Aversive DiscriminAtion

Transcription

UAV Unveiling Aversive Discrimination
A Learning Partnership
2008 - 2010
This project is implemented with the
financial support of European Commission Lifelong Learning Programme. The contents
of these materials do not necessarily
represent the opinion of the European
Commission and the European Commission
does not assume any liability for them.
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2008 - 2010
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By Rita Bencivenga, CERPA Italia Onlus
Contributions of:
Alessia Planeta, CERPA Italia Onlus
Giovanna Camertoni, Arcilesbica
Thomas Kugler and Stephanie Nordt, KomBi
Tanya Goranova, IRBF
Kathrin Karloff, BFI
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Index
Unveiling Aversive Discrimination: a discovery path
Background and approach
What to read to learn about Aversive Discrimination Aversive Disablism
Aversive Heterosexism
Aversive Sexism
Intersectionality
Miscellanea
Bibliography
page 6
page 6
page 8
page 9
page 11
page 13
page 13
page 15
page 16
Social Situation of LGBT in Europe
Modern prejudice against LGBT people: the origin of a concept and examples in the field of adult education
Good practices in the education field for adults
Bibliography
page 20
Equal Opportunities – Basic Right in European Union Aversive Discrimination – Stereotypes and Prejudice, Examples
page 22
page 27
page 28
page 29
Different Forms of (Aversive) Discrimination Against (Female) Migrants
Due to Ethnic Background, Skin Colour, Religion, and the Effects of the Economic Crisis
page 35
Psycho-social situation of LGBT Young people
Useful strategies to avoid homophobia in adult education Pro-Gay Teaching Strategies Including Gay and Lesbian Youth page 43
page 46
page 47
page 48
UAV Partners
page 49
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Unveiling Aversive Discrimination: a discovery path
Introduction
The issue of Aversive Discrimination has not yet been addressed openly and directly in the field of
adult education.
Nowadays discrimination is not what it used to be in the past, luckily. In almost all sectors the
level of awareness of those who work or volunteer or study in adult education excludes any direct
discrimination.
This fact is also supported by legislation, ethical principles, awareness of rights, etc.
However, in the last twenty years numerous authors and groups have been debating the aversive
aspects of discrimination.
UAV Partners are organisations addressing some type of diversity, and thanks to their work in the
respective fields, are conscious of the presence of aversive discrimination in many educational
materials used in adult education.
They wished to address the issue openly and also to start a debate on intersectional discrimination
(being a woman and a lesbian, being a man belonging to an ethnic minority and having a disability,
etc;) and how this influences the learning paths of learners.
Background and approach
The main objective of UAV has been to promote the idea of formal and non-formal adult education
really inclusive and accessible to all and of an adult education free from discriminatory contents.
The partners identified in their daily experience numerous hints which tell them that a really inclusive
approach is still far to be reached in many learning paths.
Therefore they decided to address aversive discrimination in adult learning.
Aversive (or unintentional) racism, disablism, sexism or heterosexism is different from old-fashioned, or
blatant racism, disablism, sexism or heterosexism.
In contrast to old-fashioned discrimination, which is characterized by overt hatred for and discrimination
against people with disabilities, women, homosexuals, the aversive forms are characterized by more
complex, ambivalent attitudes.
On the one hand, people who discriminate in an aversive way are well-intentioned people who typically
avoid acting in a disablist manner, support public policies that promote equality, sympathize with
victims of past injustice, identify with liberal political agendas, possess strong egalitarian values, and
regard themselves as non-prejudiced.
On the other hand, these people almost unavoidably possess negative feelings and beliefs about
people with disabilities, women, people of different ‘race’ etc.
The negative feelings experienced by aversive racists, disablists, sexists and heterosexists are discomfort,
uneasiness, or fear in the presence of some people (which may be built on our biologically based fear of
those whom we feel ‘strangers’).
In addition, this negative attitude is frequently unacknowledged or dissociated from the self because it
conflicts with one’s egalitarian self-concept and value system.
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Because aversive discriminating people are concerned with maintaining an egalitarian self-concept,
they typically do not consciously or intentionally discriminate, therefore the negative feeling underlying
their attitudes is likely to influence behaviour in subtle, unconscious, and unintentional ways.
Aversive racism was described for the first time in 1986 by Gaertner, S.L., and J.F. Dovidio, and in the
following years a wealth of studies addressed aversive disablism, sexism, etc.
The UAV partners have experience in detecting texts, images, attitudes related to aversive forms of
discrimination and wish to explore the different forms aversive discrimination may incarnate so to give
those who are active in adult education, as providers or recipients, the possibility to analyse their own
attitudes and those of the institutions they work in or they attend.
The partners followed the following approach: after comparing and discussing the literature in the
respective fields, established indicators to be used jointly to identify learning material related to
aversive discrimination, to be read in a critical perspective, commenting the possible interest of the
text for future readers interested in the topic.
Then the partners established a first list of texts that could constitute a base for those interested in
learning about aversive discrimination, with a specific focus on aversive sexism, heterosexism and
disablism.
The texts read and discussed by all the partners, expanded their vision to other types of discrimination
they are less familiar with.
The assumption at the basis of this path e that the experience of the partners in the respective field of
discrimination and their willingness to activate a process of mutual recognition and confrontation will
contribute to a final output written by those who experience discrimination and aversive discrimination
in their daily lives.
The motto “Nothing About Us Without Us” relies on the principle of participation, and it has been used
throughout the years as part of the global movement of people with disabilities to achieve the full
participation and equalization of opportunities for, by and with persons with disabilities.
The Partners applied this motto to all the groups involved in the Learning Partnership, putting into
practice the principle of full participation because it can contribute to the development of truly inclusive
societies, in which all voices are heard and each citizen can help in shaping a better world for all.
The project was seen as an opportunity to foster changes in attitudes towards groups who have often
been disadvantaged in the past and are still often discriminated, even if in more indirect ways, and
eliminate barriers to their full participation in all aspects of life.
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What to read to learn about Aversive Discrimination
The work done by the partners consisted in first making a list of documents, books, articles related to
specific aspects of aversive discrimination.
Representatives of each partner then read and commented those documents suggested by the others,
so to widen their perspectives also on other types of discrimination.
What you find in the next pages is a list of the documents that were considered interesting and
informative.
Some of these documents are available on the Internet, while some others are chapters of books or
articles published on scientific journals.
It has been preferred to select few texts, focused on the topics addressed in UAV. Further on in this
document you find a general bibliography, including more texts mentioned by the partners.
In general, aversive discrimination is still confused with overt discrimination, and it has been difficult,
even for the partners, to keep a strict division between the two types. Of course the fact that it is
“aversive” contributes to this fact. Moreover, it has been evident that, at least for some to the NGOs
involved (namely CERPA and Arcilesbica) the current information material available on discrimination
is still focused on overt discrimination.
One of the best in direct results of the project has been the decision to start producing new information
material focused on the aversive aspects of discrimination.
Aversive Discrimination
Aversive Discrimination
Mummendey, Amelie and Sabine, Otten. Rupert Brown und Sam Gaertner (ed.). Blackwell Handbook
Psychology: Intergroup Processes. Chapter 6. Oxford 2001. 112 – 132.
of
Social
This book might be useful since it offers an accurate definition of the term “discrimination” by
distinguishing it from “differentiation” and “social categorization”. Besides, it focuses on “dissent” as a
crucial element to define a discriminatory phenomenon as such. It could be useful to discuss with the
partners about the ways to show dissent in regards to discrimination and also to understand in which
ways dissent may be effective in order to fight aversive discrimination.1
Limits and potential of the concept of indirect discrimination
European Commission.. Chapter 3 and 4. Luxembourg 2008. 27-47
The concept of indirect discrimination is the key to disclose the very discriminatory nature of
provisions which seem to rely on an apparently neutral ground and which are not based on an
objective justification. These measures, practices and criteria are considered as a form of Aversive
Discrmination, because, although formulated in terms which wouldn’t break any anti-discriminatory
law, they are intended to put certain people at a particular disadvantages due to the presumed lack
of requirements and so creating the cultural and material conditions for discrimination.
“The concept of indirect discrimination is the key to disclose the very discriminatory nature of
1
In Italics you find a selection of comments made by the partners when reading the texts
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provisions which seem to rely on an apparently neutral ground and which are not based on an
objective justification. These measures, practices and criteria are considered as a form of Aversive
Discrmination, because, although formulated in terms which wouldn’t break any anti-discriminatory
law, they are intended to put certain people at a particular disadvantages due to the presumed lack of
requirements and so creating the cultural and material conditions for discrimination.”
Equal
opportunities for all
transnational cooperation
( 16/02/2009 )
- Delivering
the
Lisbon Strategy
through social innovation and
Catalog N. : KE-81-08-421-EN-C Pages 20-41
“The European Union’s EQUAL initiative aims to improve people’s working lives and help them access
jobs by fighting discrimination and exclusion on the basis of gender, racial or ethnic origin, religion
or belief, disability, age or sexual orientation. Funded through the European Social Fund (ESF), EQUAL
was being implemented in, and between, the EU Member States up until 2008. This brochure provides
an introduction to EQUAL and presents the achievements and the strategic lessons learned from the
initiative under its five main themes:increasing employability, encouraging inclusive entrepreneurship,
facilitating adaptability, promoting gender equality and integrating asylum seekers. The brochure
also looks at how the ESF will continue in the years ahead to support innovation and good practice
regarding employment and social inclusion.”
Aversive Disablism
Attitudes of disabled people toward other disabled people and impairment groups
Mark Deal
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
At City University, London
Health Care Research Unit, School of Nursing and Midwifery
April 2006
“Ph.D thesis of Mark Deal. He was the first to speak about aversive disablism and his work gives a
general idea about the changes occurred in the last years in the field.
Introduction
Gives a general description of the whole thesis, useful for those who will not read it all.
Sketches the general terms of the debates in the field.
Explains the mix of personal and lived experience who lead to the research.
Chapter 2
Impairment and disability do not have a unique meaning. Different theories and perspectives use them
in different senses. In this chapter it is easy to understand the main differences and to understand the
basic differences between the medical and social model of disability. The social model is not a fixed
one, and in the chapter is possible to understand some of the criticisms made to it in recent years.
Chapter 3
This chapter is important because explains the meaning of the term “attitude” that to me is important
in connection with the concept of discrimination. It will help in identifying which are our attitudes.
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Another important topic is “the hierarchy of impairment”, useful for those who are not conversant with
disability related issues.
I think this chapter could raise an interesting debate with experts on sexism and homophobia, as it
seems to me that many of the concepts described in it can be applied also to these other discriminations.
Chapter 4
This chapter is interesting mainly to raise a debate among the experts, as the personal attitudes, beliefs
and reactions described in it can be cross-analysed with similar attitudes etc, in relation to being a
woman (in a discriminatory living environment) and / or having a different sexual orientation.
1. Chapter 1 “Contents include concepts such as approval of one’own sexual orientation; gender
identity and internalized homophobia.
2. Chapter 2 To Express positive attitudes toward disabled people; omosexuality doesn’t exclude
prejudices and refusal of any form of discrimination.
Negative attitudes towards people of other groups (for example: transexual people) may still
represent a problem
3. Chapter 3 Both meanings of impairment and/or disparity certainly depend on social contexts
and on individuals’ self-confidence and awareness but also rely on how the experts succeed in making
disabled people’s experiences come out.
It is important to highlight the differences between the two terms “impairment” and “disparity”,
because the second one represents an oppression modelled on social conventions and it isn’t strictly
related to individuals. This chapter, which is a theoretical and almost epistemological reflection, might
be considered as an exhortation for our researches: regarding disability there’s no need for social
ransom, but there’s a strong urge for “functionalities”.
It is really important, in order to bring forwards these researches, to focus on case studies regarding
aversive discrimination and descriptions of personal experiences, avoiding abstract thoughts and
expressions.
Disablism: How to tackle the last prejudice
Paul Miller, Sophia Parker, Sarah Gillinson. DEMOS, 2004 Introduction, Chapters 1 and 3
Disablism blights our society. From getting an education to getting around, building a career to becoming
a parent, going out with friends to using the internet, disabled people face many more challenges than
their non-disabled fellow citizens and are routinely discriminated against and excluded. Nobody could
seriously suggest that disabled people should have fewer opportunities than nondisabled people but
somehow we find ourselves in a situation where the reality, as lived by disabled people today, would
suggest otherwise.
Disability as a masquerade
Tobin Siebers
Literature and Medicine 23, no. 1 (Spring 2004) 1–22
© 2004 by The Johns Hopkins University Press
I found the text challenging, filled with convincing arguments concerning the different purposes of
masquerade aimed at claiming disability rather than concealing it. As Siebers points out, “exaggerating
or performing difference, when that difference is a stigma, marks one as a target, but it also exposes
and resists the prejudices of society. The masquerade fulfills a desire to tell a story about disability,
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often the very story that society does not want to hear because it refuses to obey the ideology of ablebodiedness” (p. 19). Siebers expands on this thesis by listing and explaining the different forms of
masquerade as examples of undermining one of “the constitutive markers of oppression”, the “inability
to disclose.
Concerning the epistemology of the closet Siebers draws parallels between queer theory and theory
on disability but distances himself fom these parallels at the same time. Like Hedgwick he “hesitate[s]
about the wholesale equivalence of passing with regard to disability and homosexuality” but presents
a different argument: In his opinion, “disability passing presents forms of legibility and illegibility that
alter the logic of the closet” (p.4). But has it not also been true in history for LGBT to create these forms
of legibility and illegibility which alter the logic of the closet and, as an effect, undermine the structures
of oppression?
Moreover, there is the tendency in the text to put disability next to homosexuality which is a dangerous
undertaking. Although it is of course not Sieber’s intention of repeating right-wing stereotypes and
rhetorical forms of oppression against LGBT, one must be aware of the political background of, for
example, Nazi Germany or the Vichi government (or right-wing parties of today) when this connection
served right-wing ideology. Besides, is Siebers really correct when he repeats Esther Newton saying
that, for example, “drag queens represent the ‘stigma of the gay world’ because they make the stigma
most visible” (p. 17)? Is it not true that the performances of drag queens are a form of liberation, of
letting go, of political and cultural critique, of self-independence, etc.?
Aversive Heterosexism
Understanding heterosexism at work…
I think this chapter is very clear and worth to be read. It clearly explains topics such as the different
between homophobia and heterosexism, in a way that can be easily understood by those who are not
confident with the topic.
The contrast between prejudice and phobia can be helpful when speaking about aversive attitudes,
since many people discriminating in an aversive way do it not because of phobic attitudes, but mainly
on the basis of prejudices (and often stereotypes).
“The text might be useful as focuses on the concepts of “Homophobia” and “Heterosexism” by analyzing
in a plain and detailed way unconscious heterosexism: its features, similarities and differences to other
kinds of –ism, especially “racism”. Moreover it is helpful to understand how aversive heterosexism
dynamics may affect any social and cultural context ecpecially the educational one which is the real
subject of our partnership. So it is possible to make comparisons to understand which are the dynamics
that can affect the educational contexts of adult people.”
Toward a Multidimensional Understanding of Heterosexism: The Changing Nature of Prejudice
WALLS N.E. (2008), Toward a Multidimensional Understanding of Heterosexism: The Changing Nature of Prejudice,
Journal of Homosexuality, Vol. 55 (1) (2008)
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Extending the theoretical understanding of modern prejudice into the realm of heterosexism, it is argued
that shifts in the manifestation of prejudice against lesbians and gay men have occurred resulting in an
increasingly multidimensional modern heterosexism. Four subdomains of modern heterosexism are
identified that are conceptually and empirical distinct from the more traditional hostile heterosexism:
aversive heterosexism, amnestic heterosexism, paternalistic heterosexism, and positive stereotypic
heterosexism. The Multidimensional Heterosexism Inventory is offered as an instrument to capture the
four theorized subdomains of modern heterosexism, and an examination of reliability and validity of
the scale is presented.
Not ‘just’ a friend
Best practice guidance on health care for lesbian, gay and bisexual service users and their families
Royal College of Nursing & UNISON
For the best health outcomes, health care workers and service users need a relationship of trust. Good
communication and confidence are essential. The NHS Plan commits to a principle of equal access to
and equity of treatment in health care services.
The experience of many lesbian, gay and bisexual service users currently falls far short of this.
Research in recent years shows that most lesbian, gay and bisexual people do not have the necessary
confidence to be open about their sexuality, even when it may be relevant to their health care. They
fear hostile and judgmental reactions. Indeed, they may actually experience hostile and judgmental
reactions if they do come out. Also, health care workers sometimes fail to recognise same sex partners
and their families, isolating service users from the support and involvement in their care that can make
all the difference.
But there has been a steady build up of good practice in some areas. This guidance from UNISON and
the RCN, which has been endorsed by the Chartered Society of Physiotherapy, College of Occupational
Therapists, Royal College of Midwives and Society of Radiographers, provides information to health
care workers on how health services can give confidence to lesbian, gay and bisexual service users.
It is not about giving special treatment – it is part of the growing recognition in the NHS of the need
to respond to changes in society, including family structures, and apply an understanding of cultural
diversity when delivering health care.
Many of the principles in this guidance also apply to best practice in the care of transgender service
users, but the issues are not all the same. Details of where to get advice on transgender issues are
included at the end.
Not ‘just’ a friend best practice guidance on health care for lesbian, gay and bisexual service users
and their families Royal College of Nursing & UNISON: although this document is focused on health
services, it can be interesting in any sector
Diversity in Europe (website in five languages)
www.diversity-in-europe.org (in five languages)
I think that the project is very well done and it could be a point of reference for our activities, trying to
understand if what has been done for teen agers can have some contact point in our case.
For example, the survey done with the teachers in order to understand their needs seems to me
applicable with minor changes also to adults working in aduld education and in employment services.
The parallel can be established also in relation to disablism and to sexism.”
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Aversive Sexism
Evaluating Measures of Contemporary Sexism
Bernadette Campbell, E. Glenn Schellenberg, and Charlene Y. Senn University of Windsor
Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21 (1997), 89-102. Printed in the United States of America.
Abstract Two recently published measures of contemporary sexist attitudes were examined and
compared with a sample of 106 Canadian college students. Swim, Aikin, Hall, and Hunter’s (1995)
Modern Sexism scale was found to be an acceptable measure of sexist attitudes in terms of its internal
reliability and its ability to predict other gender-related political attitudes. Although the Modern Sexism
scale and the Neosexism scale (Tougas, Brown, Beaton, & Joly, 1995) were equally good at predicting
support for the feminist movement and attitudes toward lesbians and gay men, the Neosexism scale
had better internal reliability and exhibited stronger gender differences. Moreover, the Neosexism scale
was superior at predicting value orientations relevant to modern prejudices.
The Perils of Political Correctness: Men’s and Women’s Responses to Old-Fashioned and Modern
Sexist Views
Manuela Barreto, Naomi Ellemers
Leiden University
Social Psychology Quarterly
2005, Vol. 68, No. 1, 75-88
In this study we examined the responses of male and female research participants to information about
he endorsement of either old-fashioned or modern sexist views by a sample of either men or women.
We predicted that expressions of modern sexism may seem unobjectionable but can have negative
consequences. Moreover, they can impair behavioural responses and therefore remain unchallenged.
The results show that female participants in particular were relatively disinclined to recognize
expressions of modern sexism as prejudicial. Furthermore while old-fashioned sexist views generally
elicited hostility, exposure to modem sexist opinions evoked anxiety in female participants, while
it decreased anxiety among male participants. We conclude that modern forms of prejudice may
prove perilous: although they may undermine the self, they seem inoffensive and as a result remain
unchallenged.
Intersectionality
Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination
Doctrine, Feminist Theory, and Antiracist Politics
Crenshaw, Kimberlé. 1989.
University of Chicago Legal Forum 1989:139–67.
One of the very few Black women’s studies books is entitled All the Women are White, All the Blacks Are
Men, but some of Us Are Brave. I have chosen this title as a point of departure in my efforts to develop a
Black feminist criticism because it sets forths a problematic consequence of the tendency to treat race
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and gender as mutually exclusive categories of experience and analysis. In this essay I want to examine
how this tendency is perpetuated by a single – axis framework that is dominant in antidiscrimination
law and that is also reflected in feminist theory and antiracist politics.
Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of Color
Crenshaw, Kimberlé. 1991.
Stanford Law Review 43(6):1241–79
Over the last two decades, women have organized against the almost routine violence that shapes
their lives. Drawing from the strength of shared experience, women have recognized that the political
demands of millions speak more powerfully than the pleas of a few isolated voices. This politicization
in turn has transformed the way we understand violence against women. For example, battering and
rape, once seen as private (family matters) and aberrational (errant sexual aggression), are now largely
recognized as part of a broad-scale system of domination that affects women as a class. This process
of recognizing as social and systemic what was formerly perceived as isolated and individual has also
characterized the identity politics of people of color and gays and lesbians, among others. For all these
groups, identity-based politics has been a source of strength, community, and intellectual development.
The two texts of Crenshaw are important as they represent the starting point for intersectionality.
Therefore they should be read before reading any other text onthis topic, as they are continuously
quoted in later articles an books.
The Complexity of Intersectionality
Leslie Mc Call
Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 2005, vol. 30, no. 3
Since critics first alleged that feminism claimed to speak universally for all women, feminist researchers
have been acutely aware of the limitations of gender as a single analytical category. In fact, feminists
are perhaps alone in the academy in the extent to which they have embraced intersectionality—the
relationships among multiple dimensions and modalities of social relations and subject formations—
as itself a central category of analysis. One could even say that intersectionality is the most important
theoretical contribution that women’s studies, in conjunction with related fields, has made so far…….
Disability and Gender: Reflections on Theory and Research
Carol Thomas
Institute For Health Research, Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK
Scandinavian Journal of Disability Research
Vol. 8, No. 2_3, 177_185, 2006
ABSTRACT This paper reviews theory and research on disability and gender from a UK perspective. It
reflects upon the theoretical perspectives and debates that are to be found in UK disability studies today,
and considers their relevance for research on the gendered nature of disability. Themes in empirical
research are noted, as is the representation and treatment of disability in mainstream feminism(s). The
paper warns about the danger of exclusion through nominal inclusion.
Although this text is not directly related to intersectionality, it addresses disability AND gender issues,
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and it worth to be read as these two topics are less frequently addressed than gender AND race or
gender AND heterosexuality.
Miscellanea
The following texts do not refer directly to aversive discrimination, but are interesting as a basis and
integration of the concepts addressed in UAV.
A Diversity Toolkit
For factual programmes in public service television
© European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA), 2007.
http://fra.europa.eu
The role of NGOs and Trade Unions in Combating Discrimination
European Commission
Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities
Unit G4
Manuscript completed in September 2009
http://ec.europa.eu/progress
Poverty and Women’s Labor Market Activity
the Role of Gender Wage Discrimination in the EU
Carlos Gradín, Coral del Río, Olga Cantó
Universidade de Vigo
ECINEQ WP 2006 – 40 Society for the Study of Economic Inequality
www.ecineq.org
Abstract
The functioning of the labor market often has been stressed as a clear determinant in explaining
poverty trends in developed countries. In this paper, we analyze the role of gender wage discrimination
on household poverty rates in several EU countries, linking two related phenomena that rarely are
analyzed together. In order to quantify the impact of discrimination on poverty, we propose the
construction of a counterfactual distribution of wages where discrimination against women has been
removed. Using this new wage distribution, we compute total household income and compare poverty
rates in the absence of discrimination to those actually observed. Our results show that, in general, it is
true that discrimination against women plays a determinant role in the current levels of poverty, even if
we discover that results for each country present a different pattern and intensity. Further, we find that
the effect of discrimination on poverty risk dramatically increases for individuals in households who
largely depend on working female earnings, especially in the case of single mothers.
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Equality Mainstreaming
ILGA-Europe, 2007
Mainstreaming is one concept that since the 1990’s has gained popularity in international spheres. The
United Nations1, the Council of Europe2 and the European Commission3 have been developing gender
mainstreaming with more of less success for some time. The term non-discrimination mainstreaming is
now used at the European Union level to include other groups, which have been discriminated against,
amongst which lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) people.4 This factsheet will look at equality
mainstreaming (as going beyond the anti-discrimination framework to achieve equality in practice).
After defining the term equality mainstreaming, it will highlight why this methodology is important
and what are the conditions for it to work. Finally some sample questions and recommendations are
given to contribute to the process of equality mainstreaming for policy-makers.
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und Konzepte. 2007. p. 52-63.
Petersen, Lars-Eric und Bernd Six 8Hrsg.). Stereotype, Vorurteile und soziale Diskriminierung. 2008.
Journal of LGBT Youth. The performance of homophobia in early adolescents’ everyday speech. p.
Journal of LGBT Youth. The role of stigma concealment in the high school experiences of gay, lesbian, and bisexual
individuals. p.
Journal of LGBT Youth. School Experiences of Sexual Minority Youth. A Qualitative Study. p.
Pettigrew/Trapp. A meta-analytic Test of Intergroup Contact Theorie”. www.disstudies.org
Antidiskriminierungsstelle des Bundes. Forschungsprojekt‚Diskriminierung im Alltag Wahrnehmung von Diskriminierung
und Antidiskriminierungspolitik in unserer Gesellschaft.’ Heidelberg 2008.
Council of Europe Publishing. Prejudices and social representation. In: Discrimination against women with disabilities.
Chapter 6. p 42 – 43.
Council of Europe Publishing. General recommendations. In: Discrimination against women with disabilities. Chapter
12.1 p. 49 – 51.
Council of Europe Publishing. Specific recommendations. In: Discrimination against women with disabilities. Chapter
12.2 p. 51 – 59.
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Council of Europe Publishing. Legislation to counter discrimination against persons with disabilities, 2nd
Appendix 1: Various aspects of discrimination: reflections of the working group. P 129 – 133.
Gaertner, Samuel L. and Dovidio, John F. Aversive Racism and Intergroup Biases.
In: Reducing Intergroup Bias. Chapter 2. p. 13 – 33.
edition.
Seminar für Auszubildende an der Johannes Gutenberg-Universität: Ausgrenzung,
Diskriminierung, Zivilcourage. p 17 – 20
Bindman, Geoffrey. Proof and Evidence of Discrimination. In: Discrimination: The Limits of Law. Ed. Bob Hebble and
Erika M. Szyszczak. Chapter 4. p. 50 – 66.
Szyszczak, Erika. Race Discrimination: The Limits of Market Equality? In: Discrimination: The Limits of Law. Ed. Bob
Hebble and Erika M. Szyszczak. Chapter 8. p. 125 - 147.
Atkins, Susan. Teaching and Research: Where Should We Be Going? In: Discrimination: The Limits
Hebble and Erika M. Szyszczak. Chapter 22 p. 435 - 455.
Journal of homosexuality
of
Law. Ed. Bob
Toward a multidimensional Understanding of Heterosexism: the changing natur of prejudice
N. Eugene Walls
Journal of Homosexuality, Vol. 55(1) 2008
Sexual Orientation and Education Politics
Gay and Lesbian Representation in American Schools
Kenneth D. Wald; Barbara A. Rienzo; James W. Button
Journal of Homosexuality, 1540-3602, Volume 42, Issue 4, 2002, Pages 145 – 168
Gay and Lesbian Perceptions of Discrimination in Retirement Care Facilities
Michael J. Johnson; Nick C. Jackson; J. Kenneth Arnette; Steven D. Koffman
result Journal of Homosexuality, 1540-3602, Volume 49, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 83 – 102
Telling Tales in School
A Queer Response to the Heterosexist Narrative Structure of Higher Education
Sean P. O’Connell
Evaluating the Phobias, Attitudes, and Cultural Competence of Master of Social Work Students Toward the LGBT
Populations
Carmen Logie; Tana J. Bridge; Patrick D. Bridge
College Students’ Attitudes About Lesbians
What Difference Does 16 Years Make?
Bernie Sue Newman
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College Students’ Views on Gay and Lesbian Issues
Does Education Make a Difference?
Eric G. Lambert; Lois A. Ventura; Daniel E. Hall; Terry Cluse-Tolar
Journal of gay and lesbian social services
Anti-Homophobia Education in Public Schooling: A Canadian Case Study of Policy Implementation
Tara Goldstein; Anthony Collins; Michael Halder
Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 1540-4056, Volume 19, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 47 – 66
Discrimination Against Gay Men, Lesbians, and Transgender People Working in Education
Jude Irwin
Social Work Education and Sexual Orientation:
Faculty, Student, and Curriculum Issues
Romel Mackelprang; JoAnn Ray; Maria Hernandez-Peck
Why Queer Theory is Useful in Teaching
A Perspective from English as a Second Language Teaching
Cynthia D. Nelson
Group Organization Management
Heterosexism in the Workplace: Do Race And Gender Matter?
Ragins et al. Group Organization Management.2003; 28: 45-74
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Arcilesbica, Italy
Social situation of LGBT in Europe
Discrimination on the grounds of sexual orientation is prohibited by Article 13 of the EC Treaty and
the EU’s Charter of Fundamental Rights. However, the current social situation for lesbians, gay men,
bisexuals, transsexuals and transgender (LGBT) persons in the European Union remains difficult.
In June 2007 the European Parliament asked the EU Fundamental Rights Agency (FRA) to develop
a comparative report on homophobia and sexual orientation discrimination in the EU Member
States1. According to the evidence provided in the report, LGBT persons in Europe experience
homophobia, transphobia and discrimination in different forms, including direct as well as indirect
discrimination, and homophobic and transphobic bullying and harassment. This often takes the
form of demeaning or derogatory statements, name calling, insults or the use of abusive language.
Moreover, the occurrence of verbal and physical attacks against LGBT persons has been detected
in all the Member States.
Anyway this report doesn’t reveal any specific study about the modern discrimination aspects
which are the object of study of the present partnership UAV.
Traditional forms of discrimination affects the lives of LGBT persons in different ways. From the
earliest year groups, derogatory words for gays and lesbians are used at schools. At the workplace,
harassment can be an everyday occurrence. Partners in a relationship often lack the ability to
secure themselves to one another as full legal partners. At retirement homes awareness of LGBT
persons’ needs can be nonexistent. Negative attitudes toward LGBT people were identified in all
Member States of the EU.
Some EU citizens report that they would be uncomfortable having a homosexual as a friend,
colleague or neighbour. Some would also be uncomfortable with a relative forming a relationship
with a transgender person. Some consider LGBT persons ineligible to work as teachers. Some do
not think LGBT persons should be visible in public spaces. And some believe that homosexuality is
an illness that should be treated medically.
The report shows that the ‘invisibility’ of LGBT persons in various sectors of EU society is a prominent
issue. The fact that many LGBT persons are not open about their status may mean that incidents of
experienced or perceived discrimination are not reflected in statistics or do not reach the authorities,
as they are not reported or filed as part of complaints for legal review. Furthermore this study shows
that many LGBT persons adopt a strategy of invisibility due to, among other things, the fear of
homophobia, transphobia and discrimination. Again, this strategy, as well as a lack of awareness of
rights, prevents LGBT persons from reporting incidents of experienced discrimination. This picture
correlates with the finding of the majority of National Equality Bodies that the number of reported
sexual orientation discrimination cases is low compared to other grounds of discrimination. These
factors contribute to making discrimination against LGBT persons less visible and the extent
difficult to determine. Homophobia, transphobia and discrimination have been identified in this
study as phenomena which exclude LGBT citizens from full participation in social and political life.
1
“Homophobia and Discrimination on Grounds of Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity in the EU Member
States: Part II - The Social Situation”
http://fra.europa.eu/fraWebsite/attachments/FRA_hdgso_report_Part%202_en.pdf
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The report shows that discrimination and homophobia disadvantage LGBT persons in all areas of
social life, for example:
• Hate crime against LGBT persons is a prevalent phenomenon that affects LGBT persons in various
ways in all the Member States. A low reporting rate ensures a lack of correlation between official
figures and actual hate incidents.
• In recent years bans or administrative impediments have blocked the organisation of peaceful,
public LGBT demonstrations in some Member States, and there have been several incidents of
violent attacks on LGBT parades and demonstrations.
• Examples of homophobic speech are found in the media, at times articulated by prominent
political or religious figures.
• LGBT families face unique challenges because of societal stigma and the lack of institutional
recognition of their relationships.
• LGBT persons are subject to homophobia and discrimination in the labour market in a number of
ways: direct discrimination, harassment, bullying, ridicule and being socially ‘frozen out’.
• Incidents of bullying and harassment of LGBT persons are found in educational settings across the
EU, not least in the form of verbal homophobia, with words for gay men, lesbians or transgender
persons used as pejorative terms.
• Incidents of LGBT discrimination are found in health care. Negative experiences include sexual
orientation being labelled as a disturbance or a sickness and the assumption that clients or patients
are heterosexual by default.
• LGBT persons face particular difficulties in the process of seeking asylum.
Official data on discrimination is collected only in a few Member States and only within specific
areas. There is a significant lack of both academic research and unofficial NGO data regarding
homophobia, transphobia and discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation and gender
identity in many Member States and at the EU level. Existing data from research carried out in
various national contexts rely on different methodologies making made it difficult to develop a
comparative analysis on the extent of discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation and gender
identity across the EU in all the areas relating to LGBT persons.
The data gap analysis shows that there is a profound lack of quantitative and qualitative research
and statistics on all the thematic areas covered in this report. The area which appears to be most
commonly researched concerns attitudes towards LGBT persons. The areas of hate crime and hate
speech, access to health care, labour market and education, have been afforded some research
attention in some Member States. However, transgender issues, multiple discrimination, religion,
freedom of assembly, asylum and sports appear to be profoundly under-researched in all EU Member
States.
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Modern prejudice against LGBT people: the origin of a concept
and examples in the field of adult education
Since the 1970s have spread the theories that racial attitudes in the U.S. were changing. In fact
traditionally hostile forms of racism were being replaced by more subtle forms of attitudes
continuing to support discriminations based on race and ethnicity, even if they appeared to be
less “racist.”
Among these new attitudes there were beliefs that discrimination belonged to the past and, for
example, African Americans were making irrational demands in order to attract much attention in
the media with the concept of “race”.
The various conceptualizations of modern racism have gone by several names like symbolic racism,
aversive racism, modern racism, and subtle racism.
More or less a decade later, the emergence of a debate about modern racism began to take place
in the realm of prejudicial attitudes about gender. The central point was the development of a
number of instruments conceived to confine modern sexism.
Some theorists argued that the modern racism was the result of the modification of the norms
about the expressions of prejudice, while others attributed its appearance to both hostile and
benevolent attitudes toward women. For instance, instead of believing that women are inferior
to men, modern sexists could claim that women’s gentle nature makes them not suitable for
leadership positions, or that women went too far in their demands for equality.
Examining the study of modern prejudice in the arenas of race and gender, this multidimensional
understanding of prejudicial attitudes can be extended into the realm of sexual orientation2.
Hostile heterosexism
The term hostile heterosexism was adopted to denote the existing conceptualization of
homophobia as negative myths, attitudes, and beliefs about lesbian and gay persons. Specifically,
hostile heterosexism is defined as negative attitudes, myths and beliefs that function by denying,
denigrating, stigmatizing and/or segregating any nonheterosexual form of behaviour, identity,
relationship, or community (Walls, 2008).
This definition captures the traditional set of cognitive and affective components that are
characterized by their aggressive, hostile nature. Hostile heterosexists may believe, for example,
that gay men are paedophiles, or that lesbians hate men.
Many surveys3 put in evidence the existence of hostile heterosexism in educational and formative
2
WALLS N.E. (2008), Toward a Multidimensional Understanding of Heterosexism: The Changing Nature of
Prejudice, Journal of Homosexuality, Vol. 55 (1) (2008)
3
We are referring in particular to the article of Jude Irwin “Discrimination Against Gay Men, Lesbians, and
Transgender People Working in Education” in Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 1540-4056, Volume 14,
Issue 2, 2002, Pages 65 – 77
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contests, in particular towards lesbian and gay adolescents and towards the teachers as well.
Among the principal behaviours of traditional homophobia actuated in educational contests there
are:
•
Homophobic “jokes”;
•
psychological and physical abuse;
•
destruction of objects belonging to the victim;
•
harassment ;
•
sabotage actions;
•
minimization and ridiculing of other people’s work;
•
excessive expectations.
These behaviours are generally provoked by the peers: by students or, in case of gay and lesbian
teachers, by the same colleagues, by the students or their parents, rarely by their superiors.
These behaviours have negative effect upon on the personal life and on the professional
performance of the offended person, for example: increasing stress, depression, illness, loss of
self confidence, alcohol or drug abuse, suicide attempts, a major incidence of medical visits and
psychological consultations, attitude of excessive vigilance, self exclusion from social relationships
and isolation.
Here are some examples:
“I found that my closet was completely destroyed, I receive anonymous phone calls and e-mails…”
“I was continually asked about my sexuality, my sexual orientation was proclaimed without
reservation and some colleagues don’t talk to me anymore…” .
Paternalistic heterosexism
Paternalistic heterosexism is defined as subjectively neutral or positive attitudes, myths and beliefs
that express concern for the physical, emotional or cognitive well-being of nonheterosexual persons
while at the same time denying, denigrating, stigmatizing and/or segregating any nonheterosexual
form of behaviour, identity, relationship, or community.
Individuals may express this set of cognitive and affective components toward lesbians and gay
men as a conceptual social group or as concern for specific lesbian or gay individuals. In addition
to concern, this conceptualization also necessitates an indication of preference for heterosexuality.
The paternalistic heterosexist may endorse a “live and let live” attitude about gay and lesbian coworkers, for example, but would be “concerned” about having a lesbian or gay child.
Because the paternalistic heterosexist would desire to avoid being labelled homophobic, their
concern would most likely be couched in terms of protecting their child (or other paternalistic
target) from the unfair social realities that lesbians and gay men (potentially) face.
I’d prefer my daughter wasn’t a lesbian, because in this case we’d have to face discriminations.
I’d prefer my son wasn’t a gay, because he couldn’t marry the man he loves.
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In the educational or professional environment the concern for any discrimination or violence
towards a homosexual individual or group might become a form of discouragement from:
-
lesbian and gay visibility... and from one of the most efficient instruments to overcome
homosexuality stereotypes ;
-
suggesting the introduction of lesbian and gay themes, even if considered essential... and
from positive actions to achieve a substantial equality;
It will be better if you don’t declare to be a lesbian at that course…you know, other students may
tell it to the others!
There’s nothing wrong in homosexuality,
But I’d prefer you didn’t come out with your colleagues,
You’d be ruined.
I’d prefer you didn’t propose to your colleagues
a seminar about healthy needs of gays and lesbians…
they could fool you and they could be against you.
-
employment of lesbians and gays in certain professions or courses of studies because
considered particularly at risk of homophobic discrimination and violence…and so stopping the
achievement of the equal opportunities;
-
starting some courses of studies because considered “for gays” or “for lesbians” with the
fear that a person could be perceived (rightly or wrongly) as a lesbian or as a gay and so unjustly
discriminated… and so maintaining a stereotyped vision about homosexuality.
It will be better if gays and lesbians weren’t teachers…their colleagues will destroy them with
their homophobic jokes.
It will be better if you didn’t attend a course for hair dressers/ mechanical technician. Everyone
could believe you are a gay/lesbian.
Positive stereotypic heterosexism
Positive stereotypic heterosexism is defined as subjectively positive attitudes, myths and beliefs that
express appreciation of stereotypic characteristics often attributed to lesbians and gay men which
function by denying, denigrating, stigmatizing and/or segregating any nonheterosexual form of
behaviour, identity, relationship, or community.
Positive stereotypic heterosexism reinforces stereotypes, albeit with a focus on alleged or factual
appreciation for the stereotypic characteristic(s). Beliefs that gay men are creative or that lesbians
are more independent than heterosexual women, for example, would fall into this domain.
Positive Stereotypic Heterosexism sub domain included items such as:
Gays are fond of their own self care.
Gays are devoted to take care of the others.
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Positive stereotypes connected to lesbianism and to male homosexuality, as to the gender, can
maintain unchanged a distorted vision of homosexuality, and in particular carry the message
according to which sexual orientation doesn’t end with same-sex attraction, but it determines
individual attitudes and characteristics or social abilities.
In the educational and professional environment this form of discrimination, like the benevolent
sexism, could exercise a kind of influence on the educational or professional individual choices as
well as evaluations.
Gay students are more talented for subjects like arts, music and literature.
I went to the hair dresser’s: He’s fantastic, even if He isn’t a gay.
Lesbians are more independent than heterosexual women.
In case of an aggression lesbians can defend themselves better than heterosexuals.
Lesbians are among the best football players
Apathetic heterosexism
Apathetic heterosexism was defined as attitudes, myths, and beliefs that dismiss or trivialize the
importance of sexual orientation on life chances by denying, denigrating, stigmatizing, and/or
segregating any nonheterosexual form of behavior, identity, relationship, or community.
Apathetic heterosexism believes that homosexuals do not face discrimination, that the lesbian/gay
rights movement is pushing “special rights,” and the use of the language of “reverse discrimination”
have been part of the political framing used by conservatives opposing political advances on
behalf of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender persons.
In the educational environment:
If a movie screening about homosexuality is organised, it should be organised for heterosexuality
as well!
It’s a discrimination towards heterosexual people to promote an educational programme focusing
on homophobic bullying.
Amnestic heterosexism
Amnestic heterosexism denies the existence of discrimination and is defined as attitudes, myths and
beliefs that deny the impact of sexual orientation on life chances by denying, denigrating, stigmatizing
and/or segregating any nonheterosexual form of behavior, identity, relationship, or community.
The amnestic heterosexist suggests that discrimination is a thing of the past, and that lesbians
and gay men are treated fairly in contemporary society. The amnestic heterosexist may be making
these claims out of ignorance, out of refusal to acknowledge factual information, or even out of life
experience where they see many successful lesbians and gay men.
Discriminations against gays and lesbians don’t exist anymore!
The majority of people behaves toward lesbians as toward the others.
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It’s a long time that none discriminates homosexuals.
Gays have the same opportunities as heterosexuals.
In the educational and professional environment this can be translated into the negation of the
necessity of an education aiming to face the specific requirements of lesbians and gays, and so to
achieve the overcoming of eventual discriminations against them.
That education for the personnel of human resources is something old.
Today lesbians and gays aren’t discriminated in job places anymore!
I don’t understand the aim of educating teachers about the homophobic bullying. Youth are
treated all in the same way!
Aversive heterosexism
For aversive heterosexism, the following definition was developed: attitudes, myths, and beliefs that
dismiss, belittle, or disregard the impact of sexual orientation on life chances by denying, denigrating,
stigmatizing and/or segregating any nonheterosexual form of behaviour, identity, relationship, or
community.
Aversive heterosexism has a similar negative valence to hostile heterosexism, but rather than
using rhetoric that relies on the traditional negative stereotypes of lesbians and gay men (mentally
ill, perverse, paedophile, etc.), and concerns about morality, the aversive heterosexist is much
more likely to couch their anti-gay arguments in less inflammatory language. They will argue that
the lesbian and gay movement is wanting too much, too fast, an attitude similar to many in the
1960s who opposed the integration of African Americans in the U.S. South as being forced and
not evolving “naturally.” Additionally, they may claim that too much attention is given to issues of
lesbian and gay sexuality.
In the educational environment aversive heterosexism can be translated into ambivalent
expressions which, if on one hand legitimate homosexuality on a par with other sexual orientations;
on the other hand tend to prevent from performing positive actions to achieve a full equality, for
example:
To perform educational courses for health personnel about elderly gay or lesbian people is an
excessive request;
It’s premature to involve the school in this project about sexual orientation;
It’s exaggerated to foresee educational programmes to accomplish lesbians and gays’ specific
needs.
It’s premature to realize special courses for police employees about the aggressions to gays and
lesbians.
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Good practices in the education field for adults
Elaboration and diffusion of the practices and of organizational policy in order
to ensure a positive environment for gays and lesbians.
1
to introduce in adults’ educational contests some anti-discriminatory rules including sexual
orientation (e.g. written policies forbidding discriminations based on sexual orientation together with
other possible reasons of discriminations such as sex, race, disability, etc.);
2
to recognise the same rights for heterosexual and homosexual couples. And if in absence of rules
allowing the juridical recognition of homosexual couples, it is required the extent of eventual benefits for
the partners of opposite sex, both regarding teaching personnel and regarding the students or pupils;
3
to foresee the opportunity to invite the partners of the same sex to the social meetings of the
students and teachers’ groups;
4
to promote full equality for lesbians, gays and heterosexual couples;
5
to facilitate the more possible the visibility for gays and lesbians belonging to the teachers
and students’ group setting organizational practices able to guarantee safety and protection against
discriminations, even if unwilled, for the ones who want to reveal their sexual orientation;
6
to plan an educational programme about sexual orientation and discriminations above all
against teachers in order to increase their professionalism and to endow them with some skills which are
useful to prevent and contrast any eventual discriminatory behaviour among the students or pupils;
7
to stimulate the development of skills to rely on a deep knowledge of lesbians, gays, and
homosexuals’ reality and to fully satisfy their specific needs.
Formative contents
1
to examine if the educational programmes include lgbt themes or references to the lesbian and
gay reality;
2
to examine if the educational programmes for established professional figures in contact with
the public (social and sanitary personnel, lawyers, policemen, teachers…) include specific lessons for the
deepening of the needs of gay and lesbian people which are able to supply adequate answers;
3
to consider the opportunity to cooperate with the association of gays and lesbians to evaluate if
the proposed formative routes are considering or not the remarkable matters for lesbian and gay reality.
4
To evaluate if the training materials include forms of traditional and/or modern discriminations
both in the writings and in the imagines;
5
To perform appropriate lessons about the theme of violence and of the traditional discriminations
suffered by lesbians and gays in the several fields of social life (school, health, family, job place…);
6
To spread remarkable contributions produced by gay and lesbian authors about the theme of
sexual orientation and the feedbacks they could achieve;
7
To adopt a no neutral language considering the different individual sexual orientations.
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Bibliography
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SARACENO C. (a cura di) (2003) Diversi da chi? Gay, lesbiche, transessuali in un’area metropolitana, Guerini
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Prejudice, Journal of Homosexuality, Vol. 55 (1) (2008)
WHITLEY B.E. & KITE M.E. (2006). The psychology of prejudice and discrimination. Thompson Wadsworth
Press: Belmont, CA.
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IRBF, Bulgaria
Equal Opportunities – Basic Right in European Union
Aversive Discrimination – Stereotypes and Prejudice, Examples
Fair attitude and equal opportunities are basic rights in the European Union. Discrimination regarding
gender, age, disabilities, sexual orientation is illegal.
Laws on the equal rights of both men and women have been existing since the very beginning of the
European Community.
A total of 13 legal acts have been adopted since 1970s aiming at ensuring fair and equal treatment of
both men and women at work. These laws cover a wide range of areas including equal attitude when
applying for jobs, protection of pregnant women – workers and breast-feeding mothers as well as
the right to maternity leave and leave for child breeding.
However, discrimination could also be found in the access to goods and services, such as transport,
health care and bank services, rather than in the labour market only. This is the reason in 2009 the
European Commission to support a new, wide-range anti-discrimination directive, aiming at
reduction of discrimination based on gender, religion, beliefs, disabilities, age or sexual orientation,
no matter whether the discrimination is direct or indirect. The legislation should complete three
other already applicable directives: the first one prohibits discrimination on the grounds of racial or
ethnic origin within the frames of the labour market and outside it, the second directive concerns
the discrimination on the labour market, and the third the equality between men and women. The
directive will be applied in the field of social protection, education, access and the provision of goods
and services (including lodging). Due to the extremely big load on micro enterprises, according to
the European Parliament they should be subject to special protection following the model of the Civil
Rights Act of the United States. Under the amendments of the European Parliament, this directive
cover multiple discrimination based on the combination of two or more grounds for discrimination
as well as the discrimination regarding the association of persons of specific religion or beliefs,
disabilities, age or sexual orientation. The directive shall not affect the family law and the secular
nature of the state.
Bulgaria is cited as one of the few countries, jointly with Ireland, Slovenia, Romania and Luxembourg,
which define direct discrimination and have constitutional or statutory decrees covering all areas of
concern: gender, sexual orientation, disabilities, religion or beliefs and age, by which they correspond
to Directive 2000/43/СЕ, as well as to other measures for fighting discrimination outside work place.
All EU member states are obliged to adopt these equality measures. The states acceding the EU
should also observe these rules. The EU legislation on equality settles minimal levels of protection
valid for all people living and working in the EU. The states could go further and adopt even stronger
legal measures.
Legislation is essential in the fight for equality; however we know that something more should be
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done. Therefore, the European Union supports a series of measures to fight discrimination, from
funding projects to carrying out studies to support information and awareness campaigns.
However....
However, despite all legal measures, the phenomenon of discrimination exists in all spheres of human
life. The continuing legislative fight against the various forms and expressions of discrimination in
Europe shows that there are still forms of this phenomenon, although more refined and hidden rather
than open and rough. The human nature cannot be changed by good laws only. The prejudices,
stereotypes and biases accumulated throughout the ages are difficult to change. It is particularly
difficult, when people actually believe that they are tolerant and think that they demonstrate
tolerance to the minority groups of the “different”, however they display aversive discrimination.
What Actually the Phenomenon Discrimination Is?
Simply said, discrimination means a different, worse attitude to a man or a group of people, because of
some characteristic, such as gender, age, disability, ethnos and race, religion, views and beliefs, sexual
orientation. There is lack of tolerance everywhere. In some societies, which are underdeveloped in
this respect, it is more difficult. For example, there are worse places than Bulgaria for a Roma woman,
for a disabled person or for a person of different sexual orientation. There are also better places. The
developed societies of Europe accept better than the Bulgarian one the fact that people are different
and that different people have the same values and dignity, as well as rights; that it is not correct and
is illegal to treat somebody worse because he/she is a Muslim or has changed his/her sex. However,
there are prejudices and hostility everywhere. This is human nature. Just in the same way crime exists
everywhere and probably will always exist.
In its major part the events of discrimination, direct, indirect, aversive, are based on stereotypes and
prejudices.
What Is Stereotype?
The concept of stereotype was coined in 1922 by US journalist and social scientist Walter Lippmann
in his book Public Opinion. He defined stereotype as simplified, preliminary adopted idea, which does
not ensue from personal experience of man. The stereotype is unambiguous: it divides the world in
two categories – known and unknown. The known turns into a synonym of good and the unknown
of bad.
Most stereotypes are of a neutral nature, however, when a transfer from a concrete person to a
whole group of people is made, they often acquire a negative nuance. Thus they become a basis of
phenomena such as racism and sexism and any kind of direct, indirect or aversive discrimination.
The stereotype is a simplified idea about reality. People “inherit” stereotypes from other people, from
mass media, among others, rather than formulating them on the basis of their personal experience.
Because of that, stereotypes are different in various countries and cultures. In their book Popular
Culture: An Introductory Text Jack Nachbar and Kevin Lause state that stereotypes are a component
of mass culture.
All stereotypes are misleading to an extent. This is due to the fact that the stereotype attributes
to man features based to man’s belonging to a certain group only. At the same time they are very
sustainable. Even when people are convinced that the stereotype do not correspond to reality, they
are not ready to give it up and prefer to claim that exceptions confirm the rule.
30
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What Is Prejudice?
Prejudice is groundless bias, negative setup of man against something. It is quickly established and
often non-well founded opinion. The prejudice directed towards the members of a certain group
or certain type of behaviour, category, etc. causes negative or non-favourable appraisals of people
belonging to the group regardless their experience or facts. Prejudiced people often express inability
to process information regarding the subjects of prejudice. The prejudices are determined both from
historic and cultural point of view and, de facto, they are the basis of aversive discrimination, as there
is no prejudice from the point of view of the prejudiced person.
Prejudice and stereotypes are equally harmful and untrue, as they set up a distorted and simplified
idea about life and people. Media (including ICT) represent the strongest propagator of stereotypes
and prejudices. Media propagate stereotypes and hold out prejudices. Mass media often talk about
“us, the majority” and “them, the minority” and at the same time specialized media directed to some
of the minority groups talk about “us, the minority” and “them, their state, their Parliament”, etc. The
studies and the media monitoring carried out in Bulgaria (and across Europe) show that the old
stereotypes are displaced towards their most superficial and summarizing level, respectively, which
leads to making human relations elementary and inability of people to take the role of the “other”
in society, which would help them be more tolerant and better. The field of training and training of
adults in particular, is only a small part of real life and all prejudices existing in it are exposed in this
field as well. That is why it is necessary to be familiar with their manifestation so that we can learn to
overcome them in ourselves and then to help others to overcome them.
In principle, discrimination is rather a streamlined phenomenon, as it could be found but could also
remain aversive. The indicators for its measurement, including the ones in the sphere of educational
system, are not very clear. One can rather treat cases, which are a fact already. In addition, every
man has been a subject of any type of discrimination on the basis of his/her own experience. We
can fight hidden discrimination mainly through upbringing, education and training of children
and adults, of discriminated people and of people exercising discrimination. Media have enormous
role in this respect, as their information reaches directly to many people. Data from studies and
monitoring show that the image of the minority groups is built mainly by media. It is particularly
important media to represent summarized mental structures, which are to contribute to the good
communication between the groups and for social integration, that is, what stereotypes the majority
uses to specify the minority groups and what stereotypes are launched by the minority groups in
the information space. Very often groups, which are discriminated, happen to produce stereotypes,
which are obstacles to the equality.
It is most difficult to us to oppose to aversive discrimination, as somehow it cannot be connected to
legislation. Even people themselves who are bearing this phenomenon are not always aware of it.
How to Fight Prejudice and Negative Stereotypes
This answer is not unambiguous. Discrimination practices are often considered acceptable even
by people who are subject to discrimination. Many people are not aware of their attitude towards
“the different” at all, they are not aware of the fact that their attitude is discriminative. This attitude
is deeply rooted in their outlook on life and they feel tolerant, good, while they are not actually.
Upbringing, at home and at school, the influence of friends and authorities, prejudices, which have
been established historically and culturally, underlie the phenomenon of aversive discrimination.
It is particularly difficult for people who belong to two or even three minority groups subjected to
aversive discrimination, for example a disabled person who is an immigrant or is of “lower social
strata”.
31
2008 - 2010
The idea is to give an account of various cases, to give various examples of aversive discrimination
so that everybody could, retrospectively, to live up their real-life experience once more. Thus they
themselves could see how to prevent such cases in advance.
-
The silence of media on issues related to the problems and rights of people from different
minority groups as if they do not exist, is aversive discrimination of highest grade. The problems of
the “different” should be talked about, be clarified to society, they have to increase public sensitivity,
so that differences are accepted and understood; change stereotypes, so that to explain prejudice.
Thus the basis of aversive discrimination will be eliminated.
-
The requirement to provide a birth date on a job application is also an aversive form of
discrimination. If you write it on the job application and you turn to be above a given age, you are
not short-listed for interviews. If you do not write it, it becomes clear that you hide it and you are not
short-listed as well. If you phone and ask for explanation, you are said that more suitable candidates
have applied for the job. And you cannot actually prove that you have been discriminated as well as
the reason for that.
-
Young, well-educated people with abilities could hardly find qualified work due to the specific
requirements towards work place or work time. Because of the higher rate of unemployment under
the conditions of a crisis, employees prefer to hire healthy people, as they have a choice among
unemployed. However, nobody says: “You are a disabled person, I prefer a healthy employee”. They
would rather think out reasons such as: „You do not have sufficient length of experience“, or „The
specifics of the job requires ….“, or something else. It is even worse in regards to elderly people with
disabilities who are subjected to discrimination from two sides, because of the age and because of
the disability.
-
You feel as a cat with wings in the office, at the university, at school. Although nobody does
anything to you, people avoid you and throw peculiar glances at you. Although nobody does
anything to you, people avoid you and throw peculiar glances at you. You are not included in the
football team as you are too fragile. You are not invited to parties so that you do not get tired. You are
not even asked whether you want to go on an excursion with the other people. You hear being called
half-insulting, half-mocking, half-condescending names behind you back. You do not know who to
be angry at – both at everybody and at nobody, as it happens. And all this just because you do not
have a perfect body as you are a person with disability. It is even worse if on top of all this you have
declared that you have different sexual orientation or different religious views.
-
Police bulletins, cited by all media, usually give only initials of offenders when reporting crime.
For example, N.A., 23, disturbed peace, P.G., 42, broke a window shop; however the third person is
cited as “V.N., from Roma origin”. Reading this, people think that Roma have done something wrong
again. Are you aware what the effect of the information technologies is? This is the way to shape
public opinion. Seeing a man of Roma origin in the street, people see subconsciously a thief in him
and keep a distance so that they would not come to harm.
-
When you are in the street, in the public transport or in a store, people do not look straight
at you, as if you are not there, you do not exist, and when you start talking to somebody, that
person answers you briefly and hurries on. This is aversive discrimination due to something in your
appearance, the dark colour of your skin or something in your clothes related to a religion different
from the official one, ore something else.
32
2008 - 2010
-
The feminisation of some sectors of economy such as state and municipal administrations,
education, health care, services, is also a kind of aversive discrimination. Usually, the responsibilities
are bigger in the feminised sectors, while wages are lower. However, the percentage of men in the
higher positions (with higher wages!) in the same sectors is much bigger than the one of women.
-
There is a law in Bulgaria allowing fathers to go on maternity leave so that mothers do not
take all the leave they have right to and do not lose their labour habits. However, fathers take this
opportunity very rarely. A study shows that fathers feel uncomfortable to ask for such a leave, that
is they feel discriminated by friends, relatives, or male colleagues of theirs, even by women and are
afraid not to become a laughing stock.
-
A competition for a head nurse is carried out by a hospital. One of the requirements is candidates
to have a five years experience with the same hospital. This is either a mistake or discrimination. A
nurse may have more than five years of experience in another hospital, which might also be bigger,
and might be more experienced than a nurse from the same hospital.
-
The Deputy Chairman of the Protection against Discrimination Commission gave an account
about his studies at the Sofia University majoring Pedagogy – Kindergarten Teacher. He was the
only man in his course. A few men graduated a year or two after him. However, his studies were
accompanied by insulting hints, insinuations. He claims that stereotypes change very slowly. Anyway,
if we consider the fact that both the Chairman and the Deputy Chairman of the Protection against
Discrimination Commission are men, while the members of the Commission, which is a lower level,
are women only, we shall find out that stereotypes in our heads change much slower than we believe.
-
Televisions broadcast advertisements of new models of cars. They are always driven by men.
If there is a woman in the advertisement, she is always young and beautiful and enjoys the new car
of her man. Thus media confirm the stereotype that men are good drivers, they earn the money in
the family, while women are consumers and receive gifts because of their good appearance. Just
remember how many times you hear remarks about bad driving of some vehicles when you are on
the road. If it turns out that the driver is a woman, then the usual remark is “I knew it!”. If the bad
driver is a man, then the remark is that he drove in a way a woman does, that is incompetently. This
stereotype is so strong that male drivers very often violate the Road Traffic Act so that they do not
drive after female drivers.
-
On the other hand, the main character of the majority of advertisements is a woman and
thus the stereotype that the main role of a woman is to be a house-wife and to keep the house
clean is confirmed. This is another example for the important role of media in the establishment or
confirmation of the discrimination stereotypes.
-
In big stores and at open markets Bulgarians usually keep distance from Roma as they believe
subconsciously that they are thieves and that they may suffer from this. Such is the attitude towards
immigrants in other European countries. However, not all Roma or immigrants represent such danger.
-
Paralympian Rick Hansen was the last but one athlete carrying the Olympic flame into the
opening ceremonies of the 2010 Olympic Games in Vancouver, Canada. Despite his paralysis, he was
a proud carrier of the flame symbol of peace, uniting and equality. Stela Eneva, a Bulgarian lady, silver
medal winner from the Paralympic Games in Beijin, China, Discuss and Shot Put World Champion
33
2008 - 2010
says in an interview that no Paralympian was invited to the Athletes’ Ball 2009 event, where the
Bulgarian Athlete of the Year was elected. Nobody has just thought about them, since the stereotype
is that athletes are physically healthy and very strong. This was not on purpose. Bulgarians are still
uncomfortable with disabled athletes who are not attractive enough and nobody tries to understand
how much more work they have to do in comparison to the others, the healthy athletes. Media could
have the biggest influence for a change in the subconscious actions of the society. The media are the
ones that make stereotypes or change them.
We all can point out a number of such examples and add them to the list. Some of them, showing
more evident forms of discrimination, others – more hidden, elusive ones. Aversive discrimination
is a streamlined phenomenon. People from the minority groups who are not feeling self-confident,
who have been victims of direct discrimination feel themselves more often discriminated aversively.
While people of groups of “different”, who nevertheless have their strong identity somehow are not
that sensitive to the manifestations of discrimination. We all should learn not to be slaves to prejudices
and stereotypes, and to appreciate man next to us because of his/her purely human qualities.
All these examples, as well as data from studies, polls, monitoring, observations of ours and
experience show that there is still much to do to clarify the essence and the forms of direct and
aversive discrimination for the whole society. The civic society structures are the ones that are
leading in this process, as the state structures are sluggish, and NGOs are the leaders in regards
to initiatives protecting human rights. Bearing in mind the fact that Bulgarians are rather tolerant
people and because of the good legislation, there are no conditions for big manifestations of direct
discrimination. However, manifestations of indirect, especially aversive discrimination, still exist and
will increase in future.
Bulgarians answer the question: “Have you ever felt discriminated?” in the following way:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Yes, often - 20%
Sometimes – 40%
No – 30%
No comment – 10%
Bulgarian society has studied and fights against direct, and to a certain extent, against indirect
discrimination, however, it is not paying attention to aversive one yet. This is an issue, which we
are still to meet, and because of that it is of particular importance to follow the experience of the
more advanced European countries in thus respect. This is necessary, as although we are not paying
much attention to many aversive forms of discrimination, if we do not take measures on time, these
manifestations could lead to the accumulation of pressure and express directly and on a great scale.
Because of that, it is of a particular importance to debate the events of aversive discrimination on
a European level, to study the European experience and to be familiar with the good European
practices. Media as creators and disseminators of stereotypes regarding the “different” through
increasing their sensitivity towards cases of discrimination may play a major role in this respect. The
work of the NGOs, dealing with legal protection with the national commissions for protection from
discrimination, with the educational institutions, is also a factor for success in this respect. However,
good working laws against crime as well as against discrimination should also exist; the whole society
– adults and children - should be brought up to respect these laws and rights of other people.
34
2008 - 2010
Kathrin Karloff, BFI, Graz, Austria
Different Forms of (Aversive) Discrimination Against (Female)
Migrants Due to Ethnic Background, Skin Colour, Religion, and
the Effects of the Economic Crisis
Although integration has become one of the most demanding and indispensable social necessities
and political tasks European-wide which needs to be confronted openly and innovatively especially
on the background of the aging European population discrimination of migrants seems to have
increased tremendously in all over Europe since 09/11. Indeed, the strong emotional reservations
against migrants become more and more obvious at all levels of European society whereas negative
as well as positive stereotypes of the upper, middle and lower class milieus appear different while
their effect is the same.
In particular, aversive forms of discrimination due to people’s ethnic background, skin colour, or
religion have increased and are, as already (or again) socially accepted but cleverly hidden sentiments
and beliefs, difficult to tackle. A widespread anti-religious sentiment has become popular which is
not only directed towards Islam but also towards other common religious denominations, especially
Catholicism. The number of people rejecting visible public displays of religious belief and interpreting
these as being akin to “fundamentalism” and “fanaticism” has clearly risen in the last years. By listing
concrete results of a research project on discrimination in everyday life this paper expands on the
different forms of discrimination against migrants – especially aversive forms – of all population strata
and shows how particularly female migrants are affected by various forms of multiple discrimination,
particularly on the labour market and due to the effects of the financial crisis.
One of the recent, most outstanding examples of accepted and openly expressed discrimination of
migrants in Europe has been the Swiss referendum, the national ban on the construction of minarets,
the prayer tower of mosques, in November 2009. The New York Times depicted this referendum as “a
vote that displayed a widespread anxiety about Islam and undermined the country’s reputation for
religious tolerance.”4 Although “the Swiss government said it would respect the vote and sought to
reassure the Muslim population — mostly immigrants from other parts of Europe, like Kosovo and
Turkey — that the minaret ban was ‘not a rejection of the Muslim community, religion or culture”5 it
clearly is an expression of increasing Islamophobia in Europe and of the strong emotional reservations
against foreigners and migrants in general.
4
“The referendum, which passed with a clear majority of 57.5 percent of the voters and in 22 of Switzerland’s 26 cantons, was a victory for the right. The vote against was 42.5 percent. Because the ban gained a
majority of votes and passed in a majority of the cantons, it will be added to the Constitution” (www.nytimes.
com/2009/11/30/world/europe/30swiss.html, 13.04.2010).
5
Ibid.
35
2008 - 2010
The intensification of such reservations has also been noticed by the federal Anti-Discrimination
Agency in Germany (“Antidiskriminierungsstelle des Bundes”) which “commissioned the institute Sinus
Sociovision with the research project ‘Discrimination in Everyday Life – Perceptions of Discrimination
and Anti-Discrimination Policy in our Society’ in 2008.”6 Indeed, the project’s qualitative and
representative surveys made obvious that people’s reservations against foreigners and migrants
“are expressed in feelings of uneasiness, mistrust and irrational fears as well as familiar resentful
and negative stereotypes. These are frequently caused by the impression of a widespread and
uncontrollable threat due to a disproportionately high number of foreigners pouring into the
country. The threatening scenario of the overflowing boat is compounded by the evidence of
undesirable trends (migrant ghettos in the cities, violent crimes committed by young foreigners,
strain on the social system, etc.), which quickly leads to aggressive ostracising tendencies.”7
In addition, “sheer hatred of people with different ethnic backgrounds or skin colours can be
observed in the traditional and lower-class milieus in particular.”8 The threatening scenario of
immigrants pouring into the country and “washing away” the foundations of the social system is a
widespread irrational fear in these milieus. Consequently, the interviewees differentiated between
migrants and “’our own people’ [who] must be protected” from them9. At the same time, Germany’s
immigration policy was criticized. Politicians would not tackle the issue of migration satisfactorily, as
the interviewees stressed. However, this critique was mingled with discriminating statements such as
the one that “there are too many migrants in the country” and that “politicians aren’t doing anything
now about these issues.”10
In the upper and middle-class milieus “the differentiation mechanisms” are more subtle which also
means that forms of aversive or indirect discrimination can far more often observed in these milieus
than in the working class population. However, interviewees of all milieus were of the opinion that
“there are too many migrants in the country”, that “things are out of balance” and “issues are being
downplayed and can no longer be brought under control.”11 This negative view of the present situation
and this pessimistic outlook into the future are underlined by a rejection of the culture of “political
correctness,” which people belonging to upper and middle class milieus regard as a constrained,
constructed system of belief they are not willing to accept12. They even do not reject the use of racist
terms such as “Negerkuss” (literal translation: “nigger kiss” – the German name for a small chocolatecovered marshmallow dessert) or “Mohrenkopf” (literal translation: “moor’s head” – the German
name for a small, chocolate cream-filled cake). Paradoxically, they also make rhetorical use of the
nation’s Nazi past in order to disapprove of the German government trying to improve the situation
of migrants: They are of the opinion that German politicians have become “too liberal, or ‘too lax’
in its dealings with foreigners”13 because of German history. At the same time, they demand “more
pluralism and openness,” but only in a very abstract way, not with regard to their own surroundings,
6
“With this both qualitative and quantitative baseline survey, the Federal Anti-Discrimination Agency has at
its disposal the first representative study into the perception of discrimination and anti-discrimination in Germany
which is differentiated according to milieu.” (Antidiskriminierungsstelle des Bundes 124).
7
Ibid., 133.
8
Ibid., 133.
9
Ibid., 133.
10
Ibid., 133.
11
Ibid., 133 and 179.
12
Ibid., 179.
13
Ibid., 179.
36
2008 - 2010
but only “in the context of the cosmopolitan world outlook.”14
Concerning discrimination due to religion and ideology, the study of the federal Anti-Discrimination
Agency in Germany has noted the following:
The majority of the German population believes that religion is a ‘private matter’ and considers
it common sense that everyone should be free to do as they please. 89% of respondents agreed
with the statement ‘People can believe what they want as long as they leave me alone.’ 15
This seemingly open view in fact expresses people’s ignorance of religion or even an aversive form of
their rejection of religious matters in general. This position has probably its roots in the Enlightenment
period “and the tradition of the secular state, which grants people the freedom to pursue their own
beliefs ensuring that public life and societal institutions remain unaffected by religion.”16 However,
while the Enlightenment period put the emphasis on religious freedom, i.e. on people’s free choice
of their religious confession made possible through political achievements, the present tendency is
more an expression of people’s lack of interest in informing themselves about religion or in actively
taking part in the political debate on religious tendencies. This passive position is based on the
interviewees’ limiting knowledge of religion: “When people see the word ‘religion,’ they immediately
think of ‘Islam.’ This is spontaneously associated with ‘fundamentalism,’ which many people consider
a cause of violence and ‘terror’ – as they have learned from relevant reports in the media.”17
Interviewees belonging to the upper and middle classes had the following association of religion:
“Religion  Islam  backward  oppression of women  arranged marriage and honour
killing.”18
People’s view in the working-class population differs only slightly:
“Religion  Muslims  Turks  foreigners  threat.”19
In summary, these associations reveal a conflict between the historical liberal orientation in Europe
based on the achievements of the Enlightenment period in the sense of religious freedom and the
present fear of Islam, produced by conservative politics in Western states since 09/11 and by the
media. However, people do not seem to realize this conflict, but tend to see religion reduced to Islam
as a religious orientation not connected with the Enlightenment or present liberal achievements in
politics.
Traditionalists or Conservatists even excuse discriminating tendencies in society against foreign
religions, particularly Islam, or express their open sympathy for people discriminating Muslims in
aggressive statements such as “I would discriminate against Muslims, those terrible people.”20 At the
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Ibid., 179.
Ibid., 189.
Ibid., 189.
Ibid., 189.
Ibid., 189.
Ibid., 190.
Ibid., 191.
37
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same time, they are of the opinion that people do not suffer from discrimination in Germany, that
everybody is allowed to believe what he or she wants (“There is religious freedom in Germany.”).
Again, this contradiction reveals people’s lack of interest in the situation of migrants in society and
the tendency to create an abstract political picture which has neither anything to do with the real
situation of migrants living in Germany nor with the interviewees’ personal situation itself. It is clear
that in this atmosphere conspiracy theories tend to develop easily. Most of them are based on the
conviction that Islam “wants to force its ‘backward’ ideas, standards and commandments onto the
local population through violence (‘Something is happening, something is developing, we won’t
even notice until they have infiltrated everything.’)”.21
Moreover, in the research project of the German Antidiscrimination Office special forms of aversive
discrimination were for example uttered by female interviewees who frequently spoke about the
“‘suffering of Muslim women’ in the context of religion”22 by “fluctuat[ing] between pity and disgust
(‘I feel so sorry for Turkish women who get hit, are forced into arranged marriages and have to wear
headscarves’).”23 Interviewees also criticize the “pre-modern life associated with Muslims, which
involves contempt for women, violence and machismo.” As a consequence, aversive discrimination
becomes obvious “in hidden or open sympathy for drastic countermeasures (‘We live here in Germany,
people can’t do whatever they want, they need to be restrained.’).” 24
In summary, a widespread anti-religious sentiment can unmistakeably be noticed in all social
milieus. It is obvious through people’s open or hidden rejection of “visible displays of religious belief”
which are often interpreted as fundamentalist or fanatic actions25. However, these discriminatory
statements are not only directed towards Islam, but towards other denominations as well. Especially
Catholicism is considered as a conservative trend, as an antiquated phenomenon. Religious people
are therefore considered as “backward,” “sluggish,” or even “stupid.” 26 These discriminating opinions
are often underlined by historical arguments, i.e., by interviewees referring to earlier conflicts
between Protestants and Catholics, the stigmatisation of mixed marriages (which was still a fact
in Germany in the 1950s), or the question whether people are allowed to attend services of other
religious denominations.27
In summary, it seems that religion has become a political topic which arouses strong feelings and
which cannot be discussed adequately, i.e., in an open, unbiased way. The prejudices against migrants
are often aversive forms of discrimination against religious denominations, particularly Islam, but also
other religions. They are hidden by certain excuses (“I don’t have anything against foreigners but…”/I
don’t know any foreigners who behave like that but…”) or by sympathy for the achievements of our
enlightened society (“This is a free country so foreigners should not complain all the time”) or for the
achievements of social welfare (“They come into the country and then they get everything.”).
The logic of these discriminating “arguments” against migrants is not seldom disarming since they are
backed up by politicians’ speeches or party slogans. For example, the candidate of the right-wing party
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
Ibid., 191.
Ibid., 192.
Ibid., 192.
Ibid., 192.
Ibid., 192.
Ibid., 192.
Ibid., 192.
38
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FPÖ for the election campaign of the Federal President in Austria in April 2010, Barbara Rosenkranz,
openly argues for the necessity “to stop the integration of migrants and the Austrian integration policy
at once” which she sees as one of today’s “most urgent political issues to be tackled.”28 She “justifies”
her opinion by dangerous aversively discriminating statements loosely connected with each other,
such as in an interview of the Austrian right-wing magazine Zur Zeit in February 2008: “In Vienna,
native children (Austrian residents and German as their mother tongue) are already the minority.
How self-confident especially the Turks stick to their customs and traditions can be observed in the
public performance of President Erdogan in Germany who was enthusiastically greeted by 20.000
Turks when he expressed his responsibility also for Turks living in foreign countries….” 29
In addition, migrants are vulnerable to discrimination on the labour market as well as concerning
education and residential matters. In Austria, 12% of people without Austrian citizenship live under
the poverty line while those without European citizenship are particularly affected by poverty.
European-wide the number of migrants without European citizenship living under the poverty
line decreased until 2000, but since 2003 it rose again by 25%30. An international survey of Caritas
International indeed shows that migration is directly linked to the danger of becoming or staying poor
due to multiple discrimination on grounds of nationality, gender, religion, or ideology31. Statistics
from Austria back up these results: 39% of people with a migrant background (with or without
Austrian citizenship) live in cramped conditions, and half of all children from families with a migrant
background live in too small flats. This fact has also an effect on the personal development of these
children’s educational success since they often do not have enough space to do their homework or
to invite friends.32
One of the most important reasons for the precarious situation of migrants is their position on
the labour market. Every third unemployed person living in Austria has got a migrant background
as a study of “Statistik Austria” shows. Especially the second generation of immigrants is affected
by unemployment (8,8%)33. Due to the financial crisis, the unemployment rate of migrants rose
tremendously – in Styria, a county in the South of Austria, by even 50% (!) between January and June
2009. August Gächter of the Centre for Social Innovation in Vienna (Zentrum für soziale Innovation)
underlines that “approximately 40 to 45% of all employers show no interest at all in migrants if they
only hear a slight accent in spite of the job seekers’ perfect language competencies or if their first
name hints at a migrant background.”34
28
“Zur Zeit: Welche sind Ihrer Meinung nach die größten Probleme, die man im Land Niederösterreich anpacken sollte? Rosenkranz: Einbürgerungen stoppen! 15 Jahre Pröll haben viel kaputt gemacht, weitere 15 Jahre
dieser Politik, und in NÖ gibt es Wiener Zustände“ (Zur Zeit – Wochenzeitung für Österreich (15.-28.02.2008),
www.zurzeit.at/index.php?id=361, 19.04.2010).
29
The original quotation in German is the following: “In Wien sind die einheimischen Kinder (Österreichische
Staatsbürgerschaft und deutsche Muttersprache) in den ersten Klassen schon in der Minderheit. Wie selbstbewußt
vor allem die Türken an ihren Sitten und Gebräuchen festhalten, sieht man am Auftritt des türkischen Regierungschef
Erdogan in Deutschland, der von 20.000 Türken umjubelt wurde, als er sich für die Türken auch im Ausland verantwortlich erklärt. Er wirbt für türkische Schulen in Gastländern und hält ‚Assimilierung für ein Verbrechen gegen
die Menschlichkeit.’ Apropos Integration: Erstmals tritt in NÖ bei dieser Wahl eine rein türkische Liste an. Es ist
höchste Zeit, die fahrlässige Einwanderungspolitik Prölls zu korrigieren“ (Ibid.).
30
Der Standard, http://dastandard.at/1269448715170/Armut-heisst-zugewandert, 19.04.2010.
31
Ibid. and www.caritas-international.de/27749.html, 19.04.2010.
32
Der Standard, http://dastandard.at/1269448715170/Armut-heisst-zugewandert, 19.04.2010.
33
Statistik Austria 39.
34
The original quotation in German is the following: “…dass ungefähr 40 bis 45 Prozent der Arbeitgeber,
39
2008 - 2010
In addition, only 28,7% of employed people born in Austria with no migrant background have
passed their A-levels or have a university degree compared to 34,9% with a migrant background.
Surprisingly, 53% of immigrants coming from countries outside the EU have passed their A-levels or
have a university degree. In spite of their high educational background they are highly confronted
with the effects of unemployment on the labour market since their degrees are not acknowledged,
as August Gächter confirms: “On the Styrian labour market migrants with a high education face even
more difficulties than in other Austrian counties. Very often they have to serve as a ‘stopgap’ – as
temporary employees….” 35
However, immigrants cannot only be found in the highest but also in the lowest educated milieus
of Austrian society: 14,2% of employed people born in Austria have only passed their compulsory
time of education (=9 years) compared to 27,9% of immigrants (28,8% women). Particularly high is
the percentage of migrants with a Turkish background: Two thirds of them (66,2%) have only passed
their compulsory time of education36.
On the whole, one quarter of all people with a migrant background living in Austria work as so-called
“unskilled workers” (Hilfsarbeitskräfte) (25,9%). The percentage of people employed as unskilled
workers and born in a foreign country is three times as high as the one of people born in Austria
(8,4%)37. Although four of six employed women with a migrant background have either passed their
A-levels or have a university degree (only 3 out of 10 men with a migrant background have such high
educational background) they are much more often employed as unskilled workers than men (32,9%
women compared to 20% of men38). 22,6% work in service industries or as job assistants; 16,1% work
in public health services. Every 6th woman with a Turkish background (57,5%) and 88,8% of women
from Ex-Yugoslavia are employed as unskilled workers in factories.
In summary, men and women with a migrant background are discriminated on the job market even if
they have the same education or even a higher education than people with no migrant background.
As stated above, more than one third of all employed people with a migrant background have passed
their A-levels or have university degree (34,9%) compared to only 28,7% of people born in Austria
with no migrant background. Nevertheless, only 34,4% with a migrant background work in leading
positions compared to 53,9% of employees with no migrant background. 18,6% of all people with a
migrant background who passed their A-levels or have a university degree work in very low positions
compared to only 1,3% of people with no migrant background39.
This has a tremendous effect on migrants’ attempt to acquire Austrian citizenship. In its report of 2009,
the Austrian Volksanwaltschaft criticises that migrants are obliged to earn at least €783,90 per month
to apply for Austrian citizenship. Since migrants’ educational degrees are often not acknowledged
wenn sie trotz perfekter Sprachbeherrschung einen leichten Akzent hören oder nur der Vorname auf Einwanderung
hindeutet, keinerlei Interesse mehr an dieser Person zeigen” http://oesterreich.orf.at/steiermark/stories/372024/,
19.04.2010.
35
The original quotation in German is the following: “… dass sich vor allem Migranten mit hochqualitativer Ausbildung am steirischen Arbeitsmarkt oft schwerer tun als in anderen Bundesländern. Sehr oft müssen sie
als Lückenfüller - als Leiharbeiter - herhalten, und da sei auch das Arbeitsmarktservice nicht ganz unschuldig, so
Gächter.“ http://oesterreich.orf.at/steiermark/stories/372024/, 19.04.2010.
36
37
Ibid., 44.
38
Ibid., 45.
39
Ibid., 47.
40
2008 - 2010
and due to direct and aversive forms of discrimination against migrants this is often just not possible.
It is actually enough to become ill for a longer period of time and thus to loose one’s job – and
suddenly the chance to get an Austrian passport is gone. In addition, every migrant who has been
dependent on social welfare three years before applying for Austrian citizenship is also excluded
from naturalization. The effect is that the number of migrants acquiring Austrian citizenship has now
reached its lowest level since 1982. In 2009, 7990 people acquired Austrian citizenship compared to
10.268 in 2008. In the first half of 2010 the number continued to decrease40.
The difficulty to acquire Austrian citizenship can also be partly explained by the fact that 21,2% of all
immigrants born in another country are affected by difficult working conditions (shift or night work,
weekend work etc.), especially people with a Turkish background (32,4%)41. Besides, every 20th
immigrant born in another country is temporarily employed as a loan worker (4,9%) while people
born in Austria are hardly affected by this42.
Besides, female migrants are confronted with multiple forms of discrimination on the labour market
(gender-related discrimination, discrimination on the basis of people’s cultural identity or culture
of origin as well as due to their skin colour); their high education is often not acknowledged or
intentionally ignored. In fact, their situation has become worse through the financial crisis all over
Europe, as the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) has observed:
Many women are employed in the informal sector of the economy and are [thus] at increased
risk of discrimination and exploitation. The plight of domestic workers not benefiting from the
protection of labour laws in most countries deserves particular attention in times of crisis. As
competition for jobs increases, female migrants may be forced to accept inadequate terms
and conditions of employment. . . . As the economic crisis continues, female migrants are likely
to find it increasingly harder to obtain regular employment abroad. If they do find jobs, it is
likely that the jobs will pay less and will have decreased benefits. This may impact the amount
of remittances they will be able to send home which, in turn, will impact the quality of life on
families who count on remittances to provide for food, health-care and education43.
In addition, female migrants who cannot find regular work on the labour market in times of crisis
may be forced to accept work in brothels or “resort to traffickers and smugglers, exposing themselves
to exploitation and human rights abuses in sweatshops, the sex industry and domestic servitude
where they may find themselves at increased risk of physical and mental health problems, including
HIV/AIDS, yet lack adequate access to appropriate health-care information and services.”44 The
financial crisis has indeed enforced the precarious situation many female immigrants were already
affected by before. In fact, there are almost no opportunities for female immigrants in Europe to
become economically independent if they flee out of their home countries alone. For example,
due to Austria’s new immigration act they do not possess the right to work if they are involved in
a procedure for granting them the right of asylum. Consequently they are forced to work illegally
without any insurance or protection against dismissal and in fear of getting expelled. Or they may be
40
Der Standard. “Zu arm oder krank, um Österreicher zu werden,“ 21.04.2010.
41
42
Ibid., 49.
43
United Nations Population Fund. „Fact-Sheet on the Impact of the Economic Crisis on Female Migration.“
2009. www.globalmigrationgroup.org/pdf/ESCAP_FactSheet_final.pdf, 19.04.2010, p. 1.
44
Ibid., 1-2.
41
2008 - 2010
forced to marry an Austrian resident since they are not allowed to apply for main residence on their
own before a three years’ time.
These direct forms of discrimination against female migrants are enforced by aversive ones, prejudices
they are confronted with in their everyday life, expressed often by employers, civil servants, or by
labour market experts. This may enclose discrimination on grounds of their language competencies,
of their skin colour (African women are particularly discriminated in Austria), of their religious belief,
for example when wearing a headscarf, or on grounds of people’s ideas of traditions and customs of
certain cultures.
Thus policy responses are now more than necessary to realize and to cope with the effects of multiple
discrimination against migrants all over Europe, especially female migrants, who have been made the
innocent scapegoats during the financial crisis. It is now time to stop the discriminating integration
policy as the one in Austria and to react on a political and juridical level to the present situation by
implanting more concrete measures that protect migrants from direct, but also from aversive forms
of discrimination. People’s often hidden, aversively expressed rejection of public displays of religious
belief due to their lack of knowledge of religious denominations cannot be longer seen as a politically
accepted phenomenon in Western states but needs to be prevented comprehensively. In particular,
every effort must be made to halt Islamophobia. With regard to the financial crisis, “policies should
take into account not just the economic factors,” as The United Nations Population Fund declares, “but
should also focus on the human and social dimensions” so that a new, more humane social climate
will have the chance to develop which allows for “the orderly flow of migration” 45 and the protection
of the rights of all migrants in Europe.
Cited Works:
•
Antidiskriminierungsstelle des Bundes. Discrimination in Everyday life. Perceptions of
Discrimination and Anti-Discrimination Policy in Our Society. Heidelberg: Nomos, 2008.
•
Caritas International. “Migration – Endstation Armut? Dritter Bericht von Caritas Europa über
Armut und Ausgrenzung von Migranten in Europa 2006.“ http://www.caritas-international.de/27749.
html, 19.06.2006.
•
The New York Times. “Swiss Ban Building of Minarets on Mosques.“ http://www.nytimes.
com/2009/11/30/world/europe/30swiss.html, 29.11.2009.
•
Der Standard. „Armut heißt . . . zugewandert?“ http://dastandard.at/1269448715170/Armutheisst-zugewandert, 01.04.2010.
•
Der Standard. „Zu arm oder krank, um Österreicher zu werden. Volksanwaltschaft kritisiert in
ihrem Jahresbericht hartes Staatsbürgerschaftsrecht,“ 21.04.2010.
•
Statistik Austria. Arbeits- und Lebenssituation von Migrantinnen und Migranten in Österreich.
Modul der Arbeitskräfteerhebung 2008. Vienna: Verlag Österreich, 2009.
•
Steiermark ORF.at. „Immer mehr Migranten arbeitslos.“ http://oesterreich.orf.at/steiermark/
stories/372024/, 01.07.2009.
•
United Nations Population Fund. “Fact-Sheet on the Impact of the Economic Crisis on Female
Migration,“ 2009. http://www.globalmigrationgroup.org/pdf/ESCAP_FactSheet_final.pdf
•
Zur Zeit. „Die Einbürgerungen stoppen!“ http://www.zurzeit.at/index.php?id=361, 15.28.02.2008
45
Ibid., 2.
42
2008 - 2010
Thomas Kugler / Stephanie Nordt, Kombi, Germany
Translated into English by Friederike Birkle
Psycho-social situation of LGBT Young people
What makes lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender young people?
Research only started investigating these target groups in the 1990’s, therefore relatively little data
exists. The existing research results mostly cover gay and lesbian young people, with some attention
given to bisexuality. While the topic of transgender young people is hardly researched scientifically, it is
safe to assume that in a lot of cases sexism and homophobia are experienced similarly by transgender,
lesbian and gay young people.
Here are some research results and their backgrounds:
It is estimated that around 10% of the general population are gay or lesbian. Lesbian girls and gay
boys are therefore represented in every classroom and every youth organisation. However, they are
not always recognizable, distinguishing them from other minority groups such as children from
migrant families. Lesbian and gay young people are therefore largely invisible. This might be related
to the general relative invisibility of gay men and lesbian women in our society. What are the reasons
for lesbian and gay young people staying in the background and why are they not noticed by those
surrounding them?
Lesbian, gay and transgender young people have no visible role models. This means a lack of positive
identifiers for a happy life as lesbian, gay or transgender. Almost all examples in movies, literature,
comic books, popular culture, advertisements, sports and also in real approachable adults in schools
and families are heterosexual and correspond with the common ideas of femininity and masculinity.
This does not only start in puberty: even in fairytales the prince and princess find each other.
LGBT young people are also the subjects of heterosexual socialization and during this time they learn
which life is good and desirable and how to live later on. These expectations of the different educational
organs – family, kindergarten, school and leisure time organizations - concentrate on a clear gender
roles and a desire for heterosexuality, starting from child’s play up to the design of school books.
Because everybody is considered to be heterosexual in society until proven otherwise, lesbian and gay
young people consider themselves as being heterosexual, until they realize feelings for the same sex
(for many this happens in between the ages of 11 to 13). However, there is no room in our socialization
for such feelings, nor for gender untypical behaviour, on the contrary: both are mocked and devalued. It
is alarming how early kids learn to hurt others by calling them gay or lesbian. These words are therefore
highly popular as swear words in the school playground. Kids use “gay” and “lesbian” often as abusive
terms without knowing the real meaning or having an idea of the life of gays and lesbians as a result
of the lack of public lesbian and gay role models Furthermore, many swear words serve the purpose of
criticizing the crossing of gender roles and demanding role-affirmative behaviour.
Whenever young people encounter representations of lesbian, gay and transgender personas they often
show discouraging misinterpretations: the main interest of the media seems to be the presentation of
colourful men in women’s clothes, lesbians are often left out. Incidentally there are gay and lesbian stars
in several countries however their lives stands miles apart from the environment and everyday life of
43
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young people and therefore do not provide an identifiable role model. As such, while it is encouraging
that some public figures stand up for their way of life this is often not enough.
Peer groups often offer little support. Puberty is already charged with conflict often guided by the
maxim “who wants to belong, cannot be different”. Among young people there is a strong need for
definition and common rules or a common code for the in-group. Whoever is different ends up alone.
Therefore it is often safer not to speak about feelings for the same gender in their own group, although
many lesbian and gay young people reject and deny these unsettling feelings for a while. Belonging is
everything and nothing is more painful than being rejected by the group. Young people who discover
their difference in the psycho-sexual development of their identity in comparison to the majority feel
excluded and are afraid of negative consequences in case they admit to being different.
To the question “What went through your head when you realized you were attracted to the opposite
sex/same sex/both sexes the first time?” the answers in a German online study of 271 girls and 447 boys
were varied. 32.2% of heterosexual young people said their first reaction was to be happy, which was
only the case with 6.5% of the homosexual and only 3.1% of bisexual young people. “Panic and despair”
seems to be the first reaction to their feelings for 21.9% of the homosexual and 17.4% of bisexual
young people. Only 1.7% of heterosexual young people gave panic and despair as their first reaction
(M.Watzlawik, Uferlos?, Aachen, 2004).
What about the parents, who should be the partners of trust for young people in problematic
situations? They often have personal problems with the homosexuality of their own child. As a Dutch
study from 1986 has shown, almost half of the parents studied rejected their gay or lesbian child, with
only 25% having no problems with it (J.Geerlof, Hebben homo’s ouders? Utrecht, 1986). Family tension
and parents’ aggressive reactions do not belong to the past yet. A Berlin study in 1999 found that at
least one parent reacted negatively to the homosexuality of their daughter or son. Two thirds of the
respondents had experienced negative reactions in their social environment that went from namecalling to physical violence (K.Schupp, Sie liebt sie. Er liebt ihn, Berlin, 1999).
In a study carried out in Niedersachsen in 2001 the living situation, social and sexual identity of gay young
people was researched and 353 gay young people between the ages of 15 and 25 were interviewed
(U.Biechele, G.Reisbeck, H.Keupp, Schwule Jugendliche, Hannover, 2001). The research has shown that
their coming-out met with the same conflicts as the generation before and in the 70’s. The realization
of feelings for the same sex happened for most of the respondents between the ages of 14 to 17. In this
phase most of them suffered from loneliness and grave identity issues. 27 to 38% of the respondents
reported verbal abuse, 5.7 to 7.0% experienced physical violence. In schools 22% experienced teachers
ignoring homophobic comments, and 27.2% reported teachers even laughing along with gay jokes.
18% reported intervention to stop discrimination.
44.9% had already thought about suicide, 19.2% seriously considered it: 8.7% of the respondents
survived one or more suicide attempts. The suicide risk of young lesbians, gays and bisexuals that
were questioned in 1999 about their psycho-social situation in Berlin was even higher. The study,
commission by the Berlin Senate-Administration for School, Young people and Sport, found that samegender oriented young people experienced a suicide risk four times higher than their heterosexual
peers, while an Austrian study in 2006 found a suicide attempt rate six times higher among gay boys
(G.Faistauer, M.Plöderl, Out in der Schule, Salzburg, 2006). This study also found that young people’s
main sources of information on homosexuality were the media, their own experiences and friends as
opposed to school. Only 5% of the respondents felt teachers to be competent contacts.
An international research report by ILGA Europe and IGLYO underlines that family and school are the
44
2008 - 2010
areas with the greatest adaptation difficulties for LGBT young people. More than half the respondents
reported prejudice and discrimination in the family, two thirds negative experiences in schools. Those
manifested themselves in bullying by other students in the forms of verbal abuse, exclusion and
physical attacks. Homophobic comments from teachers were defined as a problem as well as missing
active support from teachers or the lack of LGBT lifestyle in framework and lesson plans (J.Takacs, Social
exclusion of Young LGBT People in Europe, Brussels, 2006).
All these are reasons why young people who discover same-gender feelings or doubt their sexual
identity do not embrace this discovery with joy, excitement and enthusiasm but react with fear, sorrow
or rejection and very often with silence. They do not share, because they do not know how others will
judge them. They conceal their difference and try to deal with it alone. They keep silent, because they
have no one to talk to. This puts LGBT young people in a situation of loneliness, insecurity and isolation
that their heterosexual peers will not experience. A typical statement is: “I thought I was the only one
in the world.”
As research has shown, gay and lesbian young people receive little or no support from their social
environment. They even become targets of jokes and other forms of discrimination and even physical
violence due to their feelings. The discrepancy between their own feelings and wants as well as
internalized moral ideas and rejection by the outside world leads to psycho-social problems. A Dutch
study on the situation of lesbian and gay young people in schools establishes a whole range of problems
– in addition to isolation and insecurity – that they encounter more often than their heterosexual peers.
Among these are learning problems, concentration and behaviour disorders, exaggerated naughty or
pleasing behaviour, alcohol or drug abuse, psychosomatic problems such as eating or sleeping disorders,
angst and feelings of guilt, lack of self-acceptance, avoidance of social situations, depression and and
suicide attempts (A.Kersten, Th.Sanfort, Lesbische en homoseksuele adolescenten in de schoolsituatie,
Utrecht, 1994). The living conditions of lesbian girls differ in many ways from the ones of gay boys. This
includes coming-out later, even greater insecurity and other psychic or psychosomatic problems. The
gender-specific experiences of lesbian girls correspond with the ones of their heterosexual peers.
Therefore we see that LGBT young people have to manage a difficult task during the already difficult
time of puberty. The answer to the crucial question at this age “who am I?” does not come easy to them
but has to be fought for. Coming out, the realization and acceptance of their own sexual orientation, is a
long-term process of identity development and discovery. Generally it takes two to three years until the
internal coming-out is followed by an external one: talking about their feelings with others, dialogue
and sharing and eventually the self-confident announcement “I am gay” respectively “I am a lesbian”,
so-called going public.
The process of identity discovery of transgender young people is often described as double comingout. First, the focus lies on sexual orientation (lesbian or gay coming out) then the sexual identity
(transgender coming out). Their coming out and going public as transgender is also marked by the
conflict with social representations of so-called real masculinity or femininity complicated by sexism
and homophobia. Going public stays a life-long process for LGBT people because the question “Do
I tell or don’t I?” presents itself over and over again. Depending on the personal feelings, time in life,
professional or family situation lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender decide time and time again.
Indeed, LGBT young people do not only experience difficulties and psycho-social problems. Positive
experiences such as being in love, good and close friendships, trusting and intensive conversations,
encounters with people important for their life and the freeing experience of saying ‘yes’ to themselves
and become the person that is inside them is also part their life. However all these things still only
45
2008 - 2010
happen on a small scale or too late because sexist and homophobic discrimination restrain their
possibilities of developing. On the long journey from coming out to going public LGBT young people
need information, support and back-up. In the end their happiness depends on being loved, loving
themselves and others, just like everybody else. For this, they need support and the necessary room for
self-discovery and development of their personality. Educators are needed to encourage LGBT young
people and accompany them in their development for a future of experience of social inclusion.
Useful strategies to avoid homophobia in adult education
We collected simple strategies that can help educators to create inclusive learning environments with
regard to non-heterosexual learners.
Two internet resources were found, both dealing with inclusive language of teachers in a school
setting. They can, however, easily be adapted for adult education and are quoted below in the original
wording in order to give further inspiration.
The main recommendations on the meta level, that can be applied for working with adult learners, are
summarized for the use in adult education settings here.
Recommendations:
1.
Assume that 10% of your learners in adult education may be non-heterosexual (LGBT - lesbian,
gay, bisexual, transgender).
2.
Assume that a greater number of your learners have important people in their lives who are
non-heterosexual.
3.
Change language that assumes everyone is or should be heterosexual; use “partner” rather
than “girlfriend/boyfriend,” “permanent” relationship instead of “marriage.”
4.
Actively use the terms “gay” and “lesbian” rather than “homosexual.” The term homosexual
focuses exclusively on the sexual aspect of being gay and lesbian and is associated with male sexuality
mainly.
5.
Include examples of non-heterosexual persons in your teaching in adult education (curriculum,
course materials, textbooks, learning tasks, homework, examples in discussions, case studies etc.)
6.
Do not tolerate name calling or put-downs of LGBT persons. Deal with derogatory statements
as you would deal with racist remarks.
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Pro-Gay Teaching Strategies
These teaching strategies were provided by the school district to its teachers during gay sensitivity
training at Grant High School:
1. Address negative school-based incidents on the spot targeted harassment, put-downs
(whether or not targeted to individuals), anti-gay jokes and grafitti, and labeling.
2. Change language that assumes everyone is or should be heterosexual (use “partner”
rather than boyfriend or girlfriend, “permanent relationship” rather than marriage).
3. Change human relations and personnel policies to protect students and staff from
discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation; train personnel to follow up violations.
4. Identify gay/lesbian contributions throughout the curriculum (history, literature, art, science,
religion, etc.).
5. Provide history of oppression (such as the Holocaust, origins of defamatory terms for gay
people).
6. Submit requests to improve library holdings (both fiction and nonfiction) related to sexual
diversity.
7. Develop and/or advertise resources (support groups) for lesbian/gay students and their
families.
8. Include issues for gay/lesbian students and staff in coverage in school newspaper.
9. Bring in openly gay/lesbian adults as resources in classes and assemblies.
10. Include gay/lesbian concerns in all prevention programs (suicide, dropout, pregnancy, etc.)
and in training of peer leaders, student government, etc.
Portland Oregonian. Sunday, February 25, 1996. (Emphasis ours.)
Source:
www.defendthefamily.com/pfrc/books/sevensteps/Chapter1/index.html
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Including Gay and Lesbian Youth
Many gay and lesbian youth engage in sexual intercourse with members of the other sex. They may
engage in intercourse to try convincing themselves or others they are not gay or lesbian, they may
simply be experimenting, or they may have other reasons. Regardless of the reason, these youth face
the risk of unintended pregnancy and need to know about pregnancy prevention.
Unwittingly, many instructors alienate gay and lesbian youth during pregnancy prevention lessons
with the language they use. Taking steps to creating a classroom climate that is safe for and inclusive of
gay and lesbian youth is important if we want to include them in the learning.
The following simple strategies will help educators create safe, productive learning environments for
their gay and lesbian students.
1. Assume that 10% of youth may be gay or lesbian and that a greater number of youth have
important people in their lives who are gay or lesbian.
2. Change language that assumes everyone is or should be heterosexual; use “partner” rather than
“girlfriend/boyfriend,” “permanent” relationship instead of “marriage.”
3. Use the term “sexual orientation” rather than “sexual preference” to avoid the inference that
homosexuality is just a choice one makes.
4. When talking about puberty, describe sexual development in terms of becoming aware of
romantic attractions and sexual feelings for someone rather than “when you become attracted to
the opposite sex.”
5. Use the terms “gay” and “lesbian” rather than “homosexual.” The term homosexual focuses
exclusively on the sexual aspect of being gay and lesbian.
6. Do not tolerate name calling or put-downs of gays and lesbians. Deal with derogatory statements
as you would ethnic or racial slurs.
In addition to these simple strategies, you should become aware of local organizations and support
groups for gay and lesbian youth. Share these resources with your students as appropriate.
Source:
www.etr.org/recapp/index.cfm?fuseaction=pages.LearningActivitiesDetail&PageID=175
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PARTNERS
C.E.R.P.A. Italia (Italy)
“Centro Europeo di Ricerca e Promozione dell’Accessibilità ITALIA”
(European Centre of Research and Promotion of Accessibility) has the
main purpose to contribute to the promotion of a better quality of
life, a higher degree of urban-building accessibility and usability for
all individuals of all social categories, paying particular attention to
those categories considered to be weaker.
www.cerpa.it
Arcilesbica (Italy)
During the learning partnership the purpose of Arcilesbica - as a
political and cultural national wide lesbian association involved in
the promotion of the rights and of the affirmative actions for lgbt
people in Italy - is to analyse thoroughly the forms assumed by the
aversive discrimination and the modern heterosexism in the different
social aspects; with a particular concern to the adult education, in
order to provide all the awareness elements helping to overcome
the individual and collective discriminatory acts. We have started the
learning process discussing the paper “Toward a Multidimensional
Understanding of Heterosexism: The Changing Nature of Prejudice”,
written by N. Eugene Walls, PhD Assistant Professor at the University
of Denver. He extends the theoretical understanding of modern prejudice into the realm of heterosexism and writes
about modern heterosexism conceptually and empirical distinct from the more traditional hostile heterosexism.
He argues that group inequalities in social, political, and economic outcomes have existed in all societies and that
the inequalities in the social structure and its institutions are maintained by attitudes and ideologies that justify the
stratification. Some of the more recent work on prejudice and stereotypes has examined the ways in which they have
actually changed over time. What has historically been a predominately hostile cluster of attitudes toward lower
status groups has evolved, in some cases, into a set of attitudes with more ambivalent and/or positively valenced
components.
www.arcilesbica.it
Internet Rights Bulgaria Foundation (Bulgaria)
Internet Rights Bulgaria Foundation (IRBF) aims to promote initiatives
in the social and human rights sectors in Bulgaria. We encourage notfor-profit organisations and social movements working in these sectors
to use the Internet for publicising their activities and for networking
with others who share their aims, both within Bulgaria and abroad.
We also work to defend and extend their communication rights. Historical facts indicate that Bulgarian people are
tolerant towards ethnic origin, religion, sex, social status, disabilities, age, etc. Current Bulgarian legislation ranks the
country among the most advanced in Europe in terms of constitutional and legislative definition of discrimination
and the fights against its manifestation. In this field the role of media is considerable as creators and disseminator of
stereotypes concerning different minority groups. In spite of all, discrimination in Bulgaria still exists, even if it is not
always shown in a open and manifested way.
www.irbf.ngo-bg.org
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bfi Steiermark (Austria)
As a practical approach of what can be done against discrimination
in the sense of creating an environment of inclusion, bfi Steiermark
has presented detailed aspects of its intercultural competence
and its expertise in active integration of unemployed and disabled
people especially through its commitment in labour market projects,
EU projects, and projects run by the Austrian Federal Social Office.
As a vocational training institute with 20 locations situated all over
Styria, bfi Steiermark offers various kinds of courses (apprenticeship training, vocational preparation courses,
advanced training courses, seminars and workshop as well as individual coaching) in a wide range of sectors (office
and management, metal and electrical technologies, health and well-being services, wood and construction, IT,
personality and management training, tourism and catering, logistics, transport, and traffic etc.) while focusing on
vocational training in the field of corporate training and on measures of active labour market policy with the aim to
develop equal opportunities for unemployed women and men, migrants of all ages, disabled people, young people
as well as women and men who are older than 50.
bfi Steiermark focuses on visualizing and developing the competences of migrants - in labour market projects as
well as in projects run by the Austrian Federal Social Office. In these projects, the emphasis is on supporting women
in coping with their everyday life in Graz and its surroundings and in getting access to the Styrian labour market.
bfi Steiermark tries to prevent migrants from ghettoizing by offering seminars in various fields (German language
courses, social competence courses, soft skill and ICT-seminars, etc.).
www.bfi-stmk.at
KomBi – Communication and Education (Germany)
KomBi is a non-governmental educational institution based in Berlin
offering training and counselling on the issues of diversity, gender and
sexual identity. The main target groups are educational practitioners
and children and youth attending schools. KomBi has been engaged
in anti-discrimination and lesbian-gay emancipation since 1981 in the
educational sector. The aims of KomBi’s work are fostering respect,
acceptance and democratic consciousness, acknowledgement of
social diversity and prevention of hate crimes.KomBi applies a diversity
approach with reference to the generic non-discrimination clause
(Article 13) of the European Community Treaty and Article 21 of the
Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union. The focus of
the trainings lies on raising awareness of social diversity related to skin
colour, ethnic background, age, (dis)ability, religion, sexual identity
and gender, using the examples of gender equality and acceptance of LGBT (lesbian/gay/bisexual/transgender) ways
of life. Based on its pedagogical approach of Lebensfomenpdagogik (Pedagogy of Ways of Life) KomBi developed
educational concepts and tools to address sexual diversity and to challenge homophobia at schools and in youth work.
Within the Learning Partnership “UAV” KomBi will share its experience and expertise in anti-discrimination
with a focus on challenging gender-based discrimination and homophobia in the field of adult education.
On the other hand KomBi will enlarge its knowledge in the field of aversive discrimination, especially
on the grounds of disability, gender and sexual orientation and from an international perspective.
www.kombi-berlin.de
50
2008 - 2010
51

Aversive DiscriminAtion

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