN CHINA
Shoufang LIU1, Lin LI1, Tomasz W. BRALEWSKI2
The Institute of City & Rural Construction and Planning of Liaoning Province, P. R. China
2
Agripolis Sp. z o.o., Poznań, Poland / Plant Seeds Ltd., London, United Kingdom
1
The article introduces culture landscape conception in China. It points out that the culture landscape is a semi-natural
landscape which was resulted by the mutual reaction of human livelihood and natural environment. Author summarizes the
development of cultural landscape in three periods. They are rural cultural diversity, agricultural related biodiversity, green
and efficiency energy, eco-culture, rural eco-settlement is the new ideas of culture landscape conception.
Keywords: culture landscape; eco-agriculture; rural culture diversity, recreational area, agricultural-basic landscape
Correspodence address??
Introduction
Cultural landscapes are produced by
and reflect the long-term interactions
between humans and nature in
indigenous societies (Yuan, 2011).
A cultural landscape is an area where
the landforms have been created by
human culture as well as by nature;
human culture has been created by
the landscape as well as the people;
and each now depends upon and
continues to exist because of the
other (Buckley et al., 2008). In a paper
of “The Cultural Landscape of China
– specific Feature and their Causes”,
authors pointed that Chinese cultural
landscapes are featured by intensity
population and small tiny plots and
compacted agricultural landscapes,
nucleated settlements with little
variation type in most part of country,
which featured by specific building
materials (Muller, 2006). When cultural
landscape integrated with agricultural
practice and biodiversity, this
biodiversity help people inhabitants
adapt to environment uncertainty and
constraints to sustain their livelihood
over generations (Luohui, 2010).
In recreational landscape park of
china, the culture landscape concept
includes the all kinds of peasantry
livelihood (living, production and
custom). With massive population, it
is a high density settlement region
in the world, so the agriculture-basic
landscape are mainly composed
into cultural landscape. Agriculturebasic landscape is belong to high
management landscape category that
is the balance of interaction between
human agriculture activities and
natural environments. It embraces rural
settlement, surrounding farmer lands
and forests. The harmonious exquisite
agriculture views are the result of
nature and human co-operation.
Human act a crucial role among these
semi-natural ecosystems, they are the
essential manager of these cultural
natural landscapes which would be
lost without their management. But
as the growth of visitation population
Figure 1
on resource-based recreational area,
more and more dollars were launched
on the tourism investment, the exotic
economy and culture bring more
and more impassive affections to
the native inhabitants that include
customs,
folklores,
settlements,
livelihood, and native agricultural
species. Therefore, how to inherit
these agricultural traditional culture,
how to conserve these traditional
agricultural landscape, how to
maintain the balance of these exquisite
semi-natural ecological landscape
are the significant commission of
contemporary landscape planner and
manager (fig. 1 and 2).
Carefully management cultural landscap in Yiwulv National Park
Source: Shoufang Liu
*Correspodence:
Shoufang Liu, Lin Li, Tomasz W. Bralewski: Culture landscape within recreational landscape park in China, pp. 143–147
– 143 –
Figure 2
Cultural landscape of pear garden within Yiwulv National Park
In China, from the reforms and
open polices since the early 1980s,
the cultural landscape concept are
changing continually. Following the
rapid growth of economy and the
raising demand of natural-based
tourism recreation, after reviewing
the materials of related document,
polices and literatures, using historical
research methods, the three stages
of cultural landscape changing in
recreational are summarized. Those
are the blind development period at
the beginning of tourism economic
developing,
consideration
and
exploration period after the failure
of over urbanization in the naturalbased recreational area, green ecocultural landscape period.
The blind development period
Figure 3
Overcrowding of Jiuzai National Park
Figure 4
The Elevator in Zhangjiajie Nation Park compromised the natural
beauty, and be criticized by experts
Source: http://image.baidu
Since early 1980s, thanks to the
reforms and open policies, China has
experienced about 8–9% economic
growth per year (Zhang et al., 2004).
As the result the rapid economic
development gave a further boost
to the tourism. Tremendous amounts
of tourists rush into variety of
natural-based recreational areas.
Some favored natural resorts were
overcrowded. There are some figures
can prove it, that is “average per capita
income in China has increased rapidly,
from about US$450–500 in 1990 to
US$1000 in 2001, with peaks in cities
and towns where many families now
earn US$10,000 and more. People can
therefore afford to travel within China
and even abroad, especially during
the three long holiday periods, also
called the “three golden weeks”. Since
2000, holiday tourism has increased
at a tremendous pace, leading to
overcrowding. For example, Tibet
recorded 686,000 tourists in 2001,
28.6 times more than in 1990. The
Wulingyuan (Zhangjiajie) World
Natural Heritage Site in northwestern
Hunan Province – a typical tourist
attraction – recorded 1.3 million
tourists in 2002, compared with
only 0.23 million in 1998. Generally,
– 144 –
Figure 5
Cultural landscape of grape garden converted for tourist in
Xinjiang
urbanization and strive to figure
out the reason that caused over
urbanization in the ecologic sensitive
areas. Among the many causes of
uncontrolled urbanization with the
natural-based recreation resorts, five
deserved mention:
yy Unsuitable local management
systems for scenic spots, and profitoriented development.
yy Lack of environmental awareness
among tourists, authorities and
scholars; lack of understanding of
the purpose of protected areas.
yy The tendency of local governments
to seek short-term economic
benefits and official achievements.
yy Lack of scientific criteria and
regulations
Consideration
and rehabilitation period
The unsustainable construction
sprawled within Chinese Nation
Parks particularly within the
World Heritage Site, caused highly
attention by scholars and manager
both of international and domestic.
Many experts began to involve
in the research works of over
Figure 6
Tourist service facility was a farmer house before the ecological
restoration
– 145 –
footnote??
the number of domestic tourists
in mountain resorts has more than
quadrupled in the last 5 years in China”
(Zhang et al., 2004) (fig. 3 and 4).
The large number of tourism
triggered a large demands of
every kind of tourism service
facilities, specially the demand of
accommodation facility that caused
the over urbanization of the rural
region within natural-based resort.
The powerful impetus of tourism
economy strongly changed the rural
settlement pattern and agricultural
construction
convert
local
cultural landscape internationally.
Simultaneously, the exotic cultural
took erosion to the native cultural
landscape tradition which was
lost their authenticity gradually;
the local rural cultural landscape
settlement pattern was replaced by
international settlement pattern.
In this period, some highlight cases
were criticized by the international
criticism frequently. Such as the
326 meter high elevator within
Wulingyuan National Park impacted
the natural beauty seriously, and the
problem related over urbanization
of Wulingyuan was criticized
twice by the officer of UNESCO
(Yan, 2002). Under the purpose of
profit-orientation
development,
the overcrowded hotels and other
tourism facilities sprawled in the
core areas and surrounding areas
of Chinese National parks (such as
Taishan, Huangshan, Wulingyuan,
Jiuzhaigou etc.). These unsustainable
developments have not only defaced
native cultural landscape but also
the main landscape features of the
area were beyond recognition.
restored the eco-function recovered,
but the native cultural landscape
feature and the related settlement
culture were lost in perpetuity. It
is an irreversible process. Both of
natural and human management
can’t be lost simultaneously for
cultural landscape, each of them lost,
all of them lost.
Green eco-cultural landscape
period
Figure 7
Cultural landscape settlement converted into tourism facility in
Daqinggou National Park
In order to revise the effect of
over urbanization of the ecologic
sensitive areas, the Chinese central
government has launched a series
restoration programs since 1998.
There were Natural forest protection
(with a strict logging ban),
development of protective forest
systems, restoration of farmland to
forest and grassland, desertification
control, wild animal and plant
protection and nature reserves, and
Figure 8
planting of rapid-growth forests (fig.
5 and 6).
As the result the project the
hotels within the National Park were
moved out, as well as the inside
inhabitants that transformed from
peasant to tourism industry staff. The
lands that was deteriorated at over
urbanization process in the pass,
now have been taken rehabilitation
throng forestation project. Although
the ecological environment was
Cultural landscape of agricultural farm land and settlement in
Zhangjiajie National Park
After the over urbanization and the
following de-urbanization people
began to realize the significant
consequence of protected biological
diversity and cultural diversity to the
human life. Many biological species
depend on the semi-nature cultural
landscape – the management
landscape to live without human
intervention that would not be
survival. Simultaneously, most of
the folklore both of the movable
and unmovable cultural heritage is
found in the rural area and a plenty
of them nearly extinct or already
disappeared. So to protect the rural
cultural landscape environments
are not only the preservation of
biodiversity but also conservation
the cultural diversity (fig. 7 and 8).
Since the later 1990s, the scholars
from different disciplines have
begun to study the images of rural
cultural landscape including rural
cultural diversity, rural beauty and
rural semi-nature biodiversity. An
article named “A Preliminary Study
on Rural Image and Development
of Rural Tourism”, written by Xiong
(1999) pointed out “ the rural image
is an integrated figure impressed in
people minds by the rural cultural
landscape views; it is composed of
rural landscape natural image and
rural cultural image”. Wang (2003)
in his book “The Landscape Design
of Modern Rural Area” gave the
definition of rural image that is “the
rural image is a distinctive mental
map formed from human belief,
feeling and thought under the rural
view perceived process.” After doing
some research and investigation, Ni
– 146 –
(2007) figured out that the rural image of people mind
mainly came from four aspects-literatures, movies,
drawings, and the childhood memories; it could be
divided into six characters-farmland landscape, natural
environments, structures, human, animal, and road; and
five principle could be put forward-scenario, process,
identification, convenience, and economy.
From the research of three stages of cultural landscape
development studying in China, the result can be
conducted. The cultural landscape is acting the critical
fundamental element of recreational park. As a living
cultural soul, it is the essential feature to identify the
fundamental cultural characteristics of the recreational
natural park. Cultural landscape is a semi-natural
environment that managed by human settlement
livelihood, but simultaneously it is an irreversible process
that both natural and management can’t be lose.
Green eco-cultural landscape development methods is
a sustainable methodology to develop to recreational
park.
Although there are many ideas about the cultural
landscape, the key point is that the cultural landscape
originally derives from rural agricultural landscape
conception embracing the features related agricultural
production and life; agricultural settlement culture,
agricultural production culture, agricultural landscape,
natural and semi-natural environment, people and
people’s livelihood are the essentials of contemporary
cultural landscape concept. Rural cultural diversity,
agricultural related biodiversity, green and efficiency
energy, eco-agriculture, rural eco-settlement is the
new ideas of cultural landscape conception. The
experiences and lessons of cultural landscape within
Chinese recreational landscape park development is
a good example for development of landscape park that
powered by busting tourism economy. The green ecocultural landscape development style is a sustainable way
for future national park or landscape park development.
Especially for the areas that described by Muller (2006)
in his paper mentioned where are featured by intensity
population and small tiny plots. But the settlements
between different green eco-cultural landscape areas
show great variation featured by native architecture, folk
and ethnic cultural heritage as well as semi-natural and
natural biodiversity.
References
BUCKLEY R. – OLLENBURG C. – ZHONG L. 2008. Cultural
landscape in Mongolian tourism. In: Annals of Tourism Research,
vol. 35, 2008, no. 1, pp. 47–61.
LUOHUI, L. 2010. Biodiversity in the Hani Cultural Landscape.
Japan : United Nations University, 2010.
MULLER, J. 2006. The Cultural Landscape of China – Specific
Feature and Their Causes. Lecture held at Clusius Lecture,
Leiden/NL on March 29, 2006.
NI, J. 2007. Unscramble the Image of the Rural Landscape.
China : Transportation University of Shanghai. Msc. Thesis 5,
2007.
WANG, Y. 2003. The Landscape Design of Modern Rural Area.
China : Qingdao Publishing House, 2003.
XIONG, K. 1999. A Preliminary Study on Rural Image and
Development of Rural Tourism. In: Areal Research and
Development, vol. 18, 1999, no. 3, pp. 70–73.
YUAN, M. 2011. Indigenous ecological knowledge and natural
resource management in the cultural landscape of China’s Hani
Terraces. Yunnan Normal university. In: Ecological Society of
Japan, 2011. DOI 10.1007/s11284-011-0895-3.
ZHANG, B. – MO, S. – TAN, YA. 2004. Urbanization and Deurbanization in Mountain Region of China. In: Mountain
Research and Development, vol. 24, 2004, no. 3, pp. 206–209.
ZHENG, X. 2003. Strengthen World Nature and Cultural Relics
Protection and Prevent Then from Immanent Danger. In: Urban
Study, vol. 10, 2003, no. 2, pp. 50–54.
– 147 –
Analysis Tools for Green Infrastructure in Urban Areas and Open Land
Attila Tóth*, Ľubica Feriancová
The paper introduces green infrastructure in urban areas and open land in the context of contemporary landscape
architecture as a field of research and practice. Cultural landscapes are designated as the contemporary domain of landscape
architecture, with an emphasis on designed landscapes. Green infrastructure is presented as a component of cultural
landscapes and as a strategic tool for enhancing Europe‘s natural capital in accordance with the Europe 2020 strategy.
Garden heritage sites are highlighted as specific components of the urban green infrastructure and as the object of the
research conducted within the CultTour project. The objective of this paper is to present graphic analysis tools applied to the
analysis of structural and compositional changes of the studied landscape garden in Palárikovo. The structural development
and compositional changes of this landscape garden are presented by graphic analysis tools – thematic layer maps and
schemes. The main results are 1) the analysis of the historical development of the landscape garden and 2) the graphic
analysis tools as an innovative tool for assessing garden heritage sites or other components of the green infrastructure in
urban areas and open land.
Keywords: garden composition, garden heritage, graphic analysis tools, landscape garden
Introduction
Landscape architecture (LA) is a field of research and
practice where diverse aspects and neighbouring
disciplines interact – from architecture theory,
dendrology, sociology and landscape archaeology;
through art, landscape ecology, historical geography and
forestry; up to economics, cultural anthropology, regional
planning and cultural geography (Bell, Sarlöv Herlin and
Stiles, 2012). The contemporary domain of LA consists in
cultural landscapes of diverse types and components.
A specific type of these is represented by designed
landscapes which have been created by man in different
natural, historical and socio-economic conditions
(Salašová, 2004). The system of all green spaces, areas and
their components within natural and cultural landscapes
in urban or rural environments is designated as Green
Infrastructure (GI). It is a topical issue in contemporary LA
and related fields of research and practice. GI is defined
as a strategic tool for enhancing Europe‘s natural capital
in order to achieve a smart, sustainable and inclusive
growth of our continent as stated in the Europe 2020
strategy issued by the European Commission (2013).
According to the European Commission, there is a need
for developing new analytical approaches within the LA
research into the urban GI and its particular elements.
Specific components of the urban GI are represented
by garden heritage sites like historic gardens and parks
(Supuka et al., 2008; Kubišta, 2006; Tóth, 2014). This special
type of the urban GI has been the object of the research
*Correspodence:
conducted within the international scientific project
CultTour focusing on garden heritage conservation and
sustainable tourism. The research has been conducted
on the case study of the landscape garden in Palárikovo
(Tóth, 2014). The objective of this paper is to present
graphic analysis tools applied to the analysis of structural
and compositional changes of the studied landscape
garden.
Location and General Characteristics
The object of the research is the landscape garden in the
small rural town Palárikovo situated in the south-western
region of Slovakia, in the Danube Lowland, 13 km distant
from the district town Nové Zámky, in the Nitra Region.
The original Hungarian name used till 1948, was TótMegyer. The cadastral area covers 5,129 ha and has a
flatland character, at the average altitude of 113 m. The
protected historic landscape garden covers an area of 52
ha and is continued by a historic pheasantry established
in 1752 with an original area of 1,700 ha extended to
3,000 ha protected since 1976 as a natural monument
(Tomaško, 2004; Tóth, 2014).
The Classicistic Manor House
and the Landscape Garden
The former baroque manor house built in the 18th
century was rebuilt in 1866, into the present classicistic
style according to the plans by Miklós Ybl architect
Attila Tóth, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering,
Department of Garden and Landscape Architecture, Tulipánová 7, 94976 Nitra, Slovakia, e-mail:
[email protected]
Attila Tóth, Ľubica Feriancová: Analysis tools for green infrastructure in urban areas and open land, pp. 148–151
– 148 –
Figure 1
Development of the landscape garden and its surrounding urban area and open land
Figure 2
Changes in the landscape garden‘s compositional structure (19th vs 21st century)
Source: Tóth, 2014
Source: Tóth, 2014
(1814–1891). Near the manor house, there is a unique
technical construction – a 22 m high wooden water tower
(1869). The garden composition emphasises the manor
house as a landmark situated on the main compositional
axis with a regularly designed cour d‘honneur with
a fountain at the front facade which continues in a
large elliptical lawn. Another fountain is situated at the
garden facade. The wide linear open space consisting
– 149 –
of meadows, starting at the garden
facade and continuing along the
main axis, provides a characteristic
view through the landscape garden
framed by trees. There is a small
circular lake with an island, in the
middle of the composition. The
former communication network
has been partially preserved. The
meadows are being sequentially
overgrown by spontaneous woody
plant growths. We can still identify
former solitaires in the dense
growths (Tóth, 2014; Kubišta, 2006;
Tomaško, 2004; Vágenknechtová,
1982; Sziklay and Borovszky, 1899).
area
Methods
We have applied graphic analysis
tools in order to interpret the
main structural changes in the
landscape garden composition. An
own coloured interpretation of the
historic cadastral map from the 2nd
half of the 19th century (Archive of
the Monuments Board of the SR)
enabled a comparison between the
original composition and the current
state depicted by an orthographic
photomap
(Eurosense,
Geodis
Slovakia). To show the development
of the garden in the context of
the landscape structure, we have
produced a coloured interpretation
of the 3 military mapping surveys
(18th and 19th century) along with
the topographic map from the
20th century (Geoportal of the
Slovak Environmental Agency).
The structural and compositional
changes of the landscape garden are
emphasised by schematic layer maps
analysing the changes in:
1. the area,
2. the path system,
3. the woody vegetation,
4. lawns and meadows.
All these graphs and schemes are
analytical tools used to evaluate the
main changes in the composition.
The software used to process the
maps and produce thematic graphs
and schemes was Adobe Illustrator
CS5.
path system
woody vegetation
lawn and meadows
Figure 3
Comparison between the current and the historic state of the landscape
garden in Palárikovo – Schematic designation of changes /
Superimposition of different time layers
Source: Tóth, 2014
– 150 –
The 1 military mapping survey records no extensive
garden space at the urban area of Palárikovo (then
Megyer) in the second half of the 18th century. Therefore,
we can assume that there was no extensive baroque
garden preceding the landscape garden. The first map
evidence of an extensive garden in Palárikovo (then Tót
Megyer) is provided by the 2nd military mapping survey
(1810–1869) and the historic cadastral map (2nd half of
the 19th century). The 2nd military mapping survey already
depicts the landscape garden in its very early stage. The
military and topographic maps are not detailed enough
to analyse the composition of the garden (figure 1).
The comparison between the original and the present
composition of the landscape garden shows a significant
decrease in lawns and at the same time an increase of the
woody plant cover (figure 2).
The result of the compositional analysis by thematic
layer maps shows the changes in the composition with
an emphasis on:
1. the area,
2. the path system,
3. the woody vegetation,
4. lawns and meadows (figure 3).
Graphic analysis tools used in this paper can be
utilised also for assessment of particular components
and elements of the GI. For instance Paganová and
Jureková (2012) use graphic analysis tools to assess and
evaluate selected tree parameters like stem, crown and its
architecture, branching and phenotypic characteristics
of trees. Our approach stands for a potential contribution
to standard assessment methods of woody plants as
components of the urban GI as conducted for instance
by Raček (2000). Graphic analysis tools were also used for
analysing private elements of the urban GI conducted
by Lička and Jeschke (2008). They analysed design
concepts of urban garden spaces using similar graphic
tools, although they focus on the design concept, while
we have focused on the structural development and
compositional changes. The applied graphic analysis
tools are presented as a way of spatial, structural and
compositional analysis of garden heritage sites. As
discussed above, they have the potential to be applied
also in related fields of research or design.
st
Conclusion
The obtained new knowledge consists of two main
components:
1. knowledge of the compositional and structural
development of a landscape garden by the example
of the case study Palárikovo,
2. application and verification of graphic (visual) analysis
tools to assess the development and changes of
a garden composition.
The most important results are the graphic analyses
of the landscape garden composition by the example
of Palárikovo, since such an approach has not yet been
applied to any historic landscape garden in Slovakia.
The scientific significance of these tools consists in their
applicability to other historic (landscape) gardens and
a subsequent comparability of results. Their application
to further case studies would facilitate new knowledge
creation and transfer in the field of LA, with a particular
focus on historic green spaces and garden heritage sites.
Acknowledgement
The research has been conducted within the
international scientific and research project of the EU –
CultTour – Garden Heritage Conservation and Tourism
and supported by the national research projects of the
Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport of the
SR KEGA No. 001SPU-4/2014 and VEGA No. 1/0769/12.
References
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the Boundaries of Landscape Architecture. Oxon : Routledge,
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European Commission. 2013. Communication from the
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of the Regions: Green Infrastructure (GI) — Enhancing
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– 151 –
Analyses of the brownfields use in the Nitra city and its surrounding
Mária Bihuňová*, Alexandra Takáčová, Martina Verešová
The main objective of the paper is identification, analysis and outlining options for revitalisation of selected brownfield
sites in Nitra and its surroundings. Contribution aims to highlight the potential for development of abandoned sites with
emphasis on the regional and local identity and tourism development.
Keywords: brownfields, revitalisation, Nitra, industrial sites, agricultural co-operatives
Introduction
Brownfield – according to the dictionary is a piece of
industrial or commercial property that is abandoned or
underused and often environmentally contaminated,
especially considered as a potential site for redevelopment.
Other definitions defines brownfields as abandoned,
vacant, derelict, idled or underutilized property in the
urban area with an active potential for redevelopment,
where redevelopment is complicated by environmental
contamination or potential presence of a hazardous
substance, pollutant or contaminant (Coll. of authors, 2007).
Term “brownfield“ was used in the meaning as
it is known nowadays on 28th of June 1992, when
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency pointed
Cuyahoga County (state Ohio, USA) as a first brownfield
(Vanheusden, 2007).
Kyselová (2010) divides brownfields according to the
previous use to the following cathegories: Agricultural
and productional sites, Industrial areas, Manufactoral
buildings, Army and Military areas, Housing and
Comunity Amenities, Tourism, Medical buildings, Hotels
and other (e.g. Breweries). Petríková (2011) and Hrubý et
al. (2013) add to this categories also Surface mines and
Remains after transport and technical infrastructure.
In Slovakia industrial, administrative and residential
complexes of brownfields have occured as the results of
restructuralisation of the state economy and as a change
in social – economic sphere after 1989.
Brownfields are not in the centre of the interest in
Slovakia. They are only marginally solved within the
projects – mostly only on the local level. International
experiences lead to the integrated approach – best on the
state level. Slovak Investment and Trade Development
Agency SARIO in cooperation with representatives from
the local municipalities have elaborated overview of the
brownfields in Slovakia. This database contains of 2355
localities.
Nitra Self Governing Region is mainly used for agricultural
production and mostly deforested. The main industrial
branches are engineering, chemical industry and food
processing industry, which is the oldest and most
expanded industrial branch covering whole region. Nitra
region is on the third place in number of firms among
Slovak regions, it is the largest agricultural producer in
Slovakia and the second most important producer of
energy and provider of trading and business services.
Nitra city is a cultural and economic centre of it.
Rated proposition of Brownfield:
1. Name and Location: object identification by its
position and the current title
2. Category of area basis of reconstructive methods:
A – Brownfield after reconstruction and land reclamation
with the original architectural characters – objects have a
new function after reconstruction, but the architectural
form was unchanged; B – Brownfield after reconstruction,
whose architectural function was completely changed by
demolition; C – Brownfield, after partial land reclamation,
it should be used for the recreation; D – Brownfield –
industrial facilities without land reclamation, but the site
has potential to develop due to its favourable position in
relation to the city (Cabernet, 2012).
3. Area of site: we evaluated area measurement of
Brownfield based on data from cadastral web portal.
For greater clarity, we were subsequently included
objects into different size categories. ≤1 ha, 1–5 ha,
5–10 ha (Urbion, 2002).
4. Transport availability of Brownfield – fixed based
radius from the centre of Nitra, expressed in km from
city centre: a) Centre, b) 0–5 km c) 5–10 4) 10–20.
5. Brownfields define by ownership (the economic
potential of redevelopment process). Based this
we created following categories: A. Brownfield
redeveloped in private sector – self-evolving objects
*Correspodence:
Mária Bihuňová, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape
Engineering, Department of Garden and Landscape Architecture, Tulipánová 7, 94976 Nitra, Slovakia,
Mária Bihuňová, Alexandra Takáčová, Martina Verešová: Analyses of the brownfields use in the Nitra city and its surrounding, pp. 152–155
– 152 –
– it has the highest value of next potential use of area;
B. Public-private partnership – the objects have semi
– potential for development – objects with certain
restrictions (by the financial restriction from the public
sector); C. The owner is the state – public financing,
at least probable redevelopment of the property, the
lowest level of funding.
6. Previous use of sites: the following categories
identified by numerical code: 1. Industrial, 2. Military, 3.
Railway, 4. Transportation, 5. Agricultural, 6. Infectious
institutional (hospitals, prisons), 7. rade (shopping
centres, administration), 8. Cultural (cultural centres,
theatres, cinemas), 9. Recreation (sports grounds,
stadiums, parks, open spaces), 10. Non-infection
institutional (schools, offices).
7. The current a status of the object – the subjective
evaluation of site and architectural state of buildings.
A. Good – Brownfield after reclamation (Greenland),
site with new function, B. bad – Brownfield undergone
redevelopment, large contamination of land; present
use – other than the original. C. very bad – emergency
conditions of Brownfields.
8. Forms of vegetation – according to normative for
green we set following categories: 1. Synanthropic
vegetation: (occurring in the vicinity of human
settlements and using environmental changes caused
by man.) successional communities and invasive
plants and herbs. 2. Cultural vegetation – founded,
managed and maintained by man.
9. Environmental Load – classifying areas according to
the previous usage of Brownfield, affecting the degree
of environmental loads. A. high level of potential
environmental loads: industrial, military, railway and
Figure 1
transport, agricultural, institutional infectious (hospitals,
prisons). B. The low level of potential environmental
loads: commercial (shopping centres, administration),
cultural (cultural centres, theatres, cinemas), recreation
(sports grounds, stadiums, parks, open spaces), noninfectious institutional (schools, offices).
10. Potential after Brownfield redevelopment: H –
High – excellent accessibility of facilities, distance up
to 10 km, become connected to roads and greenways,
public transport; M – median – object distance up to
15 km from the city, the availability of a motor vehicle,
cycling, L – low – distance of 20 km from the city, the
availability of a motor vehicle.
Based terrain research we identified 18 objects 9
Brownfields after redevelopment, 8 belonged to
Brownfields. Subsequently we evaluated them based our
methodology.
We have studied altogether 18 sites with brownfields
characteristics. During investigation, we evaluated their
location, size, accessibility, ownership. We compared
the current and former use, potential environmental
load, vegetation and their potential for the further
development. Table 1 shows the results of the mapped
potential Brownfields sites.
From the total number of studied objects had the largest
representation renovated building with original architecture
(A category). Overwhelmingly there were the objects
associated with agricultural processed industry: barns, mills,
distilleries. Size of the area were up to 1.5 ha. Buildings have
been renovated by physical person. Their condition can
be described as good. All of these objects represent a high
Map of sites dividing based the degree of redevelopment and using
– 153 –
Current state
and use
Vegetation
Environmental
load
Potential for
development
of site
Previous use
Ownership
Transport
accessibility
Area size in ha
Evaluation of selected Brownfields areas
Locality
Name
Table 1
A
1
A
H
A category
1
Báb
.≤ 1
3
A
5
2
Čab
1–5
3
A
5
A
1
A
H
3
Jelšovce
.≤ 1
4
A
1,5
A
1
A
H
4
Pohranice
.≤ 1
4
A
5
A
1
A
H
5
Hosťová
1–5
4
A
5
A
1
A
H
6
Branč
1–5
4
A
5
A
1
A
H
7
Branč
.≤ 1
4
A
5
A
1
A
H
8
Nitra
1–5
2
A
1
A
1
A
H
9
Nitra
1–5
2
A
1
A
1
A
H
1
A
2
A
H
B category
1
Nitra
1–5
1
A
1
Ivánka
1–5
4
C
1
A
2
A
H
2
Ivánka
1–5
4
A
1
A
2
A
H
1
Dolné Krškany
1–5
3
A
5
B
2
B
H
2
Dolné Krškany
1–5
3
A
5
C
2
B
H
3
Horné Krškany
1–5
3
A
5
B–C
2
B
H
4
Nitra
1–5
2
B
2
B
2
B
H
5
Nitra
1–5
2
B
10
C
2
B
H
6
Babindol
1–5
4
A
1
B
2
B
M
C category
D category
potential for further development in conjunction with
tourism and the appropriate forms of recreation.
The second category (B category), when the original
architecture was completely changed by demolition of
buildings, was only object of the food industry (mill).
Original environmental loads have been eliminated
by new redevelopment. In this case this area plays
an important role in the development and long term
economic sustainable in the urban core. This form
of rehabilitation is very questionable in terms of
preservation of historic architectural city structures.
C category included two objects – original mining pits
for gravel (river gravel), which are in excellent accessible
distance from the city and they are also in direct contact
with the surrounding villages. For the comparison, one
part of the pit is privately owned (owner built a canter for
recreation). The second is owned by the municipality and
is used as – catch fishery. The area has strong potential for
further development and completion of other structures.
The last category is made up of industrial sites without
reconstruction (D category). Areas of these sites are larger
than one hectare. Ownership is private or mixed – publicprivate partnership. These objects have a convenient
location and accessibility within the city, their previous
use, which corresponds to the current very poor state
facilities detects a high degree of environmental loads.
These Brownfields have a high future potential for further
development of the area after the removal of all forms
of stress and restoration sites (which may be due to the
large area of blocked financial barrier).
There is an increasing interest of the brownfields using
in the urban structures. The “brownfield issue” in Slovakia
has several particularities: absence of comprehensive
database of brownfields; absence of the National strategy
of the brownfield revitalisation; marginal solution of the
brownfields, only within the whole project concept; missing
of the data regarding the soil contamination and other
pollutions; reselection of the areas, which are easily accessible.
Many authors of research in this area would agree
precisely on the idea that the attractiveness of Brownfield
increases depending on their localization, accessibility
and connection to the main transport roads. Another
– 154 –
Figure 2
Benefits of brownfield redevelopment
Source: Regional Analytics, 2002
important role plays the historical
background as a relic of culture,
hint of previous generations and
the development of continuity.
Views on this issue see authors in
three positions, they are following:
economic, social and environmental
one (Figure 2).
We brought an overview and
comparison of selected brownfield
sites before and after reconstruction.
We can find the origin of the
Brownfields in the restructuring of
the economy after 1989 – beginning
of period of transition to a market
economy. Part of the privatization
process, followed by a process of
change and production base.
Slovakia landscape is mainly used
for agricultural production. The great
potential is still hidden in disused and
dilapidated campuses. Form of their
future use and the reconstruction
depends primarily on the number of
economic facts as well as the extent
and manner of their future use. As
mentioned by various researches in
this fields for incorporation of the social
and cultural dimensions of sustainable
revitalization it is necessary to: analyse
the costs and benefits arising from the
inclusion of these objectives into the
revitalization scheme of brownfield
sites, find or develop the specific tools
that can be utilized for the
implementation of these objectives
(specific policy direction, regulations,
detailed methods of social parti-
cipation, creation of new coalitions,
fiscal measures, the improvement of
skills and education, etc.) (Petríková,
Finka and Ondrejička, 2013).
Conclusion
This comparison brought several
question marks regarding the
method of evaluation and Brownfield
categorization in Slovak conditions.
We have looked on the methods of
brownfield assessment, based on
the methodologies used in foreign
countries (Czech Republic and the
countries of Western Europe). Slovakia
has the potential for development
of such sites, confirming attendance
reconstructed facilities. Despite of
this fact there is high pertcentage
of creation and buiding of the
new architectural complexes. This
situation can be solved by elaborating
of the methodology of the Brownfield
assessment, which will be followed by
brownfield program. This is the first
step in the redevelopment process,
which is key factor in its revitalization.
Old industrial sites represent a great
potential for tourism, recreation sport
and cultural development.
Acknowledgement
Paper was prepared with the support
of the grant VEGA 1/0769/12.
References
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BrownfieldStrategy.pdf 15.03.2014
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P. 2013. Values and possibilities of reuse
brownfields. In: Business Trends 2013.
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Západočeská univerzita v Plzni, 2013, 1.
vydání. ISBN 978-80-261-0321-9. http://
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a hodnotenie možností regenerácie
brownfieldov. In: Urbanita, roč. 23, 2011,
č. 3, s. 10 – 13. ISSN 0139-5912.
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V. 2013. Brownfield Redevelopment in
the Visegrad Countries. Ostrava : VŠB –
TU, 2013. 90 s. ISBN 978-80-248-3125-1
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Investigation into the Economic Impact
of Brownfield Redevelopment Activities
in Canada”, prepared for the National
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pre obstarávateľov a spracovateľov
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– 155 –
Georadar Research of Parterre in Historic Park in Palarikovo
Richard Kubišta
This work is a part of a wider research project of historic greenery in south-western region of Slovakia. As a model object
was chosen garden parterre of a 19th century landscape park in the village of Palarikovo in Nove Zamky district. As a working
method was chosen non-invasive underground research with the use of georadar X3M equipped with 500 MHz shielded
antenna of Swedish company MALÅ. Research results were processed by software Rad Explorer 1.41 and GroundVision 2.
Planar scanning of the eastern half of parterre in range 30 × 50 m was chosen with the goal to verify presumption on an
existence of a formal parterre design preserved in graphic plans dated 1794. Decision was made due to expectation of
symmetry in composition of classicistic parterre. A set of 100 scans in a perpendicular direction to the main parterre axis
(each 25 to 30 m long repeated each 50 cm). As controls were made 5 scans parallel with the main parterre axis (each 50 m
long repeated each 5 m). The research itself was made during the summer months in 2012 as the best scanning results can
be reached only in dry and warm conditions. According the research results we come to the conclusion that historic garden
parterre proposals of a formal design were never realised. There were readable only marks of the composition from the turn
of the 19th and 20th century.
Keywords: historic greenery, underground research, georadar, Palarikovo
Introduction
Historic greenery is an important part of a cultural
heritage of each nation; that’s why it is necessary it’s
detailed knowing and preservation. Research of historic
greenery objects completes missing information, verifies
presumptions and disproves suppositions. The nature
of research lies first of all in detailed mapping of historic
greenery objects, their evaluation and categorisation.
A part of this process is stock-taking of biotic and abiotic
elements of natural and anthropogenic origin. The term
historic greenery object concerns not just historic parks
and gardens, but also spa parks, some older orchards,
vineyards, even solitaire trees, sacral greenery and not
finally also larger landscape designs. Their integral part
is not just the biotic part as a trees, shrubs, perennials,
annuals and lawns but even built elements as the main
building, other buildings, garden inventory as benches,
statues, pergolas, pavilions or other. Not the last parts
of the historic greenery objects are natural but abiotic
elements as water features, rocks, caves or others. Historic
greenery objects have also their time periods which can
overlay themselves and which are not just a subject of
the research but even a subject of cultural heritage what
determines their renewal possibilities.
The material is in this case the garden parterre of
classicistic manor of the Karolyi family lying in front of
the garden facade of the manor. The park was rebuilt
into landscape style at the beginning of the 20th century
together with the parterre. The change of the parterre
was necessary to reach a unity in the parterre and
garden design; up to this change had the parterre formal
appearance. According to photos from the beginning
of 20th century there was a symmetric composition with
four cone shaped yew trees (Taxus baccata L.) with low
cut hedge in octagonal shape made of boxwood (Buxus
sempervirens L.) with an octagonal pink marble fountain
in the middle. This fountain is the only element surviving
till these days; the design of the garden parterre was very
similar to existing one on the opposite side of the manor
at the court d’honour.
The selection of the research method was conditioned
to the design of historic plans for the parterre planting
out. Two variants were preserved, both rectangular, that’s
why planar scanning method was chosen to increase the
probability of confirmation of a rectangular underground
shapes existence. Non-invasive research made by Ground
Penetration Radar (GPR) or just georadar X3M equipped
with 500 MHz shielded antenna of Swedish company
MALÅ would be able to confirm assumed designs thanks
to the historic materials use as sand, gravel or maul.
Different density of the material in rectangular shapes
would be visible in separate radargrams. Change of
the soil structure causes changes in the profile density;
this would be visible in the scans after their processing
*Correspodence:Richard Kubišta, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape
Richard Kubišta: Georadar research of parterre in historic park in Palarikovo, pp. 156–160
– 156 –
in softwares Rad Explorer 1.41
and GroundVision 2. The georadar
research offers an advantage of very
quick checking of larger areas without
invasive interventions in greenery.
Possible existence of underground
objects would have to be confirmed
by invasive archaeological research.
Using non-invasive sub-surface
and surface mapping methods can
document the basic structure and
layout of site (Watters, 2012).
Comparison of historic plans with
the present ones is possible thanks
Figure 1
to the digital maps and still existing
manor. There is an expectation of
small map inaccuracy as the original
plans were made manually. That is
why planar method was chosen in the
area of the south-eastern half of the
parterre in range 30 × 50 m. Decision
was made due to expectation
of symmetry in composition of
classicistic parterre. A set of 100
scans in a perpendicular direction
to the main parterre axis (each 25 to
30 m long repeated each 50 cm). As
controls were made 5 scans parallel
Design of the Court d’honour in from of the Count Karolyi’s Manor
House in today’s Palarikovo
Source: http://www.forestportal.sk/ForestPortal/volny_cas/turistika vyznamne_
miesta/prehlad_vlm/04_kastiel_palarikovo/04_kastiel_palarikovo.html
Figure 2
Design of the garden parterre behind the Count Karolyi’s Manor House
in today’s Palarikovo
Source: http://www.forestportal.sk/ForestPortal/volny_cas/turistika/vyznamne_
miesta/prehlad_vlm/04_kastiel_palarikovo/04_kastiel_palarikovo.html
with the main parterre axis (each
50 m long repeated each 5 m). The
research itself was made during the
summer months in 2012 as the best
scanning results can be reached only
in dry and warm conditions.
The manor house was built in
1730 by Count Karolyi on the place
of older house of family Kounic
from Moravsky Slavkov. Originally
baroque manor house was in 1866
redesigned in classicistic style by
architect Mikulas Ybl. A part of the
complex was also palm glasshouse,
later standing separately (lapsed
in 1937), baroque church, theatre
(lapsed in 1803), outhouses, horse
stables, brewery (lapsed), wooden
water tower with a well. Till these days
is important pheasantry founded in
1752, enlarged during the socialism
era to approximately 3000 ha.
Almost 60 ha large park is
together with the pheasantry an
important area of greenery in
intensively used agricultural land of
south-western Slovakia. Originally
smaller baroque garden design in
manor house surroundings was after
the classicistic reconstruction of
the building redesigned in English
landscape style. The only baroque
remaining can be considered
formal main parterre in front of the
manor house at the court d’honour
together with the lonely octagonal
fountain in the middle of the garden
parterre behind the manor house or
the baroque church neighbouring
with the park. Park elements like
tennis courts, beer cellar, rose hill,
garden pavilions have stepwise
disappeared. There still exists small
lake with an island lying in a romantic
composition in the middle of natural
oak wood enriched by dendrological
attractions as gigantic Platanus ×
acerifolia (Ait.) Willd., Ginkgo biloba
L. and Maclura pomifera (Raf.)
C.K.Schneid.
During the wider research were
found in Archive of The Monuments
Board of the Slovak Republic two
– 157 –
Figure 3
Historic cadastral map from the turn of the 19th and 20th century
showing the formal design of both parterres. Red line marks surveyed
area
Source: Archive of the Geodetic and Cartographic Institute Bratislava
graphics of garden parterre plans
in formal baroque style. Both were
simple geometric compositions of
several rectangles circumscribed by
hedges probably of boxwood (Buxus
sempervirens L.) with incorporated
tennis court and peach orchard
(Persica vulgaris Mill.). Today is
the parterre non-formal with poor
quality lawn but with still readable
marks of formal design from the turn
of the 19th and 20th century. It is the
mentioned fountain and 4 not very
visible roundish terrain elevations
(approximately 15 cm high and 4 m
in diameter) positioned around the
fountain in corners of a square shape.
These elevations are with high level
of probability identifiable as original
positions of 4 cone cut yew trees
(Taxus baccata L.) from historical
photos. Another 8 yew trees still exist
on opposite parterre in front of the
manor house at the court d’honour.
According
to
assumed
arrangement of the axial symmetric
design of historic parterre was
chosen planar scanning on one side
of the parterre; it was not necessary
to scan both sides of the parterre as
it should be symmetric with other
side. It is still time-consuming to
scan large areas, although much
faster than invasive methods, just
one half of the parterre was chosen
as material of the research. In effort
to catch any fragments of historic
structures lost in sediments of
the time was needed the planar
scanning. This type of scanning
allows catching any remaining of
former linear elements like paths,
hedges or others. Readable marks
arise also after long lasting use of
separate areas in the same way (lawn
cutting, maintaining of the paths,
flower beds and so on); the soil in
these areas rises up or is always kept
is the same level and just the terrain
around changes the height. Even out
planting of the linear hedges leaves
marks readable particular time by
geoscanning; it is due to the changes
in soil layers.
The rise of the terrain is based
on atmospheric processes, soil and
dust is removed by the wind and
absorbed by vegetation. There is also
an influence of the vegetation itself;
more massive vegetation uses all
organic material to produce its body.
Deconstruction of such vegetation is
usually sudden by out cutting or fire,
so there is no biomass remaining on
the place. In the abandoned section
of a park with no maintenance is the
terrain rise up very significant; on
more or less nutritious plots it can
be about 1 m in 100 years. These
organic layers then cover all artificial
elements. With the exception of four
roundish terrain elevations there
were no significant marks of other
terrain changes.
After the software processing of
105 terrain profile scans made by
georadar where these interpreted.
Several types of underground
features were detected; first of all
tree root systems creating shallow
concave changes in radargrams;
seconds engineering nets producing
deep concave changes; thirds any
other underground features were
producing flat changes in radargrams.
Problem of optical shortening of
the radargrams caused by terrain
roughness did not caused illegibility
of the separate radargrams. For our
purposes is sufficient the recognition
of underground features; to prove
– 158 –
Figure 4
Historic garden parterre proposal plans dated 1794
Source: Archive of the Monuments Board of the Slovak Republic Bratislava
their existence it is still necessary
invasive probation.
Terray (2012) says that georadar
scanning has an advantage of
catching all visible objects in surveyed
area, not just today’s engineering
nets, but even old paths, fences,
basements. It is easy to identify and
interpret everything what is necessary
for an archaeological research. With
a sufficient profile scan density it
is possible to identify also smaller
Figure 5
objects like graves, gravestones and
so on.
Clark (2008) made a similar
research in Amache in Granada
Relocation Centre, located in
south-eastern Colorado, USA. The
investigations were designed to
further assess the archaeological
resources of the site, especially the
gardens documented by historic
photographs and site survey. These
locations were subjected to ground
Garden parterre today
Source: authors archive
penetrating radar (GPR) survey,
which confirmed the presence
of features with ornamental and
vegetable garden. The GPR results in
vegetable garden were inconclusive.
Compared to our research Clark
(2008) makes also soil chemistry
analysis from each stratum following
the standard protocol for garden
archaeology (Currie 2005).
Soil
was sampled, as well from the fill
of internal garden features (such as
planting holes). These samples were
floated and their contents analyzed
for macrobotanical remains.
Watters (2012) made a GPR
research in the residence of poet
Henry W. Longfellow in Cambridge
in Massachusetts, USA. It was a part
of wider research using not just
GPR but also other techniques as
Magentometry,
Resistance
and
Conductivity/Magnetic Susceptibility.
At the front parterre he came to
a conclusion that resistance data
suggest there may be compacted
surfaces between these ‘garden
beds’, based upon the higher
resistance value along what appears
to be a central pathway in the GPR
data. GPR data however, shows the
garden ‘beds’ as a stronger anomaly
than the ‘pathways’. If the ‘pathways’
were a compacted surface, in
theory, they should show as a strong
anomaly in the GPR data. Different
geophysical survey methods provide
detailed information as to what is
buried beneath the ground. We are
able to integrate this information
for a more insightful interpretation
of the buried features, but to truly
know what remains, archaeologists
must ground truth these features
through auguring or excavation.
These
result
shows
that
even a flower bed can be easily
recognizable in GPR research thanks
the long lasting change of the soil
structure compared to neighbouring
parts of the plane.
Conyers (2012) writes in his e-book
that inability to interpret GPR results
within the broader context of the
surrounding landscape is analogous
– 159 –
Time in ns
Distance in m
Figure 6
An example of a control scan parallel with the main axis of the garden parterre showing no marks of formal design
Source: author
to what happens to excavation archaeologists who spent
all their time in a few holes in the ground and fail to look
around to get the bigger picture. This could be a memento
for all garden archaeologists or geophysicists making any
GPR research in historic landscapes, parks or gardens.
According to our research results it is possible to come
to the conclusion that historic garden parterre proposals
of a formal design (dated 1794) were never realised.
There were readable only marks of the composition from
the turn of the 19th and 20th century. Possible mistakes
can be disproved by an invasive archaeological research;
they could be caused in case of gradual sedimentation
of mould paths to the state aligning the density of the
soil and former path. Or in case of out planting stripes
the soil could be compressed during the time since the
change happened. According the research results we do
not assume these cases.
Conclusion
On a model case – Manor and Park in Palarikovo was
made a non-invasive research of the garden parterre
with the use of the georadar X3M equipped with 500
MHz shielded antenna of Swedish company MALÅ. We
have assumed an existence of baroque or classicistic
features remaining only under the soil surface as the
parterre was restored at the turn of 19th and 20th century.
These assumptions were conditioned by existence of
historic out planting plans of the garden parterre in two
variants dated 1794. The research needed warm and dry
conditions so the research came true in July 20th–21st
2012 (temperature 25–30 °C). The soil had to be dry, even
the morning dew had to fall down (research started at
10:00 and lasted to 15:00, both days). 105 scans were
made, 100 in perpendicular direction to the main axis of
the parterre (each 25 to 30 m long repeated each 50 cm)
and 5 control ones in parallel direction to the main axis of
the parterre (each 50 m long repeated each 5 m). These
georadar scans were processed by software Rad Explorer
1.41 a GroundVision 2 compatible with the georadar. In
separate radargrams were readable tree root systems,
engineering nets expressed by graphic change of fluent
radargram flow. According to the interpretation of
radargrams it is possible to come to the conclusion that
any of both historic garden parterre proposals were on
the site never realised.
Acknowledgements
This contribution was supported by grant VEGA
1/0769/12 Tvorba udržateľných verejných priestorov
vidieckych sídiel modernými metódami.
References
CLARK, B. 2008. The Archaeology of Gardening at Amache:
A Synthesis of results from University of Denver Field Investigations,
University of Denver, Department of Anthropology. https://
portfolio.du.edu/portfolio/getportfoliofile?uid=148099
CONYERS, L. B. 2012. Interpreting Ground-penetrating
Radar for Archaeology. Left Coast Press, Inc. Walnur Creek.
220 p. ISBN 978-1-61132-653-6 http://books.google.sk/bo
oks?id=PK0XxAneQckC&pg=PA9&lpg=PA9&dq=garden+a
rchaeology+gpr&source=bl&ots=VQHVm4Mgvv&sig=7uu
ok-LB6CJC7XDd2-xVyruZazg&hl=sk&sa=X&ei=JHvRUfOgE
Yv4sga3lYCoCg&ved=0CHAQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=garden
%20archaeology%20gpr&f=false
CURIE, Ch. 2005. Garden Archaeology: A Handbook. Practical
handbooks in archaeology (No. 17) Council for British
Archaeology, York, 2005. 80 p. ISBN 978-1902771489
http://www.forestportal.sk/ForestPortal/volny_cas/turistika/
vyznamne_miesta/prehlad_vlm/04_kastiel_palarikovo/04_
kastiel_palarikovo.html
SUPUKA, J. – FERIANCOVÁ, Ľ. 2008. Vegetačné štruktúry
v sídlach – parky a záhrady. Nitra : SPU, 2008. 499 s. ISBN
978-80-552-0067-5
TERRAY, M. 2012. Georadarové merania v archeológii. http://
www.terray.sk/file/aplikacie_gpr_file115.pdf
WATTERS, M. S. 2012. Geophysical and Laser Scan Surveys at
the Longfellow House – Washington’s Headquarters National
Historic. Joukowsky Institute of Archaeology and the Ancient
World, Brown University. 49 p. http://ncptt.nps.gov/wpcontent/uploads/MT-2210011-NC-04-Geophysical-Laser-ScanReport.pdf
– 160 –
The method of evaluation of public space in the village
of rural settlements Banov
Jana Šimuneková
The work deals with the completion of the public spaces of the rural areas by operational improvement methodology of
public space. The analyses which are contained in the methodology, are useful as a resource for the creating, respectively
for the completion of the public spaces, there is analyzed the situation and development of rural areas of the countryside.
Metodology deals with the evaluation and quality of particular areas, with the mapping of citizens` activities at these public
areas. This type of methodology is useful for garden and landscape architects in the completion of existing public spaces.
By this method, it can be found out how the area is living, what type of activities and functions are needed that it becomes
attractive for visitors and citizens of rural areas.
Keywords: public space, countryside, street, people, acitivities
Introduction
Currently, global trends of increasing quality and culture
of internal natural places are reflected in our conditions.
Attention does not focus only to the centers, but also
to the entire system of public urban areas (Kováč,
2003). Public rural areas relate to each of us. They are an
important and indispensable element of any municipality.
Unless they are working as they should, they promote
social lives of citizens. On how these spaces look like in
reality spaces depends on involvement of citizens and
on their proactive approach, on their choice in elections
and how they are involved in public affairs. It is the mirror
of each municipality. In recent years, interest in public
areas increases in the Slovak Republic. The reason of this
interest can be seen in the changing lifestyle of modern
society. On these spaces are placed There is a great
demand to these areas and therefore,they become in the
centre of many local politicians, experts, architects, urban
planners.
People evaluate the municipality according to the
quality of public spaces, according to the amount of
opportunities that take place in these areas. Through
these factors, they evaluate and perceive the countryside
and life in it. It is very difficult to define the good public
space in the village. On one hand, it can be a place with
plenty of activities where different groups of people can
find their place. Furthermore, t can be an area where we
like to meet or where we spend our leisure time.
The term „public space“ is understood as external,
publicly accessible open space where different types
of activities are realized (organized and unorganized)
of various groups and individual citizens. For example
*Correspodence:
:gardens and small parks, green spaces, spaces in housing
estates, small squares, areas around public buildings.T he
term „public space“ comes from the English translation
of „public space“ it is the space that is not private and
it belongs to everyone. Equivalent of the English term
„public space“ is the term „open space“. It is a phrase that
is understood as a space that is not built-up with buildings
and it replaces the natural environment (Goodall, 1987)
The aim of the work verification of the methodology for
operational improvement of public space (Šilhánková,
1996) in practice
Methodology of operational improvement of public
space Vladimíra Šilhánková
It is a technique of field information collection, where
the considerable data about the behavior of people are
noticed into the pre-prepared forms on the basis of own
observation.
Technique of maping and behavoir is divided into 2 parts:
yy Part Analysis of the nature and quality of the area,
yy Evaluation and maping of the activities.
This method can help to determine and define the
actions of people in public areas. What type of human
activities are realized there, which conditions are needed
to enable activities that serve to revitalize area are
detected by the analysis of these activities. According to
the results, it is defined what kind of furniture should be
used in the space (benches, litter bins, clocks, posters, etc.)
and also the distribution of this furniture due to human
activities and needs. Furthermore, we can find out the
Jana Šimuneková, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape
Jana Šimuneková: The method of evaluation of public space in the village of rural settlements Banov, pp. 161–163
– 161 –
Site selection
The municipality of Banov is located in the Danube plain,
between the city of Nové Zámky and Surany. The river
Nitra flows through the village. The origin of population
is Slovak. The first written information about village is
from 1113. On the basis of territorial – administrative
division Banov together with 61 other municipalities
belongs to the district of Nové Zámky. Banov occupies an
area of 1976 hectares and it belongs to the medium-sized
villages of district Nove Zámky. It concentrates 3,731 of
the population and significantly exceeds the average of
communities in the district.
The selection of public spaces in the selected
locations:
yy Public space 1 the Church square.
yy Public space 2 the Sturova Street.
yy Public space 3 the small square at the community
center.
yy Public space 4 Poľná Street.
Figure 1
use and non-use of public space. Through the analysis
of space in terms of its use by humans, iwe can find out
which type of areas are attractive – visited by people and
vice versa, which in turn are empty.t is determined by
points in the study area are among the appealing – people
visited and vice versa, which in turn are empty. According
to the analysis of results, we can define the places which
have to be re- equipped so that they become attractive
to people again. Project preparation:
yy Site selection Bánov.
yy Selection of public spaces in the village of Banov.
Part 1 – Analysis of the nature and quality of the
municipality of Banov.
Part 2 – Evaluation and mapping activities of
municipality Banov.
Colection and Processing of information
To the mapping of public spaces in Banov were used
public areas: the Church square, the Small square at the
community center, and Sturova Street. These public spaces
are the most used public areas which are characterized by
amenities, so their use is greater than the other locations.
Based on the methodology we found that the activities
taking place in the village of Banov are: shopping, talking,
cycling, standing, sitting and other activities. Most of these
activities were recorded in public places such as the Church
Square, Small Square, the cultural center and Sturova Street.
The groups of young people used to meet at the
public space Sturova Street during the summer months,
where they devoted to various activities such as: cycling,
skateboarding, roller-skating and sitting on the benches.
During assessing of the public spaces some free spaces
were located. It should invigorate these areas with other
outdoor activities.
Based on the implementation of this methodology, we
found that observation of public spaces, their assessment
and gathering of information are important for garden
and landscape architect. Based on this knowledge the
architect can reshape area to articulate the functional
and aesthetic properties and thereby create the
perfect public space for which these characteristics are
„functional and aesthetic“ and very important.
Methodology of operational improvement of public
space has been carried out in the summer and autumn
months. It is understandable that in these months the
number of people entering and activities taking place in
these places is higher:
PEOPLE + FUNCTIONAL SPACES + ATTRACTIVENESS
OF AREA = AREA SUCCESS
– 162 –
space greenery arrangement in the
form of alleys.
yy In
this
work
was
used
a methodology that has been
validated in public places in the
village of Banov. These assessments
that have been created provide an
overview of the specific use or of
possibly abandoned public spaces.
The analyses show that public
spaces could play an important role
in creating, respectively reshaping
towns and villages and improve
the quality of the site.
Acknowledgement
Article was processed based on
the financial support MŠSR VEGA
1/0769/12.
References
Figure 2
Sample colection and processing of information (Locality the church
square)
Conclusion
Based on the development of
methodologies we found which
public spaces are attractive for
people in the village Banov and
which spaces need to shape and
reshape to become more interesting
and exploited for the citizens and
visitors of the village. The village was
reconstructed under the supervision
of a landscape architect. We found
that the reconstruction is on the
spot. This results in the appearance
of the village. The village is in terms
of attractiveness and aesthetic
premises in good condition. It
is necessary to strengthen the
activities that take place in public
places. Therefore, we propose a
methodology based on evaluation
of the following procedure:
yy Develop active areas for young
people because there is an
evidence that young people aged
7–18 years use public spaces
more than other people (Build
multifunctional
playgrounds,
chestables,seating).
yy Create spaces for the youngest
in the form of playgrounds that
are materially suited to the rural
environment and shape the
surface components of movables
Poľná Street – create a reinforced
communication, then build a trail
to the standards and fitted the
GOODAL. B. 1987. Dictionary of human
geography. Penquin books : London,
1987. 335 s. ISBN 0-14-051 095-8.
KOVÁČ, B. 2003. Minulosť a perspektívy
peších zón na Slovensku. Zborník
konferencie SAS : Banská Bystrica 2003.
131 s. ISBN 80-88-757-25-8.
ŠILHÁNKOVÁ, V. 2003. Verejné prostory
v územne plánovacím procesu. 1. vyd
Brno : Vysoké učení technické, 2003. s.
16–19. ISBN 80-214-2505-9.
ŠILHÁNKOVÁ, V. – KOUTNÝ, J. 2001.
Metodika verejných prostorú města Brna.
TILLEY, J. – ŠILHÁNKOVÁ, V. –
NAVRÁTILOVÁ, J. 1996. Metodika
operatívneho
zlepšenia
veřejného
prostoru. US Peace Corps : Magistrát
mesta Brno. 1996. ISBN 80-239-0614-3
– 163 –
Ginkgo biloba L. in Krakow green areas
Małgorzata Frazik-Adamczyk
Keywords: Maidenhair Tree, Krakow, green areas
Ginkgo biloba L. is an endemic and
relict species from the borderland
of Chinese provinces Anhui and
Zhejiang. In Europe, the species
was first introduced in 1730 to
Utrecht (Bartels, 1995) and the oldest
mention of the Ginkgo cultivation in
Krakow can be found in the directory
of plants from 1808 kept at the
Botanic Garden of the Jagiellonian
University (Seneta, 1991). The author
has been conducting observations
of Ginkgo specimens in Krakow since
1998. The inventory made in 2013,
revealed 67 specimens of Ginkgo
biloba located in 21 places (Figure 1).
Many trees of this species grows
in district I – the Old Town (47.76%),
followed by II – Grzegórzki (20.89%),
VII – Zwierzyniec (16.41%), single
specimens can be found in district
Table 1
Figure 1
The area of Krakow covered by the inventory – divided into
administrative quarters
III – Prądnik Czerwony, V – Łobzów,
VIII – Dębniki, XI – Wola Duchacka.
No specimens of the taxon were
registered in the other areas of Krakow.
The most stately trees of Ginkgo biloba in Krakow
Localization
Trunk circumference (cm)
Crown diameter (m)
Height (m)
350
7,5
8,5
♂
PP Nr 126101-007
08. 1974
119; 120; 180; 190
12
11,5
♀
Chi-chi
295
11
24,5
♀
PP Nr 126101-021
16. 11. 1998
275; 203; 175
13
20
♂
PP Nr 126101-004
23. 09. 1968
ul. Kopernika 27
Botanic Garden UJ quarter 2
265
18
26,5
♂
ul. Kopernika 27
273 (h = 64 cm)
13
18,5
♀
ul. Kopernika 27
223; 104
(przygłuszony cisem)
11,5
19,5
♂
ul. Franciszkańska 3
195
12
18,5
♀
ul. Stefana Batorego 8
192
6
11
♀
ul. Batorego 12
ul. Kopernika 27
pl. Wszystkich Świętych 5
ul. Garncarska 3
*PP – monument of nature
Abstracts, pp. 164–167
– 164 –
Old specimens with significant dimensions of the
stem circumference are especially valuable (Tab. 1).
In addition to specimens found in the Botanic Garden
of the Jagiellonian University, three specimens growing
in district I – the Old Town are the monuments of nature.
The 200 year – old female specimen growing in the
19th quarter of the Jagiellonian University Botanical
Garden is a unique with its chi-chi, of which one has a
leafy branch growing out of an unrooted chi-chi, which
is an extremely rare phenomenon (Frazik-Adamczyk and
Muras, 1999).
A variety of conformation and the form of crowns,
regardless of gender and age of the trees were found
among the investigated older specimens.
In the worst health status are specimens at Batory
Street 12 and Garncarska Street 3, both of which were
subjected to comprehensive tending measures at the
beginning of the 1990s.
The resource tree specimens comprise 10 female,
9 male flowers, the remaining were not blooming yet.
Among the 67 specimens of Maidenhair Tree, 47
(70.14%) are the young ones planted in the last 10 years.
The young specimens in Zwierzyniecka Street grow in
places with limited biologically active surface.
References
Bartels, A. 1995. Ginkgobaume in Japan. Dtsch.
Gartenb, 1995, no. 7, p. 430–433.
Frazik-Adamczyk, M. – Muras, P. 1999. Jeszcze raz
o czi-czi na dwóch okazach miłorzębu (Ginkgo biloba L.)
w Polsce. In. Rocznik Dendrologiczny, 1999, no. 47, p.
203–205.
Seneta, W. 1991. Drzewa i krzewy iglaste. Warszawa :
Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, 1991, p.196–201.
Valuation of trees – nature monuments in Tarnow
Magdalena Kulig, Agnieszka Jarmuła
Trees had always been important for humans. They
had provided food, wood, shelter, shade and satisfying
the needs of humans and animals alike. It is understandable
that they were worshiped or praised in every civilization.
For the first time the term ‘nature monument’ had
been used by Alexander von Humboldt at the turn of the
XVIII and XIX century. Since then not only resources of
the nature were preserved but also the old and valuable
trees as well.
Table 1
The first legal Polish document concerning property
protection was decree by Kazimierz Wielki in 1347.
Kings had changed law during centuries but always
the preservation of the nature was the most important.
In the XX century people concentrated on retaining
nature monuments. Minister of Education issued decree
about principles of operation National Department for
Protection of Nature Monuments on 22 October 1906. At
present act from 16 April 2004 is valid.
The biggest trees – nature monument according to the trunk‘s circumference in Tarnow
Taxon
Trunk‘s circumference Date of admitance as nature monument Location in the Tarnow
Platanus xhispanica ’Acerifolia‘
650*
1987
park/south
Quercus robur
538*
1993
west
Populus alba
460*
1987
near river/south-east
Fraxinus excelsior
474*
1987
centre
Tilia cordata
431**
1993
north
Acer platanoides
342**
2004
centre
Ulmus leavis
330**
1997
south-east
Acer pseudoplatanus
280**
2004
centr
Quercus palustris
280*
2005
west
Quercus petrea
270**
2010
west
Fagus sylvatica
175**
2010
west
* data from 2013, ** data from 2005
– 165 –
According to the law every Polish city register
all monuments of nature including trees. Tarnow is
medium town, located on the south of the Poland in
Malopolska voivodeship. Investigation were carried
out in 2013. There were 28 registered trees – nature
monuments belonged to 11 taxa: Acer platanoides
L., A. pseudoplatanus L., Fagus sylvatica L., Fraxinus
excelsior, Platanus xhispanica ’Acerifolia’, Quercus robur
L., Q. palustris Muenchh., Q. petrea Liebl., Populus alba
L., Tilia cordata Mill. and Ulmus leavis Pall. Location,
dates of admittance as a nature monument, trunk‘s
cirumferences and decorative values in four seasons
of the biggest nature monuments in Tarnow were
compared. The circumference of the investigated
trees varied from 650 to 175 cm (Platanus xhispanica
’Acerifolia’ and Fagus sylvatica, respectively). Other tree
monuments had the circumference from 538 to 270 cm
(Table 1). Trees were in different age. Most of them were
in good health condition, noted ascertain health cuts.
Only Tilia cordata enquires nurturing.
Roundabouts in Małopolska – conformity assessment between actual
development and design guidelines
Magdalena Pypeć, Piotr Muras
Keywords: roundabout, roundabouts development, plants on roundabout
In Poland, roundabouts as a new solution of communications
junctions are running over for 15 years. Their popularity
mainly due to: increasing traffic safety, reducing the number
Table 1
of collisions and providing greater throughput intersections.
They are also an important element of the local landscape.
They fulfil many functions, for example: a city square,
Development analysis of 20 examined roundabouts central islands
Roundabout size
s
s
s
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
xs
Roundabout location
K
K
K
K
L
L
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
Object number
17 18 20 19 15 16
1
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 11 12 13 14
2
Diameter of central Island (m)
44 40 33 18 26 26 25 15 26 27 20 18 23 23 17 17 14 20 11 10
Lp.
Design guideline:
1
Passability
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
2
Transparency
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
3
Good visibility
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
-
4
Obstacles on the track road
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
-
5
Transient ring
-
-
-
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
-
6
Refer to the surrounding
landscape
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
-
7
Paved surface
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
0
8
The material of the surface
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
0
9
Lack of the vertical signs on
the island
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1
10
6 cm high curb around the
island
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
0
3
3
4
3
5
5
5
5
4
5
4
5
5
5
4
5
5
4
5
1
Sum
xs – mini roundabout, m – medium roundabout, s – small roundabout; K – Kraków, O – Oświęcim, L – Libiąż; 1 – fulfilled criterion 0
– criterion not fulfilled
– 166 –
landmark or signs designating the direction of traffic. The
study included 20 roundabouts located in the province of
Małopolska: 5 roundabouts from the Kraków city, 2 from
the Libiąż community and 14 from the Oświęcim town.
Depending on the diameter of the roundabouts central
island, with accordance to the Regulation of the Minister of
Transport and Maritime Economy from 2. 03.1999, objects
have been divided in three groups: mini roundabouts
(diameter of island from 3 to 10 m), a small roundabouts
(diameter from 10 to 28 m) and a medium roundabouts
(diameter between 28 to 50 m) (tab.1). The data about
roundabouts were collected between 2011 and 2012,
they included: dendrological inventory and photographic
documentation. The actual objects composition was
compared with design guidelines outlined in the
“Guidelines for design of intersections, part I and II”. The
lowest rates, from all examined objects, mini roundabout
obtained (tab. 1). It only fulfilled 1 from 6 criteria’s. The
main design guideline, about passable for cars was not
fulfilled. Recommended hard surface cower of an island has
been replaced with plant composition consisting of: Acer
platanoides ’Globosum‘, Berberis thunbergii ’Atropurpurea‘,
’Golden Ring‘, ’Rose Glow‘, ’Green Carpet‘, Spiraea japonica
’Little Princess‘, ’Goldflame‘ and Euonymus fortunei ’Emerald‘
n ’Gold‘. In general, most of the small roundabouts islands
has met all of the development criteria’s (tab. 1). Almost
all of them meet three basic guidelines: non passable,
transparency and good visibility. On average objects fulfils
4.6 of 6 adopted criteria’s. The best managed roundabouts
were in Libiąż and Oświęcim, the worst one were in Kraków.
It is worth to emphasize that only one small roundabout
(object number 13) development has refer to local landscape
and environment (table 1). The medium roundabouts on
average fulfilled 3.3 out of 5 adopted criteria’s. All the objects
meets basic guidelines of: non passable, transparency,
good visibility. The best developed of this size roundabout
was in Krakow (object number 20). Again, as in the small
roundabouts case, none of the objects development has
refer to the surrounding landscape or buildings.
– 167 –
Contents
Jacek Borowski, Małgorzata Pstrągowska,
Tatiana Swoczyna
Manifestations caused by salt aerosol on shoots and buds of
street side limes.................................................................................... 3
Márk Steiner, Endre György Tóth, Ágota Juhász,
Magdolna Sütöriné Diószegi, Károly Hrotkó
Stomatal responses of drought and heat stressed linden
(Tilia sp.) leaves...................................................................................... 7
Ewa Muszyńska, Katarzyna Kałużny, Ewa Hanus-Fajerska
Phenolic compounds in Hippophaë rhamnoides leaves
collected from heavy metals contaminated sites...................11
Tatiana Swoczyna, Jacek Borowski,
Stefan Pietkiewicz, Hazem M. Kalaji
Growth and physiological performance of young urban
trees of eight taxa in Warsaw.........................................................15
Renata Wojciechowska, Katarzyna Skowronek,
Anna Kołton, Monika Czaja
Some physiological changes in autumn leaves of
Parthenocissus inserta growing in urban conditions.............20
Károly Hrotkó, Márk Steiner, Mihály Forrai,
György Endre Tóth, Máté Vértesy, Ádám Leelőssy,
Levente Kardos, Magdolna Diószegi Sütöriné,
Lajos Magyar, Róbert Mészáros
Investigations on environmental benefits of urban trees
at Corvinus University of BudapesT.............................................24
Vilmos Szaller, Veronika Szabó,
Magdolna Sütöriné Diószegi, Lajos Magyar,
Károly Hrotkó
Urban Alley Trees in Budapest.......................................................27
Gabor Schmidt, Magdolna Sütöriné Diószegi,
Veronika Szabó, Károly Hrotkó
Cypress borer (Lamprodila festiva), a new urban pest in
hungary.................................................................................................31
Izabela Krzeptowska-Moszkowicz, Łukasz Moszkowicz
Selected problems of Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle
presence in urban spaces: the case of the city centre of
Kraków....................................................................................................56
Maryam I. S. Alkurdi, Jan Supuka
Evaluation of the sugar and starch content in the leaves of
some Mediterranean woody shrubs growing in different
conditions.............................................................................................63
Ladislav Bakay
Fruitmap and Falling fruit – tools for mapping urban
fruit trees in the city of Nitra..........................................................67
Ján Kollár
Alien pest species on woody plants in urban conditions of
Slovakia..................................................................................................70
Tivadar Baltazár, Ildikó Varga,
Gergő Gábor Nagy, Miloš Pejchal
Examination of the relationship between different
dendrometric quantities of hosts and mistletoe bush
number..................................................................................................74
Marcel Raček, Helena Lichtnerová, Jana Černá
Comparison of development of chlorophyll in the leaves
of Ginkgo biloba L. using destructive and non-destructive
analysis...................................................................................................78
Katarína Rovná
Site evaluation and tree selection for urban environment.......80
Edward Meller, Ryszard Malinowski, Adam Sammel,
Marcin Kubus, Andrzej Łysko
Assesment of possibilities of the use of structural soils with
addition of municipal waste for planting trees and shrubs......84
Edyta Rosłon-Szeryńska, Piotr Sikorski,
Ewa Zaraś-Januszkiewicz
The effectiveness of the visual method of hazard tree
assessment (WID method) in the management of urban
trees.........................................................................................................88
Ewa Zaraś-Januszkiewicz, Barbara Żarska,
Beata Fornal-Pieniak, Edyta Rosłon-Szeryńska
Phenological observations of Ailanthus altissima (Mill.)
Swingle at different urban areas...................................................34
Endre Gy. Tóth, Máté Vértesy,
Magdolna Sütöriné Diószegi,
Lajos Magyar, Márk Steiner, Károly Hrotkó
Growth and phenological observations on hungarian ND
foreign linden varieties....................................................................93
Helena Lichtnerová, Viera Šajbidorová,
Daniela Bartošová Krajčovičová
Evaluation of physiological responses of plants Cornus mas L. to
water deficit.........................................................................................39
Michaela Spěváčková, Lukáš Štefl, Miloš Pejchal
Methodology of clipped woody vegetation elements
assessment...........................................................................................96
Viera Šajbidorová, Daniela Bartošová Krajčovičová
Helena Lichtnerová
Adaptation of Spiraea japonica L. ´Little PRINCESS´ to water
deficiency in soil.................................................................................43
Viera Paganová, Zuzana Jureková, Helena Lichtnerová
Adaptability of Pyrus pyraster and Sorbus domestica
to drought as prerequisite of their utilization in urban
environment........................................................................................46
Dagmar Hillová, Magdaléna Takácsová,
Helena Lichtnerová
Stomatal response to water stress in herbaceous perennials . 51
Beata Fornal-Pieniak, Ewa Zaraś-Januszkiewicz,
Barbara Żarska
Evaluation of vegetation as useful method of classification
trees values in agricultural landscape...................................... 100
Ekaterina N. Zyankina, Olga G. Baranova
Classification of urban habitats of towns of the Udmurt
Republic (Russia).............................................................................. 104
Lukáš Štefl
Quality indicators of status and maintenance of urban
greenery............................................................................................. 107
Contents, pp. 168–169
t
– 168 –
Dominika Titková, Monika Jančovičová,
Lukáš Štrba, Roberta Štěpánková, Ľuboš Moravčík
Terestrical laser scanning applied to analyses of public
spaces.................................................................................................. 111
Ľuboš Moravčík
Use of terrestrial laser scanning in the precise determination
of geometrical features changes of Ginkgo biloba L........... 115
Zuzana Ďuránová, Viera Paganová
Current methods of assessment and evaluation
of urban trees in Slovakia............................................................. 118
Katarína Kristiánová, Katarína Gécová, Eva Putrová
Trees in urban structure of rural residential suburbs – the
case of Bratislava, Slovakia........................................................... 121
Katarzyna Kałużny, Anna Zając,
Ewa Hanus-Fajerska, Anna Pindel
Noteworthy examples of greenery in the town with
a great touristic potential............................................................. 125
Peter Kurz
Planting sustainability? On the management of hedgerows
in Alpine bocage landscapes...................................................... 129
Jan Supuka
Landscape structure changes with regard to landscape
architecture and ecological values........................................... 135
Ľubica Feriancová
Revitalisation of the park at the school in Cerveny Hradok...140
Shoufang Liu, Lin Li, Tomasz W. Bralewski
Culture landscape within recreational landscape park in
China.................................................................................................... 143
Attila Tóth, Ľubica Feriancová
Analysis tools for green infrastructure in urban areas and
open land........................................................................................... 148
Mária Bihuňová, Alexandra Takáčová, Martina Verešová
Analyses of the brownfields use in the Nitra city and its
surrounding....................................................................................... 152
Richard Kubišta
Georadar research of parterre in historic park in Palarikovo.156
Jana Šimuneková
The method of evaluation of public space in the village of
rural settlements Banov................................................................ 161
Abstracts:
Małgorzata Frazik-Adamczyk
Ginkgo biloba L. in Krakow green areas................................. 164
Magdalena Kulig, Agnieszka Jarmuła
Valuation of trees – nature monuments in Tarnow............. 165
Magdalena Pypeć, Piotr Muras
Roundabouts in Małopolska – conformity assessment
between actual development and design guidelines....... 166
Contents, pp. 168–169
– 169 –