Historical Context of Tsantsa (shrunken heads)

Historical Context of Tsantsa
(shrunken heads) and Shrinkage Studies
Performed Using Pig Heads
Tobias Houlton
Supervisor: Prof. Caroline Wilkinson
Centre for Anatomy and Human Identification, University of Dundee, Dundee,
DD1 4EH
Abstract
The Shuar tribes of South America are known for their one time custom of head
shrinking. The aims of this research were to comprehend the historic significance of
tsantsa production within the Shuar tribe, consider the trade and possible
identification of counterfeit shrunken heads amongst Western curio-hunters, and
understand the effects of head shrinking upon facial morphology. Here, two pig
heads were shrunk using the prescribed Shuar method – yielding results that suggest
that dense cartilaginous tissue shrinks at a slower rate than skin.
Keywords: Tsantsa, head shrinking, Shuar tribes, craniofacial reconstruction.
Shuar history
The Shuar tribes, famous for their one
time custom of head shrinking, are
situated within the Eastern montaña
of Ecuador and Northern Peru. They
are possibly the largest tribe in NorthWestern South America and consist of
four sub-tribes or dialect groups
(Weyer, 1959; Service, 1963;
Jamieson, 2010), the Untsuri Shuar,
Achuar, Huambiza and Aguaruna
(Harner, 1984; Bennett et al, 2002).
AXIS Vol. 3, Issue 1 (Autumn 2011)
The Shuar are known for their warfare
strategies and are fiercely protective
of their freedom (Anthony, 1921;
Jamieson, 2010). They are reputed as
being the only group of South
American Indians to have successfully
resisted Spanish invasion, since the
Spanish conquest in 1599, and to have
thwarted all subsequent attempts by
the Spanish (Drown and Drown, 1961;
Harner, 1984).
19
During the Spanish conquest, on
March 25th 1550, Captain Hernando
de Benavente named the tribe in a
letter to the Royal Audiencia1 of Spain
as the “Jivaro” (Hendricks, 1993). This
term has a derogatory connotation,
used as a synonym for “savage”,
“uncivilised” and “heathen”.
(Jamieson, 2010; Hendricks, 1993).
However, their real name to which
they should be referred is “Shuar”,
meaning person or people (Drown and
Drown, 1961; Hendricks 1993).
The Shuar were otherwise engaged in
inter-tribal warfare that stemmed
from an intense spiritual belief system
consisting of a fervent conviction of
witchcraft and sorcery, and a loyalty
to their ancestors (Service, 1963).
Their existence has long excited the
imagination of many modern
Europeans, particularly for their
notoriety in shrinking and preserving
the human heads of their enemies
(Service, 1963).
Archeological evidence relating to the
preparation of trophy heads in the
Central Andes describes a long history,
beginning in the Pre-Ceramic Period
(post 1800 B.C.) and continuing
through Inca times (Stirling, 1938;
Proulx, 2001). Almost every major
culture in this area, including Chavin,
Cupisnique, Moche, Paracas, Nasca,
Huari, Chimu and Inca, practiced this
tradition, although each of these
cultures engaged in their own unique
ceremonies, with different ritualistic
contexts for head taking (Proulx,
2001).
Evidence relevant to the preparation
of shrunken heads was found during
pre-Columbian times (pre 1492 A.D.)
over a wide area of Peru. Such
examples are commonly found in both
ceramic and textile art and sometimes
carvings on stone and shell (Stirling,
1938).
Shuar head shrinking
History of head shrinking
Head trophies and the shrinking of
heads, formally known as tsantsa
production, is not believed to be a
purely Shuar practice. It is thought
that because of the relative isolation
of the Shuar tribe, they retained a
custom that was once widespread in
North-Western South America
(Service, 1963).
1
A court that functioned as an appellate
court in Spain and its empire. An appellate
court being any court of law that is
empowered to hear an appeal of a trial court
or other lower tribunal.
AXIS Vol. 3, Issue 1 (Autumn 2011)
Fig. 1: Prehistoric representations of
reduced human heads. a, b, c, e, f, are
textile designs from the peninsula of
Parcas. d, is a detail taken from a
design on an effigy jar from Nasca
(Stirling, 1938).
20
Existing head trophies from the Nasca
and Mundurucú tribe have had
identified similarities to the Shuar’s
tsantsa in regards to methods of
trophy processing and its ritualistic
purposes (Uhle, 1908; Harner, 1984;
Stirling, 1938; Proulx, 1999; Verano,
2003; Jamieson, 2010). However
physical evidence of head trophies,
preserved in the fashion of the Shuar
tsantsa, were identified in 1527
(Estete, 1918) by traveler and
chronicler, Miguel de Estete, when
exploring the Ecuadorian coast. In
Pasao, 1555, cured corpses of men
and children were found crucified on
posts in some temples, alongside
them heads of Indians that had been
shrunk to the size of a fist (Zárate,
1853; Stirling 1938). During the
Spanish Conquest, practices of head
shrinking were found as far north as
the Panuco River in Mexico. In the
Huastec country, the Spaniards found
heads of captured victims placed on
the walls of the native temple (Lorent,
1860). Among the Cunas and
Caimanes Indians along the Atrato
River region, in North-West Columbia,
it was documented that the average
local, not enemy, when deceased, had
their head preserved in the same
manner as the Shuar tsantsa, with
string tassels hanging from the lips
(Saffray, 1873).
Prieto (1885) was the first to
knowingly become acquainted with
the Shuar and their methods of head
shrinking (Stirling, 1938). From
existing accounts amongst the Shuar,
the Untsuri Shuar claim to be first in
performing head shrinking, the
Achuara and Huambiza adopted it
later. There is no found account
AXIS Vol. 3, Issue 1 (Autumn 2011)
regarding the Aguaruna sub-tribe,
however the Candoshi tribe (who are
not Shuar) from the Peruvian Amazon,
are believed to have learnt head
shrinking from the Achuara and
Huambiza (Wallis, 1965).
Shuar method of head shrinking
Existing accounts from academic
observers on head shrinking
methodology imply different methods
for each studied sub-tribe. This
evidence may however be
coincidental (Up de Graff, 1923;
Flornoy, 1953; Jamieson, 2010). To
condense these given methods into a
single sequence of events, the
following account was made:
1. An incision was made from the
occipital protuberance to the
point where the head was
decapitated. The skin then
peeled from the skull, using
sharpened chonta pins to
carefully cut around the eyes,
nose and ears. The skull then
discarded into the river as a
gift to the pani, the anaconda
(River god), or sometimes
abandoned at the trophyprocessing camp.
2. Eyes were stitched closed and
the mouth pinned together by
chonta pins. This was to hold
the facial features in position
and seal its openings, believed
to help the head retain its
normal proportions by
permitting an even contraction
of the whole head, during the
process of curing (Up de Graff,
1923).
21
3. The skin was placed into a
cooking jar filled with river
water, and placed on the fire
(Jandial, 2004). When the
water reached near boiling
point, the skin was removed,
typically by the hair or using a
stick, to avoid excessively
softening the flesh with
consequential tearing, also
avoiding scalding the hair
roots, which would cause the
hair to drop out.
4. Excess flesh, not successfully
removed before simmering,
was scraped off with a knife
and the initial incision sewn
together.
5. Hot stones were collected and
heated on the fire before being
dropped, one at a time,
through the neck opening, to
seer the interior. As each
stone cooled it was replaced
by another hot stone. During
this procedure, the head was
constantly rotated, to prevent
scorching inside. As the head
capacity reduced as it shrank,
the stones were replaced by
hot sand. As with the stones,
the sand, once cooled, was
replaced with fresh, hot sand.
During this process, hot flat
stones were used to iron the
face, sealing and shaping the
features. The natural oil that
exuded from the skin’s pores
enabled the stones to easily
slide over and cure the face.
The skin was also pressed,
shaped and blackened by using
the thumbs dipped in ashes.
the size of a large orange, and
the skin smoothed, hardened
and toughened, they were
hung in the smoke of a fire to
preserve and protect them
from insects.
7. During the tsantsa feast of
“Napin”, the warriors made a
hole at the top of the tsantsa.
A double kumai knot was
inserted and tied to a shirt
stick of chonta palm inside,
this allowed the head to be
worn around the warrior's
neck (see Fig. 2). The chontas
were removed from the lips,
and replaced by frayed cotton
fibres made into tassels that
were then hung over the
mouth. Further decorations
could be applied, which often
included toucan feather
earrings (Karsten, 1935).
Fig. 2: Warrior wearing tsantsa trophy
around his neck (Karsten, 1935).
Accounts of shrinking heads, other
than human, include animals such as
sloth, jaguars, condors and monkeys.
These were often revenge killings
because the animal had harmed a
tribal member (Karsten, 1935; Stirling,
1938).
6. Once the head had shrunk to
AXIS Vol. 3, Issue 1 (Autumn 2011)
22
Substitute tsantsa
It was not uncommon that during an
inter-tribal war an Indian may kill his
enemy but fail to take his head
(Stirling, 1938; Harner, 1984;
Jamieson, 2010).
A substitute head would often include
a sloth’s head (see Fig. 3). According
to Shuar beliefs, all humans are the
direct descendants of all animals.
Uñushi the sloth is believed to be the
first Shuar, and when the original
blood revenge feud took place, the
sons of Mika and Ahimbi, cut off
Uñushi’s head and from it, made the
first tsantsa. The Shuar claim to
tracing most of their ancient human
qualities to the sloth, believing it to be
a direct survivor of ancient times,
making it acceptable to use its head
(Stirling, 1938; Jamieson, 2010).
Fig.3: Shrunken sloth head (Jamieson,
2010).
AXIS Vol. 3, Issue 1 (Autumn 2011)
Alternatively, the killer may borrow a
tsantsa from someone who has killed
on a previous headhunting raid.
Through ritual procedure, the Muisak,
or avenging spirit, of the recent victim
is forced to enter the old tsantsa
(Harner, 1984).
A final method for a substitute tsantsa
would be to create an “untsuri suara”.
In this instance, the killer would pull
out some of his victim's hair during
the raid. The hair was believed to
symbolise the presence of the dead
enemy’s Muisak. It was, attached to a
tree gourd with beeswax, and used as
a substitute tsantsa (Jamieson, 2010).
The purpose of tsantsa
The creating of a tsantsa was to trap
and paralyse the enemy’s “Muisak”,
or avenging spirit, after their death,
before it could escape and take the
form of a demon that would seek
revenge. A tsantsa brought strength to
a warrior, and pleased his spirit
ancestors, ensuring his future good
fortune.
Tsantsa preservation implied a deadly
insult to an enemy. The Shuar
believed there could not be more than
a certain number of persons or
identities in existence at one time. If
the face, identity and name of the
dead, were not stripped away from a
deceased person, it could not be recycled to create a new living person
(Barley, 1995). Once a tsantsa was
drained of its power, it lost value and
would be discarded or treated as a
mere ornament (Stirling, 1938;
Jamieson, 2010).
23
The Western tsantsa: Curiohunters and counterfeits
In the 1850s, enthused by tales of
head-shrinking practices, Europeans
were beginning to infiltrate the Shuar
region in quest of tsantsa (Jamieson,
2010). In the early 1900s this
encouraged a brisk trade in the
manufacture of counterfeit tsantsa in
Ecuador, Columbia and Panama (Up
de Graff, 1923; Stirling, 1938; Verano,
2003; Jamieson, 2010).
Counterfeit tsantsa were made from
both human and non-human sources.
Non-human counterfeit tsantsa were
often made out of goat or monkey
skin. Human tsantsa were frequently
sourced from the corpses of
unclaimed hospital dead or bodies
fraudulently obtained from morgues
(Stirling, 1938; Jamieson, 2010).
To identify counterfeit tsantsa the
following guidelines are employed:
1. Facial down is not removed
and appearance lacks a
polished finish.
2. The skin is not blackened. The
black is however a superficial
colouring applied onto the skin,
and in old, worn authentic
specimens the yellow colour of
the skin is often exposed.
3. In the event of animal heads
being constructed to look like
human tsantsa, the difficulty
encountered in making the
shrunken non-human ear look
like the intricate human ear
makes a counterfeit more
obvious.
4. Counterfeits are generally less
thoroughly shrunk and exude a
certain amount of oil.
AXIS Vol. 3, Issue 1 (Autumn 2011)
5. In a counterfeit, sometimes no
perforations are found round
the lips by chonta-wood pins.
The Shuar perforated tsantsa
lips vertically and made three
or four holes through which
chonta pins inserted.
6. If counterfeit, sometimes the
lips are sewn together with
light threads instead of heavy
cotton string.
7. The Shuar invariably pierced
the crown of the head with a
circular incision through which
a suspension cord was passed.
Sometimes two holes placed
along the median line of the
crown. Counterfeiters usually
omitted these perforations.
8. The stitch-work of a
counterfeiter is often more
skillfully executed than that of
a Shuar, as a result of access to
finer tools and finer fibre or
thread.
9. The Shuar have a typical
method for distorting facial
features, which include
extending the lips and
spreading the nostrils. The
forehead is often compressed
laterally, with two depressions
at temple level, (most likely
from grasping the head at
these two points during
preparation). The facial
features in counterfeit heads
may appear more natural than
that of genuine Shuar tsantsa.
(Sirling, 1938; Jamieson,
2010)
The Shuar head shrinking techniques
can be accurately replicated, making
detection of a counterfeit from the
genuine difficult (Philippi, 1872).
24
Pig head shrinking:
Measurements and
method
Introduction
The Shuar tribe head shrinking
method [see pp. 5-7] was applied to
two pigs heads, within a western
laboratory environment. Here, an
electric heat source replaced an open
fire. Observation of morphological
change, craniofacial measurements
and laser scan were collected to
demonstrate how the pig heads
altered during head shrinking. This
gave the researcher an understanding
of how the head shrinking process
might affect a face.
Methods
Measuring craniofacial landmarks:
Craniofacial landmarks on the pig
faces were marked using permanent
ink marker; measurements were
collected using sliding calipers and
soft measuring tape. Landmarks were
placed according to Quantitative
Assessment of the Morphology of the
Pig's Head Used as a Model in Surgical
Experimentation Part 1: Methods of
Measurements (Munro and Vanderby,
1976).
sensitivity was set to 2 (from a scale of
1 (minimum sensitivity) to 6
(maximum sensitivity)), to preserve
maximum obtainable detail, and avoid
image artefacts caused by operator
error. Once scanned, a “Basic Surface”
was generated to merge multiple
sweeps made when scanning. The
parameters that control this function
are within the “Generate Surface”
option. The “Smoothing” option
(which limits the extent to which each
sweep smoothly ‘stitches’ with
another) was set at 4.0. The
“Decimation” value, which affects
triangulation detail of the scan and
subsequent file size, was set to 2.0. All
scans made were saved as an ‘.stl’ file.
‘Before’ and ‘after’ head shrinking
scans, were opened in Freeform
Modelling Plus™ (version 9.0). The
‘before’ image was superimposed
with the ‘after’ image to make a visual
comparison.
Photographic Evidence:
Photographs were taken using a Nikon
D20 digital camera and an attached
D20AF-N iTTL AF Nikon camera flash.
A Nikon 18-200mm F3.5-5.6G IF-ED
AF-S VR DX zoom lens was used at a
distance of 6 feet. A scale was
included.
Laser scanning:
A digital scan of each head was
collected utilizing a FastSCAN™
Scorpion laser surface scanner before
and after head shrinking. Scanner
settings included the profilesmoothing filter set to “low” (options
being low, medium or high), to avoid a
loss of detail in the scan. Wand
AXIS Vol. 3, Issue 1 (Autumn 2011)
25
Test 1
Head shrinking methods for Pig
Head 1
1.
The pig head supplied by
the butcher was already
decapitated and shaved. From
the point of decapitation, the
skin was drawn back on both
sides and carefully peeled from
the skull using a scalpel. At the
eyes, ears and nose area, some
extra cutting was necessary.
The skull was no longer
required.
2. The face was turned inside out
and as much subcutaneous fat
and muscle tissue as possible
was removed using a scalpel.
3. The lips were pierced with 4
handmade, balsa wood pins
(chontas) measuring 50mms x
8mms. The eyelids were sewn
shut with surgical suturing
materials.
4. The head was placed in a large
pot and covered in cold water.
The water was brought up to
80˚C, which was just
simmering. The head was
gently simmered for an hour
only, as the tissue was
becoming very flaccid.
5. As so much water had been
absorbed during the
simmering process, the head
had become fragile and
difficult to handle. It was
placed face down, in a bowl for
support, and covered in a kilo
quantity of salt, for 24 hours.
This dehydrated the tissue,
AXIS Vol. 3, Issue 1 (Autumn 2011)
making it strong enough to
withstand suturing. (Some
tearing had occurred because
of its fragility). N.B. The salting
procedure was a rescue
measure and not part of the
Shuar tribe’s head shrinking
method.
6. Any further excess fat and
tissue was gently removed.
This was important so that the
final drying process would be
more successful.
7. Using strong surgical suturing
material, the decapitation
incision along the jaw area,
was sewn up.
8. Hot pebbles were placed into
the remaining neck cavity. These
were constantly tilted and rolled
to keep them from burning the
flesh. Due to the weight and
fragility of the head, it was kept in
the bowl to support it (N.B.
Throughout the shrinking process,
care was taken to constantly
mould and knead the loose facial
skin to avoid the features
becoming distorted.)
9. As the neck cavity began to
reduce in size, the pebbles
were replaced by hot sand
being poured into the head
cavity. This completed the
shrinking process before
dehydration.
10.
The Shuar tribe would
have suspended a shrunken
head in the smoke of a fire to
dry and cure but this was not
practical for this experiment.
The shrunken pig head was
dried in a domestic oven for 1
26
hour, at 150˚ C, adjusting the
position as appropriate to dry
evenly.
Test 2
Head shrinking methods for Pig
Head 2
1. The pig head supplied by the
butcher was already
decapitated and shaved. The
head was prepared in the same
way as the 1st pig head.
(See points 1-3 above.)
2. For this test the 2nd pig head
was placed into a pan of
already simmering water, at a
hotter temperature of 90˚C,
and simmered for 2 hours. The
simmering was visibly more
active.
1. Points 6 – 10 of Pig test 1 were
repeated on Pig head 2.
Photographic comparison:
Results and observations
Craniofacial changes recorded: Pig
head 1
Table 1: Test 1 - Measurements made
before and after simmering and at the
end of head shrinking. Percentage
changes recorded from Stages; 1 - 2, 2
- 3, and overall percentage changes
from 1 - 3.
Fig. 4: Front and side profile
photograph of pig head 1 before
shrinking.
KEY. Stage 1 = Before simmering.
Stage 2 = After simmering.
Stage 3 = After drying.
AXIS Vol. 3, Issue 1 (Autumn 2011)
27
Fig. 5: Front and side profile of pig
head 1 after shrinking.
Visual recording using the FastSCAN™
laser scanner:
Fig. 6: Scanned recordings of head 1
“Before” and “After” head shrinking
(in FreeForm™).
Fig. 7: Superimposed scan of head 1
showing side, three-quarter and front
profile
(in FreeForm™).
AXIS Vol. 3, Issue 1 (Autumn 2011)
28
Pig head study 1
The initial heat source for simmering
was not adequate and resulted in a
barely simmering temperature. As the
head had been placed in cold water
first and then heated, excessive water
absorption occurred.
As the pig head had absorbed too
much water, it made it very difficult to
work with. The head was so fragile it
tore in a few places during handling.
The head had to be dehydrated in salt
to make the tissue stronger and
before the head shrinking process
could be continued.
As the head was supported in a bowl
while being dehydrated, it conformed
to the shape of the bowl, giving the
face a convex appearance.
Craniofacial changes recorded: Pig
head 2
Table 2: Test 2 - Measurements made
before and after simmering and at the
end of head shrinking. Percentage
changes recorded from Stage 1 to
Stage 2, 2 to 3, and overall percentage
changes from Stages 1 to 3.
Photographic comparison:
KEY. Stage 1 = Before shrinking.
Stage 2 = After simmering.
Stage 3 = After drying.
AXIS Vol. 3, Issue 1 (Autumn 2011)
Fig. 8: Front and side profile
photograph of pig head 1, before
shrinking
29
Fig. 9: Front and side profile of pig
head 1, after shrinking.
Visual recording using the FastSCAN™
laser scanner:
Fig. 10: Scanned recordings of head 2
“Before” and “After” head shrinking
(in FreeForm™).
Fig. 11: Superimposed scan of head 2
showing side, three-quarter and front
profile
(in FreeForm™).
AXIS Vol. 3, Issue 1 (Autumn 2011)
30
Pig head study 2
Lessons were learnt from the 1st test
and rectified in the 2nd test.
The pig head was added to already
simmering water, at a higher
simmering level, thus avoiding the
excess water absorption, as
experienced in test 1.
As pig head 2 was much less fragile,
there was minimal damage during
handling.
The head was not allowed to shrink in
a fixed position, to avoid the tissue
distortion experienced with pig 1. An
exaggerated facial distortion did occur
however, during shrinking, while
trying to support, by hand, the hot
and large sized head.
Overall, Pig head 2 was a more
successful result.
Discussion
To successfully shrink a pig head, as
much fat and tissue as possible should
be removed from the head’s skin. The
pig head must then be placed in
simmering water at 90˚C for
approximately two hours. The hot
stones should be continually rotated,
to avoid burning and tissue distortion
as the head shrinks. After applying hot
sand, the head should be thoroughly
dried in an oven at 150˚C for one
hour.
Conclusion
Both pig heads shrunk to
approximately half their original size;
the skin, shrunk at a slower rate
around cartilaginous areas. The lower
face shrunk markedly as it had the
most fat removed and had no
cartilage. Additional application of hot
stones and sand were required to
shrink the cartilaginous nose and ears,
to maintain proportions.
The rate, at which skin shrinks, in
comparison to cartilaginous tissue,
might account for the nose of a
human tsantsa often being in an
upturned position, emphasizing the
nostrils.
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