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GEOBASICS STUDY GUIDE
MAP STUDIES IN THE GEOGRAPHY
OF THE LAND OF THE BIBLE
part three — S outhern
A rena
Steven P. Lancaster and James M. Monson
A Study Guide
for—
Geobasics in the Land of the Bible: Maps for Marking
James M. Monson
with Steven P. Lancaster
Rockford, IL: Biblical Backgrounds, Inc.
www.bibback.com • 1-877-425-0909
Version 4.3 (April 28, 2011) —v. 4.3 adds Sinai’s Geobasics statements to p. 201
Copyright © 2011
All rights reserved. This publication may be received
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Printed in U.S.A
Published by
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Biblical Backgrounds, Inc.
Rockford, IL U.S.A.
Geobasics GUIDE: part three—southern arena
TABLE OF CONTENTS
IntroducTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
i.Introducing the book, Geobasics in the Land of the Bible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii.Introducing the map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii.Introducing the reference helps and lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv.Introducing the southern arena through the master map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
v.The master map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. NORTHERN ARENA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
see
Geobasics Study Guide:
156
156
157
158
159
part one
(http://www.bibback.com/downloads.html)
b. Central ARENA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
see
Geobasics Study Guide:
part two
(http://www.bibback.com/downloads.html)
c. Southern ARENA (rocks and soils–map on pages 6-7) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
1. Eastern Heights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
a. edom (mt. seir) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
b. aravah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
2. Southern Highlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a. uplifts in the south . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. central nahal zin drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. northern region of uplifts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
texts: southern highlands, great wilderness, crossing the great south . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
171
172
173
175
178
3. Negev Corridor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a. western negev basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. eastern negev basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
texts: negev basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. around the zeelim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d. details ‘around the zeelim’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
detailed ‘around the zeelim’ map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
185
187
189
191
195
197
198
4. Looking
at the big picture: the
Southern Arena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Geobasics GUIDE: introduction
156
INTRODUCTION IN BRIEF
This Geobasics Guide recognizes the reality that some users want less detail while some want more.
It attempts to meet this need by using the phrase ‘guide in brief’ and a vertical line to designate
certain sections for those who want to complete assignments with haste but still observe their main
points. They later may want to return and complete the full Guide as others do. All users should
feel free to interact with the Guide, especially with ‘personality in texts,’ by highlighting key words
and phrases in order to fix them in their minds and later return to review what they earlier found
important. In order to have this Introduction readily available it is repeated at the beginning of each
arena, together with a specific introductory Master Map for each arena, each with its own markings.
I. Introducing the printed book, Geobasics in the Land of the Bible: Map for Marking (2008)
The following provides a quick survey of the main features of the book.
guide in brief—
INTRODUCING
THE BOOK
• The three-dimensional map on the front cover communicates that the land of the Bible
is a land of variety. We need to learn it; ‘God’s eyes are on it.’
• The outside of the back cover serves as a quick index to find specific maps in the book.
• The reference chart inside the back cover offers introductory discussions on ‘geobasics.’
• The center double-spread (pp. 12/13) presents a full map of the land with a legend and
short descriptions of rocks and soils.
• Three full-color, double-spread rocks and soils maps (pp. 2/7) introduce the three arenas
of the land: Northern (pp. 2/3), Central (pp. 4/5) and Southern (pp. 6/7) Arenas.
• The remaining maps (pp. 8-23) provide ‘closer views’ of the land but show only soils and
not rocks. These maps assist with more detailed regional study.
II. Introducing the map
Look at the rocks and soils map on pp. 12/13 and find the following, arranged in an easy to find
order rather than the sequence seen on p. 12. Regional names appear on the map on p. 1.
guide in brief—
INTRODUCING
THE MAP COLORS
•Red represents volcanic basalt of Golan and Bashan.
•Green represents thick beds of uplifted limestones particularly well-represented in the center
of the land or in Galilee.
•Purple represents deeper, yet forcefully uplifted beds of hard limestones in the two
Lebanon ranges between the Mediterranean sea and the site of Damascus far to the east.
•Brown represents tracts of chalks such as those east of Bethlehem or south of Medeba.
•Pale yellow represents softer limestones and chalks, such as those west of Judah, west of
the Southern Highlands or north of Damascus.
•Gray (with a pattern) represents lissan in the Rift, sediments from an ancient, larger
lake.
The maps in the book divide into two types.
guide in brief—
INTRODUCING
THE MAP TYPES
• The first set of maps shows both rocks and soils. It consists of the three introductory
arena maps (pp. 2-7) and the center-fold in the book (pp. 12/13), which includes a
legend and short description of the rocks and soils. The chart inside the back cover
addresses rock characteristics.
• The second set of maps uses uncovered rock relief but keeps the heavier soil deposits.
This allows for easier viewing of the land’s topography, waterways, sites and routes and
the opportunity to identify the soil resources of the various regions.
Geobasics GUIDE: introduction
157
III.Introducing reference helps and lines
Some reference helps in the Geobasics book require your attention.
guide in brief—
INTRODUCING
REFERENCE HELPS
•‘Rocks, Force, Water, Soils and Man’ chart (inside the back cover). The left-hand
column offers a key to your study and the basic physical issues of the land. It summarizes
rocks and geological processes; introduces the important factors of rainfall, erosion and
water storage; identifies soils in the land and factors of settlement [erratum: change ‘page
3’ under this discussion to pages 12/13]; and begins the discussion of travel in the land.
The right side of the chart lists the major rocks in the land with their characteristics
and locations throughout the land.
•Legend and glossary of rocks and soils (pp. 12/13). The ‘Legend of Sequence’ identifies
the geological color scheme in the book. A short glossary of rock and soil terms appears
with the legend and identifies the major rock types in each era and briefly introduces soil
formation.
•Rainfall Line. A green rainfall line appears on pp. 12/13. Areas with rainfall sufficient
for farming north of the line. Areas south of the line receive insufficient rainfall for
agriculture, and since rainfall is also the most significant factor in soil production, these
areas do not have the necessary soil quantities for farming.
Highlighting instructions: ‘HL’ means highlight with a colored highlighter, according to
the thickness you desire; you can always add more HL but not take it away. Do not use
a permanent pen that bleeds through the paper, and do not rest on a line and allow the
paper to absorb the ink. Accent highlighters with chisel or wedge tips work well. You
will need a green, a red/pink and a yellow which simply highlight the text or road.
. HL in green the rainfall line on pp. 12/13. Begin on the coast near Ashkelon, follow
the line up to the heights around Hebron and then north along the eastern edge of the
Central Hill Country to Lake Galilee. The line then runs south along the top of the
eastern scarp above the Rift valley. The heights of the scarp in Moab and Edom allow
the line to move south to just beyond the edge of the map. On the way back north,
notice the narrow strip along these eastern heights that falls within the line. As you
approach Bashan, the line veers east around heights of Jebel Druze and then swings
back west before following the eastern face of the Anti-Lebanon range off the map.
Four types of lines on the maps require your attention.
guide in brief—
INTRODUCING
LINES
•Uplift Lines: Uplift lines are yellow, dotted lines which mark out the top of an upfold
along the crest of mountain ranges. The Lebanon range, for example, displays one long
uplift. On pp. 2/3 find the yellow, dotted line marking the crest of this range.
•Divisional Lines: We have divided the land into major divisions in order to facilitate
grouping subdivisions and regions. Thicker, solid gray lines mark out these major
divisions. On pp. 2/3 find this solid line separating the Damascus plateau, Golan and
Bashan from the Anti-Lebanon and Lebanon ranges. This is a divisional line.
•Subdivisional Lines: On pp. 2/3 find the thin, dotted, black line which separates Golan
from Bashan; and another which separates Lower Gilead from Bashan. These are subdivisional lines. Both divisional and subdivisional lines should give cause for you to
reflect on what distinguishes one region from another or one subregion from another.
•Soil Division Lines. On pp 10/12, find a thin, broken line which divides soils in the
valleys of Lower Galilee from the rocks in the hill regions. This line serves to set the
soils apart from the surrounding rocks and demarcates valleys and plains where greater
amounts of soil have collected. We will never ask you to HL these lines.
Geobasics GUIDE: introduction—Marking the master map for the southern arena
158
IV.Introducing the Southern Arena through marking the Master Map
The Master Map on p. 159 is a key reference tool in your study. By showing the entire country
the map allows you to see the full layout of the land. Use the markings below to mark this Master
Map. You should also relate this map to the front cover map of Geobasics in the Land of the
Bible (Geobasics below) as well as to other maps in the Geobasics book. Your exploration of
these maps is very important, especially as you locate divisions and their lines (solid dark) and
subdivisional/regional names. Some names appear in their longer form on Geobasics maps.
guide in brief—
MARKING on
PRINT OUT of p. 159:
MASTER MAP
Print out the Master Map on p. 159:
. On the master map find the term Southern Arena and HL it in pink
. HL in yellow the main divisions of the SA: Arabian Desert, Eastern Heights and
Southern Uplifts. The Central Abyss extends south of the Dead Sea but is not named
here
C Find these same areas on Geobasics front cover map, although they are not named
there. This exercise allows you to visualize the changes in terrain from Edom’s heights,
across the Rift, over the southern uplifts and through the Negev to the Mediterranean
Sea. The bold names below appear on the Geobasics front cover map:
1) Eastern Heights add Edom to the heights of Moab and Gilead further N;
2) Central Abyss continues S of the Dead Sea;
3) Southern Uplifts lies SW to NE across the name Southern Highlands; the basin of
the Negev separates the Southern Uplifts from the Western Uplifts.
. On the master map find subdivisional/regional names in the main divisions of the SA.
In the Eastern Heights HL in green: Edom
In and around the Southern Uplifts HL in green: Southern Highlands, Aravah,
Eastern (E) Negev, Western (W) Negev, Sinai sands and Sinai
C Find the same subdivisional/regional names in Geobasics Rocks and Soils map on pp.
6/7. The term Sinai does not appear on this map but find its location by comparing
maps, and write sinai in (small caps) and HL it in green.
IN
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BB BIBLICAL
BACKGROUNDS
SOUTHERN
HIGHLANDS
J. Monson
© 2009, All rights reserved
,
Inc.
Distribution Office: POB 135
Rice Lake, WI 54868, U.S.A.
web site: www.bib back.com
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marking companion to—
Geobasics in the Land of the Bible: Maps for Marking
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Geobasics Study Guide: Part Three—Southern Arena
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for—
RM
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Master Map
Geobasics GUIDE: master map—southern arena
159
DAN
GILEAD
UPPER
AMMON
GEOBASICS STUDY GUIDE: Sa—introduction
160
F. SOUTHERN ARENA—Pages 6/7
‘Where is the LORD who brought us up from the land of Egypt,
who led us in the bleak wilderness [of the Southern Arena],
in a land of arid plains and deep gorges,
in a land parched and in the shadow of death,
in a land through which no one dares pass,
nor in which any man dares to settle.’
Jer 2:6-7
But I brought you into a land of plenty, to feast upon its fruits and its bounty.
These words from the opening chapters of Jeremiah frame our entire approach to the Southern
Arena. Here in the south our perspectives change dramatically. We leave the settled, watered
regions of the Land Between and enter the arid, rugged and nomadic Southern Arena. This impacts
every part of the study that follows. Those who live in watered and bountiful surroundings must now
abandon their everyday assumptions and awake to the stark reality that as rainfall decreases water
does not exist—unless one knows exactly where and how to find it. Green grass and fruitful orchards
disappear—except in very specific areas. Secure travel between settlements, guaranteed by a central
government, evaporates since every path is part of some clan’s assumed territory, and every step must
be negotiated, if not contested. The Southern Arena is a different world than regions farther north.
Various geological explanations attempt to explain the Southern Arena’s diverse and impressive
landscape, as well as the relationship between its narrow Eastern Heights and its series of central
uplifts. Our task here, however, is simply to introduce the Southern Arena on pp. 6/7 by comparing
its general features with those of our other arenas on pp. 2/3 and 4/5. Flip back and forth to these
maps and note differences as you read the following. The map on pp. 12/13 is useful in this exercise
since it provides both an overview and shows the limit of substantial rainfall (broken green line).
P
Major uplifts (broken yellow lines): Note how these change as one moves S through
the land and how their alignment results in various barriers and landscapes
P
Rift Valley: Follow the Rift’s orientation, its features and its surrounding regions from
the Beqaa valley in the N to the Aravah valley in the S
P
East of Rift Valley: Compare the transjordanian regions from N to S and observe
changes in rock, soils, relief and probable areas of settlement
P
Coastal Plain: Note the width of the coastal plain all along its length as well as its
changing soil composition until you reach the sands of northern Sinai in the extreme S
P
Between Coastal Plain and Rift: Note changes in this important central area, from
Lebanon in the N to the expanses of the Southern Arena
By looking at pp. 12/13 it may appear that the Southern and Central arenas share several
similarities. Both have Eastern Heights on the edge of the larger Arabian plateau, and both heights
abruptly end by deep faults along the central abyss of the Rift. The Eastern Heights of the Southern
Arena, however, rise more steeply to higher elevations while the Rift below has become an arid
plain, passable to all who have learned the region’s dangers and its strict ways.
Like the Central Arena uplifts appear in the Southern Arena W of the Rift. These southern uplifts,
however, lie beyond the limit of sufficient rainfall for the development of deep, fertile soils and
agricultural activities found farther N. Only in Edom’s Eastern Heights do these exist. Groups of
separate, southern uplifts also tend to be narrower with intervening depressions and plains, sometime
so folded that they crack and large bowl-like cirques appear. They are not hospitable.
The text on p. 7 lists the Southern Arena’s major divisions. Thicker, solid gray lines mark 1) the
Eastern Heights, 2) a southern series of uplifts W of the Rift, and 3) the corridor of the Negev
basins. Smaller, broken lines within these major divisions indicate subdivisions.
GEOBASICS STUDY GUIDE: SA eastern heights—edom
161
1. EASTERN HEIGHTS
guide in brief—
MARKING
Turn to pp. 6/7: Southern Arena map
. HL these names in green: Arabian Desert, Edom, Moab
. HL in red (if not already HL) from N to S: Dibon, Aroer, Kir (in Kir [hareseth]), Iyeabarim, Tafila, Sela, Bozrah, Shaubak, Petra, Wadi Musa
. HL in yellow from N to S: Heidan canyon, Arnon, Mujib canyon, Ascent of Luhith,
Kerak canyon, Ascent of Horonaim, Zered canyon (‘Hasa’ in Arabic), Dana canyon
. HL in green the subdivisional (broken) lines: Via Arnon canyon N of the name Moab;
S of the name Edom via the Feinan canyon separating northern and southern Edom
. HL/black write-in: feinan depression (small caps, two lines) between Dana canyon
and ‘Shaubak’; punon (small caps) just below ‘Feinan Canyon’
As you look down Edom’s Eastern Heights from N to S note changes in rocks and soils and the
relationship of these heights to the nearby Rift. What differences and similarities do you see
between the northern and southern regions? These will become apparent as you proceed.
a. Edom
guide in brief—
GEOBASICS
(Mt. Seir)
Geobasics
• Bounded by the Arabian desert and by the Rift, Edom’s broad northern heights rise
from the Zered canyon to almost 1800m/5900f but become narrow ridges S of Shaubak.
• Edom’s northern heights (Mt. Seir) draw rain and snow from passing storms to create
small areas of agricultural activity and even orchards in an otherwise arid setting.
• Edom’s western scarps rise abruptly from the Rift to form a natural and spectacular
bulwark of canyons, from lower, colorful sandstones to higher, formidable limestones.
• Tracks descending from Edom’s heights into the Rift are few and difficult, and camel
drivers needed great skill to protect animals and goods on their westward way.
• The faulted and rugged Feinan depression stretches from the Dana canyon to the
fortress of Shaubak, but a route around its high rim links northern and southern Edom.
• South of the Feinan depression Edom’s limestones narrow as agricultural activities are
confined to a few local catchment areas, such as those around modern Wadi Musa.
• Edom occupies a key position in the southern trade network, and when Edom expanded
W of the Rift and to the Red Sea it became Judah’s main commercial competitor.
• Edom’s celebrated site of Bozrah in northern Edom sits within yawning canyons while
the ornate, commercial hub of Petra lies deep within Edom’s southern sandstones.
• Edom’s unique setting allowed a central clan authority to use its choice regions as bases
from which to extend control over surrounding caravan routes and gain great wealth.
Num 20:14-21
Deut 2:2-8
Cf. 2 Kgs 14:7
Obad 10-14
Arad ostracon 24
Edom’s unique setting, a small, self-contained area supporting life on edge of the great arid
plains of Arabia, offered its inhabitants control over trade flowing from southern Arabia
toward Mediterranean ports. The wandering children of Israel by-passed Edomite settlements,
but control of southern trade became a major issue later as kings in Judah bitterly struggled
with clans in Edom. Both coveted control of the southern trade corridor via the Negev
linking Arabia and the Mediterranean. When imperial Assyria and Babylon weakened Judah,
Edomites took advantage and pushed NW into Judah’s Negev and beyond.
The region of Edom attracted migrating Arabian tribes from Arabian regions beyond the
southern border of this map. As the Edomites moved NW into Judah, the Nabateans
162
advanced northward into these Eastern Heights, formerly Edomite territory. With their expert
knowledge of managing runoff and water sources the Nabateans settled throughout the region
of Edom. They flourished from their extraordinary center at Petra. Sculptured cliff-facades
adorn a large, sandstone hollow while rock-hewn altars and an acropolis dot the heights
above the basin. Far above the city, overlooks near a spectacular stone facade called ‘ed-Deir’
offer vistas across western horizons beyond the Rift to arid areas, through which caravan
routes progressed along a network of other Nabatean cities and ultimately reached the
Mediterranean and Egypt. Not far to the N is ‘Little Petra,’ an area of grain fields watered by
storms from the W. Here, within the hollows of a narrow, enclosed canyon, lively bargaining
over goods and tolls would have rang out in the days of Jesus and during later centuries of
Roman and Byzantine control. Exploring the greater Petra area takes many days, and thus it is
the most visited attraction within land of Edom in today’s country of Jordan.
The impact of the Nabateans in Edom is remarkable, but the most dramatic invasion from
Arabia through this area occurred within one short decade in the seventh century (+630 to
+640), after the forces of Mohammed brutally solidified control over the region of Mecca and
Medina far to the S. From there the sword of Islam entered the Land Between via this land
of Edom—but did not stop here. It continued into the Negev, the southern coastal plain and
N through Transjordan, overrunning Byzantine settlements, surprising their defenses and
ultimately reaching Damascus and beyond. No previous invasion from the S compares to that
of Islam.
guide in brief—
MARKING on
CLOSER VIEW MAP
pp. 22/23
Turn to pp. 22/23: Negev, Southern Highlands and Edom map
This new map (pp. 22/23) provides a view into the heart of the Southern Arena. It offers
a closer view of regions between northern Edom and the Negev basins, called the Eastern
and Western Negev on this map. Take a moment before marking this map to review
names and features you already know. In the printing process a few names were omitted on
the maps and are added below.
. HL in green: Edom, Arabian Desert
. HL in red (if not already HL) from N to S: Kir (in Kir [hareseth]), Bozrah, Shaubak
. The site of Shaubak is correct on p. 7 but not on p. 23. Correct Shaubak’s location on
p. 23 by drawing an arrow to its proper location above the red road as on p.7.
. HL in yellow from N to S (if not already HL): Heidan canyon, Arnon, Mujib canyon,
Ascent of Luhith, Kerak canyon, Ascent of Horonaim, Zered canyon (‘Hasa’ in
Arabic), Dana canyon, Feinan Canyon
. HL/black write-in: feinan depression (small caps, two lines) between subdivisional
line and ‘Shaubak’; punon (small caps) below ‘Feinan Canyon’
. Black dot and write-in (optional): Tafila, Sela, Iye-abarim? Locations on p. 7.
. HL in yellow on red route: two routes coming on to the map by Shaubak, joining and
running N to cross the Zered canyon (at Iye-abarim) and enter Moab
. Black write-in (along red route): ‘King’s Highway’ along the route just HL, just N of
where it crosses the Zered canyon
Tracks descending into the Rift from the region of Bozrah are few and arduous. Today it is
possible to explore the descent down the Dana canyon (not shown on this map) since the
country of Jordan has wisely created a nature preserve in this fascinating area. The Dana
empties in Punon region (discussed below) where faulting off the Rift makes dramatic inroads
to the NE, separating northern Edom (N of the subdivisional line) from southern Edom (S
of the subdivisional line). Much of the Feinan depression drains into the Feinan canyon,
163
and as it does it creates a great barrier as it curves S and the SW to capture drainage around
Shaubak, a splendid fortress with other structures built atop a natural conical hill.
Springs and agricultural lands in the region of Shaubak made the area fit for settlement as well
as for control of highways along Arabia. High ground just W of Shaubak provides impressive
views from this exceptional area W across the Rift and into the Southern Highlands. Tracks
descend from this high ground to the region of Punon, but routes, settlements and the castle
itself need to be explored much more thoroughly. A return glance at the region of Shaubak
on pp. 6/7 is helpful to show how parallel ridges SW of Shaubak expose Precambrian rocks
of much deeper origins. This exposure continues to the S off the map on pp. 6/7, another
indicator that faulting off the Rift and the entire Feinan/Punon region represents a definite
transition between northern Edom around Bozrah and southern Edom S of Shaubak.
guide in brief—
PERSONALITY
IN TEXTS
Texts: Edom
The ancestor of Edom is Esau, the firstborn of Isaac (Genesis 25:25). Thus, the name
‘Esau’ appears in texts which describe Edom or the Edomites: See ‘Esau’ (Genesis 36:9),
Mount Esau (Obadiah 8, 9, 19, 21), House of Esau (Obadiah 18) and sons of Esau
(Genesis 36:10, 15; Deuteronomy 2:4, 8, 12, 22, 29; 1 Chronicles 1:35). Since Esau settled
in Mount Seir (Genesis 36:8) texts with Seir also may describe Edom and the Edomites.
The term ‘Seir’ comes from the root meaning ‘hair/hairy’ (se‘ar). We read that at Esau’s
birth he emerged ‘red, all of him, like a cloak of hair (ke’adderet se‘ar)” or perhaps ‘glorious
with hair’ (Genesis 25:25). Years later Rebecca presented Jacob (Esau’s younger brother)
to his blind father Isaac to receive the patriarchal blessing. Jacob, however, states, ‘Look,
Esau, my brother is a hairy man (ish sa‘ir), but I am smooth’ (Genesis 27:11). Therefore,
she placed goat skins on Jacob’s arms so that his skin would feel hairy like that of Esau.
After the blessing was given we again hear that Isaac did not recognize Jacob because his
arms were ‘hairy’ (se‘irot)—like those of Esau his brother (Genesis 27:23).
The land of Seir is thus ‘a hairy land,’ meaning a ‘wooded’ area or ‘covered with scrub
forest.’ Seir can refer to any area in the arid south with vegetation that stands out from
surrounding barren landscape. Deuteronomy 1:44, for example, records that the Amorites
routed the invading Israelites and chased them ‘from Seir [some part of the southern
hill country’s ‘forested’ slopes] as far as Hormah’ in the nearly shrubless Negev basin. In
1 Chronicles 4:42-43 we read that Simeonites in this same arid Negev basin captured Mt.
Seir, which means some adjacent ‘hairy’ height with sufficient rainfall to produce low,
thorny bushes, a common flora in the Arabian vegetation zone.
How then is Mt. Seir ‘hairy?’ On a clear day, as one looks eastward across the barren
Aravah and up the sterile sandstone slopes of the eastern Rift scarp, trees appear as
‘hairy’ heights in limestones rising to some 1830m/6000f. Rainfall drawn from passing
clouds and nightly dew abound here on Edom’s heights, a long, narrow strip of common
Mediterranean, high mountain vegetation on the edge of the great Arabian desert. In
some places olive orchards flourish today as they did in the past. We could call this unique,
lofty ridge of Seir, ‘Mt. Hairy’ for it became the homeland of the ‘hairy man.’
Mt. Seir’s prominent height also makes it a directional landmark of the greater south.
When traveling W toward Egypt in central Sinai, one is on ‘the way to Shur,’ a protective
border area of the Nile delta. ‘The way to Shur’ simply means heading west. On the same
route, if one is on ‘the way to Mt. Seir,’ it means that one is heading eastward in the
direction of this major feature. Hence, impressive Mt. Seir serves as biblical shorthand for
a distinctly prominent, ‘hairy’ region, a guide post for Sinai travellers, as well as a major
commercial contender in the struggle to control the land’s southeastern gateway.
guide in brief—
PERSONALITY
IN TEXTS
continued
164
•Esau is an ancestral term used for Edom—
Esau said to Jacob, ‘Please give me a bite of red, red stuff [ha’adom ha’adom hazzeh] you are cooking there ‘cause
I’m famished!’ Thus his name was called Edom [that is, ‘Red’]. Genesis 25:30 // These are the chronicles of Esau,
that is to say, of Edom. Genesis 36:1 // This is Esau, the father of Edom. Genesis 36:43 // These are the sons of
Esau, that is to say, of Edom, and these are their chieftains. Genesis 36:19
•Esau or Edom settled in the hill country of Seir/Mt. Seir—
Jacob sent messengers ahead of him to his brother Esau, to the land of Seir, the highland fields of Edom. Genesis
// Esau returned that day on his way to Seir. Genesis 33:16 // Esau took his wives, his sons, his daughters
and all the people of his household, along with his livestock, all his other cattle and all the goods he had acquired in
Canaan, and he moved to a land apart from his brother Jacob. Their possessions had become too great for them to
live together; the land where they were sojourning could not support them because of their livestock. Esau settled
in the hill country of Seir—Esau is Edom, and these are the chronicles of Esau, the father of Edom in the hill
country of Seir. Genesis 36:6-9 // [The LORD instructed Israel through Moses,] ‘You are going to pass through the
territory of your brothers, the descendants of Esau, who live in Seir. Even if they are afraid of you, be very careful.
Do not provoke them. I will not give you any of their land, not even a foot-step, for I have given the hill country of
Seir to Esau as a possession. Deuteronomy 2:4-5 // Formerly the Horites lived in Seir, but the descendants of Esau
displaced them—they destroyed them and settled there instead of them.... [The LORD] did this for the descendants
of Esau, who live in Seir, when he destroyed the Horites before them, so they displaced them and settled there
instead of them to this day. Deuteronomy 2:12, 22 // [Joshua delivered the LORD’s words to Israel,] ‘I gave the hill
country of Seir to Esau that he might possess it. Joshua 24:4
32:3
•Prominent and foreboding Seir tops the Eastern Heights of the Southern Arena—
Transjordan’s most obvious features, Mt. Seir and Mt. Hermon, give a ‘big picture’ summary of the entire
land. Joshua took (parts of) the entire land ... from Mt. Halak [along the land’s southern gateway where one
coming from Edom’s lofty] Seir ascends [the first uplift between the Aravah and the Negev basin], as far as
Baal-gad in the valley of Lebanon [along the land’s northern Rift gateway], below Mt. Hermon. Joshua 11:16-17
// These are kings of the land that Joshua and the Israelites conquered on the west side of the Jordan, from [as far
N as] Baal-gad in the valley of Lebanon to [as far S as] the Mt. Halak [where one coming from Edom’s lofty]
Seir ascends [the first uplift between the Aravah and the Negev basin]. Joshua 12:7 (a later, more popular geographical
description ‘from Dan to Beer-sheba’ designates a nearly comparable distance without Transjordan’s prominent features; e.g., 1 Samuel 3:20)
Prominent Mt. Seir provides an eastern landmark for those in the Sinai, Southern Highlands or Negev.
It should take eleven days from Horeb [or Mt. Sinai] to Kadesh-barnea via the way of Mt. Seir. Deuteronomy 1:2
(their journey at some point coincided with or crossed ‘the way of Mt. Seir’) // We turned and journeyed [south] for many days
toward the wilderness along the way to the Red Sea, as the LORD instructed me so that we would circumvent the
hill country of Seir [Edomite territory]. Then the LORD said to me, ‘Enough circumventing this hill country,
turn north ... So we passed around our brothers, the descendants of Esau, who live in Seir—[in other words] we
left the way of the Arabah [in the Rift valley running N] from Elath and Ezion-geber and turned [eastward] and
circumvented [Seir], along the way to the wilderness of Moab [that is, along the desert highway]. Deuteronomy 2:1-8
The inhabitants of Seir appear with other peoples living E of the Rift. In the fourteenth year, Kedorlaomer
and the kings who were with him came and defeated the Rephaim in the area of Ashteroth and Karnaim [Bashan],
the Zuzim in Ham [Gilead], the Emim on the plain of Kiriathaim [Medeba plateau] and the Horites in their hill
country of Seir, as far as El Paran [on the Gulf of Aqabah] near the wilderness. Then they turned back and went
[NW into regions W of the Rift] to En-mishpat—at Kadesh—[a key oasis and crossroads], and then battered
the entire open country of the Amalekites [NW of Kadesh], as well as the Amorites who were living on the gravelly
plain of Tamar [‘Tamar’ means ‘Date Palm,’ this one on the western edge of the Rift]. Genesis 14:5-7 // [Moses
petitioned Sihon, the Amorite king at Heshbon to allow passage across the Medeba plateau, just as] the sons
of Esau, who live in Seir, and the Moabites, who live in Ar had done [other peoples E of the Rift], until I cross the
Jordan into the land the LORD our God is giving us. Deuteronomy 2:29 // [Men from Jehoshaphat’s eastern outpost
came and reported], ‘A great army is coming against you from the other side of the [Dead] sea, from Edom. See,
they are encamped on the gravelly flood plain of Tamar—that is, En-gedi.’ ... [In Jehoshaphat’s prayer for help, he
recalled to the LORD], ‘Now here are the sons of Ammon and Moab and Mount Seir, whom you did not permit
Israel to invade when they came out of the land of Egypt’ ... [As God gave victory] the men of Ammon and Moab
rose up against the inhabitants of Mount Seir to destroy and annihilate them. 2 Chronicles 20:2, 10, 23 // [The eastern
peoples] Moab and Seir [look across the Rift and] say, ‘See, the house of Judah is like all the nations.’ Ezekiel 25:8
•Some poetic expressions eloquently build on Seir’s eastern prominence—
The LORD’s appearance dawns in the E like daybreak over the heights of Seir. [As he sees the land from
the E Moses introduces his song of blessing with a theophany (a manifestation of God).] The LORD came
from Sinai and dawned over them from Seir; he shone forth from Mount Paran [E of the Rift]. [Habakkuk’s
theophany also originates in the E as God’s splendid power dawns like a sunrise.] God came from Teman, the
Holy One from Mount Paran. His glory covered the heavens and his praise filled the earth. His splendor was like
the sunrise; rays flashed from his hand, where his power was hidden. Deuteronomy 33:2 and Habakkuk 3:3-4
165
guide in brief—
Just as a Judean watches for sunrise over Seir, so an Edomite in Seir looks E toward Dumah for sunrise.
PERSONALITY
IN TEXTS
continued
An oracle of Dumah:
To me [a night watchman in Dumah], one calls from Seir,
‘Watchman, what remains of the night? Watchman, what remains of the night?’
The watchman says [in a peculiar eastern dialect], ‘Morning is coming, but also night.
If you’re inquiring [for morning], keep on inquiring! Return [tomorrow]! Come again [for night always returns]!’
Isaiah 21:11-12 [The watchman’s words—come and inquire—appear in Hebrew with limited use but are common in Arabic and Aramaic.]
The LORD’s appearance comes from the E, as if accompanied by earthquakes and storms above Seir.
[Two geobasics emerge from the opening lines of Deborah’s song of victory over the Canaanites: 1) ‘the
earth trembled’—Seir rises above geological faults which define the Rift valley, an area which experiences
earthquakes; 2) ‘the clouds dripped water’—Mount Seir’s heights force the last precipitation from passing
clouds before they float over the arid eastern desert. Deborah’s theophany also contains an ambiguity that
builds on one of these geobasics. The original reader of the Hebrew word nzlw could have understood it in
two different ways: 1) nazalu, ‘flowed down’—at God’s coming, when ‘the clouds dripped water,’ ‘the mountains
flowed down’ through canyons into the Rift valley below; 2) nazollu, ‘quaked’—at God’s coming, when
‘the earth trembled,’ ‘the mountains quaked.’ As the ancients knew, either vocalization could apply and both
geobasics are true of Seir. The translation below marks the chiasm established by ‘quaked.’
O LORD, when you came forth from Seir,
Advanced from the open country of Edom,
The earth trembled;
The heavens dripped,
Yea, the clouds dripped water.
The mountains quaked
Before the LORD, this One of Sinai,
Before the LORD, God of Israel.
See: Judges 5:4-5; cf. Psalm 68:8-9; Isaiah 64:1-3 and David’s stormy theophany in Psalm 18:9-14
The LORD’s coming in might and in judgement is heralded in Edom’s impressive setting [Isaiah chose
Edom’s dramatic heights for the appearance of Him who shall ‘make Jerusalem a praise in the earth.’] Who is
this? This One coming from Edom—in garments dyed red from Bozrah? This One, gloriously dressed—sweeping
down [the steep scarps of Mt. Seir] in His overwhelming force? ‘It is I, who speaks in righteousness, mighty to save!’
... Oh that you would rip the heavens apart, that you would descend, that from your appearing mountains would
quake! Isaiah 63:1 and 64:1 (63:19 in Hebrew), all in the context of chapter 62. The entirety of chapter 63 can be read in this context.
•Edom’s territory lay between Kadesh (Israel’s camp) and access to the king’s highway—
From Kadesh Moses sent messengers to the king of Edom ... ‘We are at Kadesh, an outpost on the edge of your
area. Please let us pass through your land. We will not pass through field or vineyard nor will we drink any wellwater. We will follow the king’s highway, not spreading out right or left, until we pass to the other side of your
area.’ Edom responded, ‘You shall not traverse my area, unless you want to risk my sword against you!’ The
sons of Israel again said to him, ‘May we ascend by [rugged] tracks and pay for water we drink…,’ but [Edom]
answered, ‘You shall not pass through’ and met them with a mean force and a strong hand. So Edom refused Israel
passage through its region [Mt. Seir], and Israel bypassed the area. As they set out from Kadesh … the LORD
spoke to Moses and Aaron at Mount Hor, bordering the area of Edom..., and then they set out from Mount Hor
by the way of the Red Sea [S through the Aravah] in order to circumvent the land of Edom. Numbers 20:14-23; 21:4
// They journeyed from Kadesh and camped at Mount Hor, at the edge of the land of Edom. Numbers 33:37 (The
site of Mt. Hor remains uncertain.)
•Edom and Judah shared a common border in the Aravah, south of the Dead Sea—
[Israel’s southern territory depends upon descriptions of Edom and other southern landmarks or features.]
Your southern edge is from the wilderness of Zin along Edom, and your southern frontier is from the end of the Salt
Sea eastward. Your frontier shall curve from south to the Aqrabbim Ascent and cross over toward Zin. Its farthest
limit is south of Kadesh-barnea, reaching Hazar-addar, across to Azmon. The border curves around from Azmon
toward the brook of Egypt and reaches the sea. Numbers 34:3-5 // [As the southernmost tribe, Judah inherited this
southern region, in part defined by the region of Edom.] Now Judah’s allocation … reached Edom’s frontier,
the southern limit being the wilderness of Zin. Their southern frontier was from the end of the Salt Sea—from the
southern basin where it went southward to the ascent of Aqrabbim and passed over to Zin. It went up from the south
to Kadesh-barnea, crossing Hezron, ascending to Addar and curving around to Karka. It crosses toward Azmon and
comes out to the brook of Egypt. The frontier ends at the sea. This shall be your southern frontier. Joshua 15:1-4 //
Judah’s ... farthermost cities in the south on Edom’s frontier were Kabzeel and Eder and Jagur.... From Joshua 15:21-32
•Edom and Judah coveted the southern trade corridor linking Arabia/Red Sea to Philistia—
See under Negev texts (last bulleted item): • The Negev’s value rises as it serves as a corridor between the
Aravah and the Mediterranean coast
A poetical composition of David ... when on returning Joab struck down Edom in the ‘salt pan’ [valley of salt just
S of the Dead Sea]—twelve military units (thousand) Psalm 60:1 // King Solomon also built ships at Ezion-geber,
GEOBASICS STUDY GUIDE: SA eastern heights—aravah
guide in brief—
PERSONALITY
IN TEXTS
continued
166
which is with Elath on the shore of the Red Sea in the land of Edom. 1 Kings 9:26; cf. 2 Chronicles 8:17 // Jehoshaphat
made sea-going (Tarshish) ships to sail towards Ophir for gold, but they did not go for the ships were wrecked at
Ezion-geber [on the Red Sea]. 1 Kings 22:48; cf. 2 Chronicles 20:36-37 // (Uzziah) rebuilt Elath [on the Red Sea]
returning it to Judah.... God helped him ... against the Arabians who lived in Gur-baal, and the Meunites [in the
Southern Highlands] ... and he constructed towers in the wilderness and dug many cisterns.... 2 Chronicles 26:2, 7-8,
10 // Therefore, hear the plan of the LORD which he has planned against Edom ... at the sound of their fall the earth
quakes; a shriek!—its sound reverberating along the Red Sea. Jeremiah 49:20-21
•Edom’s heights, its crowning feature, represent pride and judgement for the prophets—
Thus declares the Sovereign LORD about Edom ... ‘See, I will belittle you among the nations—you, utterly despised!
Your heart’s brazen self-confidence has deceived you, you who take shelter in rocky retreats, living in lofty heights and
saying to yourself, ‘Who can bring me down to earth?’ Though you soar as a great bird and though your nest is among
the stars, from there will I bring you down,’ declares the LORD. Obadiah 1-4; see the same oracle in Jeremiah 49:14-16 //
Turn! Flee! Go underground, you who dwell in Dedan, for Esau’s calamity will I bring upon him—a time when I
punish him ... for I strip Esau bare; I reveal his concealed crannies; no longer can he hide! Jeremiah 49:8, 10 // ‘Edom
will be in a horrific condition; all passing across her will be appalled and jeer because of all its trauma. As Sodom,
Gomorrah and their neighbors [along the Rift fault below Edom] were brought down [and lie in ruins], says the
LORD, no man shall live there [in Edom]; within it no human shall remain.’ Jeremiah 49:17-18 // Look! Like a large
bird soaring and swooping, spreading out its wings over against Bozrah [Edom’s royal city, positioned on a spur
of rock over the Rift], and the heart of Edom’s mighty men in that day will be like the heart of a woman in travail.
Jeremiah 49:22 // I appoint Mt. Seir for desolation—desolate! And I cut off from it all who pass through or return
[i.e., Arabian caravans passing along routes under Edom’s control to and from coastal ports, cutting off
Edom’s livelihood]. I will fill his mountains with his defiled dead; and in your heights, your ravines and all your
(deep and rugged) streambeds—the sword-defiled dead will fall within them. Ezekiel 35:7-8 a stark description of Edom’s
height, steep scarp, and eroded canyons
•Agriculture, deception, Arabian marauders—all these in and around Edom’s heights—
[This passage was quoted above and we note it here for its agricultural emphasis.] We will not pass through field
or vineyard nor will we drink any well-water. Numbers 20:17 // If thieves came to you, if night looters in the night
(what a disaster!), would they not steal just enough for themselves? If grape pickers came to you, wouldn’t they leave
a few stray grapes on the vine? How totally rummaged is Esau, his hidden treasures sought out! Right to you frontier
have they forced you, all those with whom you had agreements; they trick you and are able to get the better of you,
those with whom you had made peace; those with whom you shared your bread, they set a trap under you—no
discerning of it! Obadiah 5-7; see a similar oracle in Jeremiah 49:9-10 // The house of Jacob shall be a fire and the house of
Joseph a flame; the house of Esau as stubble, and they will burn them and consume them. Nothing (no one) from
the house of Esau will remain, for the LORD has spoken. Obadiah 18
•Sheep-ranching in Edom or merely metaphor—
The LORD has a sword, filled with blood, growing fatter with fat, with the blood of lambs and goats, with the fat
of the kidneys of rams. For the LORD has a sacrifice in Bozrah and a great slaughter in the land of Edom. Isaiah
34:6 // Look, just as a lion comes up from the overgrown sides of the Jordan into permanent pasture lands, so will I
suddenly run him [Edom] out of her [the land of Edom] ... for who is like Me, who challenges Me, what shepherd
withstands Me? Thus hear the plan of the LORD which He has devised against Edom, and His intentions which He
has thought against the inhabitants of Teman: have no doubt, they will drag them off, even the young of the flock;
have no doubt, He will destroy the pasture lands belonging to them—its their fault! Jeremiah 49:19-20 // Thus declares
the Sovereign LORD: I will stretch out my hand against Edom and cut off man and beast from it. I will make it
ruins; from Teman to Dedan will they fall by the sword. Ezekiel 25:13
•Edom shared in the legendary wisdom of the East—
[The book of Job, its imagery and its profound wisdom may well have its origin in Edom or in regions to the
S of Edom. Examples are too numerous to quote here.] // About Edom—thus declares the Sovereign LORD,
‘Is there no wisdom left in Teman? Has insight vanished from the discerning? Has their wisdom withered?’ Jeremiah
49:7 // ‘Will I not, on that day,’ declares the LORD, ‘destroy the wise of Edom, and discernment from the heights
of Esau?’ Obadiah 8
b.Aravah
The root meaning of ‘Aravah’ (‘Arabah’ in English rather than the Hebrew pronunciation
here) may mean ‘plain,’ often arid and waterless but not necessarily so (see the discussion of
Aravah under ‘Personality in texts’ for the Central Abyss in the Central Arena). As a brief
summary, the indefinite term aravah occurs in parallel usage with other terms for ‘dry land’ or
‘wilderness,’ but with the article it appears as a specific region in the Land Between. It usually
refers to the arid Rift valley, both N and S of the Dead Sea chasm. In contemporary use,
however, the term ‘Aravah’ identifies the broad and arid Rift valley S of the Dead Sea, as seen
on pp. 6/7 and 22/23. Our discussion here uses the term in this specific sense. You may also
167
find the term ‘Wadi (dry streambed) Arabah’ in the sense that much of the Rift valley seen
on these two maps drains N into the Dead Sea itself.
guide in brief—
MARKING
. HL this name in green: aravah valley
. HL in red (if not already HL) from N to S: Bab edh-Dhra, Numeira, Zoar, Feifeh,
Kanazir, Tamar, Bir Madhkur
. HL in yellow: Feinan canyon (by Punon, previously written in)
. Black write-in vertically along the ridge below the ‘oh’ of Zohar Fort: Mt. Sdum (Jebel/
Mt. Sdum in Arabic; Har/Mt. Sdom in Hebrew)
guide in brief—
GEOBASICS
Geobasics
• The term ‘Aravah’ may apply to arid plains N and S of the Dead Sea, but we use it here
in a specific sense for the broad, parched expanse between Edom and the southern uplifts.
• Water sources such as Bir Madhkur and Tamar were of utmost importance for caravans
crossing the Aravah from the Red Sea, Arabia or Edom on their way coastal regions.
• Regions of lissan material fill the Aravah and accumulated sands can impede passage.
• Aravah sites from Khanazir N to Bab edh-Dhra flourished in the Early Bronze age,
prior to a catastrophe which also filled the shallow, southern basin of today’s Dead Sea.
• Excavations reveal copper mines within the Feinan depression (‘Punon’ of the Bible),
mines which generated coveted metal and violent conflicts between Edom and Judah.
Gen 19
On this map one sees the difference between the rugged sandstones and limestones in the
Eastern Heights and the monotonous floor of the Rift valley S of the Dead Sea. A mixture
of discontinuous stony areas with desert soils, gravel and marl cover this Aravah valley.
Adjacent large areas of ‘lissan’ deposits reveal that the Dead Sea once covered much of this
area. The path of one of its former shores runs along the broken line just N of Khanazir where
later deposits cover lower lissan. Sites along higher ground, from Khanazir through Feifeh to
Numeira and Bab edh-Dhra, show that once this was a flourishing region, no doubt prior to
the geological catastrophe recorded in the days of Abraham. The entire region remains quite
active geologically with tremors often occurring. Fields around Zoar remain agriculturally
productive, especially given the soil deposits from the great Zered canyon, with its water
sources stretching back to Iye-abarim and beyond.
The region of Feinan/Punon is particularly interesting given the recent excavations in the
area N of the name ‘Feinan canyon.’ Numerous facilities for smelting copper with areas of
resulting slag reveal that this resource must have fired the tensions between the Edomites
and king Solomon as both sought to control the region and production of this extremely
important commodity.
guide in brief—
MARKING on
CLOSER VIEW MAP
pp. 22/23
. HL this name in green: Aravah Valley
. HL in red (if not already HL): Tamar
. HL in yellow: Feinan canyon (by Punon, previously written in)
. Black write-in vertically as written in on pp. 6/7: Mt. Sdum
. Black dot and write-in: Zoar. Location on p. 7
. Black write-in: valley of salt (small caps) between the Dead Sea and Zoar
. Black dot and write-in (optional): Khanazir, Feifeh, Numeira. Locations on p. 7
guide in brief—
MARKING
continued
168
. The site of Tamar is correct on p. 6 but not on p. 23. Correct Tamar’s location on p. 23
by drawing an arrow Tamar SW to the intersection of the two red roads.
. HL in yellow on red route: 1) from the Desert Highway along the Arabian desert
westward passing Bozrah to Tamar at the crossroads in the Aravah; 2) from the crossroads
of Tamar SE across the Aravah valley and off the map (black write-in beside the route
on the edge of the map: ‘to Petra’); 3) from the crossroads of Tamar SE across the Aravah
valley to Punon and NE passing Bozrah to join the ‘King’s Highway’ at the Zered canyon
The small spring at Tamar (today called ‘Ein Husb’ or ‘Hazeva’) had great importance in
ancient times. As a source of water at the edge of the arid Aravah and located at a point
where a small valley allows easier passage to the NW toward the Negev basins, the site of
Tamar attracted caravan routes coming across the Aravah from Arabia. Whoever controlled
Tamar staked their claim on this strategic part of the southern trade corridor linking Arabia,
Edom and the Red Sea to the Negev basins and coastal ports and highways. This reality
underscores one of the most striking geopolitical verses in the Bible.
1 Kgs 19:15-18
... this is why king Solomon issued forced labor orders: To build the house of the LORD and his own house
and the ‘Millo’ and the wall of Jerusalem and Hazor and Megiddo and Gezer ... and Lower Beth-horon and
Baalath and Tamar in the wilderness—within the land (incorporating Tamar into Judah itself)....
Direct links between Tamar and copper smelting facilities in the area of Feinan reveal the
significance of this quotation from 1 Kings. Solomon’s need for copper drew his attention
to the region of Feinan, and he fortified the area of the spring at Tamar, on the road leading
directly into Judah, to assist in reaching the copper-source. Thus, incorporating Tamar into
Judah itself (which the last phrase above emphasizes) meant that in essence, Edom’s copper
resource became Solomon’s. Recent excavations in Feinan make this abundantly clear.
Another interesting feature on this map (pp. 22/23) is a geological depression running SW of
the present southern shores of the Dead Sea. This is what the Bible calls the ‘Valley of Salt,’
an area noted as ‘Soft Mud Impassable’ on British maps from the early twentieth century.
Alluvial deposits descending through the Zered canyon have elevated the area around
modern Zoar forming agricultural lands above the Valley of Salt. A large salt plug, called
‘Jebel/Mt. Sdum’ in local Arab memory, consists of salt rock rising from the depths below
to create this highly unstable ridge with numerous salt chimneys and caves but dangerous
to explore. The Arab name preserves the biblical ‘Sodom’ for good reason since this entire,
shallow and geologically active part of the southern Dead Sea was the setting for the
cataclysmic events described in Genesis 19.
Gen 14:8
War 4:479-480/viii.4
Gen 14:10
Gen 19
Deut 29:23
The Valley of Salt is also the Valley of Siddim in the Bible, from which the name Mt. Sdum
no doubt comes. Defenders of Sodom and Gomorrah fled before their invading overlords, and
when they crossed this unstable area, they fell into tar pits, most probably filled with slimy
bitumen hidden below a crusty surface. Bitumen was in the past a natural product harvested
from the Dead Sea; hence, the Greeks called the feature Lake Asphaltites. This feature played
a key role in a battle in this area when kings from Sodom and Gomorrah tried to fight off an
invasion.
... Now the Valley of Siddim was full of pits of tar, and when the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah fled, some
of the men fell into them and the rest fled toward the hills.
A few chapters after this entire episode, Genesis records a major geological upheaval in the
same area, along with the total destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah and the flight of Lot and
his own to Zoar, and from there into the same nearby hills around the Zered canyon. Not
surprisingly, as Moses overlooked this entire area and the children of Israel were about to
enter the Land Between, he reminded his audience of this same judgment. Later, the prophets
Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Amos and Zephaniah, as well as Jesus and the apostles, recalled the
overthrow of Sodom and Gomorrah in their dire warnings.
2 Pet 2:6
guide in brief—
PERSONALITY
IN TEXTS
169
... and condemned the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah by turning them into ashes, making them an example
of what soon will happen to those who ignore God’s ways ...
Texts: Aravah
The Bible uses the term Aravah (Hebrew ‘the Aravah,’ commonly written Arabah) to
refer to Rift valley plains S of Lake Galilee (in Hebrew the ‘sea of Chinneroth’). Today,
however, the Arabic term Wadi Arabah and the Hebrew term Nahal haAravah only apply
to that part of the Rift valley between the Dead Sea (-400m/-1312f) and Red Sea (0m/0f).
Over the distance of some 100 kilometers/62 miles S of the Dead Sea the Aravah rises
626m/2053f to the water divide (at modern Gav haAravah). This northern part of Wadi
Araba therefore drains N into the Dead Sea, but the southern part drains S from the
divide to the Gulf of Aqabah/Eilat on the Red Sea, some 70 kilometers/43 miles away.
Maps on pp. 6/7, 12/13 and 22/23 show the northern portion of this Aravah valley, and in
that region we are concerned about two subregions: 1) the Valley (Basin) of Salt and the
area’s principal city, Zoar, just SW of the Dead Sea; and 2) water sources at a specific spot
in a gravelly plain on the W side of the Aravah, one of several sites called Tamar. Tamar’s
water sources, small as they are, serve as a key position on the road linking Edom (from
Bozrah and Red Sea ports to Gaza). It is also important to add that recent excavations
around the Feinan canyon on the E side of the Aravah have revealed remnants of copper
mining and smelting, forcing doubtful scholars to reconsider early Edomite activity and
motives for David’s and for Solomon’s keen interest in Edom, over and above the issue of
controlling southern trade. Farther south, other water resources at Bir Madhkur supported
caravan trade in the Rift below Petra.
•The way of the Aravah runs N through the Rift from Eilat/Ezion-geber on the Red Sea—
So we passed around our brothers, the descendants of Esau, who live in Seir—[in other words] we left the way of
the Arabah [in the Rift valley running N] from Elath and Ezion-geber and turned [eastward]. Deuteronomy 2:8
•Valley (Basin) of Salt (or Siddim), a battlefield between Transjordan and Cisjordan—
[The broad basin just S of the Dead/Salt Sea is a former bay of the sea between the present shore and a
higher, deeply eroded earlier sea bed farther S (see pp. 7 and 23). Therefore, sometimes this region is called
a ‘valley’ (emeq) and other times an enclosed region (gai).] [In the days of Abraham] the king of Sodom, the
kings of Gomorrah, of Admah, of Zeboiim and of Bela, that is, Zoar—[cities in the Aravah below the eastern
scarp]—mobilized for battle in the Valley of Siddim, against ... five kings—four kings defending, five attacking.
Now the Valley of Siddim was full of pits of [slimy, asphalt-like] bitumen. As the (defending) kings of Sodom and
Gomorrah took flight, they fell into them and the rest fled to the [eastern] hills. Genesis 14:8-10
[Ca. -985] David gained renown upon his return from striking down 18,000 (18 military units) of Edomites in
the Salt Basin [an Aravah battlefield between Edom and Judah] ... 2 Samuel 8:13; cf. 1 Chronicles 18:12 // Joab
returned and struck down 12,000 (12 military units) of Edomites in the Salt Basin. Prelude to Psalm 60
[Ca. -850] Jehoshaphat asked, ‘By what way shall we ascend [to Moab].’ Joram answered, ‘The way of the
wilderness of Edom [through the Valley of Salt, south of the Dead Sea].’ The king of Israel set out with the king
of Judah and the king of Edom, but after proceeding circuitously for seven days, the army had no water ... 2 Kings 3:8-9
[Ca. -845] Edom shook off Judah’s control in Jehoram’s days, setting up a king for themselves. So Jehoram crossed
over [the Rift] to Zair/Zoar [on the eastern edge of the Valley of Salt]. 2 Kings 8:20-21; cf. 2 Chronicles 21:8-9
[Ca. -790] (Amaziah) was the king who defeated 10,000 (10 military units) of Edomites in the Salt Basin [an
Aravah battlefield between Edom and Judah]. 2 Kings 14:7; cf. 2 Chronicles 25:11
•The region of Zoar, to the E above the Salt Basin, agriculturally exploits the Zered
canyon’s water and alluvial fan, and is a refuge on the southern edge of settlement—
Zoar—a fertile plain SE of the Dead Sea. Lot looked out [from the hill country] and saw all the surrounding
plains of the Jordan—including Zoar—all irrigated [from runoff streams] like the LORD’s garden, like the land
of Egypt [the Nile delta!]—before the LORD destroyed Sodom and Gomorrah. So Lot chose for himself Jordan’s
surrounding plains and journeyed eastward [into the Rift]. The two went their separate ways. Abram lived in the
land of Canaan [hills], and Lot lived in the cities of the [Rift] plains, setting up camp near Sodom. Genesis 13:10-12
Zoar, a refuge at the end of nowhere. [The two messengers said,] ‘Flee for your life! Don’t look behind. Don’t
stop anywhere in the surrounding plain! Escape toward the mountains lest you be destroyed!’ But Lot said to them,
guide in brief—
PERSONALITY
IN TEXTS
continued
170
‘No! I beg you, sirs. Please! Consider this! You have taken pleasure in your servant; you have multiplied your mercy
and demonstrated it by letting me live—I simply cannot flee to the mountains [the steep sandstone scarp above
Sodom] lest this disaster overtake me and I die. Look there! That town over there is close enough to escape to; it’s
a humble little place [mitz‘ar]. Please let me escape to it—is it not a very humble little place [mitz‘ar, not large,
affluent and thus proud like Sodom and Gomorrah; cf. mitz‘ar in Psalm 42:7]? Thus my soul shall live.’ He said to
him, ‘Okay, I’ll also sanction this particular appeal; I won’t demolish the town you mention. Move quickly! Make
your escape to there since I can do nothing until your reach there.’ Thus the name the [mitz‘ar] town was called
Zoar [Tzo‘ar]. The sun rose on the land, and Lot came to Zoar. Genesis 19:17-23; cf. 19:30 // My heart proclaims to
Moab; her fugitives escape as far as Zoar, to Eglath Shelishiyah—for they go along weeping on the Luhith ascent; on
the road to Horonaim they make heart-breaking cries. Isaiah 15:5; cf. Jeremiah 48:4, which may read, ‘Proclaim it in Zoar’ along
the same ascents/descents of Luhith and Horonaim
Zoar, SE of the Dead Sea, the southern limit of settled land and substantial agricultural in the Aravah.
Lot saw all the surroundings plains of the Jordan—including Zoar—all irrigated. Genesis 13:10 // [From Mt. Nebo]
the LORD showed Moses the entire land—[N] from Gilead until Dan, all of Naphtali [in Upper Galilee], the land
of Ephraim and Manasseh [in the hill country across the Rift], all the land of Judah [across the Rift to the
SW] as far as the western sea, the Negev [S of Judah] and the [Rift] plain surrounding Jericho, the city of palms
[tamarim]—as far as Zoar [the last substantial agriculture in the Rift to the S]. Deuteronomy 34:1-3 // [Moab’s
complete ruin] from the outcry of Heshbon to Elealeh and Jahaz [i.e., the Medeba plateau], shouting from [the
remote Rift refuge of] Zoar as far as Horonaim [in the heights above the Rift] and Eglath Shelishiyah, for even
the waters of Nimrim are desolated. Jeremiah 48:34
Bala (Gen 14:2) ‘which is Segor [Zo’ar],’ today called Zoara, the only one of the five cities of Sodoma which was
saved by Lot’s prayers. It is on the shore of the Dead Sea and a garrison of Roman soldiers is posted there, but it
is also inhabited by its own citizens, and in its vicinity the balsam and the palm-tree grow, a token of its ancient
fertility. Eusebius, Onomasticon 42:1-5 // No one should be troubled by the fact that the same city is called both Segor and
Zoara, for it is the same word, meaning ‘small’ or ‘minor,’ but Segor is the Hebrew name, and Zoara the Syriac.
Jerome 43:9-16
•Tamar’s water sources in its arid and gravelly plain made it a key southern landmark—
[The invaders] turned back and went to En-mishpat—at Kadesh—and then battered the entire open country of the
Amalekites, as well as the Amorites who were living on the gravelly plain of Tamar. Genesis 14:7 // In the land,
Solomon built [and refortified] Gezer and Lower Beth-horon and Baalath [to protect Jerusalem’s from the W]
and Tamar in the wilderness [to guard the Aravah approach to the Negev from Arabia]. 1 Kings 9:17-18 // On
the eastern edge [the land’s frontier runs] between Hauran and Damascus while [the frontier] between Gilead and
the land of Israel is the Jordan, [continuing S] to the eastern [Dead] sea and as far as Tamar. This is the measure
of the [land’s] eastern edge. The southern edge runs [E] from Tamar to the waters of Meribah in the Kadesh area,
then [NW] along the streambed [Wadi el-Arish] to the Great [Mediterranean] Sea. This is the measure of the
[land’s] southern edge Ezekiel 47:18-19 // And adjoining the border of Gad, to the south beyond of its territory, the
frontier runs from Tamar to the waters of Meribah in the Kadesh area, then along the streambed [Wadi el-Arish]
to the Great Sea. Ezekiel 48:28
•Ancient life in the Feinan canyon/Punon included copper mining and smelting—
[While this text from Job does not mention Punon as such, it does speak of mining operations.]
Silver has an exit [taken from a mine] and gold a place of refinement;
Iron is taken from loose earth, and smelting ore produces copper.
There, at a limit of (underground) darkness,
one searches innermost niches for dark ore—in the very shadow of death!
He breaks open a shaft even far from people passing by, places overlooked by the foot of man;
they hang suspended, swinging to and fro in remote places (shafts).
Earth, which (for normal folk) produces food, is totally changed here underground, like fire changes things;
stones become places of sapphires, while dust yields gold.
This is a trail known by no vulture, never scrutinized by any hawk.
Never trodden by a bold beast, never stalked by a lion.
Against flinty rock man directs his hand, he overturns the roots of the mountains,
He hacks out channels in solid rock; his eyes spot every treasure. Job 28:1-10
171
GEOBASICS STUDY GUIDE: SA southern highlands—introduction
2. SOUTHERN HIGHLANDS
The Southern Highlands consist of a region of geological uplifts (broken yellow lines) on the
bottom half of p. 6. These uplifts appear in stark contrast to the Eastern Heights rising abruptly
from the Aravah valley in the Rift. The term ‘nahal’ simply means ‘dry streambed,’ a term used to
denote the Zin depression (Nahal Zin) in the midst of the Southern Highlands as it drains into
the Aravah. The term also appears on this map as Nahal Besor, one of this area’s main drainage
systems, which reaches the Mediterranean Sea S of Gaza. Other highland drainage enters Nahal
Nessana (not named on this map), passes the site for which it is named but disappears into
the Sinai sands before reaching the sea. We return later to note the significance of these three
systems which drain much of the Southern Highlands. We first look at these highlands as a
whole before discussing their three major divisions.
guide in brief—
MARKING
. HL these names in green: Southern Highlands, ‘Nahal’ Zin (slightly smaller letters
near the Southern Highlands), Eastern Negev, Western Negev
. HL in green/black write-in: judah (small caps) above Hebron (top center); sinai (small
caps) in bottom left corner, SW of uplift lines); mediterranean sea in NW corner
. Black write-in: dead sea (small caps in two lines, top center blue)
. HL in green the subdivisional (broken) lines: 1) starting from the area of Hazar-addar
near Kadesh and around the southern uplifts of the Southern Highlands to the Aravah
just N of Tamar; 2) starting from the area of Aroer and around the northern uplifts of
the Southern Highlands to the Aravah N of Tamar
. HL in yellow: Nahal Besor (by ‘Western Negev’), Small Bowl, Big Bowl, Super Bowl,
Mt. Halak, Ascent of Aqrabbim (meaning the Scorpions’ Ascent, which we use below)
. HL in red (if not already HL) from N to S: Hebron, En-gedi (by Dead Sea), Massada,
Arad, Beer-sheba, Aroer, Elusa, Rehoboth, Nessana, Soubaita, Oboda, Kadesh [barnea]
(on the edge of Sinai); cross-out the duplicate Beraein (Beerotayim) just above Azmon
. Place city dot, black write-in with
red HL as they appear on the maps
to the right: 1) the Nabatean city
of ‘Mampsis,’ SE of Aroer, S of the
Eastern Negev near road junction;
2) the modern city of ‘Mizpeh
Ramon’ on N edge of Super Bowl
Mampsis
Mizpeh
Ramon
The full-color map on pp. 6/7 shows the geobasics of the Southern Highlands. The prominent
features in these highlands are the uplifts (broken yellow lines) running from the SW to the NE.
Tension toward the top of some uplifts created cracks, later exploited by erosion which formed
geological cirques (‘machteshim’ in Hebrew, which we simply call ‘bowls’).
Depressions appear between these uplifts, such as ripples in a pond caused by pressure from a
falling stone. The uplifts formed from the compression of the area by surrounding forces that
folded the crust of the earth upward along the lines of these uplifts.
To understand these highlands and how history played out in this fascinating area we first define
its major divisions and then consider the significance of each of those divisions.
guide in brief—
OBSERVATION on
SOUTHERN ARENA MAP
pp. 6/7
1 P
Find
the solid black line that encompasses the greater area of the Southern Highlands,
and note the contrasting regions which surround it: Sinai sands, Sinai, Aravah
GEOBASICS STUDY GUIDE: SA southern highlands—uplifts in the south
guide in brief—
OBSERVATION on
SOUTHERN ARENA MAP
continued
172
Valley/Dead Sea and the Eastern and Western Negev. One encounters very different
perspectives on each side of these Southern Highlands
2 P
Find
the dark, broken lines which define the Nahal (‘dry streambed’) Zin depression in
the midst of the Southern Highlands. These extend N and S to encompass two areas of
uplifts, a series to the N and a series to the S, separated by the Nahal Zin depression.
3 P
Since
the uplifts (the broken yellow lines) are elevated geological ridges, depressions
exist between each pair of uplifts. Run your finger along these depressions, noting if
roads are present. Find breaks (passes) through the uplifts which routes have exploited.
guide in brief—
GEOBASICS
Geobasics
• The Southern Highlands consist of a series of uplifts rising from Sinai, curving toward
the Dead Sea and lying across routes linking the Aravah and the southern coastal plain.
• Two major uplifts in the Southern Highlands rise to some 1000m/3000f to the S of the
Nahal Zin while three main uplifts N of Nahal Zin reach only some 600m/2000f.
• Cracks in three uplifts form geological bowls, exposing deep substrata: the Small Bowl,
the Big Bowl, and what we call the Super Bowl, more complex than the other two.
• These uplifts expose strata of limestone, but slack precipitation leaves them void of
fields or herds, except on some slopes which face N and receive additional rainfall.
• Caravans from Arabia and the Red Sea (off our maps) must find ways through or around
the uplifts of the Southern Highlands to reach the Negev basins and coastal ports.
• Routes from Tamar in the Aravah reach the Eastern Negev while another route skirted
Sinai and the Southern Highlands to reach all-important springs by Kadesh [barnea].
• Although the Southern Highlands lay beyond the watered and settled north, the
Nabateans and others found ways of subsisting here, and even building cities.
We now turn to the discussion of the three-fold division of the highlands. As you consider each
division note the regions which border that division and consider if these adjacent regions would
encourage or discourage travel through that part of the highlands. Since winter storms off the
Mediterranean Sea sometimes reach as far S as these highlands, also take into account the impact
of rainfall or the lack of rainfall on establishing settlements or small fortresses.
a. Uplifts in the
Deut 8:15
South
Until modern times most people avoided the high southern uplifts of the Southern Highlands,
especially the deep ‘Super Bowl’ at their center. Its long uplifts (broken yellow lines on pp.
6/7) arise from what the Bible calls ‘the great and terrible wilderness’ of Sinai and reach NE to
the Aravah. These uplifts encompass an area between the Aravah on the E and heights on the
W, heights which overlook the Kadesh [barnea] region and Sinai. Harder limestones (green
on p. 6) surround the bowl while the open, cracked and eroded center exposes lower strata,
a geologist’s wonderland of deeper rocks (purple) and basaltic intrusions (not shown on this
map). Few vistas in the land compare to a sunset along the promenade above this Super Bowl.
The Super Bowl drains via a canyon near the road station of Mohile and joins the narrow,
winding ‘chiseled’ canyon which reaches the Rift. Today restricted military areas surround
the Super Bowl, but a road via Oboda climbs to modern Mizpeh Ramon which hosts a fine
visitor’s center situated on the very edge of the bowl. From there the road descends to welldeveloped attractions within the bowl itself and continues S through scenic landscapes to
connect to a highway in the Aravah which leads to the Red Sea.
Find the broad northwestern slopes of this uplift within the dark, broken line encompassing
the region from Oboda to the ‘Fortress’ near Hazar-addar. These slopes consist of eocene
GEOBASICS STUDY GUIDE: SA southern highlands—central nahal zin drainage
173
limestones (yellow on p. 6) and rise to the Super Bowl. We call these the ‘Southern Highland
Slopes,’ a name you may want to write inside this area. These slopes receive the blessing of
sporadic winter rain and drain to the NW toward Nessana. They yield limited soils and some
grains for those who had to subsist here. The region also hosts certain flora and fauna, such as
the sturdy ‘pistacia atlantica’ tree (‘elah’ in Hebrew), still seen deep within these canyons.
The fort of Hazar-addar, the spring-fed valley of Kadesh [barnea] with its impressive fortress
and springs around Azmon all define the SW limits of the land of Canaan. Beyond this point
northern Sinai’s shifting sands and its broad internal expanses make permanent settlement all
but impossible. In contrast, drainage from the Southern Highland Slopes and water sources
along lower streambeds allow habitation at sites such as Nessana and nearby Beerotayim.
Isaac may have roamed this area when not with his father Abraham in the Negev. Esau must
also have frequented the same area, hunting by the region’s sources of water that attracted
prized game which he would bring to his father Isaac. Solomon controlled this area by a
network of small settlements and forts, a network which pharaoh Shishak promptly destroyed
after Solomon’s death. Centuries later Nabateans from the Eastern Heights E of the Rift
(Edom) settled here in order to exploit caravan routes which crisscrossed the region—to
and from Egypt, to and from the land of Edom and to and from the Red Sea via a route W of
the uplifts. The modern visitor must look beyond the area’s arid environs into ‘the great and
terrible wilderness’ of Sinai to appreciate its geobasics and ‘inviting’ setting. The +1948 ceasefire lines left most of the region in Israel while Egypt controlled the region of Kadesh and Sinai.
Gen 24:62
Gen 25:27-34;
27:1-4
2 Chr 12:1-11 with
ANET 242-243
guide in brief—
GEOBASICS
Geobasics
• Southernmost uplifts in the Southern Highlands separate these highlands from the more
threatening great wilderness to S and SW, the expansive and rugged Sinai.
• Sinai’s northern sands and parched plains, together with rugged regions within the Super
Bowl and along its southern flank, make Kadesh and its springs an attractive area.
• Strong winter storms easily pass over lower areas and reach the Southern Highland Slopes,
bringing rainfall to these slopes and even snow to heights around the Super Bowl.
• Trees grow in canyons in the Southern Highland Slopes, and given sufficient rainfall,
some grains can grow along slopes draining into the broad Nessana streambed.
• After passing through Sinai the wandering Israelites encamped at Kadesh on the SW
edge of Canaan, an area which supports life and in which they remained for some time.
• Small settlements and forts along the lower edge of the Southern Highland Slopes and in
nearby valleys is evidence of Solomon’s control of this part of the southern trade corridor.
• In Roman and Byzantine times the influx, settlement and innovation of the Nabateans
allowed cities such as Oboda and Nessana to thrive along this region’s trade routes.
• Nabatean settlement across the Southern Highlands is extraordinary for they actually
created a route from Petra to Oboda which passed through the heart of the Super Bowl.
• Border fences today run SE from Raphia on the coast and replace earlier cease fire lines,
leaving Kadesh and its fortresses in Egypt but the southern uplifts and Nessana in Israel.
b.
Central Nahal Zin Drainage
We have seen that the central Nahal Zin depression divides the Southern Highlands into
two major areas of uplifts, one to the S and the other to the N. Drainage into the Zin begins
in higher slopes S of Oboda, suddenly falls into the Avdat canyon (Hebrew for ‘Oboda’) and
then turns E into the broadening depression of today’s Nahal Zin. Surrounding drainage from
rugged canyons of chalk and limestone flows into this Zin depression as its path broadens
GEOBASICS STUDY GUIDE: SA southern highlands—central nahal zin drainage
174
(broken lines on pp. 6/7 and 22/23). The Zin circumvents another uplift (Mt. Halak) and
then veers to the NE, narrows and finally empties into the Aravah S of the Dead Sea.
The Zin’s catchment area (all drainage flowing into the depression) is far greater than the
area outlined on this map; it includes many streambeds descending northward from the edge
of the Super Bowl. West of the Zin, however, runoff flows toward the Mediterranean Sea via
the Nessana and the Besor systems. Roads and intersections by Oboda were an important
part of the network at the heart of the Southern Highlands, precisely where the Nahal Zin
depression begins, circumvented by routes from various directions. All of this enhances the
position of Oboda and makes it a key location in the south. Exploring the Nabatean’s unique
water gathering methods, seeing restored agricultural sections in adjacent flood plains, and
viewing such installations as a public bath and large wine presses—here in the arid south—
testify to Nabatean ingenuity, the effort they expended in building and maintaining such a
city and their commitment to the control of this strategic region.
Zin: Num 13:21;
20:1; 27:14; 33:36;
34:3-4; Deut 32:51;
Jos 15:1-3
Josh 15:1-3
Cf. Num 20:1
Num 13:26
Since the term ‘Wilderness of Zin’ appears in the Bible, one may wonder why Nahal Zin
appears on our modern maps. We have seen that watersheds (divisions between drainage
systems) take on great importance in defining geographical areas. The Bible indicates that the
area called Nahal Zin on our map and its greater catchment area lies beyond the Scorpions’/
Aqrabbim Ascent and Mt. Halak, the southernmost limit of the territory of the tribe of
Judah, on the edge of Edom. Geographical indicators of the ‘Wilderness of Zin’ in the Bible,
however, state that it extended westward to Kadesh. To understand what the Bible meant by
the ‘Wilderness of Zin’ we must therefore add the upper catchment areas of the Besor and
Nessana systems to our greater Nahal Zin. We read that Kadesh was also on the edge of the
Wilderness of Paran, and indeed it is since once one leaves Kadesh one enters the world of
Sinai. It therefore appears that biblical writers well understood these southern uplifts to be
the limit of the Wilderness of Zin, and that regions beyond these uplifts were quite different.
As you review the following geobasics note the unique part that the Nahal Zin plays in the
Southern Highlands and how this depression continues westward into the area of Soubaita
with connections W to Nessana and Egypt. The depression also leads to routes N along the
Nahal Besor to coastal cities in the region of Gaza. Above all, control of this area is critical
for caravans moving between the region of Gaza and Red Sea ports. Settlements, forts and
fortresses here provide support for such caravans making their way S of Kadesh, around the
southern uplifts and along the edge of Sinai to the Red Sea. The following geobasics review
why this entire area, from Tamar to Kadesh, was a highly coveted part of the southern trade
network.
guide in brief—
GEOBASICS
Geobasics
• Nahal Zin is a drainage depression reaching W from the Aravah to the heart of the
Southern Highlands with a large catchment area extending to the S and the N.
• In the W Nahal Zin abruptly turns S through an impressive gorge (Nahal Avdat) and
passes Oboda to capture runoff from a large part of the Super Bowl’s southern slopes.
• During winter downpours runoff from almost all adjacent basins and slopes including
the slopes of Mt. Halak, the Big Bowl and the Small Bowl converge in Nahal Zin.
• Nahal Zin provides E-W passage through the heart of the Southern Highlands and on
the way intersects with the Scorpions’ Ascent road and routes in the Oboda area.
• An extension of this central depression reaches westward beyond Nahal Zin to connect
with routes N to Gaza via Nahal Besor and with routes W to Nessana and to Egypt.
• The Red Sea-Kadesh-Gaza highway ran at the foot of the Southern Highland Slopes,
and sites here were crucial for the long and difficult journey S along the edge of Sinai.
GEOBASICS STUDY GUIDE: sa southern highlands—northern region of uplifts
c.Northern
175
Region of Uplifts
The series of uplifts rising N of Nahal Zin may not be as dramatic as the Super Bowl, but
their small and large bowls are very impressive. Note the following features in order to
become better acquainted with this northern region of uplifts located between the Nahal
Zin depression and the Negev depression. Later you will find that this area has its own story
to tell, from the days of the patriarchs through those of Moses and the kings of Judah to the
days of Jesus when Nabatean cities thrived here on the frontier of the territory of Herod, an
Idumean (Edomite) king ruling the Jews under the auspices of Caesar Augustus.
guide in brief—
OBSERVATION on
SOUTHERN ARENA MAP
pp. 6/7
1 P
Follow
each uplift (broken yellow line) between Nahal Zin and the Eastern Negev.
Note their beginning by Nahal Zin, changing orientation as they move N, the harder
limestones (green) along their paths, the position of the two bowls and breaks along
the paths of the uplift. Compare these uplifts with the uplifts S of Nahal Zin.
2 P
Find
basins or depressions between these uplifts, partly draining S into the Nahal Zin
and the Aravah. Nahal Besor erodes through certain uplifts to capture other parts.
3 P
Compare
these uplifts with the area between Nessana, Kadesh and Oboda where
the Nessana drainage system stretches through lower hills, ascends canyons in the
Southern Highland Slopes and reaches the edge of the Super Bowl.
4 P
Note
how ‘natural’ routes (red on this map) exploit the entire area, from Tamar to the
Negev basins to Nessana and Kadesh. Depressions and breaks in the uplifts encourage a
network of routes. Passage through the Nahal Zin is by and large unhindered.
5 P
Nabatean
remains are scattered throughout the south, but drawing boxes around major
site names shows the extent of Nabatean control from the century prior to Jesus’ birth
through Roman and Byzantine times: Mampsis (at a key road junction, with houses
from the first century), Oboda, Soubaita, Nessana, Rehoboth, Elusa.
This map shows that anyone set on controlling southern trade had to secure the network
of routes in and through the Southern Highlands. This was true for Judah in the southern
part of the central hill country and for Edom in the Eastern Heights beyond the Rift. This
became a major economic and geopolitical issue when Arabian caravan trade increased
and this southern highland network between Judah and Edom took on great importance.
When overriding imperial control weakened or destroyed Judah’s control, Edom was spared
and could make inroads into the Southern Highlands, the Negev basins and beyond. This
began in the days of the prophet Isaiah and climaxed in the centuries after Jeremiah and was
reversed only in modern history with the founding of the State of Israel.
guide in brief—
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pp. 22/23
. HL these names in green: Southern Highlands, ‘Nahal’ Zin (slightly smaller letters
near the Southern Highlands), Eastern Negev, Western Negev, Judah
. HL in green/black write-in: sinai (small caps) in very bottom left corner of this map
. Black write-in: dead sea (small caps in two lines, top center blue)
. HL in yellow (N and S of Nahal Zin): Small Bowl, Big Bowl, Super Bowl, Ascent of
Aqrabbim, Mt. Halak
. HL in red (if not already HL) from N to S: Hebron, En-gedi, Massada, Arad (T. Arad),
Beer-sheba (T. es-Saba), Aroer, Elusa, Rehoboth, Soubaita, Nessana, Oboda, Kadesh
[barnea]; cross-out the duplicate Beraein (Beerotayim) just above Azmon
. Place city dot, black write-in with red HL: ‘Mampsis’ as it appears on pp. 6/7
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. HL in yellow on red route: 1) from (the repositioned) Tamar in the Aravah via
Mampsis to Aroer on the edge of the Eastern Negev basin; 2) from Tamar by Mt.
Sdum (your write-in) and the Zohar Fort to Arad (T. Arad) in the Eastern Negev;
3) from Zoar to Mampsis (both write-ins); 4) from Sinai on the SW edge of the map
(your write-in) to Beer-sheba (Beer Sheva) via Nessana, Rehoboth and Elusa; 5) from
Aroer in the Eastern Negev basin SW (the ‘Way of Atharim,’ Num 21:1-3) to the
intersection by Oboda and W via Nessana and off the map into Sinai and to Egypt;
6) from Elusa SE to the intersection by Oboda and through the Super Bowl to go off
the map (black write-in beside the route on the edge of the map: ‘to Petra’).
. Black write-in: southern highland slopes (diagonally in small caps and two lines)
SW of Oboda between Hazar-addar and Southern Highlands
The map on pp. 22/23 provides a closer view of the Southern Highlands without the colors
of the various rock types. It does show the southern uplifts (broken yellow lines). Note the
difference between these uplifts and the wind-blown sands off northern Sinai, as well as the
fine, wind-blown ‘loess’ soil that fills the Negev basins. Find the outline of Nahal Zin, the
three geological bowls, familiar site names and the network of routes which links these sites.
If necessary, compare this map to the map on p. 12 in order to set it within its larger context.
This map (pp. 22/23) makes it clear that Southern Highland routes avoid areas of difficulty
and follow depressions and natural passes between various sites. One route, however,
circumvents the Southern Highlands. Those coming from Zoar or Tamar reach the shores of
the Dead Sea, enter a small canyon road to a fort today called ‘Zohar.’ From here the route
made its ascent to the Eastern Negev. Another more arduous ascent (not HL) climbs to ‘Uza,’
a ruined fort with nearby vistas overlooking the entire region to the heights of Edom.
Num 21:1
Josh 15:21-23
Shishak City Lists
Traffic between Tamar and Aroer follows a more direct path by climbing the steep Scorpions’/
Aqrabbim Ascent (or the nearby Zafir Ascent, not named on your map), crossing a broad
depression and then passing through breaks in two of the uplifts. A route from Zoar ascends to
this same depression to reach an important intersection in the region of Nabatean Mampsis,
a particularly important caravan stop in this part of the Southern Highlands. Mampsis (in
Greek but ‘Kurnub’ in Arabic and ‘Mamshit’ in Hebrew) lies near the ‘Way of Atharim,’
which descends SW to the intersection by Oboda with a route that leads to Egypt. Thus a
Zoar-Egypt route existed to supply the Egyptian court with needed resources from the region
of the Dead Sea, such as bitumen. The open character of Nahal Zin must have also beckoned
caravans between Zoar and Egypt, but the possibility of attacks by marauders from canyons to
the S must have given second thoughts.
To this network of routes through the Southern Highlands we must add the important
western limit of habitable land stretching from Elusa as far south as Kadesh. This area
is habitable because sporadic winter rains on the Southern Highland Slopes drain NW,
gather and flow past the site of Nessana and into the Sinai sands to create a region far more
hospitable than the sands or the hard interior of Sinai. Some unidentified settlements in
this region, named in the Bible and in an Egyptian inscription, no doubt represent small
agricultural sites or small forts from the Solomonic period and perhaps later. The Nabateans
wisely settled this same area and thus also controlled caravans coming N from the Red Sea to
the springs at Kadesh and from there N through their cities and out to Gaza via Nahal Besor.
In addition, the Nabateans constructed the challenging Petra-Oboda route cutting through
the Super Bowl. This feat brought caravans from Nabatean areas in Arabia to the intersection
that leads to broad plain of Soubaita or through a pass directly to Elusa and the road to
Gaza. When taken as individual cities or as a whole, the work of the Nabateans is a stunning
achievement, which exploited the Southern Highlands to the fullest.
guide in brief—
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. HL in yellow: Ramat Matred (small letters SW of Oboda)
. HL in green: the site dots of Beer-sheba/T. es-Saba, Arad/T. Arad, Kadesh [barnea],
Tamar (repositioned dot); draw a black square around each HL dot to indicate
fortresses in the Solomonic period and later
. HL in yellow on red route: from Tamar S off the map (black write-in beside the route
on the edge of the map: ‘to Red Sea’)
Others also attempted to control these highlands and the network of routes from Tamar to
Kadesh, but few ventured as far as the regions in and around the Super Bowl. King Solomon
extended his control S of the Negev basins by building a series of agricultural settlements and
small forts with larger fortresses at Arad (T. Arad) and no doubt at Beer-sheba (T. es-Saba).
He guarded his perimeters with fortresses at Kadesh and at Tamar. Sites have been found
along routes and in a concentration on the plain of Ramat Matred. A convenient route (not
on the map) climbs from the region of Oboda to Ramat Matred and from there crosses a low
pass to the SW into a valley that offers roads to both Nessana and Kadesh. Thus Solomonic
administrators stretched the king’s control to the Southern Highland Slopes and even to
heights W of the Super Bowl overlooking Sinai at the very bottom of p. 22. Some propose
that a route descended S from these heights and off this map to the Red Sea, joining the route
from Kadesh which crossed the broad expanses of the wilderness of Paran off this map.
1 Kgs 10:1-13
to Red Sea:
1 Kgs 9:26-28;
cf. 1 Kgs 22:48;
2 Chr26:2
Num 32:3-5
Josh 11:17; 12:7
1 Kgs 9:18
One of the most fascinating stories about Solomon reflects his attempt to push S to the Red
Sea and Arabia. It records his meeting with the queen of Sheba, a meeting which must have
been one of his most colorful trade summits. The Bible tells of the meeting but nothing of
the outcome of these negotiations, although the leaders must have discussed control of the
southern trade corridor reaching Arabia and the ports on the Red Sea—off this map.
Given all you have learned it is an opportune time for you to consider the factors that come
into play if you were a king of Judah who had designs on controlling the southern trade
corridor. Where are the natural limits beyond which your control becomes too challenging?
What resources do you need to push S from the central hill country and enter this coveted
corridor? Where would you draw the line? This question arose for the early Israelites and for
the kings of Judah when they considered the southern ‘borders of Canaan.’ We are given
some strong indicators for the Bible mentions ‘Mt. Halak’ somewhere in the area of the
Scorpions’/Aqrabbim Ascent, along an uplift which could serve as the natural limit of the
land of Canaan. This limit is where one could probably survive, both from the elements and
from marauding bands such as the Amalekites. Indeed, in descending the ascent from this
uplift one found himself in the vulnerable, threatened surroundings of the Aravah and the
Edomites. This underscores the seriousness of Solomon’s building Tamar, the same Tamar at
which the Edomites built a their shrine centuries later.
The book of Joshua adds important details when it states that the southern border of the tribe
of Judah began at the southernmost part of the Salt (Dead) Sea and from there southward,
Josh 15:1-3
... and [the border] came out just south of the Ascent of Aqrabbim, made its way across the region of Zin
[nahal/wilderness of Zin] and came up and around Kadesh-barnea from the south—passing Hezron, and
ascending toward Addar—toward Karka [in a way which included Kadesh inside Judah’s territory].
From the area of the Ascent of Aqrabbim we only hear that the border passed through the
region of Zin, but the description specifically includes the area of springs around Kadesh on
the edge of Sinai. This highlights the importance of the Kadesh region as a gateway to and
from Sinai and the Red Sea. In terms of the central region of Zin and the highlands which
surround it we would know much more if we knew the location of scores of unidentified
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sites in the southern district of Judah’s tribal list and in pharaoh Shishak’s list of southern
sites eliminated after Solomon’s death. Most of these sites will remain unknown since the
area lies beyond permanently settled sites where names are often preserved. We can be
confident, however, that many of these sites were located in the general vicinity of Oboda
for this later Nabatean site was established here because of the area’s strategic importance.
The unidentified Iron Age forts found at Ramat Matred and along the network of roads N of
Oboda underscore the fact that kings in Judah recognized this area’s regional geobasics in the
same way as the later Nabateans.
Texts: Southern Highlands
The name Southern Highlands does not occur in the Bible, but the careful reader finds
hints of the region’s geobasics—springs, waterless tracks, mountains, ascents, canyons and
geological holes. Some of the Southern Highlands’ subregional names or major features
do appear in the Bible’s border descriptions and survival stories: Mount Halak, Aqrabbim
[Scorpions] Ascent and Wilderness of Zin. We call the broad slopes descending NW off
the Super Bowl the ‘Southern Highland Slopes.’ Drainage from these slopes and canyons
reappears in the form of springs, such as, the Kadesh oasis and, perhaps, Beer Lahai Roi.
The Southern Highlands is a transitional zone from the semi-arid, marginal Negev basins
to the terror-inspiring, expansive wastelands of the Great Wilderness. Highlands heights
pull moisture from passing winter storms, and careful management of sporadic run-off by
small populations permits local areas of life and agriculture along the region’s trade routes.
•Features in the Southern Highlands mark out the southern extent of habitable land—
Mount Halak—between the Rift and the Negev—marks the limit of habitable, hence, conquerable land.
Joshua took (parts of) the entire land ... from Mt. Halak [along the land’s southern gateway where one coming
from Edom’s lofty] Seir ascends [the first uplift between the Aravah and the Negev basin], as far as Baal-gad
... below Mt. Hermon. Joshua 11:16-17 // Joshua and the Israelites conquered these kings on the west side of the
Jordan, from [as far N as] Baal-gad in the valley of Lebanon to [as far S as] the Mt. Halak [where one coming
from Edom’s lofty] Seir ascends [the first uplift between the Aravah and the Negev basin]. Joshua 12:7
The Aqrabbim Ascent—over the Mount Halak uplift—and Zin stand out as southern border markers.
Your southern edge is from the wilderness of Zin along Edom ... your frontier shall curve from south to the Aqrabbim
ascent and cross over toward Zin. Numbers 34:3-4 // Judah’s allocation … reached Edom’s frontier, the southern
limit being the wilderness of Zin.... southward to the Aqrabbim ascent and passed over to Zin. Joshua 15:1-3
The wilderness of Zin stretches SW to Kadesh and covers a large part of the Southern Highlands.
[From Kadesh-barnea the spies] went up and explored the land from the wilderness of Zin as far [N] as Rehob,
toward the entry to Hamath (Lebo-hamath). They went up [passing first] through the Negev and came to Hebron
[in the southern hill country]. Numbers 13:21-22 // Your southern side is from the wilderness of Zin along Edom
... your frontier shall curve from south to the Aqrabbim Ascent and cross over toward Zin. [The border’s] farthest
limit is south of Kadesh-barnea. Numbers 13:3-4; cf. Joshua 15:1-3 // They journeyed from Ezion-geber and camped in
the wilderness of Zin, that is, Kadesh. Numbers 33:36
•The habitable portions of the Southern Highlands depend on springs or water sources—
The wilderness of Zin drains the Southern Highlands Slopes and offers limited water resources. The entire
Israelite assembly arrived at the wilderness of Zin.... there was no water for the assembly, and they came together
against Moses and Aaron.... Moses took the staff from the LORD’s presence ... he and Aaron gathered together the
assembly facing the rock, and Moses said to them, ‘Listen, you rebels, must we bring out water for you from this
rock?’ Then Moses lifted up his arm and twice struck the rock with his staff. Water gushed out, and the community
and their livestock drank.... These were the waters of Meribah [‘Contention’ with perhaps a hint of another
Hebrew root, ‘Abundance’], where the Israelites argued with the LORD. Numbers 20:1-13; cf. 27:14; Deuteronomy 32:51
The vital spring of Kadesh straddles a contiguous border between the wilderness areas of Paran and
Zin. The people moved out from Hazeroth and camped in the wilderness of Paran ... Moses sent spies out from
the wilderness of Paran.... They went up and explored out the land from the wilderness of Zin toward the entry
to Hamath (Lebo-hamath).... After forty days they returned ... to Moses and Aaron and to all the assembly of
the children of Israel in the wilderness of Paran, at Kadesh. Numbers 12:16-13:26 // In the first month the entire
Israelite assembly arrived at the wilderness of Zin, and they stayed at Kadesh [on the border between the
wilderness areas of Zin and Paran]. There Miriam died and was buried. Numbers 20:1
The Kadesh area offers springs that support life and camping outposts on edge of the wilderness. [The
army of Kedorlaomer] turned back and went to En-mishpat [spring of Judgment]—at Kadesh—and then
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battered the entire open country of the Amalekites [living in the Kadesh area and along the nearby Southern
Highland Slopes]. Genesis 14:7 // Abraham journeyed from [the hill country] into the region of the Negev and
roamed between Kadesh and Shur. Genesis 20:1 // The entire Israelite assembly ... stayed at Kadesh. Numbers 20:1
// From Kadesh Moses sent messengers to the king of Edom ... [Moses said to the king of Edom,] ‘We are at
Kadesh, an outpost on the edge of your territory.’ Numbers 20:14-16 // [God told Moses,] ‘You too shall be gathered
to your people, as Aaron your brother was; for in the wilderness of Zin you disputed [meritem, plural] my
word, not regarding me as holy [hakdish] before them, in the assembly’s dispute [meribah] at the waters—the
waters of Meribah-Kadesh [i.e., spring of Meribah in the Kadesh area] in the wilderness of Zin. Numbers
27:13-14; see the ‘waters of Meribah-Kadesh’ also at Deuteronomy 32:51 and ‘Meribah-Kadesh’ at Deuteronomy 33:2 // [The LORD
told Ezekiel the frontiers of the restored land:] This is the frontier which you shall use to divide up the land
for the twelve tribes of Israel.... The southern edge runs [E] from Tamar [the eastern spring] to the waters of
Meribah [a western spring] in the Kadesh area, then [NW] along the streambed [of the Wadi el-Arish] to
the Great [Mediterranean] Sea. This is the measure of the [land’s] southern edge. Ezekiel 47:13, 19 // Adjoining the
border of Gad, to the south beyond its territory, the frontier runs from Tamar [the eastern spring] to the waters of
Meribath-Kadesh [a western spring] in the Kadesh area, then along the streambed [of the Wadi el-Arish] to
the Great Sea. Ezekiel 48:28
Kadesh and its springs served as a known destination and the land’s major frontier marker in the SW.
Its farthest limit is south of Kadesh-barnea, reaching Hazar-addar, across to Azmon. Numbers 34:4 // It takes eleven
days to go from Horeb to Kadesh-barnea by the way of Mount Seir. Deuteronomy 1:2 // Then we journeyed from
Horeb, and went through all that great and terrible wilderness which you saw on the way to the hill country of the
Amorites, as the LORD our God had commanded us; and we arrived at Kadesh-barnea. Deuteronomy 1:19 // It went
up from the south to Kadesh-barnea, crossing Hezron, ascending to Addar and curving around to Karka. Joshua 15:3
// They ascended from Egypt, and Israel went via the wilderness to the Red Sea and arrived at Kadesh. Judges 11:16
Marauders roamed the Southern Highlands NE of Kadesh while a settled peoples dwelt farther N.
Joshua battered [the local populations] from Kadesh-barnea even until [the outskirts of] Gaza, that is, all the
region of Goshen.... Joshua 10:41 // The Amalekites live in the southern (‘negev’) area. Numbers 13:29 // Since
Amalekites and Canaanites live in the open valleys, turn [away from the edge of the settled land] and make your
way tomorrow through the wilderness in the direction of the Red Sea. Numbers 14:25 // Then Saul [with his militia]
went to an Amalekite settlement and set an ambush along one of the streambeds [tucked away in the Southern
Highlands]. 1 Samuel 15:5 // Now David and his men went up and plundered the Geshurites, the Girzites and the
Amalekites. People who always had lived along the way leading to Shur [via the Kadesh area]. 1 Samuel 27:8
// [After an Amalekite raid on Judah’s cities in the Negev, David captured] an Egyptian lad, a servant of an
Amalekite ... who led David to them. They spotted [the Amalekites] scattered over the entire landscape [along
the way to Shur]—eating, drinking, and celebrating because of the great spoil. 1 Samuel 30:13-16
Beer Lahai Roi, a notable spring on the way to Shur (Egypt), afforded a stopping point and campsite.
[When Hagar fled from Sarah, she encountered an angel at a spring (or well) on the way to Shur, located
in relationship to Kadesh.] The angel of the LORD found (Hagar) near a spring of water in the wilderness, that
is, the spring along the way of Shur, and he said, ‘Hagar, servant of Sarai, from where did you come, and to where
are you going?’ ... She called [the spring/well] after the name of the LORD who had spoken to her: ‘You are the God
seeing me [El Roi],’ for she said to herself, ‘Indeed, have I not just seen the One who sees me [Roi]?’ Thus the well
was called Beer Lahai Roi [the well of the Living One who sees me!]—and it is still there, between Kadesh and
Bered. Genesis 16:7-8, 13-14 // [While yet unmarried, Isaac would camp near Beer Lahai Roi at the foot of the
Southern Highland Slopes, for when his future wife arrived from Haran] Isaac had just come from Beer Lahai
Roi, for he was staying in the region of the Negev. Genesis 24:62 // After Abraham’s death, God blessed his son
Isaac, who then [had set up camp and] lived near Beer Lahai Roi. Genesis 25:11
•Springs also support wildlife in the Southern Highlands, its Slopes and the Kadesh area—
In the stark landscapes of the greater south hunters found game near its water sources. God was with the
young man, [Ishmael, the son of Abraham], as he grew up and lived in the wilderness. He excelled with the bow
[sustaining himself as a hunter]. He lived in the wilderness of Paran [on the way to Egypt], and his mother took
a wife for him from the land of Egypt. Genesis 21:20-21 // The boys [Esau and Jacob] grew up, and Esau became a
skillful hunter [no doubt searching out isolated water holes where game lurked], a man of the out-of-doors
... Isaac, who had a taste for wild game, loved Esau. Genesis 25:27-28 // [Other wildlife lived in the south.] An
oracle about the beasts of the south (negev): Through a land of distress and anguish, from where come lioness and
lion, viper and flying serpent, [the envoys to Egypt] carry their riches on the backs of young donkeys and their
treasures on camels’ humps. Isaiah 30:6
•Without water this area only offers the expectation of death—
Hagar, one goatskin of water to the S of Beer-sheva, and Elijah, just one day to the S of Beer-sheva.
Abraham rose early the next morning and took some bread and a goatskin of water and gave them to Hagar,
putting them on her shoulder, along with the boy. He then sent her away, and she left and wandered in the
wilderness [S] of Beer-sheba. When the water in the skin was finished, she tossed the boy under one of the
shrubs [along one of the area’s dry streambeds]. She walked away and sat down, quite a distance across [the
streambed], about the distance of a bowshot, for she said to herself, ‘May I not look at the death of the boy.’
She sat across [from him], lifting up her voice and weeping. Genesis 21:14-16 // [Elijah] arrived at Beer-sheba
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which belongs to Judah and there left his servant. He went on into the wilderness by himself a day’s journey,
finding and sitting down [in the shade of the spreading branches of a] broom bush [a shrub which grow along
dry streambeds in the Southern Highlands]. There, sitting under its shade, he prayed that he might die. ‘It’s
enough, LORD. Take my life; I am no better than my fathers.’ He laid down and fell asleep in the shade of the
broom bush. 1 Kings 19:3-5
Texts: Great and Terrible Wilderness (see Sinai’s Geobasics statements on p. 201)
The expression, the great and terrible wilderness comes from Moses, a man who spent
some eighty years surviving in areas of this southern great wilderness. For forty years he
lived next to the water wealth of the Nile river and enjoyed the opulence of the Egyptian
court. The next forty years, after fleeing from pharaoh, he lived as a shepherd, learning
the sparing life-style of the greater south, pursuing grazing grounds for his flocks and
moving them between scarce water sources in a threatening and inhospitable land. The
last forty years he led a people through this great and terrible wilderness, a task that he
accomplished only because the great, mighty and terrible God (Deuteronomy 10:17)
sustained them with manna and water in a land of death. The great and terrible/awesome
God (ha’El hagadol ve-hanora’) overcame the great and terrible/awesome wilderness
(hamidbar hagadol ve-hanora’) on behalf of his people.
The great and terrible wilderness is not one uniform area but is made up an array of
landscapes, including wind-blown sands, limestone cliffs, granite mountains, towering
uplifts and expansive drainage systems. All of these landscapes, however, share one
feature: they lack water (except for specific spots) and thus challenge any who dare enter.
• The Bible names several wilderness areas through which the Israelites journeyed—
The wilderness of Shur, near the eastern border of Egypt, appears in accounts from the times of the
patriarchs, the exodus and the early monarchy. Abraham journeyed from [the hill country] into the region
of the Negev and roamed between Kadesh and Shur. Genesis 20:1 (cf. Hagar near Shur [Genesis 16:7] and her son, Ishmael’s
descendants in Shur [Genesis 25:18)] // Moses led Israel from the Red (Reed) Sea, and they entered the wilderness of
Shur. They walked three days in [this] wilderness, but they did not find water. Exodus 15:22 // Saul battered the
Amalekites from Havilah [W] to the way leading to Shur, as one approaches Egypt. 1 Samuel 15:7 // David and
his men went up and plundered the Geshurites, the Girzites and the Amalekites, peoples who always had lived along
the way leading to Shur, even as far as the land of Egypt. 1 Samuel 27:8
The wilderness of Sin (not ‘Zin’), most probably located along the eastern side of the gulf of Suez north
of Ras Suder, appears in two accounts of the exodus. The entire assembly of the Israelites journeyed from Elim
[perhaps Ayun Musa, ‘the spring of Moses,’ on the NE shore of the gulf of Suez] and came to the wilderness
of Sin, between Elim and Sinai. Exodus 16:1-3 // The entire assembly of the Israelites journeyed from the wilderness
of Sin, moving from place to place [see Numbers 33:12-14] as commanded by the LORD. They camped at Rephidim [at
the mouth of Wadi Suder?], but there was no water for the people to drink. Exodus 17:1-2; cf. Numbers 33:11-12
Giving of the Law in the wilderness of Sinai—an on-going discussion as to location.
[This was Israel’s encampment for almost two years. One view holds that it was one of the singular peaks
in the wilderness area some 80km/50mi SE of the southern gateway to the modern Suez canal.] In the third
month of the departure of the Israelites from the land of Egypt—to the day—they arrived at the wilderness of Sinai.
After having journeyed from Rephidim and arriving at the wilderness of Sinai Israel encamped there, in the
wilderness in front of the mountain [perhaps Jebel Sinn Bisher, E of Ras Suder and Rephidim, but some ten
other mountains vie for the title of Mt. Sinai]. Exodus 19:1-2 // In the second year, the second month, the twentieth
day of the month, the cloud lifted from above the tabernacle of the testimony. By daily treks the Israelites journeyed
from the wilderness of Sinai [see Numbers 33:16-36] and the cloud rested in the wilderness of Paran. Numbers 10:11-12
The wilderness of Paran, SW of Kadesh-barnea became the main encampment for much of Israel’s
time in the wilderness; it also appears in a patriarchal text. God was with [Abraham’s son, Ishmael] as
he matured. He lived in the wilderness, becoming skilled with the bow. While he was living in the wilderness of
Paran, and his mother found him a wife from Egypt. Genesis 21:20-21 // The people then journeyed from Hazeroth
[through daily treks] and encamped in the wilderness of Paran. Numbers 12:16 // From the wilderness of Paran
Moses sent [spies] out as the LORD had directed, all prominent men among the Israelites.... They returned to the
wilderness of Paran at Kadesh, to Moses, Aaron and the entire assembly of the Israelites. Numbers 13:3, 26
The wilderness of Zin lay S of the Negev and habitable regions and became Israel’s southern border.
In the first month the entire Israelite assembly arrived at the wilderness of Zin, and they stayed at Kadesh [which
lies on the border between the wilderness of Zin and the wilderness of Paran]. Miriam died there, and she
was buried there [and soon a rebellion broke out]. Numbers 20:1-5; cf. 27:14; Deuteronomy 32:51 // [From Kadesh-
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barnea the spies] went up and explored the land from the wilderness of Zin as far [N] as Rehob, toward the entry
to Hamath (Lebo-hamath). They went up [passing first] through the Negev and came to Hebron [in the southern
hill country]. Numbers 13:21-22 // Your southern side is from the wilderness of Zin along Edom ... your frontier
shall curve from south to the Aqrabbim Ascent and cross over toward Zin. [The border’s] farthest limit is south of
Kadesh-barnea. Numbers 34:3-4; cf. Joshua 15:1-3
•Biblical writers give brief but menacing descriptions of the great and terrible wilderness—
Moses offers a classic description of the vast, terror-inspiring south. We journeyed from Horeb—just as
the LORD our God commanded us—and walked through all that great and terrible wilderness, which you saw
along the way which leads [N] to the [habitable] hill country of the Amorites. We came as far as Kadesh-barnea.
Deuteronomy 1:19 // [The LORD] guided you through the great and terrible wilderness, with burning [deadly]
snakes and scorpions, a bone-dry land with no water— [but the LORD] brought you water out of flint stone [a
silicon-based stone which unlike limestone does not store water in karstic cavities]. Deuteronomy 8:15
Poetic and prophetic voices describe the wilderness as a land where no one travels and no one lives.
Who has a cut a course for floods to follow [through the south’s deep canyons], or a track for a thunderbolt’s
crack which signals a sudden deluge in [this southern] no-man’s land, a [waterless] wilderness with no person
in it; a violent and sudden downpour which quickly fills [parched] streambeds, causing seeds to sprout and green
grass to then appear. Is there a father to rain [in such an arid land]—or who brings into being drops of dew [on
desert plants]? Job 38:25-28 // They did not say, ‘Where is the LORD who brought us up out of the land of Egypt,
who led us into the wilderness, into a land of arid plains and gorges, into arid waste land overshadowed by death,
into a land through which no one passes and where no man can dwell?’ Jeremiah 2:6
Job compares his colleagues to the snow-filled but disillusioning gulches of Edom’s heights. My
counselors are as misleading as a streambed [in Edom], channels of water that cease to flow. [In Edom’s winter
they are] shrouded by ice, concealed by snow [appearing perennially filled], but after temperatures rise [in late
spring when traders arrive, these frozen waters] have left their locales. Caravans making their way [north from
Arabia’s sands] ascend [to Edom expecting to find water]—and then perish. Caravans of Tema [in western
Arabia] look for [water]; those from Sheba [in southern Arabia] hold out hope—for they were convinced [that
they would find water in Edom’s heights] but became despondent; they arrived [in Edom] and were disappointed.
Job 6:15-20
•The Israelites feared death from the lack of water and food in wilderness areas—
In the wilderness of Shur: A water shortage at Marah. [The Israelites] walked three days in the wilderness
[of Shur], but they did not find water. Then they came to Marah, but they could not drink the waters of
Marah, because they were bitter (‘marim’); thus [this water source] is called Marah. The people complained to
Moses, ‘What are we supposed to drink?’ So he called upon the LORD, and the LORD made him aware of a tree,
and he flung the tree into the waters, and the waters became fit to drink. Exodus 15:22-25
In the wilderness of Sin: Food and water shortages. The entire Israelite assembly journeyed from Elim and
came to the wilderness of Sin ... and ... complained about Moses and Aaron in the wilderness. The whole
company of the Israelites said to them, ‘It would have been far better to die [one by one] back in Egypt—by the
LORD’s hand—since there we sat around pots of meat and ate bread until we were stuffed. You, on the other hand,
brought us out here to this wilderness so that as a company we could starve to death.’ Exodus 16:1-3 // The
entire assembly of the Israelites journeyed from the wilderness of Sin, moving from place to place as commanded
by the LORD. They camped at Rephidim, but there was no water for the people to drink. So the people argued
with Moses, ‘Provide some water for us so we can drink!’ Moses said to them, ‘What is this arguing with me? Why
are you testing the LORD?’ But the people were thirsty for water at that place and complained about Moses, saying
‘What’s going on—bringing us out of Egypt and letting us, our children and our animals die of thirst?’ Exodus 17:1-3
From the wilderness of Sinai to the wilderness of Paran: Strong cravings on the way. By daily treks the
Israelites journeyed from the wilderness of Sinai and the cloud rested in the wilderness of Paran (Numbers 10:12).
[On the journey] the disorderly crowd among them experienced a deep craving and sat down and wept—as did
also the Israelites, saying, ‘Who will provide us meat to eat? We recall the fish that we ate [in the Nile delta] in
Egypt—free of charge—and the cucumbers, and the melons, and the leeks, and the onions and the garlic—now our
life is shriveled up! We see nothing at all—except for this manna!’ Numbers 11:4-6
In the wilderness of Zin: A water shortage. In the first month the entire Israelite assembly arrived at the
wilderness of Zin, and they stayed at Kadesh.... Now there was no water for the assembly, and the people
gathered against Moses and Aaron. They argued with Moses and said, ‘Oh, that we had completely perished as our
brothers did before the LORD! Why did you bring the LORD’s congregation into this wilderness, so that we and
our animals should die here? ... Why did you take us up out of Egypt and bring us to this miserable place? It’s no
place for grain or figs, grapevines or pomegranates; and water—there’s nothing to drink!’ Numbers 20:3-5
On the road from the wilderness of Zin to circumvent Edom: No bread nor water. [The Israelites]
traveled from Mount Hor [perhaps in the region of Kadesh] along the way of the Red Sea, to go around Edom,
and along the way the people became frustrated ... and spoke out against God and against Moses, ‘Did you take us
up out of Egypt to die in the wilderness? For there is no bread! There is no water! Our souls are disgusted
with this contemptible bread (the manna)!’ Numbers 21:4-5
GEOBASICS STUDY GUIDE: sa southern highlands—crossing the great south
guide in brief—
PERSONALITY
IN TEXTS
continued
Ezek 27
182
Texts: Crossing the great south
A large and consistent commercial network lies behind the texts and events of the Bible.
The Bible does not explicitly describe this network, but natural corridors, the location
of water sources and evidence from related sites reveal where trade caravans journeyed
and why travel stayed to specific paths. This commercial network linked the sources of
luxury goods (such as precious stones and metals, spices and incense from Sheba/Saba)
with ports that served markets across the Mediterranean and the ancient world. In spite
of its inherent difficulties and the danger of marauders, caravans drivers crossed the
greater south and the great and terrible wilderness, carrying lucrative luxury goods to
exchange at Mediterranean ports. Ezekiel gives us a graphic description of Tyre’s far-flung
trading partners and lists the goods that passed through that bustling island-port. John, in
Revelation (below), provides a glimpse of such a network in the Roman period.
Gloom! Gloom, Great city, O Babylon, mighty city [Jewish code for Rome in John’s days]!
The judgement upon you has arrived—in one hour!
Rev 18:10-13
1 Kgs 10
Isa 60:5-6
Traveling traders of the world weep and mourn over her because no longer does anyone purchase their cargoes—cargoes
of gold, silver, precious stones and pearls; fine linen, purple, silk and scarlets; all kinds of things made of citron
[scented] wood and all kinds of things made of ivory, rare wood, bronze, iron and marble; cargoes of cinnamon and
spice, incense, myrrh and frankincense; wine and olive oil; fine flour and wheat; cattle and sheep; horses and wagons—
and slaves, even the souls of men.
Trade in Isaiah’s future kingdom reflects that which flowed in Solomon days:
Then you shall perceive and shine forth, your heart shall fill with awe and overflow; the bounty of the seas [maritime
trade] shall be turned upside down [brought to you rather than taken from you, as Assyria had done in Isaiah’s
day]—the wealth of the nations shall come to you [to Jerusalem as in the days of Solomon]. A multitude of camels
[for land-based trade] shall spread out over you, the young ones of Midian and Ephah [with much future potential].
All of them shall come from Sheba, carrying gold and incense and declaring the praise of the LORD.
• The Bible names several ways across the great wilderness—
An east-west military road with forts across northern Sinai and parallel to the coast: ‘Way of the land of
the Philistines,’ called ‘Way of Horus’ in Egypt. When Pharaoh had let the people go, God did not lead them
along the way of the land of the Philistines, although it was the shortest way. For God said, ‘In experiencing
conflict the people might just give up and return to Egypt.’ Exodus 13:17 // The desolation that the mighty arm of
Pharaoh [Seti I]—life, prosperity, health!—made among the foe belonging to the Shashu—from the fortress of Sile
[the beginning of the way of Horus] to Canaan. Seti I in ANET 254 // [Ramses II] began to march on the good
way [the way of Horus] ... when his majesty passed the fortress of Sile. Ramses II in ANET 255 // [Vespasian sent
Titus from Egypt to quell the revolt in Judea.] So Titus marched on foot as far as Nicopolis, which in distance
is twenty furlongs from Alexandria; there he put his army on board some long ships and sailed up the Nile into the
Mendesian nome [an administrative district in the northeastern delta], as far as the city Thmuis; there he got
out of the ships [to begin the military road across the northern Sinai]. He walked on foot, and lodged a night at a
small city called Tanis. His second station was Heracleopolis, and his third Pelusium where he refreshed his army for
two days, and on the third passed over the mouths of the Nile at Pelusium. He then proceeded one station over the
desert, and pitched his camp at the temple of the Casian Zeus, and on the next day at Ostracine. This station had no
water, but the people of the region make use of water brought from other places. After this he rested at Rhinocorura
[at the mouth of Wadi el-Arish, which drains much of central Sinai into the Mediterranean], and from
thence he went to Raphia, which was his fourth station. This city [modern Rafah] is the beginning of Syria [and
serves still today as the border crossing from Egypt into the Gaza strip]. For his fifth station he pitched his camp
at Gaza; after which he came to Ashkelon ... War 4.659-663/xi.5
Between the wilderness of Paran to Egypt via the wilderness of Shur: ‘The way of Shur.’ The angel of the
LORD found (Hagar) near a spring of water in the wilderness, that is, the spring along the way to Shur. Genesis
16:7 // When he was a small lad Hadad [the son of the king of Edom], together with some Edomite men who had
worked with his father, fled to Egypt. They set out from Midian and came to [the wilderness of] Paran. Taking
some men from Paran with them they came to Egypt [presumably via the way of Shur]. 1 Kings 11:17-18; cf. 1 Samuel
15:7 and 27:8, which both use the term the approach of Shur, probably along the way of Shur
Egypt to the Gulf of Eilat/Aqabah: Perhaps the ‘Way of the wilderness.’ [From the N end of the Gulf of
Suez and SE across the Wadi el-Arish catchment basin in central Sinai. Thus, instead of leading them by
the (northern military) way which leads to the land of the Philistines,] God led the people in a round about
fashion, by the way through the wilderness leading in the direction of the Red Sea. Exodus 13:17-18
guide in brief—
PERSONALITY
IN TEXTS
continued
183
Egypt to the region of Kadesh: Perhaps the ‘Way of Mount Seir’ or the ‘Way of the Amorite Hill
Country.’ [From the N end of the Gulf of Suez NE across the northern part of the Wadi el-Arish catchment
basin in central Sinai.] It takes eleven days from Horeb to Kadesh-barnea by the way of Mount Seir.
Deuteronomy 1:2 // We journeyed from Horeb and walked through all that great and terrible wilderness, which you
saw along the way of the Amorite hill country—just as the LORD our God commanded us, and we came as far
as Kadesh barnea. Deuteronomy 1:19
From the region of Kadesh to the Gulf of Eilat/Aqabah: Perhaps the ‘Way of the Red Sea.’ The
Amalekites and the Canaanites inhabit the basins [SE of the western Negev into the northern valleys of
the Southern Highlands], tomorrow turn around [and leaving Kadesh-barnea] make your way through the
wilderness on the way leading to the Red Sea. Numbers 14:25 // [The Israelites] traveled from Mount Hor
[perhaps in the region of Kadesh] along the way of the Red Sea to go around Edom. Numbers 21:4
From the region of Kadesh via the wilderness of Zin into the Negev: ‘Way leading to the Atharim.’ [This
could indicate the broad depression NE of modern Sede Boqer which leads to Aroer, the Negev and the
hill country. This ‘track’ (a Semitic meaning for athar) is the most convenient way to reach ‘settled sites’
(Aramaic meaning of athar, ‘place’) N of the Southern Highlands.] When the Canaanite chieftain of Arad,
who lived in the Negev, heard that Israel was coming along the way of Atharim, he fought with Israel and took
some of them captive. Numbers 21:1
•To control trade from the Red Sea to Mediterranean ports Judah coveted the great south—
Stronger kings of Judah attempted to extend their authority over the challenging southern trade
corridor linking Arabia/Rea Sea to Philistia. [Although mentioned elsewhere, it is important to make
this point here in our discussion of southern challenges.] King Solomon also built ships at Ezion-geber, which is
with Elath on the shore of the Red Sea in the land of Edom. 1 Kings 9:26; cf. 2 Chronicles 8:17 // Jehoshaphat made
sea-going (Tarshish) ships to sail [down the Red Sea] towards Ophir for gold, but they did not go for the ships were
wrecked at Ezion-geber [on the Red Sea]. 1 Kings 22:48; cf. 2 Chronicles 20:36-37 // (Uzziah) rebuilt Elath [on the Red
Sea] returning [authority over] it to Judah. 2 Chronicles 26:2, 7-8
optional—
•Arabia (south of Edom): Nabatean herdsmen preyed on settled populations and trade—
Passages below appear here because they reveal the habits and products of that part of Arabia adjacent to
the Red Sea, the southern Aravah and the hill country of Edom. The passages not only tell us why Judah’s
struggle to control the southern trade corridor was such a challenge but also how rich was Judah’s reward
when its central government could achieve dominance in this greater south. Such information sheds much
light on previous passages about the policies and struggles of David, Solomon and Judah’s other kings.
Early Nabateans were non-agrarian tent-dwellers. For the sake of those who do not know, it will be useful to
state in some detail the customs of these [Nabateans], by following which, it is believed, they preserve their liberty.
They live in the open air, claiming as native land a wilderness that has neither rivers nor abundant springs from
which it is possible for a hostile army to obtain water. It is their custom neither to plant grain, set out any fruitbearing tree, use wine, nor construct any house; and if anyone is found acting contrary to this, death is his penalty.
They follow this custom because they believe that those who possess these things are, in order to retain the use of
them, easily compelled by the powerful to do their bidding. Some of them raise camels, others sheep, pasturing them
in the desert. Diodorus, Bibliotheca historica XIX, 94:2-4 LCL
They themselves use as food flesh and milk and those of the plants that grow [uncultivated] from the ground which
are suitable for this purpose; for among them there grow the pepper and plenty of the so-called wild honey from trees,
which they drink mixed with water. There are also other tribes of Arabs, some of whom even till the soil, mingling
with the tribute-paying peoples, and have the same customs as the Syrians, except that they do not dwell in houses.
Diodorus, Bibliotheca historica XIX, 94:10 LCL
Nabatean homeland and early occupation of brigandage. [Arabia] is situated between Syria and Egypt, and is
divided among many peoples of diverse characteristics. Now the eastern parts are inhabited by Arabs, who bear the
name of Nabateans and range over a country which is partly desert and partly waterless, though a small section of it
is fruitful. And they lead a life of brigandage, and overrunning a large part of the neighboring territory, they pillage
it, being difficult to overcome in war. Diodorus, Bibliotheca historica II, 48:1-2 LCL
[Along the] Leanites gulf [probably the Aelanitic gulf, the gulf of Aqabah] are many inhabited villages of Arabs,
who are known as Nabateans. This tribe occupies a large part of the coast and not a little of the country which stretches
inland, and it has a people numerous beyond telling and flocks and herds in multitude beyond belief. Now in ancient
times these men observed justice and were content with the food which they received from their flocks, but later, after
the kings of Alexandria had made the ways of the sea navigable for their merchants, these Arabs not only attacked
the shipwrecked, but fitting out pirate ships preyed upon the voyagers.... Some time afterwards, however, they were
caught on the high seas by some quadriremes and punished as they deserved. Diodorus, Bibliotheca historica III, 43:4-5 LCL
[Likewise, Strabo:] Then to the Aelanites gulf [the gulf of Aqabah], and to Nabatea, a country with a large
population and well supplied with pasturage. They also dwell on islands situated off the coast near by; and these
Nabateans formerly lived a peaceful life, but later, by means of rafts, went to plundering the vessels of people sailing
from Egypt. But they paid the penalty when a fleet went over and sacked their country. Strabo, Geography XVI, 4:18
184
•Arabia: Nabateans mastered the challenges of the south and crossed it as a way of life—
Nabatean ingenuity in the waterless tracts. For the waterless region, as it is called, [the Nabateans] have dug
wells at convenient intervals and have kept the knowledge of them hidden from the peoples of all other nations, and
so they retreat in a body into this region out of danger. For since they themselves know about the places of hidden
water and open them up, they have for their use drinking water in abundance; but such other peoples as pursue
them, being in want of a watering-place by reason of their ignorance of the wells, in some cases perish because of the
lack of water, and in other cases regain their native land in safety only with difficulty and after suffering many ills.
Diodorus, Bibliotheca historica II, 48:2-3 LCL
Southern Arabia harvested products desired throughout the ancient world. That part of [southern] Arabia
which borders upon the waterless and desert country is so different from it that, because both of the multitude of
fruits which grow therein and of its other good things, it has been called Arabia Felix [‘fortunate’]. For the reed
and the rush and every other growth that has a spicy scent are produced in great abundance, as is also, speaking
generally, every kind of fragrant substance which is derived from leaves, and the land is distinguished in its several
parts by the varied odors of the gums which drip from them; for myrrh and that frankincense which is most dear
to the gods and is exported throughout the entire inhabited world are produced in the farthest parts of this land....
Moreover, the cinnamon, as it is called, which is exceptionally useful, and resin of the pine, and the terebinth, are
produced in these regions in great abundance and of sweet odor. Diodorus, Bibliotheca historica II, 49:1-3 LCL
Arabian commodities transported to Syria and Mesopotamia. The very fertile country of the Sabaeans, a
very large tribe, [produces] myrrh and frankincense and cinnamon ... those who live close to one another receive
in continuous succession the loads of aromatics and deliver them to their next neighbor, as far as Syria and
Mesopotamia ... the masses engage partly in farming and partly in the traffic in aromatics ... from their trafficking
both the Sabaeans and the Gerrhaeans have become richest of all. Strabo, Geography XVI, 4:19 LCL
Arabian commodities transported to the Mediterranean world. Cattabania produces frankincense, and
Chatramotitis produces myrrh; and both these and the other aromatics are bartered to merchants. These arrive there
in seventy days from Aelana (Aelana [modern Aqabah] is a city on the other recess of the Arabian gulf, the recess
near [or with trade routes to] Gaza and called [the gulf of] Aelanites, as I have said before), but the Gerrhaeans
arrive at Chatramotitis in forty days. Strabo, Geography XVI, 4:4 LCL
Near the island is a promontory, which extends to the Rock [Petra] of the Nabatean Arabians, as they are called,
and to the Palaestine country [with its ports on the Mediterranean], whither Minaeans and Gerrhaeans and all
the neighboring peoples convey their loads of aromatics. Strabo, Geography XVI, 4:18 LCL
Nabatean transportation of Arabian commodities. While there are many Arabian tribes who use the desert
as pasture, the Nabateans far surpass the others in wealth although they are not much more than ten thousand in
number; for not a few of them are accustomed to bring down to the [Mediterranean] sea [at Gaza] frankincense
and myrrh and the most valuable kinds of spices, which they procure from those who convey them from what is called
Arabia Eudaemon [i.e., Arabia the Fortunate/Arabia Felix]. Diodorus, Bibliotheca historica XIX, 94:4-5 LCL
Early Nabatean use of Petra. There is also in the land of the Nabateans a rock, which is exceedingly strong since
it has but one approach, and using this ascent they mount it a few at a time and thus store their possessions in safety.
Diodorus, Bibliotheca historica II, 48:6 LCL
[The Hellenistic king, Antigonus sent Athenaeus against a Nabatean stronghold, presumably Petra. In
the attack Athenaeus seized trade-commodities.] Athenaeus set out for the rock [Petra] with his army in light
marching order. Covering the twenty-two hundred stades [the distance, approximately 400 km/250 miles is too
far] from the district of Idumea in three days and the same number of nights, he escaped the attention of the Arabs
and seized the rock at about midnight. Of those that were caught there, some he slew at once, some he took as
prisoners, and others who were wounded he left behind; and of the frankincense and myrrh he gathered together the
larger part, and about five hundred talents of silver. Diodorus, Bibliotheca historica XIX, 95:2-3 LCL
Nabatean mastery of the wilderness for refuge and trade. [The Nabateans] take refuge in the desert, using
this as a fortress; for it lacks water and cannot be crossed by others, but to them alone, since they have prepared
subterranean reservoirs lined with stucco, it furnishes safety. As the earth in some places is clayey and in others is of
soft stone, they make great excavations in it, the mouths of which they make very small, but by constantly increasing
the width as they dig deeper, they finally make them of such size that each side has a length of one plethrum [or
approximately 30 meter/100 feet]. After filling these reservoirs with rain water, they close the openings, making
them even with the rest of the ground, and they leave signs that are known to themselves but are unrecognizable by
others. Diodorus, Bibliotheca historica XIX, 94:6-8 LCL
Nabatean exploitation of the Dead Sea. A large lake [the Dead Sea] is also there which produces asphalt in
abundance, and from which they derive not a little revenue. Diodorus, Bibliotheca historica II, 48:6 LCL
For full online discussions of Arabia by these ancient authors see:
Diodorus Siculus— http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/home.html
Strabo— http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/16D*.html#ref135
GEOBASICS STUDY GUIDE: SA NEGEV CORRIDOR—introduction
185
3. NEGEV CORRIDOR
The term ‘Negev basins’ appeared throughout our discussion of the Southern Arena because
these basins (named ‘Eastern Negev’ and ‘Western Negev’ on our maps) provide a unique
corridor leading to ports and highways along the southern coastal plain. The Negev basins
were part of the south but lay in the shadow of the central hill country, with its own arid
wilderness and its Shephelah lowland open to the coastal plain. The Bible calls these basins
and their environs ‘the Negev’ or ‘the South.’ Today people in Israel apply this term to the
entire southern part of the State of Israel. In our study we confine the regional term ‘Negev’
to its usage in the Bible, the area between the Southern Highlands and the central hill
country.
Edomite conflict
cf. 1 Sam 8:14;
1 Kgs 11:14;
2 Kgs 8:20; 14:7; 16:6
2 Chr20; Obadiah
guide in brief—
MARKING
The Negev and its story are closely tied to Judah in the central hill country, but also to the
Southern Highlands, the Aravah and Edom. One could call the Negev a ‘land between
within the Land Between,’ for those who tilled the soil to the N claimed it but those of the
S sought to overrun and control it. As caravan trade between Arabia and the Mediterranean
grew, commerce became the engine that drove national economies, and the battle for the
southern trade corridor through the Negev intensified. Judah to the N sought to occupy and
control the Negev and its approaches, contended with nomadic marauders and kept the
expanding Edomites at bay. Edom, for its part, cast a deep shadow over the Aravah valley and
sought to infiltrate the Southern Highlands leading to the Negev. This conflict emerged from
the geobasics of the Southern Arena, which you now understand.
. HL these names in green if not already HL: Eastern Negev, Western Negev
. HL in green/black write-in if not already done: judah (small caps) above Hebron
. HL in yellow if not already HL: Nahal Besor, Nahal Beer-sheva, Nahal Gerar (both
flowing into Nahal Besor)
To prepare for the Negev discussion, take a moment to note the following divisions on pp.
6/7 around the Negev basins. Remember that there is a difference between the colors used
to designate soils and rocks on the map. On pp. 22/23 colors show soils only, but on pp. 6/7
colors show both soils and rocks. The legend on p. 12 explains these differences.
guide in brief—
OBSERVATION on
SOUTHERN ARENA MAP
pp. 6/7
1 P
Sinai
sands is the largest feature on the western side of p. 6. A rather arbitrary broken,
thicker line shows the northern limit of these sands in an area where the sands are
mixed with windblown, dusty soils called ‘loess.’
2 P
The
coastal plain in the area of Raphia is quite narrow, and dunes dominate the
landscape. The road to and from Egypt follows a slight depression northward as patches
of brown-red sands (light orange) and basins of alluvial soil (light green) appear.
Another broken, thicker line again shows an arbitrary limit for the expanding coastal
plain by Gaza. Here gentle rises of brown-red sands surround alluvial basins filled by
runoff from nearby, low hills, which stand between this area and the Western Negev.
3 P
Various
types of lines outline the southern Shephelah in a region of eocene limestone
(yellow) near Lachish. Valleys and basins filled with alluvia appear here.
4 P
Uplifts
in the central hill country expose harder limestones (green). These rise from
the Negev to NE off this map, and rainfall dramatically increases producing rich terra
rosa soils in contrast to wind-blown loess soils throughout the Negev basins.
5 P
A
solid dark line on p. 6 encloses the Eastern Negev basins, which lie between uplifts
to the S and to the N. The broad, loess-filled Western Negev stretches from the Nahal
Besor to the Shephelah and the outskirts of the southern coastal plain.
GEOBASICS STUDY GUIDE: SA NEGEV CORRIDOR—introduction
guide in brief—
OBSERVATION on
SOUTHERN ARENA MAP
continued
186
6 P
Find
the broken green line on pp. 12/13 which shows the normal limit of rainfall to
sustain an agricultural economy. Note that the entire Negev, both east and west, falls
outside this line. This distinguishes the Negev from agricultural areas to the N. Some
years, however, sufficient, well-spaced rainfall in the Negev during the wet season
allows precious seed to grow into hearty grains, as Psalm 126 hopefully declares:
Restore our fortunes, O LORD, like the watercourses in the Negev!
May those who sow in tears reap with shouts of joy!
He that goes forth weeping, bearing the seed for sowing,
Shall come home with shouts of joy, bringing his sheaves with him.
guide in brief—
GEOBASICS
Geobasics
• In the Bible ‘the Negev’ (or ‘the South’) is a transitional area of less rainfall beginning
in the drier slopes S of Hebron and reaching to the southern edge of the Negev basins.
• The Negev is the end of arable land W of the Rift and is filled with fine, wind-blown
soil called ‘loess’ in contrast to northern soils formed from the action of water on rocks.
• With enough well-spaced, seasonal rainfall, loess soil can yield ample amounts of grain,
but since the Negev lies S of the green rainfall line (pp. 12/13) crops are never certain.
• Powdery loess does not absorb rainfall easily, and runoff cuts gullies that feed the Negev’s
drainage system flowing from the higher E through Beer-sheba and into Nahal Besor.
• Since the Negev attracts roads from across the Southern Arena, it is a crucial part of
the southern trade corridor with great economic importance for anyone who controls it.
• The Negev is not only a potentially robust economic engine but also lies between the
nomadic south and the settled north; it is a region where goods and cultures mingle.
• One of the greatest shifts in control of this region occurred as Judah fell and Edomites
(‘Idumeans’) overtook the Negev and Hebron and made their capital in the Shephelah.
guide in brief—
MARKING on
CLOSER VIEW MAP
pp. 22/23
. HL these names in green if not already HL: Eastern Negev, Western Negev, Judah
. HL in yellow if not already HL: Nahal Besor, Nahal Beer-sheva Nahal Gerar (both
flowing into Nahal Besor)
. HL in red: Aroer, Ramoth-negev (N of Aroer), Kerioth (N of Arad), Debir (hill
country), Eglon (southern Shephelah)
This closer view of the Negev shows the comparative sizes of its basins of loess soil. Today
one can easily drive through the Negev, visit the bustling city of Beer-sheva with its industry
and a fine university and grab a treat at any number of refreshment stops along its modern
highways. This, however, was not the setting of the Negev when the British set out to map
the land in the late nineteenth century (see below). Their work in the N started at the Litani
river in Lebanon and ended at streambeds which correspond to Nahal Besor and Nahal
Beer-sheba on p. 22. In that day ruins covered part of modern Beer-sheba, but water sources
here remained the area’s main feature. Earlier explorers had penetrated farther S, but careful
mapping of the Southern Highlands and regions beyond was left for others to accomplish.
Having seen the Negev as a whole we now turn to the two major divisions within this
corridor: the Western Negev and the Eastern Negev. As you see on p. 22, Beer-sheba has
two locations, one at T. es-Saba and the other at a recently excavated site by the modern
city of Beer-sheva. These sites control the natural passage between east and west, and thus
enter both discussions below. It becomes increasingly clear why securing and controlling this
gateway area was a high priority for the kingdom Judah in the nearby hill country.
GEOBASICS STUDY GUIDE: SA NEGEV CORRIDOR—western NEGEV basins
a. Western
guide in brief—
MARKING
and OBSERVATION
187
Negev Basin
. HL in red (if not already HL): Raphia (along coast), Gaza, Lachish, Gerar, Ziklag
P Note the positions of these sites in the Western Negev in relationship to surrounding
features and regions: T. el-Farah-south, Yurza/T. Gamma, Ziklag, T. en-Najila
Just W of the site of Beer-sheba drainage from the eastern Negev basins and from the hill
country as far N as Hebron passes between low, eocene hills to the N and to the S. Beyond
this constriction the landscape opens into the Western Negev, a wide basin with low rolling
hills. The fine, dusty loess soils of this region appear to be endless on the horizon but are
much easier to navigate than the wind-blown sands of Sinai to the SW beyond Nahal Besor.
All drainage in this basin ultimately flows into the Besor system. Nahal Gerar empties into
the Besor near Yurza/T. Gamma, and from there the Besor cuts a broad path to the sea after
passing Sharuhen/T. el Ajjul. The Besor provides a natural SW limit to the Western Negev
for after crossing the Besor settlement all but ceases and only the heartiest survive for long.
The narrow passage of the coastal highway offers some relief and form of sustenance.
Water sources along the streambeds within the Western Negev supported life and settlement
in early times. An actual stream flows westward at the foot of Ziklag and lush greenery appears
by Gerar and along the Besor NW of T. el-Farah-south. Major sites rise above streambeds,
some atop impressive mounds with layers of occupation over many centuries. Such sites not
only hosted a local population in periods such as the Bronze Age but also served imperial
powers well when their armies patrolled the region’s network of highways.
The modern visitor may have the impression that the gentle slopes and plains of the Western
Negev are arid, dusty and uninviting, however, it is a great relief compared to the seemingly
endless Sinai sands to the SW and in northern Sinai. It is a region that can be easily crossed
and where one can use refreshing water sources—if one knows where to find them. For
millennia the region of Gaza drew caravans from across the Southern Highlands to the
Western Negev. One has only to look at tracks through this area on a late nineteenth century
British map in order to appreciate how strong Gaza’s pull was (see following page).
guide in brief—
GEOBASICS
Geobasics
• The broad, Western Negev basin, with its rolling, loess-covered hills, stretches from
Beer-sheba to the Nahal Besor, to the outskirts of Gaza and the southern Shephelah.
• The wide Nahal Besor, whose sprawling drainage system reaches the slopes of the Big
Bowl, provides a natural frontier beyond which lies Sinai’s sands and rugged landscape.
• Water sources along the Besor, Beer-sheva and Gerar streambeds made early settlements
and later, larger sites on mounds possible in the large basin of the Western Negev.
• To reach the Western Negev and coastal ports the routes of the Southern Arena pass
through a corridor between the uplifted central hill country and the Sinai sands.
• On its way from Egypt and northern Sinai the imperial highway splits N of Raphia: one
stays near the coast, another moves inland via Gerar and a third lies between these two.
• Impressive Western Negev sites, such as Gerar, Yurza/T. Gamma, T. el-Farah-south,
Ziglag/T. esh-Sharia and T. en-Najila, rise at intersections along this region’s highways.
guide in brief—
OBSERVATION
and MARKING on
CLOSER VIEW MAP
pp. 22/23
P Note uplifts (yellow broken lines) N and S of the Eastern Negev
. HL in red (if not already HL): Gaza, Gerar, Ziklag, Eglon, Debir (hill country)
188
GEOBASICS STUDY GUIDE: SA NEGEV CORRIDOR—western NEGEV basin
REFERENCE MAP: SURVEY OF WESTERN PALESTINE
In 1871 Britain’s Palestine Exploration Fund began the ‘Survey of Western Palestine’ (SWP), a new and
challenging project of creating an accurate topographical map of the land of the Bible. A series of volumes
associated with the SWP maps records geographical and ethnic information, as well as drawings of surface
remains. At that time controlled excavating below the surface had not yet begun in the land.
While much of the relief is not drawn as correctly as modern maps, tracks radiating southwest from Gaza reveal
how this coastal region served as a magnet for travel through what was then a barren region, devoid of permanent
settlements but nevertheless divided between various Bedouin clans with whom one would have had to negotiate
passage. The Negev blossomed with the coming of the State of Israel and the Bedouin became citizens of Israel.
Gaza
guide in brief—
OBSERVATION on
CLOSER VIEW MAP
pp. 18/19
1
Ziklag?
(T. esh-Sharia/T. Sera)
2
Yurza
3
T. Gamma)
ANET 288
ANE I:200
Nahal Besor
Nahal Besor
turns south
David left [Ziklag] with 600 men and
came to Nahal Besor where the extra men remained.
David and 400 men continued the pursuit, but 200 stayed
behind, too exhausted to cross the Nahal Besor (1 Sam 30:9-10)
Nahal
Beer-sheva
Beer-sheba Beer-sheba
(Beer-sheva) (T. es-Saba)
This composite map from four SWP sheets was surveyed from 1874 to 1877. Like David’s 200 men it stops at the
Bible’s Nahal Besor (called ‘Wady Ghuzzeh’ above), except in the west where it was extended south on the coast
to the area of Deir el Balah. At the point that Nahah Besor continues south, the Nahal Beer-sheva (called Wady
es Seba above) became the southern limit for this mapping. Large names, arrows and Bible reference are added.
GEOBASICS STUDY GUIDE: SA NEGEV CORRIDOR—eastern NEGEV basin
guide in brief—
OBSERVATION
and MARKING on
CLOSER VIEW MAP
pp. 22/23 continued
189
. HL in yellow on red route: 1) the coastal highway from the left-hand side of the map
through Sharuhen and Gaza and off the top of the map; 2) from the left-hand side of
the map via T. el-Farah-south and Gerar to T. en-Najila; 3) from Elusa NW via T. elFarah-south to Gaza; 4) from Aroer via Beer-sheba (Beer-sheva) and Gerar to Gaza; 5)
from Aroer via T. Halif and T. en-Najila and off map; 6) from the intersection SE of T.
Arad via Hormah and Beer-sheba (T. es-Saba) to Gaza; 7) from T. Arad via Kerioth,
Debir, Eglon and off map
This map provides an opportunity to look more closely at the Western Negev, outlined by
dark, broken lines. One runs just S of Nahal Besor, another to the NW along the region of
Gaza to the area of T. en-Najila and a third from the area of T. en-Najila along the edge
of the southern Shephelah and by Beer-sheba/Beer-sheva. This Beer-sheba stands in an
important place within an E-W corridor linking the Western Negev with the Eastern Negev.
To reach Gaza roads W of Beer-sheba cross the wide and open Western Negev and enter
international territory. This begins along the inland imperial highway which enters the land
from Egypt via T. el-Farah-south, Gerar and T. en-Nagila. The area E of Beer-sheba is also
filled with the wind-blown loess soil, but it presents a different perspective. Instead of the
west’s broad horizons, higher hills and uplifts surrounding the Eastern Negev define its two
adjoining basins, one around Beer-sheba/T. Sheva and the other around Arad/T. Arad.
b.
Eastern Negev Basin
We now fit the Eastern Negev into the context of our previous study of the Southern Arena.
The map on pp. 22/23 shows this area within a depression between uplifts in the central hill
country to the N and lower hills and uplifts to the S. The basin rises from some 300m/985f in
the Beer-sheba region to 576m/1890m atop Tel Arad in a higher basin where rain and dew
can produce significant crops of grains. Shepherds graze their herds to the E of Tel Arad on
slopes and valleys that drain to the Rift, many of which fall into the deep Zeelim canyon.
The uplift defining the SE edge of this eastern basin drops quickly by H. Uza and S of Qitmit
(an Edomite site from the late Judean monarchy). The difficult southern scarps of this uplift
force main routes to circumvent the uplift, one passing to the NE of H. Uza and descending to
Zohar fort. Another route leaves the basin by the important sentinel site of Aroer (a different
site than the one above the Arnon canyon E of the Dead Sea). Earlier we discussed the
importance of this site, which guards passes to Mampsis and descents to Tamar and to Zoar.
Note that the small, contained Eastern Negev draws roads from across the Southern Arena—
from the Aravah, the Eastern Heights and Arabia. From here routes move westward via the
Beer-sheva gateway to coastal areas or north through the T. Halif/Lahav passage, which
leads to the Shephelah, the southern coastal plain and beyond. Clearly whoever holds the
Eastern Negev controls these gateways to a larger world seen on pp. 18 and 4. Historical
and archaeological records at sites in the Eastern Negev provide key insights into Judah’s
expansion southward from the hill country. They also may illuminate relations between
the settled north and the nomadic south, as well as between Arabia and the Mediterranean
world. Impressive excavations at Arad and Beer-sheva, as well as at smaller sites, have already
revealed much about the Eastern Negev and its place within the larger Southern Arena.
Earlier we asked you to draw boxes around Arad and Beer-sheva on p. 22 to represent their
fortifications and administrative functions as they served Judah in reaching further S.
The structure of the easternmost Negev basin allowed it to function as Judah’s gateway on
the SE. Note that an uplift emerges NE of Hormah and runs N of Arad/T. Arad. It not only
defines the easternmost basin but also narrows the basin considerably, dividing it from the
Beer-sheba basin. Ramoth-negev (‘Heights of the-Negev’) at T. Ira (above Hormah) sits atop
GEOBASICS STUDY GUIDE: SA NEGEV CORRIDOR—eastern NEGEV basin
190
a prominent hill and affords a view of much of the region’s road system. The strategic value
of this site—together with Aroer, Arad and the H. Uza lookout—makes this eastern basin of
supreme importance for Judah, based in the hill country to the N. Note the road from Arad
to Hebron via Kerioth and an alternate caravan route through lower hills to Eglon/T. Eton
in the Shephelah, passing Eshtemoa and Debir on the way. Remains of later Roman roads in
these hills cross the Kerioth-Eglon route and descend into the Negev basins.
Taken together the twin basins of Arad and Beer-sheba represent a region in which settled
peoples to the N can maintain some form of a settled, agricultural life, build cities, fortresses
and administrative centers and extend their control over the Southern Highlands and routes
leading to the Aravah and to the Sinai. Their success is represented in written records, as in
the Bible, and in the material culture of excavated sites. When they failed, southern invaders
seized the opportunity to ravage the region or to migrate north and occupy these attractive
basins and their surrounding heights. When Judah was faced with a life or death threat from
the imperial armies of Assyria or Babylon, the Edomites took advantage of the situation and
ultimately occupied the Negev basins and as far N as Hebron and the southern Shephelah.
Judah could not condone such territorial intrusions from its distant cousin Edom, as various
prophets, such as Obadiah and Jeremiah, and even a psalmist declare:
Ps 137:7-8
Remember, O LORD, against the Edomites the day of Jerusalem, how they said, ‘Rase it, rase it! Down to its
foundations!’ ... Happy is he be who requites you with what you have done to us!
A comment by the first century Jewish historian Josephus Flavius on a major battle in -85 is
perhaps the best example of how the Eastern Negev’s relatively secure setting compares to
other parts of the Southern Arena. As the Nabateans pressed N toward Damascus they had
become a major threat to both the Jewish Hasmonean state and to the Seleucid empire, whose
center was farther N in the region we call Aram. A strong Greek army advanced S along the
coastal highway, pushed through Hasmonean defences and ventured through the Negev and
into ‘Arabia,’ probably somewhere in the arid Aravah near the Eastern Heights. Josephus tell
us that the Nabateans decimated this imposing army after its leader had fallen.
Ant 13:391/xv.1
‘[The king, Antiochus XII] then led his army into Arabia. The Arabian [Nabatean] king first retreated,
but then suddenly appeared [in an ambush] with a multitude of calvary men [desert camels]. Antiochus
met them in battle, put up a good fight and almost was victorious as he was bringing some auxiliaries to his
embattled troops when he was slain. With Antiochus dead, his army fled to the village Kana [in the Eastern
Negev] where most perished from famine.
Those from the watered and settled north again under-estimated the strength of desert
warriors who knew the ways of the arid, unforgiving Southern Arena. Only at Kana (a mount
called ‘Qina’ near H. Uza), above Tamar and the intervening uplifts, were they able to feel
secure—but without strength to continue across the Eastern Negev basin to find relief among
the cities in the southern coastal plain or in the higher hill country to the N.
guide in brief—
GEOBASICS
Geobasics
• The Eastern Negev is a transitional region in the Southern Arena, situated between
uplifts to the S and N and having uncertain rainfall to support life and agriculture.
• The road system and settlements of the Eastern Negev are a key part of the southern
trade corridor linking the Red Sea, Arabia, Edom and the Aravah with coastal ports.
• The Eastern Negev absorbs routes that ascend from the Aravah to reach the coastal
plain or climb through lower hill country toward Eglon in the southern Shephelah.
• Judah’s control of centers such as Arad, Aroer and Beer-sheba was prerequisite for
expansion farther S into the Southern Highlands, the Aravah, Edom and the Red Sea.
• Routes from Arad descended to Zoar S of the Dead Sea while a route S of Aroer used a
pass to the Mampsis area and the Ascent of Aqrabbim or descended toward Zoar.
GEOBASICS STUDY GUIDE: SA NEGEV CORRIDOR—NEGEV basins
guide in brief—
GEOBASICS
continued
191
• A western gateway from the central Beer-sheba basin led to Gerar and Gaza while a
northern gateway gave access to the southern Shephelah and the port of Ashkelon.
• As imperial Assyria and Babylon arrived Judah’s hold on the Eastern Negev decreased,
and the Edomites infiltrated the area, establishing shrines at Tamar and at Qitmit.
guide in brief—
PERSONALITY
IN TEXTS
Gen 13:14
Josh 18:19
Ezek 46:9
Texts: Negev basins (with review-summary)
The term negev occurs some 110 times in the Bible, often to denote the direction ‘south.’
Abraham is told to look in four directions: ‘Lift up your eyes from where you are located
and look around toward the north, the south (negev), the east and the west.’ The term
also designates the southern limits of a whole: ‘This was the southern (negev) border [of
Benjamin’s territory]’; or, ‘If he comes by the way of the south (negev) gate, he will leave by
the way of the north gate.’
The term negev in the Bible also refers to a specific region in the land, haNegev or ‘the
south.’ This region is the Biblical Negev and is distinct from the general usage of the
term. The Biblical Negev is a marginal, transitional zone between the watered and settled
central hill country to the N and the greater arid wilderness to the S. It should be noted
that modern Israelis call the entire southern portion of their country ‘the Negev,’ but in
the Bible this refers only to the northern part of the greater south.
Josh 10:40
The Biblical Negev extends southward down the ‘Negev Slopes’ from the watered crown
of Hebron in the central hill country. It encompasses the broad Negev basin, filled with
powdery, wind-blown (but fertile) soil called loess, and stretches somewhat farther S along
streambed hollows of similar soils which drain north into the Negev basin. As a regional
term the Negev is thus a transitional zone of undependable rainfall, sometimes yielding
good crops of grain but often suffering the first impact of drought in the Land Between.
Except for certain local areas, the marginal region of the Negev represents the last dryland agriculture until one reaches regions of rainfall in Ethiopia on the African continent.
Thus, in the days of Joshua the Negev appears among the lists of the various regions in
which Joshua campaigned: ‘... throughout the whole land, the Hill Country, the Negev,
the Lowlands and the Slopes.’
Given its marginal setting, the Negev (the Biblical Negev) evokes a unique impression
when it appears in the Bible. It is not the well-watered, well-settled northern or central
arenas. Nor is it the parched wilderness areas of the southern arena. In terms of rainfall and
agriculture one could call it ‘a land between in the Land Between’ for it belongs in some
ways to both north and south. Without its own permanent administrative center it looks
to sites in the Negev Slopes, such as Debir and Carmel, and with them, always falls under
the shadow of Hebron, for imperial control seldom reaches deep into the Negev basin.
Gen 13:1; 20:1, etc.
Gen 23:19; 25:9 etc.
cf. Gen 24:62
with 35:27
Num 13:29
1 Sam 15; 30
The association of the region of the Negev with Judah’s hill country, and especially with
Hebron, clearly emerges in the Bible. Abraham lived in the Negev but went to Hebron
to purchase a cave in the field of Machpelah as a permanent family burial ground. ‘Isaac
lived in the region of the Negev’ but ultimately moved his tent to Mamre by Hebron. As
Israelites settled the region, Amalek came and ‘lived in the region of the Negev.’ Saul
pushed them back to the S, but when he was busy elsewhere they returned and made raids
throughout the entire Negev, as far N as Hebron. With this context in mind we now turn
to texts which illustrate geobasics specific to life in the region of the Negev.
• The marginal territory of the Negev hosted tent-dwelling cultures—
The patriarchs often pitched their tents in the Negev, no doubt following seasonal grazing grounds:
Abraham. Abram continued on from [Shechem] to the hill country east of Bethel and pitched his tent.... Then
Abram continued his journey, moving from place to place toward the Negev. Genesis 12:8-9 // Abram went up from
Egypt toward the Negev, with his wife and everything he had, and Lot went with him.... Then he went from the
guide in brief—
PERSONALITY
IN TEXTS
continued
192
Negev—campsite to campsite—until he came to Bethel. Genesis 13:1-3 (cf. Genesis 18 for Abraham in another tent-dwelling
text although not in the Negev)
Isaac. Now Isaac had come from the wilderness of Beer Lahai Roi, and he was staying in the region of the Negev....
Isaac brought [Rebekah] into the tent of his mother Sarah, and he took Rebekah as his wife. Genesis 24:62, 67 //
Isaac pitched his tent [at Beer-sheba in the Negev] and there his servants dug a well. Genesis 26:25
Jacob. The boys grew up, and Esau became a skilled hunter, a man of the outdoors, but Jacob was a proper man,
with regard to being a tent-dweller. Genesis 25:27 (cf. Genesis 33:25-37; 32:13; 33:18-19 for Jacob in other tent-dwelling texts
although not in the Negev)
The region of Beer-sheba in the Negev served frequently as a center for patriarchal life:
Abraham. [In the Negev in the region of Beer-sheba Abraham sent Hagar and Ishmael from the camp.]
Abraham rose early the next morning and took some bread and a goatskin of water and gave them to Hagar,
putting them on her shoulder, along with the boy. He then sent her away, and she left and wandered in the
wilderness [S] of Beer-sheba. Genesis 21:14 // [In the Negev in the region of Beer-sheba Abraham made a
treaty with Abimelech, king of Gerar.] Thus that place was called Beer-sheba, since there the two made an oath.
[After] they had made a pledge at Beer-sheba, Abimelech ... arose and went back to the ‘land of the Philistines.’
Abraham planted a tamarisk tree at Beer-sheba, and there called on the name of the LORD, the God who is forever.
Genesis 21:31-33 // [Abraham returned to the region of Beer-sheba in the Negev after the sacrifice of Isaac.]
Abraham returned to his lads, and they got up and together went to Beer-sheba; and Abraham lived at Beersheba. Genesis 22:19
Isaac. [Isaac left Gerar and journeyed eastward through the Negev until he came to the region of Beersheba.] Isaac went up from [Rehoboth] to Beer-sheba.... there he pitched his tent, and there Isaac’s workers dug
a well.... [After concluding a treaty with Abimelech, king of Gerar.] Isaac’s workers came to tell him about the
well which they had dug, and they told to him, ‘We’ve found water!’ So he called it Shibah; thus the name of the
city is Beer-sheba to this day. Genesis 26:23-33 // [Isaac was living at Beer-sheba in the Negev when Jacob
deceived him.] So Jacob set off from Beer-sheba and went toward Haran. Genesis 28:10
The Kenites—herdsmen and tent-dwellers who had joined the Israelites in the wilderness—settled in
a part of the eastern Negev that David later called the Negev of the Kenites. The descendants of Moses’
father-in-law, the Kenite, ascended from the City of Palms [probably Tamar in the Aravah] amidst the people of
Judah to the wilderness of Judah which is near the Negev of Arad. [The Kenite clan] went and settled down among
the people [of Judah]. Judges 1:16 // Now Heber the Kenite had split from the other Kenites [from the clan living
in the Negev around Arad], the descendants of Hobab, Moses’ brother-in-law, and had pitched his tent by the
great tree in Zaanannim near Kedesh [in lower Galilee]. Judges 4:11 // [When king Saul went to the Negev to
fight the Amalekites] he said to the Kenites, ‘Withdraw, remove yourselves, retreat from among the Amalekites
[in the eastern Negev basin by descending into the wilderness of Judah] lest I raze you together with him
[Amalek]; for you showed compassion to all the Israelites as they came up out of Egypt.’ So the Kenites removed
themselves from among the Amalekites. 1 Samuel 15:6 // [Scheming against Achish, the Philistine king of Gath,
David actually was defending those whom he claimed to attack.] When Achish said, ‘Who did you raid today?’
David would say, ‘Against the Negev of Judah’ or ‘Against the Negev of Jerahmeel’ or ‘Against the Negev of the
Kenites.’ 1 Samuel 27:10 // [Later, when David brought back the spoil that the Amalekites had taken from the
Negev settlements of his people, he returned it to its rightful owners, including] the settlements of the Kenites
[in the region around Arad in the eastern Negev basin and in the nearby wilderness of Judah]. 1 Samuel 30:29
•Agriculture in the Negev basins is uncertain since rainfall determines feast or famine—
Famine is not a stranger to the Negev basins:
Abraham. Then Abram continued his journey, moving from place to place toward the Negev. Now there was a
famine in the land; so Abram went [from the Negev] down to Egypt to stay there, for the famine was severe in
the land. Genesis 12:9-10
Isaac. Now there was a famine in the land, in addition to the earlier famine in the days of Abraham. So Isaac
went to Gerar [in the western Negev], to Abimelech king of the Philistines. Genesis 26:1; a severe famine also arose during
Jacob’s life, but Jacob appears to have moved into the southern hill country (see Genesis 42:1-46:4)
The dread and joy of Negev agriculture: sowing with apprehension; reaping with jubilation. Let the captives
[which Babylon took from the land] be gathered back, like the streambeds of the Negev. For those who sow in tears,
the same shall [later] reap with joy. He who goes back and forth weeping, carrying [and sowing] all the seed he has,
without a doubt shall come [months later] with joy, carrying his sheaves [from the harvest]. Psalm 126:4-6 // [Isaac
planted one year in the Negev without a measurable harvest.] There was a famine in the land ... so Isaac went
to [the region of] Gerar [nearer the coast to an area of higher rainfall].... Isaac sowed grain in that region and
that year he reaped a hundred times [what he had sowed]—the LORD blessed him! His reputation grew, and went
on and on growing until he became renown for his assets in herds, assets in cattle and in staff.... Genesis 26:1, 12-14
•Here where water is all-important, water rights and well-digging are part of Negev life—
Both Abraham and Isaac aggressively sought water in the Negev:
Abraham. Abraham took issue with Abimelech about [the rights to] a well of water which Abimelech’s servants
had taken by force. Abimelech claimed, however, ‘I don’t know who’s done this deed, you also didn’t tell me—
guide in brief—
PERSONALITY
IN TEXTS
continued
193
moreover, I only heard about it today.’ Then Abraham brought sheep and cattle and gave them to Abimelech, and
the two made a treaty. Abraham positioned seven (sheva) ewe-lambs from the flock in a place alone, and Abimelech
asked Abraham, ‘What are those seven (sheva) ewe-lambs over there you put alone?’ He replied, ‘When you take
from my hand these seven (sheva) ewe-lambs it become for me as a sworn declaration that I dug this well.’ For this
reason that place was called Beer-sheba [‘Well of the seven’/‘Well of the being bound by an oath’], because
there the two men were bound by an oath [ni/shba/u]. Genesis 21:25-31
Isaac. Isaac moved away from [Abimelech at Gerar but remained in the western Negev] and encamped
around the Gerar streambed [the system east of Gerar which has underground water from the hill country
even farther east] and settled down there. Once again Isaac dug wells [in the Gerar streambed], wells which
had been dug in the days of his father Abraham, but the ‘Philistines’ [the inhabitants of Gerar identified by the
name of later coastal inhabitants] had stopped them up after Abraham died. He called them by the same names
which his father had named them [and thus laid claim to earlier water rights]. Isaac’s servants [also] dug in the
streambed and found there a well of living water [meaning, ‘fresh water to drink’], but the shepherds of Gerar
disputed [water rights] with Isaac’s shepherds and said, ‘It’s our water!’ One calls it by the name ‘Esek well’
[‘Contentious’], because they disputed about it. [Isaac’s shepherds] dug another well, but [Isaac’s and Gerar’s
shepherds] also disputed over that one. One calls it by the name Sitnah [‘Adversarial’]. He moved away from
there [from the Gerar streambed] and dug another well, and no one disputed it. One calls it by the name [Well
of] Rehoboth [‘Enlarged-Spaces’], saying, ‘For now the LORD has enlarged places for us so we will flourish in
the land.’ Genesis 26:17-22 // [Isaac and Abimelech took an oath of nonaggression.] That day Isaac’s servants
came and reported to him about the well they had dug. They said, ‘We’ve found water!’ He named it [the Well of]
Shibah [‘Bound-by-an-Oath’], therefore, the name of the town has been Beer-sheba [‘Well of Bound-by-anOath’] to this day. Genesis 26:32-33
•Rapid runoff from the Negev’s powdery soil creates flash floods and steeply eroded banks—
Loess contributes to flash floods. Let the captives [which Babylon took from the land] be gathered back, like the
[rushing] streambeds of the Negev [after a heavy rain]! Psalm 126:4
The large Besor stream, with steeply eroded banks of loess soil, is the SW limit of the western Negev.
David set out [after the Amalekites who had raided the Negev], he and six hundred men with him and they
arrived at [the steeply eroded banks of] the Besor’s ravine and those nonessential stayed [at the ravine]. David
pressed on, he and four hundred men. Two hundred men stayed [at the ravine], too exhausted to cross the [steep,
broad] Besor ravine [and continue the chase into the wilderness]. 1 Samuel 30:9-10
•The Negev, an all-important trade corridor linking the Aravah and Mediterranean ports—
Edom from its eastern heights and Judah from its hill country frequently contested the southern trade
corridor through the Negev and its approaches. [Since Edom and Judah shared a border SE of the Negev,
conflict raged for centuries over the control of the marginal Negev—even if the Negev specifically was not
mentioned.] Southernmost towns of the tribe of Judah in the Negev toward the border of Edom were ... Joshua 15:21
[Around -985, David dominated Edom,] his renown grew when he returned from defeating Edom in the Valley/
Basin of Salt [an important eastern approach to the eastern Negev] ... David garrisoned Edom; he put garrisons
throughout all Edom, and all Edom became David’s subjects. 2 Samuel 8:13-14; cf. 1 Kings 11:15-16; 1 Chronicles 18:12-13
[Around -925, during the days of Solomon and into Rehoboam’s time] the LORD raised up an adversary
against Solomon, Hadad the Edomite; he was of the royal line in Edom. 1 Kings 11:14 and see vv. 15-22
[Around -850, Joram of Israel asked Jehoshaphat of Judah to join him in suppressing a rebellion in Moab.
As Jehoshaphat’s vassal, Edom appears to accompany Israel and Judah against Moab. Jehoshaphat] asked,
‘By what route shall we ascend [to Moab on the other side of the Rift].’ Joram answered, ‘The route of the
wilderness of Edom [through the Aravah south of the Dead Sea, usually contested territory between Edom
and Judah].’ The king of Israel set out with the king of Judah and the king of Edom, but after proceeding circuitously
for seven days, the army had no water ... 2 Kings 3:8-9 // [Later, Edom joined a coalition of eastern kings against
Jehoshaphat.] Some men came and reported to Jehoshaphat, ‘A great army is coming against you from the other side
of the [Dead] sea, from Edom [a bold attack that could bring all the south under Edom’s control]. See, they are
encamped on the gravelly flood plain of Tamar [‘Palms’]—that is En-gedi.’ 2 Chronicles 20:2
[Around -845] in the days of Jehoram, Edom rebelled against Judah’s power and placed a king over themselves. So
Jehoram crossed over [the Rift] to Zair/Zoar [on the eastern edge of the Valley of Salt, an eastern approach to
the Negev] with all his chariots. Then after the Edomites surrounded him and his chariot commanders, he rose up at
night and fought through [the surrounding force], and the army fled home. Edom has continued in rebellion against
Judah’s power to this day. 2 Kings 8:20-22; cf. 2 Chronicles 21:8-10
[Around -790] Amaziah was the king who defeated 10,000 of Edom in the Valley/Basin of Salt [an important
eastern approach to the Negev. He pushed on E into Edom’s heights] and took [the impregnable fortress rock
of] Sela in battle, and named it Joktheel to this day. 2 Kings 14:7; cf. 2 Chronicles 25:11-12
[Around -735 while Rezin of Aram and Pekah of Israel attacked Ahaz of Judah,] the Judeans were cleared out
of Elath [Judah’s port on the Red Sea], and the Edomites moved into Elath and have lived there to this day [thus
securing the southern end of the trade corridor which ran from the Red Sea through the Aravah or the
Great Wilderness and up through the Negev to Philistia]. 2 Kings 16:6 // Again the Edomites had come [from
guide in brief—
PERSONALITY
IN TEXTS
continued
194
the E] and attacked Judah and carried away captives. The Philistines also had invaded the cities of the Shephelah/
Lowland [from the W] and [pushed further E in the region] of the Negev of Judah. 2 Chronicles 28:17-18
[Around -701 from Stratum VII of Tel Arad, in the days of Hezekiah, a cryptic and fragmentary ostracon
hints at Judean-Edomite tensions.] The king of Judah should know [that w]e cannot send the [... and th]is is the
evil that Edo[m has done]. Arad Letter 40
[Around -590 from Tel Arad, an ostracon orders defensive measures to protect Negev sites from Edom’s
advance.] From Arad [in the Negev] 50 [men] and from Kinah [a hill outpost in the SE Negev overlooking
the two main approaches from Edom] ... you shall send them to Ramat-negev ... Get the men to Elisha, lest Edom
should come there. Arad Letter 24
[Around -586 the prophet Obadiah denounces Edomite hostilities against Judeans.] You should not stand
at the crossroads [of the Negev] to cut down [Judah’s] fugitives, nor hand over their survivors in the day of their
trouble. Obadiah 14
[During the Babylonian destruction of Judah, Edom/Mt. Seir assisted Babylon with a covetous eye toward
the southern corridor through the Negev.] Son of man, turn toward Mt. Seir and pronounce this prophesy
against it,... ‘Look here, Mt. Seir—I am against you ... because hostility such as yours has no end! By the hand of the
sword have you swept away the people of Israel at a time of their tribulation, at a time evil ended [Edom’s takeover
continued even after Babylon’s destruction of Judah!] .... Because you have said, “These two nations and
these two lands will be mine, and we will possess them—even though the LORD was there!” ... I will act with
you in measure according to your rage and your envy which you demonstrated by your hatred for them.... Mt. Seir,
and all Edom—you will be totally obliterated—completely. They will know that I am the LORD.’ Ezekiel 35:1-15
[Following the Babylonian destruction of Judah, Edom moved into Judah’s Negev, southern Hill Country
and southern Shephelah.] Thus says the Lord GOD, ‘Surely with fiery zeal [for my land] I have spoken against
the rest of the nations, and against Edom—all of it!—because with whole-hearted joy and selfish contempt they
made my land their own possession, plundering the open territory [of the southern hills, the Negev and the
southern Shephelah].’ Ezekiel 36:5
[At some future time Obadiah sees that] people from the Negev will occupy the mountains of Esau [that is,
Edom]. Obadiah 19 // [At that time] Ephraim will not be jealous of Judah, and Judah will not be hostile to Ephraim,
but [together] will they swoop down [from the hill country] upon shoulder of the Philistines to the west [their cities
along the edge of the Shephelah]. As one, they will plunder the people to the east [beyond the Rift]: Edom and
Moab will be under their thumb, and the Ammonites will be subject to them. Isaiah 11:14 // In that day I will make
David’s fallen booth upright ... so that they may possess the remnant of Edom and all the nations who are called by
My name. Amos 9:11-12
[Later developments and archaeological evidence make it abundantly clear that Edomites (‘Idumeans’ in
Greek) overran the south, settled, and built in the Negev, in southern Hill Country and in the southern
Shephelah. It was precisely these areas that the Maccabees overran a few years after they revolted against
Seleucid religious persecution.] Then Judas and his brothers went forth and fought the Idumeans [Edomites who
had settled] in [Judah’s] land of the south [after the destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians]. He struck
Hebron [formerly an important city of Judah] and its villages and tore down its strongholds and burned all its
towers. Then he marched off to go into the land of the Philistines, and passed through Marisa [formerly Mareshah
in the southern Shephelah of Judah, but now what could be considered as the capital of Idumea]. 1 Maccabees
5:65-66 // [Josephus relates the same account.] Meanwhile Judas [Maccabeus] and his brothers were warring
without ceasing against the Idumeans [who now occupied southern Judah], and they pressed them closely on all
sides; and after taking the city of Hebron [in southern Judah], they destroyed all its fortifications, and burned its
towers; they ravaged the foreign territory [foreign because what was Judean was now Idumean], including the city
Marisa [in what was previously Judah’s Shephelah]. Ant 12:353/viii.6
[Malachi, Judah’s last prophet, speaks out against Edom. Moses made it clear that in spite of differences,
Esau and Jacob (and their progeny) remained brothers, and that the two peoples had a special and lasting
relationship.] You shall not loathe an Edomite for he is your brother! ... Children born to them which are of the third
generation may enter the assembly of the Lord.’ Deuteronomy 23:7 // [While Esau/Edom’s and Jacob’s descendants
fiercely competed for control of the southern trade corridor, Edom had gone beyond the pale in aggressively
grabbing and settling within the land given to Jacob. In this way Esau/Edom took no responsibility for the
survival of his brother Jacob (as when Edom declined Moses’ request to pass through Edom’s territory).
Other prophets address Edom/Esau’s total disregard for his brother—as Cain disregarded and killed his
brother Abel. Malachi goes to the heart of the issue in his scathing rebuke of Edom.] The LORD states [to
Jacob’s descendants], ‘I have loved you!’ You [descendants of Jacob] say, ‘In what way have You loved us?’
The LORD declares, ‘Was not Esau brother to Jacob?—but I have loved Jacob, and Esau have I hated, and I have
appointed his mountains a desolation and declared his inheritance for wild jackals.’ Though Edom says, ‘We are
in total ruin—but we will return and restore the ruins!’ Thus says the LORD of hosts, ‘They may build, but I will
demolish. Their name will be Wicked-Territory, and The-People-with-whom-the LORD-is-Enraged-Forever.’ Your
eyes will see this and you will say, ‘Great is the LORD beyond the border of Israel!’ Malachi 1:2-5
GEOBASICS STUDY GUIDE: SA NEGEV CORRIDOR—around the zeelim
c.Around the
195
Zeelim
Before concluding our study of the Southern Arena we turn to a region often overlooked in
the Land Between. We call it ‘Around the Zeelim,’ on the edge of the Eastern Negev between
the Dead Sea chasm and the uplifted southern hill country S of Hebron. ‘Around the Zeelim’
overlaps the top of pp. 6/7 and the bottom of pp. 4/5. Mark both of these maps as follows.
guide in brief—
MARKING
Turn to pp. 6/7 and 4/5: Southern and Central Arena maps
. On pp. 6/7 HL in yellow: five canyon names just W of Massada and En-gedi and note
exposed lower limestones (green) of these areas (names do not appear on p. 4/5)
. On pp. 6/7 (if not already done) write-in: 1) dead sea (black in small caps) in blue area
NE of En-gedi; 2) judah (black in small caps) above Hebron and HL in green
. On pp. 6/7 HL in red: Ziph, Carmel, Maon (all below Hebron)
. On pp. 4/5 HL in red: Arad/T. Arad, Beer-sheba, Gerar, Ziklag, Ziph, Carmel, Maon
The uplifted southern hill country of Judah, the low, chalky, southern wilderness of Judah
and the sudden drop of this wilderness into the canyons of the Jeshimon and Dead Sea chasm
create a stark and diverse landscape. Exposed limestones along the Maon uplift (broken yellow
line in the green rock) drop to the E and quickly disappear beneath wilderness chalks (brown).
The Bible calls this ‘the wilderness of Ziph’ and ‘the wilderness of Maon’ since grazing rights
here belonged to clans from these hill country villages. This open, rolling wilderness offers
few hiding places for fugitives escaping authorities in the nearby hill country. Therefore, most
of the dramatic events which occurred here in the days of David and during Judea’s revolts
against Rome after the close of the book of Acts took place farther to the E.
Judg 1:16
Grazing lands also exist in the broad region NE of the Eastern Negev, the hills and streambeds
of the upper Zeelim, which extends halfway to the Dead Sea. The map on p. 6 shows areas of
exposed limestones throughout this large, upper Zeelim catchment area. As the early Israelites
entered the land, clans of Kenites, who had joined Israel in their journey from Egypt, settled
in the area of Arad and would have grazed their herds throughout the upper Zeelim.
As one moves E from the wilderness region and the upper Zeelim, foreboding limestone scarps
appear and drop precipitously into yawning chasms of boulder-strewn streambeds. The Bible
calls this the ‘Jeshimon,’ an area introduced earlier in our study of the Central Arena. This
region stretches N from the dark solid line (E from the Eastern Negev to the Dead Sea) to the
broken, black line at the top of p. 7, shown in full on pp. 4/5. Green areas near the Dead Sea
indicate deep limestone canyons.
1 Sam 22:4; 24:22
War 7:280-303/
viii.3-4
The Zeelim system on pp. 6/7 reaches from the Dead Sea to the area of Arad. As one moves
inland from the Dead Sea along the Zeelim, the broad limestone area (green) significantly
narrows between chalks to the N and to the S (brown). These chalks provide a pass around
the deep eastern Zeelim, a passage David and his mighty men could have used to escape from
Saul and reach more remote regions S of the Zeelim canyon. Here they found refuge at the
metzuda (Hebrew), this area’s famous natural ‘stronghold,’ which later became king Herod’s
Massada. At this same pass the Zeelim’s upper tributaries drop into the deep limestone-walled
lower Zeelim which finally empties out to the Dead Sea. There eroded sediments from the
Zeelim create the large fan just N of the name ‘Massada’ on pp. 6/7.
Throughout this entire area heavy winter runoff in higher elevations near the hill country
freely descends through chalky wilderness areas devoid of vegetation. Runoff quickly fills dry
streambeds and rushes eastward to the Dead Sea. Upon entering limestone gullies it gathers
momentum and then drops in deep canyons, sometimes displaying waterfalls of heavy, soilladened water. A downpour upstream suddenly can transform a totally dry canyon bed into a
GEOBASICS STUDY GUIDE: SA NEGEV CORRIDOR—around the zeelim
196
frenzied onslaught, and by the time these heavy, muddy waters reach the Dead Sea they may
be so powerful that they carry passing vehicles off the modern highway and sometimes into
the sea itself. Wise bedouin know that setting up camp in a dry streambed may be lethal, as
well as trying to cross flooded streams by foot. The descent of such runoff from hill country to
Dead Sea via the wilderness and Jeshimon can present a stunning spectacle of geobasics.
guide in brief—
GEOBASICS
Geobasics
•The hill country from Ziph to Maon, the Eastern Negev and the Dead Sea chasm
surround an area of wilderness and Jeshimon that we call ‘Around the Zeelim.’
• The position of Ziph in Judah’s southern hill country meant it could oversee herding in
the nearby wilderness and agricultural production as far S as the Eastern Negev.
• Seasonal grazing was possible in the wilderness of Ziph, Maon and Arad (T. Arad), but
the rugged Jeshimon to the E was only for the most robust or for fugitives from society.
• The deep Zeelim canyon divides the Jeshimon from more remote regions to the S that
afforded addition security for those attempting to distant themselves from their pursuers.
•A chalky region just W of the Zeelim’s deep limestone canyons allows convenient N-S
passage between wilderness areas to the N and arid tracts to the S above Massada.
• En-gedi’s lush, spring-fed canyons offer refreshment in an otherwise hostile setting, and
step-faults S of the outlet of the Zeelim canyon create the natural fortress of Massada.
• Geobasics around the Zeelim are a remarkable stage for dramatic events such as the
flight of David from Saul and the Roman siege of Massada atop a natural stronghold.
guide in brief—
MARKING on
CLOSER VIEW MAPS
pp. 20/21 and 22/23
Turn to pp. 20/21: Judah’s Shephelah, Hills and Wilderness map
and 22/23: Negev, Southern Highlands and Edom map
. HL in yellow (if not already HL): the five canyon names above Massada and En-gedi
. HL in red (if not already HL): Hebron, En-gedi, Massada/‘The Stronghold,’ Arad (T.
Arad), Beer-sheba (T. es-Saba), Ziklag, Eglon, Debir, Ziph, Carmel, Maon
1 Sam 26
Ant 7:8-13/i.3
War 7:280-303/
viii.3-4
The best-documented story around the Zeelim on these maps (pp. 20/21 and 22/23) is that of
David’s flight from Saul. As a shepherd David knew well the wilderness E of Bethlehem, but
that area did not offer as secure a refuge as the rugged Jeshimon, from En-gedi to the Zeelim,
and more remote areas around ‘The Stronghold,’ today’s Massada. It was in this context that
David and his men protected the herdsmen and flocks belonging to a certain Nabal, who
lived at Maon and ‘had business’ in nearby Carmel. Instead of thanking David for protecting
his shepherds, Nabal mocked him. Nabal’s wife Abigail wisely checked David’s intended
‘payback,’ which would have alienated David from the clan leadership of Hebron.
A millennium later, Idumeans (Edomites) had already migrated through the Negev into
the hill country as far a Hebron and the southern Shephelah. There a certain Idumean
businessman named Antipater made his fortune, and used his resources and influence to
promote his son Herod, whom Rome named ‘king of the Jews.’ Among king Herod’s famous
buildings projects was impressive improvements to the fortress atop Massada, investing it
with a support system of massive water cisterns, well-stocked storerooms and fortified palatial
buildings. Situated S of the Zeelim Massada offered Herod the ultimate refuge from internal
revolt and protection against a possible Nabatean crossing of the Dead Sea.
Some seventy years after Herod’s death, soon after the close of the book of Acts, Jewish rebels
took over Massada with its well-preserved storerooms. Unable to retake this lofty, well-supplied
fortress the Romans systematically built surrounding camps and a massive siege ramp using
the slave labor of Judean prisoners. Springs deep within the nearby Zeelim canyon—springs
which had earlier served David and his men a millennium earlier—now served the Romans.
GEOBASICS STUDY GUIDE: SA NEGEV CORRIDOR—DETAILS ‘around the zeelim’ MAP
197
At long last the ramp reached the summit of Massada, but when the Romans finally entered
the compound they found that the rebels had preferred death to being taken prisoner by Rome.
Some six decades later other Jewish rebels fighting against Rome found refuge in caves along
the sheer cliffs in the canyons of the Jeshimon. Times had changed between David and Rome,
but the area around the Zeelim remained the country’s most promising refuge.
War 7:304-406/
viii.5-ix.2
d.Details
‘Around the Zeelim’ Map
A special map on the next page illustrates specific geobasics in the area we call ‘Around
the Zeelim.’ Many of its features do not appear on pp. 20/21 and 22/23. In order to become
acquainted with the map we first identify and mark some of the map’s features. This prepares
us for considering how these and other features create the setting for specific events, such
as David’s flight from Saul. If you have access to the pdf format of this guide (a free online
download) it is helpful to have this map in color on your screen as you continue.
guide in brief—
MARKING on
PRINT OUT from p. 198:
Details ‘Around the Zeelim’
Map
Turn to the map in the printout: Details ‘Around the Zeelim’ map
. HL in green: Hill Country, Wilderness (in large letters), Dead Sea, Eastern Negev
. HL in red: Ziph, Carmel, Maon, Kerioth, Arad, Modern Arad, H. Uza, Mezad Zohar,
Migdal Zohar, Massada/The Stronghold, En-gedi
. HL in yellow four uplift terms: ‘Maon Uplift’ (by Maon); ‘Uplift’ (three times to E)
. HL in green seven terms showing Rift faults: ‘Main Rift Fault’ (N of Mezad Zohar);
‘Fault’ (five times around Massada); ‘Main Rift Fault’ (S of En-gedi)
P Note that the combination of pressures from the Rift and the uplifts has produced a
series of step faults in the area of Massada. Massada itself sits between two of these faults
while the Zeelim canyon exploits weaknesses to the N of these faults and uplifts.
. HL in yellow: Hemar Canyon (bottom of this map) Zeelim Canyon (middle of map),
Zeelim Pass, Mishmar Canyon, Hever Canyon, Arugot Canyon, David’s Canyon
. HL in green (on each letter alone):
j e s h i m o n
. HL in green (thin edge of pen): 1) the term ‘watershed,’ which appears three times
around the term Upper Zeelim; 2) the broken watershed line, which defines the
catchment area of the upper Zeelim (light, broken lines are streambeds flowing to the
Zeelim canyon); 3) dark, broken circle around the Zeelim Pass
. HL in yellow on route: coming from Hebron (top left) by Ziph, Moan, Kerioth, E of
Arad, SE to Mezad Zohar and off the map; 2) coming from Moab (in Dead Sea) and N
across the Zeelim’s large alluvial fan and on to En-gedi and NW off the map
Your marking shows that the route via Ziph, Moan, Kerioth, Arad and the Zohar forts is the
only convenient road from Hebron to the Aravah. This greatly increases the importance of
sites along this route. A second route from Moab (broken line in Dead Sea) arrives by the
complex Massada area and S of the deep Zeelim. As the route moves N it passes deep canyons
and perilous ascents into the wilderness. Only at En-gedi N of the Arugot canyon does the
steep but passable Ascent of Ziz offer a ridge route leading to Tekoa and Bethlehem. Between
these two HL routes is the region we call ‘Around the Zeelim,’ named for the area’s most
impressive feature. Before discussing David’s flight from Saul we note this area’s districts.
guide in brief—
OBSERVATION on
Map
P The ‘Wilderness’ region in the N of this map and the ‘Hatrurim Geological Basin’ to
the S are relatively stable areas between western uplifts and the Dead Sea.
P Geological stress between the Rift’s Dead Sea chasm and western uplifts was released in
the faulted region of Massada. The Zeelim canyon formed N of the Massada region as
the main Rift fault turned NNE from the mouth of the Zeelim.
198
GEOBASICS STUDY GUIDE: SA NEGEV CORRIDOR—DETAILed ‘around the zeelim’ MAP
To Hebron
S
E
N
O
A
M
A
D
T
FAU L
R I F T
YAIR
ASCENT
EN-BOQEQ
ASCENT
ISRAELITE
Fort-various
Route
M A I N
web site: www.bibback.com
www.bback.net
[email protected]
Path
Spr
ROMAN
10
15
5
10
R
H
EMA
C A N YON
Spring (s)
Zeelim:
upper limit
(Mezad Zohar)
618 m
2027 f
5
E
S
D
A I
N
M
E
FA U LT
N
Distribution Office: POB 135
Rice Lake, WI 54868, U.S.A.
MI 0
R I
F T
H
J
GEOLOGICAL
(Fort)
BASIN
J. Monson
© 2010, All rights reserved
KM 0
b
H AT R U R I M
ISRAELITE
,
Inc.
To Mo
a
F A U L T
H
(H. Uza)
F A U L T
FA U LT
C
626 m
2054 f
-20 m
-66 f
MOR
ASCENT
(Mizpeh
Zohar)
637 m
2089 f
HA
RS
H
S
C
M
LI
Massada
‘The Stronghold’
U P
L I
F T
T
SH
ED
642 m
2106 f
-400 m
-1312 f
MAIN RO
M
CAMP
U P
L I F
T
M
(Modern
Arad)
NEGEV
BB BIBLICAL
BACKGROUNDS
234 m
768 f
441 m
1447 f
EY
VA L
L
QA NA IM
E
N
C
A
W
AT
ER
ROMAN
‘OBSCURING’
(HACHILAH) HILL
T
Sprs
ANEVAH
ASCENT
ZE
GE
ZEELIM
ASCENT
90 m
295 f
N CAM
A
IF
AINA
N
YO
N
Spr
E
O
DR
A
N
O
A
M
F
IL
W
ZEELIM
PASS
T
U L
F A
512 m
1679 f
EASTERN
428 m
1404 f
DRAINAGE
Spr
CAVES
469 m
1538 f
A R CA
NYO
N
F A U L T
S
E
N
R
E
ROMAN
ROMAN
L
E
S
IM
L
E
Z
D
673 m
2207 f
UPPER
P
D
E
U
HE
AG
578 m
1896 f
RS
ER
Y
E
D
R
S
H
E
AI
S
MI H
Spr
N
DRAINING
EA
IN
AR
TO
T
DR
ZEELIM
220 m
722 f
(V
T
IF
O
A
W
AT
E
M
W
AT
E
Hot
Spr
M
N
U
P
L
ES
ISRAELITE
554 m
1818 f
ISRAELITE
652 m
2139 f
I
L
W
FO
(H. Tov)
859 m
2818 f
519 m
1703 f
I
H IS
RC
Kerioth
N
O
AN
D
912 m
2992 f
C
A
Y
L
Maon
HEVER
ROMAN CAMP,
CAVE OF HORRORS
TE
RR
AI
N)
U
N
R
D
E
ROMAN CAMP,
CAVE OF LETTERS
L T
E
N
H
ISRAELITE
ARU
Sprs
G
Spr
O
T
En-gedi
CA
NYO N
N
O
Carmel
ZIZ
ASCENT
D
CAAVID
NY ’ S
ON
Z
F
O
638 m
2093 f
S AU
Arad
(T. Arad)
CAVE OF
THE POOL
S
P
H
I L
L
U
N
T R
Y
W
IL
D
E
IP
R
Ziph
C
440 m
1443 f
F A
S
908 m
2978 f
To Tekoa
S
S
Kain
To
A
(Migdal Zohar)
rav
ah
ISRAELITE
Relief and main routes above reflect Biblical Backgrounds’ Regional Study Map 4 (see: www.bibback.com)
guide in brief—
OBSERVATION on
Map continued
199
PAs the Zeelim canyon reaches westward its tributaries form the Upper Zeelim, an area
expanding in a large arc from the Maon uplift to slopes draining much of modern Arad.
P Note the difference between canyons N of the Zeelim in the harsh Jeshimon and the
faulted region of Massada S of the Zeelim canyon. The most convenient way to pass
from N to S is to go around the Zeelim canyon via the unique ‘Zeelim Pass.’
P Wilderness paths cross this area in all directions, but many are drawn to the focal point
of the Zeelim pass. A path from Carmel near Maon crosses this pass to reach Massada.
P The flat ‘Obscuring’ (Hachilah) hill, defined by a faulted slope on its W, is an ideal spot
for ambushing those crossing the Zeelim pass into the Qanaim valley to the south.
P Small forts from various periods lie along paths on this map. They show attempts by hill
country authorities to extend their control over this large refuge for rebels or fugitives.
Throughout history ascetics have used the wilderness as a retreat while fugitives have escaped
beyond to the rugged Jeshimon. Shortly after the close of the book of Acts and again sixty
years later the sites of En-gedi, Massada and caves, noted on this map along sheer cliffs, served
as refuge for Judeans fleeing from the wrath of Rome. A thousand years earlier David of Judah
escaped the wrath of a disturbed Saul of Benjamin by retreating to this same wilderness and
Jeshimon. Nine chapters of the book of 1 Samuel record David’s flight. Below is a summary
of this flight and how this map helps you better understand David’s strategy. You can follow
these selected events on the ‘Around the Zeelim’ printout map and on pp. 20/21 and 22/23.
1 Sam 22:3-4
1 Sam 22:4
1
‘David went to Mizpeh in Moab’
David would have wisely taken his family from Bethlehem to Moab via the Tekoa
to En-gedi route and from there S and across the narrow part of the Dead Sea below
Massada. This ‘back way’ would have completely avoided Saul to the N.
2
‘All the time David was at the Metzudah’
The most logical place for David to go upon his return from Moab was Massada
(metzudah), the secure stronghold above the Dead Sea, S of the deep Zeelim canyon.
Here David could easily escape to Moab if Saul’s forces came after him.
1 Sam 22:5; 23:1-14
3
‘David left and went to the Hereth Forest’
After a prophetic warning David entered Judah’s ‘Hereth (cut up) Forest,’ perhaps in
the deep canyons W of Hebron, an area of ravines and covered by thicket and scrub
forest. Here David learned of a Philistine attack on Keilah in the nearby Shephelah.
1 Sam 23:14-18
4
‘David was in the wilderness of Ziph in the horesha’
David then met with Saul’s son Jonathan ‘in the horesha’ of the wilderness of Ziph. Of
its various meanings ‘the plowed areas’ points to regions E of Ziph in the wilderness
that even today is plowed and sown prior to the winter rains.
1 Sam 23:19-28
5
‘Isn’t David hiding near us in the strongholds of the horesha ... S of the Jeshimon?’
Saul’s informants at Ziph reported that David was now ‘in the strongholds of the
horesha around the hill of Hachilah to the S of the Jeshimon’ by the Zeelim pass (see
‘Around the Zeelim’ map). David appeared trapped, but Saul was forced to depart.
1 Sam 23:29-24:21
6
‘David went up from there to stay in the strongholds of En-gedi’
With Saul busy elsewhere David and his men could enjoy springs in canyons around
En-gedi. Saul returned, however, (no doubt via the Tekoa-En-gedi road) and in this
area David spared Saul’s life, conversing with him across ‘David’s canyon.’
1 Sam 24:22-25:44
7
200
‘David and his men went up to the Metzudah’
David moved to Massada, no doubt placing a guard at the Zeelim pass to warn of Saul’s
possible return. David’s men roamed the wilderness of Maon/Paran, the setting for the
Nabal story and Abigail’s descent along the hidden path E of the Maon uplift.
1 Sam 26
8
‘Isn’t David hiding at the hill of Hachilah facing the Jeshimon?’
Informants at Ziph again told Saul of David’s whereabouts, and events again took place
in the area of the Zeelim pass, around ‘the hill of Hachilah’. David again spared Saul;
the two conversed across a ‘great space’ (the Zeelim canyon?), and Saul departed.
2 Chr 11:5-12;
LMLK seals;
1 Sam 15:12
1 Sam 27:1-7
9
‘Rehoboam built towns for defense in Judah ... Ziph’ ‘Belonging to the king, Ziph’
The administrative center of Ziph played a key role in this story, as it later did in the
days of Rehoboam and Hezekiah. Saul earlier had built a monument at Carmel, and the
administrative importance of Ziph may well have emerged under Saul’s leadership.
10 ‘David
left and crossed over ... to Achish son of Maoch, king of Gath’
P Realizing that this area held no promise and that Saul might well return with a greater
force, David contacted the king of Gath who hired him and established David and his
men at Ziklag. Only in Philistia was David safe from Saul.
1 Sam 27:8-28:3;
1 Sam 29-30
11 ‘David
and his men went out and raided against Geshurites, Girzites and Amalekites’
P From Ziklag David protected Judah’s southern sites but duped the king of Gath into
believing that he was attacking Judah. After an Amalekite attack David and his ablest
men passed over the Besor, routed the invaders and restored the booty to these sites.
LMLK Seal
‘Belonging to the king’
‘Ziph’
2 Chr 11:8
LMLK seals
1 Sam 23:24
The above series of events reveal how specific the Bible is, both in recording the tactics of
David and Saul as well as in reflecting specific geobasics in and around the Zeelim. Only first
hand accounts could explain such careful attention to detail. The actions of Saul’s informants
at Ziph tell us that he had begun to develop an administrative infrastructure. The mention of
what were probably plowed fields at the edge of the wilderness of Ziph and Nabal’s prosperity
from his herds in the wilderness of Maon below the Maon uplift inform us that this SE area
of Judah was an important source of grains for an Israelite leader and a source of skins to
supply the needs of his growing militia. This was later confirmed when Rehoboam built Ziph.
Hezekiah’s four store cities included Ziph, as reflected archaeologically in the LMLK seals.
Unfolding events in 1 Samuel 22-30 also highlight the difference between the lush
surroundings of the more accessible En-gedi N of the Zeelim and the stark environs of Massada
to the S of the Zeelim. Within this context the Zeelim pass and the nearby Hachilah hill,
which could ‘obscure’ an ambush force hiding behind it, play key roles. The added security of
the Jeshimon in comparison to the adjacent wilderness, as well as the hills of the upper Zeelim
flowing from the Eastern Negev basin, were all familiar to David and his men who effectively
used them. Even the mention in the story of ‘the aravah [arid, infertile regions] south of the
Jeshimon’ points us to the barren areas of chalk E of the modern term ‘Hatrurim Geological
Basin’ on your map. Such specificity of the original writer is not surprising. He knew the land.
Within this context psalms attributed to David, such as 31, 71, 91 and 144, take on added
significance. These lines from Psalm 18 are particularly moving since the psalm title credits
the psalm to David and to that day ‘when the LORD delivered him from the hand of all his
enemies, and from the hand of Saul.’
Ps 18:2, 33, 36
The LORD is my Sharp crag, my metzudah (stronghold), my place of escape.
My God is my rock, I will take refuge in him....
He makes my legs like those of the deer,
and on the heights he enables me to stand....
You broaden the footpath under me,
so that my ankles do not twist.
GEOBASICS STUDY GUIDE: SA looking at the big picture
201
4. LOOKING AT THE BIG PICTURE: THE SOUTHERN ARENA
We have seen that the Southern Arena differs greatly from the country’s other two arenas. This
brief summary can serve to highlight these differences and underscore the main characteristics
of the Southern Arena and the arena’s major regional divisions. As you consider the following
questions, try to marshal all that you have learned about this arena.
• The Eastern Heights of Edom (Mt. Seir) serve as a major landmark in the south. These
heights draw the last precipitation from storms which reach this far south in the Land
Between. How has this thin strip of rainfall changed the history of the Southern Arena?
• What part does the Arabian desert to the E and the arid Arabah in the Rift to the W play in
defining Edom’s role in and around the Eastern Heights?
• From what you know of the Eastern Heights of Edom where would you settle in order to
balance the need for water, food, security and trade route access?
• How do ultimate commercial destinations beyond the Eastern Heights of Edom define the
significance of Tamar in the Aravah and routes which reach NW into the Negev basins and
W toward Egypt? Can you identify any of these routes on your marked maps?
• What impact do the uplifts in the Southern Highlands have upon trade routes in the south?
From Judah where would you choose to defend the southern trade corridor and why?
• How did geobasics in and around the Southern Highlands and the Negev basins impact
Judah’s history and economic vitality over the course of the Israelite Monarchy?
• If you were the leader of the Edomite clans in the Eastern Highlands, what would be your
expansion policy in the Southern Highlands, the Negev basins and elsewhere in Judah?
• If you were the leader in Judah what would be your expansion policy in the Negev basins, in
the Southern Highlands, and elsewhere across the Southern Arena?
• As an imperial power controlling the Northern and Central arenas, how far S would you
consider extending your control? What considerations would influence your decision?
• Put yourself in the sandals of Moses. How would you have responded to the information
brought to you at Kadesh by the spies? How do you sympathize with his reaction or how do
you criticize his reaction to the report of the spies and reaction of the people?
• What lessons have you learned from following David from the Central Hill Country to the
Wilderness, to Ziklag and across the Negev and beyond?
• Summarize three main insights you have gained in studying the Southern Arena.
__________________________________________
Geobasics for Sinai
• Vast and threatening Sinai borders the Southern Slopes on the SW while a large region
of wind-blown sands from northern Sinai covers an area stretching N to Wadi Besor.
• A modern border runs from the general area of Raphia on the coast SE off the map,
leaving Nessana and Super Bowl in Israel but the area of Kadesh and Sinai in Egypt.
• Wind-blown sands from the Nile delta (far to the W off the map) and the Mediterranean cover northern Sinai and the area from Raphia to the chalks SE of Rehoboth.
• The combination of heavy sands, the formidable Sinai wilderness and rugged regions in
and around the Super Bowl make the springs around Kadesh particularly attractive.
• In late Roman and Byzantine times the influx, innovation and settlement of the
Nabateans allowed cities such as Nessana and Rehoboth to thrive along the trade
routes in this area.

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