About Africa and its antelopes

2
THE ANTELOPES OF AFRICA
by
WILLEM FROST
3
CONTENTS
About Africa and its antelopes
The spiral horned antelopes
The Hippotragini tribe (Sable, Roan and Oryx)
The Alcelaphini tribe (Wildebeests, Hartebeest and Bastard Hartebeests)
The Reduncini tribe (Waterbuck and Reedbuck group of antelopes)
The Aepycerotinae subfamily (Impalas)
The Peleini tribe (Rhebok)
The Gazelles
The Cephalophini tribe (Duikers)
The Neotragini tribe (Antelopes with short straight horns)
Tragulidae
Glossary
References and further reading
4
“Ex Africa simper aliquid novi” – old Roman saying
5
6
About Africa and its antelopes
Africa is a continent of incredible habitat diversity. There are true deserts such as the
Sahara and the Namib; thirstlands with huge trees but no surface water, such as the
Kalahari; awesome mountain ranges such as the Drakensberg and the Ruwenzori;
tropical rainforests in the equatorial zone and evergreen forests on the coasts and
along the slopes of mountain ranges; vast open plains and highland plateaus;
mangrove swamps along the Indian Ocean coast; extinct, dormant and live
volcanoes in East and Central Africa; and hot, dry woodlands such as miombo,
bushveldt and mopane veldt. It is a continent of clear mountain streams, lakes, sand
dunes, swamps, great rivers, formidable mountains, and endless savannahs.
In this vast continent the supply of food in the form of grasses, trees and shrubs is
extremely diverse and provide a liveable environment for an equally rich diversity of
animal life – each species occupying its own, unique place. Each habitat has its own
variety of plant species and wherever there are plants, there are also antelopes to
feed on it. Each of the antelope species has evolved over millennia to enable them to
utilise the available habitat in a unique way. They all have their favourite food, either
different tree or grass species or different stages of growth of the same plant. Some
species share a habitat and will compete for food to some degree, but they all utilise
the available food resources in their own way. Zebra, wildebeest and hartebeest are
often seen grazing together and to the casual observer it may seem that they are
sharing the same food resources. But on closer inspection it will soon become clear
that the zebras eat the long grasses, leaving shortened stems for the wildebeests
and the hartebeests to crop even shorter. The hartebeests are also much more
selective in what grasses they eat. When the new growth sprouts, it attracts other
species such as gazelles and impalas. In this way the species may share a habitat,
but each utilises the available food in a special way.
Yet, visitors to Africa are often blown away when they find as many as ten different
antelope species in the same area. It was however through specialisation – by
developing into different species – and thus minimising competition for food, that
such a great variety of antelopes came to exist today.
It is not surprising that the game species of Africa are not evenly distributed across
the continent. Most species are adapted to a specific environment, and will have
much difficulty surviving in a different habitat. The distribution pattern of the species
is mainly the result of environmental factors such as soil, climate, vegetation,
availability of food and water, and the presence of other animals. Africa is thus also a
continent of specialisation: the many different species of antelope have adapted to
survive in a specific environmental niche, although some are more adaptable to
habitat changes and –degradation than others.
Antelopes can broadly be classified as follows in terms of the plant material that they
live on:
7
(i) Grazers, of which there are two types: bulk grazers (e.g. zebras and
waterbuck) and selective grazers (e.g. hartebeest, roan and sable)
(ii) Browsers (e.g. kudu)
(iii) Mixed feeders, i.e. animals that both graze and browse (e.g. impala, nyala
and eland).
In another, more specific classification, the following names have been given to
animals (including antelopes) that have certain dietary preferences:
“Detrivore” – living on decomposing material
“Folivore” – living on leaves
“Frugivore” – living on fruits
“Granivore” – living on seeds
“Herbivore” – living on plants
“Mucivore” – living on plant juices
“Mycivore” – living on fungi
“Nectarivore” – living on nectar
“Omnivore” – living on plants and flesh
Most antelopes usually fall into more than one of these categories. The forest
duikers, for example, are usually folivores and frugivores and granivores and
herbivores and mycivores. All antelopes have a dentary pad or plate in the upper jaw
to compensate for the lack of upper teeth in the front of the mouth; two flattened
incisiform canines and only six incisors in the lower jaw. The have no upper incisors
or canines. There are six molars in each jaw and either four or six premolars.
Territorialism is one of the most fascinating behaviours that have been discovered
amongst some antelope species. The essence of territorial behaviour is that a bull or
a ram will stake a claim to a fixed area of real estate which he will then defend
against intrusion by males of his own species. Ewes or cows of the species are
actively enticed to enter the territory and to stay, but males are chased away.
Territorial rams and bulls are the most dominant animals and are responsible for
mating with the females in the population. Bachelors are not allowed access to the
females and thereby it is ensured that all offspring is sired by the strongest males. In
some species the male and female would stay together year round, in others the
females come and go as they please. If a female should leave, the male will usually
follow her to the boundary of his territory. Beyond that he would ignore her. The
territorial male is wedded to his land, not his females. In some species both male
and female are territorial and both will defend the territory. Not all antelopes,
however, are territorial. In addition to the territory, antelope usually also have a home
range which is much bigger than the territory. The home range is the total area that
an animal utilises for his daily activities and is not defended at all. The territory is a
8
smaller section of the home range; the purpose of which is to ensure that the best
genes are carried forward to the next generations.
Antelopes, deer and pronghorn
Antelopes are mammals belonging to the Order Cetartiodactyla and the family
Bovidae. Bovids are characterised by unbranched horns which they do not shed like
deer. Horns are present in the males of all bovid species and in the females of some
species (e.g. gemsbok, eland, hartebeest, wildebeest, springbok, tsessebe, etc.).
When horns are present in both sexes, those of males are always thicker at the
base. The horns are permanently attached to the skull, and are composed of a bone
core covered with a keratin sheath (which is never shed). An air space separates
these two layers, with the result that bovids are often called "hollow-horned
ungulates".
Bovids are the most diverse groups of living ungulates and are found predominantly
in Africa. The Americas have very few bovids, but there are three bovid sub-families
in Eurasia. Bovidae originated in Africa some 19 million years ago and the continent
is today still their stronghold with eleven tribes and 72 species. All African antelope
are mammals belonging to the order Cetartiodactyla, the Bovidae family and the
subfamilies Bovinae and Antilopinae. Taxonomically their place in the animal world
can be illustrated as follows:
1. Kingdom: Animalia
2. Phylum: Vertebrates
3. Class: Mammalia
4. Order: Cetartiodactyla
5. Family: Bovidae ( buffalo and antelope)
5.1 Subfamily: Bovinae
5.1.1. Tribes: (i) Bovini (buffaloes)
(ii) Tragelaphini (spiral horned antelopes)
5.2 Subfamily: Antilopinae
5.2.1 Tribes: (i) Alcelaphini (the hartebeest group)
(ii) Hippotragini (Sable, roan and gemsbok – the
horse-like antelopes)
(iii)
Reduncini – (water related antelopes)
(iv)
Cephalophini (duikers)
(v)
Antilopini (Small antelopes)
(vi)
Peleini (Vaal rhebok)
9
(vii)
Neotragini (Antelopes with short straight horns)
(viii)
Aepycerotini (impalas)
(ix)
Oreotragini ( klipspringer)
Bovids, including all antelopes, are ruminants, belonging to the sub-order ruminantia.
A ruminant can be defined as an even-toed ungulate with a four-chambered stomach
that regurgitates the plant material that it feeds on in order to rechew it as part of the
digestive process. Through a process of fermentation the indigestible plant cellulose
is transformed into digestible carbohydrates by bacteria living in the animal‟s
digestive system. Fermentation occurs mainly in the rumen; the largest of the four
stomach chambers, and happens before the plant material reaches the acidsecreting stomach. This enables the ruminant to better transform cellulose into
carbohydrates than is the case with non-ruminants.
Ruminants have only lower incisors and a thick calloused pad in the place of upper
incisors. Plant material is grasped and plucked between the lower incisors and the
pad and then chewed with the cheek teeth and swallowed. When chewing the cud,
mouthfuls of regurgitated food are ground between the molars by repeatedly moving
the lower jaw sideways.
Deer are different to antelope and did not occur historically in Africa, although some
deer have been imported into South Africa and are doing reasonably well there. Deer
belong to the family Cervidae, whilst antelope belong to the family Bovidae. Africa‟s
only native deer is the Barbary red deer (Cervus elaphus barbarous) of North Africa.
Deer‟s home range is Europe, Asia and North America. In most deer species only
the males have antlers which they shed seasonally. The exceptions are the Siberian
musk deer, Moschus moschiferous, and the Chinese water deer, Hydropotes
inermis, (they do have not antlers at all) and the Caribou or Reindeer, Rangifer
tarandus, where both sexes have antlers. The antlers consist entirely of bone and
usually have elaborate branching patterns. After shedding, the antlers soon begin to
grow again. During regrowth, the expanding bone is covered with a thin layer of skin
known as velvet, which helps protect the growing tissue. Since the entire antler is
alive, growth is not limited to the base (as is the case in horns) and this result in
specie-specific antler branching patterns.
In North America the pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) is usually referred as
„antelope‟. This is unfortunate as the pronghorn is not an antelope; it is the single
species belonging to the family Antilocapridae, a different family from Cervidae and
Bovidae. The horns of the pronghorn are also different: each horn is comprised of a
slender, laterally-flattened blade of bone which grows from the frontal bones of the
skull, forming a permanent core. The bony core is covered in a keratinous sheath
which is shed and regrown annually. Unlike the horns of the family Bovidae, the
10
horn sheaths of the pronghorn are branched, each sheath possessing a forward
pointing tine (hence the name pronghorn).
Great migrations and vast herds
Africa used to be home to unbelievably large herds of ungulates, many of whom
were migrating freely with the seasons in search of better grazing. It was a wild
continent with a relatively low human population density. Al this has however
changed considerably over the last 150 years. The vast masses of migrating - and
resident - herds of ungulates have largely disappeared. In fact, much of Africa‟s
wildlife has disappeared. The last great migrations in Africa are the wildebeest
migration across the Serengeti, the wildebeest migration on the Liuwa Plains, the
zebra migration between the Linyanti Swamps and the Mababe Depression, the
occasional eland and wildebeest migrations in the Kalahari Thirstland, and the
recently rediscovered migration of tiang and white-eared kob in the swamps of
southern Sudan.
The great springbok migrations, consisting of millions of animals, to the coast of the
Northern Cape are also gone forever. These herds were so large that 19 th century
hunters, explorers and other travellers sometimes had to camp for days in a place
waiting for the massive herds to pass. Although there are still many springbok left,
their numbers are but a minute fraction of what it used to be.
The Scottish hunter, R. Gordon Cumming, hunted extensively in Southern Africa in
the mid 1800‟s and described some of his encounters with springboks as follows in
his book “ A Hunters Life in South Africa “ published in 1850 :
“I soon perceived herds of springbok in every direction, which , on my following at a
hard gallop, continued to join one another until the whole plain seemed alive with
them .Upon our crossing a sort of ridge on the plain I beheld the whole country as far
as my eye could reach actually white with springboks , with here and there a herd of
black gnoos or wildebeest, prancing and capering in every direction …..”
Later on he describes another encounter: “…..This was the most extraordinary and
striking scene …..that I ever beheld. For about two hours before the day dawned I
had been lying awake in my wagon , listening to the grunting of the bucks within two
hundred yards of me , imagining that some large herd of springboks was feeding
beside my camp; but on my rising when it was clear , and looking about me , I
beheld the ground northward of my camp actually covered with a dense living mass
of springboks , marching slowly and steadily along , extending from an opening in a
long range of hills on the west , through which they continued pouring , like the flood
of some great river , to a ridge about a mile to the north-east , over which they
disappeared. The breadth of the ground they covered might have been about half a
mile. I stood upon the fore chest of my wagon for nearly two hours, lost in wonder at
the novel and wonderful scene, and had some difficulty convincing myself that it was
reality which I beheld. During this time their vast legions continued streaming through
11
the neck in the hills in one unbroken compact phalanx. At length I saddled up and
rode into the middle of them with my rifle ….”
In his book “ The Recollections of an Elephant Hunter 1864 – 1875 “ William
Finnaughty wrote as follows about his 1864 trek across the vast open plains of the
Free State on his way to the hunting fields of Bechuanaland : “The game I saw there
astonished me so much that I thought it was not requisite to go much further afield. I
could never have believed that such a quantity of wild animals would congregate
together. As far the eye could see it was one moving mass , tens of thousands of
beautiful wild creatures of many kinds , consisting for the most part of black
wildebeest , blesbok , springbok , a sprinkling of ostrich , quagga , and blue
wildebeest .”
Such sights will never be seen again in South Africa. But Africa is not all bad news.
The recent discovery of the great migrations in the south of Sudan is really fantastic
news (see www.wcs.org/international/africa/sudanprogram for details). Researchers
from the Wildlife Conservation Society ( “WCS “) recently discovered, by way of
aerial survey, about 1,3 million migrating white-eared kob, tiang antelope and
Mongalla gazelle in Southern Sudan – a country torn apart by decades of
devastating civil war which left more than two million people dead. Based on
experiences elsewhere in Africa it was feared that the Southern Sudan‟s wildlife had
largely disappeared. This region was last surveyed in 1982, just before the civil war
broke out.
Currently there is peace in Sudan and there is hope that the game lands of Southern
Sudan will be opened in time to come for eco-tourism and hunting. The WCS
estimates that there are more than 800 000 white-eared kob, 250 000 Mongalla
gazelle, 160 000 tiang antelope, 13 000 reedbuck, 8 900 buffalo, 8 000 elephant and
2 800 ostrich in the region.
It can only be hoped that the opening of Southern Sudan and the inevitable
development of infrastructure, will not result in mass poaching and loss of habitat.
The first Dutch settlers set foot in the Cape in South Africa in 1652. It took them a
long time to start venturing into the interior, but when they did they found herds of
game that seemed endless. Vast numbers of elephant, rhino, zebra, hippopotamus,
giraffe, antelope and predator were almost everywhere. Hunting became a way of
life in South Africa and many farmers made a living essentially from hunting. The
world demand for ivory seemed insatiable; the hides of buffalo, eland and giraffe had
many uses and fetched good prices; the meat was turned into biltong; and Europe
demanded more and more ostrich feathers. It was not long before the blue buck, the
quagga and the lion became extinct in the then Cape colony. The first half of the 19 th
century saw a mass migration of Boers to the north, beyond the Orange River, in
search of freedom from British rule. When gold and diamonds were discovered,
adventurers from all corners of the earth flocked to the new mining fields. Many of
those not successful at mining became full time hunters. In those days conservation
and preservation simply did not feature in the value system of modern man. Rather,
the pioneers believed the land had to be cleared and “tamed” so that it could be
settled and developed. It was only the farsightedness of Paul Kruger, president of
12
the Transvaal Republic that led to the establishment of the first game reserves, the
Pongola and the Sabie, at the end of the 19th century. By then the game numbers in
South Africa had been reduced dramatically and the elephant hunters had to venture
much further into the interior.
It took much longer for Central Africa to open up to the white hunters. By the middle
of the 19th century the first great white explorers had already penetrated into most of
“deepest, darkest“ Africa. They brought back fascinating reports of fauna and flora
encountered on their travels, but it took a while for the “white hunters” to have any
impact of the vast numbers of game animals. The Portuguese, who had established
themselves in Angola and Mozambique for centuries, were not hunters and they did
not bother to venture further into the interior. The great game herds of Central Africa
were only disturbed by tribal hunting with primitive weapons such as bows and
arrows, assegais, trapping and fire. This had little impact on the mass of wildlife.
By the end of the 19th century, the isolation of Central Africa came to an end. The
continent had been colonized by the European powers that established colonial
administrations and started developing infrastructure. The hunters and settlers with
their modern firearms were not far behind. They were either not able to foresee the
inevitable vast destruction of the game masses, or they did not care. Elephant
hunting became almost an obsession and the major ports around Africa‟s coast kept
on providing Europe and the Far East with shiploads and shiploads of ivory. There
were few regulations in any of the colonies to control hunting, and even if there were,
the colonies lacked the resources to enforce effective control. The result was a
massive slaughter of elephant, rhino, hippo, buffalo, giraffe and other game. It was
only in the 20th century that game reserves were established and that the colonial
powers managed to establish some degree of control over the hunting industry.
When the colonies gained independence in the middle of the twentieth century,
much of the conservation and game management efforts established under colonial
rule, collapsed and indiscriminate killing of wildlife with automatic rifles, particularly
the AK-47, took place on a large scale. Countries like Somalia, Sudan, Democratic
Republic of Congo (formerly Zaire and before that the Belgian Congo), Liberia and
Sierra Leone are still in chaos and many species came to the brink of extinction.
In North Africa the game animals suffered an even worse fate. The French troops
who were sent to Africa in nineteenth century, encountered vast numbers of wild
animals. Lions were particularly numerous and took a regular toll of the flocks and
herds of Arab and Berber. But there were also great numbers of gazelle, addax, and
scimitar horned oryx, and the like. The troops, and the settlers who followed on their
heels, soon became devoted hunters. Overhunting in a fragile environment had a
devastating effect on the game numbers. The last lions in Algeria and Tunisia were
killed round about 1890, and in Morocco the last one was reportedly shot in 1922.
Today North Africa‟s game stocks have been reduced to small fragments of their
former ranges and numbers. Many species are either extinct or are on the brink of
extinction.
The main threats to Africa‟s wildlife today are habitat loss (mostly as a result of
human settlement, over-grazing by domestic livestock and urban development, and
deforestation); weakened gene pools as a result of animals being confined to
relatively small conservation areas; and poaching of which there are three types.
13
Most of Africa is extremely poor and a single family can include several wives, many
children, grandparents, etc. There are no job opportunities for these rural people and
poaching plays an important role in keeping body and soul together. This
subsistence poaching is however not the worst kind.
The second type of poaching is the organized poaching for rhino horn and ivory. This
industry is largely controlled by unscrupulous operators from the Far East and
corrupt officials in the African governments, especially those in the wildlife
departments and the military. But it seems that the CITES convention, and antipoaching efforts in countries like Botswana, Namibia and Tanzania, is having an
effect and poaching of rhino and elephant has been reduced.
The third type of poaching is the organized commercial poaching for the bush meat
trade. This form of poaching is indiscriminate and everything is killed – females,
males, young and old. And no species are spared. Poachers kill everything they can
find where after they dry or smoke the meat for sale to a huge market all over Africa.
The bush meat trade is having such a devastating effect on Africa‟s wildlife that it
warrants more in depth discussion.
The bushmeat horror
Man and wildlife used to co-exist in sub-Sahara Africa for thousands of years and
wildlife have always been regarded as a free and readily available source of protein.
Hunting has always been for subsistence purposes and African hunters took just
enough for their own subsistence. The offtake by subsistence hunters did not have
much of an impact on the masses of wildlife which were abundant everywhere. With
the colonization of Africa in the 19th century by the European powers, everything
started to change. The white man brought with him modern medicine, new
technology and new legal and administrative systems. Within a hundred years most
of Africa was transformed from rural tribal societies living in a very traditional way to
modern countries with cities and towns, roads and railways, airports, hospitals,
schools, etc., etc. One of the major consequences of the African transformation was
a human population explosion that put the natural environment under severe
pressure. People started to leave the traditional villages to settle in towns and cities
in an attempt to find a better life. But to this day traditional hunting is regarded as an
absolute right throughout East, Central and West Africa.
In the modern Africa man not only hunts for subsistence purposes: hunting has
become a full time commercial occupation for many in the absence of other job or
career opportunities. In many villages most of the able men hunt regularly – some
more than others. Modern Africa is putting immense pressure on humans to earn
cash to pay for food, school fees, rent, clothes, medicines, transport, etc. The
hunting pressure increased not only as a result of the rapid growth in human
populations, but also as a result of access to modern firearms and ammunition, as
well as access to areas that have hitherto been difficult to exploit. The development
of new roads built by logging and mining companies into once inaccessible forests
has contributed in no small way to the decline of wildlife – particularly the forest
duikers and primates. Not only are the logging companies overexploiting pristine
forest, they provide hunters/poachers easy access to pristine wilderness areas. It is
now also easier to transport the meat back to the towns and cities.
Today, uncontrolled commercial hunting is taking place at an unprecedented scale,
particularly in West and Central Africa and parts of East Africa. The offtake is not
nearly sustainable and it would be very naïve to expect the wildlife populations to
14
withstand this serious onslaught and over utilization. All wild animals are harvested
for the bushmeat trade: bovines, primates, birds, rodents, reptiles – everything is
killed and consumed. Throughout much of Africa, but particularly West and Central
Africa and up into the Horn of Africa, the bushmeat trade is having a devastating
effect on wildlife. Although many scientific papers have been published over the
years, nothing is changing: Africa is devouring its wildlife heritage and in the not too
distant future there may be nothing left.
In some areas it is already difficult to find any primates or duikers; in others they
have been extirpated. In some areas bushmeat has become a luxury and
consumption is declining due to dwindling supplies. Even when bushmeat becomes
more expensive than meat from domestic animals, it is still preferred and the
demand remains strong. Most of the Africans, especially in West and Central Africa,
have always preferred bushmeat to domestic stock such as cattle and sheep. They
prefer the taste and believe the quality is better. Bushmeat is regarded as one the
most important products coming out of the forests.
Bushmeat hunters prefer to hunt at night with a flashlight and a shotgun. This
enables them to also shoot nocturnal species such as civets, genets, pottos and
porcupines. During the day they could shoot birds, monkeys and other mammals, but
it seems that night time hunting is, on average, more profitable. It is believed that
each hunter gets, roughly, about ten animals per week. Those who do not own guns,
make use of snares. The hunters know their hunting areas extremely well and know
exactly where to set snares for different species. Each hunter sets a number of
snares – up to one hundred or more – and checks these on a regular basis but not
necessarily daily. Traditionally, hunting also used to be undertaken with nets, but this
practice has largely disappeared except amongst the Pygmies of the Central African
rainforests. Normally all the men in the village would participate in the hunt. They
would use four or five nets into which they would drive the animals before killing
them. The proceeds of the hunt would then be shared amongst the villagers.
Primates are also hunted by surrounding the tree in which they sleep and then killing
them as they descend to the ground. Dogs are also sometimes used. Large primates
such as gorillas and chimpanzees are not only killed for the bushmeat trade;
capturing baby chimps and gorillas is „big business‟. These large primates are
usually shot or speared and the babies taken. To capture one baby may however
require a number of adults be killed.
Some of the bushmeat is obviously consumed by the hunter and his family, but a lot
is being sold. The meat is either smoked or consumed fresh. The hunters usually sell
their meat, either smoked or fresh, to „middle men‟ who travel along the main routes
in the area in vehicles purchasing meat in the villages. Live animals may also
sometimes be purchased. The middle men would then sell their meat to the butchers
at the markets in the towns and cities. Many people make a living either as hunters,
middle men or bushmeat butchers. Truckload after truckload of bush meat is
delivered to the markets on an ongoing basis. Fresh meat fetches premium prices.
Smoked meat is therefore the cheapest, fresh meat is more expensive and live
animals are the most expensive.
Each of the markets normally has a number of butchers selling smoked or fresh
meat. Some species such as crocodiles, tortoises and large fruit bats may be kept
alive and slaughtered in public at the market in order to serve fresh meat. The feet of
15
the bats are often tied together in bunches and they are then hung from a roof or
pole to prevent them flying away. The butcher continuously prods them with a sharp
wire or bicycle wheel spoke to make them scream out loudly and in this way
customers are attracted to the butcher‟s table.
The current uncontrolled over exploitation wildlife in the form of bushmeat cannot
continue at the current level. It is only a matter of time before Central and West
Africa, at least, will be without any wildlife. To make matters worse, the forests are
also disappearing fast as timber is shipped to first world countries. Africa is heading
towards a calamity, a disaster of grotesque proportions.
Most countries have the necessary legislation in place to control the bushmeat trade.
The real problem, however, is law enforcement. Most governments do not have the
capability or the will to enforce the legislation. And the hunters, middle men and
butchers know that. De facto it is a „free for all‟. It is thus not surprising that many
National Parks throughout Africa are subjected to ongoing poaching. Huge quantities
of meat are flowing out the National Parks and other conservation areas into the
urban cooking pots.
Whether Africa will be able to manage the consumption of game meat down to
sustainable levels remains to be seen. Human populations are still growing and the
need for sensible land use practices and rational harvesting of wildlife is critically
important for the survival of rural people as well as wildlife. Unfortunately, the
sustainable utilization of wildlife and natural resources is not always high enough on
the political agendas.
Eco-tourism and wildlife
To get an idea nowadays of the Africa that explorers such as Livingstone, Stanley,
Burton, and Speke encountered in the mid 19th century, one has to visit one of the
great game parks such as the Serengeti, the Ngorogoro, the Selous and the Ruaha
in Tanzania; the Etosha in Namibia; the Chobe and the Okavango in Botswana; the
Kruger and the Kalahari in South Africa; and the Luangwa Valley in Zambia. Hunters
are also privileged to hunt some pristine African wildernesses in Southern and
Eastern Africa. Even in these wildlife havens some species have disappeared, such
as the black and the white rhino in Botswana and Zambia. The game parks are also
commercialised – some more than others – and any visit is subject to a strict set of
rules. Yet it does provide a glimpse of what Africa once was. And it is still a
wonderfully enriching experience to visit one of these great game parks. The hunting
concessions are less “rule orientated” and offer a unique Africa experience.
Parks like the Kruger, the Masai Mara and the Amboseli are visited by very large
numbers of tourists throughout the year and have to be intensely managed. Some
wildlife addicts therefore avoid these parks and rather visit parks where the pressure
from tourism is less. Reality is however that for Africa‟s conservation areas to be
successful in the 21st century and to survive the onslaughts of the ever increasing
human populations, they will have to be properly managed and controlled. Most of
the parks and reserves in Africa have been abused or threatened to some degree.
Conservation areas often has to deal with large human settlements such as refugees
seeking safety from civil war or unrest, and agriculturists and pastoralists settling
16
with the boundaries; invasion by domestic stock; poaching and illegal hunting; and
illegal mining, logging and firewood extraction. In many so-called conservation areas
there are very little control or management and it is not unusual to find species
extirpated from these areas. Although wildlife still thrive in some countries (such as
South Africa, Namibia, Tanzania, Kenya) most African countries have very little left
of their once abundant and rich wildlife heritage (such as Somalia, Ethiopia, Malawi,
Nigeria, Ivory Coast, etc., etc.).
Only a few of Africa‟s parks are completely fenced and these are mostly south of the
Zambezi River. Fencing severs ancient migration routes and necessitates intensive
management to maintain ecological balances. Yet, fencing has become absolutely
essential in order to protect man and beast from one another as large human
populations are often found right up to the boundary of the park.
The impact that large numbers of tourists have on many national parks and reserves
is also problematic. The hordes of safari vehicles harassing the wildlife in Kenya‟s
Masai Mara and Amboseli are seriously distasteful. If a lion or a leopard should
venture near one of the roads in the Kruger it will in no time be surrounded by a large
number of vehicles with excited tourists. This is no longer a wilderness experience.
Some parks have thus adopted a policy of „low volume high income tourism‟. The
visitor numbers are restricted but they have to pay top dollars for the privilege. This
approach unfortunately puts the reserve beyond the means of the local population
which is not ideal.
If the above paragraphs have a negative tone, the good news is that there are also
breathtakingly beautiful wildernesses in Africa with astonishing wildlife. Places where
modern man is able to really re-connect with the natural world. A visit to the
wildernesses of the Kalahari, the Okavango, the Namib, the Kaokoland, the
Luangwa Valley, the Selous, the Ruaha and the other reserves of southern
Tanzania, and Uganda‟s Queen Elizabeth and Murchison Falls National parks will
leave an everlasting impression. It is an enriching experience beyond description.
The landscapes and the fauna and flora simply blow the mind.
It should be realised however that Africa is still going through enormous political,
social and economic changes and that this puts the last true African Edens inevitably
at risk.
Unfortunately, most eco-tourists do not come to Africa to see antelopes; their interest
is typically the „Big Five‟: lion, leopard, buffalo, elephant and rhino. Yet, there are
antelope species and subspecies that are much more rare and endangered than any
of the members of the „Big Five‟. Most visitors do not realise that to see a Hunter‟s
hartebeest or a Jentink‟s duiker in the wild, for example, is much more special than
encountering an elephant (not that encounters with the „Big Five‟ are NOT also
special). The reason is that the plight of Africa‟s antelopes seldom makes headlines.
Elephant, rhinos and lions are big news but the lesser known antelope species find it
difficult to get the attention of the First World. Yet Africa and the world become
infinitely poorer with each species that becomes extinct. The mere thought of an
17
Africa without most of its antelope species is simply too ghastly to contemplate. The
realisation that extinction is irreversible and permanent is also extremely frightening.
There is fortunately hope for Africa and its wildlife. Not all the changes in Africa are
bad; there are also a lot of good things happening. Government is improving in many
countries, economic policies are becoming more responsible, the rest of the world is
willing to become constructively engaged on the former „Dark Continent‟, and in
some instances economic growth is now exceeding the population growth.
Let‟s hope that the conservation strategies and plans for Africa‟s remaining wildlife
that conservationists are coming up with, will be effectively implemented and that the
slide towards a wasteland will be halted. It is unlikely that Africa will be able to
achieve this on its own; the support and intervention of the First World is essential.
Success will depend on Africa‟s ability to move away from extractive consumptive
use of natural resources to sustainable nature-based economies.
Cape eland in the Kruger National Park, South Africa. Photo: Willem Frost
18
The Antelopes of Africa
The Spiral horned antelopes (Subfamily: Bovinae, Tribe: Tragelaphini)
The spiral horned antelopes are medium sized to large antelopes. Males are
noticeably larger than females. The spiral horns are absent in the females of some
species. They are characterised by face and body spots and stripes but this differ
from species to species. They do not have any glands on the face or the feet.
Greater Kudu (Tragelaphus strrepsiceros) occur widespread over much of subSahara Africa where ever there is suitable habitat. Four races are recognised:
(i) The Southern Greater Kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros strepsiceros) of
Southern Africa
(ii) The East African Greater Kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros bea) of Kenya,
Tanzania, north-eastern Uganda and south-eastern Sudan.
(iii) The Western Greater Kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros cottoni) of southeastern Chad, north-eastern Central African Republic and far western
Sudan.
(iv) The Abyssinian Greater Kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros chora) of Ethiopia
and Sudan
They are found in savannah woodland, usually not too far from water. Expect to find
them in thickets or bush large and dense enough to provide cover. In the arid areas
they keep to woodland on the fringes of watercourses. They normally avoid open
grassland.
It is believed that the kudu is one of the few animals that benefited from human
settlement and overgrazing by domestic stock in that additional habitat was created
for them as a consequence. It is likely that kudu has expanded their range over the
last 150 years, especially in South Africa.
Kudu are predominantly browsers and utilise an extremely wide range of plant
species. Their distribution range is quite wide and they therefore have to utilise a
wide range of plant species. Also, within a given habitat they utilise almost all plant
species; the main diet consisting of leaves from trees and shrubs. Kudu may be
active at any time during the day or night.
Browsing by kudu led to a fascinating discovery by researchers in the late 20th
century. It was found on game ranches in the then Northern Transvaal (now
Limpopo), South Africa, that many kudu are dying even though it would appear that
they clearly had enough food. Many of them died with full stomachs. A research
team under Professor Wouter van der Hoven from the University of Pretoria then
found that when a tree or shrub is being browsed upon, it increases the tannin levels
in its leaves significantly, to such an extent that the animal is unable to digest the
“food”. This was clearly a case of too many kudu having to live of the available
browsing. The research team also found that when a tree is beaten with a stick, or
browsed upon, the tannin levels in the surrounding trees also increases. The trees
have thus not only developed a remarkable defence mechanism, but they also seem
to be able to communicate “danger” to their neighbours.
A bull‟s horns grow throughout his life and he is generally regarded as a good
hunting trophy when the third turn in the horns has developed. He is then about eight
19
years old and past his breeding prime. Kudu horns can vary markedly from one
animal to another. Some have a deep curl, others have a swallow curl. Sometimes
the horns are quite widespread; others have narrow horns. A deep curl usually
results in a greater overall length.
Kudu are gregarious and occur in small herds of up to fifteen animals (although I
have seen thirty kudu together), but the herd size can vary with the seasons. Mature
bulls stay with the females for much of the year, but in summer they leave the herd
to form “bachelor herds“ of ten or more animals. Kudus are not territorial but have
home ranges.
They often “freeze” in dense bush and have a remarkable ability to melt away into
the shadows and foliage. They have not developed the reputation as the “grey
ghosts of the African bush” for nothing – it is a reputation well earned. Like the
majority of antelope inhabiting wooded terrain, the kudu is not a particularly proficient
runner, for superior speed is not the appropriate defense mechanism in this habitat.
When confronted by danger the kudu‟s immediate reaction is rather to stay
absolutely still. As long as the animal remains motionless it is fairly safe, its outline
practically indistinguishable from the ever shifting light and shade of the bush and
undergrowth; but once it moves, the kudu‟s presence may be betrayed by the
vertical stripes on the body or the horns catching sunlight.
Despite their large size, kudus are accomplished jumpers and can clear obstacles of
2.5 meters (8,25 feet) with ease.
The noble, elegant and graceful kudu is regarded by many as the aristocrat of the
African bush. The bull is indeed an imposing antelope with a proud bearing but is
also timid and shy with very well developed eyesight and senses of hearing and
smelling.
Southern Greater kudu bull. Photo: Willem Frost
20
Kudu cows do not carry horns. Photo: Willem Frost
Magnificent trophy kudu bull in Botswana’s Chobe National Park. Photo: Willem Frost
21
The Lesser kudu (Tragelaphus imberbis) is to be found in the dry scrub and thorn
bush country of East Africa. The total remaining population is estimated to exceed
100 000 animals but only a third occur in protected areas. The decline in numbers
will most probably continue as a result of excessive hunting and competition with
domestic livestock of pastoralists.
They are very shy animals and largely crepuscular, feeding mostly at dawn and
dusk. During the heat of the day they usually hide in dense cover. They are
essentially browsers, but will also graze on grasses if it is green and fresh. They are
able to inhabit drier country than the Greater kudu and can go for long periods
without water during the dry season. When water is available, however, they will
drink regularly.
Lesser kudus are residential, but they are not territorial. Although females may form
small herds, lesser kudus are mostly seen in pairs with their offspring, if any. They
have excellent scent and hearing senses. Their natural enemies are wild dogs,
leopards and lions.
The lesser kudu typically inhabits deciduous bush and thickets with Acacia and
Commiphora. They are browsers, like the greater kudu. Photo: iStock
22
The Giant Eland (Tragelaphus derbianus) is a very large bovine, but highly
nomadic, moving over vast ranges as the seasons change. They have been
exterminated in much of their former distribution range but scattered populations
scan still be found in the narrow belt of Isoberlinia woodland between the dry
savannah of the pre-Sahara and the wetter forests and grasslands to the south.
Their range used to stretch from Senegal in the west to Sudan in the east.
Two sub-species are recognised: the Western Giant eland (Tragelaphus derbianus
derbianus) and the Central African Giant Eland (Tragelaphus derbianus gigas). The
western race is found west of the Niger River and is rufous coloured with fifteen
vertical stripes, whilst the eastern race is slightly larger, has a sand-grey colour and
twelve vertical body stripes.
They are mixed feeders confined to the Isoberlinia doka woodlands where they feed
on dominant leguminous trees such as Isoberlinia and Julbernardia as well as herbs
and new grass growth. The Central African giant eland, however, likes to browse
(more so than the Western giant eland) and is particularly fond of the wild gardenias.
Just like the common eland, they have the habit of breaking branches with their
horns to get at fresh leaves. They are gregarious and form herds of up to sixty
animals, but they are highly nomadic as they need large quantities of food to sustain
the huge bodies. They feed mostly at night but are not nocturnal animals and are
also active during the day. Giant elands are much more dependent on water than
common elands and they need to drink regularly. They are extremely shy and their
senses of smelling and hearing are very well developed. When resting, a herd will
put out sentries, usually cows, to warn them of approaching danger.
Western giant eland. Photo: Ariadne van Zandbergen
23
There are three races of Common eland (Tragelaphus oryx):
(i) The Cape eland (Tragelaphus oryx oryx). They are found in Namibia,
Botswana, South Africa and the southern parts of Mozambique.
(ii) Patterson’s eland (Tragelaphus oryx pattersonianus) which occurs in East
Africa (Tanzania, Burundi, Rwanda, and some parts of Uganda, Kenya,
Sudan and Ethiopia).
(iii) Livingstone’s eland (Tragelaphus oryx livinstonii). They occur immediately
north of the Cape eland and are found in the far north of Namibia and
Botswana, Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Malawi and
southeastern Zaire. They have also been introduced on some game farms
in South Africa and n some instances this unfortunately led to crossbreeding with the Cape eland.
The Cape eland is characterized by an absence of stripes in the adults. The
Livingstone‟s eland is more richly colored and has six to ten vertical white stripes
down the sides and a dark brown band on the back of the forelegs just above the
knees. The Patterson‟s eland (also known as the East African eland) is more rufous
with clear white stripes, often with an incomplete white chevron across the face just
below the eyes. All mature eland bulls usually also have a black or chocolate-brown
mat of hairs on the forehead.
The Livingstone eland is name after the 19th century Scottish missionary and
explorer Dr David Livingstone. Patterson‟s eland is named after Col JH Patterson of
the “Man-eaters of Tsavo” fame.
The eland is the world‟s largest antelope. They are heavily built with a muscular neck
and a double dewlap. Yet they have a remarkable ability to leap – similar to the
impala and the kudu. They are phenomenal runners, trotting across the plains and
savannahs in long strides. Eland are much, much lighter on their feet than the buffalo
which is roughly of the same size and weight.
The eland is difficult to hunt or to study because of their notorious shyness and
restlessness. They are gregarious and form herds and when on the move they
stretch out in single file, usually lead by a mature bull. At the first sign of danger, they
break into their characteristic determined trot. Pregnant females and young often
cannot keep up and will follow way behind. The leading bull may sometimes turn
back to urge the stragglers on, but if they cannot keep up with the herd they will be
left behind.
The eland is nevertheless a docile and intelligent animal. Attempts to domesticate
them have met with limited success due to their wanderlust. Cases of hybridization
with kudu and domestic cattle have been reported, but this phenomenon is very rare.
Elands utilize a wide range of habitat ranging from arid scrubland to woodlands and
montane grassland as well as fynbos and open sour-grasslands. They are not water
dependant but will drink regularly if water is available. They are diurnal and most
active in morning and late afternoon. At times they may also be active in the
evenings. The eland is mainly a browser but will also feed on fresh, new growth of
various grass species. They also take forbs and fruits. The diet changes with the
24
seasons though and is a function of what is available at the time. They use their
horns very effectively to break branches from trees and brushes in order to get at
green leaves. When a branch is broken from a tree, other eland may try to take
some of the leaves but they are usually chased away or threatened or pushed out of
the way. Eland take their food with the lips without using the tongue at all.
They are gregarious antelopes; the size of the herd can vary from less than ten
animals to more than a thousand. In some areas, such as the arid Kalahari, they
move over vast distances whilst in other areas their movements are more restricted.
The movements of the eland herds are largely determined by the availability of food.
They are not territorial and do not defend a territory. They are rather nomadic,
migratory antelopes that always seem to be on the move. Their travels can cover
hundreds of kilometers per annum. On fenced game ranches and smaller game
reserves they roam the entire area across al habitat types. Their home range is thus
typically very large.
Elands are known for their loud clicking sound when walking. Hunters in particular
will be familiar with this. The cause of this clicking has been in dispute for a very long
time. Some thought it comes from the hooves; others believe it is the knees that
cause it. But no one really knew. Scientists from the Zoological Society of London
and the University of Copenhagen have recently established that the clicking sounds
produced by walking eland bulls correlates to body size and are signals to show the
bulls' fighting potential. The sound is thought to be made as a tendon in the animals'
legs slips over one of the leg bones, and can be heard from hundreds of meters
away. The sound signals how large - and thus how fighting fit - the eland bulls are.
The bulls can thus establish mating rights among each other while avoiding actual
fights. This is yet another interesting way in which eland bulls advertise their status,
like the dewlap under their throats which indicates age, and the darkness of their hair
which indicates levels of aggression.
The eland‟s ability to jump is legendary and they can easily clear obstacles of two
meters (6 feet) high despite their enormous size. They are shy animals and will not
hesitate to take off when disturbed. Their typical trot always seems never ending and
they usually go a very long way before stopping.
Eland groom themselves as well others. During the calving season the bulls will
leave the herd and the cows will form nursing groups that will include sub-adults.
Although the bulls will maintain a strong hierarchical structure when they are with the
breeding herd, they are not aggressive and fighting is unusual. It was thus very
surprising when an eland bull attacked and killed a game farmer in South Africa in
2009.
25
Female Cape eland. Note the horns. Photo: Willem Frost
A large Cape eland bull – no body stripes. Photo: Willem Frost
26
East African or Patterson’s eland. Photo: Ariadne van Zandbergen
The Western Bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus eurycerus) occurs in the forest zone
along the Equator and in some areas north of it. There are two distinct populations:
the western population which occurs from Sierra Leone eastward to Togo, and the
eastern population which are found from the Sanaga River in Cameroon eastwards
to Central African Republic and northern DRC.
The bongo and the okapi are the only true browsing mammals of the equatorial rain
forests. The bongo is a large antelope but is crepuscular and nocturnal which makes
it difficult to see in its dense forest habitat. In addition, the reddish brown coat with its
white streaks and spots make them virtually invisible. Both males and females carry
magnificent lyre shaped horns. Their numbers are on the decline due to hunting and
poaching pressure and loss of habitat. Increased human activity such as commercial
logging remains a major threat.
The Mountain Bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus isaaci), also known as the „East
African‟ or „Kenya Bongo‟, is endemic to the mountain rain forests of Kenya. The
Mountain Bongo is heavier and darker in colour than the western race. This may be
the result of the mountain habitat and a different diet. The Mountain Bongo is also
known to grow bigger horns than the Western Bongo.
Due to rampant poaching and habitat loss through illegal logging on the slopes of
Mount Kenya, the Mountain Bongo population was virtually wiped out. The Kenya
Wildlife Service then, incredibly, introduced captured problem lions from other areas
and they found the bongo to be easy prey. Not surprisingly, these lions were later
culled. Subsequently, the Rare Species Conservation Fund initiated a project to
relocate about 60 animals in the Aberdares. These animals came mainly from zoos
around the world.
27
Bongo is found in small herds of five to twenty animals. Old bulls normally leave the
herd to live a solitary life or with one or two other old bulls. The Mountain Bongo is
very fond of bamboo shoots, but bongos generally utilize a wide range of leaves,
shoots, fruit, bulbs, bark and roots in their diet. In areas where they are regularly
disturbed by man, they may become even more nocturnal.
Eastern Bongo must be regarded as critically endangered. There are less than 200
animals left, spread over only four very small sub-populations.
Note the dark colour of the Mountain bongo – bull above and the cow below.
Photos: Ariadne van Zandbergen
28
All Bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus) races prefer riverine woodland and thickets
close to water. Tropical habitat with dense cover and permanent water is ideal for
bushbuck. They often emerge to feed in open areas but never stray far from cover.
Taxonomists have recognised ten different races of bushbuck:
The Harnessed bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus scriptus)
Menelik‟s or Arushi bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus meneleki)
Masai bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus massaicus)
Nile bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus bor)
Barker‟s bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus barkeri)
Abyssinian bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus decula)
Shoan bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus powelli)
Chobe bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus ornatus)
Limpopo bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus roualeyni)
Cape bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus sylvaticus)
The bushbuck is the smallest of the „spiral horned antelopes‟. It is found throughout
most of sub-Sahara Africa in densely wooded habitat. The bushbuck is a selective
concentrate feeder browsing on forbs, shrubs and trees but will also take fruits,
flowers, berries, mushrooms, fungi, shoots and a little grass. They need browse that
is not only palatable and easily digestible, but also high in protein and carbohydrate
and low in fiber. It is not surprising that bushbuck do not handle drought very well
and that they succumb easily to feeding stress. They also need to drink daily and
availability of water is an important habitat requirement.
Barker‟s bushbuck, also known as the giant bushbuck, is noted for its impressive
horns and large body. It is named after Major W.R. Barker, who collected the first
specimen in 1918.
The bushbuck is a solitary, crepuscular antelope. During the day they hide in the
cover of thickets. They may however sometimes be seen early in the morning and
late in the afternoon when they feed in open sunny spots. They are able swimmers
and are found on islands such as those on Lake Victoria. When pursued they will
readily take refuge in the water.
When sensing rivalry, or when being threatened, the ram raises a mane of hairs on
his back and may also bark. Despite its modest size, the bushbuck ram is tough and
aggressive and will defend himself vigorously against any enemy, using both hooves
and the rapier sharp horns. It is not uncommon for a predator to be killed by a
bushbuck. A wounded bushbuck can be very dangerous and hunters will pursue
them with utmost caution. It has been reported that rams will place themselves
between their family and a predator – a common habit amongst some Bovidae. Like
the buffalo, they will ambush a pursuer in thick cover and charge at the last moment
with the head held low and horns pointing straight ahead.
Bushbucks are not territorial and do not have preorbital glands with which to mark
territory. The home ranges overlap but they do not feed in the same spot at the same
29
time. During times of drought they are quite tolerant of other bushbuck and large
groups (up to thirty animals) may then be seen feeding together. Otherwise they are
mostly solitary antelopes, or may be seen in pairs or small family groups consisting
on a ram and two or three ewes with their young. Group structures are however
fragile and individuals regularly move from one family group to another. Sub-adult
rams avoid the dominant ram and stay on the fringes of family group‟s home range.
Cape bushbuck ram. They are mostly browsers and take only a little grass.
Photo: Willem Frost
30
Chobe bushbuck pair. Photo: Willem Frost
A young Limpopo bushbuck ram. Mature ram’s horns are spiraled and can reach in
excess of 16 inches. Photo: Willem Frost
31
Limpopo bushbuck ewe on the Letaba River, Kruger National Park. Photo: Willem Frost
Mature Masai bushbuck ram. They are territorial and may remain in same territory for
years. The females do not have horns and are more brightly coloured.
Photograph: Ariadne van Zandbergen
32
Menelik’s bushbuck in the Ethiopian mountains. Photo: Ariadne van Zandbergen
The harnessed bushbuck is slightly smaller than other bushbuck races and the horns
are also smaller. This ram (above) and ewe (below) were photographed in the Abuko
Nature Reserve in The Gambia. Photos: Ariadne van Zandbergen
33
Bushbuck rams have a reputation for pugnacious behavior and for turning on a
pursuer. Photograph: Ariadne van Zandbergen
34
Female Nile bushbuck. Bushbuck are shy, elusive and crepuscular animals.
Photograph: Ariadne van Zandbergen
All bushbuck races prefer riverine woodland
and thickets close to water. They often emerge
to feed in open areas but never stray far from
cover. Photo: Ariadne van Zandbergen
35
Bushbuck in Uganda’s Queen Elizabeth National Park. Photo: Ariadne van Zandbergen
Nyala (Tragelaphus angasii) occur from Zululand in the south (where they are common)
through Mozambique and into Malawi. The most northerly population is in Malawi‟s Lengwe
National Park. They prefer hot, low-lying country with woodlands and thickets and dense
riverine bush. Access to drinking water is an important habitat requirement. The nyala does
not handle cold well and does not occur above 1400 meter.
The word nyala comes from the Zulu name for the animal: „inxala’. The species is
named after Douglas Angas who introduced the animal to the scientific world.
The differences between male and female are striking: the bull is dark brown to dark
grey-brown with up to 14 narrow white vertical stripes and a long mane along the
length of the back and a fringe hanging under the body from the throat to the hind
legs; the female has a chestnut colour and up to 18 vertical white stripes, but no long
shaggy hair. Only the bull carries horns – shallow upward-curving spirals.
The nyala also represents the dividing line for referring to antelopes as bulls and
cows or rams and ewes. The female nyala is a ewe, but the male is a bull. Anything
bigger than a nyala is called a bull or a cow, and anything smaller is a ram or a ewe.
The nyala is a crepuscular animal and is a mixed feeder browsing especially on
Acacia species, buffalo thorn and monkey apple. It is partial to fresh green grass and
can often be seen grazing in open areas. Nyala also takes fallen fruit, fallen leaves,
flowers and herbs. They utilize the same habitat as the bushbuck but are regarded
as more successful since they are mixed feeders utilizing a wide range of plant
material whereas the bushbuck is strictly a browser.
Nyalas are not territorial and they have overlapping home ranges. The females‟
home ranges are much larger – as much as twice the size of the bulls‟. Nyala bulls
36
are real specialists in using visual display to advertise their presence and
dominance. The dorsal ridge of long white hair is raised all along the back. The
fringes underneath the body also make them bigger and the dark colour makes them
look solid and heavy. Displays are usually sufficient to defuse any potential conflict
situation. Fighting with the horns is unusual but when it happens it is serious and
may result in death or injury.
Bulls are often solitary, but small bachelor groups are also common. Nyalas are
usually seen in small groups of four or five animals but temporary herds of up to
thirty animals may from time to time be formed. These herds are usually seen
grazing on fresh new grass in open areas.
Breeding occurs throughout the year. The gestation period is about 220 days and a
single lamb is normally born. The interval between births is in the order of 300 days.
Nyalas are attractive and impressive animals and are very popular with trophy
hunters. Bush encroachment as a result of over grazing by domestic stock has
created additional habitat for nyala and, in South Africa, they have been successfully
introduced to areas outside of their historical range. The nyala is fairly common
throughout its range. The total population is at least 30 000and they occur mostly on
public and private protected areas.
The nyala is a very attractive antelope. Only the bull carries horns. Photo: Willem Frost
37
The female nyala is known as a ewe even though the male is a bull. Antelopes larger
than the nyala are referred to as bulls and cows; smaller antelopes are rams and ewes.
Photo: Willem Frost
Nyala bull in Malawi’s Lengwe National Park. This is their most northerly distribution
area. Photo: Willem Frost
38
The Mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni) was only discovered in 1908 and is
endemic to the mountains of Ethiopia. It is named after its discoverer, Major Ivor
Buxton and is an extremely rare antelope. Buxton did not realize that he had
collected a new species of spiral horned antelope. When the specimen was
examined by the South Kensington Museum in London, it was recognized as a new
species and named the „spotted kudu’, but some later renamed the „mountain nyala’
- a name that has stuck up to now.
DNA analysis has shown however that the mountain nyala is only remotely related to
the common nyala, despite the apparent similarities of the bulls.The mountain nyala
is in fact closer to the bushbuck and the sitatunga than to any other member of the
Tragelaphus genus.
It is the least numerous of the spiral horned antelopes, having a very restricted local
distribution in some mountain ranges east of the Ethiopian rift valley. The number of
remaining mature animals probably does not exceed 4000 individuals and the specie
is under pressure from illegal hunting/poaching and loss of habitat. The best place to
see them is the northern parts of Bale Mountains National Park.
The South African hunter Peter Flack described two different types of mountain
nyala in an article “Mountain Nyala – One of the Top Two African Trophies”,
published in Issue 1, Volume 8 of “African Sporting Gazette”. He differentiates
between the mountain nyalas of the high mountain heather and the so-called forest
nyala. These two types not only utilizes different habitat but they also look and
behave differently. He describes the differences as follows: “Forest nyala are a
darker grey versus a minky brown, are bigger in body, eat differently (forest nyala
are browsers whereas their upcountry cousins mainly graze), and their horns are
shaped and constructed differently. Most of the forest variety has a very prominent
ridge running around the horns and detailing the spiral. They curve sharply in and
sharply out to create an acute angled lyre shape. The high mountain nyala lack the
prominent ridge and have thinner more gently curving horns.”
There is however no scientific rationale yet to recognize separate sub-species of the
mountain Nyala.
39
The mountain nyala (bull above and cow below) is a rare and magnificent antelope,
endemic to the mountains of Ethiopia. Photos: Ariadne van Zandbergen
40
The Sitatunga (Tragelaphus spekei) is perfectly adapted to a life in the swamps and
marshes. Its long-haired coat and dark brown coloration with white traverse stripes
across the back, enables the animal to conceal itself expertly in its swampy habitat.
The hooves are 6-7 inches long and expand the moment they come into contact with
the ground, ensuring firm footing on the slippery terrain. The sitatunga is the only
bovid which, though not feeding in water, is capable of living permanently in water.
When disturbed or threatened, the sitatunga will enter the water and swim away
such that only the muzzle remains above the surface. It will stay in the water until it is
safe to return to terra firma.
The sitatunga is a very shy and timid animal. It is generally a solitary animal but may
sometimes be seen in small groups. After feeding together they form loose
associations and then move off in different directions. They spend the day hiding in
the thick vegetation on the riverbank and venture out only at night to feed on drier
ground. They make extensive use of well-defined, inter-connecting path systems
through the reedbeds and papyrus in the swamps. The paths in the papyrus are
more noticeable in areas with semi-solid substrate, but usually become indistinct in
deeper water.
Sitatunga can use an area of floating papyrus as a refuge for a couple of days at a
time. A firm base which would keep it partially out of the water is often built by
flattening the stems of papyrus. It will leave the papyrus bed to feed on the mainland
and the adjacent reedbeds during the evening, the night and early morning. It will
return when disturbed and to rest during the heat of the day.
The following sub-species are generally recognized:
(i) The Zambezi sitatunga (Tragelaphus spekei selousi) of Zambia,
southeastern Angola, Namibia‟s Caprivi Strip, northern Botswana,
southeastern DRC and southwestern Tanzania
(ii) The East African sitatunga (Tragelaphus spekei spekei) which occurs in the
swamps of northwestern Tanzania, Western Kenya, Rwanda, Uganda,
south central Sudan and parts of DRC.
(iii) The Western sitatunga (Tragelaphus spekei gratus) which ranges from
Gambia and Senegal in the west through to the Central African Republic
and the Democratic Republic of the Congo in the east. The main
population is found in the Congo River basin.
(iv) The Sesse Islands sitatunga (Tragelaphus spekei sylvestris) which are
endemic to the Sesse Islands, Lake Victoria, Uganda.
(v) Some hunters and naturalists recognize separate sub-specie, the Forest
Sitatunga (Tragelaphus spekei larkeni) which occurs in southwestern
Sudan near the DRC border, northern DRC and southern CAR. They vary
considerably as far as stripes and spots are concerned and some are even
completely without stripes and/or spots. Their range and status is unclear,
but they are probably the same sub-specie as the Western Sitatunga. This
sitatunga is named after Major Larken, who was the first to take one of
these animals in 1931.
41
Young male Western Sitatunga of Gabon. Photo: Wikipedia
East African sitatunga. Photo: Ariadne van Zandbergen
42
A young male Ssese Island sitatunga; the horns are yet to appear. Photo: Lauren Droy
Sable, Roan and Gemsbok (Subfamily: Antilopinae, Tribe: Hippotragini))
They are large, heavy animals with ridged horns present in both bulls and cows.
They do not have facial glands but there are glands on all four feet. The facial
markings are characteristic. The tail is relatively long and with a tuft at the end.
The sable (Hippotragus niger) is regarded by many as the most attractive of Africa‟s
antelopes. Its stately built; glistening black coat with white under parts, bristly mane
and the magnificent scimitar-like ringed horns certainly gives it a regal appearance. It
is a shy, nervous animal inclined to take off into the thickets at the least rustle of
leaves or snap of twigs.
The beautiful curving horns are deadly weapons and it is not uncommon for sable to
kill a lion. When wounded, a sable will resist to the last, waiting for the enemy to
come within striking range - its rear tucked into a bush and the head lowered.
Sables are territorial and fighting amongst bulls is common. They engage in violent
battle whilst kneeling on the front legs and the clashes of their horns can be heard
from far away.
43
The following subspecies of sable are generally recognized:
(i) The Common sable (Hippotragus niger niger) which is found in South Africa,
northern Botswana, the Caprivi Strip of Namibia, southeastern Angola,
Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi and Mozambique.
(ii) The Roosevelt sable of East Africa (Hippotragus niger roosevelti). They
occur from the Ruvuma River on the Tanzania/Mozambique border
northwards to the Shimba Hills National Park in South East Kenya.
(iii) The Western Zambian sable (Hippotragus niger kirkii). They resemble the
giant sable in facial marking and horn length and , consequently, there
was some controversy over their subspecie status. Some thought they
might be closely related with the giant sable, or might have cross-bred with
them. Others included them with H.n.niger, the common sable. Recent
research by Bettine van Vuuren, however confirmed that the Western
Zambian sable should be placed within the H.n.n. subspecies. It is not
known whether Western Zambian and Giant sable hybrids exist and this
possibility cannot be ruled out.
(iv) Some taxonomists recognize a further sub-species, Hippotragus niger anselli,
occurring in Eastern Zambia and Malawi. This is, however, not generally
accepted.
(v) The Giant sable (Hippotragus niger variani), also known as the Royal sable,
the distribution of which is restricted to a small area in central Angola.
The Giant Sable has been known to science for less than a century. Many
years before the Giant Sable was first described in described in 1914, the
famous big game hunter Frederick Courtney Selous, observed a single
sable horn of extraordinary length in a museum in Florence. Later he came
across reports of larger than usual sable and suspecting they were from
north of the Zambezi, he attempted to go there in 1888 but was thwarted
by hostile tribes. In 1907, Frank Varian, a Belgian engineer, went to
Angola to work on the construction of the Benguela railway line. Varian
soon learned about this rather different sable. In 1909 he announced he
had found a unique sable specimen carrying immense horns of over 60
inches in length. He was promptly ridiculed for his claim.
By 1912 the Thirstland Trekkers (Boers who left the Transvaal to
eventually settle in Angola) arrived in the lands of the giant sable. Frank
Varian, concerned about overhunting these sables, persuaded the
governor, Joao Norton de Mattos, to declare the giant sable royal game
and to restrict access to the area by special permit only. That provision
apparently still remains on the statute books today.
In 1914 Varian send a male and a female head to the natural history
museum in London for examination. It was then named Hippotragus niger
variani after Frank Varian. International sport hunters soon started going to
Angola specifically to hunt the giant sable.
Only in the 1950‟s a further population of Giant Sable was discovered to
the north of the Luando River in the Cangandala area. The local Songo
people had maintained the secret from the outside world for ages.
44
By the mid 1970s the Giant Sable was well protected and total numbers
were estimated at about 2000 animals. In 1982 Dr. Richard Estes still saw
and photographed a number of these sables in Cangandala National Park.
These were the last published photographs of Giant Sable until 2005. After
1982 the war situation made it impossible for any outsiders to get access
to Giant Sable country and it was feared that Palanca Negra (the
Portuguese name for H. n. variani) had not survived the bloody 27 year
civil war in which masses of elephant, rhino, buffalo and other game were
slaughtered.
Then in early 2005 it was announced that a research team had found
photographic evidence that at least one group of Giant Sable is still
around. Further proof was conclusive DNA sequences from the dung
samples a 2004 expedition had brought back.
A disturbing discovery was however made regarding the Cangandala
population: the last adult bull had disappeared after the 2004 breeding
season and a roan bull had taken over the breeding herd. A number of
Roan X Giant Sable hybrids had been born every year up to 2008. Initially
it was believed that the hybrids are infertile. Recent photographs of
females with calves suggest however that the hybrids may in fact be able
to reproduce.
In 2009 the remaining Cangandala sables, together with a bull from
Luando, were captured and moved to into a breeding enclosure under the
leadership of the Angolan biologist Pedro vaz Pinto. The objective is to
breed them in captivity as a last desperate effort to save the giant sable
from extinction. At the time of writing the arrival of the first calves are
eagerly awaited.
Although the breeding seems to be a success, the threats to the survival of
the giant Sable have not disappeared. The main threats are human
encroachment, habitat loss, poaching in Luando and the risk of theft of
sable for sale elsewhere.
The Giant Sable is extremely rare and one of Africa‟s most remarkable
animals. The body size, weight and spoor are similar to that of the typical
sable. The horns are however much longer and the sight of them is simply
breathtaking. The facial markings are quite different from the typical sable.
Its huge and perfectly arched horns, elegant and majestic features, and
the coal black colour of the mature male, make the giant sable arguably
one of the most beautiful and regal antelope species in the world. For this
reason it has always been sought after by naturalists, scientists and
hunters.
45
The common sable (Hippotragus niger niger). Photo: Willem Frost
A breeding herd of common sable at a waterhole. Note the colour differences between
the bulls and cows. Photo: Willem Frost
46
Roosevelt sable, Shimba Hills, East Africa. Photos: Ariadne van Zandbergen
Pedro vaz Pinto with the first ever Giant Sable captured live (2009).
Photos: Pedro vaz Pinto
47
Captured Giant Sable bull. Note the exceptional horns. Photo: Pedro vaz Pinto
The Roan antelope (Hippotragus equinus) is the second largest of Africa‟s
antelopes. Five sub-species are recognized:
(i) The Southern roan (Hippotragus equinus equinus)
(ii) The Angolan roan (Hippotragus equinus cottoni)
(iii) The East African roan (Hippotragus equinus langheldi)
(iv) The Sudanese roan (Hippotragus equinus barkeri)
(v) The Western roan (Hippotragus equinus koba)
Roan antelopes prefer open savannah woodlands with medium to tall, sweet grasses
in excess of two feet or 50 cm. Sourveldt, short grass areas, dense scrubland,
thickets, closed woodlands and forests are unsuitable and are generally avoided.
Unlike sable and many other antelopes, roans are not attracted to new growth on
burnt areas. They also require access to permanent sources of drinking water.
Roan is extremely habitat sensitive and does not adapt well to changes in habitat.
This has been a major cause of the decline in their numbers in the past. They are
also very uncomfortable with grazing pressure from other species and will move out
of an area if there are too many other game animals. Although they are mainly
grazers, they will also small quantities of leaves and forbs during the dry season.
Roan antelopes are diurnal and most of the grazing takes place during the cooler
hours of the day.
The stronghold of the Southern roan in South Africa has historically been the
Waterberg Mountains and the Kruger National Park. In 2006 their numbers in the
48
Kruger have declined to only about 60 from about 450 in 1986. The reasons are
unknown but probably due to habitat changes (short grasses replacing long grasses)
as a result of too many artificial waterholes. Roan, like sable antelope, is partial to
medium to long grasses and when the habitat takes strain from too many grazers
they will move out of the area. Habitat management is thus crucial for the survival of
roan populations.
Although roan is still relatively common in West and Central Africa, most populations
are in strong decline, such as that in Comoé National Park where numbers have
declined to around 500 animals. There are however a number of small populations
throughout the current range. The major threats are poaching, increasing human
settlement and loss of habitat.
Roan are large antelopes (standing about five feet high at the shoulder and weighing
about 400 pounds), but they are also very shy and nervous. They are semigregarious and live in breeding herds of up to 25 animals; bachelor herds of subadult bulls; and single, post-breeding bulls that have been pushed out of the
breeding herd. A typical breeding herd consists of a bull in charge of a number of
female and young. The home range of the breeding herd remains constant for many
years and a roan may spend its entire life within a single home range. The structure
of the breeding herd is usually also maintained for several years. When the herd
becomes too large, some members of the herd will break away to form a new herd in
a new home range.
Breeding bulls do not establish fixed territories, but rather maintain a territorial zone
of a couple of hundred yards on the periphery of the ever moving herd. Intruding
bulls are simply driven off. Home ranges of breeding herds do not overlap; there is
only one breeding herd in a given home range. Once a breeding bull has been
pushed out of the herd by a younger bull, he becomes a solitary animal and will not
join the herd again.
Home ranges are marked by digging in the soil with the hooves and releasing a
secretion from the inter-digital glands between the hooves. Roan also breaks
branches with the horns as a form of marking the home range. Breeding bulls do not
mark their territories and they constantly move with the herd throughout the home
range.
Roan antelopes can however be very aggressive animals, especially when wounded
or cornered, and should be approached with caution. A wounded roan will not
hesitate to charge his pursuer. They fight with the horns, the feet and the teeth.
Fighting bulls confront each other on the front knees with the hind legs stretched out
straight.
Both sexes carry horns, although the horns of the cow are inferior to that of the bull.
The shape of the horn is similar to that of the sable. The horns are heavily grooved
for the most part; only the end 15% to 20% is smooth.
49
Western roan (above and below) Réserve de Bandia, Senegal.
Photos: Ariadne van Zandbergen
50
Southern roan. Photo: Willem Frost
Angolan roan with calve, Kafue National Park, Zambia. Photo: Ariadne van Zandbergen
51
Roan on the Nyika plateaux, Malawi. Photo: iStock
Oryx and Gemsbok
All oryx seem to thrive in semi-arid to arid thorn brush country where they do not
have to rely on surface water. They obtain moisture from their food and possibly
dew. They can go for very long periods without drinking and will travel vast distances
to find water. Oryx are mainly grazers but will also eat wild fruits, melons and
cucumbers. They also dig up succulent roots and bulbs with the fore feet.
Gemsboks are gregarious and form breeding herds of various sizes. They are
nomadic migrating animals that can travel great distances without any fixed route or
pattern. During the wet season (i.e. summer) when there is plenty of food, they form
large herds (sometimes hundreds of animals) but in winter when food is scarcer,
they break up again in small herds of about ten animals. In the arid habitats, such as
the Kalahari, the herds will follow local rainstorms to find better grazing and massive
herds may then be formed. Bulls are either solitary or are found in small groups of
two or three animals. They are territorial and the territories are large in comparison to
other ungulates, probably due to the low quantities of food that are available in the
arid habitat. The territorial bulls are also more tolerant of intruding bulls than is the
case with other ungulates. Territories are marked by defecation and with secretions
from the glands on the feet. They also beat bushes and scrubs with the horns.
Territories are not occupied throughout the year: the bull may leave his territory for a
52
while when he joins a breeding herd that moves through several territories within
their home range.
Their body temperature can rise considerably during the day (by as much as nine
degrees Celsius) and they then have to cool themselves by nasal panting or
sweating. Consequently they tend to feed mainly in the cool of the mornings and late
afternoons. During the heat of the day they often rest up in whatever shade might be
available.
The following subspecies are recognized:
(i) Gemsbok (Oryx gazella gazella) of Southern Africa (Namibia, Botswana,
South Africa).
(ii) Angolan gemsbok (Oryx gazella blainei). This is a race that is not accepted
by all taxonomists as separate subspecie and many include it with O. g.
gazella.
(iii) Beisa oryx (Oryx gazella beisa) of northeastern Africa. They utilize semi-arid
and arid bushland and grasslands, eating a wide range of grass species.
They also browse during the dry season. Beisa oryx drinks regularly when
water is available, but can also obtain sufficient moisture from waterstoring melons, roots, bulbs and tubers.
(iv) Fringe-eared oryx (Oryx gazella callotis) of southern Kenya and northeastern
Tanzania. The tufted ears and the tan colored body distinguish the fringeeared oryx from the more grayish Beisa oryx. Also, there is no black on the
forelegs below the knees. Both sub-species have a long black eye stripe
down the length of the face. The believe that fringe-eared oryx grow
slightly shorter horns than the Beisa oryx is not clearly supported by the
trophy record books, but is probably true in general terms. Neither the
fringe-eared oryx nor the Beisa oryx have horns as long as the gemsbok
which is the largest of the oryx genus. Fringe-eared oryx are shy and wary
and are found on open plains as well as thorn-bush thickets. When
threatened or disturbed they quickly gallop away with their long black tails
swinging from side to side. They are gregarious but the herds are not big:
five to 35 animals. Old bulls leave the herd to lead a solitary life but may
be joined by one or two other old bulls.
(v) Scimitar oryx (Oryx dammah). They used to occur widely in the sub-desert
areas on both sides of the Sahara Desert. It was hoped that a few remnant
populations may still exist in north-central Chad, in Mali, Niger and Burkina
Faso, but in 2009 the IUCN declared that Scimitar oryx is now extinct in
the wild. Captive herds are kept in fenced, protected areas in Senegal and
Morocco (Sous Massa National Park) as part of a long-term reintroduction
programme. In 2007 a few animals were also introduced to the Dghoumes
National Park in Tunisia in an effort to repopulate southern Tunisia as part
of Tunisia‟s strategy to restore the Sahelo-Saharan antelopes and their
desert environments. They have also been introduced to a few game
53
farms in South Africa. In times gone by they used to gather in great
numbers in North Africa, in January, before migrating to the south. These
migrating herds could number thousands, stretching in long columns
across the horizon. The Scimitar-horned oryx was well adapted to life in
arid habitat. They would be home in sub-desert and dry grassland habitat,
but were rarely found in true desert. It is believed that scimitar oryx were
kept by the ancient Egyptians, but it has long since disappeared from
those areas.
Gemsbok (Oryx gazella gazella) in the sweet Bushveldt of South Africa’s Limpopo
province. Photo: Willem Frost
54
Gemsbok in the remote Kaokoveld, Namibia. Photo: Ariadne van Zandbergen
Beisa oryx in the Samburu National Park, Kenya. Photo: Ariadne van Zandbergen
55
Scimitar oryx. Photo: Ariadne van Zandbergen
Addax (Addax nasomaculatus) may remind one of oryx, but they belong to a
different genus. They used to occur throughout the northern limits of the Sahel from
Mauritania to the Sudan. A few small remnant populations remain in Niger, Mali,
Chad and eastern Mauritania. A few privately owned herds have been introduced on
game ranches in South Africa and the USA. There is also an international
endangered species breeding programme in European and North American Zoos,
with a total population of about 800 addax. The total North African population is
estimated at less than 300 animals. The population trend is downwards due to
habitat loss and poaching. The addax stares down the barrel of extinction in the very
near future. It has however been reintroduced in Tunisia and Morocco, but is
regionally extinct in Algeria, Libya, Egypt and Sudan.
The addax was at home in sand-dune deserts, gravel plains and stony plateaus
where they lived on coarse desert grasses. They also browsed on Acacias and
leguminous herbs. Addax feed at night and around dusk and dawn; during the heat
of the day they seek a place to rest up. They are not water dependant and are able
to extract their moisture requirements from the plant material that they feed on.
They used to roam the Sahara in herds of up to twenty animals, sometimes
aggregating in larger herds. Large migrations, consisting of more than a thousand
animals, used to take place whenever a seasonal shower brought about fresh growth
somewhere distant in the desert. These migrations are now a thing of the past.
Overhunting with modern firearms and vehicles, as well as pastoral agriculture, has
virtually wiped out a species that survived the harsh Sahara environment for
hundreds of thousands of years.
56
(Above) The addax is a rare and highly
endangered antelope. Photo: Catrin Hammer, Al
Wabra Wildlife Preserve
(Left) The rare addax photographed in the
Réserve de Faune de Guembeul, Senegal.
Photo: Ariadne van Zandbergen
57
Wildebeests, hartebeests and bastard hartebeests
(Subfamily: Antilopinae, Tribe: Alcelaphini)
Medium to large antelopes with horns present in both sexes. They have well
developed preorbital glands as well as glands on the front feet. The tail is long with
either a tuft at the end (hartebeests) or hairy and horse-like (wildebeests).
The Black wildebeest (Connochaetes gnou) is endemic to the short grass-veldt
areas of South Africa‟s interior „Highveld‟. Historically they have ranged in vast herds
of many thousands across the open plains, but became almost extinct about a
century ago as a result of overhunting, human settlement, agricultural development
and diseases. Thanks to the efforts of a few conservation minded farmers in the Free
State and the former Transvaal, they have been brought back from the brink of
extinction and today there are almost 15 000 of these animals – many of them on
private land.
Black wildebeests are selective grazers of short grasses, preferring open plains
without trees or brushes. This is probably because they rely on eyesight to detect
predators and thus require open habitat. The warm sub-tropical areas, forests,
woodlands, areas with long grasses and the arid, dry areas are not suitable habitat.
Like many plains game animals, the bulls are territorial, and a dominant, breeding
bull will defend a specific area aggressively against intrusion by other bulls. Bulls
defecate in fixed places or stamping grounds and regularly roll on it. Faeces and
other behaviour patterns are then used by bulls to demarcate their territories.
Behaviour is important for reproduction and the strongest males are in a more
favourable position to reproduce. Mating usually occurs only within the territory. The
cows are not territorial and move through several territories within the home range.
The social structure consists of breeding herds cows with their young; territorial,
breeding bulls; and bachelor herds consisting of young and sub-adult bulls and
mature bulls without a territory.
Black wildebeests are known to accept other species such as springbok and zebra
within their home ranges and they are often seen grazing together.
They are mostly active in the mornings and late afternoons. During the heat of the
day they often lie down to rest, chewing the cud. They are natural migratory
antelopes but they are no longer able to do so as a result of fences and other human
developments. They thus had to adapt to a fenced-in life on game farms and nature.
58
The black wildebeest is at home on the Highveld plains of South Africa’s interior.
Photo: Willem Frost
The Blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) is a typical wanderer of the
savannahs of Southern and East Africa. They were once abundant throughout
Southern Africa but their numbers have been drastically reduced as a result of
human settlement and competition with domestic livestock, illegal hunting and
fencing across their historical migration routes. They are nowadays largely restricted
to conservation areas, national parks and game reserves.
The following sub-species are recognised:
(i) The brindled gnu, or common blue wildebeest, ( Connochaetes taurinus
taurinus) of Southern Africa
(ii) Cookson’s wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus cooksoni) which is endemic
to the Luangwa Valley in Zambia
(iii) The Nyassa wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus johnstoni) of southern
Tanzania and northern parts of Mozambique ( it is now extinct in Malawi)
(iv) The Eastern white-bearded wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus
albojubatus) of southern Kenya and northern Tanzania
(v) The Western white-bearded wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus mearnsi)
which are found in Tanzania and Kenya west of the Great Rift Valley,
reaching Lake Victoria at Speke Bay. This is the wildebeest of the famous
Serengeti-Mara ecosystem. The annual migration of about a million C. t.
mearnsi is one of the world‟s greatest wildlife spectacles.
59
Wildebeests are grazers of short grasses and are associated with savannah
woodlands. Availability of drinking water is a definite habitat requirement.
They are gregarious and form herds of ten to thirty animals. At times they form
mega-herds of thousands of animals. The social structure consists of territorial bulls,
breeding herds of cows with their young, and bachelor herds. Territorial bulls protect
their territories mostly by threatening trespassers which usually suffices. Serious
fighting is not common, although they may sometimes head butt. Wildebeests have
pre-orbital glands as well as glands on the front feet – these are used to mark
territories. Breeding herds of cows with their latest calves move through the
territories of the bulls, but they do not tolerate newcomers that want to join the herd.
Bachelor herds consist of young and mature bulls that do not possess a territory.
They normally live on the edges of the home range of the breeding herds.
In some areas the wildebeests are more mobile than in others and they may move
over vast distances in search of grazing and water. They are partial to fresh short,
green grasses and known to move areas where it has rained. They can detect
rainfall over vast distances and will not waste time in moving there.
Botswana used to be home to very large numbers of common blue wildebeest. One
of the country‟s main exports is beef which is exported to the Europe – countries
which are hyper-sensitive to any possible disease that could affect their imports. In
an attempt to separate cattle and wildebeests, veterinary control fences have been
erected across the ancient migration routes of the wildebeests. In times of drought
wildebeest used to mass together the southern and central parts of the Kalahari from
where they would migrate northwards to their ancient drinking places along the
Boteti River and Lake Xau. Thousands and thousands of wildebeests died along the
veterinary fences during the mid-1980‟s. This calamity was first brought to the
attention of the outside world by two researchers, Mark and Delia Owens, who were
studying brown hyenas in the Kalahari at the time. They got expelled from the
country for their troubles. There are still wildebeests in Botswana but their numbers
are not nearly what it used to be – thanks to the Botswana government and the
European Union.
Something similar happened in Namibia‟s Etosha National Park. Before the park was
completely fenced in, wildebeests were free to migrate to adjacent parts in their
unending search for suitable grazing. The wildebeest population was then estimated
at 25 000 animals. In 1973 an 850 km fence was erected to enclose Etosha, cutting
off ancient migration routes. The seasonally well-watered grasslands to the north of
Etosha Pan, which includes the Andoni plains and the Lake Oponono area, were
now inaccessible to the wildebeests. By 1978 the population had fallen to 2500,
constituting a 90 percent decline from the previous population and again illustrating
the devastating effect of fences across migration routes.
60
Cookson’s wildebeest is endemic to the Luangwa Valley in Zambia.
Photo: Willem Frost
The common blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus taurinus) is also known as the
‘brindled gnu’. Photo: Willem Frost
61
Common blue wildebeest used to be abundant in the Kalahari, but veterinary fences
resulted in a significant decline in their numbers. Photo: Willem Frost
The greatest wildlife spectacle on planet earth
The wildebeest relies on migration, as opposed to a sedentary lifestyle, as a means
of survival. They are strictly grazers as the wide mouth inhibits browsing. Migration
allows it to graze over vast areas and to utilize the best available food resources.
This in turn enables them to live in large herds. Migration also reduces predation by
the larger carnivores.
Wildebeests have longer forelegs and a sloping back. It is believed that this aids
them in conserving energy when they have to travel over long distances.
The huge annual migration of White-bearded wildebeest across the grasslands of
the Serengeti-Masai Mara ecosystem is regarded by many as the world greatest
wildlife spectacle. It‟s only remaining possible rival is the migration of tiang and
white-eared kob in the south of the Sudan.
The Serengeti migration is essentially a wildebeest affair although kongonis, topi,
Grant‟s zebra and Thomson‟s gazelles also participate. The migration can be
regarded as a continual year-round movement of wildebeest in search of water and
grazing. It is believed that the wildebeest may have been covering the same
migratory cycle for at least a million years.
62
When the rinderpest virus was brought under control in the early 1960‟s, the number
of White-bearded wildebeest numbered about 260 000. Since then they have
increased to about 1,25 million today – maybe more.
The migration commences in the ancestral wildebeest calving grounds in the
treeless, short-grass plains of the southeast of the Serengeti. Calving takes place
within a three-week period in January-February. Hundreds of thousands of calves
are born, but only one in every five or six will survive the first year. The survival
percentage however suffices. The predators (lions, wild dogs, hyenas, cheetahs)
have a feast but they only kill a relatively small percentage of the masses of newborn
wildebeests.
The grass withers quickly at the onset of the dry season and by the end of May there
is not much grazing left on the vast plains. The drinking water then also dries up. At
this time the herds begin to mass together in preparation for the migration to the
west and the north. The concentration of wildebeests is simply one of the great
wonders of the natural world.
They have just spent several months grazing on rich, short-grass plains , storing up
food and energy. The wildebeests are now in peak condition. The zebras leave first,
perhaps as many as 250 000, followed by more than a million wildebeests and
almost 500 000 gazelles. The zebras eat the grass tops and the taller, coarser
grasses. The wildebeests follow and eat the lower parts of the grasses which have
more nutritional value. They are followed by the gazelles (mainly Thomson‟s
gazelles) that graze the fresh shoots of new growth.
Whilst the gazelles remain mostly in the western parts of the Serengeti, the zebras
and wildebeests move further north to eventually reach the Masai Mara by July. The
rainfall here is higher and there is permanent water in the Mara River and its
tributaries. By August-September the Mara is inundated with wildebeests whilst
zebra and topi numbers have also increased significantly.
The crossing of the crocodile infested Mara River with its steep banks is one of the
main events during the migration. The wildebeests do not seek safe or easy places
to cross. Instinct simply drives them frantically on to the grazing fields on the other
side. The wildebeests at the front simply hurl themselves down the banks into the
river regardless of danger. The result is usually bewildering chaos. Many animals
drown, or suffocate, or are trampled to death, or suffer serious injury, or get taken by
the crocodiles. Dead and dying wildebeests collect in large piles, providing a feast for
crocodiles and vultures. The exhausted surviving wildebeests drag themselves up
the opposite slippery banks amidst the same confusion and chaos.
By October the rainclouds begin to build up over the vast plains in the south and
thunder can sometimes be heard in the distance. By November-December the
“short-rains” have started and the migration to the short-grass plains in the south is
in full swing. Long columns of wildebeests can be seen for miles, often trudging
along in single file.
63
By the end of the year they are back in the vast short-grass plains where it all began.
They once again graze the fresh grasses and get themselves in prime condition for
the calving season the migration west and north that invariably follows.
The crossing of the Mara River is a major event during the wildebeest migration across
the Serengeti. Photos (above and below): iStock
64
Hartebeests (Tribe: Alcelaphini)
Like the members of the Damaliscus genus, the hartebeests (which belong to the
genus Alcelaphus) are widely distributed across the semi-arid regions of Africa. They
have adapted well to many different environments, but have suffered badly as a
result of human settlement and development.
The outbreak of the rinderpest epidemic at the end of the 19th century also had a
catastrophic effect on the hartebeest populations. They were not sufficiently prolific
to recover from the decimation by the rinderpest (unlike buffaloes) and the
uncontrolled hunting also continued unabated. The result was catastrophic.
It is sometimes argued that predators also contributed to the decline in antelope
numbers across Africa. This is however most unlikely. It is specifically unlikely that
the decline in hartebeest numbers can be attributed to their natural predators such
as lions, leopards, cheetahs, wild dogs and hyenas. Hartebeests are very fast
runners and usually rely on their speed and endurance to outrun predators. Although
some adult hartebeests are taken by predators, it is mostly new-borns that are taken.
Had it not been for human population growth and settlement, and perhaps the
rinderpest epidemic, hartebeest populations would probably have remained as
steady as it was for centuries before the arrival of Western man in Africa.
Hartebeests are able to survive on low-quality grasses of medium height. They are
gregarious throughout the year. The bulls are seasonally territorial and mark the
boundaries of their territories with defecation sites. They defend their territories
aggressively against neighbouring and non-territorial bulls. The cows form small
herds that pass through the contiguous territories of the males. The territorial bull will
investigate the receptiveness of the cows and will try to herd them in his territory until
all receptive females have been covered. Hartebeest cows are known to be very
aggressive in defending their young.
Red hartebeests (Alcelaphus buselaphus caama) are found in Namibia, Botswana
and South Africa and are fairly common throughout their range. In Botswana,
however, their numbers have been severely depleted by veterinary control fences –
a fate they share with the blue wildebeests.
Red hartebeests are grazers preferring medium height grasses and relishing new
growth after fires or rain. They are associated with open country and various types of
grass plains, but can also be found in open woodland. These hartebeests avoid
thickets and dense woodland and do very well in the more open, arid areas of
Namibia, Botswana and South Africa. They are independent of water but will drink
when water is available. Red hartebeests are mainly grazers but will also take
leaves, pods, fruits and seeds.
Red hartebeests are gregarious and live in herds of up to 30 animals, but often in
much smaller family groups. Sometimes very large aggregations of herds may also
occur in mid-summer. They are known to move to areas where it has rained – just
like blue wildebeests.
65
Red hartebeests are active in the early mornings and late afternoons, but on cool
days they may be active throughout the day. On warm days they will seek shade
during the heat of the day; otherwise they often lie down in the sun to rest. Their
senses of hearing and smelling are excellent, but the eyesight is suspected of being
slightly less developed.
Red hartebeests are very fast runners and speed is obviously an important defence
mechanism. When running away, however, the herd may stop after a distance to mill
around and assess the situation.
Mature bulls are only territorial during the mating season (February to April) during
which time the territory is aggressively defended against intruding bulls. Fighting is
then not uncommon. They fight aggressively with horns whilst facing one another on
the knees. Territories are marked with dung piles. Outside of the mating season, the
mature bulls will either join bachelor herds or larger mixed herds of bulls, cows and
calves.
Red hartebeest in the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park. Photo: Willem Frost
66
Lichtenstein’s hartebeest (Alcelaphus lichtensteini) was discovered on the lower
Zambezi and named after Dr. W.H.C. Lichtenstein, a German naturalist and director
of the Natural History Museum in Berlin. They used to occur from the northeastern
corner of South Africa (i.e. Crookes Corner northwards to the Katanga province of
the Congo), but have disappeared from much of their former range due to
indiscriminate hunting, loss of habitat and tsetse fly control measures. They are now
considered rare in Southern Africa. There are, however, more than 80 000
Lichtensteins left in the wild, mostly in reserves and conservation areas.
Lichtenstein‟s hartebeest is a shy antelope of the savannahs and prefer „miombo‟
woodlands where it may sometimes be seen in open stretches covered with short
grasses known as „dambos‟. They are grazers favoring perennial grasses and
preferring relatively open bush country. Since they are grazers, they require habitat
with adequate perennial grass species on which to feed. Grazing takes place mostly
in the early mornings and late afternoons. They are water dependent and need to
drink daily. Lichtenstein‟s hartebeests are gregarious: herds normally consist of a
territorial bull and six or seven cows with their calves. Calving peaks during August;
the territorial system then seems to collapse and large concentrations of
Lichtensteins may then occur.
Territorial bulls will occupy and defend their territories throughout the year. During
the rut they may however leave their territories temporarily in order to find cows
which they then herd back into their territories. This is a hectic time for the bulls: they
not only have to keep the cows within their territories but also have to deal with
intruding bulls which are after the cows or disputing the territory. Fighting is thus
quite common amongst the bulls. The territorial bulls will not tolerate the male
youngsters when they reach the age of about twelve months and these youngsters
are then driven from the herd.
This hartebeest has a pale colour, stocky build and short horns. Its elongated head,
humped shoulders and sloping back is typical of the hartebeests.
67
Lichtenstein’s hartebeest has a more solid and heavy body than other hartebeest.
Photo: Willem Frost
Coke’s hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus cokei), or kongoni, can be seen on the
Serengeti plains where they are easily observed. They graze in herds of ten to
hundred animals but herds are far less permanent or cohesive than those of
wildebeests or zebras. Bachelor herds are also formed. Males are territorial and
fighting between bulls is not uncommon. When fighting, a bull will force his opponent
to the ground and then, from a kneeling position, deliver a series of violent head
butts in order to enforce submission. The curved horns are formidable weapons and
can inflict serious wounds.
Calves are born at any time of the year, but calving peaks at the onset of the rainy
season. They never stray far from their mothers. Kongonis graze both long and short
grasses, but during the rainy season they move from the tall grass areas to the short
grass plains (“mbugas”) of the Serengeti to graze with the wildebeests and zebras.
Their sand-coloured coats then stand out vividly against the bright green grass
plains. They are, however, not true migratory animals but tend to move around
according to season and quality of available grazing.
The shape of the animal is unmistakably hartebeest: a long face, lyre-shaped horns,
high withers and a sloping body. Although they have lost much of their former range,
good numbers of Coke‟s hartebeest can still be seen in the game reserves of Kenya
and Tanzania (such as the Masai-Mara- , Tsavo- , Tarangire- and Serengeti game
reserves).
68
Kongoni or Coke’s hartebeest. Photo: Ariadne van Zandbergen
Swayne’s hartebeest is named after Brigadier-general Swayne who was the first
European to discover these animals. He visited Somaliland in 1891-1892 and was
also the first European to venture into the area south of the Golis range and as far as
125 miles (200 kms) from the coast. There he saw vast herds of hartebeests. He
reported 300 to 400 animals in a herd and a dozen or so herds in sight at any time.
He also saw much bigger herds of around 1000 animals. In the mid 1890‟s Africa
was hit by the rinderpest epidemic and the hartebeests were decimated. It is
possible that less than a thousand of the hartebeests that Swayne saw survived the
rinderpest. The influx of modern firearms thereafter put the surviving animals under
continuous pressure. A .b. swayneri is today extinct in Somalia. There are probably
no more than 500 left in Ethiopia. They are found only in
four localities in Ethiopia namely, Awash National Park, Senkele
Swayne's
Hartebeest
Sanctuary,
Nechisar
National
Park
and
Mazie Wildlife Area. They are critically endangered and extinction is imminent.
Swayne‟s hartebeest is closely related to the tora hartebeest, both races being
smaller than the other hartebeests. The colour is however darker than that of the
other hartebeests. They occur in open country with some bush, and sometimes in
savannah woodland. These hartebeests are usually found in herds of between five
and thirty animals. The dominant bull leads the herd and will protect its territory. He
is often seen standing on slightly higher ground acting as a sentinel for his herd.
69
Swayne’s hartebeest in the Senkele Game Sanctuary, Ethiopia (above and below).
Photos: Ariadne van Zandbergen
70
The Tora hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus tora) were once plentiful in Ethiopia,
the Blue Nile valley as well as the region between the Nile and the Atbara Rivers in
Sudan, and in parts of Eritrea. They are now extinct in Sudan and the total number
remaining in Ethiopia and Eritrea is unlikely to exceed 500. It is a critically
endangered antelope.
The horns of the Tora differ from other hartebeest subspecies by being significantly
thinner and spreading more widely and sideways from the top of the skull
Lelwel hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus lelwel) is rather similar to Jackson‟s
hartebeest. They are distinguished by the horn tips which are turned outwards, and
by the dark markings on the lower parts of the limbs. They can hybridise with
Swayne‟s hartebeest to make the Neumann hartebeest.
The Lelwel hartebeest is regarded as endangered as the total population is declining
fast. Once there were hundreds of thousands of them; today there are less than
70 000 left.
Lelwel hartebeest. Photo: iStock
71
Jackson’s hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus jacksoni) is as typical to Uganda as
the red hartebeest is to Botswana and Namibia. Their range is generally regarded to
extend from western Kenya through the Karamoja district of north-eastern Uganda.
There is still some debate around the taxonomy of Jackson‟s hartebeest. Some
regard it as a hybrid between the lelwel and Coke‟s hartebeests, whilst others regard
it as synonymous with the lelwel hartebeest. The Antelope Specialist Group of the
IUCN, for example, considers the lelwel hartebeest of Uganda and the Jackson‟s
hartebeest to be identical.
They are often seen in herds of up to 100 animals in Uganda‟s Murchison Falls
National Park. They have an even more elongated head than the other hartebeest
subspecies
Jackson’s hartebeest in Uganda. Photos: Ariadne van Zandbergen
The Western hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus major) is the race found in West
Africa. It occurs on the medium to tall grassland plains between south-western Chad
through Cameroon, CAR, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Niger, Mali, Benin, Burkina Faso, all
the way to Senegal. It is extinct in the Gambia.
The appearance is typical hartebeest: a narrow face, slim legs and a small hump at
the front of the shoulders. The horns are heavily ridged and curve out sideways then
forward and then inward and backwards.
72
They are diurnal animals, grazing during the cooler hours of the mornings and late
afternoons. During the heat of the day they rest up in shade. They form small herds
of up to twelve animals and whilst they are grazing one will always act as a sentry,
looking out for predators. The sentry can often be seen standing on a termite mount
in order to get a better view of the surroundings. Typical hartebeest they are very
fast runners and when fleeing they run in single file.
The bulls are territorial and will defend the territory aggressively. They also mark the
territory with dung piles.
Their numbers are declining throughout their range and are regarded as „Near
threatened‟. The main threats are overhunting and habitat loss.
Western hartebeest showing it‟s heavily ridged horns and slight chevron between the
eyes. Photo: Jonas van de Voorde.
The Bubal hartebeest of North Africa was mentioned in the Old Testament under
the name „Yachmur‟. Aristotle and Pliny the elder also made reference to the Bubal.
Horns of the Bubal hartebeest were also found in Egyptian tombs at Abadiyeh. The
Roman colonists on the Barbary Coast named and described it in more detail.
Modern scientist later named it Alcelaphus buselaphus bubal.
It once ranged from Egypt through Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco. The Bubal
may also have occurred in the Middle East. It utilised a variety of habitats such as
oases, oasis-like depressions, sand dunes, salt flats, mountainous woodland and
73
plateaus, sub-desert steppe and rocky areas, and the Mediterranean coastal belt. It
preferred rocky habitat to sand dunes.
Up to the 19th century herds of these antelopes could still be found on the plains of
southern Algeria and parts of the Atlas Mountains. Human settlement and the
inevitable agricultural development, overgrazing by domestic stock, and uncontrolled
hunting with modern firearms pushed these animals farther into the mountains and
into less suitable habitat. The black-maned Barbary lions that preyed on them were
forced to follow, but the environment was such that neither herbivore nor carnivore
would survive in the long run. By 1925 there were still a few bubal hartebeests left in
Morocco and Algeria but within a few years they became extinct together with the
Barbary lion. Today there are no Bubal hartebeests left on planet earth. It is however
regarded as the nominate subspecies of the hartebeests.
A female Bubal hartebeest that was
photographed by Lewis Medland in the
London Zoo in 1895. She died in April
1897.
Damaliscus
The so-called „bastard-hartebeests‟ are all grouped together under the genus
„Damaliscus‟. Like the hartebeests, they have long faces, horns that are heavily
ringed, and whithers that are higher than the rump. They are easily identified by the
pronounced slope of their back.
Since they are very fast runners, and since the high angle of the head and the
position of the eyes allows them a wide field of vision, they seldom fall prey by
predators. They are alert and also have a very well developed sense of hearing.
Damaliscus are grazers and require a variety of grasses, shade and access to
drinking water.
Hunter’s hartebeest (Beatragus hunteri) is also known as the hirola. It was
discovered in 1888 on the Tana River in Kenya by the big game hunter and zoologist
H. C. V. Hunter (1861-1934). Some zoologists prefer to classify the hirola in the
genus Damaliscus but it is more often recognised as Beatragus. It would appear that
74
the Hunter‟s hartebeest is an evolutionary link between the Alceplaphus and
Damaliscus species and should thus be regarded as a relic species.
The long, shapely horns resemble those of the impala and are uncharacteristic of
hartebeest which carry by short, crumpled horns. The hirola‟s horns are however
shorter, thicker and narrower than those of the impala. The long, ungainly face is
typical hartebeest.
These antelopes used to occur in a very small territory, about 60 square miles in
total, between the Tana River in Kenya and the Juba River in Somalia. This unique
habitat can be described as desert savannah.
Life has always been precarious for the hirola. In 1962 it suddenly faced a major
crisis when the United Nations‟ Special Fund for Economic Development
investigated the feasibility of an irrigation scheme in the Tana River valley. This
would have resulted in the flooding the area inhabited by the hirola. Conservationists
immediately expressed concern and it was decided to remove the hirola to an
alternative location. The site chosen was a plain in the Tsavo National Park in the
south of Kenya. Some twenty animals were relocated with much difficulty and their
descendants still roam the Tsavo.
Not long afterwards the irrigation scheme on the Tana River was canned, mainly as
a result of political difficulties, and the hirola can still be seen in this area but they are
extremely rare. They are categorized as “Critically endangered‟ by the IUCN Red List
and there are no more than 500 remaining in the wild. They require very specific
habitat and their future is dependent on effective conservation measures.
Hunters Hartebeest ram. Note the chevron between the eyes.
Photo: republica-de-angola.blogspot
75
The very rare Hunter’s hartebeest. Photo: itsnature.org
The Bontebok (Damaliscus pygargus pygargus) and the Blesbok (Damaliscus
pygargus phillipsi) are endemic subspecies of South Africa. The former is relatively
scarce and is found in a more specialized habitat. Blesbok are much more common
and have been successfully introduced on game ranches outside of their historical
range. Historically the bontebok was endemic to the southwest Cape Province of
South Africa. They nearly became extinct in the 1800‟s through overutilization but
conservation efforts by farmers and the government secured their future. The
establishment of the Bontebok National park near Swellendam was a particularly
important milestone in conserving the bontebok. They have also been translocated
on game farms throughout the central and southern parts of South Africa, often
outside their natural range. Although this helped to secure their future, it also
inevitably led to interbreeding with blesbok on some properties.
Bontebok and blesbok are closely related and very similar. The two white patches in
the blaze of the blesbok are usually separated by a brown bar across the face, just
below the eyes and sometimes just above the eyes. In the bontebok the two white
patches are usually continuous. The lower legs of bontebok are white as if it is
wearing white socks whereas the blesbok only has a brown stripe down the outside
of the lower leg. The bontebok also has a conspicuous white rump patch, but the
rump of the blesbok is brown with only a small white patch around the base of the
tail. The bontebok also has a purplish gloss which the sun reflects of its hide; the
blesbok does not have this gloss.
Bontebok and blesbok are grazers preferring short grasses and are thus essentially
plains dwellers. Blesbok are however also doing well in mixed woodland with short,
sour grasses provided there are not too many large predators such as cheetah and
leopard. They are partial to new grass growth on burnt veldt and tend to avoid
grasses with more than one season‟s growth. As the nutritional value of the grazing
deteriorates in winter, blesbok start losing weight, but when new growth sprouts out
76
after the first summer rains they immediately start gaining condition. During winter
they are also less active and spend much time lying in the sun, or on hot days, lying
in the shade. In summer they become much more active again.
They are gregarious, diurnal antelopes and the social structure consists of territorial
rams, nursing herds of ewes with their young, and bachelor herds of younger rams
or rams with no territory. Blesbok nursing herds are however larger than those of
bontebok; at times blesbok aggregations of hundreds of blesbok occur.
The males of both races are territorial, but blesbok do not maintain their territories
during winter and spring (June to September) when the large concentrations of
animals are formed. Bontebok, however, are year round territorial. The territory is
defended by driving away intruding rams and by displays such as horning the ground
and defecating on middens within the territory. Neighboring territorial bulls also
engage in „territorial behaviors‟ whereby one will enter the territory of the other and
they will stand alongside each other, performing certain behavioral sequences before
carrying on with their normal daily routines in their own territories. Fighting between
neighboring rams may happen from time to time but is not common.
Trespassing non-territorial rams are also driven off non-violently. The territory holder
firstly look at the intruder with the head held as high as possible and the ears forward
– a position known as “proud posture” and common amongst the antelope species.
This is usually sufficient to cause the intruder to leave. If not, the territorial ram will
resort to other tactics. For instance, he will run towards the intruder but will not
attack; he will simply run past and shake his horns at the intruder whilst running. He
may have to repeat the performance before the intruder starts running away. The
territorial ram will wait for the intruder to start running before giving chase. If he
catches up with the bachelor he will not attack, but will rather slow down to allow the
intruder to escape.
Ewes are not territorial but stay within a restricted home range. Since territories of
the rams are adjacent the ewes usually find themselves on one the territories.
Should they wish to leave the territory the ram will display in an attempt to convince
her to stay. He will follow her only to the boundary of his territory; thereafter she is
free to go. Sometimes she may try to escape by running away and this will provoke
the ram to give chase. She will jink and swerve at full gallop with the ram each time
trying to head her off. This will continue until either she escapes or is shepherded
back to the group.
Bontebok has the habit of standing still, facing the sun in a characteristic posture
with the head low and forward and the chin tucked. Blesbok‟s unique characteristic is
head nodding when they are nervous or joyful or when the territorial rams “pronk” in
front of the ewes. They also have the habit of using the exact same routes to water
and grazing, and then walk in characteristic single file.
Blesbok depend largely on their eyesight to detect danger. When they are
threatened they mill around in one place before running away for some distance
before stopping and milling around once again. If they still perceive a threat the flight
procedure is repeated until they feel safe.
Blesbok mate during the period March to May and they drop their young from
November through to January.
Two colour variants of the blesbok, namely white blesbok and yellow blesbok, have
been bred by South African game farmers for commercial purposes. White and
yellow blesbok are not sub-species; they are simply colour variants. They breed with
77
common blesbok and also cross-breed with bontebok. The descendents of crossbreeds are fertile and they are thus regarded as a risk for the genetic integrity of both
blesbok and bontebok.
Typical posture of the male bontebok. Photo : Willem Frost
Blesbok are animals of the wide open plains of the South African Highveld.
Photo: Willem Frost
78
Tsessebe (Damaliscus lunatus lunatus) is typical of the sub-family: grazers that
utilize a wide range of grass species. The Damaliscus lunatus specie is classified as
“Least Concern” on the IUCN Red List. D.l. lunatus is unfortunately not separately
assessed. Tsessebe are present in a number of Southern African populations, but
became extinct in Mozambique around the late 1970s or early 1980s. They have
been reintroduced in Swaziland, after the indigenous population was exterminated.
It is however interesting to note that their numbers in South Africa‟s Kruger National
Park , one of their historical strongholds, have declined from about 1300 in 1986 to
somewhere between 120 and 170 in 2006. The same thing happened with roan
antelope. The reasons are uncertain, but this phenomena is probably due to habitat
changes (short grasses replacing long grasses) as a result of too many artificial
waterholes. Tsessebe prefer medium to long grass and is water dependent.
However, they do not drink easily from artificial water troughs – only from natural
water points. Open, natural water and open woodland seems to be an important
habitat requirement – they are sensitive to bush encroachment and loss of suitable
habitat is a serious threat to their well-being. They like to drink daily, but during times
of drought they are able to survive by drinking less frequently; maybe once per week.
Tsessebe cannot handle extreme cold weather and are found only in tropical and
sub-tropical habitat.
Tsessebe are exclusively grazers and partial to new growth - they are attracted to
burnt areas as soon as the new grass starts to appear. They are found in grassland
and open country with scattered bush. Tsessebe normally occur in small breeding
groups of six to ten cows with their offspring. When grazing is good, bachelor herds
and territorial bull herds may however number as much as thirty animals. When
grazing deteriorates they will move out of an area to return only once grazing is good
again. During the dry season more than one herd and breeding bulls may share a
waterhole; during these times the bulls are much more tolerant of one another.
The cows are not restricted to a specific territory. Territorial bulls, however, patrol
their territories, maintaining a steady gait and defecating at regular intervals. They
mark their territories with the preorbital glands and also rub the sides of their faces
on the ground. Both sexes horn the ground, especially after rain. They also paw and
scrape the ground as a means of territorial marking with a secretion from the interdigital glands on the front feet. Territorial breeding bulls are often seen some
distance from the herd, standing on some height such as a termite mount. This is
done to advertise his presence. All the while the herd is watched with a hawk-eye.
Serious fighting between bulls is not common, but when they do engage one another
they go down on the knees and attack the opponent with the horns. Bachelor bulls
do not have territories, but occupy the periphery of existing territories.
Old territorial bulls that have been pushed out of the herd and that are no longer
reproductive, will not join a bachelor or breeding herd again but will remain solitary.
Sometimes they rather associate themselves with other species such as blue
wildebeest, zebra or waterbuck.
The Tsessebe has the reputation of being the fastest antelope in Africa and speed is
their main defensive mechanism. They can maintain a fast gallop for long distances
but are inquisitive animals and will stop in the open even if some members of the
herd have already been shot. This behavior must have contributed to their decline in
numbers.
79
Tsessebe in South Africa’s Ithala Game Reserve. Photo: Willem Frost
Tsessebe calf running for the apparent fun of it. Photo: Willem Frost
80
The Topi (Damaliscus lunatus topi) is the most common subspecies of East Africa
and can be seen in large numbers on the Serengeti plains and in the Rukwa valley in
Tanzania. They are specifically partial to the areas with short grasses known locally
as „mbugas‟. They are probably the most common ungulate in the Rukwa valley,
which are part of the Great Rift Valley of Africa, where the floor of the valley provides
excellent grazing and a good supply of water. They are usually found on flood plains
and open savannah and park woodland. They are strongly gregarious and herds of
hundreds of animals may sometime s be found. More often the herd size is in the
order of twenty animals though.
Topis are most active in the morning and evening, taking to the shade during the
heat of the day. They usually feed for a while, then rest and chew their cud before
they continue feeding. They have several rest breaks during the day. If they have
access to green pastures they can without water for long periods of time. The quality
of the grazing has a major impact on their daily activities - the coarser and drier the
feed, the longer rest time needed for digestion.
The topi is found in large numbers on the grassy plains of East Africa, particularly
areas of short grass known as “mbugas”. The males (next page) stake out territories
and the females (above) wander freely through territories. During the rut, the bull
engages in scent-marking and fighting. A single calve is born after a gestation period
of about 240 days. Photos: Ariadne van Zandbergen
81
The Tiang (Damaliscus lunatus tiang) and the Korrigum (Damaliscus lunatus
korrigum) are distinguished from the other Damaliscus subspecies by the concave
shape of the skull and the flatter but more curving horns. It is a large antelope and
resembles the tsessebe.
Africa‟s largest population of tiang was rediscovered by the Wildlife Conservation
Society during an aerial survey in southern Sudan in 2007. A population of at least
150 000 animals (and probably more) seems to be thriving in the Jonglei area of
Southern Sudan. Africa‟s total tiang population could well in excess of 200 000
animals. Tiang is a savannah antelope and can exist without surface water, but they
need good quality grazing and are one of the main participants of the great
Sudanese migration. They avoid dense woodland and are usually found in open
plains and savannahs such as lightly wooded woodlands, floodplains, grass plains,
grass veld, vleys and grassy areas around pans.
82
Korrigum in the Pendjari National Park, Benin. It is locally also known as the topi and
is a look-alike of the East African topi. Photo: Jonas van de Voorde
The Reduncini tribe
(Waterbuck, Lechwe, Kob, Reedbuck, Mountain
reedbuck, Puku)
Waterbuck (Kobus ellipsyprimnus) got their name from their habit of fleeing into
water when threatened or disturbed. They will swim rapidly towards the deepest
water and stay there until the danger is over. The thick fur of the waterbuck is
unusual for an African bovid. There is however a good reason for this: the thickness
of the animal‟s pelage prevents water seeping through to the skin, which allows the
animal to maintain body temperature. They are however not truly aquatic or as home
in water as the lechwe or sitatunga.
The waterbuck is a large robust animal. Only male waterbucks have horns which are
heavily ringed, widely spaced and curving gracefully up and back. The shaggy
brown-gray coat emits a smelly, oily secretion thought to be for waterproofing and
perhaps for deterring predators.
The waterbuck is a grazer and feeds on types of coarse grass seldom eaten by other
grazing animals. They occasionally also browse leaves from certain trees and
bushes. They are crepuscular, feeding in the mornings and the evenings, and rest
and ruminate during the rest of the day. They are water dependant and drink daily.
They are thus almost always found near water.
Dominant bulls occupy territories which they defend by aggressive posturing and
even fights. Cows, calves and young bachelors congregate in herds. The
composition of such herds can vary daily as individuals freely leave or join these.
The following sub-species are recognized:
(i)
The Common Waterbuck (Kobus ellipsyprimnus ellipsyprimnus) of Southern
Africa
(ii)
The Common Defassa Waterbuck (Kobus defassa defassa) of East Africa
83
(iii)
The Crawshay Defassa Waterbuck (Kobus defassa crawshayi) of Zambia
and adjacent parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
(iv)
The Uganda Defassa Waterbuck (Kobus defassa ugandae) of Southern
Sudan, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, eastern DRC and western Tanzania.
(v)
The Angolan Defassa Waterbuck (Kobus defassa penricei) which may be
found along the Okavango River in Namibia and Angola, the CuandoCubango area in Angola, southwestern DRC, southern Congo and southern
Gabon.
(vi)
The Sing-sing Defassa Waterbuck (Kobus defassa unctuosus) of West
Africa.
The common waterbuck and the defassa waterbuck are distinguished by the
markings on the rump. The common waterbuck has a conspicuous white ring
encircling a dark rump, while the defassa has wide white patches on either side of
the rump.
Common waterbuck bull. They never stray far from water. Photos: Willem Frost
84
Common waterbuck cow. Photo: Willem Frost
Young East African Defassa waterbuck. Photo: Ariadne van Zandbergen
85
Female defassa waterbuck with calf. Photo: Ariadne van Zandbergen
The Sing-sing waterbuck of West Africa (above and next page).
Photos: Jonas van de Voorde
86
The Lechwe (Kobus leche) is a perfectly adapted aquatic species. Five different
sub-species have been identified, one of which is now extinct:
(i) The Red lechwe (Kobus leche leche) of northern Botswana‟s Okavango
Delta, as well as the Kwando/Linyanti/Chobe, Mashi, and Zambezi River
systems of north-east Namibia; and the upper Zambezi and middle Kafue
of Zambia. They have also been introduced to game farms in Free State
and Eastern Cape provinces of South Africa where they may be hunted.
This is unnatural habitat for them and South African specimens are
exotics. The total population is believed to be close to 100 000 and there
are no immediate concerns over their future.
The immense Okavango Swamps in Botswana is undoubtedly one of the
greatest wildlife paradises on the African continent. The Okavango River
rises in the Bié plateau of Angola and flows southwards for about 600
miles before it end in a huge inland delta of about 10 000 square miles.
This is the home of the red lechwe.
They tend to congregate early and late in the day in the swallow waters of
the Okavango where they find food. During midday they wander off in
small groups to drier ground. When disturbed they scamper off in long
bounds with all four feet simultaneously off the ground. Although these
galloping movements are somewhat heavy and ungainly, the lechwe‟s
lateral hooves enable them to move swiftly over the soft yielding terrain. It
also reduces the risk of slipping on the soft, swampy terrain. Furthermore,
it is also believed that the bounding gait is an indicator for the young to
follow the mothers in a perilous situation.
87
Lechwes are also strong swimmers and often escape predators by taking
to the water where their aquatic habits and skills stand them in good stead.
They are preyed upon mainly by wild dogs, lions and hyaenas. The
numbers of lechwes are not so much determined by predators, but rather
by the availability of quality grazing. When the lechwes become too many
in their home range, the quantity of available grazing is reduced and there
are then more undernourished and sick antelopes which are easy pickings
for the predators. As the lechwe numbers decrease, the quality of the
grazing improves and the lechwe population starts to increase again.
Although the balance is maintained for a while, eventually there is an
overpopulation problem once again and the natural cycle of correcting
imbalances repeats itself once again.
The red lechwe of the Okavango delta. (the ewe above and the ram below).
Photos: iStock
88
(ii) The Kafue lechwe (Kobus leche kafuensis) which are endemic to the Kafue
Flats in Zambia. The total population is currently in the order of 60 000 and
the population trend seems stable.
Mature Kufue lechwe bull. Photo: iStock
(iii) The Black lechwe (Kobus leche smithemani) which is endemic to the
Bangweulu area in Zambia. They are listed as „Vulnerable‟ by the IUCN,
and listed on Appendix II of CITES. The total population of this subspecies is stable at about 30 000 animals.
Black lechwe on the Bangweulu Swamps, Zambia.
Photo: Chris Worden, Zambezi Safari & Travel Company
(iv) Mrs. Gray’s lechwe - also known as the „Nile lechwe‟ - (Kobus lechwe
megaceros). They occur in the swamps of southern Sudan and western
Ethiopia, especially the marshy regions on the seasonally flooded swamps
89
and grasslands of the Bahr el Ghazal in the Sudd in southern Sudan. They
are listed as “Endangered” by the IUCN. The survival of the Ethiopian
population seems highly precarious because increased human pressure in
the form of hunting/poaching and habitat degradation by domestic
livestock. The Sudanese population is threatened by oil exploration and
development of the Sudd region and current inadequate conservation
measures in a conflict torn country. An aerial survey carried out by Wildlife
Conservation Society in southern Sudan in 2007 yielded an estimate of
4,291 animals, and identified the Zeraf Reserve as the most important
protected area for this species.
It was only many years after the British army took over the Sudan that the
Nile lechwe became known to the Western world in the early twentieth
century. By the time the Mrs. Gray was discovered the numbers of the red,
the black and the Kafue lechwes had already been reduced through
hunting.
When the British administration managed to make a few rough roads
through the middle of the Ango-Egyptian Sudan, they discovered amongst
other things a tribe known as the Dinkas. There are several different Dinka
clans but it was the Bahr el Ghazal Dinkas who lived in the Sudd who first
brought in a lechwe to the white administrators. It was immediately
realized that that this was an animal new to science and the head and skin
was sent to London for investigation. The animal was named after the wife
of the then head of the British Museum Zoological Department, Dr. Gray,
and has ever since been known as “Mrs. Gray‟s lechwe” even though it is
unlikely that either Dr. or Mrs. Gray ever saw a live specimen.
The first Nile lechwe originated from the Sudd – the place where the White
Nile spreads out into extensive swamps covering hundreds of square
miles. It is believed that the Sudd prevented the ancient Egyptians from
venturing further south so that they never got to the source of the Nile. The
Sudd is still today regarded as one of the most inhospitable, impenetrable,
awful places in all of Africa. It provides, however, ideal habitat for the
lechwes: seasonally flooded swamps and grasslands where these rare
antelopes mostly keep in shallow waters on the edge of deeper swamps.
There are marked differences between males and females. Whilst the
female‟s coat is pale brown, that of the male is a shining black with a white
patch along the neck and across the shoulders. The young males look
much like the females and only change colour and develop the white patch
at three to four years of age. From a distance female and young Mrs. Gray
lechwes look just like the white-eared kobs that live in close proximity. The
size, the shape and the curve of the horns are alike. The only difference is
in the color; the lechwe is more grayish whereas the kob is more light
brownish. When a lechwe bull approaches full maturity, he turns from
gray-brown to almost black, the pelage grows longer, a large white patch
appears on the withers, and the horns are much bigger than those of the
kob.
In the early stages of the mating season the males behave in a rather
unique way. They will lower the head as far as possible and then urinate,
90
thereby wetting the hair on the neck and cheeks. These wet parts are then
rubbed against the muzzle and back of the female.
Like the Sitatunga and the southern lechwe races, the Mrs. Gray has very
elongated hooves (though not as long as those of the sitatunga) for
walking or swimming in his swamp home range. He escapes his enemies
by running or swimming in the swamps and he avoids dry land. Whereas
the sitatunga submerges itself so that only the muzzle is above the water,
the Mrs. Gray usually simply wades and swims away with ease. Only if
really necessary, will he submerge up to the tip of the muzzle.
Mature Nile lechwe ram. Photo: iStock
The heavily ridged horns of the
Nile Lechwe form a shallow “S”
and diverge towards the tips.
Photo: iStock
91
(v) The now extinct Roberts lechwe (Kobus lechce robertsi) whose distribution
was restricted to the Luongo and Kalungwishi drainage systems of the
lower Luapula area in Zambia.
Kob The following subspecies are recognised:
(i) The White-eared kob (Kobus kob leucotis) of Southern Sudan and western
Ethiopia, particularly the swamps of the Nile and the Bahr-el-Ghazal. The
status of the Ethiopian population is however uncertain. It is quite similar to
the Uganda kob except that around the eyes and ears, and down the front
of the neck, it is whiter. It is believed that there are almost one million
white-eared kob on the floodplains of south-eastern Sudan. The annual
migration of white-eared kob in the swamps of southern Sudan is Africa‟s
second largest migration after that of the wildebeests on the Serengeti.
This handsome member of the kob tribe is the most numerous game
animal of Southern Sudan and the principal migrant of these parts –
although not all white-eared kob participate in the migration. Their
migration leads through really inaccessible terrain and not many people
have witnessed this incredible spectacle. Apart from white-eared kob the
migration consists of tiang, Mongalla gazelle and East African eland all
followed by lions, jackals and hyenas. At the southern end of the migration
they are joined by zebras, Bright‟s gazelles, giraffes and Beisa oryx. There
are also roan and buffalo near the Ethiopian foothills. It is believed that at
least a million animals participate in the migration.
(ii) The Uganda kob (Kobus kob thomasi) which are found in north-eastern DRC,
western and northern Uganda, and south-western Sudan west of the
White Nile. It also used to occur in the lake areas of north-western
Tanzania, but is now extinct there. This beautiful antelope is smaller than
the waterbuck but much more elegant with its reddish-brown coat, dark
eyes and large ears. They are found either in large herds, small groups or
bachelor herds. Females generally live in herds apart from males. They
often feed during the heat of the day – an unusual habit.
92
Uganda kob (above and below) are never far from water and prefer open
floodplains with good quality grass cover. Photos: Ariadne van Zandbergen
93
Fine Uganda kob ram.
Photo: Ariadne van Zandbergen
(iii) The Buffon kob (Kobus kob kob) of West Africa and northern DRC. They
have the widest distribution range of all kob, but are extinct in Gambia and
Sierra Leone and possibly southern Mauritania.
Buffon kob. Photo: Ariadne van Zandbergen
94
Buffon kob (ram above left, ewe on the right and a lamb below).
Photos: Jonas van de Voorde
95
The Puku (Kobus vardoni) belong to the same genus as waterbuck, lechwe and kob
and used to occur widely across the savanna woodlands and floodplains of southcentral Africa wherever there was grassland near permanent water.
They have lost much of the historical range and have been reduced to fragmented,
isolated populations, some of which are fortunately still numerous. Tanzania and
Zambia are the strongholds. The population in the Selous Game Reserve has been
extirpated. A small population of Puku still occurs on the Chobe River floodplain in
northern Botswana. The first specimen was collected by Dr. David Livingstone and
he first described it in 1857. Apparently puku was then abundant in suitable habitat.
In 1874 Frederick Courtney Selous reported that puku were very numerous for 100
kilometers west of the confluence of the Chobe and Zambezi rivers which included
an area that we know today as the Puku Flats. Since those days puku numbers and
range have declined dramatically. The remaining small southern population (i.e.
south of the Zambezi River) is completely isolated from other puku populations by
hundreds of kilometers.
Pukus are grazers and inhabit the margins of rivers, lakes and floodplains. They live
on higher ground in the rainy season in small groups of three to fifteen animals.
During the dry season they descend to graze the many grass species on the
grasslands near permanent water and may then form herds of fifty or more animals.
Adult rams are territorial whilst young and non-territorial rams form bachelor herds.
Ewes and their young form small breeding herds. They breed throughout the year
although there is distinct peak during the rainy season.
Puku lamb on the banks of the Chobe River, Botswana. Photo: Willem Frost
96
Puku ram on the Chobe River floodplain, Botswana. Photo: Willem Frost
Mountain Reedbuck
There are three sub-species of Mountain reedbuck, namely
(i) Southern mountain reedbuck (Redunca fulvorufula fulvorufula) of South
Africa, south-eastern Botswana and southern Mozambique
(ii) Chanler’s mountain reedbuck (Redunca fulvorufula chanleri) which occurs
from Ethiopia southward to western Kenya, north-eastern Tanzania and
adjacent parts of Sudan and Uganda.
(iii) Western mountain reedbuck (Redunca fulvorufula adamuae) from the
Adamua Mountain in Cameroon.
The Mountain reedbuck require unique habitat: uneven terrain consisting of hills,
mountains and rocks with medium to long grasses - habitat that are only marginally
utilised by other species. They also require some cover in the form of trees and
scrubs. Areas with short grasses as well as habitat consisting of thickets, dense
woodlands and forests are avoided, but they are partial to new growth on burnt veldt.
Although they are almost exclusively grazers, they tend to avoid the open mountain
slopes and are mostly seen in areas with some cover where they can hide and rest.
They avoid cliffs and sheer rock faces and are not able to utilise the same habitat as
97
klipspringers. The Mountain reedbuck is also one of the rare species that do well in
sourveldt. They are found in areas with relatively high rainfall – 400mm to 900mm
per annum.
They are also less dependent on water than common or Bohor reedbucks. They like
to drink daily and often come down from their mountainous home ranges to drink at
rivers or marshes, but can go for relatively long periods without drinking, if forced to.
The availability of drinking water is however an important habitat requirement and
they will not remain indefinitely in an area with no water.
Mountain reedbucks are smaller than reedbucks or Bohor reedbucks. Only the male
carries horns which curve forward like those of common and Bohor reedbucks. The
horns are short – about the same height as the ears - and heavily ridged.
They are essentially grazers and are mostly active in the early morning and late
afternoon. They graze on less nutritional sour grasses and therefore quickly lose
condition during the dry season. Understandably, they do not like hard, dry grass
material. Even though they occupy marginal habitat, they will not migrate to better
grazing.
Mountain reedbucks are usually found in small herds of three to six animals, but
sometimes larger herds may be formed. The rams are solitary and territorial. They
defend their territories more by way of advertising their presence than by fighting.
The home range of the breeding herd overlaps with the territories of two or three
rams. The sizes of the territories and home ranges can vary and depend on the
quality of the habitat and the population density. Territorial rams remain within their
territories throughout the year, seldom leaving it. When disturbed and having fled,
they normally return to the territory. Non-territorial rams form small groups on the
periphery of the territories.
They are able to multiply quickly; in areas with good quality grazing the ewes can
come into oestrus within a year of being born. Single lambs are born in 12 to 14
month intervals after a gestation period of 235 to 250 days. They mate throughout
the year with a peak during the period April-May in South Africa. The Southern
Mountain reedbuck gives birth during the early part of the „green‟ season – October
to December. The ewe leaves the herd to give birth where after the lamb hides itself
in cover. The ewe visits her lamb once or twice per day to feed it and will spend up to
half an hour with the youngster before leaving again. The lamb constantly moves to
a new hiding place. After two to three months the lamb starts grazing with the mother
and then joins the herd. Lambs are preyed upon by jackals, caracals and large
raptors and the hiding behaviour is an important defence mechanism. Mortalities can
still be high though.
The territorial rams will tolerate young rams until they are about a year old when they
are driven from the herd to join bachelor herds.
98
A good sized southern mountain reedbuck ram in its mountainous habitat.
Photo: Willem Frost
Mountain reedbuck ewes (above and next page). Photos: Willem Frost
99
100
Bohor reedbuck (Redunca redunca) is a savannah antelope. Although they are not
as common as waterbuck, they are also usually found near water where they hide in
long grass. They are however more nocturnal than diurnal. Bohor reedbucks do not
form herds but are seen as pairs or small family groups consisting of a ram and three
or four ewes. Herds of up to fifty animals have however been reported from Akagera
in Rwanda.
Eastern bohor reedbuck. Photo: Rhett A Butler, Mongaby.com
Abyssinian bohor reedbuck. Photo: Ariadne van Zandbergen
101
Eastern Bohor reedbuck of Tanzania’s Katavi Game Reserve.
Photograph: Ariadne van Zandbergen
Bohor reedbucks are inhabitants of river floodplains, reed beds and seasonally flooded
grasslands. Photo: Ariadne van Zandbergen
102
Bohor reedbuck in the Pendjari National Park in Benin. Photo: Jonas van de Voorde
Common reedbucks (Redunca arundinum) are taller than Bohor reedbucks. The
horns are also longer and the lower part of the horns is straighter than those of other
reedbucks. In all reedbuck species it is only the rams that carry horns. The horns are
ringed and curve forward.
A common characteristic of all reedbucks is the bare grey patch below each ear. It is
believed that the function of this bare patch is to help the reedbuck determine the
wind direction.
Reedbucks are found in reeds and tall grasses, which can be up to two metres high,
and are associated with flood plains, marshes, wetlands and pans with permanent
water. Open plains without cover and thickets and forests are avoided. Reedbucks
are water dependant and need to drink daily, but they do not like to move physically
into the water like sitatunga or lechwe. They use well-worn trails to go the water, but
approach very cautiously. The ewes will hang back and will wait for the rams and
lambs to drink first. When reedbucks are at the water, a few will always be on guard
duty whilst the others drink. During very hot days they may drink more than once.
Rain does not seem to affect their behaviour, but strong winds may cause them to
rest more and to spend less time grazing.
The cover provided by tall grass and reeds is more important than the nutritional
value of the available food. They are primarily grazers that utilises both sweet and
sour grasses. They utilise such a specialized habitat that they do not have much
competition for grazing, the only possible competitors being waterbuck, lechwe and
103
sable. Although they are grazers they will also take small quantities browse during
the dry winter months.
Reedbucks do not migrate but will graze on the ecotones of adjacent plains. They
are not tolerant of other species or human activities and find it difficult to adapt to
habitat changes. During the day reedbucks characteristically hide in tall grass and
reeds by lying down and it is then almost impossible to spot them.
Reedbucks are mainly nocturnal but may also be active during the day, especially
during the dry winter months. They are found as solitary animals, or in pairs, or as
small family groups of up to six animals. In the dry season, temporary herds of up to
twenty animals may form. Reedbucks are simply not gregarious antelopes like the
waterbuck or lechwe. Pairs are territorial but the ram and the ewe move
independently through the territory. The ram will defend his territory aggressively and
young intruding rams are often killed. Reedbucks do not need to move far for their
daily activities, the home ranges and territories are quite small in comparison to other
species.
Territorial rams will defend the territory by advertising their presence: the head is
held up high, the legs are stiffened and the white mark across the throat is shown
clearly. The territory is also marked by defecating and urinating in specific places.
Mating can happen throughout the year, but lambs are mostly dropped during the
wet summer months. Single lambs are born and are hidden for the first six to eight
weeks. The ewe will visit the lamb regularly to feed it, where after it will move it, each
time, to a new hiding place. This behaviour is similar to that of the mountain
reedbuck.
104
Common reedbuck; ram above and ewe below. They can be difficult to observe as they
like to lie down in tall grass during the day. Photos: Willem Frost
Common reedbuck ewe. Photo: Willem Frost
105
The Aepycerotini tribe
Impalas are common and abundant in Southern-, Central- and Eastern Africa. Three
races are recognized: (i) the Black-faced impala (Aepyceros melampus petersi) of
southern Angola and northern Namibia; (ii) the Southern impala (Aepyceros
melampus melampus) of South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Swaziland,
Mozambique, Malawi and southeastern DRC; and (iii) the East African impala
(Aepyceros melampus rendilis) of Kenya, Tanzania and Rwanda.
The Southern impala is typically associated with Acacia and Mopane woodlands and
avoids open grass plains and flood plains. In summer they may however graze on
the fresh grasses on open plains. They do not occur in mountain habitat.
The black-faced impala prefers dense riverine thickets and somewhat more open
woodlands with trees such as camel thorn (Acacia erioloba), Ana tree (Acacia albida)
and Leadwood (Combretum imberbe).
Impalas are mixed feeders, i.e. they browse and graze, enabling them to do well in a
variety of bushveldt habitat and to handle drought better than the specialist feeders
such as sable and roan. They utilize a very wide range of plant material and are very
selective in terms of plant species and the part of the plant that is eaten. They are
thus also regarded as „concentrate feeders‟ that eat only tasty plant material with a
high nutritional value. During the rainy season they like to feed on new, green grass
growth. During the dry winter months they tend to move closer to rivers where they
may still find green grass. Browsing is however always an important part of the
impala diet. They also eat fruits and the pods of the umbrella thorn (Acacia tortilis)
are particularly sought after. Availability of drinking water is an important habitat
requirement and impalas need to drink daily.
Like all other species of antelope, the impala‟s senses of smelling, sight and hearing
are extremely well developed. They also have an incredible leaping ability and when
disturbed they take flight in spectacular leaps and bounds.
Impalas are gregarious and make bachelor herds and separate breeding herds
consisting of several females, young and a dominant male. A dominant ram will not
tolerate other males amongst his ewes. As soon as the young males are a year old
they are expelled from the breeding herd to join a bachelor herd.
The impala rut is one of the main happenings in the bushveldt region of Southern
Africa. By January the days start getting shorter and the testosterone levels in the
rams start rising, making them more aggressive. Fighting amongst rams become
more and more common and their load roars reverberate throughout the bush. The
big dominating rams each establishes an own territory which they scent-mark by
rubbing the glandular skin on the forehead and face on the vegetation. Intruding
rams are driven off aggressively. This leads to regular fighting, the loser being
chased until he is safely out of the territory.
By March the territorial ran has started herding a group of females together and they
start coming into heat. He tests them on an ongoing basis for readiness to mate. The
mating peaks between the two full moons in the first half on May. During this time the
territorial ram is so busy fighting off intruders, herding ewes and mating, that he has
very little time for feeding. He draws energy from the fat reserves that has been built
106
up in his neck during preceding months, but still loses condition. He may then be
displaced by an intruding ram which is still in better condition.
The lambs are dropped en mass during a three week period at the end of November
and the beginning of December. During drought when the veldt is in poor condition,
the ewes are able to delay birth for periods up to three weeks, hoping for rain and
better quality grazing on which to raise the young.
The concentrated lambing is an important defense mechanism of the impala. All of a
sudden there are huge numbers of young in the bush. Many are taken by jackals,
caracals and other predators, but many more able to escape and to grow stronger so
that they have a better chance of survival.
Southern impala (ewe above and ram below). Photos: Willem Frost
107
Black-faced impala ram of the mopane woodlands, northern Namibia. Photo: iStock
East African impala. Note the impressive horns.
Photo: iStock
108
The Peleini tribe
The Vaal Rhebok (Pelea capreolus) is endemic to a small region in southern Africa
and is the only member of this sub-family. They occur in the montane and plateau
grasslands of South Africa, Swaziland and Lesotho. The South African distribution is
discontinuous and patchy where they are extinct north of the Orange River in the
Northern Cape and in parts of the North West Province. They used to occur on the
Highveld of western Swaziland, but have largely disappeared from this area. They
remain however fairly common in the Malolotja Nature Reserve and also survive in a
few unprotected areas. In Lesotho, only a few scattered populations remain of the
former large and wide population. They are apparently doing well, however, in the
Sehlabathebe National Park.
Vaal rhebok are found in rocky mountains, rock faces, and mountain plateaus. They
are grazers and require habitat with good quality grass cover.
Only the rams carry horns which are straight, like those of the steenbok, and ridged
for about half of the length. Rather than use the horns to fight, rams will defend their
territories by advertising that the area has been occupied and that intruders will not
be tolerated. This is done by approaching the intruder very slowly, stamping with the
front feet and snorting loudly. This is usually sufficient to drive the intruder off. If the
advertising does not work, the confrontation may result in fighting where after the
victor will retain the territory. Young rams will leave the family group just before the
lambing season (November/December) and will occupy the periphery of the existing
territories until they have been able to establish an own territory.
A family group usually consists of a ram and a few ewes and their lambs. Size of the
group is not big: six to twelve animals. A few family groups may sometimes join
together to form temporary, bigger herds. Family groups stay throughout the year in
the home range.
Vaal rhebok are active for most of the day, but will rest during the heat of the day.
During winter, when the quality of grazing deteriorates, they have to move over
greater distances to find food. They are graceful and agile antelopes that can move
very swiftly over their mountainous habitat. When running away the white under part
of the tails are clearly visible – this is believed to be a marker for the followers.
109
Vaal rhebok photographed in the Swartberg Pass, South Africa. Photo: Patrick Cardwell
Gazelles (Subfamily: Antilopinae, Tribe: Antilopini)
Gazelles are graceful, medium sized antelopes that are well adapted to life in the
desert and in the dry, grassy savannahs. They are striking animals
Gazelles have numerous natural enemies and are preyed upon by lions, leopards,
cheetahs, wild dogs, hyenas, jackals and caracals. Each predator has its own
peculiar hunting method. Jackals seem to specialise in taking the newborn and can
often be seen hanging around the herds during the lambing season. Cheetahs and
wild dogs will run the prey down whilst the leopard relies on stealth and the surprise
of an ambush. Large eagles such as martial and Verreaux‟s eagles will also take
young gazelles should the opportunity arise.
The Gerenuk (Litocranius walleri) is an odd looking animal. Its long neck makes it
appear somewhat ungainly, and it is sometimes known as the “giraffe antelope “. It is
however perfectly adapted to the harsh conditions of the dry north-eastern parts of
Africa. It is a voracious browser, especially of acacia, and is capable of enduring
extremely hot temperatures and thirst. With its long neck, slender limbs and large
eyes, its bears no resemblance to any other antelope than perhaps the dibatag.
The gerenuk has the unique ability to stand erect on its hind legs whilst resting its
front hooves against the thorny acacia branches and stretching its neck so as to
110
reach the leaves and shoots unattainable to other browsers. It‟s only browsing
competitor is thus the giraffe.
They will drink regularly when water is available, but can go without water for
considerable periods. They have also developed a kidney mechanism that
maximizes the re-utilization of water.
They merge imperceptibly into the acacia bushes for the greater part of the day.
Standing upright on all four legs, absolutely motionless, with the neck stretched
forward, often behind the foliage of undergrowth, they become almost invisible.
The Gerenuk relies on camouflage and stealth, rather than its running ability, when
threatened. When disturbed it will disappear into the nearest thicket where it will
hide. When threatened it will trot or walk quickly from cover to cover, with the head
held low, stopping frequently to look back at the cause of disturbance.
The gerenuk is easily identified by its long legs and long, thin neck. They are browsers
feeding on Acacias and a wide variety of other plants of the arid areas. Gerenuk is
independent of drinking water. Photos: Ariadne van Zandbergen
111
Northern gerenuk. They prefer arid thorn scrub and thickets. Adult rams are often
solitary. Photo: iStock
The Thomson’s gazelle (Gazella thomsoni) has for long been regarded as one of
Africa‟s most abundant gazelles, but is now classified as “Near Threatened” by the
IUCN Red List. The specie is on the decline, even in its strongholds such as the
Ngorogoro, Serengeti and Masai Mara. They are very much part of the East African
plains landscape and used to occur wherever there is open space. It is East and
North Africa‟s most prolific gazelle.
They are rather similar to the Red-fronted gazelle with a white bar near the eyes and
a horizontal black bar on the flanks. Both sexes carry large ringed horns which curve
delicately backwards.
Whilst many gazelles are essentially browsers, Thomson gazelles (“Thommies”) are
primarily grazers, although they may also take forbs and fruits in the dry season.
They are relatively drought resistant, enabling them to remain out on the dry plains,
long after most other ungulates have moved off to find better grazing. Thomson's
Gazelle in the Serengeti follow the migratory pattern of the wildebeest and zebra
populations, but remain for longer on the open plains in the south-east of the
ecosystem and do not migrate as far north as the Masai Mara. Thomson‟s gazelles
112
cover substantial distances when grazing. They have pointed muzzles and will stop
to graze in a patch of short grass before moving on to another patch some distance
away.
The rams mark their territories with their preorbital scent glands, defecation and
exaggerated urination. They defend their territories aggressively and fighting
amongst rams is not uncommon, especially when territories are closely located.
Fighting rams approach one another with straight, stiff necks and the horns held
vertical. They then jump forward to butt heads, retreat and butt again and again,
stopping every now and then to stand in mock alarm, to urinate or defecate, to graze
or to engage in some other activity. The shape of the horns, however, prevents
serious injury during these fights.
The Thomson gazelle has been named after a Scottish naturalist that explored East
Africa on foot in the early 1880‟s when he was searching for a route between
Mombasa and Lake Victoria. He was the first white man to explore Masailand and
live to tell his story. In 1883 he shot an antelope near Lake Baringo that he named
after himself.
Thomson’s gazelle, a denizen of the open
grasslands of the Serengeti and the Masai-Mara.
Photo: Ariadne van Zandbergen
113
The Thomson gazelle is a grazer and needs to drink regularly.
Photo: Ariadne van Zandbergen
Grant’s gazelle (Gazella granti) migrates to short-grass plains of East Africa in the
dry season and the savannah woodland during rains - opposite to the main
Serengeti-Mara wildebeest and zebra migration. Sometimes they also mix with the
more numerous Thomson's gazelle and can be seen feeding together – the
Thommies grazing on the short grasses and the Grant‟s gazelles browsing quite
contentedly on leaves. Grant‟s gazelles are primarily browsers and, unlike the
Thomson‟s gazelle, will stay in one place when feeding.
Grant‟s gazelle is water-independent and is at home sub desert, lowland thorn bush,
savannah woodland, open plains, and montane grassland up to 2500 m., but not
long grass. It is possible for Grant's gazelle to thrive in areas beyond the reach of
herbivores that need to drink regularly. They are able to utilise a wider range of
habitat than the Thomson‟s gazelle, but is not as numerous. Like gemsbok and oryx
they can go without water for months and are comfortable staying out in the sun
when other species seek shade. This has probably to do with their nasal cooling
system.
Herds are not large and seldom exceed thirty animals. Males are territorial but the
territories are larger than those of the Thomson‟s gazelles and fighting is not as
common.
Two subspecies are recognized: (i) the Southern Grant’s gazelle (Gazella granti
granti) of Tanzania and (ii) the Northern Grant’s gazelle (Gazella granti lacuum) of
114
southwestern Ethiopia and Kenya. A further three subspecies, with different common
names are also recognized: Bright’s gazelle (Gazella granti brighti), Peter’s gazelle
(Gazella granti petersi) and Robert’s gazelle (Gazella granti robertsi), all of different
parts of East Africa. The Bright‟s gazelle is confined to the southern end of the
Sudanese savannah zone, east of the River Nile, and to some areas near the
Ethiopian foothills. It differs from the other Grant‟s gazelles in being smaller in body
and horn size, in having a black border around the white rump patch, and in having
vaguer flank bands.
A mature Grant’s gazelle ram on the Serengeti plains in Tanzania. Photo: iStock
115
Typical East African scene: Grant’s gazelle in the Samburu National Park, Kenya.
Photo: Ariadne van Zandbergen
Female Grant’s gazelle. They drop a single fawn at any time of the year after a
gestation period of about 200 days. Photo: Ariadne van Zandbergen
116
Grant’s gazelle ram in the Samburu National Park, Kenya. Photo: Ariadne van Zandbergen
The Mongalla gazelle (Gazella thomsoni albonotata) resides on the floodplains and
savannah grasslands in southern Sudan. They do seem to be water dependent
though. Although they migrate annually over the eastern Sudd floodplains, an
ecologically peculiar region where extensive floods are followed by extreme aridity,
the Mongalla gazelle is one of the last species to join the
Great Migration. During the wet season, the Mongalla gazelle aggregates in high
population densities with other migratory species such as White-eared Kob and
Tiang. An aerial survey by the Wildlife Conservation Society in 2007 (the first in more
than two decades) resulted in an estimate of 278 000 animals for this subpopulation.
The Soemmering’s gazelle (Gazella soemmeringii) is a denizen of the harsh habitat
of the horn of Africa (Ethiopia, Somalia, Sudan, Eritrea and Djibouti) and is regarded
as vulnerable. They are the largest of the Soemmering‟s gazelles and prefer short
grass plains. The Sudan Soemmering’s gazelle (Gazella soemmeringii
soemmeringii) occurred in north-eastern Sudan and adjacent Eritrea, but is feared to
be extinct. The Borani Soemmering’s gazelle (Gazella soemmeringii butteri) is
endemic to the Dawa valley in Ethiopia, but is probably also extinct. There are a few
Somali Soemmering’s gazelles (Gazella soemmeringii berberana) populations left
in Somalia, Djibouti and Ethiopia, but they are under extreme pressure from
117
uncontrolled hunting and poaching and habitat degradation as a result of overgrazing
by domestic livestock.
Somali Soemmering’s gazelle. Photo: iStock
Somali Soemmering’s gazelle. Photo: Catrin Hammer, Al Wabra Wildlife Preservation
118
The Dorcas gazelle (Gazella dorcas dorcas) used to have the widest distribution of
any African gazelle, which stretched over most of North Africa and the Sahara and
the Sahelian region, but populations are now highly fragmented and they are absent
from much of their former range . A number of subspecies have been identified: the
Sahara dorcas gazelle (Gazella dorcas osiris), Egyptian dorcas gazelle (Gazella
dorcas dorcas). G. dorcas neglecta from North West Africa (Morocco, Mauritania and
West Sahara); G. dorcas massaesyla from northern Morocco and the subspecies
listed hereunder: the Eritrean gazelle (G.d. littoralis), the Isabelline gazelle (G.d.
Isabella) and Pelzeln’s gazelle (G.d pelzelni). Scientists are still debating whether
Pelzeln‟s gazelle is a subspecies of the Gazella dorcas or a species on its own.
Officially it is still a dorcas subspecies, but this may change. The Pelzeln‟s gazelle is
not water dependent as it obtains its moisture requirements from the plant material
that it eats. It is found along the coastal plains of Somalia in desolate rocky and/or
sandy habitat where it likes to keep in dry, sandy fossil rivers known locally as wadis.
They can also be found on the hard gravel flats with very little vegetation. Pelzeln‟s
gazelles keep in small family groups of about six animals on average, but can also
be encountered in pairs or as single animals.
Gazella dorcas dorcas is the most widespread and is found all over the Sahara. The
overall population has been on the decline for a long time as a result of drought,
overgrazing by domestic livestock and excessive hunting. The largest current
populations are in Chad (especially in the Ouadi Rimé-Ouadi Achim Faunal
Reserve), Niger (Aïr-Ténéré National Nature Reserve and the Termit MassifTinToumma), and along the northern parts of the horn of Africa.
Dorcas gazelles are rather small (shoulder height 55 to 65 cm and weight 15 to 20
kg) with few contrasting colors. They have typical gazelle facial stripes but these are
less distinct than those of most other gazelles. The horns are lyrate and strongly
ringed and 25 to 37 cm in length. Females are identical to males other than for the
more slender horns and the slighter build.
Dorcas gazelles feed on a wide variety of plants (in fact, they feed on almost all
desert plant species) and also supplements their diet with locusts and their larvae.
These gazelles have a remarkable ability to withstand severe desert climate.
They usually live in small herds and the males keep some distance from the rest of
the herd. They only join the herd again for mating which can take place any time of
the year. Bachelor and female groups are common. The social structure also
depends on habitat conditions. When food is very scarce they are to be found only in
pairs with dependent offspring.
Communication amongst dorcas gazelles is unusual and the white patch on the
rump plays an important role. When the animals are relaxed and feeding, the black
tail is flicked from side to side across the clearly visible white patch on the rump. If
they are disturbed, they take a posture which largely conceals the white patch. The
tail is now tucked down beneath the hind legs. If they are threatened, they will raise
alarm. The hindquarters are raised thereby accentuating and enlarging the white
patches. The tail is flicked nervously and this seems to be a signal for the herd to
move off, usually at a trot.
119
Mature Dorcas gazelle ram. Photo: Catrin Hammer, Al Wabra Wildlife Preserve
120
The Dorcas gazelle’s preferred habitat consists of semi-desert and sandy areas.
Photo: Ariadne van Zandbergen
Pelzeln‟s gazelle. Photo: Catrin Hammer, Al Wabra Wildlife Preservation
121
The Slender-horned gazelle, (Gazella leptoceros leptoceros, also known as the
Rhim gazelle, was already listed as endangered in the 1960‟s. In 1996 the IUCN
listed it as “critically endangered “. Today, it may very well be close to extinction. It
has been reported recently that an Arab hunting expedition shot as many 42 of these
animals in January and February 2004 in Egypt‟s Western Desert despite the fact
that it is illegal to hunt in the said area.
This once common desert gazelle used to range from Algeria eastward to Egypt,
Chad and possibly northern Sudan. It lives in the dunes in very small groups usually
consisting of a ram and one or more ewes with their young. It is not known how
many of these animals are left in the wild. Total numbers are probably only a few
hundred. All sub-populations are small. It is now classified as Endangered on the
IUCN Red List, and listed on Appendix I of The Convention on Migratory Species. It
is also listed as Endangered by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, and is
listed on Appendix III of CITES in Tunisia.
The slender-horned gazelle is a nomadic desert antelope. Photo: iStock
122
The Dama gazelle (Gazella dama), also known as the Addra gazelle, used to be
common on the edges of the Sahara Desert, from Morocco and Senegal in the west
to the Sudan in the east. Only a few small populations remain Mali, Burkina Faso,
Niger and Chad. They have also been introduced on private land in the USA and
Europe. Today they are regarded as Critically Endangered by the IUCN and have
been placed on Appendix 1 of CITES as well as The Convention on Migratory
Species.
This is the largest of the gazelles (shoulder height 90 top 120 cm and weight 40 to
75 kg). The neck and legs are also relatively long. The reddish hue of the upper part
of the body contrasts strongly with the white belly and hindquarters. Both sexes carry
strongly ringed short horns which bent back from the base and which are curved at
the tip. These hardy animals prefer a desert habitat, as well as adjoining arid areas
with sparse vegetation cover.
Three subspecies are recognized: G.d. dama, G.d. mhorr, and G.d. ruficolis and they
are all highly endangered. The mhorr gazelle is now only found in captivity and in
fenced protected areas. It is estimated that roughly a thousand of G.d. dama and
G.d. ruficolis remain in the wild. After the Second World War, North Africa was
subjected to mass slaughtering of wildlife in which vehicles, helicopters and
automatic rifles were often used. Many thousands of dama gazelle were killed. The
Dama gazelle still seem to head inevitably towards extinction.
The Dama Gazelle used to be one of the most common and widespread of the desert
gazelles, but is now staring down the barrel of extinction in the wild. Photos: iStock
123
All three races of the Dama gazelle are characterized by a distinctive white spot on the
throat. Photo: iStock
The striking dama gazelle in typical habitat. Photo: Ariadne van Zandbergen
124
The Red-fronted gazelle (Gazella rufrifrons) has a widespread distribution between
northern Nigeria and the Nile River in central Sudan. There is also an isolated
population in Senegal. Four subspecies are recognized:
G. rufrifrons rufrifrons – West Sahel region
G. rufrifrons laevipes – East Sahel/from Niger to the Nile
G. rufrifrons kanuri – south of Lake Chad
G. rufrifrons tilonura – Eritrea and along the Sudan-Ethiopian border.
The total population is unlikely to exceed 20 000 and is scattered in small fragments
over its former range. The specie is under severe pressure from habitat degradation,
overgrazing by livestock and illegal hunting. The majority of Red-fronted gazelles are
found outside of protected areas. Consequently, the population trend is downwards.
It is already extinct in Ghana.
Red-fronted gazelle. Photo: Catrin Hammer, Al Wabra Wildlife Preservation
125
Cuvier’s gazelle (Gazella cuvieri) is also known as the Atlas gazelle or the Mountain
gazelle and is found only in the high country of northern Algeria and southern
Morocco, with a small population in western Tunisia. It is endangered; the total
population is less than 2500 adult animals and no sub-population has more 250
animals.
Cuvier’s gazelle. Photo: Wikipedia
Speke’s gazelle. Photo: Catrin Hammer, Al Wabra Wildlife Preservation
126
Speke’s gazelle (Gazella spekei) is endemic to the horn of Africa. The only known
population remains in Somalia. The Ethiopian population is most probably extinct but
this has to be confirmed. Speke‟s gazelle still occurred in fair numbers in its historical
range up to the 1980‟s. Since then their numbers have crashed as a result of
uncontrolled hunting, poaching, drought and pressure from domestic livestock. The
ongoing armed conflict and lawlessness in Somalia has also contributed to the
specie‟s demise. The size of the remaining total population is unknown, but it cannot
be many.
They prefer open flats with little vegetation and keep in small family groups. The
Speke‟s gazelle resembles the Thomson‟s gazelle but the horns are shorter and it
has two protuberances on the nose.
Springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) is the only gazelle found south of Tanzania. It is
one of the most abundant antelopes of Southern Africa and is common throughout
Namibia, Botswana and South Africa. It is the only antelope with a long term
increasing trend in numbers. Vast herds used to cover the open plains of the
Highveld and the Karoo of South Africa. They migrated in herds consisting of
hundreds of thousands of animals and were known as “trekbokken” by the early Boer
settlers. The last known large scale migration took place in 1896 in the Northern
Cape. Although their numbers have been decimated since, they are still abundant
throughout their range, especially in the Kalahari.
They are at home in the arid regions, as well as the Highveld, of Southern Africa.
Although they are independent of surface water, they will drink regularly if water is
available. Drinking can take place at any time of the day or night. They will, however,
not drink in cold weather or immediately after rains. Springbok are grazers and
browsers, but avoid mountainous areas, dense woodlands and areas with high
grasses which impair their ability to see. During winter when the nutritional value of
the grasses deteriorates as far as protein and energy content is concerned, they
feed mostly on bushes and scrubs. Once the rains have commenced, usually from
October onwards, they feed mostly on fresh green grasses and herbs. They also
feed on leaves of trees such as camel thorn (Acacia erioloba), shepherd‟s tree
(Boscia albitrunca) and buffalo thorn (Ziziphus mucronata), as well as roots and
bulbs.
Springbok are gregarious antelopes; during winter (May to September) they form
small herds but during summer the herds may be considerably larger. Like
wildebeests and hartebeests, with which they share habitat, they will move to areas
where it has rained in order to feed on fresh growth. In these instances they may
form massive herds consisting of thousands of animals of both sexes and all ages.
Up to end of the 19th century springbok used to undertake enormous migrations
consisting of hundreds of thousands of animals. S.C. Cronwright-Schreiner
described one such migration in his 1925 work, “The migrating springbucks of South
Africa” as covering an area in excess of hundred miles long and fifteen miles wide,
127
moving as one solid mass. Human settlement in their distribution range, increased
numbers of domestic stock, agricultural and infrastructural development, and hunting
all contributed to a severe decline in springbok populations. But today they are doing
well and their numbers are once again on the increase.
The rams are territorial but will not maintain the territory throughout the year. The
peak mating season depends on veldt conditions and the weather. Territorial rams
herd the ewes to their territory and try to keep them there. The territory is defended
more by advertising than by fighting; the rams will often stand in prominent positions
within the territory to advertise their presence. They also use middens to mark the
territory. Although springbok have pre-orbital glands they do not seem to use it to
mark territory.
Bachelor herds consist of anything between two and more than a hundred rams.
Young rams are often seen sparring playfully. The ewes are more aggressive and
will stab other springbok. When fighting, the rams will lock horns and wrestle from
side to side. Fighting only occasionally results in a death. Springbok always appear
to be clean; they rub themselves with the noses and the horns, scratch themselves
with the hind feet and nibble on the sides of the body.
Although “pronking” has been observed in other species such as oribi, the springbok
is specifically known for this unique behaviour. Pronking is spectacular and happens
when the animals are stressed or being chased. The legs are stiffened, the head
held low down, the back is bent, and the white dorsal fan of hair is raised. The
animal jumps in the air and lands on all four straight, stiffened legs. This is repeated
several times. The raising of the white dorsal hairs is believed to be a form of
communication with the rest of the herd.
Springbok is sometimes classified into three subspecies: Kalahari springbok (A.m.
hofmeyeri; Angolan springbok (A.m. angolensis) and South African springbok (A.m.
marsupialis). The differences are, however, so minimal that most zoologists do not
believe that sub-species are justified. Game farmers in South Africa have also
successfully bred black, white and copper springboks for the hunting industry. These
are however not subspecies; simply colour variations.
128
Springbok in the Kalahari Transfrontier Park, Botswana. Photo: Willem Frost
The Dibatag (Ammodorcas clarkei), also known as „Clarke’s gazelle, is not a true
gazelle but is similarly marked. It is very similar in build to the gerenuk, but the neck
is shorter and it does not carry the neck in a horizontal position when it runs. Only
the males carry horns that points forward like those of the reedbuck. There is a
distinct white ring around the eyes which extends down the muzzle. It has a long,
furry black tail which is raised in flight. Hence the name which means “erect tail” in
Somali.
The dibatag stands barely three feet high at the shoulder and is not easily seen in its
preferred habitat: plains with shrubs and tall grasses. It feeds on grass, leaves and
acacia flowers as well as the thorns of the Commiphora. Dibatags have long necks
which allow them to browse at higher levels than most other antelopes. Like the
gerenuk, they will stand on the hind legs in order to reach higher up into the brush or
tree. They feed mostly in the mornings; when it gets hot they seek shade to rest up.
They need very little surface water.
It is an attractive, elegant antelope with a graceful gait. When running he trots like a
horse with the head thrown back, the neck arched and the tail erect. His senses of
hearing, smelling and vision ar. all very well developed. He relies on his remarkable
abilities to see, hear and smell as well as his shyness, to stay out of harm‟s way.
When disturbed they run a long way before stopping to look back – just like an eland.
The rams are territorial and they mark their territories with dung piles which they visit
daily. Mating takes place throughout the year, but with a slight peak between March
and May. A single lamb is born and is hidden in the undergrowth where the mother
suckles it until it is able to follow her and to fend for itself.
129
Dibatag were found only in the Ogaden in Ethiopia and in central Somalia.
Hunting/poaching, political unrest and armed conflict, and loss of habitat due to
human settlement, has resulted in the disappearance of the dibatag over much of its
range. It is not known if any dibatag survives in Somalia. The numbers in Ethiopia
are unknown, but there cannot be many. The population trend is downward and
there must be concern over the future of this animal.
Duikers (Subfamily: Antilopinae, Tribe: Cephalophini))
The Bush duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia), or Common duiker, is one of the most
widely distributed antelopes of Africa. Although it is essentially a savannah species it
is found in relatively open country as well as mountainous areas. It occurs from the
sandy flats of the Western Cape in South Africa northwards into Botswana, Namibia,
Zimbabwe, Zambia, Mozambique, Malawi, Angola, the Democratic Republic of
Congo, Congo Brazzaville, Cameroon, Chad, Sudan, all of East Africa, and
throughout West Africa to Senegal. Throughout this vast distribution range there are
differences in size and color and some nineteen sub-species have been identified
(Ansell, 1972). This is, however, not generally accepted. Grubb and Groves
recognized 14 races. The differences are however marginal and it is not easy to
recognize the different sub-species.
Bush duikers have pre-orbital, foot and inguinal glands. The pre-orbital glands are
particularly noticeable. Normally only the rams carry short, straight and ridged horns,
but the ewes may also sometimes have horns - albeit somewhat underdeveloped
horns.
They require habitat with bushes that can provide cover and shade and they will
avoid grass plains with short grasses. Bush duikers are browsers feeding on leaves,
shoots, flowers, fruits and seeds. Small quantities of grass and fruit may also be
taken. They are the only antelopes with a carnivorous dimension to their diet: they
are known to occasionally eat small birds, small reptiles and even rodents.
Bush duikers are crepuscular and are active around dusk and dawn, but on cool
days they may remain active throughout the day. When they are constantly disturbed
or hunted, they will become nocturnal.
The ram is slightly smaller than the ewe. Duikers are solitary animals and the rams
and ewes have their own home range. A ram will thus mate with two or more
adjacent ewes. When a ewe comes into heat, she will be visited by the ram for a
period seldom exceeding four days. Mating and births happen throughout the year
without any peak periods. The size of the home range depends on the quality of the
food resources and can vary significantly. Duikers make use of middens as well as
scent marking to define their territories.
They are excellent runners and can disappear very quickly into the undergrowth. The
name duiker is derived from Afrikaans and refers to the animal‟s characteristic ability
to „dive‟ into cover.
Bush duikers are preyed upon by lions, leopards, cheetahs, hyenas, wild dogs,
jackals, caracals, servals, baboons, pythons and large raptors such as eagles and
owls.
130
Young bush duiker ram. Photo: Willem Frost
The Natal red duiker (Cephalophus natalensis) was introduced to the scientific
world by Sir Andrew Smith in 1834 after he discovered it in the forests of Natal. It is
found in the coastal forests of South Africa‟s Kwa-Zulu Natal, through Mozambique,
Malawi, Tanzania and northwards as far as the south of Sudan. This species is
however absent from Zimbabwe and Zambia. Like the blue duiker, they require
specialized habitat consisting of forests and thickets but they are able to occupy
more diverse habitat than blue duikers. They occur widely in coastal and riverine
forests and thickets, escarpments and montane forests. According to Wilson the
availability of water is not a habitat requirement – this is typical of the forest duikers.
They are crepuscular antelopes, active at dusk and dawn and inactive at night. Red
duikers appear not to be territorial and home ranges overlap considerably. They are
usually seen in pairs or as single animals or a ewe with her lamb. Red duikers are
selective browsers living on fresh and fallen leaves, fruits, flowers and shoots. In
some areas the Natal red duiker has been recorded feeding well outside of the small
isolated forests in which they live. Burnt flushes and regrowth are then a major
attraction for red duikers.
Clearing of forests for agricultural purposes is destroying much of the red duiker
habitat and is putting the species under pressure.
131
Red duikers in the coastal forests of Zululand. Photo: Willem Frost
The Blue duiker (Cephalophus monticola) has a widespread distribution throughout
Africa‟s forests south of the Sahara, but not west of the River Niger. The Blue duiker
is the most widespread of all the forest duikers of Africa, but their distribution is not
continuous. Although deforestation is taking suitable habitat away from them, there
are still many blue duikers in non-protected areas. The species is not threatened and
East estimated in 1999 that there must be at least 7 million of them spread over
several populations.
They require specialized habitat and are restricted to forests and thickets. According
to Wilson there are three critical habitat requirements for blue duiker: (i) suitable
feeding areas, usually in open places beneath a high forest canopy; (ii) adequate
shrub cover where they can take shelter and hide; and (iii) secluded bed-sites in
dense cover. During the day they rest and hide in dark shade, but in the evenings
and early in the morning they may browse in more open areas and on the edges of
the forests. Blue duikers however seldom venture far from an overhead forest
canopy. They are water dependent and need to drink regularly. They feed on fruits,
seeds, fine shoots, mushrooms, fresh and fallen leaves, flowers and fresh grass
sprouting after a fire. Fruit seems to be dominant in their diet.
The blue duiker is the smallest of all the duikers but not as small as Bates‟ or the
royal antelope. The coat has the bluish hue – hence the name blue duiker. When
seen in the shade of the forests where they live, they appear more black than blue
though. The males are generally smaller than the females (like the red-flanked and
the yellow-backed duikers), which is unusual amongst the antelopes. Both males
and females have horns that point backwards and that are heavily ringed near the
base.
Blue duikers are mostly solitary animals. They are very shy and will flee into the
dense undergrowth at the slightest suspicion of danger making a peculiar whistling
132
sound. When caught they bleat loudly. Sometimes though, the blue duiker may
freeze when it senses danger and will then skulk away to hide in dense undergrowth.
Here it will remain still and quiet until it regards it to be safe again. They are very
territorial and will not easily leave the territory or venture beyond the home range.
Since the blue duiker is such a small antelope, it is preyed upon by raptors such as
the crowned eagle, pythons, small cats and leopards. The distribution ranges of blue
duikers and crowned eagles overlap throughout Africa and their inter-relationship is
part of the inter-dependence of forest animals. Other large eagles and raptors prefer
different habitat and it is probably safe to say that crowned eagles are the principal
avian predators of blue duikers. But crowned eagles also prey inter alia on monkeys,
other small antelopes, birds and hyrax. They have extremely strong legs and very
powerful, long talons. They kill by grasping the prey from behind and penetrating the
spine with the claws. If the prey is not immediately killed, it is at least paralyzed. The
eagle then suffocates the animal by standing on it and closing the wind pipe. Blue
duikers and monkeys share the same fruit resources and both are preyed upon by
crowned eagles. The duikers are thus often seen with monkeys - they pick up fallen
fruit and rely on the monkeys‟ alarm calls.
Blue duiker in Kenya’s Aberdares. Photo: iStock
Maxwell’s duiker (Cephalophus maxwelli) occurs in the rain forests of West Africa
between Senegal and the River Niger in Nigeria (i.e. Nigeria, Benin, Togo, Ghana,
Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Guinea – Bissau, Gambia,
Senegal). The total population is more than two million. They show resilience to
hunting pressure and adapts well to degradation of habitat. The population is
133
however slowly on the decrease as there are few effective conservation areas within
their range.
Maxwell‟s duiker is named after Colonel Charles Maxwell who took a specimen from
Sierra Leone to England early in the nineteenth century. These duikers vary
considerably in size and colour, even in a single population. As the animal gets older
the colour becomes lighter. There are also major colour differences between young
and adult Maxwell‟s duikers. Maxwell‟s duiker typically has a distinct superciliary
streak from the base of the horns to just below the eyes, but this often fades with
age.
The rams have short, heavily ridged horns that curve slightly forward. Some females
may also have horns. Some parts of the range seem to produce more hornless ewes
than others. These duikers also have well developed pre-orbital and pedal glands.
Maxwell‟s duiker is found in primary and secondary forests with good undergrowth.
The Akyempong weed (Chromolaena odorata) has been introduced to West Africa
some fifty years ago and has since become extensive, especially where the forests
took a hammering from logging, fires and other human activities. The Akyempong is
however providing good habitat for Maxwell‟s duiker and must have contributed to
the fact that there are still relatively large numbers of these duikers around.
Maxwell‟s duiker feeds mainly on seeds, fruits, flowers – only small quantities of
leaves are taken. They are more crepuscular than nocturnal or diurnal. Typically,
Maxwell‟s duiker will move through the undergrowth with the head lowered and
stretched out forward; the gait will be somewhat jerky and the tail will be flicked up
and down.
Maxwell‟s duiker is territorial and both ram and ewe will defend the territory. They are
usually found in pairs and it is believed that they mate for life. Single animals are
also common. Maxwell‟s duiker is preyed upon by leopards, small cats, pythons and
crowned eagles.
Some taxonomists believe that Maxwell’s duiker and the blue duiker are one and the
same species as there are almost no distinguishing features.
Photo: Ariadne van Zandbergen
134
The Red-flanked duiker (Cephalophus rufilatus) is widely distributed between
Senegal, southwestern Sudan and northeastern DRC (i.e. Mali, Niger, Senegal,
Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso, Ghana,
Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, CAR, Congo, DRC, Uganda and Sudan) where it
inhabits savannah woodlands, riverine woodland, dense riparian forest and gallery
forests. It seems to avoid dense rainforests.
It is a very small duiker with well developed pre-orbital and pedal glands. It is usually
a solitary animal but pairs are also seen, sometimes with a baby. The red-flanked
duiker is quite a restless animal and when disturbed will quickly run off in a series of
long leaps. When walking the tail flicks from side to side. They also make use of
middens to defecate, but unlike impala and some other antelopes, they do not
deposit the droppings each time on top of each other, but would rather scatter it over
a much larger area.
The red-flanked duiker feeds mainly on fallen fruits, seeds and flowers but will also
take dry leaves and tubers. It is believed that, like the bush duiker, they also eat
meat of dead animals.
The red-flanked duiker occurs in a broad belt across West Africa: from Senegal in the
west to Uganda and Sudan in the east. Photo: Ariadne van Zandbergen
135
Red-flanked duiker in the Pendjari National Park, Benin. Photo: Jonas van de Voorde
Harvey’s red duiker (Cephalophus harveyi) occurs in central and south-eastern
Kenya, north-eastern and central Tanzania, marginally in southern Somalia, and
northern Malawi. Although the overall population is on the decline as a result of
habitat destruction and illegal hunting, they are still common in protected areas
within the range.
The Black duiker (Cephalophus niger) is found in West Africa (Nigeria, Togo,
Ghana, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea) where it inhabits lowland
rainforests, the edge of primary forest, gallery forests, thicket, and riverine and
deciduous forest patches within savannas. It remains widespread and common
throughout its historical range. It shows remarkable resilience to hunting pressure
and adapts well to habitat changes.
The black duiker gets its name from the soft, glossy, black pelage. Around the throat
and chin it pales however to a light grey. There may also be an orange spot between
the forelegs. Both sexes carry horns, but typical of most bovids, the horns of the
females are much smaller. They have pre-orbital as well as pedal glands.
Like all other forest duikers, the black duiker inhabits the high forests, dense bush,
thickets and forest edges where they feed on fruits, seeds, bulbs, flowers, leaves,
fungi, bark, cultivated crops and some grasses. The diet is however dominated by
fruit and seeds. Like Maxwell‟s duiker, they have benefitted from the introduction of
the invasive weed Akyempong and their numbers have probably increased in parts
of their range as a result of this. They are apparently mostly nocturnal, but also
diurnal and seldom seen. Wilson thinks they are crepuscular. They are mostly
solitary animals but are sometimes also seen in pairs.
136
Black duiker. Photo: courtesy of Mountain View Wildlife Conservation Centre
The Zebra duiker (Cephalophus zebra) occurs in Sierra Leone, Liberia and western
Ivory Coast. There is also a population in south-eastern Guinea.
The zebra duiker is a small antelope with a unique colour pattern. The body colour is
generally rufous with 12 to 16 black transverse body stripes between the shoulders
and the rump. The body colour and the width of the black stripes can vary
considerably. The upper parts of the legs are very dark on the outside whilst the
lower parts are rufous-reddish-brown. The back is rounded, like that of the grysbok,
and the legs are relatively short. Both sexes carry horns so short that it is sometimes
hidden by the crest of hair on the forehead. Like most other duikers they have preorbital, pedal and inguinal glands.
This duiker prefers evergreen moist primary rainforest and does not adapt well to
deforestation and habitat changes. It feeds mainly on fruits and seeds and has also
been reported to eat mice. Not much is known about the behavior of the animal as it
has not been as well studied in the wild as well as most other species. There is, for
instance, uncertainty as to whether it is diurnal or nocturnal.
The zebra duiker is listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN Red Data List. Habitat loss,
deforestation and excessive hunting and poaching are pushing the population
numbers sharply down. The size of the total population is uncertain. The zebra
duiker requires undisturbed primary lowland forest ranging into montane and hill
forest. Wilson considered them the least adaptable of all West African duiker
137
species to deforestation and therefore the least likely to survive hunting pressure and
habitat degradation. In addition it has a limited distribution. This species must be
regarded as being in trouble.
The Ogilby’s duiker (Cephalophus ogilby) is named after William Ogilby, secretary
of the London Zoological Society in the 1830‟s. It is a rufous colored duiker with a
black dorsal stripe along the back to the base of the tail. There is a very distinct tuft
of black and white hair at the end of the tail. The hair on the neck is usually grayish
in contrast with the rufous body. Both sexes carry heavily ridged horns which are
slightly concave. They also have pre-orbital, pedal and inguinal glands. This duiker
has not been studied as well as other duikers and it is regarded as one of the least
known duikers of Africa.
Ogilby‟s duiker and the bay duiker can easily be confused with each other; they are
similar in size and color and can be found in the same forests.
Ogilby‟s duiker may be classified into two sub-species: (i) ogilbyi which occurs in
southeastern Nigeria, southwestern Cameroon and on Bioko Island (formerly
Fernando Po) in Equatorial Guinea: and (ii) crusalbum which is endemic to western
Gabon and is also known as the white-legged duiker.
Ogilby's duiker is diurnal and inhabits primary rainforest habitats, but has also been
recorded in secondary forest. On Bioko Island, in the absence of other mediumsized and large duikers, this species has expanded its niche to include not only
lowland forest but also Schefflera-dominated forest and montane forest (East, 1999).
It feeds primarily on fruits and seeds.
The total population of Ogilby's duiker is estimated at 30,000 individuals, with roughly
12,000 C. o. ogilbyi and 18,000 C. o. crusalbum (East, 1999). The major threats to
survival are habitat loss due to human settlement, agriculture, logging and hunting
for the bush meat trade. This species is highly susceptible to overhunting (East,
1999). Duikers are popular with hunters because they are easy to hunt, easy to
transport by foot, and have enough meat to be highly profitable. Current levels of
hunting are, however, unsustainable. Overhunting and increasing habitat loss, to
which Ogilby‟s duiker is particularly susceptible due to its restricted distribution and
dependence on mature forest, will most probably lead to the further decline of this
species in the years to come. Ogilby‟s duiker has only a few strongholds left such as
Korup National Park in Cameroon and Bioko Island in Equatorial Guinea. Although
this antelope remains relatively numerous on Bioko Island, it is seriously overhunted
and control of the bushmeat trade and effective protection in conservation areas are
vital to the survival of the species.
Brooke’s duiker (Cephalophus brookei) used to be regarded as a subspecies of
Cephalophus ogilbyi (Ogilby‟s duiker) but has been restored to specie status by
Grubb et al (1998) and Grubb and Groves (2002). They occur in Sierra Leone,
Liberia, western Ivory Coast and western Ghana. Their numbers are decreasing
throughout their range and have been reduced to around 5,000 individuals.
Healthy populations occur in only in a few areas, such as Sapo National Park
in Liberia and Tai National Park in Ivory Coast.
Peters’ duiker (Cephalophus callipygus) is still fairly common within its range which
stretches across the equatorial forests of Congo, Cameroon, Gabon and Democratic
138
Republic of the Congo. Although there is a large variation in body color, it is
generally a reddish-brown duiker with a broad band between the shoulders and the
rump, sometimes extending down to the hind legs. They have large pre-orbital
glands as well as pedal glands.
Peters‟ duiker inhabits moist, lowland, equatorial forests where dense undergrowth
can provide shelter. They also do well in forests that are regenerating after logging.
They forage primarily in mature forests and fruit forms the major part of their diet,
although they also take leaves, flowers, shoots and mushrooms. The combination of
fruit and leaves change, however, as the seasons change.
Peters‟ is a diurnal duiker but when disturbed it will quickly rush off into dense
undergrowth. Males are believed to be territorial and they breed continually
throughout the year.
Current population is estimated to be at least 300 000. Unless the excessive hunting
and poaching is however brought under control, Peter‟s duiker will come under
increasing pressure and will probably disappear from parts of its current range. The
overall population trend is downwards; in undisturbed areas with few people their
populations are stable, but elsewhere it is on the decline.
Scientists are not in agreement on the classification of Weyns’ duiker (Cephalophus
weynsi). SCI recognizes it as full specie and include the following six races:
babertoni, ignifer, johnstoni, lestradei, rutshuricus and weynsi. Boddington and Flack
also list it at species level in their book “African Hunter II”. Others such as Roland
Ward and Dr. Vivian Wilson regard it as a sub-species of Peters‟ duiker and refer to
it as Cephalophus callipygus weynsi. The range then stretches across northern
DRC, south-eastern CAR, south-western Sudan, Uganda Rwanda, Burundi, southeastern Sudan, and far western Kenya. One of the main reasons Weyns‟ duiker is
regarded as a species rather than a sub-species of C. callipygus, is the absence of
the black dorsal stripe that is so characteristic of Peters‟ duiker. Weyns‟ duiker
remains fairly widespread and common with a total population of more than 150 000.
The Gabon duiker (Cephalophus leucogaster), also known as the White-bellied
duiker, is habitat specific and is found in moist equatorial forest and the mature
closed-canopy forests of southern Cameroon, southwestern CAR, Gabon, Congo
and DRC. It prefers undisturbed high forest.
The Gabon duiker is a light coloured with a brown-black dorsal stripe. The belly, the
throat, the sternum and the inside of the legs are white. Pre-orbital, pedal and
inguinal glands are present and active. It is a diurnal antelope and feeds mainly on
fruits, flowers, leaves, petioles and fungi.
The populations of Gabon duikers are more stable than those of Brooke‟s or
Ogilby‟s duikers as it occurs mostly in areas where there are relatively few
humans. It is still relatively widespread and common and occurs in a number
of protected areas, including Lopé-Okanda National Park and the Gamba
complex in Gabon, as well as Odzala National Park in Congo. Preservation of
this habitat is vital to the conservation of C. leucogaster in the long term. Although
the total population is estimated to be in excess of 250 000, the bush meat trade and
loss of habitat presents a major risk to the long term survival of the specie which will
depend on the maintenance of viable populations within protected areas such as
139
national parks and reserves. The Pygmies are very successful in calling these
duikers and then shooting them. The Gabon duiker is curious and will often stand still
in one place trying to figure the cause of some disturbance, thereby giving the hunter
ample shooting opportunity. They are also easily captured in game nets and wire
snares. Overhunting is thus regarded as a major threat to their survival in the long
run.
The Black-fronted duiker (Cephalophus nigrifrons) inhabits tropical forests ranging
from lowland swamp forest and seasonally flooded forest with poorly drained or
permanently saturated soils (where it is frequently encountered along streams and in
marshy areas) to montane forests, and subalpine vegetation zones. It remains
widespread in Angola, DRC, Uganda, Kenya, Rwanda, Burundi, Congo, Gabon,
Equatorial Guinea, CAR, Cameroon, Cameroon, and Nigeria. The total population is
about 300 000. It is however coming under pressure from human settlement, habitat
loss and the bush meat trade.
Five sub-species have been recognized:
(i) C.n. nigifrons – the lowland forests of Gabon, CAR, Cameroon and the
Democratic Republic of Congo down to Angola.
(ii) C.n. rudibus – the higher parts of the Ruwenzori Mountains
(iii) C.n. kivuensis – the lower slopes of the Ruwenzori Mountains and around
Lake Kivu in Uganda
(iv) C.n. fosteri – Mount Elgon in Kenya
(v) C.n. hooki – Mount Kenya.
The pelage of the black-fronted duiker is red, but the underside is much lighter.
There is a dark brown or black blaze running from the nose to the crest of the head.
Some animals may also have some black on the shoulders. This species is also
characterized by relatively long legs in comparison to other forest duikers. They have
well developed pre-orbital, pedal and inguinal glands. The hooves have a shape
similar to that of the sitatunga as the black-fronted duiker prefers marshy areas and
habitat close to permanent water. When disturbed it will flee towards water where it
will hide.
Black-fronted duikers occur also in the montane forests of East Africa and have been
recorded on Mt. Elgon, Mt. Kenya, the Ruwenzoris and the Virungas where it has
adapted well to the different environmental conditions. It utilizes various woodland
habitats as well as bamboo forests and the diet in the mountainous habitats consists
of herbs, lichens, bamboo leaves, bark, vines and some grass. In the lowlands there
are more fruits available and fruit and leaves then dominate the diet.
The black-fronted duiker is both diurnal and nocturnal.
The Bay duiker (Cephalophus dorsalis) is a heavily built red duiker with a black
dorsal stripe and black or dark brown legs. There is a dark frontal blaze and the
inside of the ears are near white whilst the back of the ears are somewhere between
brown and black. Both rams and ewes carry short, straight and smooth horns. They
have large and well developed pre-orbital, pedal and inguinal glands.
Bay duikers are nocturnal and this explains their relatively large eyes. They are
solitary animals keeping in dense parts of primary forests with closed canopies. The
140
skull of the bay duiker is broader and flatter than that of other duikers and the cheek
muscles are quite pronounced. The eyes are not only larger but also higher up. This
enables them to feed at night on tough-skinned fruits that are too large and too
fibrous for other duikers. Like the bush duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia) the bay duiker
has been observed eating meat.
The bay duiker is still fairly common within its range. This probably because they are
solitary, nocturnal animals that is difficult to hunt. There are two populations: (1)
From Sierra Leone eastwards to Togo, and (2) From Nigeria eastward into the DRC
and southward into northern Angola. Total population is currently in excess of
700 000 but excessive hunting and deforestation presents a real threat in the longer
term. It is believed to be already extinct in Uganda. Its future will be dependent on
the preservation of relatively undisturbed equatorial forest.
The bay duiker is to be found in the tropical lowland forests of west and central Africa.
Photo: Ariadne van Zandbergen
Aders’ duiker (Cephalophus adersi) has an extremely limited distribution, occurring
only on the island of Zanzibar and along the Kenyan coast in pockets of forest such
as the Arabuko-Sokoke and the Dodori. It is critically endangered. Aders‟ duiker
used to be quite common on the island of Zanzibar and in the coastal forests along
the Kenyan and Tanzanian coast. Indiscriminate hunting and the bush meat trade
has seen their numbers declining dramatically. In 1983 there were about 5000 in
Zanzibar. By 1999 they were down to 600. Today there are probably no more than
300 left on the entire island. Until recently the only other known population was in the
Arabuko-Sokoke forest in Kenya. In 2004 another Kenyan population was
141
discovered in the Dodori Forest north of Arabuko-Sokoke. The size of this population
is unknown. In 2000 three pairs were also released on Chumbe Island, a small island
near Zanzibar Town that offers seemingly suitable habitat for the duikers.
Aders‟ duiker is such a small, secretive animal that further populations may yet be
discovered in the coastal forests of East Africa. It is however unlikely that any have
survived the areas that have been cleared for agricultural purposes. It is also
interesting those coastal forests opposite Zanzibar harbor not Aders‟ duiker but the
more common Harvey‟s red duiker. So, chances of finding further populations are
extremely limited.
Aders‟ duiker is named after Dr. W.M. Aders, a Zanzibar based naturalist who
collected the first specimen in 1918. Its distinguishing features are the white freckles
on the lower legs and the white band along the length of the body.
They feed mostly on fruits and leaves. Like the blue duiker, they are often seen in
the company of monkeys, picking up fallen fruits and leaves. Although they live in
forests with high rainfall, there is no permanent surface water. Aders‟ duikers seem
to be able to obtain their moisture requirements from the plant material that they eat
and would appear they can go without drinking water. However, it rains often in their
forest home ranges and they then drink from water collected in depressions. They
are diurnal antelopes with a very acute sense of hearing.
Aders‟ duiker, together with blue duiker and suni, are hunted mercilessly by
traditional hunters from nearby villages for own consumption and for the bush meat
trade – even though it has been illegal for years to hunt these animals. Habitat
destruction and deforestation has also contributed significantly to the decline in their
numbers. C. adersi is Africa‟s rarest duiker with the smallest distribution range, and it
is possible that this antelope will become extinct within the next decade or two.
Ader’s duiker caught on a digital monitoring camera on Chumbe Island which is about 12 kms offshore
from Zanzibar. Photo: courtesy of Chumbe Island Coral Park.
142
Abbott’s duiker (Cephalophus spadix) is named after Dr. W.L. Abbott, an American
naturalist who explored northern Tanzania in 1888 and 1889 and presented the first
known specimen to the National Museum in Washington.
Its appearance is very similar to the black duiker, but some naturalists and scientists
think it might be more closely related to the yellow-backed duiker. The size of the
Abbott‟s duiker is also between that of the black duiker and the yellow-backed
duiker. The body colour is very dark brown, almost black. The neck and face is
slightly lighter coloured. It has a long crest which almost hides the horns completely.
Abbott‟s duiker is endemic to the mountains of Tanzania and is regarded as
endangered. Although it has a wide distribution in Tanzania, it is not often seen and
is regarded as rare. According to Wilson (2005) it is unlikely that there are more than
2500 animals remaining in the wild. The stronghold of C. spadix is the Udzungwa
and Kilimanjaro National Parks. Very little is known about the biology and ecology of
this threatened, secretive and rare species. It occurs in low densities and is very
rarely seen even where it is considered relatively common. Furthermore, it also
appears to be mainly nocturnal and also crepuscular to a degree. Typical duiker, it
prefers dense, understory vegetation in high altitude forests where it feeds mostly on
fruits, leaves and flowers.
The Yellow-backed duiker (Cephalophus silvicultor) is fairly widespread but not
exactly common within its range. It inhabits the lowland forest zones between
Senegal in the west and southwestern Sudan in the east, and southward to northern
Angola and Zambia. It has the widest distribution of forest duikers. It occurs mostly in
moist lowland and montane forests, forest-savanna mosaics, riverine forests,
thickets and isolated forest patches within moist savanna woodlands. Yellow-backed
duikers may also be found in secondary forests, plantations and farm lands. They
utilize a range of forest and woodland habitats where they feed on fruits, seeds, pods
and leaves. There records of Yellow-backed duikers eating newly hatched tortoises,
chameleons and pigeons but this must account for a very insignificant part of the
diet. They seem to be mainly crepuscular but can be active at any time of the day or
night. During the heat of the day they rest up in a comfortable shady spot.
When feeding they move slowly with the head and neck held low in order to get
through the vegetation more easily. But when disturbed they can run off very quickly
with large leaps. Sometimes it will freeze for a few moments before taking off.
They react quickly to the calls by the Pygmy hunters and are thus easily shot.
Four sub-species have been recognized:
(i) C.s. silvicultor – Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ghana , Togo and western Nigeria
(ii) C.s. longiceps – Cameroon, Congo, Gabon, Democratic Republic of Congo,
southern Sudan
(iii) C.s. ruficrista – Angola and Zambia
(iv) C.s. curticeps – Uganda, Rwanda
The yellow-backed is a large duiker with a heavy built. The body colour is dark brown
to black with a large triangular yellow patch on the rump and the back. When the
animal is alarmed the yellow hair on the back and rump is raised to form a crest.
Yellow-backed duikers use their pre-orbital glands to deposit secretions on plants as
a method of marking territory.
143
Yellow-backed duiker. Photo: Rhett A Butler, Mongaby
Jentink’s duiker (Cephalophus jentinki) is found in West Africa in the lowland parts
of Sierra Leone, Liberia and southwestern Ivory Coast. It is named after Dr. Jentink,
director of the Leyden Museum in Austria, who first described it in 1885 from a
specimen taken in Liberia the year before.
Jentink‟s duiker is an exquisite animal. The neck and head is black; there is a pure
white collar around the shoulders that stretches down to the front legs; and the back
and rump is light gray. Jentink‟s duiker and the yellow-backed duiker are about the
same size and are the largest of the duikers.
Jentink‟s duiker is the rarest and least known of the antelopes of the West African
rainforests, and very little is known about its natural history and biology. Its forest
habitat and elusive habits makes it very difficult to study. Its habitat requirements are
not clearly understood yet, but they have been sighted in primary high forest, logged
and secondary forest and in some farm bushes. It is believed that they are
crepuscular but they have also been seen to be active at other times of the day.
They are usually seen as solitary animals, but have been observed in pairs. Its
feeding habits have not been studied properly and are largely unknown.
Although no reliable estimate of its numbers exists, it is believed that no more than a
few thousand of these antelopes survive in the wild. Wilson‟s estimate is only 2000.
It is seriously threatened by loss of forest habitat and excessive hunting for the bush
meat trade. Extinction within the next decade, or two, is a real risk.
144
The rare and exquisite Jentink’s duiker. Photo: Gladys Porter Zoo, Brownsville, Texas
The Neotragini tribe
These are small antelopes with short straight horns, usually with ridges at the base.
The females are without horns. They have preorbital glands and the tail is short.
Oribis (Ourebia orebi) are small, graceful antelopes that live in family groups of two
or three. They are territorial and their boundaries are clearly marked by the male who
deposits an odorous substance on the shrubs from his preorbital glands. He also
stands prominently in his territory to advertise his presence. A territory is roughly one
square mile in extent.
Oribi have no less than six sets of scent glands: preorbital glands; interdigital glands
on all the feet; inguinal glands; metatarsal glands on the hindlegs; carpal glands just
below the knees on the forelegs; and sub-aural glands which can be seen as black
patches just below the ears.
Only the males carry horns. The horns are similar to that of the steenbok and the
klipspringer in that they go straight up from the skull. The bases of the horns are
heavily ridged. The horns of old rams often curve slightly forward. This is an
indication of good trophy quality.
They have the habit of interspersing their runs with enormous leaps that may take
them as much as five feet off the ground. The oribi prefers open grass veldt or flood
plains or large marshes with short grasses and some taller grasses that can provide
145
shelter and place to hide. They avoid areas with only tall grasses. They like to lie
down in the grass with the head erect, observing the immediate environment. When
disturbed they will give an alarm call and dash away, pronking. They are however
inquisitive animals and will stop after a short while to look back at the source of their
fright. If they are running through tallish grass, they will jump up every now and then
to get a better view of what is happening.
They are very selective feeders and carefully pick the most nutritious parts of the
grasses and forbs that they eat. They are independent of water and do not need
access to drinking water.
There are two races of oribi:
(i) The Common oribi (Ourebia ourebi ourebi)
(ii) The Haggard oribi (Ourebia ourebi haggard) which is found along the coast
of Kenya and in Somalia along the southern coast and along the Juba and
Webi Shebeli rivers.
The Kenya oribi (Ourebia ourebi Kenya) is extinct.
The total population of all oribi (i.e. both sub-species) is in the order of three-quarter
million. They are well protected in many game parks and reserves throughout their
range. The South African population is however under threat as a result of habitat
loss and poaching (especially poaching with dogs by so-called “traditional hunters”).
Total numbers in South Africa is somewhere between 2000 and 2500 only.
Oribi on Zambia’s Kafue Flats. Photo: Ariadne van Zandbergen
146
Oribis are small, graceful antelopes that live in family groups of two or three. They are
territorial and their boundaries are clearly marked by the male who deposits an
odorous substance on the shrubs from his preorbital glands. A territory is roughly one
square mile in extent. Photo: Ariadne van Zandbergen
The Klipspringer (Oreotragus oreotragus) is a strong, agile and very graceful little
antelope found only in rocky mountains and hills. Riverbeds and riverbanks with
rocks are also suitable habitat. They occur widespread in East and Southern Africa.
There is also an isolated population in central Nigeria. The total African population is
estimated at more than 40 000 animals, about a quarter of which are in protected
areas. They also occur in rather inaccessible, though unprotected, habitat. The
population trend seems to be stable.
Fifteen sub-species have been recognized:
(i) Oreotragus oreotragus aceratos – (Noack, 1899) Southeast Africa between
the Zambezi and Rufiji Rivers
(ii) O. o. aureus – (Heller, 1913) northern Kenya
(iii) O. o. centralis – (Hinton, 1921) south-central Africa, i.e. southern Tanzania,
southeast DRC, Zambia, Zimbabwe
(iv) O. o. cunenensis – (Zukowsky, 1924) north bank of the Cunene River, Angola
(v) O. o. hyatti – (Hinton, 1921) northern Nigeria
(vi) O. o. porteousi – (Lydekker, 1911) Nigeria and Central African Republic
(vii)
O. o. saltatrixoides – (Temminck, 1853) Ethiopian highlands
147
(viii)
O.o. saltator – (Kirk, 1864) Eastern DRC and northwest of Lake
Tanganyika
(ix)
O. o. stephensoni – (Roberts, 1946) Zimbabwe, eastern Botswana and
Zambia
(x)
O. o. shillingsi – (Neumann, 1902) northern Tanzania
(xi)
O. o. somalicus – (Neumann, `1902) northern Somalia
(xii)
O. o. steinhardti – (Zukowsky, 1924) west of Kaoko Otavi, Namibia
(xiii)
O. o. transvaalensis – (Roberts, 1917) southern Mozambique, Swaziland,
the Natal Drakensberg, Mpumalanga and Northwest province in South
Africa
(xiv)
O. o. oreotragus – (Zimmerman, 1783) the Eastern Free state, the Orange
River Valley and the Southern and Western Cape, South Africa
(xv)
O. o. tyleri – (Hinton, 1921) Namibia, Angola and western Botswana
The differences between sub-species are however marginal and insignificant.
Klipspringers are usually found in pairs or singly, or as family groups consisting of a
ram and a ewe with their offspring. On occasion larger groups of up to eight animals
may also temporarily stay together. Single klipspringers are also quite common.
They are most active during the early morning and late afternoon; during the heat of
the day they rest in the shade. On cool days they may be active throughout the day.
During the heat of the day they rest in the shade of rock overhangs or bushes.
Although klipspringers will feed on grasses they are mostly browsers feeding on
fresh, new leaves, flowers and fruits. They are however very selective browsers. Like
the dik-dik and the gerenuk they are able to stand on the hind legs to reach higher
browse. They compete with rock hyraxes for the same food resources. Klipspringers
are not dependant on permanent water; they are able to survive on morning dew and
on rain water that accumulates in crevices.
In the southern klipspringer races only the rams carry horns but in East and Central
Africa both sexes have horns. The horns are short and straight, wide apart and the
bottom third is ringed.
Their small, blunt, cylindrical hooves enable them to leap with remarkable acrobatic
skill from rock to rock, and from ledge to ledge, to escape danger. They can descent
a mountain as effortlessly as scaling it, sometimes clearing 15 to 20 feet in a single
leap and rebounding immediately to the next ledge or rock. Their rock jumping skills
are regarded as a major defense mechanism. They are covered in a thick, bristly
coat, the hair of which comes away in tufts so that they can escape from the claws
and talons of predators. The thinned-out patches are normally quickly covered by
new hair growth.
148
Klipspringers are preyed upon by leopards, caracals, pythons and birds of prey such
as the martial eagle and the black eagle with which it shares its mountainous habitat.
A predator has to catch the klipspringer unawares as he has no chance of running it
down amongst the rocks and cliffs. It is common to see klipspringers standing
motionless, like sentinels, on a large rock in the open. This is done not only to look
out for predators but also to advertise the territory.
The rams as well as the ewes are territorial. They share and mark the same territory.
Klipspringers do not have inter-digital glands on the feet to mark the territory, but the
ewe regularly uses the preorbital glands for scent marking. The ram then follows up
with ear-marking. They defecate and urinate on latrines as a form of marking the
territory. Both male and female will attack intruders. The territory is usually also the
home range. Klipspringers do not migrate; the territory is permanent and they will
stay there for years.
Klipspringers are browsers and are usually seen in pairs and on rocky outcrops. The
ram is on the right. Photo: Willem Frost
The dik-dik (Madoqua saltiana and Madoqua kirki) is a small, dainty antelope living
mostly in pairs or singly. It is a resilient animal that lives comfortably in hot, dry
habitat. They are also able to go for long periods without drinking water.
The dik-dik ram is noticeably smaller than the ewe but only carries the short, straight
and heavily ridged spike-like horns. Both sexes have a crest of long, dark hair on top
149
of the head. The crest is raised when the animal is excited or disturbed. The eyes
are large with a white ring around it and long eyelashes giving the animal a Bambilike appearance. A distinctive feature of the dik-dik is the elongated mobile snout.
Dik-diks live in dry, hot habitat where water is usually scarce. They must therefore
minimize heat production as well as water loss. The specialized, flexible, bellows-like
nose is the dik-dik‟s major mechanism for cooling the blood. Arterial blood from other
parts of the body flows to the moist membranes of the mouth and nose. The dik-dik
pants rapidly causing a continuous stream of dry air to pass over the membranes
which results in evaporative cooling of the membranes and the underlying
membranes.
They are hunted by leopards, jackals, hyenas, caracals, cheetahs and large birds of
prey such as the martial eagle. During the day it will usually lie up in thickets. If
disturbed it will simply plunge deeper into the undergrowth, usually in a wide
circuitous detour. At dusk it becomes more active when it will feed on leaves, shoots
and some grasses.
Dik-diks are territorial and a pair will occupy a territory for life. The ram actively
defends his territory against intrusion by other dik-dik. Both the ewe and the ram
mark the territory by depositing a blackish secretion from the preorbital glands on
grass stalks and twigs. This is done regularly in the vicinity of their dung heaps.
African folklore has it that a dik-dik one day stumbled over an elephant dung-ball
lying in its path. It was so angry that from that time on all dik-dik are depositing their
rice-sized dropping in mounds hoping that an elephant would trip and thus revenge
the indignity suffered by the stumbling dik-dik. The toilet-ceremony follows a
distinctive pattern: the ewe first urinates and defecates on an existing heap and the
ram then scrapes at the site with the front hooves, urinates and then scrapes again
before defecating.
There are two species and several subspecies of dik-dik and the differences are not
always easily noticeable. The overlapping habitat of certain subspecies also
complicates identification. Individual behavior does not differ much from one species
to another. Some dik-diks are smaller than others and some have a tuft of hair that
may cover the horns of the males. Taxonomists have recognized the following dikdiks:
Salt dik-dik (Madoqua saltiana saltiana) - Northeastern Ethiopia, northeastern
Sudan and northern Djibouti
Cordeaux dik-dik (Madoqua saltiana coredeauxi) - The Awash and Danakil regions
of Ethiopia and also southwestern Djibouti
Phillip’s dik-dik (Modoqua saltiana phillipsi) - Southeastern Djibouti and Somalia
Swayne’s dik-dik (Madoqua saltiana swaynei) - Southern Ethiopia and southern
Somalia
150
Harrar dik-dik (Madoqua saltiana harrarensis) - Ethiopia
Guenther’s dik-dik (Madoqua saltiana guentheri) - Somalia, northern and eastern
Kenya, southern Ethiopia, southeastern Sudan and northeastern Uganda
Kirk’s dik-dik (Madoqua kirki kirki) - Northern and central Tanzania, southern Kenya
and coastal Somalia up to Mogadishu
Damara dik-dik (Madoqua kirki damarensis) – northern Namibia and southwestern
Angola
Thanks to conservation measures dik-diks are still fairly abundant in East Africa and
northern Namibia.
Guenther’s dik-dik. Photo: Ariadne van Zandbergen
151
Kirk’s dik-dik. Photo: iStock
Phillip’s dik-dik. Photo: Catrin Hammer, Al Wabra Wildlife Preservation
152
Damara dik-dik. Photo: Willem Frost
The Steenbok (Raphicerus campestris) has a widespread distribution throughout
Southern Africa with another population in southern Kenya and adjacent Tanzania.
The population size is somewhat uncertain but could be close to 750 000. The
steenbok population is stable and on the increase in some protected areas.
They require a habitat consisting of short to medium sweet, palatable grasses and
scattered trees and shrubs that can provide cover. They avoid mountains, steep
slopes, sourveldt, thickets and forests. The semi-arid savannahs suit them
particularly well. They are independent of drinking water and are able to inhabit arid
areas that are not suitable for other species that are more water dependent.
Steenbok are quite territorial, but the ram and the ewe have separate, permanent
territories that they maintain throughout the year. The same individuals frequently
form pairs for reproductive purposes. It is a myth that steenbok pairs bond for life.
The territory is scent-marked with secretions from the pre-orbital, inter-digital and
inter-mandibular glands. Dung middens are also repeatedly used along pathways on
the territory perimeter. Elsewhere the dung is buried by kicking sand over it – this is
done to hide the scent from predators.
153
Steenbok are fairly common in the semi-arid regions of Southern Africa.
Photo: Willem Frost
Two Grysbok species are recognised:
(i) The Cape grysbok (Raphicerus melanotis) which is endemic to the southern
and eastern Cape of South Africa. Their range is limited due to their
specialized habitat requirements, but they are common within this range
and there are no major threats to the Cape grysbok‟s survival. The
estimated 250 000 – 300 000 population is stable and well protected on
public as well as private land. The preferred habitat is thickets, shrub lands
and the fynbos biome. Grysbok are predominantly browsers, and have
limited water requirements. But they do need suitable cover. In the
grasslands of the north-eastern Cape they need to be close to forests and
clumps of bushes. They may however also use long grass for cover.
154
Cape grysbok. Photo: Wikipedia
(ii) Sharpe’s grysbok (Raphicerus sharpei) which can be found in the
northeastern parts of South Africa, and in Mozambique, Zimbabwe,
Malawi, Zambia and Tanzania. The specie occurs widespread and is
common and there are no major threats to the population which is
estimated to be around 100 000. Sharpe‟s Grysbok are mainly nocturnal;
they are exceptionally shy and secretive and are not easily seen or
observed. They are browsers but will sometimes also graze. Like the Cape
grysbok they need good cover and prefer habitat with thickets and dense
shrubs. It is therefore not surprising to find them in miombo woodland with
good undercover and/or long grass. They are however also found in
mopane veldt with little cover.
Sharpe‟s grysbok is named after Sir Arthur Sharpe who collected the first
specimen in Nyassaland (now Malawi). Some zoologists recognise two
sub-species: Sharpe‟s grysbok (Raphicerus sharpei sharpei) and the
Tropical grysbok (Raphicerus sharpei colonicus). This classification is
however not generally accepted as some believe that it is a monotypical
species.
155
Sharpe’s grysbok. Photo: Willem Frost
Grysboks are small, solitary antelopes; pairs are only seen when a ram visits the
home range of an ewe to mate, or when an ewe still has her lamb with her. They are
nocturnal and crepuscular animals and not easily seen during the day when they like
to lie down and hide in thickets. When sensing danger they do not immediately run
away, but rather lie down and remain motionless in the hope of not being detected.
When fleeing, they do not run very far before hiding again. The grysbok is a shy
animal and usually keep the head low and back always seems to be bent as if the
animal is ready to dash off.
The rams are territorial and will defend the territory against intruding males. The
territory is small but the home range is obviously somewhat bigger. The home range
overlaps with the home ranges of two to three ewes and the ram will leave his
territory to mate with neighbouring ewes. The home ranges of ewes are slightly
smaller than those of the rams. Home ranges are not static and change with the
seasons; during the dry season when food becomes scarcer, grysboks will expand
the range.
Sharpe‟s grysbok is slightly smaller than the Cape grysbok. Ewes are bigger than the
rams, but only the rams carry horns.
Since they are secretive, shy animals living in undergrowth, grysbok are difficult to
study and not much is known about their behaviour and habits.
156
The Suni (Neotragus mochatus) is a survivor: it is relatively resilient to hunting
pressure and adapts well to changed habitat. The total population of all Suni is
estimated to exceed 350 000. Suni probably benefits from the expansion of
secondary thickets caused by human activity, and it will colonize such habitat.
Two races of suni are recognized:
(i) Livingstone’s suni (Neotragus moschatus livingstonianus) which occurs in
southern Malawi, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and the northeastern parts of
South Africa. It occurs in coastal forests, dry deciduous thickets, montane
forests to 2,700 m and other habitat with suitable undergrowth.
(ii) The East African suni (Neotragus moschatus kirchenpaueri) of Kenya and
eastern and southern Tanzania.
Only the rams carry short, straight horns that point backwards. They have preorbital
glands, presumably to mark territory. They occur in dry woodlands with thickets and
dense undergrowth. Sunis are browsers and independent of water.
The diminutive suni antelope. Photo: Wikipedia
The Beira antelope (Dorcatragus megalotis) was first described only in 1894 was
has probably always been scarce, living on hills in small isolated groups. The current
population is less than 10 000 and they are threatened by drought, overgrazing by
livestock and excessive hunting.
They are found in the mountains of Somalia from the Nogaal Valley northwards. In
Ethiopia, the Beira antelope used to be found from the Marmar Mountains along the
border with north-west Somalia. Its current status in this part of Ethiopia is unknown,
but large numbers of armed pastoralists and their livestock pose a severe threat. The
species‟ existence in southeast Djibouti, close to the Somali border, was only
confirmed in 1993. There is currently a captive-breeding program at the Al Wabra
Wildlife Preservation in Qatar. The current captive population is about 50 beira.
157
The ability of the Beira to melt away in its barren environment where there is no
cover is legendary. The camouflage effect of their coloring is very effective and when
they stand still, they are quite difficult to see. It is a small animal: weighing in the
region of 25 pounds and seldom reaching a height of two feet. Only the males carry
horns which are straight like that that of a steenbok. They tend to reside in a small
home range, usually a bare, stony hill or a section of a large hill. If left undisturbed,
they will stay indefinitely in the home range where they form small family groups of
up to seven animals.
They browse early in the morning and late in the afternoon on scrubs and small
bushes that grow on the hillsides. During the heat of the day they will seek shade
where they can rest. Beira is independent of water and do not have to leave their
stony retreats in search of drinking water.
Beira antelope are characterized by a gristly pad on the underside of the hooves, the
purpose of which seems to be to provide better traction and to reduce the noise level
when running.
Beira antelope.
Photo: Catrin Hammer, Al Wabra Wildlife Preservation
The Royal antelope (Neotragus pygmaeus) inhabits the dense West African forests
between Ghana and Sierra Leone. It is a crepuscular and nocturnal, timid and
secretive animal living in moist lowland forest and secondary vegetation habitats,
forest edges and other areas with dense undergrowth. It is the smallest African
ungulate and the smallest bovid. An adult animal weighs no more than three
kilograms and the shoulder height is only 25 cm.
They are often found in logged forest with good undergrowth and also on farmlands
with good cover. When approached, the royal antelope crouches and hides under
158
cover where it will wait motionless until the last moment before taking flight. They
move very swiftly though the dense cover.
They feed mainly on green leaves, buds and shoots but may also take fruits and
flowers.
Royal antelope. Photo: Dennis Chanter
Bates’ Pygmy antelope (Neotragus batesi) is Africa‟s second smallest ungulate
(shoulder height 25 to 32 cm, weight 2 to 3 kg) and its size is a main identifying
feature. They are selective browsers and often visit cultivated fields to feed on crops.
They eat leaves, buds, shoots, fungus, grass and herbs. Only males have horns and
males are bigger than females. They are also territorial and the males mark their
territory with scent from the preorbital glands. Females are however sometimes
found in small groups. Their distribution is somewhat uncertain, from a small
population in the forests of western Uganda they are found westward: in northeast
DRC, the Congo, Cameroon, Gabon and an isolated population in southeastern
Nigeria.
159
Tragulidae
The Water chevrotain (Hyemoschus aquaticus) does not belong to the Bovidae
family like the antelopes; it belongs to the Order Cetartiodactyla, the sub-order
Ruminatia, and the family Tragulidae. It is found in the wet equatorial lowland forests
from Guinea in West Africa through to western Uganda. It is a small spotted ungulate
that is duiker look-alike.
They are the most primitive of all ruminants and represent the last of an ancient
extinct family. They are at home in the dark, shaded forests floors of equatorial Africa
and hardly ever come out in the open during the day. During night time they may
however forage in clearings and on floodplains. They are strictly nocturnal and hide
in dense cover during the day.
Water chevrotains are solitary, secretive animals and live on fallen fruits, nuts,
insects, and even scavenged meat and fish. When threatened they usually freeze,
but may also flee into water. They are able to dive and to remain under water for
short periods. This specie is threatened by intensive hunting and disturbance by
humans and has become rare in much of its range
160
Glossary
Antelope
A deer-like mammal with horns rather than antlers. Unlike deer, antelope do not
shed their horns and the horns are hollow. Africa does not have deer, only antelope
– with one exception.
Antler
One of a pair of deciduous (non-permanent) bony structures on the heads of the
Cervidae. Antlers are almost always branched, and grow from pedicels on the
frontal bones. They are generally shed and regrown every year.
Artiodactyl
Member of the family of even-toed ungulates, belonging to the order Cetartiodactyla.
This term originally referred to members of the order Artiodactyla, but has changed
with the inclusion of whales into this order (and subsequent changing of the name to
Cetartiodactyla).
Aquatic
Animals that live in fresh water.
Bovid
Member of the Cetartiodactyls family, Bovidae, which is cow-like
Browser
An herbivore which eats primarily leaves, shoots, twigs of trees, bushes, and forbs.
Bushveld
A region in Southern Africa that is characterised by a variety of tree species, bushes
and shrubs.
Carnivore
Meat-eating animal. Member of the order Carnivora.
Crepuscular
Active primarily around dawn and dusk.
Concentrate feeder
An herbivore feeding on selected plant parts such as fruits which are rich in nutrients
Cud
Food that is only partly digested and is regurgitated by ruminants for rechewing
before being swallowed again
Dambo
Low-lying swampy depression
161
Digit
Mammalian finger or toe
Diurnal
Active primarily during the day
Domestic livestock
Cattle, donkeys, goats, camels, horses, pigs and sheep
Dorsal
Where the spine or backbone is located – the back
Ecotone
An area or boundary between two major plant communities
Endemic
Referring to a species which is found nowhere else but in a specific area
Family
A taxonomic division which falls between an Order and a Genus
Frugivore
An animal that feeds mainly on fruit
Gallery forest
Trees and other plant lining watercourses
Genus
The major taxonomic category between family and species, generally consisting of a
group of species exhibiting similar characteristics
Grazer
An herbivore feeding predominantly on grass
Gregarious
Living together in herds
Habitat
A combination of different plant species, in a defined area, that provide a natural
home for specific animal species
Herbivore
Animal living on plant material
Herd
A social group of gregarious ungulates
162
Highveld
An Afrikaans term for land above 1200m
Home range
The area which an animal utilises for his daily living activities. This area is always
larger than the territory.
Horn
One of a pair of hard, permanent structures on the frontal bones of the head in
members of the family Bovidae. True horns consist of a bony core covered with a
sheath of keratinous material.
Inguinal
Situated in the groin
Interdigital
Between the toes
Mammal
A warm blooded vertebrate with mammary glands that suckles its young and has
body hair
Midden
An accumulation of droppings or faeces by mammals, also known as a latrine.
Migration
Seasonal relocation from one area to another in order to breed or to find better
quality food
Mixed feeder
Animal feeding on both grass and leaves
Nocturnal
Active primarily at night
Oestrus
In heat
Omnivore
Animal that eats both plants and meat
Pelage
Coat or hair cover
163
Pre-orbital glands
Glands occurring just in front of the eyes
Perissodactyl
An odd-toed ungulate; a member of the order Perissodactyla
Pronking
Exaggerated stotting; the back is arched and the feet are normally held together
Race
A sub-specie
Range
The geographical area in which an organism is found.
Rain forest
Tropical and sub-tropical forest with abundant year round rainfall
Rumen
First chamber of the ruminant‟s stomach, where the food is liquefied, kneaded by
muscles and subjected to fermentation by bacteria
Ruminant
Even-toed ungulates that have four-chambered stomachs and that regurgitate plant
material to rechew it as part of the digestive process.
Rut
A period of concentrated mating; the mating season.
Savannah
Vegetation combination of trees and grasses that is typical of large parts of Africa.
Savannah is subject to predominantly wet and dry seasons.
Sedentary
Remaining in the same place; generally used for non-migratory animals with a small
home range.
Species
The major taxonomic subdivision of a genus or subgenus. Species are regarded as
the basic category of biological classification, composed of related individuals that
resemble one another.
Stotting
A bouncing type of gait with straightened legs
Subspecies
A uniform, genetically distinct population of a species, usually in a specific
geographic region.
164
Taxonomy
The science of classification and naming of animals
Territory
An area defended from intruders by an individual or group. It is usually a smaller part
of the home range.
Testosterone
A hormone present in males and responsible for certain male behaviours
Ungulate
A mammal with hooves.
Vertebrate
An animal with an internal supporting skeleton and a main nerve cord running down
the dorsal length of the body, which nerve cord is protected by a spine or backbone.
165
References and further reading
Books
Apps, Peter; “Wild Ways”, Struik Publishers, Cape Town, South Africa, 2000
Bolton, Melvin; “Ethiopian Wildlands”, Collins and Harvill Press, London, 1976
Carnaby, Trevor: “Beat about the bush”, Jacana media, Johannesburg, 2006
Dorst, Jean and Dandelot, Pierre; “Larger Mammals of Africa”, HarperCollins
Publishers, London, 1995
Estes, Richard D.; “The Safari Companion”, Chelsea Green Publishing Company,
White River Junction, VT 05001, 1999
Hall-Martin, Anthony; Walker, Clive & Bothma JduP; “Kaokoveld, the Last
Wilderness”, Southern Book Publishers, Johannesburg, 1988
Haltennorth, T. and Diller, H; “Mammals of Africa including Madagascar”,
HarperCollins Publishers, London, 1997
Kingdon, Jonathan; “The Kingdon Field Guide to African Mammals”, Academic Press
Limited, London, 1997
Mellon, James; “African Hunter”, Safari Press, Long Beach, USA, 1995
Mills, Gus and Hess, Lex: “The Complete Book of Southern African Mammals”,
Struik Publishers, Cape Town, South Africa, 1997
Smithers, Reay H. N.; Die Soogdiere van die Suider-Afrikaanse Substreek “,
University of Pretoria, South Africa, 1983
Sommer, Francois; “Man and beast in Africa “, Herbert Jenkins Ltd., London, 1953
Thompson, Ron; “Mahohboh”, Africa Safari Press, Hartbeespoort, South Africa,
1997.
Wilson, Vivian J.; “Duikers of Africa – Masters of the African Forest Floor “, Zimbi
Books, Pretoria, 2005
166
Magazines:
“Game & Hunt”, Volume 1 Number 1 to Volume 15 Number 12
Articles:
Baldus, R.D.; “Africa’s most endangered duiker lives in Zanzibar”, African Indaba eNewsletter, Volume 1 Number 4
Baldus, R.D.; “The Zanzibar Duiker: On the road to recovery or to extinction?”
African Indaba e-Newsletter, Volume 2 Number 3
Baldus, R.D.; “The Geographical Distribution of Roosevelt Sable in East Africa “,
African Indaba e-Newsletter, Volume 2 Number 5
Berry, H.: “The blue wildebeest problem at Etosha National Park”, African Wildlife,
Volume 37 number 5
David, J.H.M.; “Territorial behavior of bontebok”, African Wildlife, Volume 25 Number
2
Games, Ian; “The Okavango sitatunga”, African Wildlife, Volume 37, Number 3
Mostafa, Hadia; “Death of a species?” African Indaba e-Newsletter, Volume 3
Number 2
O‟Keeffe, B.W.J.; “Our Search for the Giant Sable 1997 to 2004 “, African Indaba eNewsletter, Volume 3 Number 3
Refera, Befekadu; “Swayne’s Hartebeest in Ethiopia”, African Indaba e-Newsletter,
Volume 3 Number 5
Spevak, Edward; “The Addra and Mhorr Gazelles (Gazella dama ruficolis and G.d.
Mhorr) “, African indaba e-Newsletter, Volume 3 Number 5
Stuart, Chris & Tilde; “A dik-dik interlude”, African Wildlife, Volume 43, Number 1
Stuart, Chris & Tilde; “The puku: out of sight, out of mind?”, African Wildlife, Volume
43, Number 3
“Bongo return to Kenya”, African Indaba e-Newsletter, Volume 2 Number 2
Tempelhoff. Elise: “Krugerwildtuin nou Anders Bestuur “, Beeld, 18 October 2006
Bettine van Vuuren, Terry Robinson, Pedro vaz Pinto, Richard Estes & Conrad
Matthee; “Western Zambian sable: What is all the hype about?”, Game & Hunt,
Volume 16, Number 4.
Pedro vaz Pinto, “Angola: Giant Sable Update”, African Indaba e-Newsletter, Volume
8, Issue 4 & 5
167
Websites:
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: http://www.iucnredlist.org.
International Union for the Conservation of Nature: http://www.iucn.org.
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora:
http://www.cites.org
Convention on Migratory Species: http://www.cms.int
African Indaba: http://www.africanindaba.co.za
Wildlife Conservation Society: http://www.wcs.org
Ultimate ungulates: www.ultimateungulate.com
Mammals’ Planet: http://mammals-planet.org