Volume 18, No. 1, 1986 - Borneo Research Council

Volume 18, No. 1, 1986 - Borneo Research Council

BORNEO RESEARCH BULLET11
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Vol. 18, No. 1
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NOTES FROM TEE EDITOR:
"Back to Borneo;" Contributions
2
RESEARCH NOTES
Plantation Development in West
Kalimantan 11: The Perceptions
of the Indigenous Population
Michael R. Dove
Urban Migration into Sibu,
Sarawak: I1
Vinson H. Sutlive, Jr..
An Ethnic Sketch of the
Melawi Area West Kalimantan
Bernard J. L. Sellato
Notes on Rattan Collection
and Trade in the Masamba District,
Sulawesi Selatan
Stephen F. Siebert
The Central Mahakam Basin in
East-Kalimantan: A Socio-Economic
Survey
Andreas W. Massing
BORNEO NEWS
.......
3
...
27
....
46
.....
59
.....
64
...........
106
BOOK REVIEWS, ABSTRACTS,
AND BIBLIOGRAPHY .
.....
110
The Borneo Research Bulletin is published
twice yearly (April and September) by the
Borneo Research Council. Please address
all inquiries and contributions for pubblication to Vinson H. Sutlive, Jr.,
Editor, Borneo Research.Bulletin, Department of Anthropology, College of William
23185,
and Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia
USA.
Single issues are available at
US$2.50.
R E S E A R C H
NOTES FROM THE EDITOR
N O T E S
"Back t o Borneo."
"You c a n ' t g o b a c k . "
If t h e theme o f t h e last issue was "Back t o Borneo,"
t h e theme of t h e papers i n t h i s issue is, "You can't g o
back." B e y o n d t h e obvious c o n t r a d i c t i o n i s t h e indisputable
f a c t t h a t change i s o c c u r r i n g a t e v e r y level. As many o f u s
have discovered, a n d as Jay C r a i n d e s c r i b e d in h i s paper as
p a r t o f t h e organized session o f t h e Council in Washington.
w h a t we r e c a l l i s gone, w h a t we remember. no more.
C r i t i c s m a y t h i n k t h a t we a r e p r o p o s i n g an unaltered
B o r n e o , a m u s e u m - l i k e s i t u a t i o n f o r o u r own research
interests, a n d would r e m i n d u s t h a t change i s t h e o n l y
constant. N o t h i n g c o u l d b e f u r t h e r f r o m o u r concerns, and
t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h i s i s s u e d o c u m e n t t h a t v i r t u a l l y all
systems o n t h e i s l a n d a r e u n d e r stress.
Hans Selye d e f i n e d stress as a n x i e t y o v e r t h e potential
loss o f a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t o f one's environment, a phenomenon a n d process t o w h i c h scholars, administrators, a n d all
should b e ' a l e r t i n Borneo.
Environmental change. most
especially deforestation, has w r o u g h t i r r e v e r s i b l e changes o n
t h e n a t u r a l systems.
T r a n s m i g r a t i o n a n d resettlement
schemes, c o n c e i v e d a n d coordinated f r o m administrative
centers a n d w i t h o u t consultation w i t h affected indigenes, a r e
bringing i n t o - c o n t a c t a n d p o t e n t i a l c o n f l i c t people of
d i v e r s e c u l t u r e s . R u r a l depopulation a n d u r b a n migration
a r e c r e a t i n g new challenges. t o human service agencies, a n d
new s t r a i n s o n limited resources. P a r t i c u l a r l y n o t e w o r t h y i s
t h e notice o f t h e volume e d i t e d b y G. N. Appell on "landless
peasants."
T h e n u m b e r o f s u c h persons i s b o u n d t o
increase, r e s u l t i n g i n more u r b a n migration. B y t h e e n d o f
t h i s decade, o v e r h a l f o f t h e population o f t h e t h r e e
n o r t h e r n states w i l l b e u r b a n !
S t r e s s i s expressed i n many ways.
"Do y o u have
organizations in y o u r c o u n t r y f o r h e l p i n g v i c t i m s of spouse
abuse?"
T h i s p o i g n a n t question, r e v e a l i n g t h e personal
n a t u r e o f stress, was asked b y a couple as t h e y d r o v e me
I r e p l i e d t h a t we do, a n d
b a c k t o m y h o t e l in K u c h i n g .
asked t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e i r question. T h e y r e p l i e d t h a t
( C o n t i n u e d o n Page 112)
P L A N T A T I O N DEVELOPMENT I N
WEST KA.LIMANTAN II:
THE PERCEPTIONS OF THE INDIGENOUS POPULATION1
MICHAEL R. DOVE
T h e East-West C e n t e r
Environment a n d Policy I n s t i t u t e
Honolulu, Hawaii
I.
INTRODUCTION
T h i s paper p r e s e n t s an analysis o f local p e r c e p t i o n s o f
t h e PNP V I I o i l palm p l a n t a t i o n p r o j e c t s in West Kalimantan. It i s based u p o n a f i e l d t r i p t o t h e area in June and
J u l y o f 1982, d u r i n g w h i c h 1 v i s i t e d f o u r p r o j e c t s i t e s ( a t
Ngabang, Pusat Damai, Sungai. Dekan a n d G u n u n g Meliau)
a n d e i g h t villages (Jamai, Beruat, Sungai Dekan, Melobo',
Sungai Adong, Sungai Tapang, Sungai Mayang a n d Tanjak
M u l u n g ) . I was able t o meet w i t h 40-50 local r e s i d e n t s w i t h
v a r y i n g degrees o f involvement in t h e several projects, i n
a d d i t i o n t o 10-12 o f t h e p r o j e c t s t a f f .
These i n t e r v i e w s
were i n f o r m e d by m y discussions w i t h t h e s t a f f b o t h a t PNP
V l l ' s regional o f f i c e in Pontianak a n d i t s c e n t r a l o f f i c e i n
B a h Jambi ( N o r t h Sumatra), as well as by a c a r e f u l r e a d i n g
o f t h e project's b a c k g r o u n d documents. Finally, I h a v e also
d r a w n on t w o y e a r s (1974-76) o f p r e v i o u s experience in t h e
p r o j e c t area (see Dove 1985).
I m u s t reemphasize t h a t t h e a t t i t u d e s t h a t I p r e s e n t i n
t h i s r e p o r t a r e t h o s e o f t h e local people: t h e y a r e n o t
necessarily m y attitudes, n o r a r e t h e y necessarily c o r r e c t
(viz., an accurate r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e r e a l w o r l d ) . What t h e y
are, hopefully, i s a n accurate r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f what t h e
local population t h i n k s o f t h e projects.
T h e presumption
t h a t lies b e h i n d t h i s r e p o r t i s t h a t what t h e local population
t h i n k s a b o u t a g i v e n p r o j e c t may a f f e c t i t s success o r
failure, a n d hence t h e s e t h o u g h t s need t o b e u n d e r s t o o d b y
t h e p r o j e c t management a n d t a k e n i n t o consideration i n
policy-making
.
I
I
I
I
I
I will f i r s t discuss local perceptions w i t h r e g a r d to
issues i n v o l v i n g land. then labor, and f i n a l l y authority.
This, i n t u r n , will be followed b y my summary, conclusions,
and recommendations.
II.
LOCA'L PERCEPTIONS OF PROJECT ISSUES PERTAINING T O LAND
I t is clear i n all of t h e project areas t h a t t h e local
population i s n o t prepared t o hand over i t s traditional land
rights, without compensation, t o t h e plantation authorities.
It is also clear, and t h i s comes as a greater surprise, t h a t a
significant segment o f t h e population i s n o t prepared t o g i v e
u p i t s land claims without compensation even a f t e r being
invited t o participate i n t h e projects as smallholders w i t h
guaranteed ownership of 3.5 hectares of land. The issue
here i s a matter of perceived inequity. a r i s i n g from t h e i r
comparison o f t h e i r prospective roles within t h e projects
and t h e roles o f prospective transmigrants from Java. T h e
local people understand t h a t b o t h t h e y a n d t h e transmig r a n t s will be g i v e n t h e same amount o f land and c a r r y t h e
same amount of- k r e d i t 'indebtedness,' y e t t h e former are
being asked t o g i v e t h e i r land t o t h e project while t h e
l a t t e r g i v e nothing.
T h e problem i s n o t t h a t t h e local
p o p u l a t i o n i s n e c e s s a r i l y r e l u c t a n t t o exchange many
h e c t a r e s o f s e c o n d a r y f o r e s t s w i d d e n land f o r a few
hectares o f o i l palms a n d garden, r a t h e r it i s t h a t t h e y a r e
reluctant t o d o so if other participants - t h e transmigrants
- get t h e same number of hectares of oil palm and garden
For example, a local family t h a t
' f o r free' as it were.
holds traditional claim t o 40 hectares of secondary forest,
sees itself as b e i n g asked t o exchange 3.5 o f these hectares
for i t s 3.5 hectares o f oil palm and garden, a n d t o g i v e t h e
r e m a i n i n g 36.5 hectares t o t h e incoming transmigrants.
Thus, t h e local population feels t h a t it i s b e i n g asked t o
bear t h e cost o f t h e transmigrants' participation - something
t h a t it i s v e r y r e l u c t a n t t o do. This perception of inequity,
as well as one way o f resolving it. was expressed i n a
proposal made t o me b y t h e Temengqunq, 'Chief,' of t h e
v i l l a g e o f B e r u a ' , i n t h e environs of t h e Pusat Damai
project.
He proposed t h a t t h e local people who become
smallholders in t h e project should b e exempted from having
t o pay back any share of i t s capital costs, in recognition o f
t h e fact t h a t t h e y will b e c o n t r i b u t i n g more land t o t h e
project than t h e y will b e g i v e n personal t i t l e t o
called kelebihan tanah ' t h e excess land .'
-
what he
Because o f t h i s perceived i n e q u i t y attendant upon
participation in t h e project, some o f t h e local population
may choose ( i f possible) t o sell t h e i r land t o t h e projects
b u t not join t h e projects themselves. T h a t is, r a t h e r than
submit t o t h e perceived loss o f land attendant upon joining
t h e projects as smallholders, these people may elect t h e
apparently less iniquitous solution o f remaining a nonparticipant a n d merely selling t h e i r land t o t h e projects. T h i s
choice appeals t o some people because o f i t s apparently
g r e a t e r recognition o f t h e i r r i g h t s , a n d also because it
involves less r i s k . T h e perceived r i s k o f becoming an oil
palm smallholder i s h i g h e r : t h e y have t o g i v e u p most of
t h e i r land and i n c u r a large monetary debt, all on t h e
p r o m i s e of a cash c r o p t h a t i s completely unfamiliar t o
them. On t h e other hand, while t h e y m i g h t n o t l i k e t o sell
t h e i r land, a t least t h e money t h a t t h e y receive if t h e y do
sell i s b o t h immediate a n d concrete.
T h e r e i s one other
d i s t i n c t i v e f a c t o r o f t h i s compensation t h a t i s less in t h e i r
favor. however: t h e cash compensation i s a f l u i d resource.
It i s easily -too easily
exchanged f o r o t h e r goods.
-
A t t h e village o f Sungai Mayang I was t o l d t h a t some
people who sold land t o t h e p r o j e c t used t h e cash t h e r e b y
obtained t o b u y r u b b e r g r o v e s in o t h e r areas, some used it
t o b u i l d new houses, a n d some j u s t f r i t t e r e d it away (Habis
A t t h e . village o f Sungai Dekan, I t a l k e d w i t h t h e
+I.
head o f one family who had received 800,000 r u p i a h ( t h e n
equal t o $1,280.00) f o r land sold t o t h e p r o j e c t - s u r e l y
more money t h a n t h e y had e v e r before had a t one timea n d h a d already spent it all, a p p a r e n t l y on a v a r i e t y of
nondurable consumer goods. T h e problem w i t h a case l i k e
t h i s i s t h a t t h e f a m i l y has lost p a r t o f i t s p r o d u c t i v e
resources b y selling some ( i n o t h e r cases a l l ) o f i t s land t o
t h e project, b u t it has n o t used t h e money t h e r e b y obtained
t o replace t h e loss, f o r example b y b u y i n g more land, a
r u b b e r grove, o r a r i c e h u l l e r ( e t c . 1 . Given t h e f a c t t h a t i n
most -of these areas t h e purchase and sale o f land was
t r a d i t i o n a l l y uncommon ( a l t h o u g h it did occur), and g i v e n
t h e additional fact t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l economy was largely
( although n o t e n t i r e l y 1 a subsistence premarket economy. it
i s perhaps t o b e expected t h a t some v i l l a g e r s would be
unable t o r e s i s t t h e temptation o f selling t h e i r p r o d u c t i v e
r e s o u r c e s ( v i z . , l a n d ) a n d u s i n g t h e proceeds t o b u y
n o n p r o d u c t i v e goods (viz., consumer goods 1. T h e d a n g e r in
t h i s i s e x p r e s s e d in a f o l k homily h e a r d among t h e l b a n i n
an adjoining subdistrict:
namely, U r a n
ti n y u a l
t a n a h l k e b u n . jampa' pedih, lanyone who s&J#snand
or
r u b b e r g r o v e s i s soon hurting. '
T h e f a i l u r e t o use t h e sale p r i c e o f t h e i r l a n d t o
a c q u i r e o t h e r p r o d u c t i v e resources makes it i n e v i t a b l e that,
once t h i s money has a l l been spent, these people w i l l b e
f o r c e d t o g o b a c k t o t h e l a n d t o live, b y swidden a g r i c u l ture.
T h i s may i n c l u d e l a n d t h a t i s now within t h e
boundaries o f t h e o i l palm projects, if n o o t h e r l a n d i s
available.
From t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f t h e p r o j e c t s ' management, therefore, it i s b e t t e r if t h e local population joins t h e
p r o j e c t s as smallholders r a t h e r t h a n j u s t s e l l i n g t h e i r l a n d
t o t h e projects. ( I f some o f them must sell t h e i r land, f o r
whatever reason, t h e n it i s b e t t e r if t h e i r compensation i s
i n a less liquid a n d more p r o d u c t i v e f o r m t h a n simple c a s h ) .
I II.
LOCAL. PERCEPTIONS OF PROJECT ISSUES P E R T A I N ING T O LABOR
T h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t I i m m e d i a t e l y g o t f r o m most
people i n t h e p r o j e c t areas i s that, w i t h some i m p o r t a n t
qualifications. t h e y l i k e w o r k i n g on t h e p l a n t a t i o n p r o j e c t s
as wage laborers.
T h e r e seem t o b e several reasons f o r
t h i s . A man in t h e v i l l a g e o f Sungai Dekan, f o r example,
said t h a t he . l j k e d b e i n g able t o w o r k on r a i n y days; i n
c o n t r a s t t o which, h e noted, one cannot t a p r u b b e r on a
rainy day.
I n t h e v i l l a g e o f Sungai Mayang, t h e y spoke
w i t h pleasu're o f b e i n g able t o w o r k in l a r g e g r o u p s o n t h e
projects, as a r e s u l t o f which t h e y d o n o t e v e n feel t h e
heat o f t h e s u n (Senan ramai, t i d a k merasa p a n a s ) . This. i s
also g i v e n as o d t l i E T e a s o n s m
e use o f large.
communal w o r k p a r t i e s i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l system o f a g r i c u l t u r e i n t h i s p a r t of K a l i m a n t a n .
However, t h e most
important a t t r a c t i o n of t h i s wage labor i s p r o b a b l y t h e f a c t
t h a t it g i v e s them a source o f cash f o r m a r k e t needs, w h i l e
a.llowing t h e m ( o r o t h e r m e m b e r s o f t h e i r families) t o
c o n t i n u e t o m a k e s w i d d e n s t o f u l f i l l t h e i r subsistence
needs.
Wage l a b o r a t t h e p r o j e c t s was c l e a r l y b e i n g
combined w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l swidden-making by v i l l a g e r s a t
Sungai Dekan, Sungai Tapang, Melobo', Sungai Mayang, a n d
Tanjak M u l u n g .
T h i s i s n o t t o s a y t h a t t h e local population has n o
c r i t i c i s m o f t h e p r e s e n t s y s t e m o f wage l a b o r o n t h e
projects.
F i r s t a n d most obviously, many people t h o u g h t
t h a t t h e ' d a i l y o f 1000 r u p i a h ( a s o f mid-1982) was too
little:
t h i s w a s m e n t i o n e d by t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f b o t h
Melobo' a n d Sungai Tapang. T h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e l a t t e r
village said t h a t t h e wage was s a t i s f a c t o r y in 1980, when
one k i l o g r a m o f s u g a r c o s t o n l y 225 r u p i a h , but a f t e r t w o
y e a r s o f inflation, w i t h t h a t same k i l o g r a m o f . s u g a r now
c o s t i n g 600 rupiah, t h e same wage was n o l o n g e r enough.
T h i s aside, t h e y s a i d t h a t t h e y h a d n o t r o u b l e w i t h t h e
d i s c i p l i n e o f t h e work, w i t h t h e earliness o f t h e w o r k day,
o r with i t s overall length.
A more s e r i o u s c r i t i c i s m o f t h e wage l a b o r o p p o r t u n i t i e s a t t h e projects, a n d one oft-repeated. p e r t a i n e d t o t h e
f a c t t h a t most o f t h i s w o r k was o f f e r e d o n l y o n a d a i l y
basis ( k e r j a h a r i a n ) o r a s h o r t - t e r m c o n t r a c t basis ( k e r j a
b o r o n q a n ) . A s a result,. as n o t e d by t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f
Sungai Dekan f o r example, n o t e v e r y o n e who w a n t s t o b e
h i r e d o n a g i v e n d a y i s h i r e d . O f more importance, t h e
u n c e r t a i n t y o f t h i s work, c o u p l e d w i t h i t s r e l a t i v e l y low
wage, made d a y l a b o r a t t r a c t i v e o n l y t o young, u n m a r r i e d
men a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f Sungai Mayang. T h e y
said t h a t men who a r e s u p p o r t i n g families c o u l d not, in
effect, a f f o r d t o b e j u s t b u r u h h a r i a n ' d a y l a b o r e r s ' ( w h i c h
explains t h e widespread a n d p r e v i o u s l y n o t e d p r a c t i c e o f
combining wage l a b o r with. c o n t i n u e d swidden a g r i c u l t u r e ) .
Accordingly, a n d because t h e s e v i l l a g e r s a r e trying t o pikir
t e n t a n q masa depan ' t h i n k about t h e f u t u r e , ' t h e y say t h e y
w a n t t o become b u r u h t e t a p ' p e r m a n e n t l a b o r e r s ' o r
k a r y a w a n 'employees.'
T h i s d e s i r e was s t r o n g e n o u g h t h a t
t h e men o v e r 35 y e a r s o f age, w h i c h i s said t o b e t h e c u t o f f age f o r becoming a p r o j e c t employee, t o l d me t h a t t h e y
were merasa susah ' f e e l i n g g r i e v e d ' o n t h i s account. T h e
d e s i r e t o become permanent p r o j e c t employees was also
expressed b y t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f Sungai Dekan and, from
o t h e r evidence I saw, seemed t o b e widespread t h r o u g h o u t
t h e p r o j e c t areas. T h e basis f o r t h i s d e s i r e i s r e l a t i v e l y
simple. T h e dominant f a c t o r i n t h e economic s t r a t e g i e s of
a l l Dayak i s t h e minimization o f r i s k . A s n o t e d earlier. t h i s
i s w h y more o f t h e m a r e w i l l i n g t o sell t h e i r l a n d t h a n t o
become smallholders: t h e r e t u r n f r o m t h e f o r m e r i s assured,
t h e r e t u r n f r o m t h e l a t t e r i s n o t . F o r t h e same reason, if
t h e y a r e g o i n g t o d e p e n d o n w o r k a t t h e p r o j e c t s f o r all o r
-
p a r t o f their. livelihood, t h e y want t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of t h i s
w o r k guaranteed.
They do not want t o live from day t o
day, n o t k n o w i n g whether o r n o t t h e r e w i l l b e w o r k t h e
following d a y . (Note, in t h i s regard, t h e p r e v i o u s l y c i t e d
expr
o f dissatisfaction w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t r a i n f a l l
[whi~
~ n p r e d i c t a b l e l c a n cancel t h e d a y ' s r u b b e r
tappi
The d es i r e - t o become permanent plantation w o r k e r s
qualifietd by t h e inhabitants o f a t least one village,
-: Ad...,"
Sunqal
lrlayang, w i t h t h e stipulation t h a t t h e y c o n t i n u e t o
3 t t h e i r o l d v i l l a g e s i t e a n d b e t r a n s p o r t e d back-andas t h e y a r e now - b y t h e project's boats. I suspect
'his d e s i r e i s also widespread: I noted n o d e s i r e among
any o f t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e p r o j e c t areas t o move i n t o
new settlements b u i l t b y t h e project.
T h e r e seem t o b e
several reasons f o r t h i s .
-
One reason i n v o l v e s t h e i r o p i n i o n o f government
housing a n d - g i v e n t h a t t h e y d o n o t d i f f e r e n t i a t e between
PNP V I I a n d t h e national government - t h e i r expectation
t h a t housing f a r them o n t h e p r o j e c t sites would b e n o
better.
As t h e Temengqunq o f Berua' said o f t h e
transmigration site nearby:
t h e houses h a v e dirt f l o o r s
( w h i c h i s u n h e a r d - o f f o r a Dayak house), t h e y are b u i l t o f
poor q u a l i t y woods (whereas Dayak always select t h e b e s t
woods, o f t e n ironwood, f o r t h e i r own houses) and, in
conse uence. t h e y o f t e n a r e b l o w n down in storms ( w h i c h
never%appens.to a s t u r d i l y b u i l t Dayak house). In addition,
t h e T e m e n q q u n g s a i d t h a t t r a n s m i g r a t i o n sites t e n d t o b e
p o o r l y located. t h e one in question b e i n g located f a r f r o m a
s o u r c e of w a t e r (whereas Dayak villages a r e absolutely
always located a t a g o o d source o f water, t h i s indeed b e i n g
one o f t h e p r i m a r y d e t e r m i n a n t s o f t h e i r l o c a t i o n ) .
T h i s fear about t h e quality o f project housing (as
opposed t o t r a n s m i g r a t i o n h o u s i n g ) may b e unfounded, b u t it
i s n o t t h e o n l y reason t h a t most people want t o remain i n
t h e i r o w n villages.
A second, more i m p o r t a n t reason i s
In o r n e a r t h e e x i s t i n g villages t h e r e
economic in n a t u r e .
a r e o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o supplement income a n d / o r d i e t t h a t
would n o t e x i s t in a new v i l l a g e i n s i d e t h e projects.
For
example, in o r n e a r t h e i r e x i s t i n g v i l l a g e sites t h e r e s t i l l
remain ( w h e r e t h e s e h a v e n o t been b o u g h t u p a n d p l a n t e d in
oil palm) g r o v e s of fruit trees, income-producing g r o v e s o f
r u b b e r ( Hevea b r a s i l i e n s i s 1 a n d candle nut ( I s o p t e r a seminis 1
trees, as well as f o r e s t t h a t can s t i l l b e c u t t o make r i c e In addition, in o r near t h e e x i s t i n g
p r o d u c i n g swiddens.
v i l l a g e s t h e r e a r e k n o w n s i t e s w h e r e t h e v i l l a g e r s can
g a t h e r j u n g l e p r o d u c e ( s u c h as e d i b l e bamboo shoots 1, hunt
( s t i l l i m p o r t a n t t o t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f Jamai. S u n g a i Dekan,
Melobo', a n d T a n j a k M u l u n g ) , a n d f i s h . A move t o a new
settlement w i t h i n t h e p r o j e c t b o u n d a r i e s w o u l d d e p r i v e t h e m
o f all o r most o f t h e s e supplemental sources o f f o o d a n d
cash, a n d w o u l d a c c o r d i n g l y r a i s e t h e minimum d a i l y wage
t h a t w o u l d b e necessary t o s u p p o r t a family, a l l o t h e r
t h i n g s b e i n g equal. ( T h i s theoretical minimum wage i s lower
if t h e y r e m a i n a t t h e o l d v i l l a g e sites, because it i s
supplemented t h e r e by t h e s e o t h e r resources. 1 T h e r e m i g h t
b e some o p p o r t u n i t i e s a t t h e new v i l l a g e sites t o supplement
t h e i r income a n d / o r diet, b u t a t t h e moment t h e s e a r e
u n k n o w n t o t h e local people and, a c c o r d i n g l y , t h e move t o
t h e new s i t e s r e p r e s e n t s a r i s k t h a t most o f them d o n o t
want t o t a k e .
T h e r e a r e o t h e r aspects o f l i f e in t h e p l a n n e d new
v i l l a g e sites a b o u t w h i c h t h e local people m u s t also feel
uncertainty.
A move f r o m t h e i r e x i s t i n g v i l l a g e s would
i n v o l v e changes in house style, settlement p a t t e r n . access t o
water, b a t h i n g habits, a n d so on. T h e r e m i g h t b e a t t e n d a n t
changes in social life, p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e , a n d ceremonial
a c t i v i t y . A n x i e t y about s u c h changes i s n o t w i t h o u t basis.
Psychologists h a v e demonstrated t h a t e v e r y c h a n g e in a
person's way of life places a psychological b u r d e n o n t h a t
person u n t i l ( a n d i f ) h e adapts t o it ( A p p e l l f o r t h c o m i n g ) .
T h e g r e a t e r t h e number o f changes t h a t a r e made a t a n y
one p o i n t in time, t h e g r e a t e r t h i s b u r d e n . If t h i s b u r d e n
surpasses t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s capacity t o manage it, h e may
s u c c u m b t o illness. commit socially d e v i a n t a c t s (e.g.,
a d u l t e r y , m u r d e r ) o r e x h i b i t o t h e r s i g n s o f a pathological
state. Based o n t h e data g a t h e r e d t o d a t e in West Kalimant a n , it i s d i f f i c u l t t o estimate e x a c t l y how m u c h o f a
psychological c o s t would b e e n t a i l e d in r e l o c a t i n g t h e local
p o p u l a t i o n t o new villages, b u t it i s c e r t a i n t h a t t h e r e
In e x p r e s s i n g r e l u c t a n c e t o move, t h e
w o u l d b e a cost.
local p o p u l a t i o n i s saying, in effect, t h a t t h e y think t h e
advantages of m o v i n g w i l l b e o u t w e i g h e d by t h i s a n t i c i p a t e d
cost.
Since a psychologically d i s a b l e d p o p u l a t i o n w o u l d
e x a c t i t s o w n costs from t h e p r o j e c t management ( n o t o n l y
in t e r m s o f lower p r o d u c t i o n b u t also in t e r m s o f social
problems, disputes, and so on), it i s equally important f o r
t h e management t o assess t h e costs o f such relocation a n d
weigh them against t h e supposed advantages. Minimally, it
must recognize t h a t these l a t t e r advantages a r e n o t 'free,'
but i n v o l v e trade-offs in other equally important areas.
T h i s discussion has so f a r been concerned w i t h t h e
perceptions o f t h e local population towards work--whether
on a temporary o r permanent basis--directly for PNP V I I .
S t i l l t o b e discussed i s what t h e local population t h i n k s o f
becoming smallholders. First, it must b e remembered t h a t
t h e y h a v e n o p r e v i o u s experience w i t h oil palms.
In
thinking about whether o r n o t t h e oil palm. can t h r i v e in
t h e i r area, some o f them draw on t h e i r experience with t h e
coconut palm. which t h e y see as a basically similar plant.
T h e in.habitants o f Jamai, f o r example, are a l i t t l e pessimistic i n t h i s regard, n o t i n g t h a t t h e i r coconut palms will
o n l y t h r i v e w i t h i n t h e immediate surroundings of t h e i r
houses, which t h e y a t t r i b u t e t o t h e beneficial effects o f t h e
smoke from t h e i r cook f i r e s .
They say t h a t what t h e y
r e a l l y need t o grow coconut palms i s Hawah laut 'sea aii-'
( w h o s e e f f e c t on t h e palm i s apparently t h o u g h t t o b e
similar t o t h a t o f :smoke). It i s t o t h i s t h a t t h e y a t t r i b u t e
t h e f a c t t h a t ' d o w n r i v e r , along t h e southwest coast o f
Kalimantan, coconut palms can b e grown u p t o 4-5 kilometers from one's house ( a n d cook f i r e ) . 2
Notwithstanding t h i s t h e o r y o f t h e villagers a t Jamai,
most o f t h e pppulation in t h e project areas seems t o hold a
s u r p r i s i n g l y optjmistic view of t h e changes f o r successfully
c u l t i v a t i n g oil palms i n t h e i r t e r r i t o r y . ( I call t h i s ' s u r p r i s i n g ' sin& they really have no evidence t h a t t h e oil palm
w i l l g r o w a n d fruit there, b u t only t h e word o f t h e PNP V I I
s t a f f and local government officials, and hearsay evidence
t h a t t h e oil palm will grow i n N o r t h Sumatra-an area o v e r
1300 kilometers distant, on an island w i t h a s i g n i f i c a n t l y
d i f f e r e n t climate a n d geological h i s t o r y . ) T h i s i s reflected
i n t h e f a c t t h a t many o f them want t o p l a n t oil palms
themselves, on t h e i r own land, outside o f t h e project areas.
The inhabitants of Sungai Dekan say t h a t t h e y have already
asked t h e i r s u b d i s t r i c t o f f i c e r f o r assistance w i t h oil palm
seedlings ( a n d been t o l d t h a t t h e y would n o t b e permitted
t o plant a n y ) . T h e inhabitants of Sungai Mayang made a
similar r e q u e s t t o me d u r i n g t h e course o f t h i s - s u r v e y .
They said t h a t if PNP V I I gave them seedlings, t h e y would
I
I
1
agree t o sell t h e i r palm oil o n l y t o PNP V I I. Indeed, t h e y
said t h a t t h e y were so eager t o p l a n t oil palm t h a t t h e y
were even prepared t o c u t down t h e i r own f r u i t o r r u b b e r
groves t o do so, if no o t h e r l a n d was available.
T h i s willingness t o p l a n t oil palm o n t h e i r own must b e
distinguished f r o m t h e i r a t t i t u d e towards becoming official
s m a l l h o l d e r s w i t h i n t h e confines o f t h e projects.
The
former involves a minimum of r i s k ( e v e n if it entails c u t t i n g
down a r u b b e r g r o v e ) , because it would b e c a r r i e d on as a
side a c t i v i t y (much l i k e r u b b e r t a p p i n g i t s e l f ) , a t least u n t i l
it h a d p r o v e d i t s e l f t o b e successful. In t h i s respect, t h e i r
eagerness t o plant oil palm seedlings can b e seen as p a r t o f
t h e ancient and well documented desire o f all Dayak farmers
t o experiment w i t h new crops--historically new varieties of
rice, more recently r u b b e r and t h e n pepper, and now oil
'palm ( c f . Freeman 1970: 190). B u t experimentation w i t h oil
palms i s n o t t h e same thing as becoming a smallholder i n
one o f t h e p r o j e c t s , w h i c h entails b o t h a f a r greater
commitment and f a r more unknown variables.
T h i s i s n o t t o say t h a t t h e r e i s no i n t e r e s t among the
local population in becoming smallholders. T h e inhabitants
of Sungai Mayang, f o r example, in addition t o saying t h a t
t h e y wanted t o p l a n t oil palms themselves, also said t h a t
t h e y w a n t e d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o join a Jl'j
smallholder
scheme.3 I n eneral, however, t h e expression o f interest i n
joining a sma lholder scheme i s coupled w i t h doubts as to
whether s u c h schemes can succeed. Most o f these doubts
c o n c e r n t h e i n i t i a l p e r i o d o f cultivation, before t h e oil
palms produce t h e i r f i r s t marketable h a r v e s t . Thus, t h e
inhabitants o f Sungai Tapang said t h a t t h e y would l i k e a
PIR
- smallholder scheme i n t h e i r village, b u t added. t h a t it
would probably n o t succeed if t h e y g o t it, because o f t h e
biaya memelihara 'cost o f cultivation.'
As t h e y went on t o
explain, d u r i n g t h e i n i t i a l years b e f o r e t h e oil palms yielded
any income, t h e y would have t o cari makanan 'seek foodlwork' elsewhere in o r d e r t o live. As a result, t h e y feared,
t h e y would n o t b e able t o care f o r t h e i r oil palms as much
as m i g h t b e necessary, a n d hence t h e trees would fail.
Therefore, when t h e y r e f e r t o t h e i n i t i a l 'cost o f cultivation' and t h e i r i n a b i l i t y t o a f f o r d it, what t h e y a r e saying is
t h a t t h e o i l palms w i l l r e q u i r e c a r e f o r some time before
t h e y yield, a n d t h e y a r e n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y wealthy t o b e able
t o r e l i n q u i s h all other income-producing activities t o b e able
9
forest.'4
Whereas h e a g r e e d t h a t t h e r u b b e r g r o v e s c o u l d
e v e n t u a l l y b e developed i n t o o i l palm as well, h e wanted
these o t h e r areas l e f t as t h e y a r e p e r m a n e n t l y . He wants
this, clearly, so as t o p r e s e r v e some s o u r c e s o f l i v e l i h o o d
aside f r o m t h e o i l palms themselves. T h e c a n d l e n u t t r e e s
p e r i o d i c a l l y y i e l d a v e r y l u c r a t i v e cash c r o p , t h e swampland
i s t h e b e s t a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d in t h e a r e a ( b e i n g more
susceptible t o i n t e n s i v e c u l t i v a t i o n a n d capable o f p r o d u c i n g
a l a r g e r r i c e c r o p p e r u n i t o f area t h a n a n y o t h e r l a n d
a r o u n d [ D o v e 19801 ), a n d t h e copses o f p r i m a r y f o r e s t a r e
sources o f wi.ld comestibles. as well as t i m b e r a n d f i b e r s f o r
use in c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d c r a f t w o r k .
t o p r o v i d e it.
T h e problem o f d e a l i n g w i t h t h i s i n t e r i m
p e r i o d was also r a i s e d in t h e e a r l i e r c i t e d r e m a r k s of t h e
Temenqgung o f Berua'.
He recommended t h a t t h e r u b b e r
g r o v e s b e l o n g i n g t o local p a r t i c i p a n t s in t h e smallholder
scheme n o t b e c u t d o w n during t h e i n i t i a l p l a n t i n g of o i l
palm. A f t e r t h i s f i r s t p l a n t i n g b e g i n s t o y i e l d an income,
h e a d d e d 7 . t h e n t h e r u b b e r g r o o v e s can b e cleared a n d
p l a n t e d in o i l palm as well. His suggestion, therefore, was
t h a t e x i s t i n g r u b b e r g r o v e s b e p r e s e r v e d so t h a t t h e i r
income can h e l p t i d e t h e smallholders o v e r t h e p e r i o d b e f o r e
t h e oil palms y i e l d t h e i r f i r s t h a r v e s t .
T h e a b i l i t y t o s u r v i v e t h i s i n i t i a l p e r i o d appears t o b e
a concern o f t h e local population t h r o u g h o u t t h e p r o j e c t
areas. A s s u c h it s h o u l d p r o b a b l y b e a c o n c e r n of PNP V I I
a s well, s i n c e t h e s u c c e s s o f each smallholder p r o j e c t
c l e a r l y d e p e n d s o n t h e smallholders' active involvement in
c u l t i v a t i o n d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d b e f o r e t h e o i l palms b e g i n t o
produce, as well as a f t e r w a r d s . T h e economic s u r v i v a l o f
t h e household, d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d b e f o r e t h e f i r s t o i l palm
h a r v e s t , looms as a problem in t h e smallholder schemes
because so m u c h o f t h e household's l a n d a n d l a b o r r e s o u r c e s
w i l l b e d e v o t e d t o t h e oil palm.
I t will p r e s e n t less o f a
problem t o households t h a t p l a n t some o i l palm t r e e s o n
t h e i r own. w h i l e s t i l l maintaining a n a c t i v e involvement in
t r a d i t i o n a l swidden making, r u b b e r t a p p i n g a n d so on. T h i s
explains a t least p a r t of t h e g r e a t e r enthusiasm, o f some
segments of t h e local population, f o r o b t a i n i n g o i l palm
seedlings t-o .plant o n t h e i r own as opposed t o j o i n i n g a n
official smallholder scheme.
T h e y p e r c e i v e t h e f o r m e r as
i n v o l v i n g less r i s k t h a n t h e l a t t e r .
I n a d d i t i o n t o w o r r y i n g about economic s u r v i v a l d u r i n g
t h e p e r i o d before t h e f i r s t o i l palrn harvest, t h e r e a r e some
i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t e c o n o m i c s u r v i v a l t h e r e a f t e r i s also a
concern t o t h e local population.
More specifically, t h e r e
a r e some i n d i c a t i o n s of a n x i e t y a t t h e t h o u g h t o f b e i n g
t o t a l l y d e p e n d e n t u p o n a 2 ;l) ' hectare allotment of t h e
unfamiliar o i l palm. a n d a 1.5 h e c t a r e allotment of food
crops t o b e c u l t i v a t e d by a n as-yet-known t e c h n o l o g y ( v i z . ,
f o r permanerit-field c u l t i v a t i o n 1. T h i s sentiment i s r e f l e c t e d
i t 7 t h e e a r l i e r c i t e d r e q u e s t by t h e T e m e n q q u n g of Berual, t o
p r e s e r v e f r o m o i l palrn development n o t o n l y t h e i r r u b b e r
groves ( a s j u s t discussed), b u t also t h e i r candle n u t groves,
t h e i r p a y a 'swampland,' a n d t h e i r copses o f rimba' ' p r i m a r y
1
1
1
~
T h e d e s i r e t o p r e s e r v e t h e s e r e s o u r c e s may r e f l e c t a
belief o n t h e p a r t o f t h e local p o p u l a t i o n t h a t t h e income
f r o m a smallholding--even one t h a t h a s s t a r t e d t o p r o d u c e
marketable h a r v e s t s - - w i l l n o t fill a l l o f a household's needs,
o r i t may r e f l e c t a b e l i e f t h a t w h i l e t h e t w o h e c t a r e s o f oil
palm m i g h t fulfill a household's need f o r cash, t h e one a n d
a h a l f h e c t a r e s of f o o d c r o p s w i l l n o t fulfill i t s n e e d f o r
food.
In m y p r e c e d i n g p a p e r ( ' P l a n t a t i o n Development in
West Kalimantan I t ) , I n o t e d t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t t h e Dayak
w i l l face in trying t o s h i f t f r o m a s y s t e m o f subsistence
f o o d - c r o p p p i n g based o n o v e r 40 h e c t a r e s p e r household t o
o n e b a s e d o n j u s t 1.5 h e c t a r e s p e r household. O n t h e o t h e r
hand, t h e d e s i r e t o p r e s e r v e t h e s e s e v e r a l r e s o u r c e s may
r e f l e c t n o t a belief t h a t t h e income ( w h e t h e r in cash o r i n
f o o d ) f r o m a s m a l l h o l d i n g w i l l b e adequate, but r a t h e r t h a t
it w i l l n o t be c e r t a i n . T h a t is, it may r e f l e c t a r e l u c t a n c e
t o b e completely d e p e n d e n t u p o n a s i n g l e s o u r c e o f l i v e l i hood, n a m e l y t h e o i l p a l m s .
T h i s reluctance is both
widespread a n d d e e p l y i n g r a i n e d among t h e Dayak, as e a r l i e r
It stems f r o m a p r i o r i t y o n t h e minimization of
discussed.
r i s k , above a l l else. H i s t o r i c a l l y , t h i s h a s r e c e i v e d p e r h a p s
i t s g r e a t e s t e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e common D a y a k p a t t e r n o f
c u l t i v a t i n g d r y r i c e in swiddens a n d r u b b e r t r e e s i n g r o v e s .
T h i s d u a l emphasis insulates t h e m a g a i n s t p e r i o d i c complete
f a i l u r e i n e i t h e r sector, w h i c h i s t h e reason w h y t h i s
p a t t e r n o f r u b b e r c u l t i v a t i o n has been t h e most successful
i n Indonesia.
Smallholders p r o d u c e d j u s t 46 p e r c e n t o f
Indonesia's r u b b e r e x p o r t s in 1938, b u t h a d r a i s e d t h e i r
percentage t o 80 p e r c e n t b y 1982 ( Ace 1982; Seavoy 1980).
IV.
L O C A L PERCEPTIONS OF PROJECT ISSUES PERTAINING T O AUTHORITY
No less important, a n d quite possibly more important.
t h a n t h e local population's perception o f land a n d labor i n
t h e o i l p a l m d e v e l o p m e n t p r o j e c t s i s i t s perception of
authority there
how t h e y are governed, how decisions a r e
made.
It i s ' v e r y clear t h a t negative perceptions of some
a s p e c t s o f t h i s a u t h o r i t y are widespread t h r o u g h t h i s
population. T h e r e a r e several reasons f o r t h i s .
--
First, t h e local population makes no distinction a t all
b e t w e e n PNP V I I a n d t h e v a r i o u s local a n d n a t i o n a l
government offices. As a result. t h e past o r p r e s e n t actions
o f t h e l a t t e r a r e perceived as indicative o f t h e f u t u r e
actions o f t h e former.
T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e case as
regards t h e i r perceptions o f t h e government's transmigration
program. as noted earlier. On t h e whole t h i s program has
l e f t t h e m w i t h a r a t h e r negative impression o f official
i n t e n t i o n s , motives. a n d promises in t h e i r region.
As
d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r , t h e i r o p i n i o n o f t h e transmigration
projects t h a t 'they have seen i s t h a t t h e sites a r e poorly
located (e.g., yis-a-vis sources o f water 1 and t h e houses a r e
shoddily constructed. In addition, according t o t h e inhabitants of Berua', t h e 10 percent o f project participants taken
from t h e local population ( i n accordance w i t h official new
transmigration regulations) have n o t been treated t h e same
as t h e transmigrants coming from outside o f Kalimantan.
For example. t h e y say t h a t t h e government has d i s t r i b u t e d
seed t o t h e l a t t e r a n d n o t the former on some occasions.
A s a result t h e local population is a f r a i d t h a t t h e same f a t e
w o u l d b e f a l l t h e m if t h e y joined a smallholder project.
Namely, t h e y are a f r a i d t h a t they would be g i v e n substand a r d houses a n d w o u l d not be treated as well as t h e
transmigrant participants. I n short, t h e local population i s
afraid that t h e project a u t h o r i t y will n o t t r e a t them as it
has promised t o t r e a t them. In t h e i r own words, t h e y say
t h a t they are T a k u t penipuan ' A f r a i d o f t r i c k e r y . ' and so
they want all c u r r e n t a n d f u t u r e agreements t o b e w r i t t e n
down on paper.
If t h e y a r e n o t w r i t t e n down, said t h e
Temenqqunq of Berua'. t h e danger i s t h a t t h e agreements
will -Nanti diobah 'Later b e changed.'
The local population's fear t h a t verbal agreements will
be later rejected o r altered is based on t h e i r experience n o t
only w i t h t h e government's transmigration project, b u t w i t h
PNP V I I itself.
F o r example, t h e Temenqqung o f Berua'
complained t h a t t h e local project management had announced
t h a t w o r k e r s a n d smallholders would be given a rice
allowance f o r a maximum o f t h r e e c h i l d r e n apiece. He and
h i s people were upset n o t so much at t h e r e s t r i c t i o n itself,
although it i s innately unpopular t o any people w i t h large
families, b u t a t t h e fact t h a t it represented a unilateral
alteration of an e a r l i e r understanding.
According t o t h i s
earlier understanding, t h e Temengqung said, t h e r e was no
limit t o . t h e number o f c h i l d r e n who could b e i n c l u d e d i n
t h e r i c e allowance. T h e i r vigorous and negative reaction t o
changes o f t h i s sort, o r t o what t h e y a t least perceive as
changes, can also b e explained i n terms o f t h e i r earlier
discussed a t t i t u d e towards r i s k . T h a t is, t h e sudden and
u n i l a t e r a l alteration o f t h e i r agreement w i t h t h e project
management ( o r w i t h t h e l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t I , w i t h o u t
consultation o r explanation, makes them feel n o t o n l y t h a t
c o n t r o l o v e r t h e i r economic welfare i s in someone else's
hands, b u t t h a t t h i s someone else i s n o t dependable. Thus,
t h e y p e r c e i v e t h a t t h e i r cooperation w i t h t h e projects
entails a large measure, o f r i s k , which t h e y a r e loathe t o
accept (hence t h e Ternenqgunq's new insistence o n w r i t t e n
agreements )
.
T h e local population's reaction t o p o l i c y changes b y
t h e project management i s c l e a r l y exacerbated by t h e i r own
f e l t lack of participation in t h e decision-making process.
One problem i s t h e perceived lack o f local hiring a t t h e
T h e Temenqqunq o f Berua' said t h a t a t
managerial level.
t h e i r f i r s t meeting w i t h representatives f r o m PNP VII, t h e
local people
. requested t h a t some o f t h e i r own people b e
W i t h one o r t w o exceptions,
h i r e d as pimpinah 'managers.'
t h i s has n o t been done he said.
T h e Temenqgunq added
t h a t t h e lack o f s u c h h i r i n g cannot b e explained away b y
t h e lack o f s u i t a b l y educated candidates. He maintains t h a t
t h e r e a r e local g r a d u a t e s f r o m SMP, SMA a n d SMEA
(equivalent t o j u n i o r high schools a n d high schools) who
could have been h i r e d b u t have n o t been. T h e unsatisf a c t o r y result, according t o t h e local populations, i s t h a t all
o f t h e project managers a r e outsiders.
.
T h i s p e r c e i v e d lack of local hiring i s p a r t i c u l a r l y
u p s e t t i n g t o t h e local population because t h e y perceive a
lack o f local h i r i n g , in terms o f inadequate qualifications
t a n a n d in most o t h e r p a r t s o f Indonesia, o n e shows r e s p e c t
b y g o i n g t o someone else's house.
I n memanqqil 'summoning' someone t o one's own o f f i c e o r m e e t i n g place instead,
one shows a u t h o r i t y (e.g., as in t h e case o f a s u b o r d i n a t e o r
s e r v a n t b e i n g summoned by t h e b o s s ) o r e v e n i n t i m i d a t i o n
a n d c e n s u r e ( e . g., as in t h e case o f a s u s p e c t e d law b r e a k e r
b e i n g summoned by t h e p o l i c e ) .
a n d so on, these same reasons cannot j u s t i f y t h e lack o f
informal c o n s u l t a t i o n as well.
T h e Temenggunfl o f B e r u a '
maintains t h a t t h e so-called Tim P e n y u l u h 'Extension Team,;
which was composed o f t h e local leaders a n d t a k e n o n c e t o
Sumatra f o r , a t o u r o f PNP V l l ' s oil palm p l a n t a t i o n s a n d
facilities. h a v e n e v e r been asked f o r t h e i r o p i n i o n s a b o u t
any aspect o f t h e p
Rather, a c c o r d i n q t o t h e
. r o i.e c t s .
~ e m e n ~ q u nt h~e,y h a v e always simply been t o l d w L a t t o d o
b y t h e p r o j e c t manager.
T h e t r u t h o f t h i s was e v i d e n t
during a mass m e e t i n g in t h e schoolhouse a t B e r u a ' when,
f o l l o w i n g a speech b y one local leader i n w h i c h h e
adamantlv maintained t h a t h e would n o t i o i n t h e smallholder
scheme, 'I simply a s k e d him what h e thAught needed t o b e
changed in t h e scheme. My question was so u n e x p e c t e d a n d
novel t h a t t h e assembled arouD of local men immediatelv
b u r s t into laughter.
t h e y h a d n e v e r b e f o r e bee;
asked f o r t h e i r a d v i c e on how t h e project should b e
manaqed. Especially someone l i k e t h e T e m e n g g u n q i s by n o
means accustomed t o t h e power o f absolute command; b u t h e
i s accustomed t o h a v i n g h i s o p i n i o n r e s p e c t e d - h a v i n g h i s
advice s o u g h t and, some of t h e time, followed ( c f . Freeman
1981 1 .
In t h i s -sense, h e c l e a r l y does n o t feel t h a t t h e
p r o j e c t management has been dealing w i t h him i n a p r o p e r
manner.
T h i s p e r c e i v e d f a i l u r e t o t r e a t t h e local p o p u l a t i o n
w i t h respect, t o acknowledge t h e importance of their
cooperation, a n d t o i n v o l v e t h e m in t h e decision-making
process, appears t o b e causally r e l a t e d t o t h e n e g a t i v e
a t t i t u d e s a n d o b s t r u c t i v e b e h a v i o r o f t h i s same p o p u l a t i o n .
T h a t is, because t h e importance o f t h e i r cooperation has n o t
been acknowledged, t h e local p o p u l a t i o n h a s t u r n e d uncooperative, t h u s f o r c i n g t h i s acknowledgment.
Because t h e i r
importance has been o v e r l o o k e d o r u n d e r v a l u e d , t h e y have
been f o r c e d t o e x h i b i t it in t h e o n l y way o p e n t o them, b y
o b s t r u c t i n g t h e p l a n s o f t h e p r o j e c t management.
T h i s o b s t r u c t i o n i s t b e h a v i o r i s a c t u a l l y n o t t h e most
s e r i o u s consequence o f t h e d i s r u p t e d s t a t e o f r e l a t i o n s
between t h e local p o p u l a t i o n a n d t h e p r o j e c t management.
T h e most serious consequence i s g r o w i n g s u s p i c i o n o f t h e
v e r y purpose of t h e projects a n d t h e motivation of their
management. T h e local p o p u l a t i o n h a s come t o p e r c e i v e t h i s
m a n a g e m e n t n o t a s m e r e l y p l a g u e d by incompetence o r
In t h e w o r d s of
f o r g e t f u l n e s s ( e t c . ), b u t as s e l f - i n t e r e s t e d .
one local leader, t h e people a r e T a k u t B a t a k jadi r a j a h
' a f r a i d t h a t t h e B a t a k [managers] w i l l become t h e i r r u l e r s ' .
T h i s i s something t h a t t h e r e g i o n ' s people fear, something
t h a t t h e y d o n o t want, a n d something t h a t t h e y a p p a r e n t l y
will t r y t o p r e v e n t .
T h i s does n o t mean t h a t t h e y are
against t h e o i l palm projects, h o w e v e r . A s t h e j u s t - q u o t e d
leader went o n t o s a y :
'
T h i s l a c k o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p r o j e c t management by
t h e local population, o n e i t h e r a formal o r informal level, i s
associated w i t h a p e r c e i v e d a r r o g a n c e on t h e p a r t o f t h i s
same management. T h i s was clear d u r i n g o u r schoolhouse
meeting w i t h t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f Berua' a n d s u r r o u n d i n g
villages.
It i s highly s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t t h e o n l y e x p l i c i t
criticisms o f PNP V I I t h a t were voiced d u r i n g t h a t meeting
were:
( 1 1 t h e local people d o n o t want t o b e p e r e m p t o r i l y
called t o meetings in t h e middle o f t h e n i g h t , a n d ( 2 1 t h e y
do n o t w a n t t o b e d i p a n g g i l 'summoned' f r o m t h e i r v i l l a g e s
- as we w e r e in f a c t d o i n g a t t h e time.
These c r i t i c i s m s
c l e a r l y r e f l e c t a f e e l i n g o n t h e p a r t o f t h e local people t h a t
t h e y a r e b e i n g t r e a t e d i n too h i g h - h a n d e d a manner. T h e y
r e f l e c t a f e e l i n g t h a t when the p r o j e c t managers n e e d t o
meet w i t h t h e people, t h e f o r m e r s h o u l d n o t simply summon
t h e l a t t e r . Rather, t h e managers s h o u l d g o t o t h e m in t h e i r
villages, a n d t h e y s h o u l d do t h i s a t a time t h a t i s conv e n i e n t t o t h e v i l l a g e r s a n d has been a g r e e d u p o n b e f o r e h a n d . These r e a c t i o n s a n d desires on t h e p a r t o f t h e local
population s h o u l d s c a r c e l y b e s u r p r i s i n g . B o t h in Kaliman-
Asal sama makan sama k e r j a , t i d a k ada y a n q t i d a k
mau. Asal adil. t i d a k ada y a n g t i d a k mau.
'As
l o n g as [ e v e r y o n e ] e a t s l p r o f i t s t h e same a n d
w o r k s t h e same. t h e r e i s n o o n e w h o w i l l n o t
w a n t [ t o p a r t i c i p a t e l . A s l o n g as it i s just, t h e r e
i s n o one w h o w i l l n o t w a n t [ t o p a r t i c i p a t e ] .
/1
1
I
T h i s comment implies t h a t t h e local people w a n t t o join in
a n d s u p p o r t t h e p r o j e c t s , b u t some a r e n o t d o i n g so because
they feel that, t h e y a r e n o t 'eating t h e same a n d w o r k i n g
the same' and t h a t t h e management i s not 'just.'
They
clearly feel t h a t t h e r e i s some discontinuity a t t h e moment
between those who are c o n t r i b u t i n g t h e land a n d labor t o
namely, t h e local population - and those who
the projects
are reaping - i t s r e w a r d s - namely, outsiders.
-
V.
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
1.
Summary
T h e topic o f t h i s paper has been t h e perceptions of
t h e i n d i g e n o u s D a y a k p o p u l a t i o n t o w a r d s o i l palm
development projects in West Kalimantan. I discussed these
perceptions u n d e r t h r e e headings, those i n v o l v i n g land, t h e n
labor, a n d t h e n a u t h o r i t y . Looking a t land, I noted t h e
reluctance o f t h e local villagers t o g i v e extensive holdings
o f s w i d d e n l a n d t o t h e projects i n r e t u r n f o r a much
smaller smallholding o f oil palms. I also noted t h e equally
serious problem o f villagers simply selling all o f t h e i r land
t o t h e projects a n d t h e n having no resource base whatsoever. Lookrng a t labor, 1 discussed t h e perceived advantages and disadvantages o f daily wage labor i n t h e projects,
t h e desire .to become permanent project employees (combined
w i t h t h e desire t o remain i n t h e old villages), a n d t h e
desire t o c u l t i v a t e oil palms on t h e i r own ( w h i c h entails
l i t t l e r i s k v e r s u s w i t h i n a smallholder scheme ( w h i c h entails
greater r i s k ) . Finally, looking at authority, I noted t h e ill
effects o f local perceptions o f unsuccessful t r a n s m i g r a t i o n
projects, t h e ill effects o f unilateral policy changes on t h e
p a r t of t h e p r o j e c t management, and the perception t h a t
t h i s management n e i t h e r involves t h e local population in
decision-making n o r feels t h a t it has t o -- t h e n e t r e s u l t o f
which i s suspicion o f t h e project management's motivations
and goals.
2.
Substantive, Recommendations
A l l o f t h e available data seem t o indicate t h a t it would
b e best t o i n v o l v e as many as possible of t h e local inhabit a n t s i n t h e oil palm projects, whether as employees o r
smallholders. T h e one eventuality t h a t the p r o j e c t managem e n t s h o u l d p r o b a b l y t r y t o avoid a t all costs i s t h e
creation o f a landless and unemployed class of people i n t h e
v i c i n i t y o f i t s projects. Since these people would have t o
l i v e somehow, t h e r e would always b e a p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e y
would p r a c t i c e swidden a g r i c u l t u r e in o r near t h e p r o j e c t
sites, r a i s i n g t h e t h r e a t o r f a c t o f damage by f i r e t o t h e oil
palms. In o t h e r ways as well t h e y m i g h t eventually t r y t o
reassume c o n t r o l a n d use o f a n y f o r m e r lands o f t h e i r ' s t h a t
were absorbed (whether t h r o u g h purchase o r n o t ) i n t o t h e
o i l palm projects.
T h i s p o s s i b i l i t y i s b o t h r e a l and
e s p e c i a l l y problematic g i v e n t h e h i s t o r y o f political and
m i l i t a r y insurgencies along t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l b o r d e r o f t h i s
p r o v i n c e ( t h e b o r d e r i t s e l f b e i n g less t h a n e i g h t y kilometers
from t h e projects 1
.
P r o b a b l y t h e best way f o r t h e local inhabitants t o
p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e projects i s as smallholders - which also
In
seems a t t h e moment t o b e t h e most problematic way.
o r d e r t o overcome widespread resentment and resistance t o
t h i s scheme, a n y local i n h a b i t a n t who joins, a n d whose land
i s absorbed i n t o t h e scheme, s h o u l d perhaps b e compensated
f o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e amount o f land t h a t he
c o n t r i b u t e s a n d t h e amount (viz., 3.6-4.0 hectares) t h a t h e
g e t s back. T h i s p o s s i b i l i t y was already b e i n g raised b y t h e
p r o j e c t s t a f f a t t h e P u s a t Damai project:
one staffer
suggested t h a t t h e y m i g h t g i v e t h e local. inhabitants f o u r
hectares apiece i n smallholdings, a n d t h e n g i v e them some
compensation f o r any amount o f l a n d t h a t t h e l a t t e r h a d
owned locally ( a n d h a d been absorbed i n t o t h e p r o j e c t ) o v e r
a n d above t h a t f o u r hectares, t h e cost o f t h i s compensation
t h e n b e i n g added t o t h e b u r d e n o f d e b t o f all t h e project's
smallholder participants. I would suggest o n l y one modificat i o n t o t h i s proposal, namely t h a t t h e cost o f t h i s compensation b e added t o t h e d e b t s o f j u s t those smallholders who
c o n t r i b u t e d no land o f t h e i r own t o t h e p r o j e c t ( r e f e r r i n g
here t o t h e transmigrant participants).
O n l y t h e n would
t h i s proposal address t h e basic p e r c e i v e d i n e q u i t y o f t h e
c u r r e n t situation wherein t h e local i n h a b i t a n t s c o n t r i b u t e all
o f t h e i r land, t h e t r a n s m i g r a n t s c o n t r i b u t e none, a n d t h e
d e b t b u r d e n of b o t h i s t h e same.
L o c a l d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e smallholder schemes
could also b e lessened b y o r g a n i z i n g them a r o u n d e x i s t i n g
villages. T h i s would g r e a t l y r e d u c e t h e trauma o f establishing these projects a n d g r e a t l y increase t h e i r i n i t i a l chances
f o r success. Some o f t h e s t a f f a t t h e Pusat Damai p r o j e c t
have a l r e a d y proposed t h a t e x i s t i n g v i l l a g e sites b e used a n d
merely upgraded.
T h i s would also lessen t h e b u r d e n of
c r e d i t o n the. smallholder participants. O f course, as j u s t
discussed, t h e impact on t h e c r e d i t b u r d e n of t h e local
participants should b e distinguished f r o m t h a t on t h e c r e d i t
b u r d e n o f t h e transmigrant participants. T h e local p a r t i c i pants should c a r r y a smaller b u r d e n of debt, due t o l i v i n g i n
t h e i r e x t a n t villages, t h a n t h e transmigrant participants, f o r
whom new villages must be b u i l t from scratch.
Aside f r o m r e d u c i n g t h e d e b t burden, t h e use o f e x t a n t
villages will have additional benefits f o r local smallholders,
if t h e project management takes care t o spare n o t o n l y t h e
villages b u t also all important economic resources i n t h e i r
immediate v i c i n i t i e s .
Such resources include groves of
r u b b e r trees ( t o b e spared a t least d u r i n g t h e i n i t i a l stages
of t h e project), candle n u t trees, swamp r i c e land. and small
copses o f p r i m a r y forest. T h e protection a n d continued use
o f these resources will help t h e local smallholders t o s u r v i v e
u n t i l t h e f i r s t oil palm crop i s harvestable; it will d i v e r s i f y
a n d s t a b i l i z e t h e i r income even a f t e r t h e oil palms a r e
producing, and i n general it will c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e likelihood
t h a t t h e project will succeed and t h e smallholder debts b e
liquidated on schedule.
T h e a t h e r form o f local participation in t h e oil palm
projects, b y wage labor, could b e improved b y some similar
steps.
First, t h i s work should b e offered t o t h e local
inhabitants insofar as possible, before bringing in w o r k e r s
from o t h e r areas (e. g., t r a n s m i g r a n t s ] . Second, t h e workers
should b e Wade p r o j e c t employees insofar as possible, as
opposed t o j u s t d a y laborers. T h i r d , b o t h project employees
as well as day laborers should b e allowed t o remain i n t h e i r
o l d village sites if t h e y want to, f o r t h e same reasons t h a t
t h i s option should b e o f f e r e d t o smallholders. These t h r e e
steps alone would go f a r towards developing local s u p p o r t
f o r t h e projects.
One other area f o r improvement i s local h i r i n g a t t h e
managerial level. A l l o t h e r t h i n g s being equal, it w i l l be
preferable t o manage these projects using largely locally
h i r e d managers, who speak t h e local language, understand
t h e local customs a n d needs, and a r e automatically less
suspect t h a n outsiders of h a v i n g selfish motives. I n cases
where t h e r e a r e simply no local inhabitants w i t h s u f f i c i e n t
education .and experience (remembering t h a t i n some cases it
w i l l make sense t o b e n d t h e requirements f o r level of
education a n d amount of experience simply t o h i r e a local
person), t h e n it i s t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e p r o j e c t management t o find suitable candidates a n d g i v e them t h e educat i o n a n d / o r experience t h a t t h e y lack. T h i s m i g h t involve
on-the-job training, o r it m i g h t i n v o l v e some s o r t o f works t u d y program, in which t h e candidates alternate periods of
w o r k a t t h e p r o j e c t s w i t h periods o f s t u d y a t schools
d o w n r i v e r ( w i t h t h e agreement t h a t t h e y w o r k f o r t h e
projects f o r some stipulated number o f years upon graduation).
I n t h e event t h a t t h e r e a r e suitable schools close
enough t o t h e projects, it m i g h t even b e possible f o r works t u d y candidates t o attend school i n t h e morning and work
It i s h a r d t o imagine a
a t t h e p r o j e c t in t h e afternoon.
b e t t e r investment o f project money t h a n a program such as
this, from t h e erspective o f i m p r o v i n g local relations and
b u i l d i n g a s o l i f base f o r t h e long-term management o f t h e
projects.
3.
Methodoloqical Recommendations
It should b e clear f r o m much o f t h e analysis i n t h i s
paper t h a t PNP V l l ' s oil palm p r o j e c t s in West Kalimantan
are experiencing d i f f i c u l t i e s n o t because t h i s corporation
lacks e i t h e r experience o r resources, but a t least in p a r t
because it lacks b o t h accurate information about t h e local
situation and an accurate i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h i s information.
T h i s r e f e r s in p a r t i c u l a r t o t h e local socioeconomic situation, i n c l u d i n g t h e situation i n t h e villages, t h e situation i n
t h e projects, a n d t h e relations between t h e two.
There
appear t o b e t w o reasons f o r t h i s : t h e f i r s t i s a problem o f
personnel, a n d t h e second i s a problem o f s u r v e y methodology.
Regarding personnel: a t t h e time o f t h e s u r v e y upon
which t h i s paper i s based, t h e r e were no PNP V I I s t a f f
r e s i d e n t i n West Kalimantan who had been academically
t r a i n e d t o g a t h e r and analyze data on t h e s o r t s of socioeconomic problems t h a t have been discussed in t h i s paper.
T h i s r e q u i r e s a b a c k g r o u n d in sociology o r anthropology,
p r e f e r a b l y t h e l a t t e r because o f t h e need in t h i s case t o
c o m p r e h e n d t h e w o r k i n g s o f t h e l o c a l t r i b a l culture,
economy, a n d ecology. What i s needed i s a minimum o f one
staff member, r e s i d e n t in t h e p r o j e c t area, who has attained
at least a sarjana degree (equal t o t h e 6 . A. ) i n anthropology
o r sociology.
S i n c e a s a r j a n a d e g r e e alone does not
adequately prepare one t o prepare and c a r r y o u t a complex
developmental s t u d y such as i s needed in t h e oil palm areas,
t h i s person should w o r k u n d e r t h e supervision o f someone
w i t h g r e a t e r e x p e r i e n c e ( v i z . , possessing an M.A. o r
Ph. D. I stationed elsewhere i n t h e c o u n t r y . Alternatively,
PNP V I I could simply spend t h e money necessary t o h i r e a
s t a f f anthropologist a t t h e M.A. o r Ph.D. level, perhaps
basing him ( o r h e r ) a t t h e headquarters i n Bah Jambi, from
w h i c h h e c o u l d t h e n make extended v i s i t s t o projectson a r o t a t i n g scheincluding those in West Kalimantan
dule.
I n any case, t h e individual h i r e d f o r t h i s position
should have r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r an ongoing s t u d y a n d monit o r i n g of t h e impact o f t h e oil palm projects upon all of t h e
human communities involved.
-
T h i s addition o f specialized personnel would c o r r e c t
some of t h e information deficiencies a t t h e h i g h e r management levels of PNP V I I . Also h e l p f u l in t h i s r e g a r d would
be t h e hiring o f more local people a t t h e local managerial
level, w h i c h c o u l d n o t h e l p b u t facilitate t h e flow o f
accurate information t o PNP V l l ' s management. In addition
t o hiring more local people, however, a much g r e a t e r e f f o r t
should be made t o solicit n o t only information, b u t also
desires and complaints f r o m t h e r e s t o f t h e local population
- i n c l u d i n g n o t o n l y salaried employees. b u t also d a i l y
laborers a n d smallholders, as well as those who l i v e near
t h e projects b u t have no o f f i c i a l t i e t o them.
This
communication ( w h i c h could largely b e handled by t h e staff
a n t h r o p o l o g i s t - if one i s h i r e d ) would be facilitated b y
holding periodic village-wide meetings, as well as periodic
consultations w i t h smaller advisory g r o u p s - l i k e t h e
Penyuluh 'Extension Team' r e f e r r e d t o earlier in t h i s paper
- t h e members o f which could perhaps b e elected b y t h e
Penyuluh
local villages.
As t h e case o f t h e c u r r e n t
demonstrates, however, t h e r e will b e no benefits f r o m s u c h
meetings and consultations unless t h e y are substantive.
Consultation i n f o r m b u t not i n substance o n l y makes t h e
A s e r i o u s d e s i r e t o win t h e
local p o p u l a t i o n a n g r y .
cooperation o f t h i s population entails f i r s t g i v i n g it an
o p p o r t u n i t y t o make i n p u t s i n t o project planning and
management, a n d second, giving these i n p u t s equal weight t o
those from any o t h e r sector (e.g.. financial governmental 1.
Tim
Tim
T h i s local hiring and local consultation will improve
t h e flow o f high q u a l i t y information t o t h e central manage-
ment o f PNP V I I .
Even then, t h e c e n t r a l s t a f f must s t i l l
gather information itself, a n d t h e method by which t h i s i s
c u r r e n t l y done merits some r e t h i n k i n g as well. T h i s method
includes -- among other t h i n g s -- v i s i t s t o t h e p r o j e c t sites
by central management staff.
In t h e course o f a t y p i c a l
v i s i t t h e y meet a n d t a l k w i t h t h e local staff, who also
escort them around t h e project sites.
A l l t h a t t h i s can
accomplish, however, i s t o g a t h e r information on what t h e
l o c a l s t a f f t h i n k s a n d feels about t h e p r o g r e s s o f t h e
project -- which could b e accomplished simply b y summoning
t h e local s t a f f t o t h e management headquarters in Bah
Jambi. T h e purpose o f s i t e v i s i t s by c e n t r a l s t a f f i s n o t t o
listen t o t h e opinions o f t h e local staff, b u t t o form t h e i r
o w n o p i n i o n s f r o m a personal inspection o f t h e project
site. T h i s l a t t e r goal i s ill-served by t h e c u r r e n t p a t t e r n o f
s i t e visits, because t h i s does n o t p e r m i t t h e central managem e n t t o make a c o m p l e t e l y o b j e c t i v e a n d independent
assessment o f p r o j e c t progress.
One problem involves t h e size o f t h e inspection g r o u p .
If 2-3 c e n t r a l s t a f f v i s i t a project site, a r e joined by 2-3 o f
t h e m o s t s e n i o r l o c a l staff. p l u s a d r i v e r a n d a local
i n t e r p r e t e r o r guide, t h i s constitutes a g r o u p o f a t least 6-8
people, t r a v e l i n g o f t e n by t w o o r more motor vehicles o r
boats. When a g r o u p o f t h i s size a n d composition make a
t o u r around a p r o j e c t s i t e and t r i e s t o i n t e r v i e w low level
employees, laborers a n d / o r local villagers, it i s v e r y u n l i k e l y
t h a t it w i l l learn a n y t h i n g o f value. T h e size o f t h i s group,
and t h e manner in which it travels, makes it inevitable t h a t
all o f i t s v i s i t s will assume t h e character o f an 'official'
occasion. A l l t h a t can occur o n s u c h a n occasion i s speechmaking. T h a t is, one member o f t h e t o u r i n g g r o u p ( t y p i cally one o f t h e local s t a f f ) may make a b r i e f speech about
how h e hopes e v e r y t h i n g i s g o i n g well, a n d t h e w o r k e r s o r
villagers p r e s e n t w i l l r e p l y t h a t e v e r y t h i n g i s indeed going
well.
T h e o n l y value o f such a v i s i t i s r i t u a l o r ceremonial. T h e r e i s no value in terms o f h a r d data about how
t h i n g s actually a r e going. Accordingly, t h e r e i s p r o b a b l y no
good reason f o r more t h a n two s t a f f a n d one g u i d e going
o u t i n t o t h e f i e l d together a t one time.
T h e r e ' i s a second problem i n v o l v i n g n o t t h e size of
t h e inspection g r o u p o r team b u t i t s composition. On all
such v i s i t s -- a n d t h i s holds n o t j u s t f o r PNP V I I b u t for
government o f f i c e r s as well -- t h e local s t a f f a r e placed i n
t h e r o l e of T u a n Rumah ' L o r d o f t h e House' [ e v e n t h o u g h
they are subordinate i n r a n k t o the visiting central staff).
As such, t h e s e n i o r local s t a f f t y p i c a l l y feel t h a t it i s t h e i r
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o n o t o n l y accommodate a n d f e e d ( e t c . ) t h e
visitors, but also t o accompany them on t h e i r f i e l d inspections of t h e project.
T h i s i s a l l right if it i s j u s t done
initially, s o , t h a t t h e local s t a f f can g i v e t h e c e n t r a l s t a f f
t h e i r view of. w h a t i s happening, a n d t h e n allow t h e v i s i t o r s
It i s f a t a l if t h e local s t a f f
t o g o o f f on t h e i r own.
accompany t h e v i s i t o r s constantly.
I say t h i s f o r several
reasons.
o p i n i o n s a b o u t w h a t i s g o o d a n d b a d in t h e p r o j e c t ' s
management when s t a n d i n g i n f r o n t o f t h e local manager
himself. A n occasional p e r s o n i s b r a v e e n o u g h t o b e c a n d i d
in s u c h a s i t u a t i o n but most a r e not, k n o w i n g t h a t t h e y a r e
t h e r e b y r i s k i n g a t t h e least t h e manager's displeasure, a n d
a t t h e most t h e loss o f p r i v i l e g e s , promotion, a n d p e r h a p s
I n contrast, there is l i t t l e r i s k i n expresseven t h e i r jobs.
i n g s u c h c a n d i d opinions ( e s p e c i a l l y on an anonymous b a s i s )
t o v i s i t i n g c e n t r a l s t a f f w h o a r e n o t accompanied by local
staff.
T h i s i s a n o t h e r reason w h y t h e f o r m e r s h o u l d t o u r
without the latter.
F i r s t , if t h e c e n t r a l s t a f f a r e accompanied t h r o u g h o u t
by t h e local staff, t h e f o r m e r a r e l i k e l y t o g e t o n l y t h e
I t is d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e central staff t o elicit candid
c r i t i q u e s o f t h e p r o j e c t when i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f s e n i o r local
s t a f f , a n d it i s n e a r l y impossible w h e n t h e s e c r i t i q u e s
i n v o l v e t h e s e n i o r local s t a f f themselves.
Yet t h i s latter
information i s conceivably t h e most i m p o r t a n t o f a l l t o a
v i s i t i n g team o f c e n t r a l staff.
T h e v e r y e x i s t e n c e of
problems w i t h a g i v e n p r o j e c t r a i s e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e
senior local s t a f f i s d o i n g something wrong, a n d e i t h e r does
n o t recognize it o r i s n o t w i l l i n g t o admit it. T h e o n l y way
t h a t v i s i t i n g c e n t r a l s t a f f can f i n d t h i s o u t i s t o c o n d u c t a t
least p a r t o f t h e i r t o u r unaccompanied by senior local s t a f f .
l a t t e r ' s v i e w o f t h e p r o g r e s s o f t h e project.
This is
undesirable because o f t h e obvious p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e local
staff's view i s less t h a n 100 p e r c e n t c o r r e c t . T h i s possib i l i t y i s s t r o n g e s t i n t h e case o f p r o j e c t s t h a t a r e
e x p e r i e n c i n g problems, since t h i s in i t s e l f implies t h a t t h e
local s t a f f d o n o t u n d e r s t a n d e v e r y t h i n g t h a t i s g o i n g on.
T h e c e n t r a l s t a f f needs t o develop i t s own view o f t h e
situation in t h e s e cases - w h i c h i s o f course t h e p u r p o r t e d
reason w h y t h e y . v i s i t t h e p r o j e c t sites i n t h e f i r s t placea n d t h i s i s b e s t done if t h e y t o u r t h e p r o j e c t areas o n t h e i r
own.
It i s i m p o r t a n t f o r v i s i t i n g c e n t r a l s t a f f t o d i s t a n c e
themselves f r o m t h e local s t a f f ' s view o f t h e p r o j e c t n o t
only b e c a u s c o f t h e possibility that t h e latter is incorrect
b u t because o f ' t h e e v e n g r e a t e r p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t it w i l l b e
biased. Relations between j u n i o r a n d senior p l a n t a t i o n s t a f f
are, in general, g o v e r n e d by t h e pan-Indonesian d i c t u m o f
Asal bapak s e n a n q 'As long as t h e master i s h a p p y . ' T h a t
is, w o r k e r s place t h e h i g h e s t p r i o r i t y on p l e a s i n q t h e i r
superiors, w h i c h i s accomplished in p a r t by maximizing t h e
amount of good news a n d minimizing t h e amount o f b a d
news t h a t i s passed o n t o them.
Thus, t h e c e n t r a l s t a f f
c a n n o t c o u n t o n a l w a y s g e t t i n g a completely o b j e c t i v e
analysis f r o m t h e local s t a f f .
O f e v e n more importance, perhaps, v i s i t i n g c e n t r a l
staff cannot c o u n t o n g e t t i n g a n objective response f r o m
anyone a t t h e p r o j e c t s i t e when in t h e company of local
staff, especially senior local s t a f f . J u n i o r staff, employees,
a n d d a i l y l a b o r e r s c a n n o t b e expected t o voice c a n d i d
T h e s e p r i n c i p l e s f o r s a f e g u a r d i n g o b j e c t i v i t y were
noticeably l a c k i n g a t t h e time of my o w n v i s i t t o t h e West
Kalimantan sites.
One local manager in p a r t i c u l a r , a t one
o f t h e most problematic projects, r e s o l u t e l y r e f u s e d t o allow
me t o t o u r t h e p r o j e c t area w i t h o u t him. He may h a v e f e l t
t h a t I w o u l d n o t find o u t e n o u g h w i t h o u t him.
He may
T h i s was n o t
have f e l t t h a t I w o u l d find o u t too much.
clear.
What was clear i s t h a t when I was f i n a l l y able t o
s l i p away f r o m h i m f o r 2-3 h o u r s , I r e c e i v e d e x t e n s i v e
commentary f r o m t h e local i n h a b i t a n t s o n w h a t t h e y d o n o t
l i k e a b o u t t h e local o i l palm project, i n c l u d i n g t h e s p e c i f i c
policies o f t h e manager in q u e s t i o n .
I would never have
received t h i s commentary in h i s presence. T h e r e i s a clearc u t decision f o r t h e c e n t r a l management h e r e : e i t h e r it can
s a f e g u a r d t h e f e e l i n g s o f t h e local managers a n d c r i p p l e i t s
search f o r t h e t r u t h o f t h e situation, o r it can place i t s
h i g h e s t p r i o r i t y o n o b j e c t i v e assessments o f performance,
a n d c o n v i n c e i t s local s t a f f t h a t t h i s i s i n t h e i r o w n b e s t
i n t e r e s t s as well.
A n d i n d e e d 1 w o u l d a r g u e t h a t in t h e
l o n g r u n it i s in e v e r y o n e ' s b e s t i n t e r e s t s - s e n i o r p l a n t a -
t i o n s t a f f , j u n i o r staff, a n d n o t least t h e local people - f o r
t h e t r u e f a c t s o f t h e s e p l a n t a t i o n p r o j e c t s t o b e ascertained.
R.
I
NOTES
1.
A n earl'ier v e r s i o n o f t h i s p a p e r was p r e p a r e d f o r PNP
V I I in March.1983, a n d was s u b s e q u e n t l y p r e s e n t e d in
seminar a t t h e Lembaqa P e n d i d i k a n P e r k e b u n a n
' I n s t i t u t e f o r Plantation Education' i n Y o g y a k a r t a o n 1
F e b r u a r y , 1984.
A s n o t e d in A r t i c l e I o f t h i s two- art s t u d v , t h i s w o r k
was v a r i o u s l y s u p p o r t e d b y t h e ~ d c k e f e l l e r ' ~ o u n d a t i o n ,
t h e F o r d Foundation, a n d t h e East-West C e n t e r ( E A P I ),
although, again, none of these i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e o p i n i o n s a n d analysis p r e s e n t e d h e r e .
T h e Jamai coconut palms p r o b a b l y b e n e f i t less f r o m
smoke t h a n f r o m t h e r e f u s e t h a t i s dumped t o t h e
g r o u n d i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e houses, a n d t h e l a c k o f
coconut palms a t a distance f r o m t h e houses is
p r o b a b l y ' d u e less t o a lack o f r e f u s e t h a n t o t h e f a c t
t h a t t h e Jamai v i l l a g e r s concentrate t h e i r e n e r g i e s o n
a n n u a l s u b s i s t e n c e food crops, n o t p e r e n n i a l cash
crops.
3.
4.
PIR i s ap a c r o n y m f o r Perkebunan
lnti R a k y a t 'People's
N u c l e a r E s t a t e , ' w h i c h was b r i e f l y d e s c r i b e d in
'Plantation Development in West ~ a l i m a n t a nI .'
T h e T e m e n q q u n q also r e q u e s t e d t h a t t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l
b u r i a l , g r o u n d s b e p r o t e c t e d f r o m oil palm development
- this, o b v i o u s l y , n o t f o r reasons o f economics but
rather religion.
B I B L I O G R A P H Y : A c e P a r t a d i r e d j a . 1982. Farm O r g a n i z a tion, Technology a n d Employment. In G r o w t h a n d E q u i t y in
lndonesian A q r i c u l t u r a l Development, M u b y a r t o ed.. p p . 179215. Jakarta:
Yayasan A g r o Ekonomika. Appell, George
N. F o r t h c o m i n g . C o s t i n g Social Change. In F u n c t i o n a n d
Change in T r a d i t i o n a l lndonesian C u l t u r e s : Implications f o r
Development P l a n n i n q , Michael R . Dove, ed. Dove, Michael
I
I
1
I
Ii
1980. T h e Swamp Rice S w i d d e n s o f t h e K a n t u ' o f West
Kalimantan.
I n ~ r o ~ i c aE cl o l o q y a n d D e v e l o p m e n t ,
J I. F u r t a d o ed., .pp.
. 953-956. Kuala L u m p u r : T h e In t e r n a tional Society o f Tropical Ecology.
1985. Swidden A q r i c u l t u r e in Indonesia: T h e Subsistence
S t r a t e q i e s o f t h e Kalimantan K a n t u ' .
Berlin:
Mouton.
Freeman, J D . 1970. R e p o r t o n t h e I b a n . London: T h e
1981.
Some Reflections
A t h l o n e Press.
o n t h e N a t u r e of l b a n Societv.
Occasional P a ~ e ro f t h e
D e p a r t m e n t of A n t h r o p o l o g y , ' Research School ' o f Pacific
Studies, T h e A u s t r a l i a n National U n i v e r s i t y .
Canberra,
A.C.T.
PNP V I I . 1981. P e r n y a t a a n P r o y e k ~ e r k e b u n a nlnti
R a k y a t (PIR KHUSUS) P u s a t Damai 'Facts C o n c e r n i n g t h e
P e o ~ l e ' sS p e c i a l Nuclear Esate P r o i e c t a t P u s a t Damai.'
~ a k a r t a : d i r e c t o r General o f ~ l a n t k i o n s , D e p a r t m e n t o f
A g r i c u l t u r e . Seavoy, R . E. 1980. P o p u l a t i o n P r e s s u r e a n d
L a n d Use Chang?: Journal o f T r o p i c a l G e o g r a p h y 50:61-67.
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U R B A N M I G R A T I O N I N T O SIBU, SARAWAK:
II
VINSON H. S U T L I V E , JR.
T h e College o f William a n d M a r y
l b a n a r e m o v i n g t o S i b u f o r t w o major a n d t w o m i n o r
reasons.
T h e t w o majpr reasons a r e jobs a n d education.
T h e t w o m i n o r reasons a r e s e r v i c e s a n d r e c r e a t i o n .
1.
Jobs
A c c o r d i n g t o t h e 1980 census, 66 p e r c e n t o f l b a n u r b a n
m i g r a n t s moved i n t o Sarawak's t o w n s a n d c i t i e s t o t a k e u p
jobs.
l b a n in S i b u fill a b r o a d r a n g e o f occupations, f r o m
t h e highest r a n k i n g administrative officer, t h e Resident of
t h e T h i r d Division, t o professionals s u c h as lawyers, doctors,
a n d teachers, t o businessmen, a n d l a b o r e r s . Government,
business, a n d c h u r c h a r e t h e l a r g e s t employers o f Iban, a n d
those w h o a r e f o r t u n a t e e n o u g h t o b e employed by o n e of
t h e "big t h r e e " normally p l a n t h e i r f u t u r e in S i b u . In a few
cases, however, i n w h i c h ( b a n h a v e n o t a c q u i r e d p r o p e r t y i n
S i b u o r h a v e e x t e n s i v e p r o p e r t y in a r u r a l area, t h e y w i l l
r e t u r n t o t h e i r longhouse c o m m u n i t y u p o n r e t i r e m e n t .
T h e p r i m a r y a n d compelling a t t r a c t i o n f o r those who
move t o S i b u l o o k i n g f o r w o r k i s cash income--a s t e a d y
s u p p l y o f money, in c o n t r a s t t o t h e e r r a t i c cash f l o w t h e y
have e x p e r i e n c e d in t h e i r r u r a l l i f e . A b o u t 80 p e r c e n t o f
those s u r v e y e d h a v e o n l y a p r i m a r y school education, a n d
few marketable s k i l l s . Thus, t h e y h a v e l i t t l e t o o f f e r o t h e r
than labor.
It i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t l b a n in t h e l a r g e s t
numbers h a v e moved i n t o occupational categories r e q u i r i n g
o n l y minimal l i t e r a c y s k i l l s ( i f t h e y a r e r e q u i r e d a t a l l ) a n d
w i t h commensurately low wages. O n average. l b a n domestics
(cooks, maids, a n d custodians l average between M$150 a n d
$200 p e r month. C o n s t r u c t i o n laborers, p i l i n g crewmen, a n d
d o c k y a r d w o r k e r s e a r n f r o m M8200 t o $250 p e r m o n t h .
Members o f t h e F i e l d Force, dominated b y Iban, a v e r a g e
M$500 p e r month.
I n t h e u n s k i l l e d occupations--domestics, laborers,
sawmill w o r k e r s - - t h e r e i s a c l e a r l y lower scale o f wages
p a i d I b a n . One d o c k y a r d w o r k e r complained t h a t "a Chinese
a n d I w e r e h i r e d - t h e same d a y . H i s wages a r e $19 p e r day,
mine. $7.50. ' I s t h a t f a i r ? " I r e p l i e d t h a t I d i d n o t k n o w
t h e r e l a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e two, in p a r t i c u l a r w h e t h e r t h e
Chinese h a d s k i l l s t h e l b a n h a d n o t acquired, o r w h e t h e r
t h e r e w e r e o t h e r bases f o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e in p a y .
One p e r c e p t i o n o f t h i s s u r v e y , a n d one commonly h e l d
b y Iban, i s t h a t t h e y a r e m o v i n g i n t o t h e labor m a r k e t a t
t h e lowest s t r a t u m a n d a r e d o i n g jobs p r e v i o u s l y d o n e b y
Chinese, w h o a r e n o l o n g e r w i l l i n g t o do them.
"Sibu is
b e i n g developed b y t h e blood a n d sweat of Iban," one
observed.
"It may b e t r u e t h a t t h e developers a n d t h e
capital a r e Chinese," h e went on, " b u t t h e b u i l d i n g o f t h e
S i b u Plaza i s made p r o f i t a b l e because o f cheap l b a n labor."
A n o t h e r perception, p e r h a p s a c r u e l i r o n y i n light o f
t h e p r i m a r y a t t r a c t i o n f o r those who move i n t o Sibu, i s t h a t
t h e r e j u s t i s n o t e n o u g h t o c o v e r all o f t h e expenses. A
p r e l i m i n a r y estimate of t h e responses i s t h a t 75 p e r c e n t of
t h e adults--and, n o t s u r p r i s i n g l y , a l i k e f i g u r e f o r s t u d e n t s -do n o t h a v e e n o u g h money t o l i v e on or, more l i k e l y , t o
b u y e v e r t h i n g t h e y w a n t a n d t o do e v e r y t h i n g t h e y would
l i k e . In c o m p a r i n g t h e r e l a t i v e disadvantages o f u r b a n a n d
r u r a l life, almost 90 p e r c e n t n o t e d t h a t e v e r y t h i n g i n t h e
Cateqory
A Sample o f l b a n Employed in S i b u
No. Employed No. Self-employed
GOVERNMENT
Agriculture
Divisional Director
Staff
B o r d e r Scouts
Cooperative O f f i c e r s
Customs
F i e l d Force
Firemen, S i b u A i r p o r t
Land and Survey
Medical Work
Police
P r i s o n Warden
P u b l i c Works
Ras kom
Resident, T h i r d D i v i s i o n
Teachers
Telecommunications
Water B o a r d
1
7
4
2
1
92
3
6
18
8
7
11
13
1
4
3
7
177
COUNCILS
Midwives
BANKS, COMPANIES, PROFESSIONALS
B u s Co., T i c k e t S e l l e r s
11
Businessmen
3
Construction Laborers
37
Custodians
4
Dockyard workers
4
E l e c t r i c i t y Company (SESCO I
2
Lawyer
1
Office Boys
4
P i l i n g Crewmen
8
Prawn Shuckers
30
Sawmill Workers
13
5
"laiters
laitresses
16
138
Cooks, Maids
Prostitutes
C h u r c h Workers
TOTALS
c i t y costs money: food, h o u s i n g ( e x c e p t f o r those living in
f u r n i s h e d q u a r t e r s ) , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , a n d entertainment.
G i v e n t h e average f a m i l y income of M8500 a n d t h e
average family o f f i v e members, it i s easy t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e
complaints a n d anxieties a b o u t money.
A few teen-agers,
who may r e p r e s e n t more t h a n themselves, w r o t e t h a t t h e y
wished t h e i r families h a d more money.
I n particular, they
w i s h e d t h a t t h e i r p a r e n t s would b e able--and w i l l i n g - t o
p r o v i d e them w i t h more money. Parents--similar t o p a r e n t s
t h e w o r l d over--commented t h a t t h e i r incomes did n o t g o
f a r enough, a n d t h a t t h e i r c h i l d r e n did n o t u n d e r s t a n d t h e
d i f f i c u l t i e s o f e a r n i n g a l i v i n g a n d meeting t h e necessary
expenses.
T h e change t o a cash income has r e s u l t e d f u r t h e r in
t h e common process o f r a i s i n g expectations. As easy as it
i s t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e laments o f c h i l d r e n a n d p a r e n t s about
b e i n g s h o r t o f money, more t h a n h a l f o f t h e families h a v e a
radio
a television set.
One family's quarters is
dominated b y a 24-inch T . V . in an e i g h t - b y - t e n f o o t living
room. T h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f "hire-purchase1' has been q u i c k l y
g r a s p e d b y l b a n who are eager t o enjoy now a n d p a y l a t e r .
And, as t h e i r Western c o u n t e r p a r t s , many a r e d i s c o v e r i n g
t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f m o n t h l y installment b u y i n g .
Appreciation o f a n d t h e d e s i r e t o approximate an u r b a n
l i f e s t y l e h a v e q u i c k l y l e d t o t h e " t w o paycheck family"
among a small,. b u t l i k e l y t o increase, percentage o f Iban.
T h e w i f e o f one o f t h e firemen, who i s e a r n i n g M$1,000 p e r
month, i s a midwife a n d e a r n s M$700.
Even so, t h e y a r e
s t r u g g l i n g a n d u p o n t h e husband's retirement, p l a n t o r e t u r n
t o t h e i r longhouse where t h e y have land a n d o t h e r
resources. T h e w i f e o f one o f t h e sawmill w o r k e r s w o r k s in
a local catsup factory; otherwise, t h e y explain, t h e y c o u l d
not survive.
A n d t h e y a r e living w i t h t h e h u s b a n d ' s
parents, who h a v e f u r n i s h e d q u a r t e r s . so b o t h families t h u s
are f o r t u n a t e enough n o t t o h a v e t o p a y r e n t .
B u t the
h u s b a n d ' s m o t h e r h a s b e e n f o r c e d t o supplement h e r
husband's s a l a r y o f M8400 by seasonal employment as a
p r a w n s h u c k e r a n d off-season w o r k as a domestic.
Housing i s a p a r t i c u l a r l y v e x i n g problem. F o r senior
G o v e r n m e n t , a n d e v e n some l e s s s e n i o r G o v e r n m e n t
employees, e.g., members o f t h e F i e l d Force, Police, a n d
Water Board, among others, h o u s i n g i s p r o v i d e d as one o.
t h e i r b e n e f i t s . B u t h o u s i n g i s most d i f f i c u l t f o r those whc
a r e least able t o a f f o r d it:
c o n s t r u c t i o n workers, day.
l a b o r e r s , s a w m i l l h a n d s , a n d l o w e r l e v e l Governmen
employees.
R e s p o n s e s h a v e been f a m i l i a r :
temporar)
h o u s i n g p r o v i d e d o n t h e b u i l d i n g site f o r constructior
workers; t h e o f f i c i a l l y acceptable p r a c t i c e o f r e n t i n g lowcost a n d u s u a l l y l o w - q u a l i t y h o u s i n g ( t h e low q u a l i t y bein5
t h e evaluation o f b o t h r e n t e r a n d r e s e a r c h e r ) : a n d . thc
o f f i c i a l l y unacceptable p r a c t i c e o f s q u a t t i n g o n S t a t e anc
Municipal land.
Renting i s a relatively expensive proposition f o r urbar
migrants.
A s i n g l e room w i t h s h a r e d b a t h a n d k i t c h e r
f a c i l i t i e s may b e r e n t e d f o r M$95-100 p e r month, b u t ;
small house r e n t s f o r M$200 u p . A n d f o r t h o s e employees
who do n o t enjoy t h e b e n e f i t o f housing, r e n t i n g i s nor
o n l y burdensome a n d a p o o r l o n g - t e r m practice, it also i s
p r o h i b i t i v e l y e x p e n s i v e . " . I t i s t r u e t h a t t h e cash income of
t h e u r b a n m i g r a n t i s o n a v e r a g e t e n times more t h a n his
income while i n a r u r a l area; M$400 t o $40 p e r m o n t h . B u t ,
as we n o t e d earlier, h e q u i c k l y l e a r n s t h e f i r s t lesson 01
Economics, v i z . , " t h e r e a r e n o f r e e meals" a n d e v e r y t h i n g
costs in t h e c i t y . A n d w i t h t h e increase in all expenses-food, t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , u t i l i t i e s ( u n l e s s i n c l u d e d as in some
c a s e s i n t h e r e n t ) , a n d c l o t h i n g - - p a y m e n t o f 25 t o 50
p e r c e n t o f one's income f o r h 0 u s i n g . i ~a considerable cost.
The alternative is squatting.
A b o u t 1,500 l b a n
c u r r e n t l y a r e living f o u r s q u a t t e r s ' settlements a t ( 1 I Usaha
Jaya (goo), ( 2 ) Pulau B a b i (4001, ( 3 ) S u n g a i A n t u (151, and
(4)Kampong Nyamok ( 2 0 ) . T h e settlement a t S u n g a i A n t u i s
t h e o n l y I'legal" one, in t h a t t h e a t t a c h e d f a m i l y - u n i t s have
been b u i l t o n l a n d owned by a sawmill w h i c h employs many
o f t h e s q u a t t e r s , a n d w i t h t h e a p p r o v a l o f t h e sawmill
owners. T h e settlement a t P u l a u B a b i i s t h e oldest, h a v i n g
been e s t a b l i s h e d almost 15 y e a r s ago. I t i s symptomatic of
t h e ambivalence a n d i n d e c i s i o n o f a d m i n i s t r a t o r s in h a n d l i n g
squatters.
While t h e S i b u M u n i c i p a l Council i s aware t h a t
t h e s q u a t t e r s ' shophouses have been b u i l t illegally on
G o v e r n m e n t l a n d , f o r humane--and p r o b a b l y political-reasons, t h e Council h a s n o t moved t o e v i c t t h e s q u a t t e r s .
B u t n e i t h e r h a s it e x t e n d e d b a s i c s e r v i c e s - - w a t e r a n d
e l e c t r i c i t y - - t o them.
T h e l b a n a t Kampong Nyamok ( n e a r
Sungai M e r a h ) i n c l u d e o n l y t h r e e families. O t h e r l b a n l i v e
in Kampong Nyamok but, as in several o t h e r communities of
Sibu, f o r example, Usaha Jaya a n d Kampong H i l i r , t h e y h a v e
m a r r i e d M a l a y s a n d a r e n o l o n g e r r e g a r d e d by t h e i r
c o n f r e r e s as " Ib a n . "
T h e s e t t l e m e n t of Usaha Jaya i s t h e largest, most
complex, and, w i t h o u t question. t h e b e s t o r g a n i z e d . It i s
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f squatments t h r o u g h o u t t h e T h i r d World, i n
w h i c h u r b a n m i g r a n t s t a k e u p o n themselves t h e s o l u t i o n s t o
t h e i r h o u s i n g problems, r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t unless t h e y a t t e m p t
t o solve them, t h e y w i l l remain unsolved. These a r e people
who a r e immediately c o n c e r n e d about t h e i r families' shelter.
protection. a n d g e n e r a l well-being, u n l i k e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s who
a r e n o t d i r e c t l y a f f e c t e d b y t h e p l i g h t s o f "homeless"
m i g r a n t s . I r o n i c a l l y a n d o f t e n sadly, when a d m i n i s t r a t o r s d o
i n v o l v e themselves w i t h squatters, u s u a l l y f o r t h e removal o f
w h a t t h e sociologist F r a n c i s Madigan has called " i n s t a n t
slums." problems a r e n o t solved; t h e y a r e compounded. A s
William Mangin has w r i t t e n , " T h e problem is t h e s o l u t i o n i s
t h e problem. 'I
Usaha Jaya was b e g u n in 1980, a c c o r d i n g t o one o f t h e
It i s a community formed f r o m t h r e e e t h n i c
l b a n residents:
g r o u p s : Malay, Iban, a n d Chinese. P r i o r t o i t s establishment, t h e major s q u a t m e n t was a collection o f " f l o a t i n g
palaces," s a r c a s t i c a l l y named b y a Council member. Built o n
logs a n d some o n e m p t y drums, t h e " f l o a t i n g palaces" were
anchored in t h e p a s a r ' s major d r a i n along Channel Road
(hence, t h e - r o a d ' s name) i n t o w h i c h emptied t h e town's
d i s c h a r g e s o f r a w sewage. garbage, a n d r a i n . A n o u t b r e a k
o f cholera in 1981 p r o v i d e d t h e occasion f o r t h e Municipal
C o u n c i l t o f o r c e t h e removal o f t h e squatters, many o f
whom pioneered Usaha Jaya.
A s t o l d by t w o l b a n squatters,
The f i r s t to build here
We b u i l t h e r e in 1981.
were Malays, who b u i l t j u s t u p r i v e r f r o m u s . We
l b a n w e r e second, a n d t h e l a s t w e r e t h e Chinese
When t h e
who built u p r i v e r f r o m t h e Malays.
f i r s t families w a n t e d t o b u i l d here, t h e G o v e r n ment t o l d t h e m n o t t o . T h e y went ahead anyway,
a n d " e n f o r c e r s " f r o m L a n d a n d S u r v e y sawed t h e
supporting timbers.
Seeing that, t h e y r e b u i l t .
A n d t h e e n f o r c e r s c u t t h e t i m b e r s down. Once,
however, a b o u t 20 families b u i l t o v e r n i g h t and,
c o n f r o n t e d w i t h t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n ( p e m u t u s atJ)
a n d t h e sheer numbers. t h e L a n d a n d S u r v e y
people l e t u s s t a y . Now, employees o f L a n d a n d
S u r v e y . e v e n some o f t h e e n f o r c e r s , Malays,
Chinese a n d Iban, h a v e built h e r e .
We d i d n ' t m o v e h e r e f r o m Channel Road--the
"houses o n logs" ( r u m a h atas b a t a n q ) . T h a t ' s was
r e a l l y filthy water t h e r e ( --u d u kamah ai nya). We
moved h e r e f r o m Jalan T u n A b a n g Haji Openg.
Seeing a l o t o f u s h a v i n g b u i l t here, I b e l i e v e t h e
a d m i n i s t r a t o r s h a d a meeting.
F r o m that, t h e y
s u r v e y e d t h e l a n d a n d made o u t a lot-plan. Each
l o t i s 10 fathoms square.
T h e y also f i x e d t h e
size of each house, a n d t h e distance--30 f e e t - between each house. A f t e r t h e y h a d s u r v e y e d t h e
lots, t h e y u r g e d people t o g e t t h e i r l o t numbers,
b e c a u s e t h e y were g o i n g t o c u t o f f r e l o c a t i o n
here. T h e r e f o r e , a l o t more people, i n c l u d i n g t h e
Chinese u p r i v e r , a s k e d f o r lots.
Officially,
b u i l d i n g was t o h a v e s t o p p e d in 1983, b u t t h e r e
a r e s t i l l people building, as y o u can see.
And
because t h e y d i d n o t g e t l o t numbers, some people
c r o w d e d t h e i r houses in between o t h e r s .
No one k n o w s how may l b a n a r e s q u a t t i n g in S i b u . O n
J u l y 7, a n l b a n a n d I v i s i t e d Kampong Nyamok a n d S u n g a i
Antu.
A t t h e l a t t e r settlement, t h r e e houses were b e i n g
b u i l t t h a t weekend, a n d we o b s e r v e d t h e dedication o f t h e
f i r s t p o s t complete w i t h t h e s a c r i f i c e o f a c h i c k e n whose
blood was a p p l i e d t o t h e p o s t b e f o r e it was d r i v e n i n t o t h e
g r o u n d . l b a n estimates o f s q u a t t e r s a r e high, a n d G o v e r n ment estimates a r e p r o b a b l y low.
lban consistently f i x e d
t h e i r u n i t s in Usaha Jaya a t "more o r less 300" ( k u r a n q
l e b i h300). a n d t h e p l a n o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f L a n d a n d
S u r v e y i d e n t i f i e d 135 u n i t s . Faced w i t h t h e d i s c r e p a n c y. , I.
did m y own c o u n t o f houses, completed a n d u n d e r c o n s t r u c tion, o n J u l y 12, a n d i d e n t i f i e d 178 " l b a n houses."
H o w e v e r many u n i t s t h e r e a r e i n Usaha Jaya, t h e
r e s i d e n t s h a v e shown i n i t i a t i v e a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s k i l l s .
C , o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e M u n i c i p a l C o u n c i l ' s p o l i c y of n o t
p r o v i d i n g . s e r v i c e s t o illegal s q u a t t e r s , Usaha Jaya was n o t
g i v e n e l e c t r i c i t y o r w a t e r . In fact, t h e U p p e r L a n a n g Road
area is u n l i g h t e d a t night, a n d i s as d a r k a s " t h e i n s i d e s o f
t h e proverbial witch's thorax. "
Undoubtedly, when t h e
Government's p r o j e c t o f "low-cost" housing--so-called, f o r
t h e lowest p r i c e d unit i s M$49,000--comes t o light. light w i l l
come t o it. B u t , f o r t h e time being, Usaha Jaya i s k e p t " i n
t h e d a r k " a n d i t s existence, t h o u g h c e r t a i n l y recognized,
witness t h e L a n d a n d S u r v e y plan, i s n o t legitimated w i t h
basic s e r v i c e .
T h e residents, however, n o t w a i t i n g f o r
Government o r C o u n c i l s u p p o r t , h a v e p u r c h a s e d s e v e r a l
generators, adequate f o r l i g h t i n g t h e i r homes a n d r u n n i n g
t h e i r t e l e v i s i o n s e t s a t night. Although, b y way o f example,
u n i t s may b e owned b y one family o r several families, all
who a r e s e r v i c e d c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e c o s t o f f u e l and
maintenance.
In o b t a i n i n g t h e s u b s t a n t i a l ironwood walkways w h i c h
connect t h e s u b d i v i s i o n s o f Usaha Jaya t o L a n a n g Road, a n d
in o b t a i n i n g p u r e water, t h e r e s i d e n t s showed themselves
most p o l i t i c a l l y a s t u t e . I n t h e elections of 1983, community
leaders r a l l i e d t h e i r c o n s t i t u e n t s a n d p l e d g e d t h e i r s u p p o r t
t o t w o Sar'awak U n i t e d P e o p l e s P a r t y c a n d i d a t e s f o r
Parliament:
D a t u k Wong S o o n K a i a n d E n c i k J a w a n
Empaling. , Victorious, D a t u k Wong saw t o t h e p r o v i s i o n o f
water ( p i p e d w a t e r t o f a u c e t s located a t c e n t r a l p o i n t s a l o n g
t h e main east-west walkway. a n d called by Iban, " w a t e r stands" [ s e t i n p a i p a i l ), a n d E n c i k Jawan h a d t h e w a l k w a y s
b u i l t , as each h a d promised in h i s campaign, if h e won.
Usaha-jays
i s comprised almost e x c l u s i v e l y o f l o w e r
level Government employees f r o m A g r i c u l t u r e , P u b l i c Works
a n d Communication, L a n d a n d S u r v e y , a n d L a u K i n g Howe
Hospital.
A m a j o r i t y of t h e residents are functionally
literate, in c o n t r a s t t o a p e r s i s t e n t l y high level o f i l l i t e r a c y
among l b a n as a people. T h e r e i s a wide r a n g e o f educaB u t , t h e g e n e r a l impression I
tion, f r o m none t o F o r m 6.
formed o f some 50 members o f t h e l b a n section w i t h whom
I t a l k e d i s of a n a t u r a l l y intelligent, i n d u s t r i o u s , a n d
r e s o u r c e f u l people w h o a r e d e t e r m i n e d t o i m p r o v e t h e i r
families' s i t u a t i o n s .
T h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s k i l l s a r e a p p a r e n t in t h e
committee t h e y h a v e s e t u p t o oversee community a c t i v i t i e s .
t h e r e a r e assistants who
Headed by t h e "Temenggong,"
r e p r e s e n t each g r o u p of people along each s p u r o f f t h e main
I b a n S q u a t t e r s a t Upper Lanong S q u a t t e r A r e a
I
!
I
I
I
I
I
I
Telephone poles
f r o m M8600,' t o $ 1 , 0 0 0 a m o n t h , a l l o w i n g f o r t h e i r
remittances. r e n t , food. a n d c l o t h i n g . Fedonia shares t h e
r e n t a l o f a house w i t h a family o n B r o o k e Drive, a n d h e r
r e n t a t t h e time was b e i n g p a i d by a man who h a d asked
h e r t o m a r r y him. We asked h e r what she was d o i n g i n t h e
b a r a n d she said h e r f r i e n d was o u t o f t o w n a n d she was
"stealing a, l i t t l e b u s i n e s s o n h e r own."
Eugenie l i v e s in a
r e n t e d room o n T i o n g Hua Road. When asked where t h e y
took t h e i r clients, t h e y r e p l i e d t h a t t h e y would go w h e r e v e r
t h e man w a n t e d - - t o h i s house, h i s room, o r h e c o u l d r e n t a
room u p s t a i r s in t h e h o t e l .
A b o u t a n h o u r o r so a f t e r we h a d t a l k e d w i t h t h e
women, a n o l d l b a n f r i e n d came in a n d s t a t e d t o speak t o
me in I b a n . I h u s t l e d h i m i n t o t h e rest-room, a n d explained
t o h i m w h a t we w e r e doing.
He p l a y e d along, a n d I
c o n t i n u e d t o p r e t e n d I d i d n o t u n d e r s t a n d I b a n . A t times,
t h e g i r l s h a d g r e a t s p o r t a t m y presumed ignorance. A f t e r
another l b a n man h a d joined us, a n d we h a d t a l k e d f o r
a n o t h e r h o u r o r so, I said something in Iban, t o t h e
amazement-:and
amusement--of t h e g i r l s .
"You are really
bad" (&
jai amatl, t h e y exclaimed in f e i g n e d annoyance,
"You said y o u didn't k n o w I b a n . " "No," I replied, "you s a i d I
d i d n l t kndw Iban."
We t h e n t a l k e d and, a f t e r a time,
a g r e e d t o meet f o r a n i n t e r v i e w t h e f o l l o w i n g d a y .
We h a d l u n c h o n June 21, a n d as we sat o v e r coffee, I
asked each o f t h e g i r l s when she h a d come t o Sibu, why,
a n d t o t e l l - a s - m u c h as she wanted, a n d could, about h e r
life. Eugenie s a i d t h a t she h a d h a d n o o p p o r t u n i t y t o g o t o
school a n d t h a t f r o m l a t e childhood, s h e h a d done women's
w o r k in h e r house. A b o u t t h r e e y e a r s ago, i n 1981, she h a d
come t o S i b u t o look f o r work, a n d h a d " d r i f t e d " i n t o
prostitution.
S h e h a d p i c k e d u p E n g l i s h f r o m h e a r i n g it
spoken b y men w h o b o u g h t h e r d r i n k s a n d became h e r
clients.
S h e w o r k e d o n l y Sibu, a n d h a d n e v e r w o r k e d
another t o w n o r c i t y .
She h a d met Fedonia in a coffee
s h o p w h e r e b o t h w o r k e d , a n d h a d become " t r a v e l l i n g
companions." B u t , s h e insisted, each o f us--as o t h e r p r o s - i s o n h e r o w n a n d o u t f o r h e r s e l f alone. P i c k i n g u p a man
was a m a t t e r o f l u c k .
Sometimes y o u were f o r t u n a t e a n d
h a d c l i e n t s f o r s e v e r a l n i g h t s in a row, a n d sometimes y o u
c o u l d g o f o r a week a n d n o t h a v e a n y business. Eugenie,
who i s in h e r e a r l y t w e n t i e s has n o t been m a r r i e d a n d has
no children.
Fedonia i s 28, was married, has a 10-year o l d son whl
i s l i v i n g w i t h h e r parents, a n d i s m u c h more self-confident
out-going, a n d t a l k a t i v e .
Whereas Eugenie c o u l d n o t 01
would n o t t a l k a n y more a b o u t h e r l i f e b e f o r e Sibu, Fedoni;
was q u i t e eager t o t e l l h e r s t o r y , a n d t o t a l k about h e r s e l f
She i s t h e p r e t t i e r o f t h e two, t h o u g h b o t h w e r e well.
mannered, considerate, a n d a p p a r e n t l y a p p r e c i a t i v e o f thc
d r i n k s t h e night b e f o r e a n d o f l u n c h . While Eugenie insist!
t h a t each goes h e r own way, I s u s p e c t o n t h e basis o.
limited o b s e r v a t i o n s t h a t Fedonia dominates h e r companion.
by v i r t u e o f h e r age a n d P r i m a r y 6 education, a n d h e r muck
longer c o n t a c t w i t h S i b u .
A s in t h e s i t u a t i o n o f f i v e o t h e r p r o s whom I i n t e r viewed, Fedonia became a p r o f o l l o w i n g d i v o r c e . When 16,
she v i s i t e d h e r b r o t h e r who h a d m a r r i e d i n t o a longhouse i r
Bawang Assan, w h e r e she was " c o u r t e d " ( d i q a y a p ) b y z
s l i g h t l y o l d e r y o u t h . "I t o l d h i m n o t t o c o u r t me, because I
k n o w what t h e b o y s want, a n d t h a t t h e y a r e n o t serious."
He i n s i s t e d t h a t h e r e a l l y wanted her, a n d t h a t h e was
g o i n g t o ask h e r p a r e n t s t o a r r a n g e f o r t h e m t o m a r r y . "If
o r kill myself." A
t h e y don't," h e said, "I'll run away
month a f t e r that, h i s p a r e n t s v i s i t e d hers, a n d a s k e d them
if t h e y w o u l d accept t h e i r son. H e r p a r e n t s in t u r n asked
her, a n d s h e replied, "I accept. lah" ( N y a m b u t MI. "What
else c o u l d I do? E v e r y b o d y k n e w h e h a d c o u r t e d me f o r a
week. "
(m)
T h e y t o o k up r e s i d e n c e in Sibu, a n d t h e h u s b a n d
w o r k e d in t h e malaria c o n t r o l p r o g r a m . In 1972 t h e y h a d a
son. Two y e a r s later, h e r h u s b a n d l e f t Fedonia f o r another
woman. T h o u g h t h e y t e c h n i c a l l y s t i l l l i v e d together, he no
longer s u p p o r t e d her, seldom came b a c k t o t h e house b e f o r e
1 o r 2 a.m. N o t h i n g s h e c o u l d d o s a t i s f i e d him--his clothes
w e r e n ' t washed riqht, a n d h e r e f u s e d t o eat h e r cookinq,
" f e a r f u l I poisoned-himll ( t a k u t a k u m e r i ia u b a t nama-nama?.
"I c o u l d n ' t eat, a n d g r e w t h i n n e r a n d t h i n n e r . "
A f t e r one fight in w h i c h t h e h u s b a n d stormed o u t of
t h e h o u s e , l e a v i n g h e r a n d h e r son in t e a r s - - a n d h e r
b r e a k i n g up t h e dishes--she d e c i d e d t o leave. " B u t I didn't
have a cent."
So, s h e w e n t t o t h e l a t e Temenggong
Banggau a n d asked f o r b u s f a r e home. He g a v e h e r a $10
bill, a n d s h e r e t u r n e d it, i n s i s t i n g "it o n l y costs $5 t o g e t
t o m y home." H e r h u s b a n d a t t e m p t e d reconciliation, but she
h a d h a d enough, a n d i n s i s t e d o n d i v o r c e o n t h e basis o f h e r
husband's i n f i d e l i t i e s .
She a n d h e r son r e t u r n e d t o h e r longhouse t o l i v e w i t h
Fedonia's p a r e n t s . She farmed, a n d c u l t i v a t e d t h e i r p e p p e r
gardens f o r f o u r y e a r s . " B u t t h e p e p p e r died, a n d f a r m i n g
was too hard--1 was a l r e a d y g e t t i n g o l d looking."
So s h e
came t o S i b u . t o w o r k as a waitress in a b a r . T h e manager
t o l d h e r t h a t if s h e g o t a n y clients, she was t o s p l i t t h e fee
w i t h him.
"I w o r k e d t h e r e f o r t w o years, u n t i l I r e a l i z e d
t h a t 1 c o u l d w o r k o n m y own, a n d d i d n ' t h a v e t o s p l i t
a n y t h i n g w i t h him."
She t h e n began w o r k i n g o t h e r b a r s ,
a n d p i c k i n g u p t r i c k s o n h e r own.
Fedonia a n d Eugenie a r e amonq t h e h i g h e r class l b a n
pros.
T h e y - r e c e i v e M850 t o $250, " d e p e n d i n g o n how
generous t h e man may b e . " If t h e i r a c c o u n t i n g i s accurate,
t h e y e a r n c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e t h a n most o f t h e p r o s we
interviewed.
T h e o t h e r i n t e r v i e w s were conducted in t h e C e n t r a l
Police Station on. Monday a n d Wednesday e v e n i n g s .
Pros
i n t e r v i e w e d r a n g e d f r o m 14 t o 30. S i x were f r o m Fedonia's
longhouse, ' a n d claimed t o have come i n t o S i b u o n t h e i r
own.
I d i s c o v e r e d n o evidence o f "a ring1' o r "syndicate"
control o f prostitution, b u t t h e regularity w i t h which p r o s
in "my1' c o f f e e s h o p c o n s u l t e d w i t h t h e same men a b o u t
p r o b l e m s , i s p r o b a b l y i n d i c a t i v e o f more t h a n f r a t e r n a l
Chinese--may
relations. Indeed, some o f t h e men-- l b a n
b e p i m p i n g o r a t least t a k i n g some o f t h e p r o s 1 money.
and
Lower class p r o s e a r n M$5 t o $25 p e r t r i c k , a n d middle
class p r o s e a r n M$20 t o $50. A r o u n d p a y days, as m a n y as
30 t o 40 g i r l s hung o u t in t h e alley a n d s t r e e t s n e a r t h e
hotels w h i c h h a d t h e most open--and, p r o b a b l y t h e l a r g e s t - trade.
T h e r e i s a p p a r e n t l y n o shame a t t a c h e d t o t h e
practice, a t least in t h e case o f women in t h e i r e a r l y t o
mid-20s.
Women we t a l k e d w i t h w e r e q u i t e open about
where, why. when, a n d how much. F u r t h e r , p r o s t i t u t i o n i s
encouraged n o t o n l y b y f r i e n d s f r o m t h e same longhouse,
Two o f t h e y o u n g e r
b u t b y members of one's own family.
p r o s w i t h whom we t a l k e d o n June 27 h a d been called i n t o
t h e p r a c t i c e by o l d e r s i s t e r s . A n d a f a t h e r was o v e r h e a r d
t o answer in r e p l y t o t h e question, w h y was h e in Sibu, " T o
v i s i t m y d a u g h t e r who
nyumpit1.
i s 'whoring"'
( n g a b a s anak
ke
Restriction o f prostitution and rehabilitation of t h e
Current
women i n v o l v e d i s d i f f i c u l t if n o t impossible.
e f f o r t s o n t h e p a r t o f t h e Police a r e t h e t w i c e - w e e k l y r a i d s ,
c o n d u c t e d between 7: 30 a n d 9: 00 p.m., Mondays a n d Wednesdays.
These times a r e d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f a
h e a l t h i n s p e c t o r t o e x a m i n e t h e women f o r " s e x u a l l y
t r a n s m i t t e d diseases.
Inasmuch as p r o s t i t u t i o n i s a m a t t e r o f choice as a
s o u r c e of income, a n d p e r m i t s women t o w o r k as t h e y want,
when t h e y want, a n d w h e r e t h e y want, d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t
it o f f e n d s t h e m o r a l s e n s i b i l i t i e s o f m a n y p e o p l e . it
u n d o u b t e d l y w i l l continue.
In o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r
t h e r e i s psychological damage s u f f e r e d b y l b a n pros, s t u d i e s
o f self-image, esteem, a n d sense o f s e l f - w o r t h w o u l d h a v e
t o b e done.
T h o u g h m u c h o f it may b e a G o f f m a n - t y p e
"face game," t h e l b a n p r o s I o b s e r v e d d a i l y w e r e g e n e r a l l y
pleasant, "happy,"
and confident.
N o r i s t h e r e much
e v i d e n c e o f p r o s as a c t i v e " t r a n s m i t t e r s " o f sexually
communicated diseases. While t h e r e has been a n increase in
t h e n u m b e r s o f l b a n who h a v e been i d e n t i f i e d , t h e r e has
also been a decrease in t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f l b a n cases o f
disease. Somewhat s u r p r i s i n g l y , o n l y f o u r p r o s t i t u t e s were
diagnosed as h a v i n g a s e x u a l l y t r a n s m i t t e d disease in 1983.
2.
Education
Actually, s t u d e n t s r e p r e s e n t t h e most n u m e r o u s s i n g l e
g r o u p of l b a n in Sibu--2,309.
O f these, 1,092 a r e in
G o v e r n m e n t s e c o n d a r y schools, 57 in p r i v a t e s e c o n d a r y
schools, a n d 1,160 in p r i m a r y schools.
T h e effects of a s t a t e - d i r e c t e d , m o d e r n a n d formal
educational system a r e enormous, a n d r e a l l y l i t t l e u n d e r In fairness, a n d t o k e e p t h i n g s in p e r s p e c t i v e , it
stood.
must b e n o t e d t h a t most educational systems w o r l d w i d e are
coming u n d e r i n c r e a s i n g c r i t i c i s m because of t h r e e f a c t s .
F i r s t , educational systems a r e b e i n g a s k e d t o d o more t h a n
t h e y e v e r h a v e h a d t o d o in t h e p a s t . A s t h e r o l e o f t h e
f a m i l y has changed, a n d a p r i m a r y r o l e o f p a r e n t s has
become impossible because o f a m a j o r i t y o f f a t h e r s a n d
mothers w o r k i n g t o m a i n t a i n t h e s t a n d a r d o f l i v i n g t h e y feel
a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h e m s e l v e s , t h i s r o l e has become t h e
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y J o f schools. Second, a l t h o u g h t h e w o r k l o a d o f
schools has increased, n o one i s r e a l l y s u r e w h a t t h e y
should b e d o i n g . Most systems a r e biased t o w a r d s t h e v e r y
bright ( a b o u t 10 p e r c e n t ) o r t h e v e r y slow ( a b o u t 10
p e r c e n t ) , a n d t h e majority of students receive p r o p o r tionately less a t t e n t i o n t h a n t h e i r numbers warrant.
C u r r i c u l a r k e v i s i o n s c a t e r t o t h e v e r y able, t h e disabled, o r
t h e unable, but w h a t s h o u l d t h e c u r r i c u l u m b e f o r " t h e
average s t u d e n t ? " T h i r d , t h e r e i s always some l a g between
need, p r o p o s e d changes, a n d t h e i r implementation.
F o r t h e Iban, education has been socially d i s r u p t i v e
and culturally destructive.
T r a d i t i o n a l education in t h e
longhouse was informal. u n p r e s s u r e d . a n d well-suited f o r t h e
adaptation o f t h e I b a n . Much l e a r n i n g took place. in p l a y
a n d in t h e u s e o f t h e tools u p o n w h i c h t h e livelihood-.
indeed, success a n d survival--depended.
T h e most f o r m a l i z e d educational s t r a t e g y o f l b a n was
" t h e e v e n i n g school" ( r a n d a u ruai, lit., " v e r a n d a h ( w i n d i n g )
d i s c u s s i o n " r , when y o u n g s t e r s a n d adolescents g a t h e r e d
a r o u n d e l d e r s t o l i s t e n t o t h e r i c h f o l k l o r e a n d imbibe t h e
morals a n d values woven i n t o t h a t e x c e e d i n g l y elaborate
material. I n t e l l e c t u a l acumen was sharpened in t h e s o l u t i o n
of i n v o l v e d r i d d l e s , a n d t h e capacity f o r eidetic i m a g e r y was
expanded by t h e t u t e l a g e o f t h e b a r d s and, f o r a few, by
t h e i n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e shaman.
One o? . t h e b e s t i n t e n t i o n e d policies o f t h e colonial
~ e r i o d . b u t w i t h t h e most serious consequences, was t h e
d i s c o u r a g e m e n t o f l b a n f o r schooling.
T h e p o l i c y was
i n t e n d e d t o p r o t e c t lban society and c u l t u r e f r o m
contamination and erosion.
I t s effect,
like the
discouragement o f l b a n f r o m m i g r a t i n g t o t o w n s and
p a r t i c i p a t i n g in b u s i n e s s was t o delay changes w h i c h w e r e
b o u n d t o come a n d t o p r e c l u d e t h e i r e x p e r i e n c i n g p o l i t i c a l
a n d economic competitidn i n which
. .
t h e y ' f i n d themselves a t
a disadvantage.
a b i l i t i e s o f t h e person, m u c h c o n t e m p o r a r y e d u c a t i o n h a s a n
i n h i b i t o r y effect, s t u l t i f y i n g r a t h e r t h a n s t i m u l a t i n g .
I
!
I
I
I
I
I
i
1
I
:
I
1
With education w i t h o u t examination now e x t e n d e d t o
F o r m 5, a n d w i t h t h e s c h o o l i n g o f m a n y l b a n away f r o m t h e
l o n g h o u s e a n d in u r b a n centers, t h e t w o obvious
consequences a r e clear.
First, they are not learning the
v a l u e s a n d wisdom o f t h e i r people. And. second, t h e y a r e
l e a r n i n g t h e v a l u e s - - b u t n o t m u c h wisdom--of. m o d e r n i t y .
T h e f a c t t h a t t h e y a r e n o t b e i n g e d u c a t e d in t h e
t r a d i t i o n a l community p r e c l u d e s t h e i r 1ear.ning t h e lessons
a n d l o r e o f t h e i r ancestors. A n d t h e values o f m o d e r n i t y ,
u r b a n e in orientation, almost c e r t a i n l y e n s u r e t h a t many, if
n o t most, w i l l n e v e r r e t u r n t o l i v e in t h e i r longhouses.
1
I
B e y o n d c o n v e y i n g information. most educational systems
In so doing. t h e y a r e
e x i s t t o p r o m o t e social c o n f o r m i t y .
c o n t r a d i c t i o n s in t e r m s . Rather t h a n " l e a d i n g o u t " ( e d u c a r e 1
t h e p o t e n t i a l o f t h e individual, o r d e v e l o p i n g t h e i n n a t e
In t h e case o f Iban, t h e r e a r e t w o overwhelming
reasons f o r s e e k i n g education, a n d t w o major consequences
o f education. T h e f i r s t reason f o r s e e k i n g e d u c a t i o n i s t o
g o as high as possible in t h e educational system--and t h e
s a l a r y system. T h e second reason, c o n t i n g e n t o n t h e f i r s t .
i s t o g e t a g o o d - p a y i n g job--and e a r n as m u c h as one can.
T h e local e d u c a t i o n system i s examination-oriented, d e s p i t e
t h e removal o f examinations a t P r i m a r y 6 a n d F o r m 3. ( A t
t h e l a t t e r t h e r e now i s a n Assessment exam.
Mastering
material f o r p a s s i n g t h e exam i s o f p r i m a r y consideration.
l e a r n i n g a b o u t life, t h e world, a n d h u m a n k i n d i s secondary.
T h e p r o b l e m w i t h all examinations--whether locally o r i n
t h i s r e s e a r c h e r ' s u n i v e r s i t y - - i s t h a t t h e y most o f t e n d o n o t
measure w h a t is.learnt, a n d impede l e a r n i n g because o f t h e i r
i n o r d i n a t e importance.
One f o r m e r school a d m i n i s t r a t o r
commented t h a t "as many as 75 p e r c e n t o f m y l b a n s t u d e n t s
f a i l e d t h e F o r m 3 exam, ( w h e n it was s t i l l g i v e n ) a n d f e l t
themselves i n f e r i o r f a i l u r e s because o f t h a t one experience. "
T h e y f o r g o t t h e enormous amount t h e y h a d l e a r n e d i n
school.
I
1
A n ominous p r a c t i c e i s t h e t o t a l s u p p o r t o f s e c o n d a r y
s t u d e n t s by Government, w i t h n o requirement of
contribution from them o r t h e i r parents.
T h i s total
d e p e n d e n c e u p o n Government may easily lead t o a
d i s i n c l i n a t i o n t o w a r d work, i n i t i a t i v e a n d s e l f - s u p p o r t , a n d
may r e q u i r e a n a b r u p t "weaning" w h e n t h e s t u d e n t s leave
school a n d c a n n o t d e p e n d o n a n v o n e else. In s e v e r a l f a m i l y
s i t u a t i o n s w i t h w h i c h I was famijiar, y o u n g men w e r e a l m o A
e n t i r e l y s u p p o r t e d b y t h e i r s t r u g g l i n g p a r e n t s . T h e y were
quite willing t o b e dependent and live a l i f e t o which t h e y
h a d become acquainted. .
T h e "3M's" t o w h i c h l b a n a r e b e i n g exposed, a n d w h i c h
a r e b e i n g , internalized--along w i t h t h e t h r e e M's of t h e
educational. system--are ( 1 ) Money, ( 2 1 Mansions, a n d ( 3 )
Mercedes.
3.
Services a n d E n t e r t a i n m e n t
I can deal o n l y b r i e f l y w i t h t h e t w o m i n o r a t t r a c t i o n s
of S i b u f o r u r b a n migrants, services a n d e n t e r t a i n m e n t . I
consider them m i n o r o r secondary because n e i t h e r constit u t e s a reason f o r m i g r a t i o n in a n d o f i t s e l f .
lban visit
S i b u f o r h e a l t h care. t o v i s i t t h e Family P l a n n i n g Clinic, o r
t o see t h e s i g h t s a n d sounds. B u t t h e y w o u l d n o t move t o
S i b u j u s t f o r these, as t h e y have f o r employment a n d
education.
T h e r e l a t i v e disadvantage o f l i f e in a r u r a l area, c i t e d
b y a m a j o r i t y o f r e s p o n d e n t s t o o u r s u r v e y , i s lack of
h e a l t h caye f a c i l i t i e s .
If t h e r e i s a " t y p e a n x i e t y ' ' among
Iban--as p r o b a b l y among most of u s - - i t i s sickness, some
d e b i l i t a t i n g , i n c a p a c i t a t i n g illness. T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e
f o r p e r s o n s f a r f r o m medical care. With a h i s t o r y of high
i n f a n t m o r t a l i t y rates, w i t h evidence o f increase in s t r e s s r e l a t e d illn_esses, it i s easily u n d e r s t a n d a b l e w h y l b a n a r e
anxious abou't- t h e i r health.
l b a n a r e t h e second l a r g e s t g r o u p o f p a t i e n t s o f Lau
K i n g Howe Hospital, a n d o f t h e Family P l a n n i n g C l i n i c .
A l t h o u g h less n u m e r o u s in t h e c i t y , nonetheless t h e y avail
themselves o f t h e s e services i n numbers second o n l y t o
Chinese.
S i b u i s "a s w i n g i n g place;" a t least t h e r e a r e - crowds,
action, cinemas, c o f f e e shops, a n d b a r s . E n t e r t a i n m e n t was
c i t e d b y almost h a l f o f t h e respondents as a n i m p o r t a n t
advantage o f living in S i b u .
Conclusions
C o n s i s t e n t w i t h r u r a l - u r b a n m i g r a t i o n s worldwide. l b a n
movements i n t o S i b u h a v e i n c r e a s e d d r a m a t i c a l l y i n t h e p a s t
decade.
Some knowledgeable c i t i z e n s o f Sarawak c o n t e n d
t h a t these movements a r e p e c u l i a r t o S i b u a n d t h e e n v i r o n mental c o n s t r a i n t s o f t h e T h i r d Division, a n d t h a t t h e y a r e
in K u c h i n g .
n o t l i k e l y t o t a k e p l a c e elsewhere. e.g.,
Whatever t h e developments in o t h e r p a r t s o f Sarawak, it
seems l i k e l y t h a t t h e b u i l d - u p o f l b a n in S i b u will continue.
C h a l l e n g e s t o S t a t e a n d M u n i c i p a l Government a r e
enormous:
t o i d e n t i f y l a n d w h e r e m i g r a n t s may b u i l d , t o
p r o v i d e b a s i c services, a n d t o a i d and administer t h e
i n t e g r a t i o n o f u r b a n m i g r a n t s in t h e i r assimilation t o t h e
u r b a n community a n d i t s values.
F o r Sibu, t h e n e x t decade w i l l b e o n e o f g r o w t h a n d
challenge, a n d t h e responses o f r e s i d e n t s a n d m i g r a n t s a r e
well w o r t h c o n t i n u i n g o b s e r v a t i o n a n d a n a l y s i s .
AN E T H N I C SKETCH OF THE MELAWI AREA
WEST K A L I M A N T A N
B e r n a r d J. L. Sellato
Paris
1.
Introduction
T h e d r a i n a g e b a s i n o f t h e Melawi River, t h e major
( l e f t ) t r i b u t a r y o f t h e Kapuas, covers a n acreage o f o v e r
20,000 s q . kilometers. It belongs t o t h e r e g e n c y ( k a b u p a t e n )
of Sintang, w h i c h includes 18 d i s t r i c t s o r kecamantan (see
map 1 ) .
T h i s p a p e r g i v e s a b r i e f summary o f t h e e t h n i c
g r o u p s encountered in t h e course o f several t r i p s , t o t a l l i n g
o v e r s i x months, between 1983 a n d 1985, o n t h e Melawi a n d
its tributaries.
T h e e t h n o g r a p h i c data p r o v i d e d h e r e i s
g e n e r a l l y f i r s t - h a n d information obtained f r o m t h e local
population in t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e settlements. while s t a t i s t i c a l
d a t a was o b t a i n e d e i t h e r f r o m headmen o r f r o m official
d i s t r i c t - ( u s u a l l y police) sources. T h e data can b e c o n s i d e r e d
reliable, b o t h - qualitatively and quantitatively, f o r f i v e
d i s t r i c t s , Nos 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 (see k e y t o d i s t r i c t s below 1 .
Incomplete i n f o r m a t i o n i s p r o v i d e d f o r d i s t r i c t s Nos 3, 8, 9,
15, whereas o t h e r d i s t r i c t s h a v e n o t been v i s i t e d .
O v e r t w e n t y e t h n i c g r o u p s a r e t a k e n i n t o account
below. Those g r o u p s a r e self-declared entities, a l t h o u g h a
number o f - t h e m speak closely related dialects o f Melayu
( local b r a n d s ' o f Malay I .
E t h n i c boundaries a r e g e n e r a l l y
c l e a r - c u t a n d emphasized by t h e s p i r i t u a l a n d temporal
power exercised o v e r g i v e n t r a c t s o f t e r r i t o r y b y elected
adat chiefs o r temanqqung.
B u t ethnic i d e n t i t y has e v i d e n t l y s h i f t e d in time, i n a number o f instances, t h r o u g h
v a r i o u s processes: slow f u s i o n o f related g r o u p s i n t o one
m o r e o r l e s s h o m o g e n e o u s e t h n i c e n t i t y . demographic
a b s o r p t i o n , i n s e r t i o n b y enclave, l i n g u i s t i c assimilation,
Islamization.
P h y s i o g r a p h y , communications, a n d p a t t e r n s o f settlem e n t a r e w i d e l y d i f f e r e n t i n t h e u p p e r reaches o f t h e
Melawi ( d i s t r i c t s 11, 12 I where mountains a n d p r i m a r y jun'gle
a r e s t i l l dominant, t r a n s p o r t a t i o n along t h e r i v e r s o n l y a n d
limited by shallows a n d rapids, a n d villages s c a t t e r e d along
t h e main streams; a n d t h e low h i l l s a n d f l a t l a n d s o f d i s t r i c t s
3, 8, 9, 10, 13, 14. 15, w h e r e almost n o f o r e s t remains a n d
w h e r e p o p u l a t i o n i s s e t t l e d in v e r y small villages, connected
t o one a n o t h e r by p a t h s i n t h e g r a s s l a n d away f r o m t h e
main r i v e r s .
T h e m a i n s u b s i s t e n c e a n d commercial a c t i v i t i e s a r e
p a d d y c u l t i v a t i o n ( d r y hill p a d d y upstream, wet r i c e i n t h e
f l a t l a n d s ) , r u b b e r t r e e tapping, locally v e g e t a b l e a n d f r u i t ,
a n d f i s h - p o n d s . I n t h e f o r e s t e d areas, i r o n w o o d a n d r a t t a n
a r e e x t r a c t e d . T i m b e r companies, l a r g e plantations, m i n i n g
a n d oil companies o f f e r salaried jobs.
Government t r a c k s ,
paths and bridges help improve t h e t r a d e network w i t h
remote villages. A t t h e same time, t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n t r i e s
t o g r o u p t i n y h a m l e t s f o r b e t t e r education a n d h e a l t h
facilities; a n d t h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f
( v i l l a g e s ) in each
d i s t r i c t i s b e i n g d r a s t i c a l l y reduced, t h e non-desa settlements becoming dusun.
Non-Muslim g r o u p s h a v e t a k e n up e i t h e r Catholicism o r
a b r a n d o r a n o t h e r o f Protestantism d u r i n g t h e l a s t fifty
years, w i t h a n o t a b l y increased e f f o r t by a s c o r e o f small
A m e r i c a n s e c t s i n remote areas in t h e l a s t t e n y e a r s .
However, a s t i l l ' v e r y i m p o r t a n t n u m b e r o f people p r a c t i c e a
religion.
f o r m o f K a h a r i n g a n o r a local t r a d i t i o n a l
lslam seems t o b e g a i n i n g ground, since t h e m i g r a t i o n a l
t r e n d has l o n g been a n d s t i l l i s f r o m upstream t o downstream along t h e Melawi a n d i t s main t r i b u t a r i e s , a n d f r o m
d a r a t ( t h e h i l l s ) t o & ( t h e r i v e r s i d e ) . T h i s movement i s
o f t e n accompanied by c o n v e r s i o n t o lslam a n d t h e Melayu
h a b i t a t a n d way o f l i f e ( c l o t h i n g , economic a c t i v i t i e s ) , a n d
t h e complete process i s r e f e r r e d t o as t u r u n Melayu ( t o
come down a n d become M e l a y u ) .
Therefore a number o f
Melayu settlements a r e o f r e c e n t Dayak stock.
Although
t h e p r o c e s s q u i c k l y assimilates t h e newcomers i n t o t h e
Melayu community, t h e r e i s a s t r o n g cohesion o f t h e Dayak
a n d M e l a y u . d u e t o t h e a c k n o w l e d g m e n t o f a regional
i d e n t i t y ( k i t a o r a n q ulu, we u p s t r e a m o r i n t e r i o r people). a
c e r t a i n r e l i g i o u s tolerance a n d a n economic symbiosis. T h i s
c o h e s i o n i s s t r o n g l y e x p r e s s e d a g a i n s t t h e newcomers
endatan ) , p a r t i c u l a r l y t r a n s m i g r a t i o n Javanese ( c a l l e d
!h abv eq nho ta b ve een v peor yu r welcomed.
e d o v e r t h e area b y h u g e n u m b e r s a n d
-
adat
N o t m u c h w i l l b e s a i d o f t h e Chinese. T h e i r n u m b e r
may b e estimated a t an average 100 t o 200 i n each o f t h e
M
MEN
MLH
OTD
PAP
PAY
RND
RNS
SEH
SER
TEB
UND
d i s t r i c t s 10 t h r u 14, w h i l e t h e y may b e much more numerous
i n towns l i k e Nanga Pinoh a n d Sintang, but accurate f i g u r e s
cannot b e easily obtained. T h e y generally say t h e y b e l o n g
t o t h e Ke' g r o u p .
T h e y a r e mostly i n v o l v e d i n trade,
r i v e r i n e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , collecting o f p r o d u c t s f r o m u p stream, a n d a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d i n big villages.
Map 2 shows t h e approximate d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e e t h n i c
g r o u p s i n t h e area v i s i t e d . A k e y t o t h e symbols f o r t h e
M stands f o r Melayu a n d
e t h n i c g r o u p s i s g i v e n below.
most of t h e time t e r r i t o r y has n o t been delineated; t h e
settlements located o n t h e main Melawi r i v e r downstream
f r o m Nanga Ela U l u a r e populated b y Melayu, w i t h t h e
e x c e p t i o n o f a f e w Islamized Dayak villages.
The left
t r i b u t a r i e s of t h e Melawi downstream t h e Ela U l u h a v e n o t
been visited.
Besides t h e e t h n i c a n d statistical s u r v e y , a p r e l i m i n a r y
l i n g u i s t i c s u r v e y has been c a r r i e d o u t on about 300 w o r d s in
some t w e n t y languages a n d dialects i n t h i s area.
Key t o D i s t r i c t s . (Map 1
3
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
;
-
District of Sintang
Nanga Pinoh
~ a n g aEla H i l i r
Menukung
Nanga Serawai
Nanga Ambalau
Kayan H u l u
Kayan H i l i r
Dedai
K e y t o E t h n i c C r o u p s (Map 2 )
BAR
BOH
DES
IB
INS
K
KEB
KEN
LEE3
LIM
Barai
Bohokam o r Mahakam
Desa
Ib a n
Ingar-Silat
Kubin
Kebahan
K e n y i l u IK o r u h
Lebang
Limbai
2.
Melayu
Mentebah
Melahui
O t Danum
Papak
Payak
Randu'
Ransa
Sehiai
Serawai
Tebidah
Undau
The Ethnic Groups
T h e B A R A I g r o u p i s located between t h e lower Melawi
a n d t h e lower Kayan r i v e r s . Less t h a n 3,500 people h a v e
been a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l y d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e g r o u p s .
T w o (21
villages, 2,800 people) a r e . i n K a y a n H i l i r D i s t r i c t u n d e r t h e
adat r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of 2 temanggung, one f o r t h e B a r a i - H i l i r
( 1 4 villages) a n d one f o r t h e B a r a i - H u l u (7 v i l l a g e s l ; in
Nanga Pinoh D i s t r i c t , one more t e m a n g g u n g holds 3 o r 4
villages o f Barai-Pinoh, more o r less m i x e d w i t h Limbai a n d
Randu', a n d t o t a l l i n g a b o u t 1,000 people. T h e i r language i s
a Melayu dialect.
T h e BOHOKAM o r MAHAKAM d o n o t e x i s t a n y l o n g e r
as an e t h n i c g r o u p . A f o r m e r Dohoi ( o r O t D a n u m l c a p t i v e
o f t h e Kayan-Paka' of t h e u p p e r Mahakam came b a c k f r o m
t h e r e (hence t h e name) w i t h a f e w families a n d s e t t l e d n e a r
t h e sources o f t h e Melawi.
Then h e obtained a t e r r i t o r y
in-between t h e O t Danum a n d t h e Mentebah. A f t e r t h e l a s t
chief, Temanggung Anyang, d i e d a r o u n d 1964, t h e g r o u p
d i s p e r s e d downstream, while a f e w families s t i l l l i v e w i t h O t
Danum a t B u n t u t Pimpin. T h e y s t i l l speak Kayan-Mahakam,
a n d t h e y t o t a l less t h a n 100 people a l t o g e t h e r .
T h e DESA a r e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l y d i v i d e d i n t o Desa-Hulu
in Kayan H i l i r D i s t r i c t a n d D e s a - H i l i r in Dedai D. IJeta'
river).
I n t h e f o r m e r t h e y t o t a l a b o u t 4,600 people i n 15
villages w i t h one temanggung; in t h e latter t h e y are
p r o b a b l y more numerous. T h e y a l l a r e t h e same g r o u p a n d
speak t h e same language, a p p a r e n t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e l b a n i c
language g r o u p .
"If
I!
1
SdnOU9 3 1 N H l l
T h e IB.AN f o r m a s i n g l e v i l l a g e o f 107 people in
M e n u k u n g D., w h e r e t h e y seem closely associated w i t h t h e
Ransa.
It i s said t h a t t h e r e a r e more l b a n f u r t h e r west.
T h e y may h a v e come as mercenaries d u r i n g t h e Malay w a r s
of t h e m i d - 1 9 t h c e n t u r y a n d s e t t l e d t h e r e .
They are
mentioned in E n t h o v e n (1903 1 but n o t in v a n Kessel (184950).
@.
I
I
I
T h e I N G A R - S I L A T are a c t u a l l y a b r a n c h o f t h e E n s i l a t
( o r S i l a t ) o f t h e Kapuas ( D a n g k a n D. 1, who moved i n t o t h e
u p p e r l n g a r d r a i n a g e ( Kayan H i l i r D. I. T h e y a r e about 1,400
They
people t h e r e , in 7 villages, w i t h one temanggung.
speak t h e same language as t h e Ensilat, w i t h a s l i g h t l y
d i f f e r e n t accent.
[
T h e b u l k o f t h e K U B l N g r o u p reside in t h e Ela H i l i r
A g r o u p moved f r o m t h e r e t o Bedaha' (510
drainage.
people) in Nanga Serawai D . as a consequence o f a matrimonial alliance w i t h t h e Melahui o f B e g o r i a n d s u b m i t t e d t o
the
o f t h e Melahui.
A n o t h e r g r o u p moved in t w o
villages ( B a t u Onap a n d Melona 1, t o t a l l i n g 375 people) i n
t h e Mentatai ( M e n u k u n g D. 1 amongst t h e Limbai, b u t t h o s e
have retained t h e i r
a n d h a v e t h e i r own t e m a n g g u n g a t
Melona 1. '
I
adat
I
T h e K E B A H A N , o n e o f t h e most numerous e t h n i c
g r o u p s o f t h e Melawi, number 7,000 in Kayan H u l u D.. 1,400
in Kayan H l l i r D., a n d more o n t h e Pinoh drainage. The
Kebahan OFKayan H u l u D. consist o f 5 s u b - g r o u p s :
1.
Kebahan K a y a n U l u ( u p p e r Kayan) : 10 v i l l a g e s o n
t h e K a y a n a n d Lemasau r i v e r s ;
2.
Kebahan K a y a n Tonga':
a n d Mendayan;
3.
Kebahan Goneh:
Ungai r i v e r s ;
9 villages on t h e Kayan
Each g r o u p , e x c e p t No. 4, h a s i t s o w n t e m a n g g u n g . Another
Kebahan v i l l a g e ( R a m b u n l h a s moved i n t o t h e Payak r i v e r
f r o m Semadai a n d i s now u n d e r Payak
T h e Kebahan
o f K a y a n H i l i r D . ( l o w e r Mau a n d U n g a i a n d l e f t b a n k of
lower I n g a r ) , i n h a b i t i n g 13 v i l l a g e s w i t h t h e i r own temanggung, h a v e remained closer t o t h e Kebahan r i v e r , allegedly
t h e o r i g i n a l t e r r i t o r y o f all t h e Kebahan.
In Nanga Pinoh
D . a r e f o u n d t w o g r o u p s . called Kebahan A r a i ( o r r i v e r i n e l
a l o n g t h e Pinoh r i v e r , a n d Kebahan Darat, somewhat i n l a n d
f r o m t h e l e f t b a n k o f t h e Pinoh. T h e f o r m e r a r e Islamized.
It seems t h a t t h e homogeneous g r o u p o f t h e Kebahan of t h e
K a y a n d r a i n a g e was r e f e r r e d t o u n d e r d i f f e r e n t names
( K a y a n , Gunih, Nangah-Dayak, Jampal a n d Kebahan p r o p e r )
in t h e l i t e r a t u r e , a n d I a c t u a l l y n o t e d d i a l e c t variations,
Kebahan langauge i s d e f i n i t e l y r e l a t e d t o r e g i o n a l Melayu
dialects, b u t m o r e d i s t a n t l y t h a n most o f t h e downstream
languages.
I
I
T h e KORUH o r K E N Y I L U came f r o m t h e K e n y i l u r i v e r ,
n o t f a r d o w n s t r e a m f r o m t h e i r p r e s e n t settlements i n t w o
patches ( t o t a l l i n g 1,200 people in 9 v i l l a g e s ) among t h e
Limbai in M e n u k u n g D. T h e r e may b e m o r e K e n y i l u f a r t h e r
T h e y h a v e one temanggung,
d o w n s t r e a m t h e Melawi .
a l t h o u g h t h e y seem t o b e more o r less assimilated t o t h e
numerous Limbai. T h e i r language i s close t o Melayu.
T h e L E B A N G t o t a l 1,700 in K a y a n H i l i r D. a n d many
Two dialect groups, both
more f u r t h e r west (Dedai D. 1.
v e r y close t o Melayu, a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d : t h e L e b a n g U l u o r
L e b a n g Nado, a n d t h e L e b a n g Ili'. T h e y h a v e a t e m a n g g u n g
a t N y a n g k u m ( K a y a n H i l i r D. 1 a n d a n o t h e r o n e a t Kumpang
( D e d a i 0.1.
T h e L l M B A l a r e o v e r 8,000 people in s e v e r a l d i s t r i c t s :
1.
in Nanga Serawai D . :
w i t h o n e temanggung;
2.
in M e n u k u n g D.:
5,500 people in 43 village,
i n c l u d i n g 1,400 Limbai K e r u a b ( o n t h e K e r u a b a n d
B u d o h r i v e r s ) , 1,500 Limbai Mentatai, 460 Limbai
Olo ( o n t h e Ela U l u r i v e r ) , 850 w e s t e r n Limbai
Pantai a n d 1,250 e a s t e r n L i m b a i Pantai ( o n t h e
b a n k s o f t h e Melawil, w i t h 4 temanggung;
18 villages o n t h e Kayan a n d
!
4.
Kebahan Goneh Nangah:
a t Nanga Tebidah;
5.
K e b a h a n K a y a n H i l i r o r Kebahan Semadai:
v i l l a g e s downstream f r o m Nanga T e b i d a h .
and
5
800 people in 3 villages,
3.
in Kayan H u l u D . : 550 Limb,ai Kebahan o r Limbai
Kayan. in 7 villages. u n d e r Kebahan
4.
in Ela H i l i r D . "
e;
o n t h e Man r i v e r .
T h r e e l i n g u i s t i c s u b - g r o u p s a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d : Limbai 010,
t h e o r i g i n a l .,language of t h e Man area. Limbai Mentatai a n d
Limbai K e r u a b ; t h e l a t t e r i n c l u d e s t h e dialects spoken o n
t h e K e r u a b a n d Bodoh, o n t h e Ela H i l i r , o n t h e b a n k s o f t h e
Melawi ( P a n t a i ) a n d o n t h e Kayan drainage, a n d i s s a i d t o
have been i n f l u e n c e d by t h e Kebahan dialects. A n u m b e r o f
villages along t h e Melawi, especially downstream, a r e said t o
b e Islamized, some b e i n g now Melayu.
T h e MELAYU, a numerous b u t s c a t t e r e d language a n d
c u l t u r e g r o u p , a r e supposed t o t o t a l about 2,500 in Menuk u n g D. ( 6 v i l l a g e s ) , 4.000 t o 5,000 in Nanga Serawai D. I 7
v i l l a g e s ) , 700 in Nanga Ambalau D . ( 2 v i l l a g e s ) , 2,000 i n
Kayan H u l u D . ( 2 v i l l a g e s ) a n d 2,000 in Kayan H i l i r D. ( 5
villages).
T h e y u s u a l l y f o r m big settlements a n d h a v e a t
least one Mu2lim
c h i e f (kiai, kuai, o r pengawa) in each
d i s t r i c t , sometimes more ( 5 in Nanga Serawai D., 2 in
M e n u k u n g D. I,. T h e y a r e e i t h e r Melayu-Sintang o r MelayuNanga Pinoh, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r o r i g i n , b u t t h e i r dialects
show o n l y s l i g h t lexical v a r i a t i o n .
Many more Melayu a r e
f o u n d a l o n g t h e b a n k s of t h e m i d d l e a n d l o w e r Melawi a n d
along t h e P i n o h r i v e r .
If t h e Melayu f o r m a l i n g u i s t i c a n d
c u l t u r a l e n t i t y , t h e y a r e n o t all o f a common e t h n i c o r i g i n ,
most o f them- ( i f n o t a l l ) b e i n g u l t i m a t e l y o f v a r i o u s D a y a k
stock. T h e l i t e r a t u r e p r o v i d e s a l i s t o f Dayak g r o u p s h a v i n g
been Islamized, who now a r e self-declared Melayu. Melayu
is t h e common l i n g u a f r a n c a o f t h e Melawi area.
adat
T h e MENTEBAH n u m b e r o n l y 700 a n d a r e s c a t t e r e d in
f o u r v e r y isolated v i l l a g e s u p s t r e a m t h e big r a p i d s i n Nanga
Ambalau D. T h e y came from t h e u p p e r Kapuas, w h e r e p a r t
o f t h i s g r o u p s t i l l resides, a n d s e t t l e d h e r e a f t e r an alliance
w i t h t h e O t Danum.
T h e y have. t h e i r own t e m a n g g u n g a t
Kepala J u n g a i a n d speak b o t h t h e i r language ( a Melayu
dialect) a n d O t Danum..
T h e MELAHUI a r e located i n Nanga Serawai D . o n l y
600 o n t h e Serawai ( 4 v i l l a g e s ) ,
a n d number o v e r 4,200:
1,000 o n t h e T e k u n g a i ( 5 v i l l a g e s ) , 800 o n t h e Demu ( 3
villages) a n d 1,800 o n t h e Melawi ( 7 v i l l a g e s ) . T h e y h a v e 4
temanggung. T h e y claim t h a t t h e y a r e t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e
once p o w e r f u l N y a n g a i g r o u p who possessed t h e whole of
t h e M e l a w i a n d g a v e b i r t h t o t h e Penembahan o f t h e
Sultanate a f Sintang.
T h e i r l a n g u a g e i s somewhat i n between Melayu a n d O t Danum languages.
T h e O T DANUM ( o r ' U t Danum, U l u Arai, U l u Ail, U l u
Ayer, Dohoi) a r e t h e most i m p o r t a n t g r o u p o f t h e u p p e r
Melawi a n d c u l t u r a l l y a n d l i n g u i s t i c a l l y t h e most d i s t i n c t
from t h e Melayu.
Associated g r o u p s a r e t h e Sehiai o f t h e
Serawai r i v e r , t h e P a n g i n o f t h e Ela H i l i r , t h e O r u n Da'an
The Ot
( o r U l u n Daan of t h e Mandai ( u p p e r ' K a p u a s ) .
Danum p r o p e r o c c u p y a v a s t t r a c t o f t e r r i t o r y , m a i n l y v i r g i n
f o r e s t , a n d c o n t r o l t h e p a t h s o v e r l a n d across t h e mountains
t o t h e u p p e r B a r i t o ( J u l o i l a n d t h e Kahayan-Katingan o f
Central-Kalimantan, w h e r e r e l a t e d g r o u p s r e s i d e .
hey say
t h a t t h e y h a v e always l i v e d o n t h e Ambalau d r a i n a g e a n d
from t h e r e e x p a n d e d t o Central-Kalimantan. T h e y belong t o
t h e language g r o u p of t h e B a r i t o , a n d o t h e r O t D a n u m a r e
f o u n d o n t h e B a r i t o . a n d some o n t h e Mahakam. F r o m t h e
Ambalau t h e y also m o v e d w e s t w a r d and populated the
Lekawai a n d p a r t o f t h e Serawai.
~ l t h o u t~h eh o r i g i n o f
t h e people o n t h e C i l a n g i s n o t clear, a l l t h e people u n d e r
t h e name O t Danum appear t o h a v e homogeneous language
and culture.
T h e O t Danum o f t h e lower Lekawai 1900
people1 say t h e y descend f r o m t h e Penanyui, a g r o u p now in
C e n t r a l - K a l ~ m a n t a n . T h e O t Danum t o t a l a b o u t 10,000 in
t h e u p p e r Melawi area, i n c l u d i n g 7,500 in Nanga Ambalau D.
(2,700 in 12 v i l l a g e s a l o n g t h e Melawi: 2,600 in 12 v i l l a g e s
on t h e Ambalau; 900 in 5 v i l l a g e s o n t h e Jengonoi; 350 i n 3
v i l l a g e s o n t h e Mentomoi: 800 in 4 v i l l a g e s on t h e Gilang),
a n d a b o u t 2,500 in Nanga Serawai D.
(200 in 3 villages
along t h e Melawi; 700-900 in 3 v i l l a g e s o n t h e Serawai;
1,600 in 11 v i l l a g e s o n t h e Lekawai 1 . T h e y h a v e 4 temangg u n g in Nanga Ambalau D . a n d 2 in Nanga Serawai D . O t
i n f l u e n c e seems t o h a v e s p r e a d downstream t h e
Danum
Melawi a n d across t o t h e Kayan drainage, p a r t i c u l a r l y i t s
specific f u n e r a l r i t u a l s , i n c l u d i n g secondary b u r i a l . A few
P u n a n f a m i l i e s s e t t l e d among t h e O t Danum; t h e y a r e
Hovongan ( P u n a n B u n g a n a n d K e r e h o ( P u n a n K e r i a u 1 of t h e
u p p e r Kapuas, a n d Kereho B u s a n g ( P u n a n P e n y a v u n g ) o f t h e
u p p e r B a r i t o . T o date, some h a v e remained, a l t h o u g h many
have gone back.
adat
T h e PAPA.K n u m b e r 1,600 i n 17 villages a n d hamlets in
t h e lower T e b i d a h r i v e r area, in Kayan H u l u D . T h e y h a v e
one t e m a n g g u n g a t Nanga O r a n . T h e y say t h e y h a v e always
r e s i d e d t h e r e a n d w e r e allied t o t h e once p o w e r f u l Tebidah.
T h e y speak a Melayu dialect.
26 villages, a n d 345 o n t h e u p p e r Payak, in t w o v i l l a g e s .
T h e y h a v e f o u r temanggung.
T h e y once were a v e r y
p o w e r f u l g r o u p a n d u s e d t o fight a g a i n s t a t t a c k s f r o m
e v e r y w h e r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y f r o m t h e E n s i l a t a n d t h e Melahui.
T h e y speak a Melayu dialect.
T h e P A Y A K n u m b e r 1,500 in 13 villages. o n t h e u p p e r
Payak r i v e r o f K a y a n H u l u D . T h e y h a v e one t e m a n g g u n g
a t Toran. a n d h i v e a d m i t t e d one Kebahan v i l l a g e d o w n stream f r o m t h e m a n d u n d e r t h e i r rule, a n d t w o T e b i d a h
villages o n t h e i r t e r r i t o r y upstream f r o m them.
T h e UNDAU. t o t a l l i n g 3.Q00 people. r e s i d e in K a y a n
H u l u D . (850 people in 5 villages, w i t h o n e t e m a n g g u n g J , a n d
K a y a n H i l i r D . (2.550 people in 2 2 villages. w i t h 3 temangg u n g ) . T h e y are, w i t h t h e Barai, t h e p o o r e s t people in t h e
r e g i o n . T h e y speak a Melayu d i a l e c t .
T h e RANDU' s a y t h e y a r e a s u b - g r o u p o f t h e B a r a i .
T h e y h a v e 7 v i l l a g e s in Nanga P i n o h D., w i t h one temangg u n g a t Tengkajau, b u t t h e r e a r e more Randu' o n t h e
o p p o s i t e b a n k of t h e M e l a w i i n Pembuang D., o n t h e
Belimbing-Keninjal r i v e r s . T h e i r language i s v e r y close t o
Barai.
3.
T h e RANSA n u m b e r 1,200 in t h e Ela U l u r i v e r o n
M e n u k u n g D. ; in 12 v i l l a g e s w i t h one temanggung ( a t S u n g a i
Sampak I , b u t t h e r e m a y b e more o f them in C e n t r a l Kalimantan:
' T h e i r l a n g u a g e seems t o show O t Dnaum
influence.
T h e S E H l A l t o t a l 1,500 people in 9 v i l l a g e s o n t h e
u p p e r Serawai.
T h e y say t h e y came o v e r f r o m C e n t r a l Kalimantan i n t o t h e u p p e r m o s t Serawai. where t h e y m i x e d
w i t h t h e Sera%aj g r o u p a n d some O t Danum newcomers, a n d
all moved s u b s e q u e n t l y downstream. One temanggung i s in
c h a r g e f o r t h e t h r e e e t h n i c g r o u p s a n d resides a t Remokoi.
Sehiai language i s v e r y close t o O t Danum.
T h e SERAWAI claim t h e y once possessed t h e whole of
t h e Serawai d r a i n a g e . A l t h o u g h t h e y a r e now p r e s e n t in 4
villages, it seems t h a t o n l y one s t i l l speaks Serawai ( B a r a s
N a b u n 2; o n l y 200 people), y e t it i s already m i x e d w i t h
Sehiai a n d O t Danum. Serawai language sounds v e r y close
t o Melahui.
T h e TEB l D A H n u m b e r 4,000 a n d h a v e always r e s i d e d o n
t h e T e b i d a h r i v e r , f r o m w h i c h some moved i n t o t h e L a a r t o
t h e West. a n d f a r t h e r t o t h e Payak. T h e y also r e t a i n e d t w o
villages (175 people) o n t h e u p p e r reaches o f t h e K a y a n
r i v e r . 3,500 people a r e o n t h e T e b i d a h a n d L a a r r i v e r s , in
S u g g e s t i o n s f o r Research
The present paper will probably b e expanded t o include
a d i a c h r o n i c a p p r o a c h s i n c e t h i s r e g i o n o f Kalimantan i s one
a b o u t w h i c h f a i r l y g o o d 1 9 t h c e n t u r y d a t a i s available,
i n c l u d i n g p o p u l a t i o n figures.
Also t h e linguistic data
collected in 1983-85 w i l l p r e s u m a b l y b e l e x i c o s t a t i s t i c a l l y
processed in t h e n e a r future.
However, s h o u l d some
r e s e a r c h e r b e i n t e r e s t e d in d o i n g f i e l d w o r k in t h e Melawi
area ( w h i c h b a d l y needs i t ) , I w o u l d g l a d l y h a n d o v e r t o
t h i s p e r s o n w h a t e v e r e t h n o g r a p h i c a n d l i n g u i s t i c d a t a i s in
m y possession.
I w o u l d l i k e t o s u g g e s t some themes o f r e s e a r c h . F i r s t
o f all, t h e m i d d l e Melawi area i s a zone o f i n t e r a c t i o n o f
t w o i m p o r t a n t a n d d y n a m i c c u l t u r e g r o u p s , namely "Melayu"
a n d O t Danum.
Non-Moslem g r o u p s l o c a t e d in b e t w e e n
show f e a t u r e s o f b o t h .
In t h i s i n t e r a c t i o n zone, it may b e
t h a t O t Danum
d i f f u s e d downstream, whereas Melayu
language d i f f u s e d u p s t r e a m . I t w o u l d b e o f special i n t e r e s t
t o investigate t h e variations of funeral rituals and a r t from
east t o west a l o n g t h e Melawi a n d o n t h e Kayan, as f u n e r a l
p o s t s a n d o s s u a r i e s a r e f o u n d among t h e g r o u p s of t h e
K a y a n r i v e r , a p p a r e n t l y c o n n e c t e d t o v a r y i n g n o t i o n s of t h e
afterworld.
adat
A n o t h e r o b j e c t c o u l d b e t h e Kebahan g r o u p , c o n s t i t u t e d o f s e v e r a l s u b - g r o u p s ; it h a s b e e n r e l a t i v e l y p r e s e r v e d
because o f i t s location a n d i t s size, a n d may b e a n e x c e l l e n t
theme f o r a monograph.
T h e O t Danum, also because of
t h e i r size a n d remoteness, h a v e r e m a i n e d v i r t u a l l y f r e e of
I s l a m i c i n f l u e n c e , w h a t may n o t a l w a y s b e t h e case in
Central-Kalimantan.
F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e y seem t o b e r a t h e r
t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e s o r t o f people, a n d t h i s area i s s u p p o s e d l y
t h e r e g i o n o f o r i g i n f o r many a g r o u p o f Central-Kalimantan. Remote areas l i k e t h e Mentomoi, Jengonoi o r Lekawai
r i v e r s w o u l d b e q u i t e adequate f o r s u c h a s t u d y .
NOTES ON R A T T A N C O L L E C T I O N A N D T R A D E - I N T H E
MASAMBA D I S T R I C T , SULAWESI S E L A T A N *
We h a v e seen t h a t c e r t a i n groups, l i k e t h e K u b i n , t h e
Kebahan; ,moved whole villages t o another g r o u p ' s t e r r i t o r y ,
a f t e r a n alliance, a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y s u b m i t t e d t o t h e o t h e r
'It may b e o f some i n t e r e s t t o i n v e s t i g a t e how
group's
a g i v e n set o f adat r u l e s is modified a n d a d a p t e d u n d e r s u c h
circumstances.
STEPHEN F. S I E B E R T
D e p a r t m e n t o f N a t u r a l Resources
Cornell University
a.
INTRODUCTION
H i s t o r i c a l - c u l t u r a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s c o u l d b e made
comparatively o n - t w o sets o f e t h n i c groups, namely t h o s e
who were called Mardaheka ( f r e e ) g r o u p s a n d those called
Serah ( s e r f 1 g r o u p s . T h e f o r m e r include O t Danum, Sehiai,
Seyawai, Limbai, Ransa. Kenyilu, Iban, K u b i n , Tebidah,
Papak, all t h e Kebahan sub-groups, t h e r e w e r e autonomous,
whereas t h e l a t t e r , Lebang, Undau, Desa, Payak, Randu',
In t h e field, t o
Barai, w e r e b o u n d in a s o r t o f serfdom.
t h i s M a r d a h e k a I S e r a h opposition c o r r e s p o n d until t h i s d a y
s t r i k i n g oppositions in regional p h y s i o g r a p h y , a g r i c u l t u r a l
c o n d i t i o n s . . material c u l t u r e , habitat,
welfare and
demography.
R a t t a n ( r o t a n 1, t h e common name f o r c l i m b i n g palms i
t h e s u b f a m i l y Lepidocaryoideae, p l a y a p r o m i n e n t r o l e i
Indonesia's f o r e s t p r o d u c t t r a d e .
Average annual ratta
p r o d u c t i o n in I n d o n e s i a t o t a l s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 43,000 t o r
(Weles 19781, w h i c h places it second in v a l u e o n l y t o t i m b r
among f o r e s t p r o d u c t s . However, t h e r a t t a n t r a d e p r o b a b l
e m p l o y s a n d b e n e f i t s m o r e people t h a n does t h e timbc
i n d u s t r y ( D r a n s f i e l d 1981 d u e t o t h e l a b o r i n t e n s i v e n a t u r
o f r a t t a n g a t h e r i n g a n d t h e many t r a d e r s i n v o l v e d i
marketing.
In addition, r a t t a n i s a major s o u r c e o f cas
income f o r m a n y l o w l a n d f a r m e r s ( S i e b e r t a n d B e l s k y 1985
as well as f o r e s t d w e l l i n g households ( C o n e l l y 1985, Pelus
1983, Weinstock 1983 1.
R a t t a n p r o d u c t i o n in l ndonesia i
c e n t e r e d in Kalimantan ( D r a n s f i e l d 1981 a n d Sulawesi (Wele
1978).
"
e,
A s f o r l i n g u i s t i c s , t h e many Melayu dialects s p o k e n by
t h e D a y a k g r o u p s o f f e r a wide r a n g e o f reflexes, w h i l e t h e
languages o f t h e m i d d l e Melawi area (Serawai, Menukung,
Ela H i l i r B i s t r i c t s ) show, besides some s t r a n g e reflexes, a
number o f l e x i c a l p e c u l i a r i t i e s .
B I B L I O G R A P H Y : Bouman, M. A .
1924. " E t h n o g r a f i s c h e
a a n t e e k e n i n g e n o m t r e n t d e Gouvernements-landen in d e
boven-Kapoeas, Westerafdeeling v a n Borneo", Tijd. 64: 173195. Enthoven. J. J. K . 1903. B i j d r a q e n t o t d e Geoqraphie
v a n Borneo's Westerafdeeling, Leiden, B r i l l , 2 v o l . Kessel,
0. van. 1849-50. " S t a t i s t i e k e aanteekeningen o m t r e n t h e t
s t r o o m g e b i e d d e r r i v i e r Kapoeas ( Westerafdeeling van
Borneo)", l n d i s c h A r c h i e f , I, deel 11 :165-204. Naerssen, F.
M. v a n . 1951-52.
"Een streekonderzoek in
. . ~West-Borneo".
. --.
l ndonesie V : 133-166.
Veth, P. J
1854-56.
Borneo's
, Zaltbommel,
Wester-Afdeeling, Geographisch, S t a t i s t i s c h .
Joh. Noman e n Zoon, 2 vol.
.
~-
...
A
il
R e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e i s k n o w n a b o u t r a t t a n collection, t r a d
a n d systematics in Sulawesi ( D r a n s f i e l d 1981 ) . T h i s a r t i c l
p r o v i d e s a b r i e f s k e t c h o f r a t t a n collection a n d t r a n s p o r t
t h e v a r i e t i e s u t i l i z e d a n d t h e i r value, a n d t h e i n t e g r a t i o n c
r a t t a n gathering i n t o o t h e r household livelihood activities i
t w o v i l l a g e s in Sulawesi Selatan.
SETTING
T h i s s t u d y was c o n d u c t e d in t h e v i l l a g e o f Penchar
( 2 0 households), Masamb
D i s t r i c t , S u l a w e s i Selatan.
Penchara a n d t h e o u t l y i n
( 50 h o u s e h o l d s ) a n d Saloseba
* E d i t o r ' s Note:
T h i s a r t i c l e i s i n c l u d e d because o f it
valuable comparative material.
0
s
z o 2 m w U ; :
zpmLOsm;
-stm,J*-s
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z
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-
7 - g 3 a; 5
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2 ma am wa
X
I
T h i s area o f t h e East Kalimantan owes i t s u n i q u e character
i n p a r t t o t h e former sultanate o f Kutai, which originated i n
t h e d e l t a a n d c e n t r a l basin o f t h e Mahakam R i v e r and
developed f r o m a chiefdom i n t o a multi-ethnic a n d economically diverse state. T h e purpose o f t h i s a r t i c l e is t o show
t h e economic a n d social d i v e r s i t y o f t h e heartland o f t h e
East Kalimantan b y :
r a t t a n could.: 1 ) assure b u y e r s o f readily available, high
q u a l i t y canes o f desired varieties; 2 ) reduce t h e labor
r e q u i r e d t o t r a n s p o r t canes t o market and hence increase
t h e p r o f i t a b i l i t y f o r gathers/cultivators: 3) increase t h e
p r o d u c t i v i t y o f swidden fallows; and 4) hasten t h e r e t u r n o f
vegetative cover following cultivation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Special t h a n k s t o John Dransfield, Kew, England f o r
Herbarium specimens o f
i d e n t i f y i n g t h e r a t t a n specimens.
r a t t a n s named a r e a t Kew.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Conelly, W. T . 1985. I1Copal and r a t t a n
collecting i n t h e Philippines. l1 Economic Botany 39: 39-46.
Dransfield, J.
1981. T h e biology o f Asiatic rattans in
relation t o t h e r a t t a n t r a d e and conservation. In : H Synge
( e d . ) T h e Biological Aspects of Rare Plant Conservation.
John Wilev a n d Sons, Chichester,
pp. 177-186.
Peluso,
N. L. 1983. Markets and ~ e r c h a n t s i t h e Forest Products
T r a d e o f ,East K a l i m a n t a n in H i s t o r i c a l P e r s p e c t i v e .
U n ~ u b .M.S. thesis, Cornell University, Ithaca, N .Y. 246pp.
~ i e ' b e r t , S. .F. a n d J. M. Belsky. 1985. "Forest-Product
T r a d e i n a Lowland Filipino Village.:
Economic Botany
1983. Rattan: Ecological
39~522-533. Weinstock, J. A.
Balance in a Borneo Rainforest Swidden. Economic Botany
37:58-68.
Weles, S.
1978.
"Rattan:
a Minor Forest
P r o d u c t as a n I m p o r t a n t S o u r c e o f Income f o r Local
Communities in Indonesia. l1 Paper presented a t t h e E i g h t h
World F o r e s t r y Congress, Jakarta, October 16-28, 1978.
FID-11123-6.
6 pp.
I
giving a cross-sectional analysis o f t h e Central
1I
Mahakam population;
2)
3 ) t r a c i n g t h e evolution o f i t s economic a n d political
changes; a n d
.
4
ANDREAS W. MASSING
While much o f t h e ethnological l i t e r a t u r e on Borneo
focuses on t h e i n t e r i o r Dayak groups, v e r y l i t t l e attention
has been g i v e n t o t h e d i v e r s i t y o f t h e coastal lowlands.
assessing t h e c u r r e n t s t a t u s o f development in t h e
area.
I.
'
THE CENTRAL MAHAKAM BASIN
I N EAST-KALIMANTAN:
A SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY
i l l u s t r a t i n g i t s socio-economic integration;
Data Sources a n d Methodoloqy
Most o f t h e data presented h e r e a r e t h e r e s u l t o f f i e l d
s u r v e y s designed a n d executed f o r t h e Indonesian-German
East Kalimantan Transmigration Area Development ( T A D I
Program between 1979 a n d 1981.
Also included a r e data
from s u r v e y s u n d e r t a k e n t o help p r e p a r e t h e 1979-1984 Five
Year Development Plan ( REPLITA I1I 1.1
I
T h e F A 0 Farm Management Data Collection System f o r
Small F a r m e r D e v e l o p m e n t f o r m e d t h e b a s i s f o r one
questionnaire.
Questions were t r a n s l a t e d i n t o Indonesian
and a section on resource use was adapted t o local conditions. I n t e r v i e w s were stressed a t p l a n t i n g time ( t o measure
cleared and planted surfaces] a n d h a r v e s t ( t o obtain y i e l d s ) .
Selected variables f r o m t h i s questionnaire, such as seed
input, labor hours, f i e l d size, yields, and f a r m and off-farm
incomes. were pre-analyzed b y microcomputer. 2 Fields were
gauged w i t h compass a n d tapemeasure f o r a chain-contour
survey3, and surfaces were calculated b y planimeter and
c o m p u t e r 4 b e f o r e b e i n g entered in t h e questionnaires.
Yields estimated were obtained on t h e basis of farmers1
statements about t h e number o f local units5 harvested and
controlled weightings o f these u n i t s .
Adjustments were
made f o r t h e quantities o f h a r v e s t consumed, paid t o h i r e d
labor, o r r e s e r v e d f o r seed.
67
TABLE 2
Inhabitants and Surface Area
of Kutai and the Middle Mahakam
A second questionnaire was constructed t o elicit socioeconomic information on household composition. residence.
m a r r i a g e a n d divorce.
Together w i t h t h e h o r t i c u l t u r a l
i n f o r m a t i o n , these data were coded and submitted t o a
second computer analysis w i t h t h e SPSS program a t t h e
F r a n k f u r t U n i v e r s i t y UNIVAC computer.6 Sampling o f t h e
households was done i n t h r e e stages:
1)
Ecologically representative d i s t r i c t s were selected
f o r t h e central swamp and lake areas, t h e u p l a n d
r i v e r b a n k s o f t h e Mahakarn and i t s tributaries,
and t h e upland between t h e rivers, i n p a r t i c u l a r
t h e T u n j u n g Plateau. 7
2)
T h e t o t a l i t y o f villages i n each selected d i s t r i c t
was sampled. 8
3)
W i t h t h e help o f available census information, t e n
p e r c e n t o f t h e households in each village was
selected f o r interviewing.9
T h e following sampling rates were 0btained:lO
TABLE 1
Sample D i s t r i c t s
Kecamatan
-
IKecamatans) a n d Sampling Rates
Total
.
. Population*
No. ot
Houses*
Households
.Interviewed
Sampling
Percentage
Kecamatan
I
Long Iram
Kembang Janggut
Muara Ancalong
Muara Bengkal
Muara Kaman
Sebulu
Kota Bangun
Muara Muntai
Bongan
Jempang
Penyinggahan
Muara Pahu
Muara Lawa
Bentian Besar
Damai
Barong Tongkok
Melak
Kenohan-Kahala
Muara Wahau
TOTAL
REMAINDER OF KUTAI
Kota Bangun
Muara Muntai
Bengalon valley
Muara Wahau
Melak
B. Tongkok
Damai
Muara Lawa
Total
MIDDLE MAHAKAM AREA
75,384
14,927
878
5.9
*Source: Kantor Sensus dan Statistik and BAPPEDA, Hasil Registrasi Penduduk
Kalimantan Timur, Samarinda 1979/80.
mSsa''a
Bontang
Loa Janan
Loa Kulu
Long Apari
Long Bagun
Long Pahangai
Muara Badak
Sangkulirang
Tabang
Tenggarong
TOTAL KUTAI
Population
1971
Population
1980
Surface
in km2
Density
(1980)
I I.
Population
T h e major concentrations o f K u t a i a r e f o u n d in t h e
v i c i n i t y of Samarindall--kecamatans Loa K u l u a n d t h e o l d
capital o f Tenggarong--as well as i n t h e c e n t r a l lake basin.
A l o n g t h e u p p e r Mahakam a n d i t s t r i b u t a r i e s , population i s
sparse a n d p r o g r e s s i v e l y d r a i n s away t o w a r d t h e coastal
centers. T h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f population along t h e b a n k s i s
much h i g h e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e n e a r l y empty uplands. T h e
swamplands a r e u n i n h a b i t a b l e a n d unexploitable except by
fishermen living o n r a f t s a n d boats. T h e o n l y u p l a n d area
w i t h a r e l a t i v e l y dense population i s t h e T u n j u n g Plateau t o
t h e west o f t h e Mahakam a n d n o r t h o f t h e K e d a n g Pahu.
T o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e r e l a t i v e significance of these
sampling d i s t r i c t s w i t h i n t h e Middle Mahakam a n d Kutai,
Table Two p r o v i d e s area a n d population f i g u r e s f o r each
kecamatan. A s shown, t h e d i s t r i c t s sampled r e p r e s e n t 18
p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l a r e a a n d 20 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l
population o f Kutai; t h e y account f o r 37.3 p e r c e n t o f t h e
area a n d 41 p e r c e n t o f t h e population o f t h e e n t i r e M i d d l e
*
Mahakam.
If w e , c o m p a r e t h e s e f i g u r e s w i t h t h o s e f o r t h e
remaining k a b u p a t e n s o f East Kalimantan, we can see t h a t
t h e Middle Mahakam area a n d K u t a i account f o r 4 a n d 7.5
p e r c e n t o f t h e r e g i o n ' s t o t a l s u r f a c e a n d 18 a n d 37 p e r c e n t
of i t s total population, r e s p e c t i v e l y . (See T a b l e Three. 1
-
TABLE 3
I n h a b i t a n t s a n d S u r f a c e Area
of t h e Remaining East Kalimantan
~abupatenl
Kotamadya
Middle Mahakam
Kutai
Samarinda
Balikpapan
Pasir
Berau
Bulungan
TOTAL
Population 1980
183,324
372,148
214,839
248,277
74.150
38,712
159,537
Surface Area
45.984
91,056*
2,727
946
20,040
32,700
63,985
Density
4.0
4.1
78.8
262.5
3.7
1.2
2.5
I
I
While t h e coastal d i s t r i c t s a n d t h e t w o u r b a n r e g i o n s
of S a m a r i n d a a n d B a l i k p a p a n h a v e a l m o s t d o u b l e d i n
population since 1971, g r o w t h h a s s t a g n a t e d in most of t h e
Middle Mahakam. There, t h e birth r a t e b a r e l y compensates
f o r m i g r a t i o n t o o t h e r areas.
Due t o logging a c t i v i t y i n
some o f t h e h e a v i l y f o r e s t e d u p l a n d d i s t r i c t s , however, areas
s u c h as B a r o n g T o n g k o k a n d Melak h a v e e x p e r i e n c e d
temporary population surges.
I 11.
The Ethnic Setting
I
I
I
From t h e e t h n i c viewpoint, t h e lndonesian motto " u n i t y
in d i v e r s i t y " may a p p l y more a p t l y t o K u t a i a n d t h e M i d d l e
Mahakam t h a n t o a n y o t h e r l n d o n e s i a n r e g i o n .
The
t r a d i t i o n a l inhabitants, c o l l e c t i v e l y r e f e r r e d t o as Dayak, a r e
s e t t l e d o n t h e u p p e r courses a n d headwaters o f t h e r i v e r s as
well as t h e i n t e r - r i v e r i n e u p l a n d s . B y themselves, t h e y a r e
quite diverse.
T h e lower c o u r s e o f t h e Mahakam a n d i t s t r i b u t a r i e s
Kedang Kepala a n d Belayan w e r e colonized f r o m as e a r l y as
t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y by t h e Malay ancestors o f t h e p r e s e n t
oranq Kutai.
T h e Kutainese, who seem t o h a v e been
o r i g i n a l l y t h e o n l y i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e Mahakam delta.12
g r a d u a l l y w i t h d r e w i n l a n d t o evade t h e i n c u r s i o n s a n d r a i d s
o f Buqinese p i r a t e s .
S i n c e t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , these B u g i n e s e f r o m
s o u t h w e s t e r n S u l a w e s i g a i n e d c o n t r o l o v e r most o f t h e
s h i p p i n g r o u t e s t h r o u g h t h e Makassar S t r a i t s by e s t a b l i s h i n g
settlements along t h e east B o r n e o coast t o S u l u a n d Palawan
i n t h e Philippines.
F r o m t h e i r b r i d g e h e a d a t Samarinda,
t h e y c o n t r o l l e d t r a d e w i t h t h e i n t e r i o r o f Kutai;l3
since
t h e D u t c h administration, t h e y h a v e managed t o e s t a b l i s h
small settlements o f t r a d e r s in e v e r y major Kutainese town.
While Melak was t r a d i t i o n a l l y t h e i r l i m i t o f expansion, t h e
last fifty y e a r s h a v e seen t h e m f i l t e r e v e n f a r t h e r i n l a n d
t h r d u g h employment w i t h t h e l o g g i n g companies, w h e r e t h e y
often f i n d v i o l e n t c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e local Dayak population.
T h e l a k e area o f t h e C e n t r a l Mahakam B a s i n has, since
t h e late n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , become a n area o f colonization
f o r s e t t l e r s f r o m a n ecologically similar r e g i o n n e a r Amuntai
i n S o u t h Kalimantan. M u a r a M u n t a i l o r M u a r a A m u n t a i l i s
t h e center o f these o r a n q Banjar, who, l i k e t h e Kutainese
and Buginese. p r o f e s s t h e Islamic f a i t h .
A n estimate o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f e t h n i c a n d r e l i g i o u s
g r o u p s in t h e area c a n b e seen in T a b l e F i v e :
T h e most r e c e n t immigrants a r e t h e Javanese, w h o
a r r i v e d i n s m a l l n u m b e r s a f t e r World War II but h a v e
increased s u b s t a n t i a l l y since t h e e a r l y s i x t i e s d u e t o t h e
nation's t r a n s m i g r a t i o n p o l i c y . T h e y a r e mainly established
on t h e T u n j u n g Plateau.
TABLE 5
Distribution o f Ethnic Groups a n d Religion
i n t h e Sample
'
A n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e economic s t r u c t u r e o f t h e
area r e q u i r e s a k n o w l e d g e o f t h e d i f f e r e n t ecological n i c h e s
a n d economic r e s o u r c e s t r a d i t i o n a l l y e x p l o i t e d by t h e s e
groups:
1)
T h e Dayak ( a n d some Punan) who moved i n t o
K u t a i : a g r i c u l t u r a l uplands a n d f o r e s t s .
2)
T h e Malays o r Kutainese: Mahakam delta, f e r t i l e
b a n k s o f l o w e r r i v e r courses. a n d swamps.14
3)
T h e Banjarese:
as commercial middlemen,
t r a n s p o r t a n d t r a d e o p p o r t u n i t i e s w h i c h arose
f r o m . t n t e r n a l demand f o r f o r e i g n i m p o r t s (salt,
arms, c l o t h ) a n d e x t e r n a l d e m a n d f o r l o c a l
p r o d u c t s ( g o l d , wood, rotan, r u b b e r 1 .
One r e s u l t o f t h i s economic a n d ecological specializat i o n was a n economic stratification. w i t h t h e Buginese a n d
Banjarese a t l h e u p p e r e n d o f t h e scale a n d t h e Kutainese
a n d v a r i o u s Da*k g r o u p s a t t h e bottom. While income d a t a
a l o n e c a n o n l y i n c o m p l e t e l y r e f l e c t political a n d social
influences, t h e i n f o r m a t i o n p r o v i d e d b y t h e s u r v e y s c l e a r l y
s u p p o r t s t h i s conclusion.
T h e f o l l o w i n g e t h n i c g r o u p s were i n c l u d e d in t h e
sample:
T A B L E 4.
E t h n i c C r o u p s Represented i n K u t a i
Kutainese
Banjarese
Buginese
Javanese
Dayak B e n u a q I B e n t i a n
Dayak T u n j u n g
Dajak Bahau
Dajak Modang
Dajak Kayan
Dajak
Dajak
Dajak
Dajak
Dajak
Basap
Kenyah
Penihing
Saputan
L o n g Glat
I
'
Ethnic
Croup
No.
%
Benuaq
Tunjung
Modang
Bahau
Kutai
Java
Banjar
Bugis
Others
121
160
24
14
74
36
51
18
9
23.9
31.6
4.7
2.8
14.6
7.1
10.1
3.6
1.8
Total
507
100.1
Religion
No.
%
Islamic
Catholic
Protestant
Animist
Unknown*
150
21
141
181
29.6
4.1
2.8
27.8
35.7
507
100.0
14
* T h e q u e s t i o n f o r r e l i g i o n was o n l y l a t e r added t o t h e
questionnaire.
Due t o t h e fact t h a t t h e s u r v e y covered principally
r u r a l d i s t r i c t s . t h e t o w n populations o f Kutainese, Banjar
a n d B u g i n e s e a r e somewhat u n d e r - r e p r e s e n t e d .
,
T h e professional s t r u c t u r e o f t h e population is
T h e Dayak a n d Javanese a r e
i l l u s t r a t e d in T a b l e S i x .
p r i n c i p a l l y farmers. T h e Kutainese a n d Banjarese c o n t a i n a
r a t h e r h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n o f a r t i s a n a n d commercial p r o f e s s ions.
T h e g r e a t percentage o f h i g h e r - l e v e l p r o f e s s i o n s
among t h e T u n j u n g appears t o b e d u e t o t h e i n f l u e n c e o f
t h e Catholic mission a t T e r i n g , w h i c h has o p e r a t e d a school
a n d a hospital since 1918.
T h e i m p l i c i t economic s t r a t i f i c a t i o n among ethnic
g r o u p s reappears when we compare t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s of
professions w i t h incomes:
T h e income d i f f e r e n t i a l s among e t h n i c g r o u p s c a n b e
a c c o u n t e d f o r m a i n l y by t h e economic a n d professional
specializations p r e v a i l i n g i n each g r o u p . Thus, t h e r e l a t i v e l y
23.9
Benuaq
31.6
Tunjung
I
4.6
Modang
2.8
Bahau
14.6
Kutai
Note:
n.d.
296
338
Modang
455
-
515
-
489
553
Bahau
633
266
333
857
389
548
Kutai
-
-
592
650
215
317
Java
7.1
10.1
3.8
Bugis
461
n.d.
343
467
765
378
n.d.
-
450
n.d.
-
774
489
Bugis
Banjar
Banjar
Java
In 1979180 Rp. 100,000 were equal to US$160.
Data were omitted where the number of cases was zero or too insignificant to gave
meaningful means.
data not computed.
n.d.
-
310
462
359
353
753
573
645
609
247
328
Farmers
Fishermen
Traders
Artisans
Workers
Employees
Professionals
300
368
Mean Income
Tunjung
Benuaq
Profession
TABLE 7
Mean Total Income by Ethncity and Profession
;>Includes transporters and food processors for local markets
;'Wakers, butchers, smiths, mechanics, carpenters, masons and tailors
**>'+iainly workers of logging enterprises
:'i:'ct:tMainlyvillage chiefs and administrative personnel
w:rk.:i::Teachers and Nurses
Percent
Total
Farmers
Fishermen
Traders*
Artisansfat
Workers>'d:>t
Gov. Employees*'w
Professiona1s"~':"d~t
Rotan Collect.
Profession
TABLE 6
Professions by Ethnic Groups
1.8
Other
h i g h average ihcomes o f t h e Buginese, B a n j a r a n d Kutainese
a r e d u e t o t h e i r r e l a t i v e l y high percentage o f t r a d e r s a n d
government officials; o n t h e o t h e r hand, t h e low average
incomes o f t h e Javanese, Benuaq, T u n j u n g a n d Modang a r e
d u e t o t h e i r r e l a t i v e l y h i g h e r percentage o f farmers. O n l y
t h e Bahau, who claim a l a r g e number o f wood sellers a n d
l o g g i n g c o m p a n y employees, make an exception.
The
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f e t h n i c g r o u p s b y income b r a c k e t i n Table
E i g h t below u n d e r s c o r e s t h i s p o i n t .
I
/
1
T h i s t a b l e indicates t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f income i s
truly skewed among t h e t r i b e s . Whereas o n l y 27 p e r c e n t o f
a l l sample households fall i n t o t h e h i g h e s t income class, t h e
Buginese may consider 83 p e r c e n t o f t h e i r households w i t h i n
t h i s r a n g e a n d t h e Kutainese. Banjarese a n d Bahau some 40
p e r c e n t o f t h e i r s . However, 39 p e r c e n t o f Javanese a n d 35
p e r c e n t o f Benuaq a n d T u n j u n g e a r n i n g s f a l l w i t h i n t h e
r a n g e o f less t h a n Rp. 500,000 ( U . S . $800 in 1980) p e r
annum.
Again, t h i s seems d u e t o t h e high p r o p o r t i o n o f
incomes f r o m p r i m a r y a c t i v i t i e s among t h e Javanese, Benuaq
a n d T u n j u n g , compared t o t h e more predominant t e r t i a r y
a c t i v i t i e s among f h e o r a n g Bugis, Kutai, B a n j a r a n d Bahau.
It s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t t h e above f i g u r e s r e f e r o n l y t o total
income, while t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f o f f - f a r m e a r n i n g s t o total
income v a r i e s c o n s i d e r a b l y f r o m t r i b e t o t r i b e a n d f r o m one
g e o g r a p h i c location t o another.
It seems t o b e these o f f f a r m e a r n i n g s w h i c h a r e t h e major f a c t o r a c c o u n t i n g f o r
d i s t i n c t i o n s (n t h e average incomes o f d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s .
IV.
T h e Reqional Economy
W h i l e some o f t h e indigenous t r i b e s ( i n c l u d i n g t h e
Banjarese. l a t e r i m m i g r a n t s ) e x p l o i t a specific h a b i t a t a n d
ecological niche, t h e r e a r e g r o u p s s u c h as t h e Buginese a n d
Kenyah ( r e c e n t s e t t l e r s i n K u t a i ) who a r e s p r e a d o v e r t h e
e n t i r e Mahakam area.
Therefore, regional environments
h a v e a g r e a t e r i n f l u e n c e t h a n e t h n i c o r i g i n s o n t h e economic a c t i v i t i e s o f a population.
T h i s implies t h a t d i f f e r e n t
e t h n i c g r o u p s s e t t l i n g in t h e same r e g i o n e x h i b i t more
economic s i m i l a r i t i e s t h a n members o f t h e same e t h n i c
g r o u p s in d i f f e r e n t regions. A s h o r t characterization o f t h e
main d i s t i n c t e n v i r o n m e n t s a n d t h e i r c o r r e s p o n d i n g f a r m i n g
systems follows :
t
b
,
,
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
lA
3
5
u.4
O* On O
, 0,
s o o o o
a
s
Z l X
0
a
U
c
C
.d
H -
r m o m m
o ~ m r - r c
4
I
1
r
1
l
N
1
r
l
$O
m m 0 . n
.-tr(e~mm
1)
I n t h e u p l a n d forests between r i v e r s , r a i n f e d
u p l a n d l a d a n q , o c c a s i o n a l l y supplemented by
vegetable g a r d e n i n g :
2)
O n t h e r i v e r banks, r a i n f e d l a d a n q o n r i v e r
levees. supplemented b y vegetable gardening;
31
I n , t h e c e n t r a l swamp a n d lake areas, sawah r i c e
c u l t i v a t i o n ( a c t u a l l y called rapak i n Kalimantan t o
d i s t i n g u i s h it f r o m man-made sawah f i e l d s ) ; a
v a r i a n t o f t h i s i s f l o o d recession c u l t i v a t i o n o n
t h e l a k e shores.
A.
t h e s e f i r m s have appropriated t h e land from i t s former
o w n e r s - - u s u a l l y b y g o v e r n m e n t nationalization a n d t h e
s u b s e q u e n t c a r v i n g up o f concessions--and a r e n o t w i l l i n g t o
r e c o g n i z e t h e l a n d r i g h t s o f t h e local p o p u l a t i o n w h i c h
c o u l d , g i v e n s u f f i c i e n t c a p i t a l a n d know-how, e n s u r e a
" r a t i o n a l e x p l o i t a t i o n " also.
Neither governments nor
concessionnaires compensate t h e t r a d i t i o n a l landowners f o r
t h e l o s s o f fallow area by a p r o p o r t i o n a t e p r o v i s i o n o f
m o d e r n i n p u t s t o permit t h e transition from s h i f t i n g t o
stable a n d more i n t e n s i f i e d farming; t h e concessionnaires
can o f t e n o n l y o p e r a t e p r o f i t a b l y because t h e local populat i o n i s d e s i g n e d as a r e s e r v e o f cheap l a b o r .
I
I
I
T h e t e c h n o l o g y o f t h e u p l a n d l a d a n g system r e l i e s o n
manual l a b o r a n d h a n d tools: t h e mandau o r p a r a n q i s used
f o r c u t t i n g underbrush, t h e k a p a E ) f o r felling large
trees, t h e t u g a l f o r p l a n t i n g . a n d t h e lingga, a small hoe,
f o r weeding. F i n g e r - k n i v e s a r e u s e d t o c u t t h e panicles a t
harvest.
Rainfed U p l a n d L a d a n q
T h i s f a r m i n g system s t i l l occupies t h e g r e a t e s t s u r f a c e
i n Kutai: 37.257 hectares i n 1980, according t o t h e o f f i c i a l
s t a t i s t i c s . 15 Ladan r e f e r s t o t h e t y p e of s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n f o u n d g l o a l l y i n t r o p - i c a l f o r e s t areas, in w h i c h
c l e a r i n g u n d e r b r u s h , f e l l i n g trees, b u r n i n g dry matter,
p l a n t i n g , weeding, a n d h a r v e s t i n g a r e t h e essential t a s k s .
_b9
As a f a r m i n g system it i s extensive, economizing o n
labor, t h e scarcest f a c t o r in t r a d i t i o n a l society, a n d u t i l i z i n g
It i s
g r e a t q u a n t i t i e s o f t h e more a b u n d a n t factor, land.
t h e o n l y a l t e r n a t i v e t o f a r m e r s who lack capital t o o b t a i n
other inputs.
T h e system i s stable u p t o population densities o f
t w e n t y i n h a b i t a n t s p e r s q u a r e kilometer. Within t h a t area,
f a r m e r s c a n maintain s u f f i c i e n t l y l o n g fallow periods t o
r e s t o r e soil f e r t i l i t y ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y e i g h t t o t w e l v e y e a r s 1 .16
Walking distance between village a n d f i e l d s also keeps t h e
system confined:
w h e n t h e distance t o t h e f i e l d becomes
too great, f a r m e r s move back t o o l d e r fallow patches n e a r e r
t h e i r homes.
O n l y when p r e s s u r e i s e x e r t e d f r o m t h e
outside, e.g. b y l o g g i n g a n d plantations, w h i c h u s u a l l y
reduce t h e c u l t i v a b l e area w i t h . t h e i r roads a n d large-scale
clearing, does t h e system degenerate.
I n s u f f i c i e n t fallow
periods a n d soil depletion a r e c r u c i a l .
C r i t i c s o f t h e l a d a n g system u s u a l l y c o n t r a s t t h e wides p r e a d d e s t r u c t i o n o f valuable f o r e s t b y t h e indigenous
population w i t h t h e "more rational" exploitation b y l o g g i n g
o r plantation companies. T h e y t e n d t o i g n o r e t.he f a c t t h a t
b
'
While it r e q u i r e s more l a b o r f o r l a n d - p r e p a r a t i o n t h a n
t h e sawah system, t h e r a i n f e d ladang system r e q u i r e s l i t t l e
labor f o r weeding, p l a n t i n g a n d h a r v e s t i n g . If t h e i n i t i a l
labor investments i n sawah f o r i r r i g a t i o n development were
always included, t h e f i g u r e f o r l a b o r i n d i c a t e d i n T a b l e Nine
In t h e Mahakam area, t h e
below w o u l d b e e v e n h i g h e r .
d e v e l o p m e n t o f sawah i n c l u d e s a n a d d i t i o n a l c l e a r i n g o f
f o r e s t in a swamp, w h i c h c o u l d n o t b e r e f l e c t e d by o u r
data, s i n c e it r e c o r d e d o n l y annual l a b o r i n p u t s . I n i t s p u r e
form, t h e ladang f i e l d i s u s u a l l y abandoned a f t e r one o r t w o
c r o p p i n g seasons. T h e decline o f soil f e r t i l i t y may n o t b e
d u e t o t h e loss o f soil n u t r i e n t s alone. but also d u e t o
i n c r e a s i n g competition f r o m weeds a n d a h i g h e r p e s t i n c i dence-17 T h i s w o u l d s u g g e s t t h a t a n i m p r o v e d t e c h n o l o g y
f o r weeding a n d disease c o n t r o l w o u l d make a n i m p o r t a n t
c o n t r i b u t i o n t o w a r d s i n t e n s i f y i n g t h e system a n d allowing
ladang f a r m e r s t o o b t a i n h i g h e r yields. T h i s i s i n d e e d f o u n d
o n t h e T u n j u n g Plateau, w h e r e t h e local T u n j u n g , u n d e r t h e
i n f l u e n c e o f Javanese t r a n s m i g r a n t s , h a v e b e g u n t o p r a c t i c e
a g r a s s fallow o f f o u r years, f o l l o w e d by t h r e e y e a r s of
c r o p p i n g . T h e c r o p p i n g c y c l e now i n v o l v e s p l o u g h i n g in o f
grass. manuring, a n d o x e n - a i d e d c u l t i v a t i o n . F a r m e r s r e p o r t
y i e l d s o f e i g h t y times t h e amount o f seed p l a n t e d in t h e
f i r s t year, s i x t y times in t h e second a n d f o r t y t o f i f t y times
i n t h e t h i r d s year.
T h e main c r o p p i n g season coincides w i t h t h e r a i n y
season, musim timur, between A u g u s t a n d March. T h e dry
season, musim kemarau, f r o m A p r i l t o August, i s u s u a l l y
used o n l y f o r vegetable g a r d e n i n g near t h e r i v e r a n d o f f farm activities.
B.
1
.5
Rainfed F a r m i n q o n R i v e r Levees
T h e a l l u v i a l b a n k s o f t h e major r i v e r s , w h i c h a r e
h i g h t e r t h a n t h e f l a t l a n d b e h i n d them, f o r m a f e r t i l e
t h o u g h l i m i t e d a n d r i s k y area f o r farming.
The town
populations along t h e Mahakam h a v e been mainly r e s p o n s i b l e
f o r b r i n g i n g most o f t h e b a n k s u n d e r i n t e n s i v e c u l t i v a t i o n .
R i c e i n t e r c r o p p e d w i t h maize, pumpkin, a n d beans i s
c u l t i v a t e d f o r t w o years, followed by semi-perennial c r o p s
s u c h as cassava a n d bananas, a n d perennial t r e e c r o p s
(coconut. j a c k f r u i t , papaya, b r e a d f r u i t , kapok a n d r u b b e r 1
T h e t r e e c r o p s a r e cleared again a f t e r about 25 y e a r s in t h e
less populated areas. Permanent c r o p p i n g i s common a r o u n d
t h e towns: r i c e i n t h e main r a i n y season a n d vegetables in
t h e dry season-- i n c l u d i n g cassava, squash, s t r i n g beans.
melons, sweet potatoes, eggplant, cucumbers a n d chillies.
2
j
t:h
m
-
-
"$ -2
30 2
?
N
4 9
d
d r l
rn3
O m
(1
r n m
F-
a - f
N
O
r
n
N
-
f
-
7
O D @ ? < ?
d
.rl
H W
M
1
.
C.
4
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I
m
9
3;
2 2-
-
2s
2.
o
4
;
c
;
i
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3g
m
. .
m o
N
4
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3
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"7
Y 1 - f
I
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,
Q
N
,
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O
;
m
D
f
c
.
N
swamp Rice C u l t i v a t i o n
In c o n t r a s t t o B a l i a n d Java where r i c e c u l t i v a t i o n i s
made possible by i r r i g a t i o n . successful c u l t i v a t i o n o f r i c e i n
t h e lowlands o f Kalimantan r e q u i r e s d r a i n a g e techniques a n d
i s p r a c t i c e d i n n a t u r a l swamps b e h i n d t h e r i v e r levees a n d
i n r i v e r deltas. Here, t h e local population has cleared t h e
i n i t i a l pole swamp f o r e s t a n d d r a i n e d t h e f l o o d water by
digging canals. T h e most i n t e n s i v e swamp r i c e c u l t i v a t i o n
i n East Kalimantan o c c u r s in t h e Mahakam delta, a r o u n d
Muara Muntai a n d t h e Bongan delta, as well as t o t h e s o u t h
o f Kota B a n g u n .
Besides i n i t i a l f o r e s t clearing, t h e establishment o f
nurseries, a n d t r a n s p l a n t i n g , weeding, a n d h a r v e s t i n g make
t h i s f a r m i n g system somewhat more labor-intensive t h a n
ladang. T o t a l area u n d e r t h i s t y p e o f cultivation, i s said t o
b e 17,000 hectares; it i s n o t c e r t a i n whether r i v e r b a n k
f a r m i n g i s i n c l u d e d in t h e s e statistics.
Table N i n e below o f f e r s a comparison o f t h e economic
coefficients o f t h e s e t h r e e f a r m i n g systems. Due t o v a r i a b l e
ij
a
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w O O I ) "i, 3.E
settlements s i t u a t e d in t h e h i n t e r l a n d a r e s t r i k i n g .
In
villages s u c h as M e l i n t a n g a n d Jantur, w h i c h d e p e n d m a i n l y
upon fishing, t h e average income g e n e r a l l y exceeds Rp.
500,000 p e r annum. In t h e r i v e r i n e populations o f t h e lake
d i s t r i c t s , b o t h f a r m a n d non-farm incomes a r e h i g h e r t h a n
i n t h e i n l a n d communities, but off-farm incomes remain t h e
most c r u c i a l s o u r c e o f sustenance. O n l y i n Melak, w h i c h i s
outside t h e c e n t r a l l a k e area, a r e t h e o f f - f a r m e a r n i n g s of
t h e i n l a n d villages h i g h e r t h a n those o f t h e r i v e r i n e v i l lages.
Again,, f o r b o t h t y p e s o f community, t h e y exceed
f a r m incomes.
a n d c h i l d r e n p e r f a m i l y among t h e i n d i g e n o u s g r o u p s i s
r e l a t e d t o a p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y g r e a t e r n e g l e c t by g o v e r n m e n t
programs a n d a s u b s e q u e n t l y h i g h e r i n f a n t m o r t a l i t y .
T h e i n f l u e n c e o f access t o b a s i c s e r v i c e s a n d e d u c a t i o n
i s also clear in a T A D s u r v e y o n r u r a l women in t h e c e n t r a l
Mahakam area :
LI
i
T A B L E 11
A v e r a g e F a r m a n d Off-Fai-m l ncomes
f o r R i v e r i n e a n d I n l a n d Communities
Average Farm A v e r a g e O f f -Farm
l ncome
lncome
Kota B a n g u n r i v e r
Kota B a n g u n .island
124,147
116,542
278,890
122,674
Muara Muntal v i v e r
Muara Muntal i s l a n d
323,481
108,770
408,591
353,247
Geographic isolation f r o m t h e p r o v i n c i a l a n d r e g i o n a l
capitals i s a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r in c h i l d m o r t a l i t y in t h e
Mahakam area. T h e Kutainese, B u g i n e s e a n d B a n j a r e s e w h o
l i v e in u r b a n c e n t e r s a l o n g t h e r i v e r ( K o t a Bangun, M u a r a
M u n t a i a n d M e l a k ) h a v e a m u c h b e t t e r access t o d i s p e n s a r i e s a n d h e a l t h c a r e t h a n t h e populations l i v i n g
h u n d r e d s o f kilometers up some o f t h e t r i b u t a r i e s o r e v e n in
t h e b u s h l i k e t h e Basap, Punan a n d Bentian.
Melak r i v e r
Melak i s l a n d
V.
Socio-Economic s t r u c t u r e s
While t h e C e n t r a l Mahakam r e g i o n presents a unified,
i n t e g r a t e d economy in t h e sense t h a t d i v e r s e e t h n i c a n d
socioeconomic g r o u p s c o o p e r a t e i n t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f
d i f f e r e n t environments, i t s c u l t u r a l a n d social d i v e r s i t y
should n o t b e neglected. Therefore, t h i s section w i l l d i s c u s s
social s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e d i f f e r e n t e t h n i c groups, a c c o r d i n g t o
t h e data f r o m t h e s u r v e y s . T h e discussion w i l l concentrate
o n f a m i l y / h o u s e h o l d composition; socio-political s t r u c t u r e
and
&.
Table T w e l v e g i v e s a summary comparison o f t h e family
s t r u c t u r e o f v a r i o u s e t h n i c g r o u p s . While t h e d i s t i n c t i o n s
m i g h t b e d u e in p a r t t o biological differences. t h e y also
c l e a r l y stem f r o m d i f f e r e n c e s i n wealth a n d access t o h e a l t h
a n d education. T h e m u c h lower number o f b i r t h s p e r woman
T h e t i e s between maternal education a n d c h i l d s u r v i v a l
can b e v e r y close. T h e women o f t h e B e n u a q village, who
were 97.5 p e r c e n t illiterate, l o s t by f a r t h e g r e a t e s t n u m b e r
of children.
T h e Javanese a n d K u t a i - B a n j a r women, who
f a r e d much b e t t e r , w e r e 77.5 p e r c e n t a n d 27.5 p e r c e n t
illiterate, respectively.
O f t h e t w o T u n j u n g villages
surveyed, t h e one i n w h i c h fifty p e r c e n t o f t h e women h a d
s i x o r more y e a r s o f schooling e x p e r i e n c e d a r e l a t i v e l y low
c h i l d m o r t a l i t y o f 11.4 percent: t h e other, w h e r e o n l y
t w e n t y p e r c e n t o f women h a d a t t a i n e d t h a t level, l o s t a
t o t a l o f 16 p e r c e n t .
I
T h e T A D H e a l t h a n d N u t r i t i o n S u r v e y o f 1980, w h i c h
u n f o r t u n a t e l y m a k e s n o b r e a k d o w n o f e t h n i c o r socioeconomic groups, r e p o r t e d t h e f o l l o w i n g :
1)
high i n c i d e n c e o f anemia,
women;
2)
h i g h i n c i d e n c e s o f malaria, i n t e s t i n a l p a r a s i t e
infections, diarrhoea, a n d ear-eye infections:
3)
a high i n f a n t m o r t a l i t y r a t e (43 d e a t h s b e f o r e t h e
f i r s t y e a r p e r 1,000): a n d
4)
a high d e g r e e o f m a l n u t r i t i o n in c h i l d r e n u n d e r
f i v e ( 6 0 p e r c e n t malnourished a n d 8 percent
severely malnourished 1 .
p a r t i c u l a r l y among
.
2.59
2.7
2.81
3.02
3.0
3.53
2.9
No. of
Adults
5.3
4.8
4.3
5.0
3.1
0.71
Avg. Age at
First Pregnancy
TABLE 13
Child-Bearing and Marital Statistics
for Rural Mothers
(TAD Survey)
1.14
2.18
1.71
1.7
2.13
1.45
1.78
1.8
1.56
1.6
1.64
1.47
0.86
Ave. No. of
Live Children/
Woman
Pct. of Women
Married Below 16
Avg. No. of
Dead Children
4.0
3.0
3.1
2.7
2.0
2.5
No. of
Daughters
No. of
Sons
Pct. of Death Among
All Children Born .
3.39
3.06
2.88
2.86
2.86
2.47
2.04
No. of
Children
*Of which 92 percent between 0 and 5 years, and none by stillbirth
Kutai-Banjar
Javanese
Tunjung
Benuaq
Avg. No. of Births
per Married Woman
5.98
6.03
6.0
6.16
5.86
6.1
4.95
Total Family
Size
Ethnic
Groups
Banjarese
Javanese
Buginese
Tunjung
Bahau
Benuaq
Modang
Ethnic
Group
TABLE 12
Household and Fmaily Structure and Fertility
1
C h i l d d e l i v e r y i s mostly handled b y t r a d i t i o n a l midwives
o r curers.
Among t h e indigenous Dayak groups. c u r i n g
ceremonies17
a r e f r e q u e n t even t h o u g h v i s i t s t o r u r a l
h e a l t h c e n t e r s o r missionary hospitals a r e becoming more
common.
I
I
T h e g r e a t e r access t o services enjoyed by t h e r i v e r i n e
a n d immigrant populations includes education; r e l e v a n t d a t a
f r o m t h e s u r v e y s h a v e n o t y e t been analyzed q u a n t i t a t i v e l y ,
however.
VI
.
1
A d a t and' Socio-Political S t r u c t u r e s
A.
Kutainese
As t h e Kutainese population has blended indigenous
w i t h immigrant Malay-Moslem elements o v e r t h e centuries,
t h e adat shows a m i x t u r e o f t r a d i t i o n a l a n d Islamic customs
a n d laws. Whereas all Kutainese a r e o f f i c i a l l y o r a n g Islam,
f o l k e l e m e n t s s u c h a s t h e widespread- belief in g h o s t s
( h a n t u ) a n d t h e occasional p r a c t i c e o f shamanistic ceremon w b e l i a n ) c o n t i n u e t o influence e v e r y d a y behavior. A l o n g
t h e Bengalon., Jembayan, Bongan a n d Ohang r i v e r s , a n d in
K o t a B a n g u n , I was t o l d t h a t t h e Basap, Benuaq a n d
T u n j u n g , r e c e n t l y c o n v e r t e d t o lslam (masuk aqama Islam),
were now considered o r a n g K u t a i . T h e camat o f Bongan
even r e f u s e d t o admit t h a t t h e r e were any Dayak villages i n
h i s kecamatan, but l a t e r conceded t h a t on t h e U p p e r Kedang
Kanan t h e population mixed w i t h o r a n q Pasir, i.e., Lawangan
Dayak. In 1905 K n a p p e r t n o t e d Benoewa ( Benuaq ) Dayaks a t
Muara Siram. "who b e l o n g , t o t h e same t r i b e as those who
l i v e o n t h e Kedang Pahu,I1.l8
F a r t h e r upstream, near
Lemper. h e met Lawangan-Dayaks b e l o n g i n g t o t h e same
t r i b e as t h e Lawangan on t h e u p p e r Ajoe ( S u n g a i Ajuh,
Kabutapen T a b a l o n g ) . O n t h e Kedang K i r i h e f o u n d a n o t h e r
Benoewa settlement a t T u l a a n d t w o Baou-Dayak settlements
a t B a o e N o e n g a a n d B a o e Goesi (Muara Gusiq?), who
o r i g i n a t e d f r o m t a n a h Baoe i n Kabupaten Tabalong. Some o f
t h e T u l a Dayaks h a d c o n v e r t e d t o lslam o n l y recently; t o d a y
t h e y a r e called o r a n g Kutai. In Kecamatan Kota Bangun, I
v i s i t e d a non-Islamic v i l l a g e o f so-called o r a n g K u t a i who
a d h e r e d t o adat lawas ( t r a d i t i o n a l a d a t ) a n d h a d occasion t o
witness a n e n t i r e night o f belian r i t u a l .
I
I
I
Some 150 y e a r s ago, t h e s u l t a n a t e o f K u t a i ended a t
M u a r a P a h u i g , t w o - t h i r d s of whose i n h a b i t a n t s were
Dayak.20
B e y o n d t h i s t e r r i t o r y e x t e n d e d t h e l a n d s of
i n d e p e n d e n t Dayak t r i b e s a n d t h e i r chiefs, w i t h whom t h e
sultan established treaties.
While claiming a formal
s o v e r e i g n t y o v e r t h e s e areas, h e made n o a t t e m p t t o e n f o r c e
an annual t r i b u t e o f chiefs' c h i l d r e n , a method u s e d in
conjunction w i t h c u t t i n g o f f salt supplies t o control t h e
leaders of t h e i n t e r i o r . 2 1 D i r e c t rule, t h r o u g h t h e s u l t a n ' s
b r o t h e r s o r sons, was e x e r t e d o n l y in t h e main Kutainese
d i s t r i c t s ( M u a r a Kaman, Kota Bangun, M u a r a Pahu P a n t u n 1,
t h e Mahakam d e l t a heartland, a n d t h e coastal d i s t r i c t s o f
B o n t a n g a n d S a n g k u l i r a n g . These i n t e r i o r d i s t r i c t s c o n s i s t e d
of v i l l a g e - p o l i t i e s w h i c h b e c a m e i m p o r t a n t as r e g i o n a l
commercial c e n t e r s a n d o u t l e t s o f i n t e r i o r r i v e r s .
They
were i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e K u t a i s u l t a n a t e as remnants o f t h e
i n t e r i o r k i n g d o m o f K u t a i M a r t a p u r a a t M u a r a Kaman in t h e
seventeenth century.
lslam came f r o m Makassar, w h e r e it
was i n t r o d u c e d i n 1605, a n d w i t h it came t h e B u g i n e s e a n d
p r o b a b l y o t h e r Moslem t r a d e r s . 22
T h e p r e s e n t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n was i n s t a l l e d o n l y in 1960
when K u t a i became a Kabutapen f o l l o w i n g i t s s t a t u s as a
Daerah lstimewa ( special r e g i o n 1950-1959) a n d an independ e n t s e l f - g o v e r n i n g s u l t a n a t e ( 1902-1950).
Under the old
sultanate, t h e r u r a l i n l a n d d i s t r i c t s w e r e s u p e r v i s e d by
noblemen, p a n q e r a n s who w e r e f r e q u e n t l y p r i n c e s o f t h e
r o y a l d y n a s t y . T h e i r n u m b e r was r e d u c e d t o f o u r i n 1901
b y t h e c o n t r a c t w i t h t h e D u t c h government and they
formed, t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e sultan, t h e s u p r e m e g o v e r n m e n t
council. 23
In t h e v i l l a g e communities a l o n g t h e Mahakam River,
mantries r e p r e s e n t e d t h e s u l t a n f o r t h e community. T h e y
w e r e a s s i s t e d by l e g a l o f f i c i a l s ( j a k s a s ) in t h e l a r g e r
d i s t r i c t s s u c h as Ancalong, M u a r a Pahu. a n d Melak.24 In
Kota Bangun, T e n g g a r o n g a n d Samarinda, r e g i o n a l c o u r t s
administered t h e law. These local o f f i c i a l s h a d t h e right t o
claim labor f o r t h e i r fields, boats, a n d houses in r e t u r n f o r
t h e i r services. T h e y also e n j o y e d p a r t o f t h e t r a d e levies
collected o n b e h a l f o f t h e s u l t a n .
A t a n e v e n l o w e r l e v e l . t h e k a m p o n g was a n d i s
g o v e r n e d b y t r a d i t i o n a l elders; t h e y w e r e called p e t i n w i ,
penqawas, o r ketua, a n d f r e q u e n t l y a w a r d e d h o n o r i f i c t i t l e s
$
88
b y t h e sultan such as Raden, Tumenqqunq, and Kiai. T h e y
were responsible f o r t h e collection o f head taxes, receiving
Currently. these
eight percent o f t h e amount raised.25
kepala kampunq a r e officials w i t h a monthly salary of 15,000
RP.
1
1
I
I
I n p r e - D u t c h times, t h e sultan i n Tenggarong administered government t h r o u g h t h r e e officials: t h e Adipati ( a
Pangeran Ratu d u r i n g t h e nineteenth century), t h e Firdana
Mantri, and a Senopati.26
T h e last was responsible f o r
peace and o r d e r a n d hence t h e commander o f t h e army
(panqlima). T h e second was apparently a senior advisor in
foreign and i n t e r i o r affairs, while t h e f i r s t was t h e r e p r e sentative ( w a k i l ) of t h e sultan in h i s absence a n d could t a k e
c o n t r o l on h i s behalf should h e become incapacitated.27
T h e sultan's revenues consisted traditionally o f e x p o r t and
import duties on f i v e percent on all goods; customs duties
on p r o d u c t s f r o m t h e interior; a salt monopoly; head taxes
f r o m K u t a i n e s e a n d Dayak subjects: royalties f r o m t h e
A f t e r 1890, these
leasing of b i r d - n e s t caves; a n d fines.
sources were supplemented by royalties f r o m t h e o i l a n d
coal concessions o f D u t c h companies. 28
B.
-
i
I
1
,
,
I
1
faith.
Not content t o enjoy h i s economic wealth alone, a
B u g i s t r a d e r w i l l always t r y t o c o n v e r t h i s financis1 position
i n t o an enhanced social one by becoming a Haji o r making
a t least one pilgrimage.
Formerly, these voyages were
occasions f o r trade, b u t it appears t h a t now few goods
besides personal souvenirs f i n d t h e i r way f r o m Arabia t o
Kutai.
C.
1
,
Banjarese
People f r o m southern Kalimantan have come t o Kutai
i n various waves since t h e e a r l y nineteenth c e n t u r y . One o f
t h e main t r a d e routes between t h e Mahakam a n d B a r i t o
basins, where g o l d a n d b i r d s ' nests were traded, followed
t h e Banangan, Kias, Bentian, a n d Pahu; another l e d along
t h e Lahei a n d Pari t o t h e u p p e r Pahu.32
T r a d e r s were
o r i g i n a l l y Dayak f r o m t h e Barito--Taboyan o r Lawangan-who d u r i n g t h e nineteenth c e n t u r y converted t o Islam a n d
began t o i d e n t i f y themselves w i t h t h e Bakumpei a n d speak
t h e i r language. T h i s seems t o b e t h e case w i t h t h e o r a n g
Banjar o f Muara Lawa. Those s e t t l i n g in t h e lake area o f
Kutai, however, apparently o r i g i n a t e from t h e Berambei and
Amuntai d i s t r i c t s .
Buginese
Settled on t h e lower Mahakam since 1686, t h e Buginese
established a t r a d e p o s t a t Samarinda between 1720 and
1730.
S a m a r i n d a ' s governors were t h e h a r b o r t master
(sjahbandar). who levied t h e import and e x p o r t d u t i e s on
behalf of t h e sultan o f Kutai, and a c i v i l administrator, t h e
The
Pua Adu, who mainly judged commercial disputes.29
Imam represented t h e religious a u t h o r i t y . As late as 1850,
t h e Buginese were excluded from t r a d i n g u p t h e Mahakam
beyond Tenggarong, despite t h e i r apparant influence w i t h
t h e royal family; t h e sultan's revenues came foremost. 30
However, b y 1885 t h e r e were already Buginese settlements at
Melak, Bohoq, Muara Benangaq, and Muara Pahu.31 Today,
t h e Buginese h a v e t h e i r own q u a r t e r s ( r u k u n tetanqqa) i n
most of t h e l a r g e r settlements and r e c r u i t t h e ~ rown kepala
kampunq; y e t t h e social influence o f t h e r i c h e s t t r a d e r s and
shipowners ( nachoda 1, often reinforced by pilgrimages t o
Mecca, i s a much s t r o n g e r determinant o f a u t h o r i t y than
administrative position. T h e Buginese control t h e s u p p l y of
v i r t u a l l y all consumer goods t o t h e i n t e r i o r districts, y e t
t h e i r p r e s t i g e and power i s i n e x t r i c a b l y l i n k e d t o t h e i r
'
M o s t o f t h e B a n j a r e s e m a k e a living f i s h i n g a n d
t r a d i n g r i v e r products. T h e y have successfully colonized t h e
swampy h a b i t a t o f t h e c e n t r a l lake area a n d i n r e c e n t years
h a v e made s i g n i f i c a n t e f f o r t s t o become sedentary and
develop sawah fields a n d gardens, p a r t i c u l a r l y on t h e lower
Bongan. I n an e f f o r t t o more effectively supervise t h e area,
t h e g o v e r n m e n t of K u t a i has i n s i s t e d t h a t t h e f o r m e r l y
dispersed settlements become more concentrated (many o f
t h e fisherman actually l i v e d on t h e i r r a f t s ) . F i s h t r a d e i s
now chanelled t h r o u g h official market outlets i n o r d e r t o
p r e v e n t t h e exploitation o f t h e small fishermen. Yet these
fishermen must often depend on wholesale traders. who in
t u r n depend on Chinese f i s h b r o k e r s a n d merchants i n
Samarinda a n d must accept p r i c e s s e t in advance.
D.
Benuaq a n d T u n j u n g
As b o t h t h e s e g r o u p s a r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d . t h e i r
traditional forms o f social-caste government resemble each
other. Economic d i s t i n c t i o n s may b e slight, f o r most people
s u b s i s t m a i n l y o n u p l a n d farming, gardening, a n d t h e
collection o f f o r e s t products.
B u t differences in social
status and membership in a class define a person's place in
society.
These s t r a t a have lost some o f t h e i r o l d s i g n i f i cance, y e t t h e traditional royal lineages s t i l l play a r o l e i n
t h e application of adat r u l e s t o t h e life of t h e communities.
Each d i s t r i c t has an offically recognized kepala adat besar
and each kampung h i s kepala adat, who advises h i s village
and d i s t r i c t administrators ( t h e kepala kampung a n d t h e
camat) o n m a t t e r s f a l l i n g u n d e r t h e t r i b a l adat.
For
example, marriages a n d divorces a r e s t i l l sanctioned by t h e
kepala adat, who determines t h e b r i d e prices o r d i v o r c e
fines t o b e paid, as well as administering t h e ceremonies.
He receives g i f t s a n d money f o r h i s services.
E v e n t h o u g h t h e r e a r e f r i c t i o n s b e t w e e n a local
government almost exclusively manned b y Moslems a n d a
Dayak population following i t s ancestral beliefs, t h e kepala
adats a r e generally respected in person b y t h e i r o f f i c i a l
colleagues.
Many complain, however, about t h e lack o f
r e s o u r c e s made available t o Dayak villages f o r schools,
health centers, and roads.
The kepala adat i s usually a member of t h e r o y a l o r
noble class' ( m a n t i ) .
T h e majority o f the population in
former times consisted o f free-born farmers (merendika) who
could become serfs Ir i p a n 1, enslaved b y debt. Some o f these
merendika married i n t o t h e royal lineage and were g i v e n
s u ~ e r v i s o r vpositions. Those b o r n in slavery o r c a p t u r e d in
w&, howe;&.
became batanq ulun, permanent slaves. O f
course t h e D u t c h abolished i n v o l u n t a r y servitude, but t h e
descendants of slaves today are s t i l l n o t allowed t o m a r r y
w i t h i n t h e r o y a l o r noble families.
A t one time, s u c h a
and punished b y death.
union was considered a crime
(m)
E.
Modanq a n d Bahau
These t w o t r i b e s a r e of common origin, related t o t h e
Kenyah.
T h e y d e s c e n d e d i n t o ' t h e Mahakam from t h e
i n t e r i o r in successive waves d u r i n g t h e early nineteenth
T h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l social s t r u c t u r e was similar t o
century.
t h a t o f t h e Benuaq and Tunjung, f e a t u r i n g royal, freeborn.
and slave castes. T h e village communities, many o f which
were founded b y t h e conquest of other r i v e r i n e populations,
were administered b y headmen admired f o r personal s t r e n g t h
It i s mainly these two g r o u p s
and experience in warfare.
who gave t h e e n t i r e Dayak population o f Kalimantan t h e
reputation o f head-hunters and f i e r c e w a r r i o r s . Today, t h e y
l i v e mainly on u p l a n d farming, b u t d u e t o t h e i n t r u s i o n o f
l o g g i n g companies i n t o t h e i r t e r r i t o r i e s , enjoy r e l a t i v e l y
high incomes as chain saw operators a n d s u r v e y men.
I
'
/
While t h e Bahau have mostly c o n v e r t e d t o C h r i s t i a n i t y
since 1900 a n d seem f a i r l y prosperous. t h e Modang, who l i v e
on t h e Telen a n d Belayan t r i b u t a r i e s o f t h e Mahakam, s t i l l
p r e s e r v e t h e i r adat. l i v e in much g r e a t e r poverty, a n d s u f f e r
from n u t r i t i o n a l deficiencies a n d h i g h e r m o r t a l i t y rates.
F.
Javanese
Because t h e Javanese l i v e predominantly in planned
transmigration villages, interactions w i t h t h e o t h e r peoples
of Kutai, especially t h e indigenous groups, a r e r a r e . Even
after t w e n t y years o f l i v i n g close together, t h e r e i s l i t t l e
intermarriage. T h e kampungs a r e g o v e r n e d b y an older man,
o r l u r a h , w h o i s g e n e r a l l y one o f t h e most respected
farmers. T h e transmigration authorities in Tenggarong a n d
Samarinda, however, s t i l l supervise these settlements. f o r
t h e y h a v e s t i l l n o t been g r a n t e d local autonomy.
The
villages near Melak, then, a r e considered t o f a l l u n d e r t h e
jurisdiction o f t h e Dayak village o n whose t e r r i t o r y t h e y
were established.
They have no kepala kampung of t h e i r
own, despite t h e i r de facto self-rule. Most s e t t l e r s h o l d no
t i t l e t o t h e fields t h e y cultivate.
Javanese s k i l l s i n p r e p a r i n g sawah, tilling by animal
traction, a n d - p r o d u c i n g vegetables ( i n addition t o t h e i r
c r a f t s a n d home i n d u s t r i e s ) have d i v e r s i f i e d local markets
a n d affected overall regional development b y stimulating
production a n d lowering wages.
Unfortunately, t h e relat i v e l y h i g h wage level of t h e Kalimantan, so dependent on
the oil a n d construction boom, i s actually an impediment t o
self-sustained i n t e r i o r development.
G.
Kenyah a n d Kayan
L i k e t h e Javanese, t h e Kenyah a r e r e c e n t immigrants
to Kutai. Most of them have been established since 1974 in
independent villages u n d e r t h e auspices o f t h e provicial
Resettlement P r o g r a m .
Since t h e confrontation with
Malaysia i n t h e i n t e r i o r o f Borneo, l i v i n g conditions on t h e
I
Apokayan. t h e Kenyah homeland, have become increasingly
difficult.
Many have migrated t o t h e Malaysian o r
Indonesian coast.
I n o r d e r t o mitigate t h i s trend. t h e
provincial government has assisted i n t h e establishment o f
r e s e t t l e m e n t villages a t t h e u p p e r courses o f t h e main
Mahakam t r i b u t a r i e s in areas which a r e s t i l l traditional
Dayak c o u n t r y . Meau Baru, Long Segar, Long Noran, Gemar
Baru, Rantau Sentosa, Ritan Baru, and Datah Bilang are
themost important t of these settlements which have become
population centers in t h e i n t e r i o r and maintain contacts
w i t h t h e A p o k a y a n homeland in t h e kecamatans on t h e
u p p e r Kajan.
V II. Conclusion
In o r d e r t o conclude t h i s paper,. a comparison o f t h e
d i f f e r e n t e t h n i c g r o u p s in t h e Mahakam basin will b e u s e f u l
t o highlight t h e socio-economic differences which r e f l e c t
d i s t i n c t ways of e a r n i n g a livelihood. T h e vast transmigrat i o n process planned f o r t h e Central Mahakam Area w i l l
p r o f o u n d l y a l t e r t h e present resource base and lead t o
i n c r e a s e d c o m p e i i t i o n f o r available resources, possibly
s h i f t i n g income,patterns as t h e resources used by any g r o u p
become more- o r less scarce.
Table Fourteen shows t h e land u n d e r cultivation b y t h e
As t h e description o f f a r m i n g
households in t h e sample.
s y s t e m s e a r l i e r i n t h i s paper m i g h t indicate, t h e area
cultivated varies f r o m y e a r t o year f o r ladang, while sawah
and garden p l o t s t e n d t o b e more stable.
The r e s u l t s underscore t h e socio-professional d i f f e rences among t h e t r i b e s . While none of t h e Bugis i n o u r
sample c u l t i v a t e d a n y land, a n d v e r y few o f t h e Banjarese
and Kutainese did, t h e Banjarese cultivated relatively more
sawah plots.
Among t h e indigenous Dayak groups, t h e
Benuaq show smaller f a r m sizes t h a n t h e T u n j u n g .
The
Bahau, Modang a n d Kenyah c u l t i v a t e l a r g e r fields because
t h e i r r i c e i s a n important cash crop, i t s proceeds p u r c h a s i n g
These l a t t e r
most of t h e consumer goods ,they require.
p o p u l a t i o n s , t h e n . r e l y t o a lesser extent on off-farm
income. T h i s i s i l l u s t r a t e d in Table Fifteen, which shows
t h e incomes d e r i v e d f r o m p r i m a r y a n d secondary activities.
I
,
I
I
1
93
A comparison o f Tables Fourteen a n d Fifteen shows
n o t o n l y t h a t t h e average income f r o m p r i m a r y activities i s
much h i g h e r f o r t h e Kutainese, Buginese a n d Banjarese t h a n
f o r t h e other ethnic groups, b u t also t h a t t h e l a t t e r r e l y t o
a greater e x t e n t on secondary a c t i v i t i e s t o supplement t h e i r
incomes. While about fifty p e r c e n t o f t h e f i r s t t h r e e g r o u p s
represented in o u r sample h a d no secondary income, t h i s
percentage was much lower among t h e o t h e r groups, even
zero among t h e Bahau. Thus, g r e a t e r professional specialization i s paralleled by a g r e a t e r v a r i e t y o f part-time o r
seasonal activities. Despite t h i s v a r i e t y o f income sources,
however. t h e members o f indigenous t r i b e s d o n o t attain t h e
r e l a t i v e l y high income enjoyed b y t h e Kutainese, Banjarese
a n d Buginese, who all depend on one a c t i v i t y only.
Compared t o Java. f o r instance, t h e wage level i n
Kutai i s r e l a t i v e l y high. B u t t h e s c a r c i t y o f capital means
high r e w a r d s f o r t h e l u c k y few who possess it a n d i n v e s t in
admittedly r i s k y enterprises. .. T h e paradox o f much higher
r e t u r n s t o t r a d e t h a n t o p r i m a r y activities i s looked on w i t h
jealousy by many local people a n d f r e q u e n t l y n o t u n d e r stood. As one o f t h e farmers expressed it, "We g r o w food,
t h e fishermen fish, t h e collectors c u t rotan; b u t t h e rice,
fish, a n d r o t a n t r a d e r s earn much more t h a n we. We don't
know how t h i s can be."
0
N 9 9
r - m w
0
0
L'EL
C'6S
S'Z9
m m
52
8Z
9
.,
0
1-'7
r-
0
81
r(
9'6V
q
r-
0'8
I
C'EE
9'S1
w
h - f l
r-
0
0
0
9'0
tl'Z
0
0
2
? ? ?
'I, I
rl
p.
NOTES
1.
I
T A D Base L i n e S u r v e y
Vol. I - Kecamatan Summary Statistics,
Samarinda 2/1981
Middle Mahkam A r e a S u r v e y
Vol. I I
T A D Health R e p o r t
Vol. I, Samarinda 1979
Vol. II, Sarnarinda 1980
TAD, R u r a l Women in t h e M i d d l e Mahakam Area,
Sarnarinda 1980
I
i
i
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e o f f i c i a l p u b l i s h e d statistics, t h e
above mentioned s u r v e y s a r e e d i t e d as p r o j e c t r e p o r t s
u n d e r t h e auspices o f B A P P E D A I K a l T i m a n d T A D . I n
p a r t i c u l a r , we d r a w o n t h e f o l l o w i n g :
-
2.
A T a n d y T R S - 8 0 m o d e l I I a n d a d a p t e d advanced
s t a t i s t i c s s o f t w a r e , a s well as a specially w r i t t e n
p r o g r a m f o r f a r m a n d household analysis.
3.
Compass,
Paris.
4.
F i r s t a programmeable HP-47,
f o r t h e TRS-80.
5.
M o n t h l y , k a l e n g a n d l a n j u n g were used, t h e f i r s t
r e f e r r i n g t o a 50 x 25 crn tin m e a s u r i n g o n t h e average
1 1 kilograms o f padi ( t h r e s h e d u n h u l l e d r i c e ) , t h e
second r e f e r r i n g t o bamboo o r rotan baskets f o r
h a r v e s t i n g w h i c h contain o n t h e averae 24 k i l o g r a m s o f
p a d i ; o t h e r u n i t s l i k e b a k u l ( s m a l l b a s k e t ) were
likewise converted; u n i t s l i k e bundles, hands, bunches
were ample-weighed.
6.
1 am i n d e b t e d t o P r o f . D. Mans f o r access t o t h e
computer a n d M r . M. Hobfeld f o r assistance w i t h t h e
EXEC f i l e s a n d systems programming.
7.
Thus, in t h e f i r s t area, Kota B a n g u n a n d M u a r a Muntai
were selected; Muara Wahau, Darnai ( i n p a r t ) , Muara
Lawa. M e l a k (Mahakarn v i l l a g e s ) a n d t h e Bengalon
v a l l e y as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e second area; a n d B a r o n g
t o p o f i l a n d plane t a b l e f r o m TOPOCHAIX,
later a program written
Tongkok, Melak a n d Damai ( t h e u p l a n d villages) f o r t h e
third area.
17.
c f . A Massing, Where Medicine Fails:
b e l i a n Disease
P r e v e n t i o n a n d C u r i n g R i t u a l s Among t h e Lawangan
Dayak of East Kalimantan, B B B 14, No. 2, S e p t . 1982;
especially t h e b e l i a n bawe r i t u a l focuses o n maternal
a n d i n f a n t h e a l t h c f . p p . 74-77 ibid.
18.
S. C. Knappert, B e s c h r i j v i n g v a n d e onderafdeeling
Koetei, B K I 58. 1905, 619.
19.
"Marpow, however, i s t h e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e Sultan o f
Coti's p r o p e r dominions", M r . Dalton's J o u r n a l o f a
T o u r u p t h e Coti R i v e r , in: J. H. Moor, Notices o f t h e
I n d i a n Archipelago. Singapore, 1837, 39 ( f r o m Singapore
Chronicle, M a r c h 1831 I .
I
I
8.
In t h e B e n g a l o n valley,
w h i c h belongs t o B o n t a n g
d i s t r i c t , o n l y t h e f o u r villages i n t h e v a l l e y were
selected; in L o n g Iram, t h r e e villages b e l o n g i n g t o t h e
T u n j u n g plateau were also i n c l u d e d
9.
We acknowledge t h e cooperation o f t h e K a n t o r B u p a t i
a n d t h e K a n t o r Sensus d a n S t a t i s t i k w h i c h l e t u s
i n s p e c t t h e h o u s e h o l d l i s t s o f t h e 1979 a n d 1980
population registrations f o r t h e purpose o f establishing
a complete sampling base.
,
10.
Even t h o u g h a t e n p e r c e n t sampling r a t e was intended.
refusals, absence of interviewees. flooding, a n d time
limitations r e d u c e d t h e actual average sampling r a t e t o
six p e r cent.
g
11.
E x c l u d i n g t h e Kotamadya
12.
1 t a k e t h e c o n q u e s t of t h e i n l a n d k i n g d o m o f Muara
'1
11
Karnan ' a r o u n d 1600, as r e p o r t e d in t h e Kutainese
annals, as t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r t h e i n w a r d movement
o f t h e coastal Malays.
1I
13.
14.
1
I
Dalton r e p o r t e d in 1828 t h a t t h e y h a d t h e S u l t a n o f
K u t a i as well as t h e i n t e r i o r t r i b e s a t t h e i r m e r c y b y
w i t h h o l d i n g v i t a l s a l t supplies; t h e y also l e v i e d a 5
p e r c e n t t a x o n a l l e x p o r t s a n d i m p o r t s a t Samarinda
(Dewall, 1846).
T h e peat swamps between r i v e r s a r e m a i n l y e x p l o i t e d
f o r wood a n d swamp r i c e cultivation: t h e y a r e relat i v e l y poor in a q u a t i c resources a n d f o r e s t p r o d u c t s .
15.
G. Z i m m e r m a n n , East Kalimantan S t a t i s t i c a l Guide.
Sarnarinda, 1980, Table 4.2.1.
16.
P. A . Sanchez P r o p e r t i e s a n d Management o f Soils in
t h e Tropics, Wiley, 1976, 383. P. Kunstadter, E. C.
Chapman,S. Sabashri, Farmers i n t h e Forest, Honolulu,
1978. 134f.
1
I
These w e r e p r o b a b l y B e n u a q as e v e n t o d a y Muara Pahu
consists o f a k a m p u n g Kutai. a n d a k a m p u n g Dayak who
a r e Benuaq.
" A t t h e p e r i o d ( a b o u t f i v e y e a r s since *1823*) when
t h e B u g i s w e r e a t w a r w i t h t h e S u l t a n o f Coti.the
f o r m e r s t o p p e d t h e u s u a l s u p p l y o f salt; t h e consequence of w h i c h measure was, t h a t w i t h i n t h r e e months
h e was e n t i r e l y a t t h e i r mercy, a n d u l t i m a t e l y was
obliged t o a p p l y t o t h e B u g i s f o r p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e
Diaks who u n d e r s t a n d i n g it was h i s fault, p u r s u e d him
T h e D i a k s a n d Cotinese
as f a r as Semerindan
f i n d i n g t h e usual s u p p l y o f t h i s a r t i l c e stopped, w i l l a t
once come i n t o a n y t e r m s t h e o f f i c e r may t h i n k p r o p e r
J. H. Moor, Notices, -69.
t o dictate."
....
c f . C. A . Mees De k r o n i e k v a n koetei, 1935.
N o o r d u y n O r i g i n s o f S o u t h Celebes Historical
Writing, 1965, 150.
J.
D a r i Swapraja k e KabupatenKutai, Pemerintah Daerah
Kab. Kutai, 1975, in p a r t i c u l a r t h e a r t i c l e by D r s .
A n w a r Soetoen, Sejarah S i n g k a t P e r t u m b u h a n Pemerintahan Daerah K a b u p a t e n k Kutai, 185-205; S . K n a p p e r t
B e s c h r i j v i n g v a n d e O n d e r a f d e e l i n g Koetei, 634.
Knappert,
I.c. 635, 25 ibid.
Gallois, K o o r t e a n n t e e k e n i n g e n . .
229.
. BKI,
1 IV, 1856, 225-
27.
'Panji Selaten' U n d a n g - u n d a n g Kerajaan K u t a i K e r t a n e gara, pasal 21 i n : D a r i Swapraja k e K a b u p a t e n Kutai,
100-107.
28.
Gallois,
29.
Gallois, 232; A. L. Weddik B e k n o p t o v e r z i g t v a n h e t
rijk v a n Koetei, l n d i s c h A r c h i e f , I, 1, 1844, 86.
K o r t e aanteekeningen.
...
1856, 236.
31 S. W. T r o m p Reis naar d e Bovenlanden
T i j d s c h r i f t voor Nederlandsch l n d i e 32,
30.
Ibid. 86-87.
v a n Koetei,
1889, 282.
32.
C. Schwaner B e s c h r y v i n g v a n h e t ~ a r i t o
Stroomgebied.
1854, 118-122.
B R I E F
(b)
\
I
I
I
I
However, o n t h e f l a t areas, w h i c h when b u n d e d f o r m e d
r a i n f e d paddies similar t o e x t e n s i v e areas t h r o u g h o u t
t r o p i c a l SE Asia, r i c e w a s g r o w n a n n u a l l y as a
monoculture. T h e g r a s s e s w e r e c u t b a c k each y e a r a n d
In
t h e l a n d c u l t i v a t e d by t r a m p l i n g w i t h b u f f a l o e s .
t h i s instance r i c e seedlings w e r e t r a n s p l a n t e d f r o m a
n u r s e r y ; t h e v a r i e t i e s were v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e
u p l a n d v a r i e t i e s a n d b e n e f i t t e d f r o m b e i n g rainfed,
k e p t f r e e f r o m weeds a n d r e s p o n d e d t o f e r t i l i z e r s a n d
pesticides.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e y a r e m o s t l y tall
v a r i e t i e s a n d u n d e r commercial t r e a t m e n t o f t e n lodge
close t o h a r v e s t .
Considerable e f f o r t was made by D r . M o r n i Othman o f
t h e D e p a r t m e n t of A g r i c u l t u r e in B r u n e i collecting,
naming a n d c h a r a c t e r i z i n g o v e r 200 t y p e s o f t h e s e r i c e
varieties.
C O M M U N I C A T I O N S
I feel compelled t o r e s p o n d t o Linda Kimball's a r t i c l e
i n t h e B R B .Volume 17, No. 2 o f September 1985 w h i c h 1
h a v e only' j u s t g o t a r o u n d t o r e a d i n g . F o r t h e p e r i o d 19711983 1 w o r k e d as a n a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t i n B r u n e i a n d h a v e
always f o u n d t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s in t h e B u l l e t i n of i n t e r e s t if
a l i t t l e esoteric f o r m y f a r m i n g mind. However, n o t o n l y i s
M s . K i m b a l l ' s i n f o r m a t i o n d a t e d b u t it i s also in p a r t s
i n a c c u r a t e and incomplete.
1
A few comments o n c o n t e n t if I may:
(a)
T h e r a i n y s e a s o n i n B r u n e i f a l l s d u r i n g t h e NE
monsoon f r o m O c t o b e r / N o v e m b e r t o F e b r u a r y w i t h a
f u r t h e r r a i n y p e r i o d between June a n d A u g u s t .
The
m o n t h l y d i s t r i b u t i o n a v e r a g e d o v e r t h e p e r i o d 1966-83
a t t h e S i n a n t C e n t r e i n B r u n e i was:
Jan
Feb
March
April
May
June
280
120
140
150
210
300
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
July
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec
190
250
220
250
320
310
mrn
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
Slash a n d b u r n a g r i c u l t u r e has b e e n b r a n d e d as a n t i c o n s e r v a t i o n because it i s c o n f u s e d w i t h t h e felling,
b u r n i n g a n d c l e a r i n g f o r commercial c r o p development.
T h e indigenous Bruneian farmer used t o undertake this
f o r m o f a g r i c u l t u r e o n b o t h wooded slopes u n d e r
secondary f o r e s t ( b e l u k a r ) a n d o n f l a t a l l u v i a l s . In t h e
former, c r o p p i n g was u n d e r t a k e n o n a n 8 t o 15 y e a r
c y c l e w h e r e f o l l o w i n g c u t t i n g a n d b u r n i n g sweet c o r n
was sown i n t o t h e ash.
When t h i s tasseled, u p l a n d
r i c e was sown along w i t h a r a n g e o f f r u i t a n d c u c u r b i t
vegetables. Finally, as t h e r i c e was harvested, cassava
c u t t i n g s were p l a n t e d t o p r o v i d e a famine r e l i e f c r o p
f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g t w o seasons a n d e n s u r e g r o u n d c o v e r
until the b u s h and trees grew back.
A s i n t h e u p l a n d p r o d u c t i o n areas I have always been
l e d t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e r o o t c r o p s a n d palm s t a r c h e s
h a v e b e e n g r o w n by t h e B r u n e i Malays as s e c u r i t y
c r o p s f o r u s e i n times o f f a i l u r e o f t h e p r e f e r r e d g r a i n
crop.
I
(cl
Ms. Kimball p o i n t s t o t h e m i d 70s as b e i n g a time o f
r a d i c a l c h a n g e i n B r u n e i f a r m i n g systems. T h i s i s t r u e
because by 1975 t h e i n c r e a s e d o i l r e v e n u e s h a d s t a r t e d
t o b e f e l t w i t h i n Government service.
Job o p p o r t u n i t i e s w e r e expanding, wage r a t e s r i s i n g a n d t h e low
g u a r a n t e e d r e t a i l p r i c e o f milled r i c e ensured t h e
s u p p l y o f t h e p r e f e r r e d staple. Once t h e n e c e s s i t y t o
f a r m f o r f o o d c r o p s h a d been removed, t h e a l l u r e of
f a r m i n g u n d e r s u c h h o t t r o p i c a l conditions was soon
lost!
Id)
T h e information reported o n buffalo is v e r y scanty and
makes n o r e f e r e n c e t o t h e e x t e n s i v e i n f o r m a t i o n a n d
e x p e r t i s e available in t h e Department o f A g r i c u l t u r e
and a t t h e Sinant A g r i c u l t u r e Training Centre.
Mr.
Thomas Lee Kok Cho f r o m t h e Centre. in cooperation
w i t h t h e v e t e r i n a r y a n d animal h u s b a n d r y s t a f f o f t h e
Department, u n d e r t o o k a national b u f f a l o census a n d
development r e v i e w d u r i n g 1980 a n d 1981. Comparisons
between t h e 1965 a n d 1980 census showed a d r a m a t i c
decrease o f 30% i n t h e animal population a n d a .45%
decrease in o w n e r s o v e r t h e p e r i o d .
A t t h e same time as t h e s t a t i s t i c s were collected, a
b r e e d d e s c r i p t i o n a n d management i n f o r m a t i o n w e r e
also compiled. T h i s has all helped t o develop proposals
f o r development w h i c h a r e c u r r e n t l y u n d e r w a y as i s a
r e v i e w Gensus t o check s h o r t - t e r m t r e n d s a n d t h e ong o i n g use o f s u r v e y techniques.
Reduction o f Social Forms b y G. N. Appell; From Choice t o
Meaning by George Devereaux; C o r p u s Morale Collectivum:
Social A n t h r o p o l o g y Without T e a r s b y P e t e r Lawrence; T h e
M o r a l i t y o f Exchange b y D. K . F e i l .
1
!
1
Part Three.
T h e D e s t i n e o f F i l i a l Ambivalence. T h e
Moral O r d e r , a n d Choice B e h a v i o r : T h e Son as S a v i o r : A
H i n d u View o f Choice a n d M o r a l i t y b y T . N. Madan;
Like
F a t h e r , L i k e S o n : F i l i a l Ambivalence a n d t h e D e a t h o f
F a t h e r s in Kalauna by Michael Y o u n g .
Part Four.
The Dialectic Between Destiny and
Decision: Nomothetic a n d I d e o g r a p h i c Conceptions of
Anthropology:
T h e E t h n o g r a p h e r ' s Choice b y G i l b e r t H.
Herdt; In t h e T h r o w n World: D e s t i n y a n d Decision in t h e
T h o u g h t of T r a d i t i o n a l A f r i c a by Michael Jackson.
Part Five.
Biological C o n s t r a i n t s o n Symbol Choice:
T h e Foetal a n d Natal O r i g i n s o f C i r c u m c i s i o n a n d O t h e r
R e b i r t h Symbols b y Michael A . H. B.. Walter.
THE UNIVERSITY OF HULL
~ n ~ o n i' net e r e s t e d i n f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n i s v e r y
welcome t o c o n t a c t me.
( J e r e m y Groome, East Close
Enterprises, East Close, Ditcheat, Shepton Mallet, Somerset
B A 4 6PS U n i t e d Kingdom. 1
N E W S
A N D
A N N O U N C E M E N T S
CHOICE AND M O R A L I T Y :
ESSAYS I N HONOR OF PROFESSOR DEREK FREEMAN
Choice a n d M o r a l i t y :
Essays in Honor o f P r o f e s s o r
Derek Freeman e d i t e d by G. N . Appell and T . N. Madan i s
t o be. p u b l i s h e d by S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y Press o f New Y o r k .
T h e essays i n c l u d e d are: p a r t One.
N. Appell.
Introduction b y G.
P a r t Two.
T h e o r e t i c a l C o n s t r u c t s , Meaning, a n d t h e
Analysis o f Choice B e h a v i o r : Emergent S t r u c t u r a l i s m : T h e
Design o f an I n q u i r y System t o Delineate P r o d u c t i o n a n d
CENTRE FOR SOUTH-EAST A S I A N S T U D I E S
OCCASIONAL PAPERS NO. 11
T h e C e n t r e f o r South-East A s i a n S t u d i e s Occasional
Paper Series commenced in 1979, a n d h a s t h u s f a r p u b l i s h e d
t e n p a p e r s b y members o f s t a f f , p o s t g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s a n d
In t e r m s o f s u b j e c t m a t t e r t h e s e
outside contributors.
p a p e r s a r e v e r y d i v e r s e , r a n g i n g f r o m s t u d i e s o f South-East
Asian h i s t o r y , t h r o u g h politics, t o e t h n i c i t y a n d c u l t u r e . B y
a n d large, t h i s r e f l e c t s t h e m u l t i - d i s c i p l i n a r y s t r u c t u r e o f
the Centre.
T h e s u b - s e r i e s o n South-East A s i a n development, w h i c h
begins w i t h t h i s p a p e r b y T e r r y .King ( P l a n n i n g f o r A g r a r i a n
Chanqe: H y d r o - E l e c t r i c Power, Resettlement a n d lban
Swidden C u l t i v a t o r s in Sarawak, East Malaysia), r e f l e c t s a
g r o w i n g r e s e a r c h s t r e n g t h w i t h i n t h e C e n t r e in t h e b r o a d
f i e l d o f development s t u d i e s .
A n u m b e r o f s t a f f members
a r e p r e s e n t l y e n g a g e d in r e s e a r c h a p p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e
development o f p e r i p h e r a l a n d economically b a c k w a r d p a r t s
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P a r t Four,:
Indonesia.
T h e K a n t u ' System o f L a n d
T e n u r e : T h e E v o l u t i o n o f T r i b a l R i g h t s in Borneo. Michael
R. Dove, , I n t e r n a t i o n a l A g r i c u l t u r a l Development Service.
T h e B u l u s u ' of East Kalimantan: T h e Consequences
of Resettleme,nt, G. N . Appell, B r a n d e i s U n i v e r s i t y .
P a r t F i v e : P h i l i p p i n e s . A g r i c u l t u r a l Development a n d
Social E q u i t y in t h e U p l a n d Philippines, James F. Eder,
Arizona State' U n i v e r s i t y .
P a r t S i x : Government I n t e r f e r e n c e a n d Loss o f L a n d :
A n I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of C r o w i n g Landlessness among A d i v a s i s
of S o u t h Gujarat, India, C. Baks, U n i v e r s i t y o f U t r e c h t .
P a r t Seven : Bangladesh. Modernization, Pauperization.
a n d t h e Rise o f Landlessness: A Case S t u d y f r o m Bangladesh, S. M. N u r u l Alam, C h i t t a g o n g U n i v e r s i t y .
Part Eight:
Africa.
L a n d Reform a n d i c o n o m i c
S t r a t i f i c a t i o n among t h e Mbeere o f C e n t r a l Kenya, J.ack
Glazier, O b e r l i n College.
P a r t Nine: Mexico. T r u c k Farming, Foreclosure, a n d
Class S t r u c t u r e in R u r a l Mexico, Thomas Crump, U n i v e r s i t y
of Amsterdam.
Part Ten:
New Guinea. L i t t l e Landlessness, B u t
.
A n t o n Ploeg, S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y o f U t r e c h t .
.
B O R N E O
N E W S
Kalimantan N 6 w s
JAY H . BERNSTEIN, a P h . D . candidate in A n t h r o p o l o g y a t
t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f California, Berkeley, is conducting
r e s e a r c h o n " f o l k medical r e a s o n i n g a n d t h e storage o f
technical medical knowledge" among t h e Taman o f t h e u p p e r
Kapuas R i v e r .
H i s m a i l i n g a d d r e s s t h e r e is:
c / o T . F.
Iminsuka, Kabag Umum, K a n t o r B u p a t i K d h T k . I I, Kapuas
Hulu, Putussibau, Kal-Bar, Indonesia. M r . B e r n s t e i n w r i t e s
t h a t h e has llphotocopied a few s t u d e n t a n d f a c u l t y theses
p e r t i n e n t t o ( h i s ) r e s e a r c h among t h e Taman. 'I T w o r e p o r t s ,
whose a u t h o r s b o t h a r e d o c e n t s a t t h e University o f
Tanjungpura, which should b e of interest t o readers of t h e
Borneo Research B u l l e t i n are:
Mudiyone Diposiswoyo, 1985. T r a d i t i o n e t chanqement
s o c i a l : E t u d e e t h n o q r a p h i q u e des Taman d e Kalimantan
Ouest.
These d e d o c t o r a t d e troiseme cycle,
hautes etuaes e n sciences sociales.
,
1
I
Ecole des
Y. C. T h a m b u n Anyang, SH, 1985. A d a t P e r k a w i n a n
Daya Taman di Kecamatan P u t u s s i b a u . Makalah disampaikan
pada Penataran l l m u Pengetahuan , H u k u m d a n H u k u m A d a t
pada F a k u l t a s Hukum, U n i v e r s i t a s S y i a h Kuala Darussalam,
Banda Aceh.
S U R V I V A L I N T E R N A T I O N A L , TAPOL, a n d FRIENDS OF
T H E EARTH. w i t h t h e s u p p o r t o f m a n y o t h e r NGOs w o r l d wide, h a v e launched a campaign t o h a l t i n t e r n a t i o n a l f u n d i n g
o f Indonesia's T r a n s m i g r a t i o n Programme. P r o v i d i n g one o f
t h e f i r s t d e t a i l e d evaluations o f t h e d e v a s t a t i n g social a n d
e n v i r o n m e n t a l e f f e c t s o f t h i s massive r e s e t t l e m e n t p r o gramme, l e a d i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l human r i g h t s a n d e n v i r o n mental o r g a n i s a t i o n s h a v e called o n t h e World B a n k a n d
o t h e r f u n d i n g agencies t o s u s p e n d t h e i r s u p p o r t f o r t h e
p r o g r a m u n t i l it o b s e r v e s i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y r e c o g n i s e d human
r i g h t s a n d s o u n d ecological p r i n c i p l e s .
T r a n s m i g r a t i o n , t h e mass movement o f l a n d h u n g r y
poor f r o m Indonesia's o v e r p o p u l a t e d c e n t r a l i s l a n d s o f Java,
Madura, Lombok, a n d B a l i t o t h e less d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d
o u t e r i s l a n d s , i s t h e l a r g e s t colonisation programme in
history.
W i t h n e a r l y f o u r m i l l i o n people a l r e a d y relocated
a n d t h e G o v e r n m e n t n o w p l a n n i n g t h e movement o f a
f u r t h e r 65 m i l l i o n in t h e n e x t t w e n t y years, t h e programme
d w a r f s t h e c o n t r o v e r s i a l a n d w i d e l y c r i t i c i s e d programmes
f o r t h e colonisation o f Amazonia w i t h w h i c h it h a s been
compared.
T r a n s m i g r a t i o n receives massive f i n a n c i a l b a c k i n g f r o m
t h e World B a n k a n d t h e w e s t e r n n a t i o n s . Millions o f d o l l a r s
of i n t e r n a t i o n a l - a i d 1 h a v e beeb s p e n t p r o m o t i n g a p r o gramme t h a t i s l e a d i n g t o t h e p e r m a n e n t d e s t r u c t i o n o f v a s t '
areas o f u n d i s t r u b e d t r o p i c a l r a i n f o r e s t , w i t h a c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y h u g e loss o f i r r e p l a c e a b l e genetic d i v e r s i t y and
potential r e s o u r c e s . A s t h i s new r e p o r t makes clear, t h i s
t r a g i c misue o f r e s o u r c e s i s n o t e v e n s u c c e s s f u l l y a l l e v i a t i n g
t h e problems o f t h e r e s e t t l e d Javanese p e a s a n t r y . O n t h e
c o n t r a r y , many m i g r a n t s h a v e been u n a b l e t o make a living
in t h e i r new environment, i n s t e a d drifting i n t o t h e u r b a n
c e n t r e s o r e n g a g i n g in t h e f u r t h e r d e s t r u c t i o n as slash a n d
b u r n f a r m e r s t o a v o i d complete d e s t i t u t i o n .
T r a n s m i g r a t i o n i s b e i n g c a r r i e d o u t w i t h scant r e g a r d
f o r i t s s h a t t e r i n g effects o n t h e t r i b a l m i n o r i t i e s in i t s
As t h e programme has been e x t e n d e d i n t o t h e most
path.
remote p a r t s o f t h e Indonesian archipelago, whole peoples
have been uprooted, t o r n f r o m t h e l a n d s o n w h i c h t h e y h a v e
l i v e d f o r millenia a n d r e s e t t l e d in G o v e r n m e n t - b u i l t unit
dwellings t o c o n f o r m t o t h e national goals o f ' p r o g r e s s ' a n d
-development1. Compensation, payable t o t h e t r i b a l people
f o r t h e loss o f t h e i r lands, has been denied a n d t h e s e c u r i t y
f o r c e s called in w h e r e t h e locals have r e s i s t e d w h a t t h e y
see as n o less t h a n t h e invasion of t h e i r a n c e s t r a l t e r r i tories.
T h i s d i s q u i e t i n g new r e p o r t also reveals how T r a n s m i gration, f a r f r o m b e i n g a humanitarian exercise, i s r e a l l y a
political programme d e s i g n e d t o e x t e n d Government c o n t r o l
o v e r t h e p e r i p h e r a l islands t h r o u g h t h e elimination o f e t h n i c
Increasingly under the direct control of t h e
diversity.
lndonesian A r m e d Forces, T r a n s m i g r a t i o n i s b e i n g g i v e n
s p e c i a l e m p h a s i s i n p o l i t i c a l l y s e n s i t i v e areas, w h e r e
m i l i t a r i s e d settlements a r e b e i n g established t o s u b j u g a t e
local peoples r e l u c t a n t t o g i v e u p t h e i r lands t o t h e c e n t r a l
Government. . It examines, too, t h e motives u n d e r l y i n g t h e
w e s t e r n g o v e r n m e n t s ' s u p p o r t f o r t h e programme. ( P r e s s
release, T h e Ecolo ist, Volume 16, Nos. 213, B a n k i n q o n
Disaster:
n onesrals T r a n s m i g r a t i o n Programme, May 14,
1986)
+
Sarawak News
M O N I C A J A N O W S K I h a s r e c e i v e d permission t o d o
P h . D . f i e l d w o r k in t h e K e l a b i t h i g h l a n d s in t h e F o u r t h
D i v i s i o n o f Sarawak. She, h e r h u s b a n d Kaz a n d b a b y M o l l y
( e i g h t m o n t h s o l d ) e x p e c t e d t o leave E n g l a n d n e a r t h e e n d
She i s
o f May
a n d t o s p e n d one m o n t h in K u c h i n g .
u n c e r t a i n w h i c h longhouse t h e y w i l l s e t t l e i n - - " p r o b a b l y one
f a i r l y near B a r i o a n d w i t h a l a n d i n g s t r i p , because o f Molly.
We e x p e c t t o s p e n d a b o u t eighteen months i n t h e f i e l d . "
T h e main f o c u s o f h e r r e s e a r c h will b e t h e wet r i c e
a g r i c u l t u r e o f t h e K e l a b i t a n d t h e i r s t r a t i f i c a t i o n system.
S h e c a n b e c o n t a c t e d t h r o u g h t h e S a r a w a k Museum,
Kuching.
THE SARAWAK L I T E R A R Y S O C I E T Y h a s p u b l i s h e d f o u r
d i c t i o n a r i e s o f Iban, B i d a y u h , K a y a n a n d Melanau i n t o
English.
I
T h e I b a n I E n g l i s h d i c t i o n a r y , compiled by R e v F a t h e r
B r u g g e m a n , w i l l b e released a t t h e e n d o f t h i s m o n t h
(December 1 9 8 5 ) , w h i l e t h e t h r e e o t h e r s w i l l b e available
next year.
F a t h e r B r u g g e m a n was o n e o f S a r a w a k l s longest
s e r v i n g m i s s i o n a r y p r i e s t s , g i v i n g m o r e t h a n 40 y e a r s o f
s e r v i c e f o r t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h in Sarawak.
T h e B i d a y u h I E n g l i s h d i c t i o n a r y was compiled by a
f o r m e r Senior A d m i n i s t r a t i v e O f f i c e r , E n c ik William Nais, a
K a y a n I E n g l i s h d i c t i o n a r y by a scholar, M r . H u d s o n Southwell, a n d t h e M e l a n a u I E n g l i s h d i c t i o n a r y by E n c i k T . A.
Munan.
T h e r e c e n t meeting o f t h e society, w h i c h r e v i e w e d i t s
p r o g r e s s since i t s i n c e p t i o n f o u r y e a r s ago, r e c o r d e d s i x
established w o r k s among w h i c h were " A Special B r e e d " a n d
" T h e Shimmering Moonbeam" by a Dewan U n d a n g a n N e g e r i
Member. D a t u k Amar James Wong.
h he o t h e r s a r e a r e s e a r c h w o r k by D r P h i l i p Lee
Thomas o n one o f t h e o l d e s t Malay n e w s p a p e r s in t h e State.
" F a j a r S a r a w a k " ; " H i k a y a t Panglima Nicosa" b y Ahmad
Shawal A b d u l Hamid; " A p a i Aloi Goes H u n t i n g a n d o t h e r
S t o r i e s " b y D r C l i f f o r d S a t h e r a n d t h e Society's own
c o n t r i b u t i o n , " O u r Sarawak"
.
N e x t y e a r t h e s o c i e t y w i l l p u b l i s h a Masters' t h e s i s of
E n c i k C h o n g C h i n S e n g o n " T r a d i t i o n a l Melanau WoodCarving".
Meanwhile, it has a p p o i n t e d a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e t o d i s c u s s
w i t h local u n i v e r s i t i e s o n r i g h t s t o p u b l i s h Masters1 a n d
Doctorate theses b y Malaysians o n Sarawak s u b j e c t s .
T h e r e w i l l also b e a f e w b i o g r a p h i e s o n p r o m i n e n t
f i g u r e s in Sarawak t o b e p u b l i s h e d by t h e society.
Th.e f i r s t o f t h e s e will b e t h e b i o g r a p h y o f t h e late
T u n Jugah, t h e paramount c h i e f of t h e l b a n s a n d a h i g h l y respected p o l i t i c i a n . (Sarawak T r i b u n e 4.12.85)
B O O K ' R E V I E W S ,
A B S T R A C T S ,
A N D - B I B L I O G R A P H Y
MICHAEL R . DOVE, Swidden A q r i c u l t u r e in Indonesia: T h e
Subsistence S t r a t e q i e s o f t h e Kalimantan Kantu', 515 pp, 101
tables (1985, Mouton Publishers, Berlin, New York, Amsterdam), C l o t h DM 168 (US8 761.
T h i s r e s e a r c h monograph deals w i t h t h e economy of
swidden agriculture practiced b y a tribal g r o u p on t h e
l n d o n e s i a n s e c t i o n o f t h e i s l a n d of Borneo.
Swidden
a g r i c u l t u r e o f t h e K a n t u ' i s analyzed i n t w e l v e c h a p t e r s
w h i c h deal w i t h t h e successive stages in one t y p i c a l c y c l e
o r y e a r . Th.e combined e f f e c t o f K a n t u ' swidden s t r a t e g i e s
if t o maximize e x p l o i t a t i o n in t h e d i v e r s i t y o f t h e i r e n v i r o n ment a n d t o minimize t h e n e g a t i v e e f f e c t s o f i t s e q u a l l y
g r e a t u n c e r t a i n t y . T h e K a n t u ' system i s shown t o r e p r e s e n t
a v e r y responsive, s o p h i s t i c a t e d a n d successful a d a p t a t i o n t o
t h e i r r a i n f o r e s t environment, a finding w h i c h has i m p o r t a n t
implications f o r developmental p o l i c y in Indonesia a n d o t h e r
tropical countries.
-
S. L I I a n d A.' J . D I N G NGO, S y a i r Lawe, Gadjah Mada
U n i v e r s i t y Press ( P.O. B o x 14, Bulaksumur, Yogyakarta,
Indonesia).
S y a i r Lawe c o n s i s t s of a five-volume t r a n s c r i p t i o n a n d
t r a n s l a t i o n in l n d o n e s i a n of t h e g r e a t e s t r i t u a l e p i c o f t h e
Kayan people o f Kalimantan a n d Sarawak.
It c o n c e r n s t h e
life, t r i a l s , a n d t r i u m p h s o f a s p i r i t , Lawe'. in t h e u p p e r o r
n e x t world, w h e r e t h e dead and' t h e s p i r i t s l i v e .
The
contents, pages a n d p r i c e s are:
I n t r o d u c t i o n , 395 pp., U.S.8 10.00.
Volume One:
P a r t One, Lawe' With Nyalo, 860 pp.,
Volume Two:
U.S.8 16.00.
Volume T h r e e :
P a r t Two, Lawe' With To'Magung, 855
PP. U.S. $16.00.
Volume F o u r :
P a r t Three, Lawe' W i t h J u k Apui, 378
US$ '10.00.
Volume F i v e : P a r t F o u r , Lawe' W i t h L i r u n g Buaa', 858
p p . , U.S.$ 16.00.
( Please enclose U .S . $ 3.00 p e r c o p y f o r seamail a n d p a c k i n g . )
pp.,
1
I
1
'
" T h e f i r s t sizeable i n c u r s i o n of E u r o p e a n t r a v e l l e r s t o t h e
East came d u r i n g t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y w i t h e x p l o r e r s a n d
a d v e n t u r e r s , a n d w i t h t h e colonial o f f i c e r s o f t h e B r i t i s h
Empire.
B y t h e 1890s t h e f i r s t E u r o p e a n t o u r i s t s w e r e
a r r i v i n g in H o n g K o n g a n d Singapore, a n d f o r t y y e a r s l a t e r
l a r g e areas o f t h e once-impenetrable East w e r e o p e n t o
c u r i o u s Western eyes.
O x f o r d i s publishing a number of
books, a n d f o r , these e a r l y t r a v e l l e r s . '
They will b e o f
i n t e r e s t n o t o n l y t o t o d a y ' s v i s i t o r s , b u t t o anyone
i n t e r e s t e d in t h e h i s t o r y o f one o f t h e most f a s c i n a t i n g
p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d . ' ' ( O x f o r d Paperbacks, p . 100, J a n u a r y May 1986)
T h e f o l l o w i n g t i t l e s h a v e b e e n r e p u b l i s h e d as O x f o r d
Paperbacks:
The
C A R L BOCK, w i t h l n t r o d u c t i o n by R . H. W. REECE,
H e a d - H u n t e r s o f Borneo, 370 pp., 30 c o l o r plates, L6.95 n e t
A.
1
CHARLES HOSE, T h e F i e l d - B o o k o f a J u n q l e Wallah, 392
pp., 1 c o l o r plate, 32 halftones, L4.95 n e t A.
OWEN RUTTER, w i t h l n t r o d u c t i o n by I A N B L A C K ,
Paqans o f N o r t h Borneo, 296 p p . , 70 halftones, L4.95 n e t A .
1
ROBERT W. C. SHELFORD, A N a t u r a l i s t in Borneo, 323 p p . ,
32 halftones, L4.95 n e t A .
The
and V i c t o r T . K i n g
1986 B o r n e o :
Oerwoud i n onderqanq, Annemiek
Hazelhoff, Nederlands D r u k k e r i j B e d r i j f 6. V.,
Zoeterwoude.
Black, Ian
1985 " T h e 'Lastposten':
Eastern Kalimantan a n d t h e
D u t c h i n t h e Nineteenth and E a r l y T w e n t i e t h
Centuries,"
Journal o f Southeast Asian Studies,
Volume XVI, no. 2, pp. 281-281, September.
A
V Jan
~
B.,
Cramb, R. A.
1986 " T h e Evolution of lban Land Tenure," W o r k i n g
Paper No. 39, Centre o f Southeast Asian Studies,
Monash University, Clayton 3168, Australia.
Taylor, Paul Michael
1985 " T h e l n d o n e s i a n C o l l e c t i o n s o f William L o u i s
A b b o t t ( 1860-1 936 1 :
Invitation t o A Research
Resource a t t h e Smithsonian Institution," Council
f o r Museum Anthropoloqy Newsletter 9 ( 2 I :5-14.
T h o u g h Borneo as many o f u s knew i t - - o r remember
it--'IS n o more, r e s e a r c h among i t s peoples may help
p r e s e r v e a n d emphasize those values a n d p a t t e r n s of life b y
which we maintain mutual respect a n d enhance t h e q u a l i t y
o f l i f e o f all.
We a r e indebted t o t h e following persons f o r t h e i r
c o n t r i b u t i o n s which have k e p t u s solvent a n d enabled u s t o
continue t h e w o r k of t h e Council.
( I f o u r records are
inaccurate a n d anyone's name i s omitted, we lay t h e blame
on o u r computer system--excluding processors--and ask t h a t
you n o t i f y us. I
C o n t r i b u t o r s are:
G. N. Appell, Helen
Appell, L a u r a P. Appell-Warren, Tim Babcock, Stanley H.
Bedlington, Donald Brown, P a t r i c k K. Cassels, Carol J.
Pierce Colfer, O t t o Doering, Michael Dove, Richard A. and
Doris Drake, R i c h a r d C. Fidler, W. R. Geddes, Jack Golson,
G. L. Gray, Peter Grey, Sin-Fong Han, A . J. Hepburn,
Robert Inger, .Dietrich Kuhne, Peter Kunstadter, Michael
Leigh, Jose Maceda, Peter Martin, Allen R Maxwell, Alastair
A . M o r r i s o n , J o h n M u s g r a v e , S h u i c h i Nagata, Rodney
Needham, D . A . Pocock, R o b e r t M . P r i n g l e , Ronald
Provencher, A. J. N. Richards, Joan Seeler, B e r n a r d Sellato,
C. Hudson Southwell, Jack Stuster, John 0. Sutter, Peter
Thomas, P h i l l i p 0. Thomas, A n d r e w P. Vayda, Carol and
James Warren, a n d L e i g h Wright.
.
NOTES FROM THE EDITOR (Cont'd. )
several f r i e n d s .of t h e i r s were abusers and victims, a n d "we
feel something should b e done t o help them."
Equally regrettable i s t h e "victimization" of B o r n e a n
societies t h a t i s leading t o t h e loss o f t h e creative g e n i u s
o f s c o r e s o f i n d i g e n o u s cultures.
There are s t r i k i n g
parallels w i t h a r e c e n t l y completed research p r o j e c t f u n d e d
b y t h e U n i t e d States Department o f Education. T h e p r o j e c t
discovered t h a t i n American social science texts, t h e r e i s ( 1 )
no reference t o traditional ways o f life. ( 2 ) no p o r t r a y a l o f
traditional p a t t e r n s o f society, especially t h e place o f t h e
family a n d kin-groups, ( 3 ) no explanation o f significant
symbols a n d r i t u a l processes on which t h e r o u n d o f l i f e i s
played, b u t r a t h e r (4)a d i s t o r t e d emphasis on money, status,
and personal enjoyment as the reason f o r living.
THE BORNEO RESEARCH COUNCIL
T h e Borneo Research Coi!ncil was founded in 1968 a n d
i t s membership consists o f Fellows, an international g r o u p o f
s c h o l a r s who a r e professionally engaged in research in
Borneo.
T h e goals o f t h e Council a r e ( 1 ) t o promote
scientific research in Borneo; ( 2 ) t o p e r m i t t h e research
community. interested Borneo government departments and
o t h e r s t o keep abreast o f ongoing research a n d i t s results;
( 3 ) t o s e r v e as a vehicle f o r d r a w i n g attention t o u r g e n t
research problems; (4)t o coordinate t h e flow o f information
of Borneo research a r i s i n g f r o m many d i v e r s e sources; (5)t o
disseminate r a p i d l y t h e i n i t i a l r e s u l t s o f research activity;
a n d (6) t o f a c i l i t a t e research b y r e p o r t i n g on c u r r e n t
conditions.
T h e f u n c t i o n s o f t h e Council also include
p r o v i d i n g counsel a n d assistance t o research endeavors,
c o n s e r v a t i o n activities,
research results.
a summary of news, e i t h e r d e r i v e d f r o m p r i v a t e sources o r
summarized from items appearing in o t h e r places t h a t may
not b e r e a d i l y accessible t o t h e readers o f t h e B u l l e t i n b u t
which have a n i n t e r e s t a n d relevance f o r them. T h e y will
b e i n c l u d e d w i t h t h e c o n t r i b u t o r ' s name i n parentheses
following t h e item t o indicate t h e source.
Summaries of
news longer t h a n one o r t w o paragraphs will appear w i t h
t h e c o n t r i b u t o r ' s name u n d e r t h e t i t l e a n d prefaced b y
"From".
a n d t h e practical application of
S u p p o r t f o r the' activities of t h e Council comes f r o m
subscriptions t o t h e Borneo Research Bulletin, Fellowship
fees, a n d c o n t r i b u t i o n s .
Contributions have played a
significant p a r t in t h e s u p p o r t of t h e Council, a n d :hey a r e
always welcome.
Fellows o f t h e Borneo Research Council
Biblioqraphic Section: A B i b l i o g r a p h y o f r e c e n t publications
will appear i n each issue o f t h e Bulletin, and, consequently,
r e p r i n t s o r o t h e r notices of recent publications would be
g r a t e f u l l y received b y t h e E d i t o r .
The p r i v i l e g e s of Fellows include ( 1 ) participation i n
t h e organization a n d activities o f t h e Council; ( 2 ) right t o
form committees o f Fellows t o deal w i t h special research
problems o r interests; ( 3 1 s u p p o r t o f t h e Council's program
o f f u r t h e r i n g research in t h e social, biological, a n d medical
sciences i n Borneo; ( 4 ) subscription t o t h e Borneo Research
Bulletin.
Other Items: Personal news, b r i e f summaries o r research
activities, recent publications, and o t h e r b r i e f items will
appear w i t h o u t t h e source specifically indicated. T h e Editor
u r g e s those c o n t r i b u t i n g s u c h news items t o send them i n
t h e f o r m in w h ~ c ht h e c o n t r i b u t o r wishes them t o appear
r a t h e r t h a n leaving t h i s t o t h e d i s c r e t i o n o f t h e Editor.
T h e Fellows o f t h e Council i e r v e as a pool o f knowledge and expertise on Borneo matters which may b e d r a w n
upon t o deal with. specific problems b o t h in t h e f i e l d of
r e s e a r c h a n d 'in t h e p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f scientific
knowledge.
Workinq Papers: Research r e p o r t s o r papers exceeding 10
double-spaced pages will b e p u b l i s h e d as Working Papers.
A u t h o r s who submit s u c h papers w i l l b e consulted by t h e
Editor who, upon o b t a i n i n g a n author's consent, will e d i t
and process t h e paper f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n b y p r i v a t e o r d e r . A
l i s t o f W o r k i n g Papers, w i t h t h e cost o f each, w i l l be
included in each issue o f t h e B u l l e t i n .
Fellowship in t h e Council i s by invitation, a n d enquiries are welcomed i n t h i s regard.
INFORMATION FOR AUTHORS
Research Notes: These should b e concerned w i t h a summary
o f research on a p a r t i c u l a r subject o r geographical area: t h e
r e s u l t s o f r e c e n t research; a review o f t h e literature;
analyses o f t h e s t a t e of research; a n d so f o r t h . Research
Notes d i f f e r f r o m o t h e r c o n t r i b u t i o n s i n t h a t t h e material
covered should b e based o n original. research o r t h e use o f
judgment, experience a n d personal knowledge on t h e p a r t o f
t h e author in t h e preparation of t h e material so t h a t an
original conclusion i s reached.
These d i f f e r f r o m t h e foregoing i n
B r i e f Communications:
t h a t no o r i a i n a l conclusions are drawn nor any data in
consisting p r i m a r i l y o f a statement o f research intentions o r
4
1
A l l c o n t r i b u t i o n s should b e sent t o t h e Editor, Borneo
Research Bulletin, c / o Department o f Anthropology, College
of William a n d Mary, Williamsburg, VA 23185, U.S.A.
S T Y L E FOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Please s u b m i t a l l c o n t r i b u t i o n s double-spaced.
Research Notes a n d B r i e f Communications should b e limited
t o approximately e i g h t double-spaced pages. Footnotes a r e
t o be avoided wherever possible. Bibliographies should be
listed alphabetically by author a t t h e e n d o f t h e c o n t r i butions: a u t h o r should appear on a separate line, t h e n date.