Diapositiva 1 - Journal of the Professional Association for Cactus

Transcription

ISSN 1938-663X
Volume 11, 2009
Journal of the
Professional Association
for Cactus Development
ISSN 1938–663X
Volume 11, 2009
Journal of the
The editors of the Journal of the Professional Association for Cactus Development are very excited to be
a part of the excellent editorial committee and to work together to create the synergism between
scientists, growers, legislators, and business people so vital to the development of this industry to serve
the people of arid lands.
Head of the Editorial Board
Ricardo David Valdez–Cepeda
Northern Regional Center of Chapingo University. Zacatecas, Mexico.
[email protected]
Editorial Assistant
Fidel Blanco–Macías
Northern Regional Center of Chapingo University. Zacatecas, Mexico.
Associate Editors
Octavio Paredes–López
National Polytechnic Institute, CINVESTAV. Irapuato, Mexico.
[email protected]
Erick de la Barrera
National Autonomous University of Mexico, Research Center for Ecosystems. Morelia, Mexico.
[email protected]
Gilberto Aranda–Osorio
Chapingo University, Animal Husbandry Department. Chapingo, Mexico.
[email protected]
Published volumes are numbered consecutively. The journal was not published in 1999, 2000 and
2002. Copying all or parts of this document for resale requires written permission of the Professional
Association for Cactus Development.
Copyright © 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2001, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, and 2008 by the
Professional Association for Cactus Development. All rights reserved. Printed in the USA.
Editorial Board
 Birgit Arnholdt–Schmitt, EU Marie Curie Chair, ICAM, University of Évora, Portugal. Biotechnological
aspects.
 Gilberto Aranda–Osorio, PhD, University of Saskatchewan, Canada. Professor, Departamento de
Zootecnia of the Universidad Autónoma Chapingo, Mexico. Forage evaluation and utilization.
 Erick de la Barrera, PhD, University of California, Los Angeles. Centro de Investigaciones en
Ecosistemas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Mexico. Reproductive ecophysiology of CAM
plants.
 Ron Bunch, PhD, University of Wisconsin. D’Arrigo Bros, Salinas, California. Agronomy and breeding
aspects.
 Francisco Campos, PhD, University of Durham, Durham, England. Professor, Department of
Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Ceará, Brazil.
 Innocenza Chessa, Dipartimento di Economia e Sistemi Arborei (DESA), Università degli Studi di
Sassari, Sardinia.
 Victor García de Cortázar, PhD, University of California, Los Angeles. Departamento de Ingeniería y
Suelos, Facultad de Ciencias Agronómicas, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile. Agronomy and
ecophysiological aspects.
 Peter Felker, PhD, Michigan State University. D'Arrigo Bros, Salinas, California. General papers.
 Juan Carlos Guevara, Ing. Agr. Instituto Argentino de Investigaciones de las Zonas Aridas (IADIZA),
Mendoza, Argentina. Economic aspects.
 Rômulo Menezes, PhD. Colorado State University. Adjunct Professor at the Universidade Federal de
Pernambuco in Recife. Fertility relations.
 Yosef Mizrahi, PhD, Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Department of Life Sciences, Ben–Gurion
University of the Negev, Israel.
 Candelario Mondragón–Jacobo, PhD, Purdue University. Programa de Nopal y Frutales, Instituto
Nacional de Investigaciones, Queretaro, Mexico.
 Park Nobel, PhD, University of California–Berkeley. Professor, University of California–Los Angeles,
Los Angeles, California. Ecophysiological aspects.
 Andrew Paterson, PhD, Cornell University. Professor and Director, Plant Mapping Laboratory,
University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia. Genetic aspects.
 Liberato Portillo, PhD, University of Guadalajara. Professor and Researcher in Laboratory of
Biotechnology.
 Armida Rodriguez–Felix, MSc, Researcher, CIAD (Research Center for Food and Development), A.C.
in Mexico.
 Jesús Fuentes–Rodríguez, PhD, Colorado State University. Dean of the Graduate School, Universidad
Autónoma Agraria Antonio Narro, Saltillo, Mexico. Forage/livestock aspects.
 Carmen Saenz, Professor, Doctorate, University of Madrid, Spain, Food Technology University of
Chile, Santiago, Chile. Food chemistry and technology aspects.
 Schalk vdM Louw, DSc, University of Pretoria. Professor of Entomology, Department of Zoology &
Entomology, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein 9300, South Africa.
 Florian C. Stintzing, PhD, Food Technologist, Hohenheim University, Institute for Food Technology.
Plant foodstuff technology. August–von–Hartmann–Str. 3, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany.
 Wijnand Johannes Swart, MSc, University of Stellenbosch. Chairperson, Centre for Plant Health
Management, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences at the University of the Free State, South
Africa.
 Sergio Uhart, PhD, Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata. Senior Scientist (Southern Cone Tropical
Corn Breeding Program Leader), Dow AgroSciences Argentina.
 Ricardo David Valdez–Cepeda, PhD, Facultad de Agronomía of Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo
León, México. Professor at Centro Regional Universitario Centro Norte of Universidad Autónoma
Chapingo, Zacatecas, México.
 Helmuth Zimmerman. PhD. Entomological aspects.
 James Moss, MSc. The University of Texas at Dallas, Environmental Sciences. Advisor about JPACD
editing, production, and administration.
Journal of the
ISSSN 1938–663X
Volume 11, 2009
Cover: An Opuntia ficus–indica L. plant. Photo by Ricardo D. Valdez–Cepeda. See JPACD
(2004) 6: 78–89.
Contents
Producing ice cream with concentrated cactus pear pulp: A preliminary
study
S.K. El Samahy, K.M. Youssef, and T.E. Moussa–Ayoub
Hydroponic production of nopal (Opuntia ficus–indica) using water with
high salt content
R.E. Vázquez Alvarado, E. Salazar–Sosa, J.L. García–Hernández, E. Olivares–Sáenz,
C. Vázquez–Vázquez, J.D. López–Martínez, and I. Orona–Castillo
In vitro propagation of Pilosocereus robinii (Lemaire) Byles et Rowley,
endemic and endangered cactus
Elisa Quiala, Jesús Matos, Grecia Montalvo, Manuel de Feria, Maité Chavez, Alina
Capote, Naivy Pérez, Raúl Barbón, and Britta Kowalski
Structural polysaccharides in xoconostle (Opuntia matudae) fruits with
different ripening stages
Rosario Álvarez Armenta and Cecilia Beatriz Peña–Valdivia
Chemical, biochemical, and fatty acids composition of seeds of Opuntia
boldinghii Britton et Rose
D.M. García Pantaleón, M. Flores Ortiz, M.J. Moreno Álvarez, D.R. Belén Camacho,
C.A. Medina Martínez, C.E. Ojeda Escalona, and C.A. Padrón Pereira
Root growth, yield and mineral concentration of Opuntia ficus–indica (L.)
Mill. under different fertilization treatments
Rafael Zúñiga–Tarango, Ignacio Orona–Castillo, Cirilo Vázquez–Vázquez,
Bernardo Murillo–Amador, Enrique Salazar–Sosa, José Dimas López–Martínez,
José Luis García–Hernández, and Edgar Rueda–Puente
Mycorrhiza effect on nutritional quality and biomas production of Agave
(Agave americana L.) and cactus pear (Opuntia lindheimeri Engelm.)
José Romualdo Martínez–López, Rigoberto Eustacio Vázquez–Alvarado, Erasmo
Gutiérrez–Ornelas, María de los Ángeles Peña del Río, Rubén López–Cervantes,
Emilio Olivares–Sáenz, Juan Antonio Vidales–Contreras, and Ricardo David
Valdez–Cepeda
Making of bakery products using composite flours: Wheat and cactus pear
(Opuntia boldinghii Britton et Rose) stems (cladodes)
M.J. Moreno–Álvarez, R. Hernández, D.R. Belén–Camacho, C.A. Medina–Martínez,
C.E. Ojeda–Escalona, and D.M. García–Pantaleón
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13
18
26
45
53
69
78
Producing ice cream with concentrated cactus pear pulp:
A preliminary study
S.K. El–Samahy, K.M. Youssef * and T.E. Moussa–Ayoub*
Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Agriculture,
Suez Canal University, 41522, Ismailia, Egypt
* Corresponding authors
E-mail: [email protected]
Received 5 July, 2007; accepted 10 January, 2009
Abstract
Red cactus pear (Opuntia ficus–indica) pulp was tested for some technological and chemical
characteristics. The pulp was concentrated up to 30°Brix then added at four levels (0, 5, 10 and
15%) to basic ice cream mix. The basic mix contained 0.5% gelatin, 8% fat and 10.5% milk solids
non–fat (MSNF), and 16% sucrose. Some of rheological parameters of both mixes and resultant ice
cream samples, in addition to some technological characteristics of resultant ice cream samples
were measured. The rheological properties of all ice cream mixes before and after aging showed
that the flow behavior of mixes is non–Newtonian besides being pseudoplastic behavior. While
specific gravity and weight per gallon of resultant ice cream samples increased by increasing of
added pulp, overrun decreased. Sensory evaluation of resultant ice cream samples showed that
sample with 5% cactus was very desirable and very close to control sample. This work shows the
possibility of producing a new product of ice cream using cactus pear pulp as a good fruit substitute.
Key words: Cactus pear pulp, ice cream, rheological properties, sensory evaluation.
Introduction
In recent years, the light has focused on foods rich in nutraceuticals and functional properties. From
this point of view, the consumer's trend has been toward foods with more natural antioxidants,
dietary fibers, natural colorants, minerals, vitamins, low calories, low cholesterol, and low fat and
free of synthetic additives, etc. While ice cream could be poor in some of these characteristics,
cactus pear fruit is one of the good natural sources of these nutraceuticals and functional
components.
Cactus pear fruit, which usually eaten fresh and could be processed into many different products
(Saenz, 2000), is a fleshy berry varying in shape, size and color and consists of a thick peel and a
delicate flavored juicy edible pulp with many hard seeds. The attractive color of the fruit's peel and
pulp varies between soft green, greenish-white, canary-yellow, orange- yellow, lemon–yellow, red,
cherry–red and purple hues (Gurrieri et al., 2000; Muñoz de Chavez et al. 1995; Saenz and
Sepulveda, 2001). These attractive colors due to being the fruit the main source of the natural
colorants betalains, betacyanins (red–violet) and betaxanthin (yellow–orange) (Fernandez–Lopez
J. PACD (2009) 11: 1–12
1
and Almela, 2001; Odoux and Dominguez-Lopez, 1996; Saenz, 2002; Stintzing et al., 1999b,
2002). These colors in contrast to anthocyanins maintain their appearance over a wide pH range
from 4 to 7, and this property makes them ideal pigments for coloring foodstuff of different kinds
especially the low-acidic foods (Krifa et al., 1994; Saenz, 2002; Stintzing et al., 2000).
The fruit pulp has high pH value (5.3 to 7.1), very low acidity (0.01% to 0.18% in citric acid) and
total soluble solids content (10.7°Brix to 17°Brix) which are mainly reducing sugars (glucose as the
predominant sugar and fructose) (Abdel–Nabey, 2001; Askar and EL–Samahy, 1981; Barbera et al.,
1992; Barbagallo et al., 1998; El–Samahy et al., 2006a,b; Gurrieri et al., 2000; Kuti, 1992; Parish
and Felker, 1997; Piga et al., 2003; Russell and Felker, 1987; Saenz, 1985; Saenz and Sepulveda,
1999; Sawaya et al., 1983; Sepulveda and Saenz, 1999; Sepulveda et al., 2000). The high pH and
very low acidity make the cactus pear pulp very suitable as substitutions in low–acid foods which
influenced by acidity like ice cream.
Cactus pear is a source of natural antioxidants (such as vitamin C, betalins, plyphenols, flavonoids,
and taurine) and also source of pectin and mucilaginous components (complex plysaccharides,
mainly composed of arabinose, galactose, rhamnose, and galacturonic acid), which have been
shown to serve as thickening agents and form viscous colloids (Galati et al., 2003; Kuti, 2004; Piga,
2004; Piga et al., 2003; Saenz, 2002; Saenz-Hernandez, 1995; Saenz et al., 1992; Stintzing et al.,
2000, 2001). The fruit has good content of amino acids, especially proline and taurine (Stintzing et
al., 1999a, 2001). Taurine (2-aminoethane sulfonic acid) is a conditional essential nonproteinogenic amino acid and has been used in some treatments of many diseases and disorders.
Taurine widely distributes in many animal food sources, exception of cow’s milk, and is virtually
absent in the higher plants especially fruits (AACE, 2003; Cho, et al., 2006; Kindler, 1989;
Lombardini, 1991; Parcell, 2002; Stintzing et al., 1999a;).
Ice cream is considered as a food of high nutritional and caloric density. Commercially ice cream is
made from a mixture of milk and other ingredients such as fat milk, non–fat solids including
proteins, lactose, sweeteners, stabilizers and emulsifiers, in addition to flavors and colorants.
Although ice cream is rich in calories, it is poor in dietary fibers and some of natural antioxidants
such as taurine, vitamine C, colors and polyphenolic compounds.
The aim of this investigation is to study the possibility of producing a new accepted product of ice
cream using concentrated cactus pear pulp, and to evaluate the rheological behavior of mixes and
some characteristics of resultant ice cream.
Materials and methods
Materials
Cactus pear pulp
Representative half–ripened red cactus pear fruits were collected from a specialized orchard located
in Al Sharqiyah region, Egypt. Figures 1–3 show the fruit and plant. The fruits were washed,
manually peeled and blended for five seconds in a blender (Moulinex, 300W, type 721, France) to
facilitate seeds separation, and then were sieved to separate the seeds only from the full pulp. The
pulp were pasteurized at 80ºC for 10 minutes and then concentrated by evaporation under vacuum
at 60°C until reached 30°Brix using an evaporator device (Büchi Rotavapor, RE 111, Switzerland).
Other Ingredients
Fresh buffalo’s milk (6% fat) was obtained from a private farm. Skim milk powder, gelatin, fresh
cream (25% fat) and sugar were brought from the local market.
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J. PACD (2009) 11: 1−12
Basic Ice Cream Mix
According to the Egyptian standards of ice cream (2005), the basic ice cream mix contained 0.5%
gelatin, 8% fat and 10.5% milk solids non–fat (MSNF). The sugar content was adjusted at 16% by
sucrose in the control mixture. The concentrated pulp was added to the basic ice cream mixture at
four levels (0, 5, 10 and 15%) with keeping content of other ingredients at stable level.
Processing Method
The processing method used was as follows: the required amounts of skim milk powder was mixed
with gelatin and sucrose, and then added slowly to the liquid ingredients (milk and cream) at 45°C
under vigorous agitation. The basic mixes were pasteurized at 80°C for 10 minutes in water bath,
and then cooled to 4°C in ice bath. The required amounts of concentrated pulp, which already
pasteurized before, were blended with the cooled basic mixes in a blender for 2 minutes. After that
all mixes were aged for 24 hours at 4°C before frozen in an ice cream machine (Taylor-male, Model
156, Italy). The produced ice cream was packaged in cups (100cc) and placed in a freezing cabinet
at –18°C for 24 hours at least before evaluation.
Assessment of chemical and Technological Properties
All chemical properties of cactus pear pulps were determined according to AOAC, 1990. Color
attributes (L*, a* and b*) were evaluated using a Minolta Color Reader CR-10 (Minolta Co. Ltd.,
Japan).
Specific gravity of resultant ice cream samples was determined as described by Winton (1958) at
20°C. Specific gravity of ice creams was determined by means of filling a cool cup (with known
weight and volume), with the resultant ice cream and then weighted.
Specific gravity
Weight of ice cream
Cup volume
The weight per gallon of ice cream in kilograms was determined according to Burake (1947) by
multiplying the specific gravity of the frozen ice cream by the factor 4.5461.
Overrun of ice cream (%) was calculated as mentioned by Arbuckle (1977) by application of the
following equation:
%Overrun
Weight of mix Weight of the same volume of ice cream 100
Weight of the same volume of ice cream
Rheological properties
Rheological properties parameters of prepared ice cream mixes before and after aging (24 hours at
4°C) were measured by the Brookfield Digital Rheometer model DV–III at 5ºC. The Brookfield
small sample adapter and Sc4-14 spindle were used. The data were analyzed by using the Bingham
plastic, IPC paste and Power Law mathematical models to provide a numerically and graphically
analysis of the behavior of data sets (Hegedusic et al., 1995). These models are:
τ = τo + ηγ, η = KRn, τ = Kγn , respectively.
Where:
τ = sheer stress (N m-2)
J. PACD (2009) 11: 1–12
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τo = yield stress, shear stress at zero shear rate (N m-2)
η = plastic viscosity (m Pa s) for Bingham and 10 rpm viscosity (m Pa s) for IPC paste
γ = shear rate (s-1)
K = consistency multiplier (m Pa s) for IPC paste and
K = consistency index (m Pa s) for Power Law
R = rotational speed (rpm)
n = shear sensitivity factor for IPC paste and flow index for Power Law.
Sensory evaluation
Sensory evaluation of the resultant ice cream samples was carried out by the staff members and
semi–trained panelists. Before evaluation ice cream samples were moved from the hardening
cabinet and placed in a freezer with a temperature ranging from –15 to –12°C in order to temper the
samples uniformly. Scoring was carried out according to Nelson and Trout (1951) for flavor (45)
and body and texture (30).
Statistical analysis
The results are presented as means, plus or minus standard deviation, from three replicates of each
experiment, except color attributes (10 replicates). The analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried
out to test the possible significance (p=0.05) among mean values of sensory evaluation using
Fisher’s Least Significance Difference (LSD) as described by Ott (1984).
Results and discussion
Technological and chemical characteristics of red cactus pear pulp
Technological and chemical characteristics pulp (Table 1) indicate that cactus pear pulp has a high
pH vale and low acidity (in citric acid) which make it a very suitable as a food substitution
especially with low acid foods like ice cream. In addition to that, cactus pulp has very attractive
colors and good contents of sugars, protein, dietary fibers, pectin, ash, vitamin C, and free amino
acids which expressed as phormol number (Abdel–Nabey, 2001; Askar and El–Samahy, 1981; El–
Samahy et al. 2006a, 2006b; Parish and Felker, 1997; Saenz, 1985; Saenz and Sepulveda, 1999;
Sawaya et al., 1983; Sepulveda and Saenz, 1999; Sepulveda et al., 2000). Also the high sugar/acid
ratio gives more sweetness to cactus pulp. Obtained data shows clearly that cactus pear pulp could
be a good source of energy and nutritive components.
Effect of cactus pulp on rheological properties of ice cream mixes before and after aging
Viscosity greatly influences overrun (Arbuckle, 1977; Goff, et al. 1994; Muse, 2004). So,
measurement of viscosity is very important to measure the effect of cactus pulp on characteristics of
ice cream mixes.
Shear stress (τ) was measured at different rotation velocities at different shear rates (γ) and
rheological parameters at 5°C before and after aging of all ice cream mixes. The obtained relations
were plotted in Figures 4a,b and the rheological parameters were recorded for all mixes in Table 2.
From the given figures, it appears that shear stress-shear rate curves were non–linear, which related
to non–Newtonian behavior. All mixes had pseudoplastic behavior either before or after aging.
Recorded results in Table 2. For all mixes before and after aging showed that consistency
coefficient, plastic viscosity, yield stress, 10 RPM viscosity and shear sensitivity were increased by
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J. PACD (2009) 11: 1−12
adding concentrated pulp to basic ice cream mix, but the flow behavior index (n) decreased. These
trends of rheological parameters values may be due to the pulp contents of polysaccharides such as
fibers, pectin and the mucilaginous components. Aging caused an increase in all rheological
parameters, except flow behavior index (n), it may due to the effect of many factors such complexes
which could be formed during aging between the components like pectin and sugars, in addition to
hardening of fat particles.
Table 1. Some technological and chemical characteristics of red cactus pear pulp.
Characteristic
Value
pH value
6.14 ± 0.03
Acidity, %
0.05 ± 0.002
TSS (°Brix)
11.25 ± 0.2
Vitamin C (mg 100 g-1 )
18.65 ± 0.3
Formol number (mg 100 g-1 )
23.06 ± 0.4
Color attributes, L*
25.00 ± 0.7
6.90 ± 0.3
A*
b*
2.10 ± 0.1
Moisture, %
87.10 ± 1.2
TS, %
12.90 ± 0.9
Total Sugars, % *
86.85 ± 0.8
Reducing sugars, % *
82.98 ± 0.8
AIS, %*
7.35 ± 0.3
Protein, %*
5.26 ± 0.15
Pectin, %*
2.44 ± 0.2
Fiber, %*
1.44 ± 0.05
Ash, %*
2.27 ± 0.06
Sugar/ acidity ratio
224.07 ± 3.5
* Calculated on dry weight basis
Values are means ± SD (n = 3)
Figure 1. Red cactus pear fruit.
J. PACD (2009) 11: 1–12
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Figure 2. Internal longitudinal view of the fruit.
Figure 3. Overview of cactus pear plant and orchard.
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120
Shear
stress
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
Shear rate
60
70
80
90
100
(a) Before aging
120
Shear stress
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Shear rate
control
5% concentrated red pulp
Shear stress (N m-2), Shear rate (s-1)
(b) After aging
Figure 4. Shear stress–shear rate curves of ice cream mixes with different ratios
of concentrated red cactus pear pulp.
J. PACD (2009) 11: 1–12
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Table 2. Rheological parameters (5ºC) before and after aging of ice cream mixes
for 24 hours at 4ºC.
Parameters for different models
Power law
Ice cream mix
Before Aging
0% cactus pulp
5% cactus pulp
10% cactus pulp
15% cactus pulp
After Aging
0% cactus pulp
5% cactus pulp
10% cactus pulp
15% cactus pulp
Bingham
IPC paste
K
n
Η
τo
10 RPM
viscosity
N1
59.1
226.1
474.8
554.9
0.85
0.68
0.58
0.57
288.9
445.7
547.1
614.8
1.98
8.46
17.0
18.6
483.5
1444
2655
3055
0.15
0.32
0.42
0.43
524.3
687.2
935.8
1104
0.59
0.57
0.51
0.49
663.7
726.8
766.8
769.7
18.3
22.5
30.0
34.0
2989
3782
4740
5439
0.41
0.43
0.49
0.51
K= consistency coefficient (mPa.Sn); n = Flow behavior index (dimensionless); η = plastic viscosity (mPa S);
τo = yield stress (N/m2); 10 RPM viscosity (mPa S); N1= shear sensitivity (dimensionless).
Some characteristics of resultant ice cream
Results recorded in Table 3 indicated that overrun (in %) values of ice cream were decreased as
cactus pulp level increased ranging from 55.71% to 43.11% for ice creams with substitution levels 0
to 15% of concentrated cactus pulp, respectively. An opposite trend of the specific gravity and
weight per gallon of the resultant ice cream with the increment of adding pulp was evidenced. The
decrement of overrun and increment of both specific gravity and weight per gallon of ice cream by
increasing of substitution levels of concentrated pulp may be attributed to increment of mix’s
viscosity which extremely affects on whipping rate of mixes (Arbuckle, 1977).
Table 3. Effect of adding of concentrated cactus pear pulp on characteristics of resultant ice cream.
Ice cream characteristics
Ratio of added concentrated cactus pulp
0%
5%
10%
15%
Specific gravity (g cm–3)
0.71 ± 0.08
0.83 ± 0.08
0.84 ± 0.065
0.86 ± 0.05
Weight per gallon (kg)
3.25 ± 0.30
3.76 ± 0.3
3.84 ± 0.3
3.91 ± 0.3
Overrun (%)
55.71 ± 3.75
46.67 ± 3.2
43.78 ± 3.5
43.11 ± 3.5
Values are means ± SD (n = 3)
Sensory evaluation of ice cream
Table 4 shows that characteristics of resultant ice cream were influenced by adding cactus pulp. The
resultant ice cream with substitution levels 5 and 10% of concentrated pulp were very desirable.
The samples with 5% level were very close to the control samples organoleptically.
Conclusions
This primary study shows the potential value of cactus pear fruits as a good natural source of energy
and nutritive components. Based on its low acidity, high sweetness, nutritive value and attractive
stable colors, cactus pear fruit may be a good suitable source of natural additives or substituted
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J. PACD (2009) 11: 1−12
materials for production of many foods like ice cream. Addition of concentrated cactus pulp to ice
cream mix resulted a very desirable product especially at 5% substitution, therefore we extremely
believe in the possibility of producing highly delicate and nutritive cactus pear ice cream on the
industrial scale.
Table 4. Effect of concentrated cactus pear pulp on organoleptic properties of resultant ice cream.
Organoleptic characteristic
Flavor (45)
Body & texture (30)
Total score (75)
0%
43.9a
29.1a
73.0a
Ratio of added concentrated cactus pulp
5%
10%
b
41.0
38.0c
29.6a
28.4b
b
70.6
68.4c
15%
37.0c
26.9c
63.9d
Means having the same letter with each property are not significantly different at p < 0.05.
Very desirable (65-75), desirable (55-64), acceptable (45-54), fair (35-44), unacceptable (<34).
References
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12
J. PACD (2009) 11: 1−12
Producción de nopal verdura (Opuntia ficus-indica) en hidroponía
empleando agua con alto contenido de sales
Hydroponic production of nopal (Opuntia ficus-indica)
using water with high salt content
R.E. Vázquez Alvarado1, E. Salazar-Sosa2, J.L. García-Hernández2,3*, E. Olivares-Saenz1,
C. Vázquez-Vázquez2, J.D. López-Martínez2, I. Orona-Castillo2
1
Facultad de Agronomía, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León. Carretera Zuazua-Marín,
Km 17.5. Apdo. Postal 358, C.P. 66450, San Nicolás de los Garza, N.L., México
2
3
Facultad de Agronomía y Zootecnia, Universidad Juárez de Estado de Durango.
Dom. Conocido Ejido Venecia, Gómez Palacio, Dgo., México.
Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste, S.C. La Paz, Baja California Sur, México
*Corresponding author: Tel: +52-612-123-8484 Ext. 3449; Fax +52-612-123-8525;
Received March 21, 2008; Accepted 10 January, 2009
Resumen
Se estableció un experimento para evaluar la producción de cuatro cultivares de nopal Opuntia
ficus-indica (Villanueva, COPENA-V1, COPENA-F1, y Jalpa) en hidroponía utilizando agua con
elevado contenido de sales (CE: 4.2 dS m-1). Se usó una solución nutritiva para proporcionar a las
plantas los elementos necesarios para su desarrollo. Los resultados indicaron que el valor de
rendimiento acumulado mayor lo presentó el cultivar Villanueva (69 ton ha-1), seguido por
COPENA-V1, Jalpa y COPENA-F1 (63.6, 55.5, y 53 ton ha-1, respectivamente).
Palabras clave: nopal verdura, nopalito, cladodio, solución nutritiva, salinidad.
Abstract
This experiment was established to evaluate the production of four cultivars of Opuntia ficus-indica
(Villanueva, COPENA V1, COPENA F1, and Jalpa) using water with high salt content (EC: 4 dS
m-1). A nutrient solution was used to provide the needed elements to the plants. Results showed that
the highest value of accumulated yield was observed for Villanueva (69 ton ha-1), followed by
COPENA-V1, Jalpa, and COPENA-F1 (63.6, 55.5, and 53 ton ha-1, respectively).
Keywords: green vegetable, cactus pear, young cladodes, nutrient solution, salinity
J. PACD (2009) 11: 13–17 13 Introducción
El nopal (Opuntia spp.) ha demostrado su capacidad de adaptación a ambientes adversos (Pimienta,
1994). Ha sido muy escasa la investigación en nopal considerando los efectos de la salinidad, pero
aún así se ha señalado la posibilidad de que ésta especie pueda ser manejada en ambientes salinos
(Murillo-Amador et al., 2001). También se ha reportado que las especies de Opuntia son, en
general, tolerantes a sequía pero susceptibles a la salinidad (Nerd et al., 1991). Este trabajo plantea
el objetivo de evaluar la producción de cuatro cultivares de O. ficus-indica en un sistema
hidropónico con reciclaje de la solución nutritiva empleando agua con un alto contenido de sales (4
dS m-1).
Materiales y métodos
El presente estudio se realizó en la Facultad de Agronomía de la Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo
León en Marín N.L. Se usaron dos contenedores de forma rectangular (15.0 m x 1.10 m x 0.2 m).
Se utilizó agua para riego con alto nivel de salinidad (4.2 dS m-1). Se regó con una solución
nutritiva por sub-irrigación hasta saturación. El agua de riego se recicló a una cisterna para su uso
posterior. El retorno de la solución nutritiva se efectuó a través del mismo tubo alimentador
colocado en la cabecera del contenedor. El sustrato fue una mezcla de 73.88 % de arena, 12.72 %
de limo y 13.40 % de arcilla. El sustrato fue previamente lavado y desinfectado con una solución
con base en ácido sulfúrico grado técnico. La solución nutritiva utilizada fue la sugerida por
Robbins (1946): 282 ppm de N, 60 ppm de P, 250 ppm de K, 200 ppm de Ca, 50 ppm de Mg, 0.5
ppm de Fe, 0.25 ppm de Zc, 0.25 ppm de Mn, 0.25 ppm de B, 0.02 de Cu, y 0.01 ppm de Mb. Los
cultivares de nopal (Opuntia ficus-indica) fueron: Villanueva, Jalpa, COPENA–V1, y COPENA-F1.
Cada cladodio madre recibió un tratamiento con caldo bórdeles. Después de una semana de secado
y cicatrización se procedió a la plantación de los cladodios hasta un tercio de su longitud dentro del
sustrato. Se colocaron 16 cladodios por m2. Posteriormente, se efectuaron los riegos con la solución
nutritiva. Se plantaron 28 pencas de nopal por tratamiento. Con la finalidad de eliminar algún
“efecto de orilla”, la parcela útil fue de 20 pencas por tratamiento, cosechando las dos hileras
centrales y dejando las otras dos como bordo de protección, así como 25 cm de cada cabecera. La
cosecha del nopalito fue llevada a cabo en forma manual, usando una cuchilla y cortando la base del
nopalito, realizándose cuando estos alcanzaron aproximadamente 15 cm de largo desechando los
nopalitos de menor longitud. Se realizaron 22 cosechas (cortes) de nopalito, una vez por semana
cada cosecha. El primer corte se efectuó dos meses después de la plantación. En cada corte y
cultivar se evaluaron las siguientes variables: rendimiento (fresco), número de brotes, largo y ancho
del nopalito, peso fresco, volumen y número de nopalitos. El diseño experimental utilizado fue un
bloques al azar, con cuatro tratamientos constituidos por los cuatro cultivares con dos repeticiones.
Resultados y discusión
En el Cuadro 1 se observa, para cada cultivar, a los promedios de las variables componentes del
rendimiento. En la Figura 1 se aprecia que las fechas de corte se hicieron cada semana. En el
Cuadro 2 se presentan los valores de rendimiento, así como los intervalos de confianza (95%) de
cada tratamiento. Los valores mayores de rendimiento, longitud y diámetro de nopalito fueron
observados en el cultivar Villanueva. Para estas tres variables el cultivar COPENA-V1 presentó los
siguientes valores mayores. Los siguientes valores en orden decreciente fueron presentados por los
cultivares Jalpa y COPENA-F1 para esas mismas variables.
14 J. PACD (2009) 11: 13−17 Cuadro 1. Promedios de variables componentes del rendimiento en 22 fechas de corte de nopalito.
Table 1. Mean for yield-component variables on 22 harvest times of nopalito.
Cultivar
Villanueva
Jalpa
COPENA F1
COPENA V1
Longitud Diámetro Grosor
(cm)
(cm)
(mm)
15.22
15.18
15.50
14.69
7.57
6.82
5.23
7.32
6.2
5.6
5.8
6.6
Rendimiento
Volumen
/corte
cm3
-1
(kg ha )
3137.4
2521.8
2409.5
2893.0
744.8
634.2
564.8
756.9
Área
foliar
cm2
Número
de
cladodios
119.7
109.5
90.6
111.4
7.9
7.1
5.6
7.5
Estos resultados concuerdan, por un lado, con lo mencionado por Nobel (1998) y Nerd et al. (1991)
acerca de la susceptibilidad a la salinidad, dados los resultados presentados por Jalpa y COPENAF1; pero de igual forma, concuerdan con la sugerencia de Murillo-Amador et al. (2001), en el
sentido de diferencias en relación a las respuestas a la salinidad derivadas de cada genotipo. Es
importante mencionar que no se observaron diferencias significativas para rendimiento entre los
cultivares, lo cual es explicado por el hecho de haber utilizado únicamente dos repeticiones por
tratamiento. Sin embargo, es destacado el haber obtenido más de 60 t de nopalitos en esta condición
de salinidad (4.2 dS m-1) para los cultivares Villanueva y COPENA-VI.
Figura 1. Rendimiento acumulado (kg ha-1) de nopalito de cuatro cultivares de Opuntia
ficus-indica bajo condiciones de hidroponía y salinidad (CE de 4 dS m-1).
Figure 1. Accumulated yield (kg ha-1) of young cladodes for four cultivars of Opuntia
ficus-indica under hydroponic conditions and salinity (EC of 4 dS m-1).
J. PACD (2009) 11: 13–17 15 Cuadro 2. Rendimiento promedio por fechas de corte, de cuatro cultivares de nopal,
establecidos en condiciones hidropónicas.
Table 2. Mean yield by harvest date from four cultivars of nopal under hydroponic
conditions.
Corte Fechas
Rendimiento
Desviación
Error Estándar
Intervalo de
Nº
Corte
promedio (kg ha-1)
Estándar
confianza (95%)
1
17-Jun
6521.0
2966.4
1048.8
2418.5
2
24-Jun
4106.0
1274.8
450.7
1039.4
3
01-Jul
1736.7
664.2
234.8
541.5
4
08-Jul
1769.1
1875.8
663.2
1529.3
5
16-Jul
2696.0
2383.8
842.8
1943.5
6
28-Jul
8085.3
3653.0
1291.5
2978.2
7
05-Ago
3730.1
942.3
333.2
768.3
8
26-Ago
1750.5
1171.1
414.1
954.8
9
02-Sep
3168.3
1360.4
481.0
1109.1
10
09-Sep
3698.1
1399.6
494.8
1141.1
11
15-Sep
1504.4
676.8
239.3
551.8
12
23-Sep
4106.4
1540.2
544.5
1255.7
13
07-Oct
3682.7
2243.4
793.1
1829.0
14
14-Oct
2623.6
1209.4
427.6
986.0
15
21-Oct
2425.0
1023.6
361.9
834.5
16
28-Oct
1853.9
783.3
276.9
638.6
17
04-Nov
1349.4
617.2
218.2
503.2
18
11-Nov
1864.7
734.6
259.7
598.9
19
18-Nov
858.9
762.3
269.5
621.5
20
25-Nov
880.7
859.7
304.0
700.9
21
09-Dic
948.8
476.3
168.4
388.3
22
16-Dic
929.3
471.0
166.5
384.0
Estos resultados son sobresalientes, ya que en otros estudios con agua de menor contenido de sales
se han observado menores rendimientos. Flores-Hernández et al. (2005) realizaron experimentos en
los años 2000 y 2001 con rendimientos muy variados para cuatro cultivares de O. megacantha y
uno de O. ficus-indica con diferentes tratamientos de riego por goteo utilizando agua de buena
calidad y obtuvieron rendimientos muy variables, destacando algunos muy altos de hasta 130 y 220
t ha-1 (en 2000 y 2001, respectivamente), pero también algunos muy bajos de menos de 10 t ha-1. De
igual forma, en otra localidad, Flores-Hernández et al. (2004) compararon cuatro cultivares de
Opuntia utilizando agua de buena calidad y riego por goteo, obteniendo uno más de 100 t ha-1 de
nopalito, otros dos cultivares más de 80 t ha-1, y uno de ellos 60 t ha-1, similar al rendimiento
obtenido en el presente estudio. Los rendimientos comerciales de nopal verdura en el estado de
Sonora se ubica en 80 ton ha-1, en Morelos 70 ton ha-1 y el Distrito Federal, Baja California, Jalisco
y Oaxaca con 60 ton ha-1 respectivamente. Los rendimientos obtenidos en el presente estudio
superan los rendimientos promedio de algunas otras entidades de México donde se reportan
rendimientos más bajos con variación desde 10 hasta las 40 ton ha-1 por año (SIAP, 2007).
16 J. PACD (2009) 11: 13−17 Referencias
Flores-Hernández, A., R. Trejo, J.G. Arreola, I. Orona-Castillo, B. Murillo-Amador, M. Rivera, J.G.
Martínez, E.A. García. 2005. Seasonal prickly pear production under drip irrigation in an
agricultural region of Mexico. Journal of the Professional Association for Cactus Development 6:
84-96.
Flores-Hernández, A., I. Orona-Castillo, B. Murillo-Amador, J.L. García-Hernández, E. TroyoDiéguez. 2004. Yield and physiological traits of prickly pear cactus “nopal” (Opuntia spp.) cultivars
under drip irrigation. Agricultural Water Management 70: 97-107.
Murillo-Amador, B., A. Cortés, E. Troyo-Diéguez, A. Nieto-Garibay, H.G. Jones. 2001. Effects of
NaCl salinity on growth and production of young cladodes of Opuntia ficus-indica. J. Agronomy
and Crop Science 187: 269-279.
Nerd, A., A. Karadi and Y. Mizrachi. 1991. Sal tolerance of prickly pear cactus (Opuntia ficusindica). Plant and Soil 13:201-207.
Nobel, P.S. 1998. Los Incomparables Agaves y Cactus. Ed. Trillas. p 113.
Pimienta, B. E. 1994. Prickly pear (Opuntia spp) a valuable fruit for the semi-arid land of Mexico.
J. Arid Environ. 28: 1-11.
Robbins, W.R. 1946. Growing plants in sands cultures for experimental work. Soil Science 62:3-22.
SIAP (Servicio de Información Agroalimentaria y Pesquera). 2007. SIACON 1980-2006. Secretaría
de Agricultura, Ganadería, Desarrollo Rural, Pesca y Alimentación (SAGARPA), México. Página
web: http://siap.gob.mx.
J. PACD (2009) 11: 13–17 17 In Vitro propagation of Pilosocereus robinii (Lemaire) Byles et Rowley,
endemic and endangered cactus
Elisa Quiala1*, Jesús Matos2, Grecia Montalvo2, Manuel de Feria1, Maité Chávez1, Alina Capote1,
Naivy Pérez1, Raúl Barbón1 and Britta Kowalski3
1
Instituto de Biotecnología de Las Plantas, Universidad Central “Marta Abreu” de Las Villas.
Carretera a Camajuaní km 5½, Santa Clara, CP 54 830, Cuba.
*
Author for correspondence; E-mail: [email protected]
2
3
Empresa Nacional para la Protección de la Flora y la Fauna.Unidad Sabana de Santa Clara.
Carretera a Placetas km 5½, Santa Clara. Villa Clara. Cuba. Tel. 53 (42) 206285
Institute for Land Use, University of Rostock, Faculty of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences,
18051 Rostock, Germany
Received 2 December, 2008; Accepted 10 January, 2009
Abstract
In vitro propagation systems by areole activation were developed for Pilosocereus robinii (Lemaire)
Byles et Rowley, an endemic cactus of Cuban island in extinction danger. Seeds from mature fruits
were collected under field conditions and disinfected with two concentration of NaOCl (1.0 and
2.0%) and two time of disinfection (15 and 20 min). During germination a half- and full-strength
MS basal medium were tested. The highest germination rate (92.8%) was reached when half MS
basal medium were used. Shoot formation from areoles of in vitro-germinated plantlets was
achieved in explants cultured in Murashige and Skoog (MS) basal medium supplemented with 30 g
l-1 sucrose, 3.0 g l-1 Gelrite® and three concentration of 6-Bencilaminopurine (4.44, 6.66 and 13.32
µM). Shoot production in this proliferation medium was evaluated during three culture cycles.
Proportionately proliferation rate increase with 6-BAP concentration, on the contrary shoots length
decreased. The highest proliferation rate (8.9 shoots per explant) was reached employment 13.32
µM of 6-BAP. On average, rooting efficiency was 100% in MS basal medium free of growth
regulators. The frequency of survival of the plants once transferred to substrate composed of cattle
manure rotted for eight months was on average 91.6%. Finally, 500 individual plants of
Pilosocereus robinii were transferred to nursery. We describe for the first time a system for the
production of multiple shoots by areole activation, as well as their rooting, acclimatization and
nursery establishment of endangered and endemic specie, that are difficult to propagate by
conventional methods.
Key words: biodiversity conservation, cactaceae, micropropagation, threatened specie, tissue
culture.
Abbreviations: 6-BAP- 6-Bencilaminopurine
18
J. PACD (2009) 11: 18−25
Introduction
Pilosocereus robinii (Lemaire) Byles et Rowley is an endemic and endangered cactus from Cuban
island (Borhidi and Muñiz, 1983). The International Union for the Conservation of the Nature
(UCIN) reports areas in Cuba of high conservation priority, mainly the Pilosocereus robinii habitat.
The area extends over the North coast from Rincón Francés to Camagüey, where natural flora has
been adversely affected due to the tourist development.
The seeds germination rate in this specie is low, and their growth is slow. Propagation by stem
cuttings is inefficient; the donor plant must be mutilated to obtain a new individual with the
additional risk of fungal infection of the cut tissue and subsequent loss through rotting. For these
reasons it is difficult to recover endangered populations through conventional propagation methods.
Therefore, it is necessary to safeguard these species and to improve, in any possible way, existing
propagation techniques.
Tissue culture techniques have been applied successfully in the recovery and in vitro propagation of
different cacti species such as: Opuntia (Escobar et al., 1986), Cereus peruvianus Mill (Oliveira et
al., 1995), 21 species of Mexican Cacti (Pérez Molphe-Balch et al., 1998), Opuntia ficus-indica
(Pinheiro da Costa et al., 2001), Pelecyphora aselliformis Ehrenberg and P. strobiliformis
Werdermann (Pérez Molphe-Balch and Dávila-Figueroa, 2002), Ariocarpus kotschoubeyanus
(Lem) K. Schum (Moebius-Goldammer et al., 2003), different species of Turbinocarpus (MataRosas et al. 2001; Dávila-Figueroa et al., 2005), Notocactus magnificus (Gallo et al., 2005),
Mammillaria albicoma (Wyka et al., 2006).
In the present study, we describe for the first time an in vitro propagation system for Pilosocereus
robinii, endangered and endemic Cuban specie of cacti. We refer seeds disinfection and
germination, the production of multiple shoots by areole activation, as well as their rooting,
acclimatization and nursery establishment. This system could become valuable tools for
conservation and rescue of this specie.
Plant material: Botanical seeds of Pilosocereus robinii were obtained from mature fruits collected
in their natural habitat from several different plants (Figure 1).
Seeds disinfection and germination: Seeds were washed with water and then disinfected in two
concentrations of Sodium Hypochlorite (1.0 and 2.0%), two times of disinfection (15 and 20 min)
were tested. Seeds were placed singly in test tubes with 10 ml of incubation MS basal medium
Murashige and Skoog (1962), 10 g l-1 sucrose, pH 5.6 and solidified with 2.0 g.l-1 Gelrite®. After
10 days of culture the number of seeds free of microbial contaminants was evaluated and seeds then
placed on germination media. During germination a half- and full-strength MS basal medium
supplemented with 1.0 mg l-1 thiamine, 30 mg l-1 sucrose and 2.0 g l-1 Gelrite® were proved. Seed
germination was evaluated on alternate days during seven weeks.
The cultures were maintained on a growth chambers with solar light 48.1-62.5 µE.m-2s-1 at 28±2ºC.
These same conditions were used in all subsequent experiments.
J. PACD (2009) 11: 18–25
19
b
c
a
Figure 1 a) Plant of Pilosocereus robinii in natural habitat (“Cayo Conuco”, north coast of the
island), b) mature fruit opened, c) seed collected from mature fruit.
Axillary shoot proliferation and rooting: The proliferation was carried out by means of axillary
buds activation. For this, the root systems were excised and each cactus was cut transversely and
both the apex and the base were placed into culture flask, containing 25 ml of full-strength MS
basal media with 30 g l-1 sucrose, 1.0 mg l-1 thiamine, 100 mg l-1 myo-inositol, 3.0 g l-1 Gelrite® and
three concentrations (4.44, 6.66 and 13.32 (uM) of 6 BAP. Twenty explants per treatment were
used. The number of shoots produced per plant and the length of shoots were recorded after 7 wk of
culture during three culture cycle (21 wk).
Shoots were collected from shoot proliferation media and used for rooting. The rooting technique
consisted of transferring the shoots to MS basal medium free of growth regulators with 30 g l-1
sucrose and 3.0 g l-1 Gelrite®. The number of plants with roots was evaluated 8 wk after initiating
this phase.
Acclimatization and transfer of plantlets to nursery: Rooted plants were transplanted to pots
containing two type of substrate. Substrate 1 was composed by 100% of cattle manure with eight
months of decomposition covered with a 2.0 cm layer of zeolite. Substrate 2 was composed of 85%
compost mixed with 15% zeolite. Plastic covering were used to reduce 50% of luminous intensity
of solar light and to allow acclimatization plants before being transferred to the nursery. Survival
percentages were determined 10 wk after transplantation. Finally plants were transferred to nursery
and planted onto plastic bags containing a 2:2:1 (v/v) mixture of cattle manure, soil from the natural
habitat and ground lime stone.
20
J. PACD (2009) 11: 18−25
Experimental design and data analysis: Each experiment was repeated three times. All data
collected was compared through analysis of variance. Means values were compared by Duncan
multiple range test at the 5% level (p < 0.05).
Seeds disinfection and germination
The sodium hypochlorite was effective for the disinfection of seeds; a 100% of seeds free of
microbial contaminants were obtained when 2.0% of sodium hypochlorite for 20 minutes was used.
When 2.0% of NaOCl for 15 minutes was applied, an 80% of seeds free of microbial contaminant
were reached in this treatment (Figure 2). The seeds of Pilosocereus robinii are small (2-3 mm)
with a hard and flat texture offering little coverage for the development of microorganisms.
Figure 2. Effects of Sodium Hypochlorite in the seeds disinfestations of Pilosocereus robinii.
Bars with different letters are significantly different at p=0.05. Data are means ± SE (n =14).
Germination occurred gradually starting 14 d after the inoculation of seeds, achieving a high
percentage, in the culture medium with half-strength MS basal medium (Figure 3). In the fullstrength MS basal media, germination was inferior and started one week later.
Axillary shoot proliferation and rooting
The cytokinin was indispensable for shoot generation through areole activation. The control
treatments without 6-BAP were unable to induce shoot proliferation. On the contrary, when
cytokinin was included in the culture media, shoots were obtained in all treatments.
After 4 weeks the explants exhibited shoot production from the areoles in all treatments containing
6-BAP. In the range of concentrations used, proportionately proliferation rate increase with 6-BAP
concentration, on the contrary shoots length decreased.
J. PACD (2009) 11: 18–25
21
Figure 3. Effects of half-strength and full-strength MS basal medium in the seeds germination of
Pilosocereus robinii. Bars with different letters are significantly different at p=0.05.
Data are means ± SE (n =14).
When apical explants were used, a dominant shoot arises from the elongation of the inoculated
apex, and the small shoots appear at its base. While when the base of cactus was used as primary
explant, the shoots generated were homogeneous in their size and differentiation stage and appeared
in the upper part of the explants, these shoots were easily separated and subculture (Figure 4a). So
that in this specie is indispensable to eliminate the apical dominance to produce new shoots with
desirable characteristic to subculture. Although the highest proliferation rate (8.9 shoots per
explant) (Table 1) was reached with the higher concentration (13.32 µM 6-BAP) we observed in
this treatment shoots with hyperhydration symptoms.
Table 1. Effects of 6-BAP concentration on shoot proliferation by areole activation
in Pilosocereus robinii.
Growth regulators
( µM 6-BAP )
First cycle (7 wk)
none
4.44
6.66
13.32
±SE£
1.00 c
2.10 b
2.92 a
3.30 a
0.29
Shoots per explant in each culture cycle*
Second cycle (14 wk)
Third cycle (21 wk)
1.30 d
3.37 c
4.41 b
5.53 a
0.37
1.80 d
4.30 c
5.62 b
8.93 a
0.41
£
SE: Standard Error. Data were collected from 20 initiated shoots per treatment in each culture cycle.
*Means followed by the same letter within each column do not differ significantly at p≤ 0.05 according to the
Duncan multiple range test.
22
J. PACD (2009) 11: 18−25
According to different authors (Elias-Rocha et al., 1998; Pérez-Molphe-Balch et al., 1998)
hyperhydration of the tissues is a serious problem for in vitro culture of cacti. This physiological
disorder is due to the physical and chemical conditions of in vitro culture; i.e. high humidity, excess
of carbohydrates and minerals, high levels of plant growth regulators and low light intensity (Ziv,
1991). In this work, hyperhydration was present, only when higher concentrations of 6-BAP in the
proliferation media where used. The 6.66 µM 6-BAP treatment would be more convenient to use
for shoot proliferation of Pilosocereus robinii to avoid the adverse effect of higher levels of 6-BAP,
such as hyperhydricity and somaclonal variation.
The positive effect of 6-BAP on the capacity to induce plant regeneration in cactaceae has been
reported previously for species in other cacti genera, also by areole activation for shoot
proliferation. Pérez-Molphe-Balch et al. (1998) report a range from 2.1 to 17.5 shoots per explant in
a study conducted on 21 species in 10 genera of Cactaceae. Elias-Rocha et al. (1998) refer seven
shoots per explant for Mammillaria sphacelata. There are also reports of 13.7 and 12.3 shoots per
explant in Pelecyphora aselliformis and P. strobiliformis, respectively. Pérez-Molphe-Balch and
Dávila-Figueroa (2002) refers 5.3, 3.8, and 4.3 shoots per explant in Carnegiea gigantea,
Pachycereus pringlei, and Stenocereus thurberi, respectively.
Although on average, rooting efficiency was 100% and the in vitro-generated roots were vigorous
in a basal MS media free of growth regulator (Figure 4b), shoots coming from proliferation media
with 6.66 and 13.32 µM 6-BAP, rooted one week later than those coming from treatment without or
with 4.44 µM 6-BAP.
Maintaining genetic stability in regenerated plants is essential for endangered species conservation.
It is important that shoots proliferation in Pilosocereus robinii was from areole activation, because
according to Machado and Prioli (1996) as well as Pérez-Molphe-Balch and Dávila-Figueroa (2002)
micropropagated cacti regenerated from axillary buds are considered to be genetically stable.
Acclimatization and transfer of plantlets to nursery
The acclimatization of plants was successful. The biggest survival rate (91.6%) was obtained in the
substrate with 100% of cattle manure covered with zeolite (Figure 4c), while 66% of survival rate
was achieved when the substrate with 85% compost and 15% zeolite was used. In this treatment
fungal infection in the base of cactus was observed and subsequent loss through rotting.
In Cuba, according to the experience of the National Botanical Garden, a complex mixture
composed by 35% of well washed thick sand, 15% of rotten earth, 35% of humus and 15% of
charcoal is recommended for the sowing of cactus. However, according to the experience obtained
in this work, with a simple substrate composed by cattle manure with eight months of
decomposition it is feasible the culture of this cactus species, with a high percentage of survival in
acclimatization. Applying the methodology described in this work, 500 plants of Pilosocereus
robinii has been transferred to the protected area and planted in nursery conditions with 100%
survival rate (Figure 4d).
Conclusions
A protocol for in vitro propagation of Pilosocereus robinii was established. This protocol is more
efficient than traditional propagation methods and can be valuable tool for the in vitro conservation
of this specie, and the production of plants for the repopulation of natural areas damaged during
construction of tourist facilities.
J. PACD (2009) 11: 18–25
23
a
c
b
d
Figure 4. In vitro propagation of Pilosocereus robinii, a) Shoot production by areole
activation with 6.66 µM 6-BAP after 7 wk of culture initiation, b) Shoots rooted
after 8 wk culture in full-strength MS basal media free of growth regulators,
c) In vitro-generated plants growing in 100% cattle manure with eight
months of decomposition covered with a 2.0 cm layer of zeolite
after 70 days, d) In vitro-generated plants in nursery
conditions after six months.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Union of Universities of Latin America (UDUAL). We express our
sincere thanks to Ph. D. Yelenys Alvarado Capó and M. Sc. Osmildo Fernández for critical reading
of this manuscript. We would also like to thank Dr. Martín Mata Rosas and Ph. D. Eugenio Pérez
Molphe Balch for the scientific literature they supplied.
References
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aselliformis Ehrenberg and P. strobiliformis Werdermann (Cactaceae). In Vitro Cell. Dev. Biol.
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Wyka, P.T., Hamerska, M. and Wrablewska, M. 2006. Organogenesis of vegetative shoots from in
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J. PACD (2009) 11: 18–25
25
Structural polysaccharides in xoconostle (Opuntia matudae) fruits
with different ripening stages
Rosario Álvarez Armenta and Cecilia Beatriz Peña-Valdivia*
Botánica, Colegio de Postgraduados, Campus Montecillo. Km 35.5 carretera México-Texcoco.
Montecillo, Texcoco, 56230, México.
*Author for correspondence, E-mail: [email protected]
Received 26 August, 2008; accepted 24 January, 2009
Abstract
The objective of this research was to isolate, purify and quantify the content of mucilage, pectins,
hemicelluloses and cellulose of the acidic cactus fruits of Opuntia matudae with commercial
maturity. Fruits were collected in an orchard for commercial production of cactus pear fruit and
pads in San Martin de Las Pirámides, Mexico. Fruits were grouped according to the receptacle
depth, fruit dimensions and proportion of structures. The structural polysaccharides of the
dehydrated and finely crushed skin (edible portion) fruits, were sequentially extracted with water
and aqueous solutions of ammonium oxalate and potassium hydroxide, precipitated with ethanol,
purified by dialyzing or watery washing and gravimetrically quantified after being lyophilized.
Although, fruits were harvested with significantly homogenous size, and identified by the farmer
like adequate for commercialization (with equatorial and polar diameters homogenous between the
fruits, 51.7 mm, 45.2 mm respectively), they were grouped in three depending on receptacle depth
(between 3.8 and 6.9 mm) and other parameters, like total wet biomass (between 64 and 81 g/fruit)
and dry biomass (between 1.9 and 33.3 g/fruit), skin thickness (between 11.3 and 12.7 mm) and
total number of seeds (120 to 205 abortive plus normal seeds/fruit). In addition, also it was
confirmed that fruit ripeness of O. matudae is inversely related to the depth of receptacle.
Mucilage, pectin and cellulose represented a significantly higher amount in the ripe fruits (7.5, 8.0
and 15.4%, respectively) than in the unripe (1.8, 2.5 and 10.0%, respectively); whereas the
hemicelluloses content in all three classified ripe states was significantly similar (in average 3.2 and
1.5 % of loosely and tightly bound hemicelluloses). The results indicate that xoconostle fruits are
rich in soluble (7.8 to 18.6%) and insoluble (11.6 to 16.5%) dietary fiber, and the type of
polysaccharides varies in dependence of fruit ripening.
Key words: dietary fiber, soluble fiber, insoluble fiber, mucilage, pectin, hemicelluloses, cellulose.
Resumen
El objetivo de esta investigación fue aislar, purificar y cuantificar el contenido de mucílago,
pectinas, hemicelulosas y celulosa de los frutos de Opuntia matudae con madurez comercial. Los
frutos fueron recolectados en un huerto para producción comercial de tuna y nopal de San Martín de
las Pirámides, México. Los frutos fueron clasificados con la profundidad del receptáculo, se
determinaron las dimensiones de los frutos y proporción de sus estructuras. Los polisacáridos
estructurales de la cáscara (tejido comestible) de los frutos, deshidratada y triturada finamente,
fueron extraídos en secuencia con agua y soluciones acuosas de oxalato de amonio e hidróxido de
26
J. PACD (2009) 11: 26−44
potasio, precipitados con etanol, purificados mediante diálisis o lavado acuoso y cuantificados
gravimétricamente después de ser liofilizados. Aunque los frutos fueron cosechados con tamaño
medio significativamente homogéneo, e identificado por la productora como el adecuado para la
comercialización (con diámetros ecuatorial, 51.7 mm, y polar, 45.2 mm, estadísticamente iguales
entre los frutos), se formaron tres grupos con madurez diferente en dependencia de la profundidad
del receptáculo (entre 0.6 y 6.9 mm) y otros parámetros, como la biomasa total húmeda (entre 64 y
81 g/fruto) y seca (entre 1.9 y 3.3 g/fruto), grosor de la cáscara (11.3 a 12.7 mm) y número total de
semillas (120 a 205 abortivas y normales/por fruto) fueron significativamente diferentes entre los
grupos. Además, esto también confirmó que la madurez de los frutos de O. matudae está
relacionada inversamente con la profundidad del receptáculo. El contenido de mucílago, pectinas y
celulosa representó una cantidad significativamente superior en los frutos con mayor madurez (7.5,
8.0 y 15.4%, respectivamente) respecto a los menos maduros (1.8, 2.5 y 10.0%, respectivamente);
mientras que el contenido de hemicelulosas fue significativamente similar en los tres estados de
madurez identificados (en promedio 3.2 y 1.5% de hemicelulosa débilmente y fuertemente unida a
la celulosa). Los resultados indican que los frutos de xoconostle son un alimento rico en fibra
alimentaria soluble (7.8 a 18.6%) e insoluble (11.6 a 16.5%), y el tipo de polisacáridos que los
conforman varían en dependencia de la madurez del fruto.
Palabras clave: fibra alimentaria, fibra soluble, fibra insoluble, mucílago, pectinas, hemicelulosa,
celulosa.
Introduction
Medicinal plants have been used with therapeutic aims in the Mexican herbalism (a traditional
Medicine or folk medical practice based on the use of plants and plant extracts; also known as
botanical medicine, medical herbal, herbal medicine, herbology, and phytotherapy) since preColumbian times, and these plants have continuously been used until now, and seems that every day
they acquires greater scientific importance, because the formal investigation of their effects on
human health care. On the matter, almost 500 vegetal species has been documented in Mexico, for
the treatment of diabetes mellitus. According to Andrade-Cetto and Heinrich (2005) the best
represented families in medicinal plant research, by number of genus, are the Asteraceae (47),
Fabaceae (27), Cactaceae (16), Solanaceae and Euphorbiaceae (10) and Laminaceae (9). Cactaceae
includes the genera Opuntia and Lophocereus which have been widely studied and the results that
endorse these genera because popular uses like antidiabetic agents have been published (Bravo and
Sanchez, 1991; Yeh et al., 2003).
Alarcon-Aguilar et al. (2003) assured that the Ethnobotanic information which documents the use
of Opuntia for diabetes treatment in Mexico dates from the decade of the 1970s. The potential use
for Opuntia plants in Mexico is ample, since 83 Mexican species have been registered (Guzmán et
al., 2003). Alarcon-Aguilar et al. (2003) indicated that among the anti-diabetics plants most
frequently used are O. ficus-indica and O. streptacantha plants; and it seems that the fruits known
like “xoconostle” (name of the prickly acid or sour cactus pear fruit), corresponding to O.
joconostle, O. duranguensis, O. leucotricha y O. matudae are significantly more important
(Cassiana, 2007). Xoconostle has low pulp content, and heavy, acid edible skin (Reyes-Agüero et
al., 2005; Scheinvar, 1999). Xoconostle fruits are consumed as much for therapeutic aims as in the
preparation of foods, treats, drinks and other products (García-Pedraza et al., 2005a).
The biological effects on human health of Opuntia spp. pads (mature stems), “nopalitos” (young
cladodes), fruits (“tunas”) and flowers have been documented. These plant tissue could be
J. PACD (2009) 11: 26–44
27
consumed crude, roasted or cooked, as well as its juice for cardiovascular and oxidation protection,
as antiulcerant, and hepatoprotector; and positive effects on acidosis, hyperglycemy, gastritis,
hyperlipidemia, fatigue and dyspnoe, have also been described; besides the Opuntia spp. tissues are
used to improve digestion and enhance the general detoxification processes, also they are applied to
treat rheumatic disorders, erythemas and chronic skin infections and many others illness (AlarconAguilar et al., 2003; Bwititi et al., 2000; Cassiana, 2007; Fernandez-Harp et al., 1984; Fernández et
al., 1992 and 1994; Frati et al., 1990; Ibanez-Camacho et al., 1983; Livrea and Tesoriere, 2006;
Perfumi and Tacconi, 1996; Wolfram et al., 2002).
The chemical compounds of the Opuntia spp. tissue that cause such beneficial effects are only
partially known; some of them are dietary complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides), like mucilage,
pectins, and some other compounds like vitamins and polyphenols (Galati et al., 2002; Wolfram et
al.; 2002). In relation to the physiological effects of complex molecules mainly in humans, it has
been documented that dietary fiber of a given composition, or some fiber components, are useful to
controlling body weight, diabetes and arteriosclerosis, and also prevent or reduce the incidence of
cancer, constipation, hemorrhoids, cardiovascular diseases, accelerate the healing processes, and
many others (Cummings et al., 2004; Wolfram et al., 2002). The insoluble polysaccharides
(conformed by tightly bound hemicelluloses and cellulose) increase the volume of the alimentary
bolus and the passage of the food throughout the digestive tract (Hsu et al., 2004); while, the
soluble fiber (mucilage, pectins and loosely bound hemicelluloses) increases the viscosity of the
intestinal content and regulates the concentration of glucose and cholesterol in blood (Binns, 2003;
Cummings et al., 2004; Englyst and Englyst, 2005; Figuerola et al., 2005; Sáenz, 2004 and 2006).It
has been demonstrated that nopalitos (Opuntia spp.) are a natural source of a variety of
polysaccharides (mucilage, pectins, hemicelluloses and cellulose), and that the content of each class
of polysaccharide is also variable but, remarkably abundant depending on the specie, variant
(cultivar or wild), and growth conditions (temperature, humidity, soil type, etc); besides, the process
of blanche and cook of nopalitos modified the proportion of some classes of polysaccharides
(Camacho et al., 2007; Peña-Valdivia and Sánchez-Urdaneta, 2006). A similar variability of
polysaccharide composition has been documented in the pulp of ripe O. ficus-indica fruits, but the
proportion found was less than a tenth comparing with that of nopalitos (Peña-Valdivia and
Sánchez-Urdaneta, 2004 and 2006); in contrast, similar information in xoconostle is not available,
as far as we are concern.
Xoconostle (Opuntia spp.) is a species with acid fruits, which growths in arid and semi-arid
climates, in wild “nopaleras” and some commercial plantations of the central plateau of Mexico
(García-Pedraza et al., 2005b). One of the producing and consuming regions of xoconostle in
Mexico includes the municipalities of the east of the State of Mexico, like Texcoco and San Martin
de las Pirámides (Cano et al., 1999; Scheinvar, 1999). Opuntia oligacantha and O. matudae are
cultivated in this region; O. oligacantha’s fruits are called “chivo” and contrast with the O.
matudae’s fruits, called “cuaresmeños”, because these are spineless and can remained attached to
the plant from one year to another without mechanical damaged; this is the most popular specie
cultivated in the zone and reaches a price in the market greater than O. oligacantha (Cano et al.,
1999). Xoconostle fruit is a spherical, cylindrical or piriform berry, and exhibits an apical
depression or receptacle, called navel (“ombligo”), contains a very small proportion of pulp, and
thick-acid-freshly pericarp (fruit wall consisting of two layers: exocarp and mesocarp, or “skin” or
“shell” of the fruit). Given the high potential of use and consumption of xoconostle fruits and the
lack of information about its detailed chemical composition, it was developed the present research,
with the objective to isolate, purify and quantify the structural polysaccharides of O. matudae fruits
at harvest maturity.
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J. PACD (2009) 11: 26−44
Plant material
Xoconostle (O. matudae) fruits were recollected in a production zone of white (sweet) “tuna” and
xoconostle in San Martin de Las Pirámides, Mexico, at 19°41' N and 98°49' W, and 2300 m above
sea level (Cano et al., 1999).
Methods
One hundred ripe fruits were harvested by the producer Mrs. Carmen Ramirez Rosales, who use
colour and size of the fruit as maturity indices for harvest it. They were harvested at 7-9 hours, on
20 April, 2008, of eight plants of a commercial plantation. The fruits were packed in cardboard
boxes and transferred to the laboratory of Plant Biophysics, at the Botany Department in the
Colegio de Postgraduados, Texcoco, Mexico. Then, fruits were manually selected based on visual
inspection and fruit with mechanical damage were removed. Since the apical depression among
fruits was heterogeneous, it was decided to classify them using the criteria of apical depression
included in the official norm for some Opuntia species, i.e. O. ficus indica, O. streptachanthae and
O. lindheimeiri (CODEX Alimentarius, 2008; Secretaría de Comercio y Fomento Industrial, 2008).
Fruits were selected by visual examination and grouped in three, each group included 20 fruits with
high, medium and low apical depression (receptacle depth) each one, respectively.
After that, the apical depression, the polar and the equatorial diameter of each intact fruits it was
measured with a vernier. The fruits were cut by half and the skin thickness was registered with a
vernier. The fresh biomass of the skin and seeds of each fruit was determined in an analytical
balance (0.0001 g precision; Scientech, USA), later the fruit tissues were freeze and dehydrated by
lyophilizathion (0.2 mBar and -54 C; LABCONCO FreeZone, USA) and the dry tissue biomass was
obtained in analytical balance. Abortive and well formed seeds were counted.
The dehydrated skin was crushed in a mortar until obtaining fine flour that was used to quantify the
content of structural polysaccharides (i.e. mucilage, pectins, hemicelluloses and cellulose). The
method used for polysaccharides extraction, purification and quantification was described and used
for raw and cooked nopalito and tuna, by Peña-Valdivia and Sánchez-Urdaneta (2004, 2006) and it
was an adaptation of the methodology developed for the quantification of the structural
polysaccharides of common bean seeds by Peña-Valdivia and Ortega-Delgado (1984 and 1986).
The methodology includes the extraction in sequence of polysaccharides with hot water an aqueous
solution of ammonium oxalate and potassium hydroxide, precipitation with ethanol, purification by
washing with water and dialysis against water and gravimetric quantification after being freeze
drying.
Mucilage was extracted from 300 mg of xoconostle flour, with 5 ml of distilled water and in a boiling
water bath, during 30 min; the solid phase (vegetal remainder) was separated from the supernatant by
centrifugation (1400 x g, during 5 min). The remainder tissue, without mucilage, was added with a
quelant (0.5% ammonium oxalate in water w:v) and heated in a boiling water bath, during 30 min for
pectin solubilization; again, the solid phase (vegetal remainder) was separated from the supernatant by
centrifugation (1400 x g, during 5 min). The loosely bound and tightly bound hemicelluloses were
extracted in sequence with 5 % and 24 % aqueous KOH (w:v), respectively, from the remainder material
without mucilage and pectins; in each case, after hemicelluloses solubilization in respective KOH
solution, during 12 h at laboratory temperature (23±3 ºC) and with constant agitation (826 x g) in an
orbital agitator (Shaker, USA), the solid phase was separated from the supernatant by centrifugation
J. PACD (2009) 11: 26–44
29
(1400 x g, during 5 min). The final remainder, after extracting mucilage, pectins and hemicelluloses,
represented the crude cellulose, which was alternating washed with water and ethanol, until the last
watery washing reached pH 7. In order to assure the exhaustive extraction of each type of
polysaccharide, the mucilage, pectins, loosely bound and tightly bound hemicelluloses extraction was
three times repeated in the same sample, and in the case of the hemicelluloses each extraction with KOH
extended by 12 hours. The three supernatant of each polysaccharide extraction (water, ammonium
oxalate, 5 % KOH and 20 % KOH) were mixed and each kind of polysaccharide was precipitated by
addition of four volumes of cold ethanol (maintained previously in the freezer to -20 ºC). The
hemicelluloses precipitation was complemented with the addition of 4-5 drops of concentrated HCl. In
order to assure the total polysaccharides precipitation in each respective solution, after adding the
ethanol the containers were maintained during 8-12 h in a refrigerator (5±2 ºC).
After that time, each class of polysaccharide was recovered, as precipitated, by centrifugation (1400 x g,
during 5 min) of the cooled suspensions, and after eliminating the supernatant. The crude
polysaccharides, thus obtained, were purified by dialysis against water, during 72 h; for this,
polysaccharides were placed in tubular membrane for dialysis (Spectra of 1.8 mm of thickness, U.S.A.
15 kD cut off), the cylindrical packages with the polysaccharides were placed in containers with
distilled water (renewed every 4 hours), and constant agitation (826 x g in orbital agitator PRO VSOS4P, U.S.A.). After dialysis, the polysaccharides were transferred to “Ependorf” tubes, congealed,
dehydrated by freeze drying and weighted in an analytical balance. The results were expressed as
percentage of polysaccharide in dry tissue.
A completely random experimental model was used; it included three treatments (stages of maturity
of the fruits), a fruit as experimental unit and 20 repetitions for the evaluation of dimensions,
biomass and depth of receptacle, and six repetitions for polysaccharides quantification. An ANOVA
and multiple mean comparisons by Tukey’s test, with the statistical SAS software, for personal
computer were carried out. Graphical representation of data was made with the SigmaPlot of Jandel
Scientific (version 9) software, for personal computer.
Fruit maturity
The depth of the receptacle allowed distinguishing the fruit ripening stage. The well ripe fruits
showed a practically flat receptacle, whereas in the less ripe fruits the receptacle was (3.8±0.24 and
6.9±0.23 mm) 11.5 times more depressed (Figure 1A). Nevertheless, the fruits size (equatorial and
polar diameters) was similar between all three groups, independently of ripening (Figure 1B). In
agreement with the criterion of receptacle depth (CODEX Alimentarius, 2008; Secretaría de
Comercio y Fomento Industrial, 2008), the total wet biomass (skin and seeds) and dray biomass of
the fruits increased with ripening, and the totally ripped fruits presented significantly higher, wet
and dry, total biomass (81.6±2.50 and 3.3±0.71 g/fruit, respectively) among all three groups (Figure
1C and 1D). Thus, the totally ripened fruits weighed 7 and 19 g more than those less ripped (Figure
1C).
The ripening differences were also evident in the fruit skin thickness (Figure 2A) and the number of
seeds (Figure 2B). In the first case, the fruits of the three states of ripening showed a gradient of
skin thickness (from 11.32±0.30 to 12.68±0.26); nevertheless, the mean comparison showed only
two groups, something similar was observed with the number of normal and abortive seeds.
30
J. PACD (2009) 11: 26−44
60
8
a
a
a
6
a
a
a
a
40
b
4
20
2
c
0
0
(C)
Wet biomass of skin and
seeds per fruit (g)
(D)
4
a
80
a
ab
b
3
b
60
a
b
2
b
40
c
1
20
0
Polar and ecuatorial diameter (mm)
(B)
(A)
c
bc
a
1
2
3
Dry biomass of skin and
seeds per fruit (g)
Depth of the apical depression (mm)
10
0
1
2
3
Ripening stage
Figure 1.Size and weight of xoconostle (Opuntia matudae) fruits with different level of ripeness,
harvested in San Martín de Las Pirámides, Estado de México, México, during spring of 2008. (A)
Depth of the apical depression, (B) polar diameter (open columns) and equatorial diameter (dark
pattern columns), (C) wet biomass of the seeds (open section in columns) and skin (dark pattern
section in columns) per fruit, and (D) dry biomass of the seeds (open section in columns) and the
skin (dark pattern section in columns). Same letters inside or over the columns indicate statistical
similarity (p< 0.05) of each parameter between the stages of ripening (n = 20).
J. PACD (2009) 11: 26–44
31
14
Skin thickness (mm)
13
a
a
12
b
11
10
9
200
a
b
Seeds per fruit (Num.)
a
150
a
b
100
b
50
0
1
2
3
Ripening stage
Figure 2.Skin thickness (A) and seeds per fruit (B; well formed seeds: open section in columns, and
aborted seeds: dark pattern section in columns) in xoconostle (Opuntia matudae) fruits with
different level of ripeness, harvested in San Martín de Las Pirámides, Estado de México,
México, during the spring of 2008. Mean values (n = 20) with the same letters,
inside or over the columns, for each parameter, are similar between ripeness
levels, according to Tukey’s multiple comparison test (p< 0.05).
All these results show that although the fruit were harvested with significantly similar mean size
(45.20 mm/51.73 mm), and identified by the farmer as the adequate size for commercialization,
some ripening parameters, like total wet and dry biomass per fruit, skin thickness and seeds
proportion, were statistically different among the groups identified. In addition, the above
parameters also confirm that fruit ripening seems to follow an inverse relationship with the
receptacle depth. This characteristic has been included as quality trait for species like O. ficus
indica, O. streptachanthae and O. lindheimeiri (CODEX Alimentarius, 2008; Secretaría de
Comercio y Fomento Industrial, 2008), but it has been no reported in xoconostle.
32
J. PACD (2009) 11: 26−44
Structural polysaccharides
The proportion of the structural polysaccharides was significantly different between fruits harvested
at different ripening stages (Figures 3 and 4). Mucilage and pectins represented the biggest
proportions (between three and four times) in the more ripening fruits, with respect to less ripe
fruits. In contrast, the loosely bound hemicelluloses (so called for being extracted with diluted KOH
in this study) represented significantly equal amounts between the fruits with different stage of
ripening. It is interesting to note that in contrast with mucilage and pectins, the content of loosely
bound hemicelluloses represented a significantly very low proportion (3.1%) of dry skin weight in
the totally ripe fruits (Figure 3).
Similarly to the loosely bound hemicelluloses, the tightly bound hemicelluloses (so called because
they are tightly bound to the cellulose fibrils and should be extracted with concentrated KOH
solution) reached relatively low contents (< 2%) in all three fruit groups; beside, this kind of
polysaccharides represented significantly similar proportion in dry xoconostle fruit independently of
fruit stage of ripening (Figures 3 and 4).
The cellulose content contrasted with the other structural polysaccharides, like mucilage, pectins
and both loosely and tightly bound hemicelluloses, since cellulose got the highest polysaccharides
concentration, up to 15.40±0.94% of the total dry biomass of the fruit skin. Results show that, like
mucilage and pectins, the content of cellulose in the skin increased as ripening of the fruit increases,
reaching de highest concentrations among all type of polysaccharides evaluated, and even the lesser
ripening fruits contained relatively high content of cellulose (between 10.08±0.55 and 14.10±0.93
(Figure 4).
These results also indicate that with the ripening of xoconostle fruits there is a increase mainly of
the content of mucilage and pectins, and cellulose in smaller proportion, whereas the content of
both loosely and tightly hemicelluloses remains stable and in relatively low proportion (Figures 3
and 4).
The high content of mucilage in the xoconostle fruits contrasted with the Opuntia ficus-indica sweet
fruits (prickly pear or tuna), since in sweet tuna the mucilage represents a relatively low proportion
of the total structural polysaccharides. On the matter, Peña-Valdivia and Sánchez-Urdaneta (2006)
determined that mucilage amounted 1 % in the dry pulp of the sweet fruits of the cv. Solferino,
independently of the fruit ripening, and in other cultivars like Copena V and Moradaza the content
of mucilage in the pulp of totally ripe fruits was significantly smaller (0.45%).
It was noticeable that the content of mucilage (7.5±0.56%), pectins (8.0±1.06 ) and loosely bound
hemicelluloses (3.0±0.81%) in the skin of totally ripe xoconostles were similar to that found in
nopalitos of some of the 13 variants of Opuntia spp. studied by Camacho et al. (2007) and PeñaValdivia and Sánchez-Urdaneta (2004, 2006); in these studies mucilage amounted between 3 and
9%, whereas pectins and loosely bound hemicelluloses represented between 5.3 and 18.0%, and 2.7
and 10.7% of dry biomass of nopalito, respectively. In contrast, pectin and loosely bounded
hemicelluloses in sweet tuna fruits of the cultivars Moradaza and Solferino (Opuntias ficus-indica)
represented only between 0.7 and 1.6, and 1.6 and 2.1%, respectively, of the dry pulp (PeñaValdivia and Sánchez-Urdaneta, 2004, 2006).
Like in xoconostle, the content of tightly bound hemicelluloses represented a low proportion (0.6
and 1.9%) of the total polysaccharides in the pulp of sweet tunas (Peña-Valdivia and SánchezUrdaneta, 2004) and nopalitos (from 2.0 to 4.7%) of 13 variants of Opuntia spp. (Camacho et al.,
J. PACD (2009) 11: 26–44
33
2007; Peña-Valdivia and Sánchez-Urdaneta, 2004). The proportion of cellulose in the xoconostle
skin also is in the interval (10 to 15 %) of that in nopalitos of some cultivars, like Atlixco, Blanco
Espinoso, Copena F1, Copeva V1, Jade, Milpa Alta, Polotitlan, Texas, Tovarito and Toluca,
evaluated by Camacho et al. (2007), Nefzaoui and Ben (2001) and Peña-Valdivia and SánchezUrdaneta (2004), and it is several times higher than in the pulp of tuna (1 to 2%) (Peña-Valdivia and
Sánchez-Urdaneta, 2004).
10
Mucilage
8
a
6
Weakly bound sructural polysaccharides
-1
(g 100 g dry biomass)
4
b
2
b
0
Pectins
a
8
6
4
b
b
2
0
8
Weakly bound
hemicelluloses
6
4
a
a
a
2
0
1
2
3
Ripening stage
Figure 3.Content of mucilage, pectin and loosely bound hemicelluloses in xoconostle (Opuntia
matudae) fruits with different level of ripeness and harvested in San Martín de Las Pirámides,
Estado de México, México, during the spring of 2008. Mean values (n = 6) with the
same letters over the columns, for each type of polysaccharide, are similar between
ripeness levels, according to Tukey’s multiple comparison test (p< 0.05).
34
J. PACD (2009) 11: 26−44
16
14
Tightly bound
hemicelluloses
12
Tightly bound structural polysaccharides
-1
10
8
6
4
2
0
16
a
a
a
a
Cellulose
a
14
12
10
b
8
6
4
2
0
1
2
3
Ripening stage
Figure 4.Content of tightly bound hemicelluloses and cellulous in xoconostle (Opuntia matudae)
with different level of ripeness, and collected in San Martín de Las Pirámides, Estado de México,
México, during the spring of 2008. Mean values (n = 6) with the same letters over the columns, for
each type of polysaccharide, are similar between ripeness levels, according to Tukey’s multiple
comparison test (p< 0.05).
Dietary fiber
The dietary fiber is mainly integrated by the polysaccharides from the cellular walls of plants; the
polysaccharide composition is a variable mixture of pectins, hemicelluloses etc., and, in addition it
includes other structural components, like lignin, proteins and some ions (Pszczola, 2006). The
dietary fiber is classified as soluble and insoluble, depending on its solubility properties and
physical-chemistry characteristics; although, the separation among them is no totally clear, because
it depends on the conditions of extraction (Hsu et al., 2004; Peña-Valdivia and Sánchez-Urdaneta,
2004 and 2006). Therefore, soluble fiber includes mucilages, pectins and some hemicelluloses,
known as gums; whereas, polysaccharides conforming the insoluble fiber includes another type of
hemicelluloses (those classified like tightly bound), cellulose, and other non-polysaccharide
components, like lignin (Pszczola, 2006).
J. PACD (2009) 11: 26–44
35
In the xoconostle fruits it was evident the diversity and heterogeneity of dietary fiber
polysaccharides depending on fruit ripening (Figures 2 to 4). Less ripe fruit contained relatively low
proportions of soluble fiber (7.74±1.54 %), whereas most ripened fruit contained significantly
greater proportions of this group of polysaccharides, it amounted near to three folds than the
immature fruits (18.53±1.63 %). In contrast, the insoluble fiber content, that in this study includes
the tightly bond hemicelluloses and cellulose, was abundant (between 11.61±0.34 and 16.5±0.95 %)
in all three ripening condition, but significantly smaller in less rip fruits (Figure 5). It should be
indicate that lignin, which is no a polysaccharide, is one of the less desirable components of the
insoluble fiber, because its anti-physiological effects (García and Peña, 1995); although, it could be
present in xoconostle, in the present study was no quantified. On this matter, Peña-Valdivia and
Sánchez-Urdaneta (2004) demonstrated the lignin absence in the pulp of sweet fruits of two
cultivars of O. ficus-indica and in nopalitos of 13 variants of Opuntia spp. Similarly, Lamghariel et
al. (1998) analyzed the total fiber composition in Opuntia ficus-indica fruit pulp, and determined
that in the 20.5% of total fiber only 0.01% represented lignin.
The physiological response of humans and animals in laboratory to the structural polysaccharides
intake depends on the amount and source of food fiber (Cummings et al., 2004; Englyst and
Englyst, 2005; Figuerola et al., 2005). It has been reported that the soluble fiber has hypolipidemic,
hypoglycemic and hypocholesterolemic action, beside it increases the viscosity of the gastric juice
in the stomach, reduces the absorption of nutrients and is an option for the treatment of the obesity
(Binns, 2003; Cummings et al., 2004; Englyst and Englyst, 2005; Figuerola et al., 2005; Sáenz,
2004 and 2006). The biological effects of insoluble fiber in humans has been also documented; it
includes the regulation of intestinal function, movement bulk through the intestines and control and
balance the pH (acidity) in the intestines, this prevent the incidence of gastrointestinal diseases,
cancer of colon and intestinal constipation (Zambrano et al., 1998). Besides, up to now the
biological effect of some of the complex polysaccharides from the unavailable fiber has been
experimentally demonstrated. The group of pectins are effective in diminishing the cholesterol level
on hyperlipidemic animals and humans, diminish the carbohydrate absorption and the postprandial
increase in sanguineous glucose and insulin in the serum of patients with diabetes type II (Binns,
2003; Cummings et al., 2004; Englyst and Englyst, 2005; Figuerola et al., 2005; Goycoolea and
Cárdenas, 2003; Sáenz, 2004 and 2006; Yeh et al., 2003). Experimentally it has been demonstrated
in animals that pectins isolated from Opuntia diminished the level of low density lipoproteins,
hepatic free and sterified cholesterol, and the relative activity of hepatic enzymes (Fernandez et al.
1990; Fernandez et al. 1994); in addition, they have antiinflammatory effect (Galati et al. 2003).
Alarcón et al. (2003) indicated that the species of Opuntia which are more frequently used to
incorporate fiber to foods are O. ficus-indica y O. streptacantha. Similarly, Peña-Valdivia and
Sánchez-Urdaneta (2004) indicated that O. ficus-indica is the most popular because this specie
includes a great number of cultivars and also there are great amount of species of Opuntia that are
unknown and consequently are low demanded. The results of this study allow affirming that the
mature fruits of O. matudae (Figure 6 to 9) remarkably represent an abundant fiber source (> 36%)
with similar proportions of soluble (18.5%) and insoluble (17.5) fiber.
36
J. PACD (2009) 11: 26−44
22
20
Soluble fiber
a
18
16
Total structural polysaccharides
-1
14
12
10
8
b
b
6
20
Insoluble fiber
18
a
16
a
14
12
b
10
8
6
1
2
3
Ripening stage
Figure 5.Content of soluble and insoluble fiber in xoconostle (Opuntia matudae) fruits with
different level of ripeness, and harvested in San Martín de Las Pirámides, Estado de México,
México, during the spring of 2008. Mean values (n = 6) with the same letters over the bars,
for each type of fiber, are similar between ripeness levels, according to Tukey’s multiple
comparison test (p< 0.05).
J. PACD (2009) 11: 26–44
37
Figure 6. View of overall plant morphology of Opuntia matudae in San Martín de
Las Pirámides, Estado de México, México.
38
J. PACD (2009) 11: 26−44
Figure 7. View of fruit and cladode of Opuntia matudae on the plant in San Martín de Las
Pirámides, Estado de México, México.
Figure 8. Close up of the areoles on the cladode of Opuntia matudae.
J. PACD (2009) 11: 26–44
39
Figure 9. Internal view of fruit of xoconostle (Opuntia matudae).
Conclusions
The fruits of xoconostle (O. matudae) at harvest for commercialization are homogenous in
dimensions (i.e. polar and equatorial diameter), but the ripening is inversely related to the depth of
the receptacle. Some morphologic parameters, like the thickness of the skin, total fruit biomass and
number of seeds by fruit can be used to recognize the real stage of xoconostle ripening. The
xoconostle fruits are rich in soluble and insoluble dietary fiber; although, the proportion and
composition of its dietary fiber is variable in dependence of the ripening stages at harvest.
40
J. PACD (2009) 11: 26−44
Acknowledgement
We appreciate the proof-reading of Dr. Rodolfo García N.
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Esparza Frausto, R.D. Valdez Cepeda, S. de J. Méndez Gallegos (Eds.). El nopal. Tópicos de
actualidad. Universidad Autónoma Chapingo-Colegio de Postgaduados.
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Sáenz, C. 2006. Opuntia spp. Bioactive compounds in foods: a plus for health. Acta Horticulturae
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San Luis Potosí. México. pp. 255-274.
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alimenticios no industrializados para uso humano – fruta fresca – tuna (Opuntia spp.)
especificaciones (cancela a la NMX-FF-030-SCFI-1995).
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agosto de 2008.
Wolfram, R.W., Kritz, H., Efthimiou, Y., Stomatopoulos, J., Sinzinger, H. 2002. Effect of prickly
pear (Opuntia robusta) on glucose-and lipid-metabolism in non-diabetics with hyperlipidemia: A
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dietary supplements for glycemic control in diabetes. Diabetes Care 26: 1277-1294.
Zambrano Z., M. de la L., Hernández H., A.D., Gallardo N., Y. 1998. Caracterización fisicoquímica
del nopal. Temas en Tecnología de Alimentos 2: 29-42.
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J. PACD (2009) 11: 26−44
Chemical, biochemical, and fatty acids composition of seeds
of Opuntia boldinghii Britton et Rose£
García Pantaleón, D.M., Flores Ortiz, M., Moreno Álvarez, M.J.*, Belén Camacho, D.R., Medina
Martínez, C.A., Ojeda Escalona, C.E. & Padrón Pereira, C.A.
Universidad Simón Rodríguez, Ingeniería de Alimentos, Laboratorio de Biomoléculas,
Carretera Nacional vía Urama, sector Los Naranjos, Canoabo, Estado Carabobo,
República Bolivariana de Venezuela
£
In memoriam of Professor † Horacio García-Pulido
*Author for correspondence, E-mail: [email protected]
Received 17 November 2008, Accepted 31 January 2009
Abstract
Opuntia boldinghii Britton and Rose, is a Cactaceae distributed in Venezuelan semiarid and coastal
regions. In this research, the proximate composition showed: moisture 7.66%; ethereal extract 5.53
g/100g; protein (N x 6.25) 2.89 g/100g; total ash 2.53 g/100g; crude fiber 16.26 g/100g. Minerals
determined were: calcium 0.59 mg/100g; phosphorus 24.93 mg/100g; potassium 2.80 mg/100g; iron
1.34 mg/100g. Total carotenoids value was 0.92 mg/100 and vitamin C concentration was 4.15 mg
ascorbic acid/100g. Caloric value was calculated at 349.07 Kcal. Antinutritional factors present
were: total tannins 0.33%; condensed tannins 0.08% of leucocyanidin equivalent; trypsin inhibitors
units 25.26 mg pure inhibited trypsin/g and non-detected saponins. Fatty acids profile showed:
linoleic 67.20%; oleic 18.00%; palmitic 10.40%; stearic 3.00%; palmitoleic 0.50%. In vitro protein
digestibility was 28.15%. In conclusion, O. boldinghii seeds are an important source of natural fiber
and, given its high linoleic acid content, its oils can be used as a nutraceutic agent.
Key words: antinutritional factors, bromatological analysis, cactus seeds, fatty acids, minerals,
Opuntia boldinghii.
Introduction
Cacti are an important resource in semiarid zones. In these regions, fruits and stems are consumed
directly as food or as forage, and are used for making marmalade, drinks and syrup. On the other
hand, cacti fruits are sources of natural coloring substances (Dominguez-Lopez, 1985; Saenz et al.,
1998; Ruiz-Feria et al., 1998; Sepúlveda et al., 2000; Viloria-Matos and Moreno-Alvarez, 2001;
Moreno-Alvarez et al.,2003). The Cactaceae family is a botanical group of the new world and
Mexico is the country with the largest center of diversity of this family (Ortega-Niebla et al., 2001).
Its importance lies in the fact that there is evidence of it being a pre-Hispanic food and its current
J. PACD (2009) 11: 45–52
45
potential in the food and pharmaceutical industries (Ruiz-Feria et al., 1998; Moreno-Alvarez et al.,
2003). In Venezuela, cacti have little commercial utility even though they show great food potential
and its agricultural requirements are scanty. The Cactaceae family is represented by columnar
species with rounded and creeper-like forms constituting food for bats (Soriano et al., 1991; Sosa
and Soriano, 1996), birds (Fleming and Sosa, 1994), and humans (Dominguez-Lopez, 1985).
The Opuntia genus is a member of Cactaceae family and in Venezuela is represented by the
following species: O. bisetosa Pittier; O. boldinghii Britton and Rose; O. caracasana Salm-Dyck;
O. caribaea Britton and Rose; O. crassa Haw (excluded because it is considered to be an ecotype of
O. caracasana Salm-Dyck); O. curassavica (L.) Miller; O. depauperata Britton and Rose; O.
schumannii Weber and O. elatior Miller (Trujillo and Ponce, 1988). The species O. lilae has been
added to the list, with three new species remaining to be described. This would bring the species to
a total of twelve (Baltasar Trujillo, personal communication of 31/05/2004), and distributed as
natural elements of semiarid ecosystems. O. boldinghii Britton and Rose is a cactus plant
originating in semiarid regions, especially along the Venezuelan coastline (Ponce, 1989).
Studies of O. boldinghii fruits have shown the presence of betalain-type pigments (betacyanins and
betaxanthins) (Viloria-Matos et al., 2002). Proximate analyses have also been performed both on
fruits and on cladodes (Moreno-Alvarez et al., 2006). There is, however, no information on the
chemical antinutritional composition of the fatty acids profile of seeds to allow this scantilyexploited species to be put to appropriate use.
Sample collection and preparation
Opuntia boldinghii Britton and Rose fruits were collected in the sector “La Sabana”, along the
national highway to Urama village (at approximately two kilometers from the Simón Rodriguez
University), in Carabobo State (Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela). Fruit samples were taken from
ten different plants pursuant to the criteria set forth by Viloria-Matos and Moreno-Álvarez (2001)
for fruits of the same species. The samples were transported in thermally insulated containers at a
temperature of 7±1 ºC. Fruits were washed and thorns were removed. Later, the pulp was separated
using an Eastern Electric®, Model JX5000 unit and the seeds were obtained. The seeds were
grounded in a VEM, Model TGL-3324 unit and subsequently dried by forced convection in a
Felisa®, Model FE-294AD stove (temperature 45±1 ºC for 72 hours).
Proximate seed analysis
Moisture content, protein, ethereal extract, ash, and crude fibre were analyzed according to AOAC
(1990) methods.
Mineral, total carotenoids and vitamin C contents
Minerals constituents (Ca, P, K and Fe) were determined according to AOAC (1990) methods: Ca,
K and Fe using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer (PERKIN ELMER®, Model 3100), and
phosphorus (P) content was determined by the phosphomolybdate method. Total carotenoids were
evaluated following the methodology indicated by Moreno-Álvarez et al. (1999). Vitamin C content
was determined by application of the 2.6 dichloroindophenol volumetric method (AOAC, 1990).
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J. PACD (2009) 11: 45−52
Caloric content
Caloric content was calculated by application of the model established by Bognár and Piekarski
(2000).
Antinutritional factor analysis
Total tannins content was analyzed by application of the procedure established by Arogba (2000).
Condensed-tannins evaluation (Leucocyanidin equivalent %) was performed by the procedure
described by Porter et al. (1986). Trypsin inhibitors were determined according to the methodology
indicated by Hamerstrand and Black (1981). The presence of saponins was determined by
application of the methodology described by Albornoz (1980).
In vitro digestibility
In vitro digestibility of protein was evaluated by application of the methodology described by Tilley
and Terry (1963).
Fatty acids composition of seed oil
The composition of fatty acids was determined through gas chromatography using a HEWLETTPACKARD, Model 5730 gas chromatograph with a flame ionization detector, glass column (with
an external diameter of 10mm, internal diameter of 2mm, and length of 1.82 m), 10% GP-SP 23.30
fill, and Chromosorb 100/120 WAW support, detector temperature at 250 ºC, programmed
temperature of 160 ºC for two min and 180 ºC for sixteen min at a temperature gradient of 4 ºC/min.
Fatty acid patterns were used for the respective comparison.
The proximate composition of the seeds is shown in Table 1. Ether extract (5.53%), protein
(2.89%), ash (2.53%), and raw fiber (16.26%) content are similar to findings of Domínguez-López
(1995) for Opuntia ficus indica seeds. However, Lamghari et al. (1998) and Sawaya et al. (1983)
reported the following values for the same species: ethereal extract 6.77-17.20%; protein 11.8016.60% and ashes 5.90-3.00%, which were higher than the values reported in this study.
Nevertheless, the values, show differences with respect to the species: O. heliabravoana; O.
xoconostle; and O. elatior (Moreno-Alvarez et al., 2007; Prieto-García, 2006).
The nutritional composition of O. boldinghii seeds is shown in Table 2. Calcium (0.59 mg/100g),
phosphorus (24.93 mg/100g), iron (1.34 mg/100g), and potassium (2.80 mg/100g) contents are
similar to those reported by Domínguez-López (1995) for O. ficus indica seeds, but different from
those reported by Prieto-García et al. (2006) for O. heliabravoana and O. xoconostle. Total
carotenoids value (0.92 mg/100g) is higher that the value reported by Moreno-Álvarez et al. (2003)
for the pulp of the same species. Vitamin C content (4.15 mg/100g) is lower than the content
reported for O. boldinguii pulp and cladodes (Moreno-Alvarez et al., 2006). Energy (349.07 Kcal)
is similar to that indicated by Moreno-Álvarez et al. (2007) for O. eliator seeds.
J. PACD (2009) 11: 45–52
47
Moisture
7.66±0.06
Table 1. Chemical composition O. boldinghii (mean, g/100g ± SD).
Ether extract
Protein
Ash
Crude fibre
5.53±0.16
2.89±0.15
2.53±0.16
16.26±0.76
n=3 samples, per triplicates
Table 2. Nutritional composition of O. boldinghii seeds (mean ± SD).
Parameter
Value
Calcium (mg/100g)
0.585±0.004
Phosphorus (mg/100g)
24.93±0.03
Potasium (mg/100g)
2.80±0.01
Iron (mg/100g)
1.341±0.010
Total Carotenoids (mg/100g)
0.918±0.010
Vitamin C (mg/100g)
4.15±0.08
Energy (Kcal)
349.07±0.23
n=3 samples, per triplicates.
Table 3 contains the results of the evaluation of some antinutritional factors. Total tannins content
(0.33%) is lower than that reported by Caramori et al. (2004) for total tannins in Hymenaea
courbaril (0.39%), but similar to the findings of León et al. (1993) in certain leguminous plants
(Vigna unguiculata and Cajanus cajan). The percentage of condensed tannins (0.08% of
Leucocyanidin equivalent) is lower than the percentage reported by González–Gómez et al. (2006)
for mango and certain leguminous plants. The chemical structure of condensed tannins allows them
to join to the polysaccharides, mineral, proteins, and enzymes involved in digesting the
aforementioned compounds (Otero and Hidalgo, 2004). If tannins occur in high concentrations, they
can have a negative influence on the processing within the intestinal tract. In the case of O.
boldinghii seeds, condensed tannins levels are low and could increase intestinal absorption of
protein (Gonzalez-Gómez et al., 2006).
Trypsin inhibitor concentrations of 25.26 mg pure trypsin inhibition/g sample (TIU) were found.
This is an acceptable value but is below the lowest value of the range reported by Ortega-Nieblas et
al. (2001) who determined values of 54-66 mg pure trypsin inhibition/g of sample for Sonora desert
cactus, and below the value reported for soy seeds (82 mg trypsin/g of sample). Saponins were not
detected, and this result is similar to that obtained by Ortega-Nieblas et al. (2001) for certain
columnar-cacti species (Stenocereus gummosus, Pacchycereus pecten-aboriginum, and Paclycereus
pringlei). The in vitro digestibility value (28.15%) found was comparatively lower than the
established Standards for casein (91.0%), certain columnar-cacti species (77-84%) (Ortega-Nieblas
et al., 2001), and O. ficus indica (77 %) (Sawaya et al., 1983).
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J. PACD (2009) 11: 45−52
Table 3. Antinutritional components of seeds (media ± SD).
Total Tannins (%)
Condensed
TIU**(Trypsin
Saponins
Tannins *
inhibition UNITS)
0.33±0.01
0.08±0.01
25.26±0.01
ND
n=3 samples, per duplicates
* Leucocyanidina equivalent (%)
**mg pure tripsin inhibited/g
ND = not detected.
The composition of fatty acids in the lipid fraction of oil is shown in Table 4. Linoleic acid (67.2%)
was the acid with greatest concentration followed by oleic acid (18.0%). Among the saturated acids,
palmitic acid (10.4 %) was most prevalent. Similar values for linoleic acid (70.3 and 74.8%), oleic
acid (16.8 and 12.8%), and palmitic acid (9.32 and 7.21 %) were published by Monia et al. (2005)
for O. ficus indica and O. stricta, respectively. In comparison to the composition of conventional
edible vegetable oils, cactus-seed oil surpasses the linoleic acid content of soy oils (Glicyne max)
(49.7%), corn oils (Zea mays) (47.7%), sesame oils (Sesamun indicum) (44.5%), sunflower oils
(Helianthus annus) (49.7%), and cotton oils (Gossypium hirsutum) (50.0%) (Astiasarán and
Candela, 2000). For these reasons they can be included in the group of low-palmitic-acid and highlinoleic-acid content oils, an aspect that allows us to recommend the oil under study as a possible
nutraceutic agent (Piga, 2004). It has previously been reported that linoleic acid is likewise present
at higher concentrations in other genera of the Cactaceae family, i.e. 50-53 % (Ortega-Nieblas,
2001). This research showed an even higher percentage (67.2%).
Table 4. Fatty acids composition of O. boldinghii.
Fatty acid
Percentage of
fatty acids to total
fatty acids
Palmitic (C 16: 0)
Palmitoleic (C 16: 1)
Stearic (C 18: 0)
Oleic (C 18: 1)
Linoleic (C 18: 2)
Linolenic (C 18: 3)
Arachidic (C 20: 0)
Gadoleic (C 20: 1)
10.4±0.1
0.5±0.1
3.0±0.1
18.0±0.1
67.2±0.1
0.3±0.1
0.3±0.1
0.4±0.1
n = 2 samples, per duplicates.
Conclusions
This study show that Opuntia boldinghii seeds are a viable alternative for use in the Venezuelan
food industry because they are a source of fiber and can also be used as flour in the formulation of
processed foods. The higher linoleic-acid proportion of this oil allows it to be used as a nutraceutic
agent.
J. PACD (2009) 11: 45–52
49
Acknnowledgement
The authors thank the FONACIT-UNESR Pem 2001002271 Project for their financing of this
paper.
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Desarrollo radical, rendimiento y concentración mineral en nopal
Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. en diferentes
tratamientos de fertilización
Root growth, yield and mineral concentration of Opuntia ficus-indica (L.)
Mill. under different fertilization treatments
Rafael Zúñiga-Tarango1, Ignacio Orona-Castillo1, Cirilo Vázquez-Vázquez1, Bernardo MurilloAmador 2*, Enrique Salazar-Sosa1, José Dimas López-Martínez1, José Luis García-Hernández 2,
Edgar Rueda-Puente3
1
Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango. Facultad de Agricultura y Zootecnia
Apdo. Postal 1-142, Gómez Palacio, Durango. C.P. 35000. México
2
3
Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste, S.C.
Mar Bermejo No. 195. Col. Playa Palo de Santa Rita.
C.P. 23090 La Paz, Baja California Sur, México
Universidad de Sonora, Campus Santa Ana, Sonora, México
*Corresponding author: e-mail: [email protected]
Received 8 September, 2008; accepted 25 April, 2009
Resumen
El objetivo de este estudio fue determinar el efecto de las aplicaciones de estiércol bovino y
fertilizante mineral en diferentes profundidades con respecto al crecimiento radical, producción de
materia seca y concentración de nutrientes en nopalito. El experimento se realizó durante un
periodo de 18 meses con tratamientos formados por dos dosis de estiércol bovino (100 y 300 t ha-1)
o una dosis de fertilizante mineral aplicados en tres profundidades (0-18, 18-36 y 36-54 cm),
además de un testigo sin abono. El experimento se estableció considerando un diseño de bloques al
azar con cuatro repeticiones. Los resultados mostraron que la mayor abundancia relativa de raíces
de las plantas de nopal fue en el primer estrato (0 a 18 cm) con un 96%, seguido del estrato de 18 a
36 cm con 3 %. El rendimiento de nopalitos, la producción de materia seca y el número de brotes
fueron mayores en las plantas sometidas al tratamiento de 100 t ha-1 de estiércol aplicado en el
estrato superior (0 a 18 cm). El contenido mineral de los cladodios mostró valores similares entre
tratamientos y el testigo; sin embargo, la concentración de fósforo y de micro elementos fue mayor
en las plantas sometidas a los tratamientos de estiércol en el estrato de 0 a 18 cm. Las aplicaciones
de estiércol incrementaron el contenido mineral y de materia orgánica del suelo al final del
experimento.
Palabras clave: Profundidad de aplicación de fertilizantes; Absorción de nutrimentos; Aplicación
de estiércol.
J. PACD (2009) 11: 53–68
53
Abstract
The main objective of this study was to determine the effect of conditions with manure and mineral
fertilizing applications with respect to prickly pear cactus production and root growth. The
experiment was conducted during 18 months using two cow manure doses (100 and 300 t ha-1),
three depth application (0-18, 18-36 and 36-54 cm), and a control treatment. The experiment was
established under complete randomized block design with four replications and response variables
of yield and roots characteristics were evaluated. The results showed that the higher root abundance
in prickly pear cactus was in the first stratum (0-18 cm) where found the 96% of the total root mass,
followed by the second stratum (18-36 cm) with 3% of root mass. The effect of root development
with the cladodes yield was inversely proportional. The cladodes yield, dry matter production and
the cladodes number showed the higher values under 100 t ha-1 of manure in the first stratum (0-18
cm). The mineral content of the cladodes showed similar values between the fertilizer treatments
and control; however, the concentration of phosphorus and microelements was higher in the plants
under manure treatments in the first stratum. In general terms, the application of manure increased
the organic matter and mineral content of the soils at the end of the present experiment.
Key words: Depth of the fertilizer application; Nutrient uptake; Manure application.
Introducción
Existen varios factores que afectan el desarrollo de la raíz de las plantas cultivadas. Entre ellos se
incluyen factores que dependen de la especie vegetal, hábito de crecimiento y algunas variables
ambientales como la concentración del O2, la temperatura y el estado hídrico de la planta (Taiz y
Zeiger, 1991). La importancia del estudio de la respuesta de los patrones de extracción y los
factores que lo limitan es de gran interés dado que mediante la raíz, las plantas se satisfacen de agua
y nutrimentos para su desarrollo, permitiendo un aumento en la superficie de exploración. Esta
respuesta del desarrollo radical está influenciada fuertemente por la compactación del suelo, dado
que aumenta la densidad aparente, reduce la velocidad de infiltración y disminuye la aireación del
suelo. Estos factores contribuyen a restringir el desarrollo de la raíz tanto radial como
longitudinalmente, lo cual a su vez limita la absorción de agua, nutrimentos y generalmente reduce
el desarrollo, calidad y producción (Unger y Kasper, 1994). Además de la compactación, existen
otros factores que afectan la aireación en el suelo, tal es el caso de prácticas de drenaje agrícola
inadecuadas que crean condiciones de inundación y reducen considerablemente el intercambio de
gases en el suelo, lo cual deteriora las condiciones ideales para un adecuado intercambio de gases
en el sistema raíz-suelo-atmósfera (Taiz y Zeiger, 1991). En el aspecto nutricional, existe un
reconocimiento generalizado entre productores e investigadores en el sentido de que el nopal se ubica
como una planta rústica; sin embargo, responde favorablemente a la aplicación de abonos ya sea
orgánicos o químicos (Pimienta, 1990; Mondragón y Pimienta, 1990; Murillo-Amador et al., 2005 a,b).
En general, las investigaciones sobre fertilización han tenido una orientación práctica, e
indudablemente han contribuido a la adopción de esta labor cultural. El nopal, como la mayoría de los
cultivos, presenta su producción en la parte aérea, lo que explica el motivo por el que la mayor parte de
la investigación agrícola, sea referida a los rendimientos aéreos. Pocos investigadores consideran el
efecto que ejercen las condiciones del suelo sobre la disponibilidad de nutrimentos y la distribución de
raíces y estos factores, a su vez, sobre la producción. Por esta razón, se considera necesario destinarle
mayor atención a esos aspectos y así contar con más elementos básicos para generar recomendaciones
al respecto.
54
J. PACD (2009) 11: 53-68
El estiércol como abono ha mostrado ser benéfico (Murillo-Amador et al., 1999) cuando éste se ha
utilizado de manera adecuada, mejorando la calidad del suelo al incidir en las propiedades físicas,
biológicas y químicas. Sin embargo, no deben esperarse grandes cambios en pocos años, en particular
con respecto a las propiedades físicas, ya que para lograr cambios significativos se requieren grandes
cantidades de estiércol, lo que traería consigo una degradación de las propiedades químicas y la
disminución la calidad del suelo. Aun cuando el lugar más idóneo de depósito del estiércol es el suelo,
sobre todo cuando se dispone de cantidades tan grandes que llega a ser un problema, como es el caso de
los corrales de ganado con fines de producción lechera.
La incorporación del estiércol al suelo debe realizarse con un manejo adecuado que no produzca
contaminación y proporcione al suelo una serie de ventajas desde el punto de vista nutrimental. Las
propiedades físicas del suelo serán mejoradas con cambios, por lo general, lentos y difíciles de percibir
en el corto plazo. Sin embargo, existen muchas discrepancias en cuanto a las recomendaciones de las
dosis, además del desconocimiento generalizado de los efectos que inducen en el desarrollo y
distribución de raíces. Por lo anterior, es importante considerar el efecto que ejercen las condiciones
del suelo en la distribución de raíces y de éstas sobre la producción. El objetivo del presente estudio
fue determinar el patrón de desarrollo radical de Opuntia ficus-indica en diferentes condiciones de
suelo con estiércol bovino aplicado en tres profundidades y su efecto en el rendimiento de nopal
verdura.
Materiales y métodos
Área de estudio
El presente trabajo se realizó en el área de invernaderos de la Facultad de Agronomía de la
Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León (UANL) ubicada en Marín, Nuevo León, México (25°53'
N, 100° 03' W, a una altitud de 375 msnm).
Conducción del experimento
El experimento se condujo durante el período comprendido entre julio de 1998 y enero de 2000. Se
plantaron cladodios de nopal verdura, variedad “Jalpa”, en contenedores de 0.648 m3 con
dimensiones de 1 m de largo por 1.2 m de ancho y 0.54 m de profundidad, los cuales se llenaron
con suelo y se dividieron en tres estratos de 18 cm de espesor. Se evaluaron diez tratamientos
formados por la dosis de estiércol o fertilizante químico y la profundidad de aplicación. El
contenido de N, P, K en el estiércol fue de 3.09, 0.46 y 4.12 %, respectivamente; mientras que el
suelo presentó las características siguientes: 1.61 % de materia orgánica, 3.71 % de carbonato, un
pH de 8.54, una conductividad eléctrica de 17.8 dS m-1, además de 20.5, 16.0 y 298 ppm de
nitrógeno, fósforo y potasio, respectivamente.
Medición de variables
En este período se realizaron tres evaluaciones para cuantificar el desarrollo radical con muestreos
destructivos utilizando el método del monolito o bloques, descrito por Kolesnikov (1971).
Peso seco de raíces. El peso seco se determinó al colocar las raíces en un horno de circulación de
aire forzado (Blue M. UL 543 H, Blue Island, Illinois, U.S.A.) a 80° C hasta obtener peso constante,
el cual se determinó en báscula electrónica (OAHUS, Portable Advanced, modelo No. CT600-S).
Longitud de raíces. La longitud de raíces se midió con regla graduada cuando se realizaron los
muestreos destructivos de las plantas de nopal, de las cuales se extrajeron y cuantificaron en cada
uno de los estratos.
J. PACD (2009) 11: 53–68
55
Diámetro de raíces. El diámetro de las raíces principales de cada cladodio madre se midió con un
vernier digital (GENERAL, No. 143, GENERAL Tools, Manufacturing Co., Inc. New York, USA).
Porcentaje de enraizamiento. Esta variable se determinó de acuerdo al número de areolas cubiertas
por el sustrato, cuantificándose el número de las que emitieron raíces.
Producción de materia seca. La materia seca se determinó al colocar los cladodios cosechados,
previamente fraccionados, en un horno de circulación de aire forzado (Blue M. UL 543 H, Blue
Island, Illinois, U.S.A.) a 80° C hasta obtener peso constante, el cual se determinó en báscula
electrónica (OAHUS, Portable Advanced modelo No. CT600-S).
Número de brotes por planta. Esta variable se cuantificó realizando un conteo de los brotes
cosechados en cada uno de los cortes.
Contenido mineral en cladodios. Los cladodios cosechados (nopalitos) se lavaron con agua
destilada para remover polvo y cualquier otro residuo ajeno a la planta. Posteriormente se colocaron
en charolas de aluminio en el interior de un horno de circulación de aire forzado (Blue M. UL 543 H,
Blue Island, Illinois, U.S.A.) a 80° C hasta obtener peso constante, el cual se determinó en báscula
electrónica (OAHUS, Portable Advanced modelo No. CT600-S). Una vez secado el material vegetal,
se molió finamente en molino para muestras pequeñas (Braun 4-041 Model KSM-2) y se
almacenaron en bolsas de papel para su envío al laboratorio. Los análisis químicos de minerales se
realizaron con base en peso seco. Se determinó el contenido de sodio, cobre, fierro, calcio,
magnesio, manganeso y potasio mediante un espectrofotómetro de absorción atómica (Shimadzu
AA-660, Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan) después de una digestión con H2SO4, HNO3 y HClO4. El cloro se
extrajo mediante agua caliente y su concentración se determinó en cromatógrafo de iones
(Shimadzu HIC-6A, Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan). El contenido de nitrógeno se determinó mediante el
método de microkjeldahl a base de calentamiento con H2SO4 y ácido salicílico, adicionando el
reactivo de Nessler (US EPA, 1979) para desarrollar color y así determinar la concentración en
espectrofómetro a 415 nm. El contenido de fósforo se determinó por el método de Gomori (1942),
utilizando molibdato de sodio para el desarrollo de color y realizando su lectura en espectrofómetro
a 660 nm.
Fertilidad del suelo. Se determinó la concentración de elementos al final del experimento de
acuerdo a los tratamientos aplicados. El nitrógeno total se determinó mediante digestión con
Kjeldahl utilizando una mezcla de ácido sulfúrico y ácido salicílico conteniendo sulfato de potasio y
sulfato de cobre como catalizadores, seguido de una estimación de amonio usando el método de
Nessler (Hach, 2000). El fósforo se determinó por el método azul de molibdeno midiendo la
absorbancia a 660 nm en un espectrofotómetro (Hitachi U-1100). El potasio se determinó mediante
una digestión ácida y después se obtuvo el valor mediante absorción atómica (Shimadzu AA-660,
Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan). El contenido de materia orgánica del suelo se determinó mediante el
método de Walkley y Black (Jackson, 1964).
Diseño experimental y análisis estadístico
El experimento se estableció al considerar un diseño de bloques completos al azar con arreglo
factorial con cuatro repeticiones, utilizando como unidad experimental un contenedor con cuatro
plantas. El primer factor en estudio fueron las profundidades de aplicación de abonos (estiércol
bovino y/o fertilizante químico), con tres niveles (0-18, 18-36 y 36-54 cm de profundidad) y el
segundo factor fueron las dosis de estiércol bovino con dos niveles (100 y 300 t ha-1) más una dosis
de fertilizante inorgánico, equivalente a 100 t ha-1 de estiércol. La combinación de los factores
56
J. PACD (2009) 11: 53-68
permitió formar nueve tratamientos: T1= fertilizante mineral y 00-18 de profundidad; T2=
fertilizante mineral y 18-36 de profundidad; T3= fertilizante mineral y 36-54 de profundidad; T4=
100 t ha-1 de estiércol y 00-18 de profundidad; T5= 100 t ha-1 de estiércol y 18-36 de profundidad;
T6= 100 t ha-1 y 36-54 de profundidad; T7= 300 t ha-1 y 00-18 de profundidad; T8= 300 t ha-1 y 1836 de profundidad; T9=300 t ha-1 y 36-54 de profundidad y T10= sin aplicación (testigo: suelo
normal). Se realizaron análisis de varianza y pruebas de medias con la prueba LSD de Fisher
(p=0.05), al usar el programa SAS (SAS Institute, 1990).
Resultados y discusión
Peso seco de raíces
La cuantificación del peso seco de raíz mostró en lo general (Cuadro 1) que el mayor desarrollo
radical de la planta de nopal se presentó en el estrato de 0 a 18 cm, lo cual coincide con los
resultados reportados por Zúñiga y Cueto (2001). Se encontró que en ésta profundidad, las plantas
de nopal desarrollaron hasta el 96% de su abundancia radical, mientras que un 3% se desarrolló en
el estrato correspondiente a la profundidad de 18 a 36 cm. En el estrato de 36 a 54 cm, sólo se
encontraron fracciones muy pequeñas de raíces, estimándose en un 1%.
Longitud de raíces
La respuesta de ésta variable se muestra en la Figura 1. El estrato superior mostró valores
estadísticamente no diferentes (p=0.05) entre el testigo y los tratamientos de estiércol aplicado,
siendo superior el tratamiento de 300 t ha-1de estiércol, con un valor de 40.25 cm, siendo
estadísticamente igual a los tratamientos correspondientes a fertilizante mineral y 100 t ha-1 de
estiércol, respectivamente. Una situación similar se presentó en los valores de ésta variable en los
tratamientos de estiércol aplicado en el estrato inferior (de 36 a 54 cm), los cuales presentaron, en
términos generales, una longitud de raíces mayor, independientemente de la cantidad de estiércol
aplicado. Asimismo, estos valores resultaron mayores en las plantas tratadas con el fertilizante
mineral aplicado en el estrato inferior, que resultó estadísticamente igual al tratamiento de 300 t ha-1
de estiércol en la profundidad de 18 a 36 cm. De acuerdo con estos resultados, el desarrollo en
longitud de raíces, estuvo determinado por el fenómeno de quimiotropismo, toda vez que el
estiércol fue aplicado en la parte más distante de los contenedores, por lo que la planta desarrolló
una longitud mayor tratando de dar alcance a los nutrimentos.
Diámetro de raíces
La respuesta de ésta variable a la aplicación de los tratamientos mostró diferencias significativas
entre tratamientos (Cuadro 2), observándose un diámetro mayor en los tratamientos de fertilización
mineral en el estrato de 0 a 18 cm y dosis de 100 t ha-1 en el estrato de 36 a 54 cm. Una respuesta
que destaca es que en el tratamiento de 100 t ha-1 en las tres profundidades, las plantas mostraron un
incremento en el diámetro de las raíces conforme se incrementó la profundidad de aplicación del
abono.
Porcentaje de enraizamiento
Se encontraron diferencias significativas entre tratamientos para esta variable. El mayor porcentaje
de enraizamiento se presentó en las plantas del tratamiento testigo, con igualdad estadística entre los
tratamientos siguientes: Mineral 0-18, 300 t 0-18, 300 t 36-54 y 100 t 18-36 (Cuadro 2). Las plantas
sometidas al tratamiento 100 t ha-1 y 36-54 cm de profundidad mostraron un porcentaje menor de
enraizamiento. Los resultados anteriores coinciden con los reportados por Zúñiga y Vázquez (1998)
quienes evaluaron la respuesta de plantas de la misma especie de nopal utilizada en el presente
J. PACD (2009) 11: 53–68
57
estudio, empleando diferentes dosis de nitrógeno y concluyeron que el inicio del crecimiento radical
se encuentra en función de las condiciones como la cantidad de luz y la humedad existentes en el
sustrato.
Cuadro 1. Valores promedio del peso seco de raíces (g) por plantas en nopal en función del
tipo, la dosis de estiércol y la profundidad de aplicación.
Table 1. Mean values of root dry weight (g) of prickly pear cactus plants under different
manure doses and depth application.
Tratamientos
Dosis
(t ha-1)
100
Mineral
300
Mineral
Mineral
100
300
Testigo
300
100
Estrato de 0 a 18 cm
Profundidad
(cm)
18-36
18-36
36-54
36-54
00-18
00-18
00-18
18-36
36-54
Estrato de 18 a 36 cm
Muestreo 1
22/dic/1998
Muestreo 2
15/jun/1999
Muestreo 3
5/feb/2000
Muestreo 1
22/dic/1998
Muestreo 2
15/jun/1999
Muestreo 3
5/feb/2000
3.802 a
2.426 b
2.399 bc
2.251 bcd
2.015 bcde
1.992 cde
1.955 de
1.705 ef
1.347 fg
1.284 g
3.761 b
2.408 c
2.724 c
6.641 a
3.596 b
2.521 c
2.434 c
2.544c
2.747 c
3.509 b
3.737 c
2.278 cd
2.922 cd
3.207 cd
3.045 cd
6.722 a
6.369 a
3.846 bc
5.513 ab
3.134 cd
0.109 a
0.101 a
0.106 a
0.104 a
0.107 a
0.114 a
0.120 a
0.113 a
0.103 a
0.104 a
0.137 bc
0.124 d
0.140 bc
0.135 bc
0.159 ab
0.170 ab
0.183 a
0.170 ab
0.130 c
0.124 d
0.114 c
0.072 cd
0.095 cd
0.098 cd
0.092 cd
0.216 a
0.200 a
0.112 bc
0.161 ab
0.093 cd
X = 0.108
X =4.070
X = 0.109
96 %
3%
*Medias con la misma letra en columna, no difieren significativamente (Fisher LSD a p=0.05).
X = 2.12
X = 3.289
X =0 .120
Rendimiento de nopalito
Se encontraron diferencias significativas entre tratamientos en siete cortes. En términos generales,
esta variable mostró los valores mayores en el tratamiento de 100 t ha-1, seguido de los tratamientos
de 300 t ha-1 de estiércol y fertilizante mineral, los tres tratamientos en la profundidad de 0 a 18 cm
(Cuadro 3). Se observó que el rendimiento se incrementó conforme se realizaron los primeros tres
cortes, para posteriormente disminuir en los siguientes tres y de nuevo mostrar los rendimientos
mayores en los dos cortes últimos. La disminución en el rendimiento en los cortes cuarto, quinto y
sexto, coincidió con el periodo invernal, por lo que se asume que ésta disminución fue por efecto
del frío. Los resultados anteriores coinciden con los presentados por Vázquez y Gallegos (1995)
quienes encontraron rendimientos mayores de nopalitos cuando aplicaron dosis altas de estiércol.
58
J. PACD (2009) 11: 53-68
50
a
a
45
ab
abc
Longitud de raíces (cm)
40
35
0-18
18-36
36-54
Testigo
bcd
cd
d
bcd
cd
d
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Mineral
100 t ha-1
300 t ha-1
Testigo
Tratamientos
Figura 1. Longitud de raíces en nopal a diferentes dosis de abono y profundidades de aplicación.
Barras con la misma letra, no difieren significativamente (Fisher LSD a p=0.05).
Figure 1. Length of root in prickly pear under different manure doses and depth application.
Bars with the same letter, are not different significantly ((Fisher LSD a p=0.05).
Producción de materia seca
Esta variable se relacionó directamente con la variable rendimiento de nopalito (r=0.24 p=0.04,
n=70), por lo que presentó resultados similares al rendimiento, encontrándose diferencias
significativas entre tratamientos en siete cortes. Los valores mayores se presentaron en el
tratamiento de 100 t ha-1, seguido de los tratamientos de 300 t ha-1 de estiércol y fertilizante mineral,
los tres tratamientos en la profundidad de 0 a 18 cm (Cuadro 4). La proporción de materia seca fue
del 10 % con respecto al rendimiento de nopalito, resultado que coincide con lo reportado por
Flores y Aguirre (1992). Por otro lado, se observó que la relación de la producción acumulada de
nopalito con el desarrollo radical de las plantas (Figura 2) se presentó con una proporción inversa,
por lo que se asume que la planta utiliza los fotosintatos generados para desarrollar la parte aérea al
tener satisfechas las necesidades de nutrientes proporcionadas por el medio a través de la raíz,
resultados que confirman lo reportado por Zúñiga y Vázquez (1998) quienes evaluaron diferentes
dosis de nitrógeno y variedades de nopal, dentro de ellas la variedad Jalpa, la cual mostró una
respuesta similar a los resultados del presente estudio.
J. PACD (2009) 11: 53–68
59
Cuadro 2. Valores promedio de diámetro de raíz y porcentaje de areolas enraizadas de nopal
sometido a diferentes dosis de estiércol y profundidades de aplicación.
Table 2. Average values of root diameter and percentage of rooted areoles
under different manure doses and depth application.
Tratamientos
Diámetro de raíz (mm)
Mineral 0-18
100 t 36-54
Mineral 36-54
300 t 36-54
300 t 0-18
100 t 18-36
300 t 18-36
Testigo
Mineral 18-36
100 t 0-18
Areolas enraizadas (%)
3.05 a
2.95 a
2.70 ab
2.55 ab
2.45 abc
2.32 bc
2.22 bc
2.20 bc
2.15 bc
1.85 c
40.00 ab
22.75 c
40.25 ab
40.00 ab
39.00 ab
36.00 ab
29.50 bc
45.00 a
30.25 bc
32.00 bc
* Medias con la misma letra en columna, no difieren significativamente (Fisher LSD a p=0.05).
Cuadro 3. Valores promedio del rendimiento de nopalito sometido a diferentes dosis
de abono y profundidades de aplicación.
Table 3. Average values of green cladodes “nopalitos” yield under different
manure doses and depth application.
Tratamientos
Número de corte y fecha de corte/Rendimiento de nopalito (t ha-1)
Dosis
100 t ha-1
300 t ha-1
100 t ha-1
Mineral
300 t ha-1
Mineral
300 t ha-1
Mineral
100 t ha-1
Testigo
Profundidad
1
06/08/98
(cm)
00-18
00-18
18-36
00-18
18-36
18-36
36-54
36-54
36-54
2.98a
1.98a
2.36a
2.34a
1.98a
2.02a
2.34a
1.82a
1.40a
1.71a
2
02/09/98
4.8ab
5.08a
4.6abc
3.3bcd
3.6bcd
3.8abc
2.9cd
3.1bcd
3.7bcd
1.99d
3
08/10/98
8.24a
6.81b
5.7bc
6.9ab
4.4cde
3.7cde
3.2de
4.2cde
3.16e
5.5cd
4
19/11/98
5.75a
5.09a
2.7bc
3.52b
1.8cd
0.72de
0.49de
0.51de
0.283e
0.91de
5
25/01/99
4.06a
2.6ab
1.8bc
1.1bc
0.83c
0.82bc
0.155c
1.9bc
0.83bc
0.97bc
6
13/02/99
5.10a
4.32a
2.84b
1.34c
2.1bc
1.10c
1.15c
1.7bc
1.49c
1.54c
7
22/03/99
16.2a
14.1ab
11.1bc
14.1ab
12.2bc
9.51c
10.2c
12.0bc
10.1c
10.5c
8
06/05/99
13.5a
12.2ab
10.6bc
10.1cd
9.8cde
7.48f
9.3cde
8.2ef
8.7def
8.3ef
* Medias con la misma letra en hilera, no difieren significativamente (Fisher LSD a p=0.05).
60
J. PACD (2009) 11: 53-68
Figura 2. Producción acumulada (A) y patrón de desarrollo radical (B) de nopal sometido a
diferentes dosis de abono y profundidades de aplicación.
Figure 2. Accumulated production (A) and root development pattern (B) of prickly
pear cactus under different manure doses and depth application.
J. PACD (2009) 11: 53–68
61
Número de brotes por planta
Esta variable mostró una relación directa con la variable producción de materia seca (r=0.95,
p=0.000, n=70), toda vez que uno de los criterios para cosechar era el tamaño de brote al considerar
largo por ancho. Por lo anterior, esta variable mostró resultados similares a la variable
anteriormente mencionada, con diferencias significativas en siete cortes. En términos generales, el
número de brotes mayor por planta se presentó en los tratamientos de 100 t ha-1, seguido del
tratamiento de 300 t ha-1 de estiércol (Cuadro 4).
Contenido mineral en cladodios
El contenido mineral de los nopalitos cosechados (Cuadro 5) mostró valores similares en el
nitrógeno, potasio, sodio y magnesio entre los tratamientos y el testigo. Con ello se demuestra la
existencia de las variaciones y lo complejo de las respuestas debido a las interacciones entre los
elementos en el suelo y durante la toma de los mismos por las raíces. De acuerdo con las tendencias
presentadas por los microelementos, estos mostraron una concentración mayor en los tratamientos
donde se realizaron aplicaciones de estiércol; sobre todo cuando éste se aplicó en la parte superior
de los contenedores, lo cual se correlacionó positivamente con las modificaciones presentadas en el
pH del suelo con la aplicación del abono (Figura 3).
Por otro lado, de los elementos considerados en ésta variable, destaca la concentración del fósforo
(Fig. 4) la cual, comparada con el testigo, con el fertilizante mineral y con reportes anteriores en la
misma especie (Nobel, 1998) mostró valores superiores en las plantas sometidas a los tratamientos
de estiércol, con valores similares en cuanto a las dosis de 100 y 300 t ha-1, cuyos valores promedio
fueron 0.56 y 0.59 %, respectivamente (Cuadro 5). Considerando la profundidad de aplicación del
estiércol, los valores de la concentración de fósforo fueron de mayor a menor, cuyo promedio en el
estrato de 0 a 18 cm fue de 0.69 %, seguido de 0.57 % en el estrato de 18 a 36 cm y 0.46 % en el
estrato más profundo (de 36 a 54 cm), en todos los casos con valores superiores a los obtenidos por
el tratamiento de fertilizante mineral y el testigo (Figura 4).
Fertilidad del suelo
El análisis mineral del suelo al final del experimento (Cuadro 6) mostró la capacidad de
abastecimiento producto de las aplicaciones de estiércol para años subsecuentes, tal como lo
menciona Pratt (1982) al discutir el valor del estiércol como fertilizante. Los contenidos de nitrato y
potasio en las áreas donde se aplicó estiércol son superiores al sitio testigo, sobresaliendo el caso
del potasio donde, aún cuando en el tratamiento mineral y el estiércol en 100 t eran equivalentes, al
final presentó un contenido mayor de potasio residual en la aplicación mineral atribuyéndose a la
solubilidad del mismo y un posible efecto de lixiviación como lo cita Pratt (1982) para el caso del
estiércol, al pasar a formar parte de los efectos de salinidad.
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J. PACD (2009) 11: 53-68
Cuadro 4. Valores promedio de producción de materia seca y número de brotes por planta de nopal sometido a diferentes dosis de abono y
profundidades de aplicación.
Table 4. Average values of dry matter production and number of cladodes per plant of prickly pear cactus under different manure doses and depth
application.
Producción de materia seca (kg ha-1)
(en siete cortes)
Tratamientos
-1
100 t ha 00-18
300 t ha-1 00-18
100 t ha-1 18-36
Mineral 00-18
300 t ha-1 18-36
Mineral 18-36
300 t ha-1 36-54
Mineral 36-54
100 t ha-1 36-54
Testigo
1
432ab
453a
399ab
225c
318abc
335abc
269bc
278bc
328abc
178c
2
731a
605ab
506ab
617ab
393cde
332cde
290de
374cde
271e
493bcd
3
581a
512a
277bc
361b
184cd
75de
51de
50de
29e
87de
4
416a
277ab
190bc
112bc
85c
81bc
16c
192bc
86bc
99bc
5
512a
432a
289b
139c
208bc
106c
114c
119bc
152c
154c
6
1625a
1418ab
1116bc
1418ab
1236bc
951c
1029c
1214bc
1018c
1065c
Número de brotes por planta
(en siete cortes)
7
1358a
1213ab
1064bc
1014cd
980cde
750f
938ce
824ef
876df
826ef
1
3.44a
3.00ab
2.63bc
2.3bcd
2.50bc
2.56bc
1.94cd
2.3bcd
2.25cd
1.75d
2
4.31ab
4.50a
3.25bc
2.81cd
2.50cd
2.31cd
1.75d
2.43cd
2.06d
2.62cd
3
2.75a
2.38ab
1.50c
1.69bc
1.25cd
0.50de
0.31e
0.38e
0.31e
0.62de
4
5
1.666 a 2.0 a
1.16 ab 1.6a
1.00ac 1.0b
0.58bcd 0.83bc
0.25d 0.91bc
0.50bcd 0.58c
0.25d 0.58c
0.091bcd0.83bc
0.41cd 0.66bc
0.50bcd 0.75bc
* Medias con la misma letra en hilera, no difieren significativamente (Fisher LSD a p=0.05).
J. PACD (2009) 11: 53–68
63
6
8.83 a
8.83a
8.08a
6.08bc
7.5ab
5.0c
7.50ab
5.50c
6.08bc
6.00bc
7
9.41 a
7.83a
6.83a
6.75a
7.16a
6.91a
5.58a
7.41a
4.41a
5.66a
Cuadro 5. Valores promedio del contenido mineral de “nopalitos” cosechados de plantas de nopal
sometidas a diferentes dosis de abono y profundidades de aplicación.
Table 5. Average values of mineral content of “nopalitos” of prickly pear cactus
Minerales
Mineral
100 t ha-1
300 t ha-1
Testigo
Nobel (1988)
Nitrógeno (%)
2.30
2.45
2.570
2.24
2.61
Fósforo (%)
0.30
0.56
0.59
0.38
0.33
Potasio (%)
6.24
6.58
5.97
6.02
1.18
Calcio (%)
5.38
5.04
3.69
4.82
6.33
Magnesio (%)
1.07
1.37
1.39
1.38
1.43
Sodio (%)
0.13
0.12
0.13
0.12
31 ppm
Manganeso (ppm)
33.13
39.66
33.53
29.30
54
Cobre (ppm)
17.00
18.90
18.30
14.700
15
Zinc (ppm)
29.30
44.80
39.10
32.00
52
Fierro (ppm)
172.60
179.70
130.60
139.70
88
8.8
8.6
0-18
18-36
36-54
Testigo
Valores de pH
8.4
8.2
8.0
7.8
7.6
Mineral
100 t ha-1
300 t ha-1
Testigo
Tratamientos
Figura 3. Valores de pH del suelo al final del experimento en cada uno de los tratamientos
formados por la aplicación de estiércol y la profundidad de aplicación.
Figure 3. Soil pH values at the end of the experiment with prickly pear cactus
64
J. PACD (2009) 11: 53-68
0.8
0-18
18-36
36-54
Testigo
0.7
Contenido de fósforo (%)
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
Mineral
100 t ha-1
300 t ha-1
Testigo
Tratamientos
Figura 4. Contenido de fósforo en “nopalitos” de plantas de nopal sometidas a diferentes dosis de
abono y profundidades de aplicación.
Figure 4. Phosphorus content in “nopalitos” of prickly pear cactus under
different manure doses and depth application.
Conclusiones
El patrón de desarrollo radical del cultivo de nopal de acuerdo a su abundancia radical se ubica en
un 96 % en la profundidad de 0 a 18 cm y un 3% en el estrato de 18 a 36 cm. Sin embargo, acorde
con la longitud de raíces, la mayor actividad se presentó en la capa más profunda. La influencia del
desarrollo radical con respecto al rendimiento se presentó inversamente proporcional al término de
un año y medio.
El rendimiento de nopalitos, la producción de materia seca y el número de brotes fueron mayores en
las plantas sometidas al tratamiento de 100 t ha-1 de estiércol aplicado en el estrato superior (de 0 a
18 cm). El contenido mineral de los cladodios (“nopalitos”) mostró valores similares entre
tratamientos y el testigo; sin embargo, la concentración de fósforo fue mayor en las plantas
sometidas a los tratamientos de estiércol en el estrato de 0 a 18 cm. Asimismo, la concentración de
microelementos fue mayor en los tratamientos de estiércol, en la parte superior de los contenedores
J. PACD (2009) 11: 53–68
65
(de 0 a 18 cm). Se determinó que las aplicaciones de estiércol incrementaron el contenido mineral y
de materia orgánica del suelo al final del experimento.
Cuadro 6. Concentración de minerales en el suelo al final del experimento de nopal sometido a
diferentes dosis de abono y profundidades de aplicación.
Table 6. Mineral concentration in soil at the end of the experiment with prickly pear cactus under
different manure doses and depth application.
Tratamientos
Mineral
100 t estiércol
300 t estiércol
Testigo
Contenido inicial
Profundidad
(cm)
Nitrógeno NO3
ppm
Fósforo
ppm
00-18
18-36
36-54
00-18
18-36
36-54
00-18
18-36
36-54
00-18
18-36
36-54
---
36
21
20
124
47
65
18
114
45
4
11
13
20
22
22
20
40
40
36
134
196
192
18
20
20
16
Potasio Materia orgánica
ppm
(%)
1077
855
1356
683
654
657
1697
837
1467
336
249
230
298
1.62
1.58
1.58
2.52
2.71
3.32
4.44
7.54
7.80
0.97
1.31
1.00
1.61
Agradecimientos
El presente proyecto se desarrolló con el apoyo de la Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León,
Facultad de Agronomía y Zootecnia de la Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango, del Centro de
Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste, S.C. (proyectos ZA3 y 043C) y de la Universidad de
Sonora, campus Santa Ana.
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Chapingo, 2ª Reimpresión México. 91 p.
Glinski, J. and W. Stepniewski. 1985. Soil aeration and its role for plants. CRC Press Inc., Boca
Raton, Florida. pp: 137-145.
Gomori, G.A. 1942. Modification of colorimetric phosphorus determination for use with the
photoelectric colorimeter. J. Lab. Clin. Med. 27: 955-960.
Hach. 2000. Procedures manual colorimeter DR/890 for total N determination. 608 p. Hach
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Jackson, M.L. 1964. Soil chemical analysis. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 4 Ed. 497 p.
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Kolesnikov, V. 1971. The root system of fruit plants. Translated from the Russian by L. Aksenova.
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semiáridas. Conocimiento y aprovechamiento del nopal. 4° Congreso Nacional y 2° Internacional.
Zacatecas, México. p. 28.
Murillo-Amador, B., E. Troyo-Diéguez, A. Villaseñor-Beltrán. 1999. Efectos del estiércol de
bovino en cultivares de nopal verdulero (Opuntia spp) introducidos a Baja California Sur, México.
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Potosí. San Luis Potosí, S.L.P. México. pp. 87-88.
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Ávila-Serrano, E. Troyo-Diéguez, and F.H. Ruiz-Espinoza. 2005a. Soil amendment with organic
products increases the production of prickly pear cactus as a green vegetable (nopalitos). Journal of
the Professional Association for Cactus Development 7: 97-109.
Murillo-Amador, B., J.L. García-Hernández, N.Y. Ávila-Serrano, I. Orona-Castillo, E. TroyoDiéguez, A. Nieto-Garibay, F.H. Ruiz-Espinoza, and S. Zamora-Salgado. 2005b. A multivariate
approach to determine the effect of doses and sources of N, P, and K in Opuntia ficus-indica L.
Mill. Journal of the Professional Association for Cactus Development 7: 110-124.
Nobel, P. S. 1988. Environmental biology of agaves and cacti. Cambridge University Press. USA.
270 p.
Pimienta, B.E. 1990. El nopal tunero. Universidad de Guadalajara. Guadalajara, Jal., México. 246 p.
Pratt, P.F. 1982. Fertilizer value of manures. La utilización de los estiércoles en la agricultura. Primer
ciclo de conferencias. Torreón Coah., México. pp. 79-84.
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3/83, Method 350.2 (p. 350.2 1-5).
Vázquez, A.R. and C. Gallegos V. 1995. Organic fertilization for production of young tender pads
of Opuntia spp in Nuevo León, Mexico. Proceedings of the Professional Association for Cactus
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Opuntia ficus-indica. AgroFAZ 1: 80-87.
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Zúñiga, T.R. y R. Vázquez. 1998. Respuesta radicular de dos variedades de nopal a tres dosis de
nitrógeno bajo condiciones de hidroponía. Seminarios primavera. FAUANL, Marín, N. L. México.
pp. 96-102.
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J. PACD (2009) 11: 53-68
Mycorrhiza efffect on nutritional quality and biomass production of
Agave (Agave americana L.) and cactus pear
(Opuntia lindheimeri Engelm.)
José Romualdo Martínez–López1,2*, Rigoberto Eustacio Vázquez–Alvarado2, Erasmo Gutiérrez–
Ornelas2, María de los Ángeles Peña del Río1, Rubén López–Cervantes3, Emilio Olivares–Sáenz2,
Juan Antonio Vidales–Contreras2, Ricardo David Valdez–Cepeda4*
1
Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales Agrícolas y Pecuarias
Campo Experimental General Terán, N.L., Km 31 Carretera Montemorelos–China,
Ex Hacienda Las Anacuas, General Terán, N.L., México
2
3
Universidad Autónoma Agraria ‘Antonio Narro’. Buenavista, Saltillo, Coahuila, México
4
*
Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Facultad de Agronomía.
Km 17.5 Carretera Zuazua–Marín, Marín, N.L., México
Universidad Autónoma Chapingo, Centro Regional Universitario Centro Norte.
Apdo. Postal No. 196. Zacatecas, Zac., México
Authors for correspondence, E–mails: [email protected], [email protected]
Received 6 August, 2008; accepted 30 May, 2009
Abstract
An experiment was conducted in Marín, Nuevo León, México to evaluate nutritional quality and
biomass production of agave (Agave americana L.) and cactus pear (Opuntia lindheimeri Engelm.),
including inoculation with commercial and native mycorrhiza under non–irrigated land conditions.
A field experiment was carried out under a 2 x 2 factorial arrangement of treatments with two
inoculants (commercial and native) and these two species. Treatments were distributed randomly
within three blocks. Plants were seeded on April, 2006 and data collected on April, 2007. Studied
variables were biomass production and contents of crude protein (CP), neutral–detergent fiber
(NDF), ash, calcium (Ca) and phosphorous (P). We observed a (p<0.05) significant interaction
between CP and NDF. Commercial inoculation was better in agave than in cactus pear, but native
inoculation was best in cactus pear. Biomass production, ash and P contents were greater (p<0.05)
in agave than in cactus pear. Inoculation type alone did not affect these variables. Calcium levels
did not reach significant (p<0.05) differences between inoculation levels or between species.
Results showed higher forage quality and biomass production in agave than in cactus pear.
Key words: Cactus pear, Agave, Biomass, Forage quality, Crude protein, Neutral–detergent fiber.
Introduction
Northern Mexico has large desert and semi–desert areas with frequent long drought periods that
generate low forage production. In addition, areas that have been under inadequate range
management, affect the soil, a non–renewable ecosystem part (CONAZA, 1993; Fuentes–
J. PACD (2009) 11: 69–77
69
Rodríguez, 1997). Misuse of rangeland has declined soil fertility in about 80% of the Mexican
territory (CONAZA, 1993). Even under these climatic and soil conditions, there are plants that have
been adapted, like Agave and Opuntia, which due to their anatomy and physiology characteristics,
have formed real islands of fertility in desert ecosystems, used as hedgerows to control erosion in
eroded soils (Pimienta et al., 2003; Granados and Castañeda, 1996; Cervantes and Madinaveitia,
2000).
Use of cactus pear and agave in Mexico goes back to its first inhabitants. At present, they are used
in many ways: as vegetable and fruit, forage, fuel, live fences, medicine, cosmetics, and they help to
control erosion. Use of the cactus pear and agave as forage to feed livestock began with the
colonization of northern Mexico in the 16th century, even when they have low nutritional quality
(Flores–Valdés and Aranda–Osorio, 1997).
Important results have been reported in tender pads, fruits and forage about nutrient content and
interactions of macro and micronutrients (Magallanes–Quintanar et al., 2006; Blanco–Macías et al.,
2006; Nobel, 1988), correlations between soil and cladode nutrient concentrations (Galizzi et al.,
2004), and biomass production and nutritional quality (Guevara et al., 2004; Guevara et al., 2003).
However, one of the most important problem that limit this activity is the lack of knowledge that
allow systematic and rational use of these resource, specifically in native populations used as
forage, because other nutritional qualities are important to consider. On the other hand, because of
dominance in some cactus pear and agave areas, it can be an important element for wildlife habitats
both as structure (shade, shelter, nesting substrate) and food for many mammals, avian species,
reptiles and invertebrates (Chavez–Ramirez et al., 1997; Mellink and Riojas–López, 2002). Pinos–
Rodríguez et al. (2006) have made research with agave on sheep, studying the average daily weight
gain, reporting gains from 99 to 157 g day–1.
In recent years, there has been special emphasis on mycorrhiza fungi, particularly arbuscular
mycorrhizas, which develops a complex and specialized structure that contributes mainly in
adaptation and development of plants (Smith and Douglas, 1987), where more than 90% of plant
communities in the world can form mycorrhiza symbiosis. These fungi enter into cortical area of
plants and help the absorption of less soluble and mobile elements as phosphorus, ammonium,
potassium, copper, iron and zinc. However, these effects have been observed mostly in annual
plants (Koide and Mosse, 2004; Augé, 2004; Alarcón and Ferrera, 1999; Bolan, 1991). Research
performed in Opuntia and Agave has shown mycorrhiza symbiosis; nevertheless, they have been
limited to its microbiological description (Rodríguez–Hernandez, 2002; Armenta et al., 2003;
López et al., 1999). In this study, the main objectives were 1) to estimate nutritional value of agave
and cactus pear based on contents of crude protein, fiber and minerals and 2) to estimate dry matter
production of agave and cactus pear as depending on mycorrhiza inoculation.
This experiment began on April, 2006, in the Experimental Field of the Agronomy Faculty of the
Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, located in Marin, N.L., Mexico. It is located at 25o 23’ N
and 100o 03’ W, at 367 meters above sea level (INEGI, 1978). Native cactus pear (Opuntia
lindheimeri Engelm.) and agave (Agave americana L.) were the species evaluated. Granados and
Castañeda (1996) describe O. lindheimeri as a shrub plant that grows 1 to 3 meters in height; and its
flowers can be yellow to orange to red in color and bloom from April to June. A. americana is a
perennial, acaule and resistant to drought plant; its leaves are 15 to 30 cm wide and more than a
meter long, moreover they are lanceolated and fleshy white–blue or grayish–white in color. Leaves
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J. PACD (2009) 11: 69−77
grow from soil, all originate from the center where they roll to a central stem which will form until
their separation, with spines on its edge of almost 3 cm and they are hard, stiff and thin. The apex
ends in a needle about 5 cm long and up to 1 cm wide at its base (Gentry, 1982). Henceforth, these
species will be called Opuntia and Agave for O. lindheimeri and A. americana, respectively.
Plants used in this study were collected in the same area of study. Opuntia cladodes and agave
seedlings had a weight of 52 ± 5 g and 541 ± 10 g, respectively, both in fresh weight. Cladodes and
seedlings were seeded in three contour strip or lines. Each contour strip was considerate as a block.
Contour strips were 80 cm wide, 50 cm high and 200 m length, with a distance between contour
strips of 30 m. Each block was seeded with 30 cladodes or seedlings per treatment to ensure enough
experimental units for each treatment. The experimental design was a completely random blocks
design with a 2 x 2 factorial arrangement and LSD method was used to compare means (Snedecor
and Cochran, 1980). The treatments were two species (Agave and Opuntia) and two types of
mycorrhiza inoculation (Commercial and Native); therefore, we evaluated four treatments (Agave–
Commercial, Agave–Native, Opuntia–Commercial, Opuntia–Native). SPSS Program v.12 (2003)
was used for statistical analysis.
Commercial inoculation was made with Glomus intraradices, using a biofertilizer developed by
Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias (INIFAP), which contains at
least 400 spores 100g–1 of inoculum. Each plant was provided with 25 g of inoculum, representing a
minimum of 100 spores, dose recommended by the literature (Augé, 2004; Velasco–Velasco et al.,
2001; González–Chávez and Ferrera–Cerrato, 2000; Alarcón et al., 2000). For the native
inoculation, a native strain of Glomus intraradices was used, a different strain of that produced by
INIFAP, and plants were seeded at the same contour strip. The experiment was carried out under
non–irrigated land conditions.
Studied variables after one year were dry matter production per plant (DM plant–1), ashes, calcium
(Ca%), phosphorous (P%), crude protein (CP%) neutral detergent fiber (NDF%) and plant dry
matter percentage (DM%). Two cladodes and leaves of cactus pear and agave were sampled per
plant, and then, its weight was averaged. This weight was multiplied by the total number of leaves
and cladodes to obtain the total weight of the plant. In addition, cactus pear cladodes and agave
leaves were sampled one year after seeded. They were cut in small size pieces, ranging from 5 to 10
cm and dried in an oven at 60° C during 72 h to obtain dry matter content. Samples were ground by
a Wiley mill equipped with 2 mm mesh and analyzed for CP (A.O.A.C, 1990), NDF (Van Soest et
al., 1991), ash, P, Ca (Fick et al., 1976). Samples of Opuntia and Agave were extrapolated with the
number of total leaves and cladodes to get DM plant–1 production per year.
In relation with nutritional quality, analysis of variance demonstrated that CP and NDF had
significant (p<0.05) interaction between species and inoculation (Figure 1). The commercial
mycorrhiza provided better forage in Opuntia while the native mycorrhiza was better for Agave.
This is because forage is better in quality when the NDF is lower and CP is higher (Holland and
Kesar, 1990).
J. PACD (2009) 11: 69–77
71
Figure 1. CP and NDF interaction for Opuntia and Agave with commercial (Comm) and native
(Nat) inoculation.
CP behaves better in Opuntia and commercial mycorrhiza (7.6%), meanwhile, the rest of the
treatments averaged 5.6%. These results are in agreement with Gutiérrez et al. (2006) in Spineless
cactus pear (Opuntia ficus–indica); however Fuentes–Rodríguez (1997) reported 4% CP in O.
lindheimeri for the same species investigated here. In agave, Martínez (1994) found 4.5 and 4.6%
for A. atrovirens and A. salmiana, respectively, values similar to those found in this study, while
Fraps (1932) reported 7.4% for A. Americana and Pinos–Rodríguez (2006) 4.1% for A. salmiana.
Typical range in CP is reported for Opuntia ficus–indica ranging from 4 to 7.25% (Magallanes
Quintanar et al., (2006), Blanco Macías et al., (2006), Galizzi et al., (2004), Guevara et al., (2004).
This effect may be because Glomus intraradices, both commercial and native strains, helps absorb
ammonia (Velasco Velasco et al., 2001), which could increase CP, however, further research should
be done on these species to improve the understanding of their behavior.
NDF is the insoluble portion of forage and contains cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin and silica and
is commonly referred as the cell–wall fraction. Thus, high content of NDF is negative correlated
with dry matter intake (Guevara et al., 2004). Here, NDF also showed interaction, being the best
and worst performing Agave and Opuntia with native mycorrhiza treatments, respectively, ranging
from 21.3 to 45.1% (Figure1). Literature reports values for NDF from 17 to 33.8% for O. ficus–
indica (Gutiérrez Ornelas et al., 2007, Ben Salem et al., 2004, Guevara et al., 2004). Since O.
lindheimeri is a native cactus pear species, its high NDF content can help to avoid herbivores. In
agave, Pinos–Rodríguez (2006) found 18.01% of NDF in A. salmiana, being close to 21.3%
measured here for Agave with native mycorrhiza.
Species effect was significant (p<0.05) for DM plant–1, Ash, P, and DM%, showing no effect of
interaction (Table 1).
DM plant–1 had greatest production in Agave. In adult plants, Martinez (1994) found that 750 agave
plants produced about 6.1 ton of DM ha–1; likewise, Hamilton (1992) reported that 1250 Opuntia
plants produced 3.5 tons of DM ha–1. Here we found biomass production of 338.5 and 60 g of DM
plant–1, in agave and cactus pear, respectively (Table 1), that extrapolating represent 254 and 75 kg
ha–1, respectively, which is explained because they are one–year old plants. In Argentina, Guevara
et al. (2003) reported biomass production of 170 kg DM ha–1 after the 2–year growth period in O.
ellisiana. In O. ficus–indica, Guevara et al. (2004) found from 125 to 215 g plant–1 in 1.5–year old
plants. Since production of biomass depends on interactions of genotype and environment, these
results are in the range of values reported in literature.
72
J. PACD (2009) 11: 69−77
Table 1. Means and standard error (SE) of variables in Agave and Opuntia.
Agave (Mean)
Opuntia (Mean)
SE
DM Plant–1 (g)
Ash (%)
P (%)
Ca (%)
CP (%)
NDF (%)
DM (%)
a,b
338.58a
60.61b
23.297
18.15b
0.12a
8.82
5.57
25.31b
14.15a
20.08a
0.07b
8.26
6.53
42.65a
10.59b
0.805
0.012
0.547
0.513
0.025
0.003
Means within the same row and different letter are significantly different (p<0.05).
Ash content was 18.15 and 20.08% for agave and cactus pear, respectively. In A. Americana, Fraps
(1932) found 12.3% ash, while Laksevela and Said (1970) reported 15.6% in A. Fourcroyde. In
cactus pear, Gutiérrez et al. (2006) and Fuentes–Rodríguez et al. (1997) found 30.5% and 25.5%,
respectivily. On the other hand, Guevara et al. (2004) reported 15.6% Ash for Opuntia ficus–indica,
and Pinos–Rodríguez et al. (2006) measured 12.7% in immature Agave salmiana plants being more
similar to those reported in this investigation. Both agave and cactus pear, show high content of ash,
compared with buffel grass (Cenchrus ciliaris), which contains about 11.6%, falling heavily in
organic matter content in Agave and Opuntia, however, both species are used in drought periods.
Even as agave had greater percentage of P than cactus pear, both species contain low concentrations
for livestock production. Gutiérrez et al., (2006) found in spineless cactus pear values about 0.08%,
according with our findings (Table 1).
DM was significantly greater for agave (14.15%), compared to Opuntia (10.59%), which are similar
to results reported in cactus pear by Gutiérrez et al. (2006) and Fuentes–Rodriguez (1997b) ranging
from 7.5% to 11.6%. Pinos–Rodríguez et al. (2006) measured 14.6 % of DM in immature Agave
salmiana plants, values comparable with our data (Table 1).
Statistical analyses did not detect (p<0.05) effect of inoculation in any variables (Table 2), which
mean that native mycorrhiza can replace commercial biofertilization in these species under non–
irrigated land conditions. Similar results were reported for Opuntia matudae. However, in Agave
cocui positive effect to commercial inoculation was found, where was observed greater biomass and
more N y P concentrations in seedlings with mayor mycorrhiza inoculation.
Ca was not significant for any factor, which coincides with results found by Gutiérrez et al., (2006)
in Spineless cactus pear (Opuntia sp.). In agave, we did not located P and Ca nutritional data in
literature.
Table 2. Means and standard error (SE) of variables in commercial and native mycorrhiza.
Commercial Mycorrhiza (Mean) Native Mycorrhiza (Mean)
SE
DM Plant–1 (g)
189.17a
210.03 a
42.53
Ash (%)
18.80a
19.43 a
0.80
P (%)
Ca (%)
CP (%)
NDF (%)
DM (%)
a
0.1 a
8.33a
6.53a
34.0 a
11.8 a
0.09 a
8.75 a
5.56 a
33.1 a
12.9 a
0.012
0.54
0.51
2.60
0.60
Means within the same row and different letter are significantly different (p<0.05).
J. PACD (2009) 11: 69–77
73
Conclusions
Forage production and quality were higher for agave than cactus pear in the first year of production.
Inoculation only showed significant effect on the interaction of CP and NDF, two of the most
important variables in forage quality. Even when only five quality characteristics were measured to
determine forage quality, they give us enough evidence that these species are a good alternative as
forage even in one year.
Acknowledgements
Senior author thanks to Mexico’s ‘Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología’ for the scholarship
during his Ph.D. studies. Financial support from ‘Programa de Apoyo e Investigación Científica y
Tecnológica’ under the contract CN1723–07 is also acknowledged.
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77
Making of bakery products using composite flours: Wheat and cactus
pear (Opuntia boldinghii Britton et Rose) stems (cladodes)
M.J. Moreno–Álvarez*, R. Hernández, D.R. Belén–Camacho, C.A. Medina–Martínez,
C.E. Ojeda–Escalona, D.M. García–Pantaleón Universidad Nacional Experimental Simón Rodríguez, Núcleo Canoabo,
Carrera de Ingeniería de Alimentos, Laboratorio de Biomoléculas,
Canoabo, Estado Carabobo, Carretera Nacional Vía Urama,
República Bolivariana de Venezuela
*Author for correspondence, E–mail: [email protected]
Received 14 November, 2008; accepted 20 June, 2009
Abstract
Cactus pear (Opuntia boldinghii Britton et Rose) stems (cladodes) are used because of their high
fiber content and beneficial health contribution. In this research, the partial substitution of wheat
flour (WF) by cactus pear stem flour (SF) in the development of bakery products was evaluated.
Stems were dried, ground and sifted. Breads were made using pure wheat flour (control) and four
formulations of flour composed of WF and SF: I (WF 100%; control), II (SF 5%), III (SF 10%), IV
(SF 15%) and V (SF 20%). In the farinaceous test, flours composed of formulations II and III
showed the best baking behavior. The proximate composition of breads presented significant
differences (p<0.05) and all formulations were microbiologically stable. Sensory evaluation showed
that formulation III (SF 10%) was the most acceptable for its color, odor and flavor, while the
texture of formulation II (SF 5%) was the most acceptable. In conclusion, prickly pear stem flour is
a viable alternative for making bakery products.
Key words: Opuntia boldinghii, stems, Cactaceae, bread, compound flours.
Introduction
Bread is a product of high nutritional value and is consumed in most parts of the world (Mandala et
al., 2007), providing energy, iron, calcium, vitamins and proteins (Indriani et al., 2007). It is a
perishable product and its production involves the cooking or baking of dough obtained by mixing
wheat flour, edible salt (table salt) and potable water (drinking water), fermented by species of
budding yeast used in baking such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and with or without the inclusion
of any special component (Mesas and Alegre, 2002).
Conventionally, flours used in bread making are made from cereals, mainly wheat (Cauvain and
Young, 2002). In Venezuela, wheat bread is highly consumed as part of the diet. However, in this
country all the wheat for bakery, and other uses, must be imported to satisfy the internal
requirement because its amount cultivated is not sufficient; this item is affecting the economy and
food security of the nation.
Pacheco–Delahaye and Testa (2005) maintain that wheat can be mixed with other cereals and plants
with high starch content which could constitute a locally available and less costly nutrient source in
78
J. PACD (2009) 11: 78−87
addition to enriching the dietetic fiber sources. These mixtures are referred as ‘composite flour’ and
they have used to develop bread (Torres and Pacheco–Delahaye, 2007).
Cactus species represents an agro–alimentary resource of potential use in bread making. Cactus
developed in semiarid zones are used as forage (Aranda–Osorio et al., 2008), and both fruit and
cladodes are fresh–consumed, representing great potential for the food industry (Moβhammer et al.,
2006; Moreno–Alvarez et al., 2008). The genus Opuntia is highlighted for its use in the fabrication
of numerous products which include: marmalades, flours, preserves, juices, beverages and pigment
sources (Moβhammer et al., 2006; Moreno–Alvarez et al., 2003, 2007; Sáenz et al., 2006). On the
other hand, it has been established that consumption of stems favors reduction in cholesterol,
triglyceride and hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) (Butera et al., 2002). Likewise, Sáenz et al.,
(2006) indicated that cladodes just like other vegetables, contribute with high amounts of water to
the diet and are highly valued for their starch content.
The Opuntia cladodes can be processed to obtain the following products: juices, pickles, brines,
marmalades, jellies, flours, candies, sauces, and as tender nopal (Sáenz et al., 2006).
The aim of this investigation was the development of bakery products by partially substituting
wheat flour for Opuntia boldinghii Britton et Rose cladodes flour. To this respect, physico–
chemical, microbiological, sensorial, and farinographic parameters were evaluated, which allowed
the establishment of the feasibility of making this type of product with nutritional values of interest
and making use of resources not fully exploited in the country. Opuntia cladodes will also have the
advantage of enriching the bread with dietary fiber.
Materials
One hundred (100) kg of Opuntia boldinghii Britton et Rose cladodes (stems) were collected from
specimens located in the Guama Municipality, Yaracuy State, Venezuela (Figure 1). The selection
criteria were as follows: mature fruits, taken from the youngest parts of the plant, ranging from
11.11 to 17.23 cm long, and 9.58 to 10.04 cm in diameter (from the apical end until the fourth
cladode). The collection was done from 12.01 to 13:00 hours with the aim of ensuring a constant
titratable acid value during the study, because of the Crausulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) that
Cactaceae family presents. These samples were transported, in thermal polystyrene containers fitted
with dry ice reaching a temperature of 7±1oC, to the Laboratory of Biomolecules of the
‘Universidad Nacional Experimental Simón Rodríguez’ at Canoabo core Venezuela, in order to
perform physico–chemical analyses.
Physico–chemical and microbiological characterization of the cladodes
A sample of 250 g of fresh cladodes was taken for evaluating moisture, pH, titratable acidity,
soluble solids (SST) and vitamin C according to the AOAC (1990) proposed methodology and total
carotenoids following the procedure established by Moreno–Álvarez et al. (1999). The
determination of pH was evaluated in a Hanna Instruments® potentiometer Sep–1 model with
±0.01 precision; soluble solids were determined using a Bausch & Lomb® refractometer model
Abbe–3L with a precision of ±0.1 and expressed as ºBrix. Vitamin C was measured using the
volumetric method of 2,6 dichlorophenol–indophenol. Mesophyll aerobes (COVENIN, 1978b),
molds and yeasts (COVENIN, 1978a) from fresh cladode samples were also evaluated.
J. PACD (2009) 11: 78–87
79
Figure 1. Plant and fruits of Opuntia boldinghii Britton et Rose.
Obtaining of cladodes flour
The samples were longitudinally cut and dried in a Felisa® stove Model FE–294AD at a
temperature of 44±1 ºC until obtaining 10% moisture content. Grinding was done using a Torotrac
millstone and the samples were then sifted through a W.S. TYLER sieve model RX–812 until a
particle size of 210µ was obtained.
Bread formulation
Five (5) formulations were established for bread–making (Table1). These proportions were
established according to Sáenz et al. (2002).
Proximate characterization of formulated flours
Moisture, protein (N x 6.25), fat, ash and total dietary fiber were determined by means of AOAC
(1990) methodologies.
Evaluation of dough farinographic profile
A Brabender farinograph model PT–100 with automatic control was used. The parameters
evaluated were: used volume (mL), % water absorption, arrival time (min), development time
(min), departure time, stability (min) and mixing tolerance index (µf).
Table 1. Proportions of cladodes flour (CF) and wheat flour (WF) used for making breads.
Formulation
CF (%)
WF (%)
I
0
100
II
5
95
III
10
90
IV
15
85
V
20
80
80
J. PACD (2009) 11: 78−87
Breadmaking
Breads were made according to Cauvain and Young (2002) establishing the following base
formulation: flour 61.73%; water 32.10%; commercial Saccharomyces cerevisiae® yeast 1.23%;
sugar 3.09% and butter 1.85%. The ingredients were mixed in a spiral kneader at 60 rpm for 20 min
at 28 ºC with the aim of obtaining dough with plastic characteristics and adequate oxygenation. The
dough was fermented during 120 min in an air–conditioned chamber of 30 ºC and 85% relative
humidity. Then, a wooden rolling–pin was used for molding sheets of dough which were later rolled
to obtain the desired form (long with conical ends and an average size of approximately 40 cm long
and 10 cm wide, average weight of every units was 400 g), making shallow cuts and fermented by
50 min. Baking was done in a Werner & Pleiderer electric continuous oven at temperature 238ºC
during 30 min. Two (2) kg of finished product was obtained for each formulation.
Proximate and microbiological bread characterization
The proximate analysis was done according to AOAC (1990) for protein, fat, ash and crude fiber.
Microbial analysis (mesophyll aerobes, molds and yeast) was done following the COVENIN (1978
a,b) methodologies.
Sensory evaluation
The breads made with different formulations were evaluated using a 5–point hedonic scale going
from ‘I really like’ to’ (Value 1) to ‘I really dislike’ (Value 5), according to the methodology
proposed by Larmond (1982). For this, a group of 40 consumers ranging from 17 to 23 years old of
both sexes, all of which were students from the ‘Universidad Nacional Experimental Simón
Rodríguez’, Campus Canoabo, Carabobo State, Venezuela were called upon to evaluate color, taste,
smell and texture.
Statistical analysis
A random experimental design of five treatments (proportion of cladodes flour in every bread
formulation) by triplicate was applied. Physicochemical results were the means (n=3) ±SD
(standard deviation). All data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey’s means
comparison by using the Statistical Analysis System (SAS, 1992) software. Friedman’s non–
parametric analysis was applied for the sensory evaluation. The significance level was stated at
95%.
Table 2 shows the results of the physico–chemical characterizations of the cladodes (stems).
Titratable acidity, pH and vitamin C content differ from the findings of Moreno–Álvarez et al.
(2006) for cladodes of the same species, differences that may be associated with the collecting
season and the geographic regions. The values of moisture, total carotenoids and soluble solids were
similar to findings of the stated authors. The results confirming that Opuntia cladodes are an
excellent source of carotenoids: This characteristic is an advantage taking into consideration the
antioxidant capacity and biological activity of these pigments (Moreno–Alvarez et al., 1999;
Moreno–Alvarez et al., 2003).
The microbiological evaluation of the raw material is shown in Table 3. The values for mesophyll
aerobes, molds and yeasts are found within the limits indicated by Moreno–Álvarez et al. (2007) for
Opuntia eliator Miller fruits and by Frazier and Westhoff (2003) for fruits and vegetables during
harvest season, which indicate values between 1x103 and 6.7x105 CFU/g considering them useful as
raw materials.
J. PACD (2009) 11: 78–87
81
Table 2. Physical and chemical parameters of Opuntia boldinghii cladodes.
Parameter
Value*
pH
4.30 ± 0.01
Titratable Acidity (g of citric acid /100g of pulp)
0.18 ± 0.01
Soluble Solids (SST) (º Brix)
7.0 ± 0.1
Vitamin C (mg of ascorbic acid /100 g of pulp)
12.11 ± 0.08
Moisture content (%)
88.66 ± 0.48
Total Carotenoids (mg/100 g of pulp)
34.840 ± 0.001
*Mean value (n=3) ± standard deviation.
Table 3. Microbiological evaluation of Opuntia boldinghii cladodes.
Parameter
Value
Mesophyll aerobes (CFU /g)
2.90x104
Molds(CFU/g)
1.80x104
Yeast (CFU/g)
4.50x103
The results for the stem (cladode) flour proximal analysis are presented in Table 4. Moisture is
similar to the findings of Moreno–Álvarez et al. (2006) for cladodes of the same species. The
protein content reported in this investigation (7.43%) is within the values reported for different
species of the genus Opuntia (Sáenz et al., 2006). Ether extract of 3.41% is greater than in the
findings of Moreno–Álvarez et al. (2006) for cladodes of the same species, a difference which may
be attributed to the different climatic conditions where harvesting was done. The ash and dietary
fiber content of 28.94 and 41.5%, respectively, are similar to the findings of Sáenz et al. (2006) and
Moreno–Alvarez et al. (2006) for Opuntia cladodes (stems) less than one year old.
Table 4. Proximate composition of cladode flour.
Parameter (%)
Value*
Moisture (%)
10.05±0.08
Protein (%)
7.43±0.38
Ether extract (%)
3.41±0.17
Ash
28.94±0.07
Dietary Fiber
41.50±1.28
*Mean value (n=3) ± standard deviation.
The proximate composition of the flours composed of wheat and stem flour are presented in Table
5. According to COVENIN (2001), the wheat flour for bread–making must have a protein content
of 15%, a value which is surpassed in formulations II (16.10%) and III (15.25%), while in
formulations IV and V the values were 14.90 and 13.75, respectively. Compared with the ash
content marked by the same standards (0.9%), the compound flours showed higher values which is
due to the elevated percentage of ash present in the stems (Moreno–Álvarez et al., 2006).
Formulation II (5% SF) did not show significant differences with respect to the 100% WF, while
the other flours had significant differences. As to fat, ash and fiber content, the compound flours
showed differences with respect to formulation I, which marks an effect for the substitution of
wheat flour for stem four.
82
J. PACD (2009) 11: 78−87
Table 5. Proximate composition of mixtures of cladodes flour (CF)
and wheat flour (WF) used for making breads.*
Parameter (%)**
I
II
III
IV
V
Moisture
12.89±0.03 a 12.73±0.05 b 12.47±0.02 c 12.20±0.05 d 12.04±0.03 e
Protein
16.44±0.02 a 16.10±0.18 a 15.25±0.13 b 14.90±0.09 c 13.75±0.16 d
Fat
3.95±0.14 a
2.40±0.06 b
2.30±0.04 c
2.20±0.02 c
2.08±0.02 d
a
b
c
d
Ash
0.45±0.05
2.05±0.04
3.34±0.04
4.01±0.02
5.99±0.02 e
a
b
c
d
Crude fiber
0.30±0.03
0.42±0.02
2.57±0.04
3.90±0.05
6.42±0.06 e
**Mixtures of flours were showed in Table 1.
**Mean value (n=3) ± standard deviation. Different letters in the same row indicate significant differences
(p<0.05).
The parameters of the farinographic study of the flours used are shown in Table 6. An increase in
water absorption, resulting higher in the mixtures compared to pure wheat flour was observed. This
effect increased with the increase the proportion of stem flour used in the mixture. Similar
variations in this property has been reported for other compound fours based on wheat and the same
has been associated with the presence of dietetic fibers (Moreno–Álvarez et al., 2006). With respect
to the other parameters and based on the criteria indicated by Durán et al. (2001) and Dobraszczyk
(2004), substituting up to 15% wheat flour for stem flour is considered. The behavior is the same
for a strong consistency, characteristics of flour destined for bread–making.
Table 6. Farinographic profile of flours.*
Parameters
I
II
III
IV
V
Water Absorption (%)
60.0 61.0 62.0 63.0 64.0
Arrival time (min)
1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
Development time (min)
7.5 6.0 6.0 5.0 3.0
Departure time (min)
10.5 9.0 8.0 7.5 5.0
Stability (min)
9.0 7.5 6.5 6.0 4.0
Mixing tolerance index (MTI) (μf)
80.0 80.0 60.0 60.0 40.0
*Mixtures of flours were showed in Table 1.
The increase in the proportion of cactus pear stem flour mixed with wheat flour caused a decrease
in dough stability, noting that at cladode concentrations higher than 15%, the wheat–stem mixture
tends towards a weak flour, which affects the bread quality of the raw material given that this type
of flour is not recommendable for baking. Weak flours are useful for making products like cookies
and biscuits.
Table 7 shows the results of the proximate analysis of the breads. The protein content of
formulation II did not show significant differences (p<0.05) with respect to Formulation I, which
indicates that the 5% substitution did not influence the protein level. The remaining formulations
(III, IV, V) did show significant differences (p<0.05). In the other hand, the protein content was
above 13% in all substitutions; this value of protein content (13%) is the minimum required in
bread, according to the findings of Granito and Guerra (1995). According to COVENIN (1988), the
protein contents of the formulations of breads from cladodes are greater than the protein contents of
white bread (7.5%) and whole bread (8%). Fat content from the stem flour formulations showed
significant differences (p<0.05) in comparison with the 100% wheat flour. A significant increase in
ash and dietary fiber content was observed in the bread made with prickly pear stem flour in
J. PACD (2009) 11: 78–87
83
comparison to the wheat flour bread. This change is due to the elevated levels of these nutrients
within the stems. The dietary fiber is important because it has showed beneficial in human health
(Slavin, 2008).
The results of the microbiological analysis are shown in Table 8. The mesophyll aerobes count,
expressed as CFU/g, is below the findings of Pacheco–Delahaye and Testa (2005) for breads made
with wheat and banana flour. The levels of the microorganism determined, are in accordance with
COVENIN (1988) requirements (102–103 CFU/g) for bread.
The results obtained from the sensory evaluation are indicated in Table 9. It was shown that the
increase in the wheat flour proportion influenced consumer preferences. Color, smell, taste and
texture parameters presented significant differences as demonstrated through the Friedman
nonparametric test with 95% of reliability (Table 10). Significant differences with respect to the
studied variables were detected in this test, which indicates that the evaluation was a judgment tool
for discerning consumer preference. In studying the values obtained, it can be inferred that the
formulation with 10% stem flour shows high values with respect to color, taste and aroma whereas
the formulation with 5% stem flour was most accepted in terms of its texture.
Table 7. Proximate composition of breads making from cladodes and wheat flours.*
Parameter**
I
II
III
IV
V
Protein
16.34±0.06a 15.90±0.07a 15.10±0.23b 14.70±0.20b
13.41±0.25c
Fat
2.60±0.02 a
2.55±0.04 b
2.48±0.02 b
2.43±0.08 c
2.30±0.09 c
a
b
c
d
Ash
0.44±0.08
1.50±0.11
3.140.12
4.78±0.07
6.42±0.14 e
a
b
b
c
Fiber
0.40±0.04
2.52±0.03
2.60±0.12
3.96±0.10
6.50±0.17 d
**Mean values (n=3) ± standard deviation. Different letters in the same row indicate significant
differences (p<0.05)
Table 8. Microbiological evaluation of breads making from cladode and wheat flours mixtures.*
Formulation
Mesophyll aerobes (CFU/g)
Yeast (CFU/g)
Molds (CFU/g)
I
2.80x103
2.10x101
3.10x102
3
2
II
2.70x10
2.20x10
4.10x102
3
2
III
2.60x10
2.40x10
3.30x102
IV
2.90x103
2.30x102
3.20x102
3
2
V
3.10x10
2.60x10
3.80x102
Table 9. Ranking values of sensory evaluation breads making from cladodes
and wheat flours mixtures.*
Formulation
Flavor
Odor
Color
Texture
I
3.01
3.17
3.00
3.41
II
3.63
3.56
3.50
3.60
III
3.70
3.59
3.93
3.44
IV
2.54
2.51
2.35
2.49
V
2.12
2.17
2.22
2.06
84
J. PACD (2009) 11: 78−87
Flavor
F
36.843
p
0.00001
Table 10. Friedman test values in the sensory evaluation.
Odor
Color
Texture
F
p
F
p
F
p
33.998 0.00001
45.022
0.00001
39.145 0.00001
F: Friedman statistic.
P: Probability value using the approximation of Chi–squared.
Conclusions
It can be proven that the technological feasibility of bread– making using a natural resource such as
the cladodes (stems) of Opuntia boldinghii exists. The farinographic profile indicates that flours
composed of 5 and 10% stem flour are the most suitable for making bread. The chemical
characterization of the breads showed significant differences among those made with composite
flours and pure wheat flour. The sensory evaluation showed that the presentation of 5 and 10% stem
flour were best accepted. The agro–industrial exploitation of these products would permit the use of
a marginal species in the country with adequate nutritional value, in addition to reducing the cost of
making pastry and bread products.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the CDCHT–UNESR S1–05–015 Project and the Pem–FONACIT–
UNESR 2001002271 Project for financing this research.
References
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cladodes in diets for finishing lambs in Mexico. Journal of the Professional Association for Cactus
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Caracas, Venezuela. 9 p.
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Cereales y Productos Derivados. Editorial Acribia, S.A. Zaragoza, España.
Durán, L., Fizman, S.M., y Benedito, C. 2001. Propiedades Mecánicas. pp. 147–187. In: Alvarado,
J. y Aguilera, J.M. (Eds.). Métodos para Medir Propiedades Físicas en Industrias de Alimentos.
Editorial Acribia, S.A. Zaragoza, España.
Frazier, W.C. y Weshoff, D.C. 2003. Microbiología de los Alimentos. Editorial Acribia, S.A.
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Granito, M. y Guerra, M. 1995. Uso del germen desgrasado de maíz en harinas compuestas para
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Indriani, D., Prabhasankar, P., Rajiv, J., and Venkateswara, R.G. 2007. Influence of whey protein
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87
Guidelines for Submitting Papers
When submitting a manuscript to the JPACD please consider the following:
1. The JPACD is abstracted by the Institute for Scientific Information and in 2006 had
an impact factor of 0.933.
2. There are no page charges.
3. Beginning in 2008, the JPACD instituted the following four categories for
contributions:
 Full-length research papers of any length.
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4. Manuscripts may be in English only, Spanish only, but with an abstract and titles of
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The increased citations will increase the impact factor for both the scientist and the
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write them in English the JPACD offers the following contact information. The
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5. It is generally recognized that the taxonomy of the fruit-bearing Opuntia is very
difficult. To reduce ambiguities, the editors highly encourage authors preparing
manuscripts to submit two color pictures of the major fruit types used in the study
one-page, scalable file format.
6. The first picture, at the top of the page, should be a photograph of the entire plant
with a ruler to indicate scale. This picture should have sufficient detail to show
approximate level of spineless, cladode morphology, and overall plant type.
7. The second picture should have one uncut fruit and one half of a longitudinally cut
fruit lay out on a non-reflective background with a metric ruler along side. This is to
show the fruit size, external color, internal color, peel thickness, and seediness. If
the authors can find a photograph with similar characteristics as theirs, already
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Supporters
The Journal of the Professional Association for Cactus Development is indeed grateful
for the financial support provided by the D'Arrigo Bros Co, California producer of
quality red cactus pears, and invites you to view their web sites at
http://www.darrigo.com/cactus_pear.html / http://www.andyboy.com/
We also gratefully acknowledge support of these organizations and individuals.
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Texas A&M University-Kingsville
Wray Charitable Trust
San Antonio Botanical Gardens
San Antonio Botanical Society
Birgit Arnholdt-Schmitt
Kevin Coniff
Peter Felker
Friedas
James Moss
Carmen Saenz
James Simpson, MD
Helmuth Zimmerman
Ricardo David Valdez-Cepeda
Gilberto Aranda-Osorio

Diapositiva 1 - Journal of the Professional Association for Cactus

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