The Candlenut Tree, Handsome and Wind

Literature Cited
plants, spring and fall 1988. Bradenton GCREC Res. Rept. BRA 19898.
Howe, T. K. and W. E. Waters. 1985. Evaluation of petunia: spring and
fall 1984. Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 98:335-341.
Howe, T. K. and W. E. Waters. 1986a. Observations of flowering bedding
plants, spring 1985. Bradenton GCREC Res. Rept. BRA1986-6.
Howe, T. K. and W. E. Waters. 1986b. Observations of flowering bedding
plants, fall 1985. Bradenton GCREC Res. Rept. BRA 1986-8.
Howe, T. K. and W. E. Waters. 1987a. Observations of flowering bedding
plants, spring 1986. Bradenton GCREC Res. Rept. BRA 1987-13.
Howe, T. K. and W. E. Waters. 1987b. Observations of flowering bedding
plants, fall 1986. Bradenton GCREC Res. Rept. BRA1987-15.
Howe, T. K. and W. E. Waters. 1988. Observations of flowering bedding
plants, spring and fall 1987. Bradenton GCREC Res. Rept. BRA198812.
Howe, T. K. and W. E. Waters. 1989. Observations of flowering bedding
Howe, T. K. and W. E. Waters. 1990a. Observations of flowering bedding
plants, spring, summer and fall 1989. Bradenton GCREC Res. Rept.
BRA1990-8.
Howe, T. K. and W. E. Waters. 1990b. Observations of flowering bedding
plants, spring 1990. Bradenton GCREC Res. Rept. BRA 1990-21.
Howe, T. K. and W. E. Waters. 1991. Observations of flowering bedding
plants, fall-winter 1990-1991. Bradenton GCREC Res. Rept.
BRA1991-12.
Stanley, C. D. 1992. Temperature and rainfall report for 1991. Braden
ton GCREC Res. Rept. BRA1992-2.
United States Dept. Agric. 1992. Floriculture Crops 1991 Summary. Nat'l.
Agric. Statistics Serv., USDA, Washington, D.C.
Voight, A. O. 1992. Special report analyzing the 1991 bedding plant
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Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 105:251-256. 1992.
THE CANDLENUT TREE, HANDSOME AND WIND-RESISTANT,
IS A NEGLECTED ORNAMENTAL IN FLORIDA
Julia F. Morton
Morton Collectanea
University of Miami
Coral Gables, FL 33124
Additional index words. Aleurites fordii, A. moluccana, A. triloba,
Imperata cylindrica, lalang, linseed, lumbang, tung.
Abstract. The candlenut tree, or kukui, Aleurites moluccana
(L) Willd., of the family Euphorbiaceae, grows wild in the
rainforests of the islands of Malaysia (but not on the main
land of Asia); also in Melanesia and Polynesia; and is widely
cultivated in the tropics. Introduced by aborigines into
Hawaii, the tree became naturalized on the slopes of the wet,
windward coasts. Normally 20-60 ft in height, it has a broad
canopy of triangular, evergreen leaves, white-woolly when
young, and hence showy in the forests. The small, white,
dioecious flowers are followed by clusters of nearly round
fruits, to 2-1/2 in wide, with thick, fleshy rind and 1-2 blac
kish, rough seeds having crisp, white kernels. The tree is free
of pests though the soft, rotting fallen wood is devoured by
beetles, which are in turn eagerly roasted and eaten by local
people. The wood is used for fuel, floats for fishing nets, crates
and sometimes canoes. The foliage and wood are buried to
enrich the soil in taro fields. The kernels contain 60% of a
drying oil formerly exported from Hawaii to Russian settlers
on the northwestern coast of America. Fishermen chew the
raw kernels and spew them out over the water to calm it.
After roasting, the kernel is edible and widely consumed.
Various parts of the tree produce other economic products
(dye, tannin, etc., and folk remedies). The hollowed shells,
after retting, smoothing and polishing to a "jet" finish, are
strung in necklaces (leis) selling for as much as $35. This
useful tree might aid in reforesation in Latin America and
should help to beautify South Florida.
A stately tree, so comely and faultless that it attracts
little attention, the candlenut, Aleurites moluccana (L.)
Willd., (syn. A. triloba R. Forst. and G. Forst.), of the family
Euphorbiaceae, is rare in Florida though it was introduced
by the United States Department of Agriculture in 1915,
Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 105:
1992.
having received a gift of seeds from the Philippine Bureau
of Agriculture in Manila (Anon., 1915).
Of uncertain origin, possibly eastern Malaysia (Burkill,
1935) it occurs in Kwantung, China, at 3,000 ft altitude
(Lee, 1935) and is common, naturalized and cultivated, in
Pakistan and South India (Anon., 1985); abounds all over
Malaysia, especially the Molucca Islands (Steinmetz, 1965);
the Philippines, New Zealand, and Queensland, Australia.
It is barely able "to endure the winters of Melbourne" (von
Mueller, 1885). It has become well established in Mauritius
(Baker, 1877); also all over Polynesia, including the
Ryukyu Islands (Walker, 1954) and Hawaii where it grows
profusely and is sometimes dominant (Merrill, 1943) in
the lower rainforests. It does not do well on limestone in
Guam but inhabits farmlands in the southern part of the
island (Safford, 1905; Stone, 1970). As the seeds are be
lieved incapable of floating on ocean currents, man is con
sidered to be the main distributor (Barrau, 1960). Arabs
conveyed them to East Africa (Burkill, 1935). In Hawaii,
solid groves of candlenut trees were cleared to make way
for sugar plantations. There are still some remnants of
ancient sacred groves in remote areas where ceremonies
were conducted (Handy and Handy, 1972).
In the New World, it has become common in Bermuda
(Britton, 1918), runs wild in waste places in the Bahamas
(Correll and Correll, 1982), is occasionally grown in vari
ous Caribbean islands, including Dominica (Nicolson et al.,
1991). In Puerto Rico it does best from sea level to 2,000
ft in moist limestone areas (Little et al., 1974). It is a famil
iar tree in parts of Panama, where it is planted for shade
(Escobar, 1972; Standley, 1928); also in El Salvador,
Guatemala, Venezuela, Colombia and Brazil (Aguilar
Giron, 1966; Allen, 1943; Perez-Arbelaez, 1956; Schnee,
1960).
Because of its wide distribution, it has acquired a
number of local names besides the best-known and wellearned "candlenut". Among them are: ama (Polynesia);
lama (Samoa); arbol de India (El Salvador); Bengal nut
(India); kekuna (Ceylon); mayow (Thailand); kemeeri, derekan (Java); Indian walnut (Malaya); tuitui (Cook Is
lands); kukui, when raw; inamora, when cooked (Hawaii);
251
is a crisp, cream-colored shell (resembling an egg-shell),
enclosing 1-2 (rarely 3) irregular, angular, more or less
oblate, black "nuts", appearing grayish because of a white,
waxy coating (Brown, 1954). The white kernel is firm and
walnut-flavored
(Britton and Wilson,
1923-24;
Dastur,
1951; Degener, 1945; Dickey etal., 1952; Little etal., 1974;
Fig. 1. The candlenut tree (Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd.) is strong
and stately, with a broad canopy of evergreen foliage. Photo by Julia F.
Morton.
lumbang, lumbang bato (Philippines); navi (New Guinea);
napa or nepa (New Hebrides); gem, gun, jem, maidu,
rhawa, tai, and veti (New Caledonia); lauci, sekeci, qereqere, tuitui, and toto (Fiji); nogal de la India (Panama and
Venezuela); noyer de Bancoul; noguiera de Bancul
(Brazil); nuez de India (Puerto Rico); country walnut,
Otaheite walnut (Virgin Islands); candleberry (Trinidad);
tungo (Guatemala); varnish tree (various locales); and
many more (Aguilar, 1919; Aguilar Giron, 1966; Allen,
1943; Barrau, 1960; Benthall, 1946; Britton, 1918; Britton
and Wilson, 1923-24; Brown, 1954; Burkill, 1935; Christo-
pherson, 1935; Corner, 1952; Escobar A., 1972; Fenzi,
1915; Kaaiakamanu and Akina, 1922; Liberty Hyde Bailey
Hortorium, 1976; Little et al., 1974; Merrill, 1943; Mors
and Rizzini, 1966; Ochse and Bakhuizen van den Brink,
1931; Quisumbing, 1951; Richenda Parham, 1943; Roig y
Mesa, 1945; Safford, 1905; Schnee, 1960; Steinmetz, 1965;
Sturtevant, 1919; Williams and Williams, 1951).
Ochse and Bakhuizen van den Brink, 1931; Quisumbing,
1951). It is somewhat toxic, indigestible, or purgative when
raw (especially when immature) (Webb, 1948) but has been
an important food of Australian aborigines (Cribb and
Cribb, 1975). Arnold (1944) says the kernels are "perfectly
wholesome" when cooked. Filipinos often employ the seeds
as a mild laxative (Quisumbing, 1951), and I have known
one Florida farmer who did so occasionally with no ill ef
fect. There have also been instances when children in
Florida have eaten raw seeds and shown no sign of illness.
In Malaya, roasted seeds are added to curries (Burkill,
1935) and are sold as "snacks" in native shops (Corner,
1952). Howes (1953) says that the seeds are edible and
palatable after "being stored for some time until they are
thoroughly dry". However, they should not be consumed
in excess (Cribb and Cribb 1975). Hawaiians roast the ker
nels, chop them, mix them with seaweed and serve as a
relish at feasts (Safford, 1905). In Java, kernels from which
the oil has been extracted are soaked in water for 48 hrs
and then steamed, after covering with a banana leaf and
kept in the dark under pressure in a basket for 4 days. The
fermented product (sauce) is esteemed for its flavor (Bur
kill, 1935; Ochse and Bakhuizen van den Brink, 1931).
In Sumatra, the processed kernels are used as a substi
tute for coconut (Ochse and Bakhuizen van den Brink,
1931). Roasted kernels are added to curries, and are also
pounded with hot peppers, salt and shrimp paste, or the
dried ink bag of the squid (Degener, 1945). Steinmetz
(1965) says that after World War II, small amounts of
candlenuts were being used in western restaurants to
flavor "special Oriental dishes".
Candlenut Oil
The expressed oil, "mixed with salt, is the universal
condiment of Hawaiians for seasoning fish and poi"
(Handy and Handy, 1972). The kernels contain 33 to
Description
The candlenut is fairly fast-growing (Brown, 1954); it
is usually a tree of medium size—30 to 45 ft—sometimes
to 60, or even 90 ft in very favorable locations (Degener,
1945). It has a tall, straight trunk and broad, dense crown
of evergreen foliage which is coated with a white or gray
powdery substance, especially on the young leaves in sum
mer, so that the tree stands out in the forest (Degener,
1945; Sturrock and Menninger, 1946). The long-stalked
leaves, to 8 or even 12 in long (Williams, 1949), are gener
ally ovate or triangular but variable in form, those of young
specimens may be 3- to 5-lobed. Male and female flowers,
borne on the same trees, are small, white, abundant, in
large terminal, downy clusters to 9 in long (Liberty Hyde
Bailey Hortorium, 1976). The fruits, in dangling clusters
of 3-6 (Corner, 1952) usually are nearly round, to 2-1/2 in
wide; with thick, indehiscent, olive-green rind (Benthall,
1946). One type in Indonesia has oblong, thick-walled
fruits (Ochse and Bakhuizen van den Brink, 1931). Within
252
Fig. 2. Candlenut flowers are small and white. Young leaves in sum
mer are coated with a white or gray powder in contrast to the glossy,
dark-green mature leaves. Photo by Julia F. Morton.
Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 105:
1992.
The nuts are hard to crack, but if kept in a 95° F oven
for 3-4 hrs and then soaked in cold water overnight, the
shells burst, easily releasing the kernels. This method pro
duces more oil per ton of nuts than extraction by crushing.
Whole nuts can be kept in dry storage for at least 1 yr with
no change in the quality of the oil (Aguilar, 1919; Burkill,
1935). The oil repels marine borers (Uphof, 1968) and, as
a drying oil, has been valued by artists (Maiden, 1889) and
Fig. 3. Candlenut fruits are nearly round with a thick, olive-green
rind which does not split open. The seeds are hard, irregular, black, more
or less covered with whitish or grayish wax. The kernel is white and crisp;
edible when roasted. Photo by Julia F. Morton.
62.40% (Aguilar Giron, 1966) of a pale-yellow, drying oil
which has been of great value as an illuminant in the Pacific
Islands. A popular practice has been the stringing of dried
or roasted kernels on sticks of bamboo, split roots of Pandanus (Brown, 1954), or the midrib of a coconut leaflet, or
on a reed, and the igniting of them for illumination. After
burning at the lower end, the strand is inverted and burn
ing continues with renewed brightness (Brown, 1954).
Each nut burned for 2-3 min (Degener, 1945). Sometimes
the kernels would be wrapped with tapa cloth to prevent
burning too fast (Handy and Handy, 1972). A hollow piece
of bamboo, stuffed with kernels, also served as a torch or
lamp (Degener, 1945). Crude candles were made by mash
ing the kernels, blending with cotton fiber and forming
the wax-like material around a slender splint of bamboo
serving as a wick. The candles gave light but also produced
malodorous smoke. Both men and women used the soot
from the smoke to powder their hair (Steinmetz, 1965),
and for tinting their eyelids (Dastur, 1951). It also pro
vided a dye for tattooing (Degener, 1945). In Africa, lan
terns have been made of banana stems holding bamboo
adorned with candlenuts (Williamson, 1955).
The extracted oil was burned in crude stone lamps
(Brown, 1935; Dastur, 1945). It was not used for cooking
(Hurst, 1942). Years ago Hawaiians exported candlenut
oil to Russians living on the northwestern coast of America.
It is very similar to linseed oil (Neal, 1965), was used for
making candles in India, England and Europe (Benthall,
1946; Smith, 1882). At a time of high interest in the oil,
exports amounted to 10,000 gals per yr (Neal, 1965).
Candlenut oil was by far preferred to that from the thin
ner-shelled A. trisperma Blanco (lumbang banucalag) which
the Chinese considered irritant (Aguilar, 1919). It is said
that 220 lbs of candlenut seeds will yield 44 lbs of oil (Guz
man, 1947).
Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 105:
generally for making paint and varnishes, putty, linoleum
and soap (Burkill, 1935). It contains olein, palmitin,
stearin, myristicin, magnesium and phosphoric anhydride
compounds (Steinmetz, 1965). It dries more slowly than
linseed oil (Raymond and Squires, 1952-53). There has
been modest production of candlenut oil in Santa Catarina,
Brazil (Mors and Rizzini, 1966). However, it can no longer
compete with linseed oil because of the higher cost of man
ual labor in its production (Degener, 1945).
In Fiji, the oil has been applied on hair and skin
(Altschul, 1973). Currently, in Hawaii, water-clear KUKUI
SKINCARE ("Pure kukui nut oil") is sold as a skin mois
turizer. It contains linoleic and linolenic fatty acids, also
the antioxidants Vitamin C, A and E. It is the product of
the HAWAIIAN KUKUI NUT COMPANY which also
produces KUKUI CONDITIONING SHAMPOO which
contains, besides the oil, water, ammonium lauryl sulfate,
sodium
myreth
sulfate,
cocoamidopropyl
betaine,
lauramide DEA, PEG-120 methyl glucose dioleate, glycol
stearate, polysorbate-80, acetylated lanolin, cetyl acetate,
propylene glycol, methylparaben, citric acid, panthenol,
quaternium-15, fragrance and propyl paraben.
Culture and Harvest
The candlenut tree prefers a warm, humid to very
humid climate (Holdridge and Poveda, 1975). It may be
propagated by seed, cuttings, or air-layers (Fenzi, 1915).
The seeds may take 38 to 150 days (Anon., 1985) to germi
nate, but sprouting may be hastened by spreading them on
the ground, covering with dried grass or leaves, and then
burning. While still hot, the nuts are tossed into cold water.
They will crack open and more than 30% will sprout. Some
trees flower and fruit when only 3 yrs old (Brown, 1954).
The tree yields well at 14 x 27 ft spacing (Ngaloken Gint-
Fig. 4. Removal of the fleshy rind reveals a second coat, ova], pointed,
brittle, which splits and releases the bony seed. Photo by Julia F. Morton.
1992.
253
Fig. 5. A growing industry in Hawaii is the extraction of oil from
candlenut kernels for use in skin-moisturizing cosmetics and shampoo.
Photo by Julia F. Morton.
ings and Semadi, 1980). Young ones may produce 75-100
lbs of nuts per yr (Neal, 1965). Yield from mature trees
may range from 5,000 to 15,000 nuts annually (Brown,
1954). Candlenuts for oil production are not harvested
from the tree but allowed to fall and lie on the ground
until the husk decays (Aguilar, 1919).
Candlenut Leis
In modern times, the candlenuts are principally used
for making leis (necklaces). At first, the nuts were pierced
and buried in the rich earth of marshes or taro fields where
the kernel rotted or was eaten by ants, and the shell became
jet-black (Brown, 1935) and ready for polishing with the
stipules of the breadfruit tree and oiled (Degener, 1945).
Today, the HAWAIIAN KUKUI NUT COMPANY oper
ates a candlenut factory on the north shore of Oahu. Ac
cording to the company's brochure, the nuts are first
placed in tumblers and rotated with a mild abrasive (pul
verized corn husks) for 30 hrs. Then a hole is drilled
through each nut with an air drill. After rinsing, the nuts
are returned to the tumblers for 6 hrs. Next, a trim wheel
removes rough spots and the nuts are finished in polishing
tumblers, strung on ribbons, and brought to a glossy glow
by a buffing wheel. Fully mature nuts are all-black; imma
ture nuts are medium-brown. The leis have been offered
in mail order catalogs such as Brookstone, Peterborough,
New Hampshire, at $35.00 for a 15-in (15-nut) lei, the
same price as at the factory. Some are currently being pro
In Java, candlenuts have been employed in a popular
gambling game, the players striving to break each other's
nuts by knocking them together (Ochse and Bakhuizen
van den Brink, 1931). Fishermen in the Pacific make a
practice of chewing a mouthful of kernels and then spew
ing them out over rough water, the released oil making it
calm and transparent (Degener, 1945; Handy and Handy,
1972). Similarly, crushed kernels are tossed into boiling
sugarcane juice to prevent boiling over (Burkill, 1935).
The candlenut is a favorite food of the cassowary
(Cribb and Cribb, 1975). The kernels were an important
food for wild hogs which were hunted by the Polynesians
(Handy and Handy, 1972), but the residue from oil extrac
tion, though it is rich in protein (up to 45%) (Burkill, 1935)
cannot be used as cattlefeed (Brown, 1954; Steinmetz,
1965). It is valued for fertilizer because of its 8.5% nitrogen
and 4% phosphoric acid content (Steinmetz, 1965).
Fresh candlenut leaves and flowers are popular com
bined in leis (Neal, 1965). Holes for taro planting were
often enriched by candlenut leaves or rotting wood of old
candlenut trees (Handy and Handy, 1972). The pale, soft
wood weighs about 38 lbs per cu. ft (Benthall, 1946). It is
useful for fuel (Kaaiakamanu and Akina, 1922) and some
times used for tea chests and (Sundaraj and Balasubramanyan, 1969), canoes, roofing timbers, and water-catching
troughs (Handy and Handy, 1972), matchsticks (Burkill,
1935), etc. but it is not durable (Maiden, 1889) and is sub
ject to termite infestation (Walker, 1954). Beetles attack
freshly felled logs (Anon., 1985) and their grubs are re
lished by the natives of New Caledonia (Barrau, 1960).
Australians have found the wood suitable for paper-mak
ing. It yields 62% cellulose (Burkill, 1935).
The bark of the tree is used for tanning. A resin ob
tained from the wounded bark of the tree was used to
catch birds (Brown, 1935). The feet of those released were
cleaned with candlenut oil. The resin was brushed onto
kapa cloth to make it more permanent and waterproof,
imparting a dark, red-brown color (Degener, 1945). It was
also useful for tanning fishing lines and mats (Brown,
1935). A brown dye for clothing is extracted from the tree's
duced and exported from Taiwan.
The polished nuts are also used in costume jewelry,
including rings (Degener, 1945), tie-clasps, ornamental
pins, and earrings (Neal, 1965).
Other Uses of the Candlenut Tree
The candlenut tree, in olden days, was rated as second
in importance to the coconut palm (Barrau, 1960). In
1965, Neal wrote: "recently the kukui was made the official
tree emblem for the State of Hawaii because of the multip
licity of its uses".
254
Fig. 6. Candlenuts are transformed by retting and/or mechanical
polishing, into jet-black (mature) or chocolate-brown (immature) "beads"
for necklaces or other ornamental jewelry. Photo by Julia F. Morton.
Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 105:
1992.
roots in the Sandwich Islands (Dastur, 1951). The root
bark, mixed with charcoal, served to paint canoes black
(Degener, 1945).
The candlenut tree is now being planted in Sumatra to
suppress the pantropical pest grass, lalang (Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv.). Control is achieved 3 yrs after planting
at 14 X 14 ft spacing (Ngaloken Gin tings and Semadi,
1980). In Java, the tree is cultivated for reforestation
(Backer and Bakhuizen van den Brink, Jr., 1963). In
Southeast Asia, it has been utilized for "clothing sand-
dunes" (Burkill, 1935).
Folk Medicine
In the Marquesas, the juice of the green rind of the
fruit was used to treat thrush in infants and to treat various
skin ailments. The leaf sap was used similarly (Brown,
1935). In Malaya, boiled leaves are poulticed on the tem
ples to relieve headache (Burkill, 1935). Leaves heated with
a flatiron are reportedly laid on rheumatic pains
(Quisumbing, 1951). A leaf infusion is employed in In
donesia against scrofula (Steinmetz, 1965). Tests in Florida
showed that candlenut leaves are toxic to chickens but less
so than those of the tung-oil tree, A. fordii Hemsl. (Kingsbury, 1964). In Fiji, the bark is grated and boiled in seawater till reduced by 50%. Then the decoction is used as a
mouthwash or remedy for neuralgia (Richenda Parham,
1943). Astringent, resinous sap from the tree's inner bark
has been used to relieve sorethroat and as a diuretic
(Brown, 1935). It is mixed with coconut milk and drunk
to relieve "sprue" (digestive and intestinal malfunction)
(Steinmitz, 1965). The bark is also employed to relieve
asthma (Kaaiakamanu and Akina, 1922).
Sometimes the ground kernels are used like linseed in
poultices (Steinmetz, 1965). The baked, pulverized kernels
enter into a mixture applied to ulcers and open sores
(Kaaiakamanu and Akina, 1922). A dose of 30 g of
candlenut oil has been prescribed as a purgative, acting
like castor oil (Safford, 1905). The oil has also been applied
to the body to allay rheumatism (Steinmetz, 1965). Lepers
in Brazil benefit from applying the oil externally while tak
ing small doses internally (Freise, 1934).
Barrau, J. 1960. The candlenut tree. South Pacific Bull. Vol. 10, No 2
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DIEFFENBACHIAS TO KNOW AND GROW
R. W. Henley
Central Florida Research and Education Center
IFAS, University of Florida
Apopka, FL 32703
Additional index word, foliage plant.
Abstract Terminal cuttings of 17 dieffenbachia cultivars
rooted under mist in 15-cm containers were grown to maturity
at which time the number of basal shoots per plant was
counted. Five cultivars had no basal shoots, 7 produced from
1 to 4 shoots, and 5 produced more than 4 shoots. A second
evaluation included 26 dieffenbachia cultivars finished in 15or 20-cm pots from commercial nurseries. Leaf lamina length
and ratio of lamina length to width were determined. The
lamina length to width ratio is a good indicator of the leaf
shape. A ratio of less than 2 to 2.9 was classified as wide, a
ratio of 3 or more was regarded as intermediate, and a ratio
of more than 3 was considered narrow. Of the leaves exam
ined from 26 cultivars and species, 5 were wide, 15 were inter
mediate and 6 were narrow. The remainder of the paper is
dedicated to descriptions of 34 cultivars of dieffenbachia, in
cluding plants from the previously mentioned evaluations plus
some additional plants obtained from commercial growers.
A member of the aroid family (Araceae), the genus Dief
fenbachia is composed of about 30 species of broad-leaved,
upright, herbaceous plants indigenous to South and Cen
tral America (Bailey et al, 1976). Most of the species have
been evaluated by plant collectors and commercial nurseFlorida Agricultural Experiment Station Journal Series No. N-00734.
256
rymen for their value as ornamental pot plants. Although
a few species, such as D. amoena and D. maculata (D. picta)
were grown commercially in large numbers as recently as
the late 1970s, they are difficult to find today except in
conservatories and private collections.
Dieffenbachias are among the five most popular in
terior foliage plants produced and sold in the United
States. A Florida Department of Agriculture, Division of
Marketing report on 1991 foliage plant production in
Florida indicates dieffenbachias were 7% of the product
mix of the nurseries surveyed (Sheehan, 1992). Most mod
ern dieffenbachias are either hybrids resulting from plant
breeding or sports from plants which spontaneously de
veloped in cultivation. Popular dieffenbachias of this dec
ade are generally highly variegated, have leaves with short
petioles, and in most cases produce basal shoots freely,
unlike the popular single-stem dieffenbachias of 20 years
ago and earlier.
Dieffenbachias are most frequently used as specimen
plants for decorating homes and other indoor areas. Plants
in 7- to 20-cm pot sizes are commonly used on tables, desks
and counters while plants set at floor level are usually in
20-cm diameter pots and larger. Interiorscapers occasion
ally plant dieffenbachias in mass to obtain desired patterns
of color and texture in large spaces indoors. Small dieffen
bachia plants, usually 10-cm or less, are useful in combina
tion planters, such as dish gardens.
The primary purpose of this article is to describe visual
characteristics of most current commercial dieffenbachia
cultivars. Two popular books on tropical ornamental plant
material, Exotica III (Graf, 1968) and Tropica (Graf,
1978), do not reflect the cultivars of dieffenbachia which
were popular when these books were published.
Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 105: 1992.