1 EARTH SCIENCE Lithosphere is the earth`s rock layer

EARTH SCIENCE
Atmosphere Lithosphere is the earth’s rock layer
Hydrosphere is the earth’s water layer
Biosphere Atmosphere is the earth’s air layer
Hydro Erosion carries away rock sediments
Litho Physical weathering breaks things down but keeps the same substance
Ex:
Chemical weathering breaks things down and creates a new substance
Ex:
Forces of erosion:
Wind
Water
Ice/Glaciers
• Gravity
• Wind
Weathering Erosion Sediments water
ice/glaciers
Land formations/events found
near plate boundaries:
Earthquakes
Mountains
Volcanoes
Fault
Fold
------------------------------------Faulting is a crack in the earth’s crust
Folding is a bend in the rock
Earth’s Structure:
Crust
is the 1st/outermost layer
Mantle
is the 2nd layer
Core
is the 3rd/innermost layer
Inner core Outer core mantle The core has two layers:
Outer core which is liquid
Inner core which is solid
crust The mantle is made of magma. The magma moves in
which causes the tectonic plates to shift/move.
convection
Magma can rise through cracks in the ocean floor causing sea
floor spreading
At one time all the continents fit together and was called pangea
1 currents
Weather
The earth’s air layer is called the atmosphere
weather
is the daily conditions in the atmosphere
climate
is the yearly average of the daily weather
thermo Climate is affected by: Latitude
Bodies of water
Mountains
meso Layers of the atmosphere: troposphere (We live here)
stratosphere
mesosphere
thermo
strato tropo The troposphere is the only layer that has water
Other gasses oxygen The atmosphere contains: 78% Nitrogen
21% Oxygen
1% other
21% Air temperature is measured with a thermometer
Air pressure is measured with a barometer
78 % Humidity is the moisture in the air
wind speed is measured with an anenometer
wind direction is measured with a windvane
Forms of precipitation: snow
sleet
nitrogen rain
hail
Insolation is Incoming Solar Radiation
Warm air rises
Cold air sinks
Water Cycle processes:
precipitation
condensation
evaporation
transpiration
condensation evaporation 2 transpiration precipitation An air mass gets its characteristics from the area it forms over
Land - continental
Water - maritime
Cold - polar
Warm - tropical
cP mP cP mP Continental polar
Cold & dry
Continental tropical
Warm & dry
mT mT Maritime polar
Cold & moist
Maritime tropical
Warm & moist
High pressure systems bring dry weather & clear skies
Low pressure systems bring wet weather & cloudy skies
fronts are boundaries between air masses
Warm front Most weather travels from west to east
Weather travels with the help of prevailing winds
And upper air currents
Weather forms along fronts
Cold front Cold front
Cold air mass pushes warm air mass out of the way
Warm front
Warm air mass pushes cold air mass
Isolines connect points of equal temperatures
Contour lines connect points of equal elevation, depth, etc
rotation Astronomy
rotation Earth spins on its axis
revolution This is called rotation
rotation 1 full rotation = 1 day
revolution 3 Earth revolves around the sun. This is called revolution
1 full revolution around the sun = 1 year
Seasons occur because the earth is tilted on its axis
Tilted towards the sun - summer
axis Tilted away from the sun - winter
equator Winter: 9 hours of light
Close to the sun
autumn winter Summer: 15 hours of light
Far from the sun
summer spring Autumn/Spring: 12 hours of light
Gravitational pull is strongest when objects are close to each other
When earth is close to the sun we travel fast and the pull of gravity is stronger
The angle of the sun affects your shadow
The lower the sun the longer your shadow
Low angles occur in winter and at sunrise & sunset
High angles occur in summer and at noon
Types of celestial objects: sun moon stars
Planets comets
asteroids
meteors
Earth is in the solar system, which is in the Milky Way Galaxy which is in the Universe
Planet à solar system à galaxy à universe
Order of the Planets
M ercury
V enus
E arth
M ars
J upiter
S aturn
U ranus
N eptune
* pluto
sun mercury venus earth mars saturn jupiter uranus neptune 4 pluto The moon orbits the earth & spins on its axis
1 revolution = about 1 month
It takes 29 ½ days for the moon to revolve/orbit the earth
Apparent motion is when an object looks like it is moving even though it isn’t
Phases of the moon are caused by the earth’s apparent view of the Moon
Phases of the Moon
Waxing gibbous 1st quarter Waxing crescent Full Moon New Moon Waning gibbous Sun Waning crescent Last quarter The ocean’s tides are caused by the moon’s phases & are cyclical
An eclipse occurs when the sun, moon and earth line up
Solar eclipse occurs when the moon passes through the earth’s shadow
Lunar eclipse occurs when the moon casts it’s shadow on the earth.
The Sun is luminous
gives off light
The moon is illuminated
it is lit by another source, the sun
The color of stars determines its temperature
Red is cool
Blue is hot
Stars are composed of gas and dust
5 Luminous
Illuminated
Rocks & Minerals
All rocks are made of minerals
You can identify a mineral by its physical & chemical properties
Physical Properties:
Streak
Hardness
Luster
Color
Cleavage/Fracture
Weathering & erosion Chemical Property: Acid reaction
Magma is hot liquid below the crust
Lava is hot liquid above the crust
Types of Rocks:
Sedimentary
Igneous
Metamorphic
Heat & pressure Melting & cooling Heat & Melting & pressure Weathering cooling & erosion Igneous rocks are made by cooling magma
Sedimentary rocks are made by the cementation & compression of rock
particles called sediments
Sedimentary rocks are the only rocks that contain fossils
Metamorphic rocks are caused by constant heat & pressure
The rock cycle shows how any rock can change into another over time
History of Rock Layers
Rock layers form horizontally
Bottom layers are oldest
Top layers are youngest/newest
6 Map Skills
Latitude lines run east & west and never touch
The equator is a latitudinal line & separates the northern & southern hemisphere
Longitudinal lines run north & south and meet at the poles
The prime meridian is a longitudinal line & separates the
western & eastern hemisphere
Contour Lines
Contour lines connect equal points of elevation
The closer the lines the steeper the slope
The space between contour lines is the interval
As elevation/altitude increases, air pressure decreases
LIFE SCIENCE
cells are the basic unit of living things
Unicellular – 1 celled
EX: bacteria
Multicellular – many cells, more than 1
EX: plants, animals
cells à tissue à organs à organ system à organism
vacuole All cells have organelles
cytoplasm Organelles have different functions
All cells have these organelles:
nucleus
cell membrane
mitochondria
vacuole
endoplasmic reticulum ribosome
Mitochondria Cell membrane nucleus Plant cells are different because they also have:
cell wall
chloroplast
chlorophyll fills the chloroplasts
Cell membrane cytoplasm Cell wall vacuole chloroplast animal
nucleus E.R. 7 plant
Cell Division
Two types:
Asexual reproduction
Mitosis
Body cells
Identical to parent cell
same # of chromosomes
sexual reproduction
Meiosis
sex cells (sperm & eggs)
different from parent cell
1/2 # of chromosomes
Three types of asexual reproduction:
budding
binary fission
sporulation
regeneration
cancer is abnormal cell division
Organisms carry out life processes
Life Processes:
nutrition
growth
transport
reproduction
respiration
excretion
regulation
Metabolism is all the chemical processes that take place in an organism that are
needed to maintain a stable internal environment (homeostasis/dynamic
equilibrium)
Body Systems:
skeletal
muscular
nervous
respiratory
circulatory
digestive
excretory
reproductive
endocrine
skeletal
circulatory
8 respiratory
nervous
digestive
nervous system controls body activities.
Main organs: brain
Spinal cord
nerves
respiratory system exchanges gasses with the environment
Take in oxygen
Release carbon dioxide as waste
Main organs: lungs
Nose/mouth
Body cells CO 2 O2 Digestive system breaks down food
2 types of digestion: mechanical-teeth
Chemical-digestive acids
Main organs: stomach
intestines
circulatory system transports materials
throughout the body & to the cells
Main organs: heart
Veins – arteries - capillaries
3 types of blood vessels:
arteries - carry blood away from the heart
veins- carry blood to the heart
capillaries- connect arteries to veins
9 excretory system removes wastes from the body
Main organs: kidney
bladder
urethra
skeletal system supports the body
Consists of: bones/skull
joints
ligaments
tendons
muscular system moves body parts & organs
Voluntary: chewing, walking, etc
Involuntary: heart beat
immune system protects the body from
foreign substances
White Blood cells help the body fight
infections
pollutants germs bacteria parasites 10 Endocrine system regulates body activities
with hormones secreted by glands
Hormones are chemical messages
sent throughout the body
Male Hormones: testosterone
Female Hormones: estrogen & progesterone
Male & Female: insulin & adrenaline
Reproductive system produces offspring
Males: testes make sperm
Females: ovaries make eggs/ova
fertilization takes place in the oviduct
when the sperm fertilizes the egg/ova
egg sperm Fertilization
/zygote embryo Sexual /Meiosis
Offspring/fetus asexual/mitosis
uterus The fertilized egg is now called a zygote
Oviduct/ fallopian tube The zygote makes its way to the uterus
where it develops into an offspring/fetus
The embryo grows & develops into a fetus
and continues to develop into its teens
ovary cervix 11 Plant Reproduction
Female reproductive system:
Pistil
Organs: stigma
style
ovary
Male reproductive system:
Stamen
Organs: anther
filament
sepal
s
t
a
m
e
n stigma anther style ovary filament petal ovule sepal pollination occurs when pollen fertilizes the ovary
Self-Pollination – flower has both male & female parts
Cross-Pollination – flower pollen pollinates ANOTHER flower
Seeds provide food for the growing/plant embryo
Seeds spread with the help of
wind
animals/insects
water
humans
Plant embryo Food source/seed Metamorphosis
metamorphosis is the life cycle of organisms through different stages
Frog metamorphosis: egg à tadpole à adult
Butterfly metamorphosis: egg à larva (caterpillar)à pupa à butterfly
Grasshopper metamorphosis: egg à nymph à adult
12 p
i
s
t
i
l GENETICS
DNA is found in the nucleus of all cells
chromosomes DNA is made up of chromosomes
nucleus Genes are found on chromosomes
cell traits are determined by the arrangement of
genes in the DNA
DNA Genes carry out specific instructions
mutations are changes in the genes
gene Dominant trait – shows itself
Recessive trait – trait is hidden
Punnett Squares show the probability of traits
T
Pure – Same TT or tt
Hybrid – mixed Tt
t
T
TT
Tt
t
Tt
tt
% pure 50%
% hybrid 50%
ECOLOGY
The sun is the main source of energy for plants, animals, & all other organisms
An ecosystem is where living & non-living things interact
Plants obtain energy from the sun & use it for the
process of photosynthesis to make its food
Sun Oxygen (O2) Glucose (C6 H12 O6) Water (H2O) 13 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Other organisms get energy from the food they consume (eat)
producers are plants
consumers eat producers
decomposers break down dead material
herbivores eat plants
carnivores eat animals
omnivores eat plants & animals
Predator preys on or hunts other organisms
Prey organism that is hunted
by the predator
A calorie is the unit for measuring energy in food
Food Chain show one path of energy flow between organisms
Main source all energy of Producer
Herbivore/ consumer Carnivore/ consumer Omnivore/ consumer Food Webs show many paths of energy flow between organisms
Carnivore herbivore omnivore carnivore producer herbivore decomposer Energy Pyramid show how energy is passed throughout an ecosystem
In an energy pyramid, producers/plants
are found at the bottom because they contain
the most energy in an ecosystem.
The producers use the sun’s energy
directly for the process of photosynthesis
consumer 14 consumer consumer producer Ecological Succession is when
one community continues to change over time.
Beginning
EX: after forest fire
time
many years later
Living things are organized based
upon their characteristics
Kingdom
basic
similarities
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
many
similarities
Kingdoms show basic similarities
Species show many similarities & organisms can produce offspring
Symbiosis - relationship between 2 organisms
3 types of symbiosis:
Commensalism: 1 organism benefits and the other organism is not harmed
EX: barnacle & whale
Mutualism: both organisms benefit
EX: plants provide oxygen to animals & animals provide carbon dioxide to plants
Parasitism: 1 organism benefits and the other is harmed
EX: tapeworm & human, tick & dog, etc
15 hydrosphere Organisms compete for:
food
water
shelter
lithosphere atmosphere mates
biosphere Levels of Organization- Ecology
biome ecosystem Groups of different species & their interaction w/non living materials community Groups of different species in one area population Areas of similar climate, geographic features & organisms that live in one area (tundra, rainforest, etc) Group of the same species in one area species A stimulus causes organisms to react to a change
EX: cold à goose bumps
danger à run!!
When an organism is hot it sweats & needs water
If not it can die
When an organism is cold it shivers & needs heat
If not it can die
Responses can be involuntary
Adaptations help an organism to survive in its environment
If an organism does not adapt, it can become endangered or worse, extinct
Evolution creates variety among living things, increasing the ability for an organism to
survive
Organisms can evolve or change over a long period of time.
16 Evolution is the change over time in genetic traits that help an organism to survive in
its environment
Simple, 1 celled organisms evolve (change) quickly because they reproduce asexually
Complex, multicellular organisms take longer time to evolve because they reproduce
sexually
Renewable resources can be recycled & used again
Using trees, plants, peat moss, etc to burn for energy solar biomass Water/hydro wind geothermal Hydroelectric energy is electricity produced by the power of flowing water
EX: Niagra Falls & Hoover Dam
Solar energy is produced by storing energy from the sun & converting it into usable
electricity
Wind energy is produced by capturing the power of the wind when it turns a turbine
Conserving is saving & using natural resources responsibly
17 Non-renewable resources cannot be recycled & can’t be used again
oil coal nuclear Natural gas Effects of Burning Fossil Fuels: pollution
Acid rain
Lung disease
oil spills
greenhouse effect
asthma
Nuclear energy is produced from the energy stored in the nucleus of atoms
(Indian Point)
Burning Fossil Fuels is the main cause of acid rain.
Chemicals are released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels are
Burned.
Greenhouse Gasses traps Carbon Dioxide in the atmosphere which increases global
warming
Reflected solar energy Absorbed solar energy radiation Earth’s Atmosphere Radiation absorbed by the atmosphere deforestation Oil & gas CFC’s 18 Burning fossil fuels PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Atoms are the building blocks of matter
Matter is anything that has mass & takes up space
Mass is the amount of matter in an object
Volume is the amount of space an object or liquid takes up
Elements are pure substances made of 1 type of atom & cannot be broken down
(Hint: They only have 1 capital letter)
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Compounds are 2 or more elements chemically combined
(Hint: They have 2 or more capital letters)
Water
Elements are organized by their properties on a periodic table
A mixture is when 2 or more substances are combined but DO NOT make a new
substance. Mixtures can be easily separated
EX: sand & salt, salt water
Phases/States of Matter: solid
gas
SOLID
Definite shape
liquid
*plasma
LIQUID
GAS
shape of container
no definite shape
Definite volume
definite volume
no definite volume
Very Little Energy
Some Energy
Most Energy
19 Phase Changes:
melting
evaporation
freezing
condensation
* sublimation
condensation
gas
evaporation
freezing
liquid
melting
solid
Solid
Gas
sublimation
Density is the measurement of the mass of a substance per unit of volume
Formula: D = M
V
or
M
D
V
Density of Water: 1.0 g/ml or 1.0 g/cm3
Objects less dense than water will float
Water line
Objects more dense than water will sink
Mass
43.5 g
Volume
26.9 cm3
Density
1.6 g/cm3
2
110.2 g
144.7 ml
0.8 g/ml
7.1 g
18.8 cm3
0.4 g/cm3
22.7 g
11.2 ml
4
2 Sample
1
3
2
2.0 g/ml
20 1 3
3 4 Physical change alter the appearance of a substance but the substance is still the
same
EX: ripping paper, melting ice, etc
Chemical change create a new substance
EX: burn paper, rust, etc
The Law of conservation of matter states that matter cannot be
Created nor destroyed, only change from one form to another
Force is a push or a pull
Weight is the amount of gravitational pull on an object
Newton’s Laws of motion:
1st – an object at rest will stay at rest & an object in motion will
remain in motion unless acted on by outside motion
2nd – Force = mass x acceleration
3rd – For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction
Types of Simple Machines:
Lever
Screw
pulley
wedge
wheel & axle
incline plane
Incline plane Wheel & axle wedge screw lever pulley 21 Friction reduces the motion of an object
potential kinetic Energy is the ability to do work
potential energy – stored energy
kinetic energy – energy of motion
The higher the position, the greater the potential energy
The greater the mass, the greater the kinetic energy
As kinetic energy goes up, potential energy goes down
The Law of conservation of Energy states that energy cannot be created nor
destroyed, only changed from one form to another
Forms of Energy:
chemical
mechanical
solar/light
electrical
thermal
_________________
Solar/light chemical Heat is produced by vibrating molecules.
More heat = more vibration
When a substance heats up it expands
When a substance cools down it contracts
EXCEPT for water à ice expands
22 chemical electrical mechanical chemical thermal mechanical Heat travels from hot to cold areas/objects, until they reach the same temperature
c
o
n
v
e
c
t
i
o
n 3 ways heat travels:
radiation (space)
convection (liquid & gas)
conduction (solids)
radiation
conduction radiation radiation Endothermic reactions absorb heat
Exothermic reactions release heat
endothermic
exothermic
sound & light travel in waves
wavelength is the distance from crest to crest or trough to trough
amplitude is the height of the wave
frequency is the number of waves that pass a given point in an amount of time
wavelength
amplitude
crest
trough
wave
23 length
light is the visible form of energy
Light travels in a path called a ray
Light can be:
angle
of
incidence
=
angle
of
reflection
reflected
refracted
transmitted
absorbed
Light, smooth materials reflect light (mirrors, metal, white t-shirts)
Dark, rough materials absorb light (driveway, black t-shirts)
Translucent objects allow light to pass through it
Opaque objects block light from passing through it
opaque
translucent
24 The electromagnetic Spectrum shows the range of electromagnetic energy that exists
Low frequency
Long wavelength
High frequency
Short wavelength
Visible light is originally white
White light is not a single color. It is made up of the 7 colors of the rainbow.
The color you see is the color that is being reflected. All other colors are absorbed
white Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Indigo Violet Prism
Sound is produced when objects vibrate
The speed of sound depends on the density of a substance.
Sound Speed
Solid
The denser the substance the slower it travels.
Sound travels quickly through solids & slowly through gasses
Liquid
Sound cannot travel through a vacuum
Outer Space = no Sound
Gas
25 MAGNETISM
The area surrounding the magnet is called the magnetic field
The end of magnet is called a pole
There are 2 poles.
north & south
Like poles repel
N
N
The closer the magnets are,
the stronger the attraction
Unlike poles attract
N
S
Electricity
Electricity is produced by the flow of electrons from one point to another.
conductors conductors allow energy to flow
insulators do not allow energy to flow through it
insulators Types of electrical circuits:
parallel
# of paths: 2
If one bulb goes out:
the other bulbs stay lit
series
# of paths: 1
If one bulb goes out:
all the bulbs go out
26 Lab Skills
Scientists use the scientific method to solve problems & conduct experiments
Steps to the Scientific Method:
P – roblem
People Hate Eating Onion Cookies
H - ypothesis
E - xperiment
O - bservation
C - onclusion
A microscope is used to observe substances too small to be seen with the naked eye
A compound microscope uses 2 lenses to view small objects
eyepiece x objective lens = total magnification
EX: 10 x 40 = 400 magnification
Microscope Steps:
1. Put the slide on the stage
2. Put the clips on the slide
3. Bring the stage up
4. Put the objective/focus on low
5. Give it a look & you’re ready to go
Eyepiece/ocular
Coarse adjustment brings the object into view
Coarse Adj
Body Tube
Fine adjustment brings the image into focus
Fine Adj
objectives
stage
diaphragm
light source
base
27 slide clips arm