Spykman 1942, 436-7

Spykman 1942, 436-7
“The state, however, differs from other social structures not
only in its claims to sovereignty but also in the fact that its
organization is territorial. Survival for such a unit means
preserving political independence and retaining control
over a specific territory whose limits are defined by an
imaginary line called a ‘boundary’...The boundary is thus
not only a line of demarcation between legal systems but
also a point of contact of territorial power structures”
1
The State
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
A set of institutions
A degree of centrality
A sovereign legal entity, internationally recognized
Organizes and guarantees the welfare and security of its citizens
within its territory
A defined boundary
Currently almost 200 states (about 300 land boundaries
between them!)
Yet: 500-600 “nations”
To exercise sovereignty, every state must have control over both
people and territory
2
Key suppressive features of the state
• Supreme authority, monopoly of coercive power and violence
(police, army)
• Demands obedience from the inhabitants
Ideology is a central component in maintaining the state
1. The belief that states are legitimate universal institutions with
a ‘right’ to wield power over individuals is universally
unchallenged
2. The history of particular states is constructed to give them a
‘naturalness’ and historical permanency and continuity
3
The spatialities of the state
•
•
•
•
Institutions at various scales: governance
Devolution of power to local scale, mergers
Regional policies, uneven development, regulation
Infrastructure: public services, transport,
telecommunications, social facilities
(Base/superstructure-divide)
• Neoliberal tendencies to promote economic growth at
the expense welfare
• Privatization, entrepreneurship
• City-regionalism as a vehicle for competitiveness
4
The nature of sovereignty
5
Political-territorial structure of
international society
6
Territory and mobility
• How various forms of mobility are related to the territorial
system
• States have been the key units of the territorial system
since the 17th century: what will happen to the state in the
world of flows and mobility
• Whereas the relatively unregulated migration prior to 1914
was not seen as a challenge to state sovereignty, and while
many states strongly supported labor migration until the
1960-70s, the situation has now changed. Some analysts
and politicians believe that international migration is a
threat to the sovereignty – read: security – of states,
especially to their ability to regulate the nature of the
movements across boundaries .
• The number of people living outside of their country of
birth has grown slowly, being about 100 million in 1960,
155 in 2000 and 214 million in 2010.
7
Immigration
• Only 3% of the world’s population resides in a state other than the one
in which they were born
• 75% of immigrants live in just twenty-eight states
• Developed countries host one third of immigrants
• have reacted to immigration by preferring a strategic ‘selectivity’:
often prioritizing the ‘best’ and the ‘brightest’ (Hyndman, 2012).
• Immigration has been opposed in many states on cultural, ethnic,
demographic, and economic grounds
• the ‘greening of anti-immigration’
8
The consequences of globalization?
9
• The phenomenon is not just a case of populist
parties riding into power on themes leaning
on often selective reading of immigration
statistics, as migration is to an increasing
degree also being represented as a security
question that draws on the purported risks of
terrorism (Huysmans, 2006).
10
Territory
• ”Territory is a compromise between a mythical aspect and a
rational or pragmatic one. It is three things: a piece of land,
seen as a sacred heritage; a seat of power; and a functional
space. It encompasses the dimensions of identity (…)…of
authority (the state as an instrument of political, legal,
police and military control over a population defined by its
residence); and of administrative bureaucratic or economic
efficiency in the management of social mechanisms,
particularly of interdependence…The strength of the
national territorial state depends upon combination of
these three dimensions” (Hassner 1997:57)
11
• Territory is a historically contingent process that makes territory
calculable/predictable (Hannah 2009).
• Authority, supremacy, and sovereignty
• the development of technologies: cartography, land-surveying,
statistics, accounting, and the military
• Stuart Elden: territory is a ‘political technology’ that is
dependent on calculation as much as on control and conflict
12
Robert David Sack: Human territoriality:
its theory and history (1986)
Basic definition:
• Territoriality is the attempt by an individual or group to affect,
influence, or control people, phenomena, and relationships, by
delimiting and asserting control over a geographic area. This
area will be called the territory. P. 19
What this means in practice:
• Circumscribing things in space, or on a map, as when a
geographers delimits an area to illustrate where corn is grown,
or where industry is concentrated, identifies places, areas, or
regions in an ordinary sense, but does not itself create a
territory. This delimitation becomes a territory only when its
boundaries are used to affect behavior by controlling access.
13
Territoriality (Sack):
• A basis of power, not an instinct
• A spatial strategy to affect, influence, or control
resources and people, by controlling areas
• Historically sensitive use of space
• Socially constructed
• Depends on who is controlling whom and why
14
The significance of territoriality
Three interdependent relationships
• classification by area
• communication.
• control over access to the area and to things within it
15
Territorial integration
16
Early theories of territorial integration: ála
Hartshorne
Territorial integration depends on two forces:
1.
Centifugal forces pulling the state apart
2.
Centripetal forces binding it
17
Nation
• people sharing the same historical experience
• a high level of cultural and linguistic unity, territory
perceived as their ‘homeland’ by right
• some 400-600 nations
• if states are to represent nationalities and if
nationality is not a matter of objective fact but rather
of sentiment, then there is no pre-given limit to the
number of nationalisms and nation-states!
18
Nationalism
• nationalism is a political principle which holds
that the political unit and the national unit
should be congruent (Ernest Gellner 1983)
• primordialism vs. modernism
19
Nations are made by nationalisms
• ”Nations do not exist as neatly packaged
bundles of people waiting for a state to be
drawn around them. No less than states,
nations are created and reflect the politics in
which they are made. Any theory of
nationalism cannot, therefore, be merely a
theory of ethnic distribution; rather, it must be
a theory of the political construction of
nation” (Taylor & Flint 2002:211)
20
Construction of territorial continuity
(Smart 1983:81)
21
The idea of nationalism has been used in three main
ways:
1. Nation-building/state-building
2. The formation of national consciousness, solidarity
and sentiments.
3. Ideological movement.
22
Anthony Smith (1979)
• ”We are identified first and foremost with our ’nation’. Our lives
are regulated, for the most part, by the national state in which
we are born. War and peace, trade and travel, education and
welfare, are determined for each one of us by the nation-state in
which we reside. From childhood, we are inculcated with a love
of country and tought the peculiar virtues of our nation. And
though in later life some may dissent from the patriotic ideal,
and a few turn ’traitor’, the vast majority of citizens will retain a
quiet loyalty to their nation, which in a moment of crisis can
swell into a fervent devotion and obidience to the call of the
duty”
23
Imagined community
• Benedict Anderson (1983:6)
”It (nation) is imagined because the members of even
the smallest nation will never know most of their
fellow members, meet them, yet in the minds of
each lives the images of their communion”
24
National identity Greenfelt and Chirot (1994)
• “The specificity of nationalism, what distinguishes
national identity from other forms of identity, is based
on the fact that the source of identity is located within
a ‘people’, understood as the bearer of sovereignty and
the basis of collective solidarity”.
25
The doctrine of nationalism (P.J.Taylor, 1993)
• A1. The world consists of a mosaic of nations
• A2. World order and harmony depend upon expressing this
mosaic in a system of free nation-states
• B1. Nations are the natural units of society
• B2. Nations have a cultural homgeneity based upon
common ancestry and/or history
• B3. Every nation requires its own sovereign state for the
true expression of its culture
• B4. All nations (rather than states) have an inalienable right
to a territory or homeland
• C1. Every individual must belong to a nation
• C2. A person’s primary loyalty is to the nation
• C3. Only through the nation can a person find true freedom
26
Following effects:
• The world is politically divided rather than unified
• The state as the “nation-state” is the basic arena of
politics
• The local-scale is by-passed as experiences are
”transcended” by higher and more remote ideas
• Adapt or be crushed
• Particularism
27
Homeland
“The ethnic homeland is far more than
territory. As evidenced by the near universal
use of such emotionally charged terms as
the motherland, the fatherland, the native
land, the ancestral land, land where my
fathers died and, not least, the homeland,
the territory so identified becomes imbued
with an emotional, almost reverential
dimension”
Walker Connor (1986)
28
Ethnic identity vs. cultural identity
• mean different things, not synonyms
• Cultural-identity refers to a feeling of belonging
towards a cultural group
• Ethnic identity means ethnic consciousness, i.e.
feeling of belonging to an ethnic group
29
• ”Ethnicity” -concept covers both cultural
identity and ethnic identity
• Ethnicity: most members of an ethnic group
normally identify with the group, descend or
believe they descend from the same origin
• People can regard themselves as members of
an ethnic group (e.g. Finns) by using different
arguments: language, nationality, home
country…
30
• Ethnic identity is a result of a continual self-definition
and evaluation
• The identification with a culture normally means
identificiation with some features of a culture
• Ethnic communities: Emic = natives point of view, epic
= analysts concept
31
Three features of ethnic identification
1. Ethnic self-definition: the identification of
some ethnic feature from oneself
2. Consciousness of being in some respects
different from the members of other groups,
3. A person feels that his/her ethnicity is more
or less permanent (even if these features can
change!)
32
The relations between minorities and majorities
(after Taylor & Flint 2002)
33
Ethno-nationalism in Belfast
34
Banal nationalism (Billig 1995)
• The ideological habits which enable the established nations
to be reproduced
• Nationalism is constantly flagged in the media
• Much of political discourse is based on national and even
territorial frameworks.
• Billig’s approach strongly emphasizes the meanings of
discourse: to have a national identity is to have ways of
talking about nationhood.
• ‘National flagging’ may also occur in more materialized
ways.
35
• Memorials and statues
are important elements
of national landscapes.
Landscape ”speaks” or
communicates
36
• Finnish Civil War from two
sides: White and Red
37
Palmer (1998) looks in detail at three areas of the material world in
which ‘mundane flags’ are waved
• The body
• Food
• The landscape.
38
The Maid of Finland: an example of
national allegories
39
• Kaisu Kuusinen: M.Sc thesis:
”Hyvää Suomesta”
40
• Finland – pizzaland?
41
The power of education
• Education and the media
• The different forms of education have been crucial in the service
of nationalism
• During the 19th century many industrialized countries had
absorbed their children into the school system.
• the roles of mass education in the construction of the (imagined)
national community.
42
• Regardless of the prevailing social system, education is the main
institution in building social integration in modern states.
• ‘national core values’ in school curricula and textbooks
43
Military practices as instruments of nationalism
• Anthony Smith: “our modern world is one of national competition and
warfare, and for this reason military factors and militarism assume an
increasingly significant role in the distribution of resources and the
formation of political communities and identities”.
• Anthony Giddens, Charles Tilly, Michael Mann accentuate the
importance of military factors and war for nationalism
• Rich literature on the origins of nationalism but it pays relatively little
attention to war.
44
The military and the everyday life
Military oath in Finland – a family
partyMilitary oath in Finland
4545
Border as a nationalist performance: IndiaPakistan case
46
Critical geopolitics
• Geopolitics must be
undertood as a much
broader cultural
phenomenon as traditional
’wise men’ (sic!) tradition
has recognized.
• Geopolitics can be best
undertood as spatial
practices (both material and
representative) that are
associated with stateman’s
craft
47
Power and knowledge
• it is crucial to identify and challenge the fact that we always look
at the world from certain perspectives
• Nationality, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, religion etc.
define often strongly human outlooks to the human and cultural
worlds
• Hence there is no general ’view from nowhere’ that could justify
some perspective better than some others
• All knowledge is related to certain historical-geographical
context or social position
• It is important to recognize the contextual ties and features of
48
knowledge
The nature of geographical knowledge in CG
(G. O’Tuathail)
• Geography is ”linguistic practice” which is bound to the
relations between knowledge and power
• Geography is a form of strategic knowledge which is
closely bound to political and military practices
• Geography is a form of practical knowledge which is an
important part of territorial government and
governance
49
• geopolitical research can not be politically neutral
• CG tries to theorize geopolitics as situated reasoning
• Important scientific link for CG is the literature that deals
with the historical expansion of states, techniques of
governance and the history of technology and territoriality
• Critical or dissident IR literature
50
Critical geopolitics studies the geopolitical
imagination of the state
Basic myths (origin/history, tradition, culture)
Narratives on national features
boundary drawing practices and representations
characterizing the daily life inside states
Refers to a whole group of geopolitical practices that have
spread everywhere in a society
Popular, practical and formal geopolitics
51
The structure of critical geopolitics
52
Research themes in critical geopolitics
• The definition of the ‘geopolitical’
• Classics in geopolitics analysis of geographical tradition in
various states
• Study of foreign policy documents and ways of
documentation
• Geographical aspects of the work of important statesmen
in the history of geopolitics
• The tensions in the foreign policy of the USA and their
textual interpretation
• The relations between the discourses on environment,
security and foreign policy
53
• Gender –perspectives
• Popular-geopolitics (movies, media, cartoons)
• Region and territory building
• International political economy, CNN-period television
and other media
Common feature: geographical knowledge is power,
occupation and control of space
54