İNGİLİZCE LİSANS ÖĞRENCİLERİNİN ÇEVİRİ YETENEKLERİNİ

Transcription

İNGİLİZCE LİSANS ÖĞRENCİLERİNİN ÇEVİRİ
YETENEKLERİNİ GELİŞTİRMEK İÇİN
ELEŞTİREL DÜŞÜNME UYGULAMALARI
Fatemeh GOHARKHANEH ASLI
Doctoral Dissertation
Department of Foreign Language Teaching
Prof. Dr. Mehmet TAKKAÇ
2015
(All Rights Reserved)
ATATÜRK UNIVERSITY
GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES EDUCATION
DIVISION OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION
APPLYING CRITICAL THINKING TO IMPROVE TRANSLATION
ABILITY OF UNDERGRADUATE ENGLISH TRANSLATION
STUDENTS
(İngilizce Lisans Öğrencilerinin Çeviri Yeteneklerini Geliştirmek İçin Eleştirel
Düşünme Uygulamaları)
DOCTORAL DISSERTATION
Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Mehmet TAKKAÇ
ERZURUM
January, 2015
KABUL VE ONAY TUTANAĞI
Prof. Dr. Mehmet TAKKAÇ danışmanlığında, Fatemeh GOHARKHANEH
ASLI tarafından hazırlanan “APPLYING CRITICAL THINKING TO IMPROVE
TRANSLATION ABILITY OF UNDERGRADUATE ENGLISH TRANSLATION
STUDENTS” başlıklı çalışma ….. / …… / ………. tarihinde yapılan savunma sınavı
sonucunda başarılı bulunarak jürimiz tarafından Yabancı Diller Eğitimi Anabilim
Dalı’nda Doktora Tezi olarak kabul edilmiştir.
Başkan
: ……………………..………….
İmza: ……………………………
Danışman : …………………………………
İmza: ……………………………
Jüri Üyesi : …………………………………
İmza: ……………………………
Jüri Üyesi : …………………………………
İmza: ……………………………
Jüri Üyesi : …………………………………
İmza: ……………………………
Yukarıdaki imzaların adı geçen öğretim üyelerine ait olduğunu onaylarım.
.. /../....
Prof. Dr. H. Ahmet KIRKKILIÇ
Enstitü Müdürü
TEZ ETİK VE BİLDİRİM SAYFASI
Yüksek Lisans/Doktora Tezi olarak sunduğum “APPLYING CRITICAL
THINKING TO IMPROVE TRANSLATION ABILITY OF UNDERGRADUATE
ENGLISH TRANSLATION STUDENTS” başlıklı çalışmanın, tarafımdan, bilimsel
ahlak ve geleneklere aykırı düşecek bir yardıma başvurmaksızın yazıldığını ve
yararlandığım eserlerin kaynakçada gösterilenlerden olduğunu, bunlara atıf yapılarak
yararlanılmış olduğunu belirtir ve onurumla doğrularım.
Tezimin kâğıt ve elektronik kopyalarının Atatürk Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri
Enstitüsü arşivlerinde aşağıda belirttiğim koşullarda saklanmasına izin verdiğimi
onaylarım.
Lisansüstü Eğitim-Öğretim yönetmeliğinin ilgili maddeleri uyarınca gereğinin
yapılmasını arz ederim.
.… / …. / ….
İmza
ii
ÖZET
DOKTORA TEZİ
İNGİLİZCE LİSANS ÖĞRENCİLERİNİN ÇEVİRİ YETENEKLERİNİ
GELİŞTİRMEK İÇİN ELEŞTİREL DÜŞÜNME UYGULAMALARI
2015, 130 sayfa
Bu çalışmanın temel amacı, çeviri öğrencilerinin eleştirel düşünme becerilerini
eleştirel düşünme becerileri tespit etmek için eleştirel düşünme ve çeviri kalitesi
arasındaki ilişkiyi bulmak ve öğrencilerin eleştirel düşünme becerileri ve çeviri kalitesi
arasındaki ilişkiyi derinlemesine incelemektir. Bu çalışmada, karma araştırma deseni
kullanılmış ve Atatürk Üniversitesi İngilizce Öğretmenliği Bölümü’nde öğrenim gören
106 öğrenciden veri toplanmıştır. Çalışmanın ilk aşamasında, öğrencilerin eleştirel
düşünme becerileri ve çeviri arasındaki ilişkiyi bulmak amacıyla anket uygulanmıştır.
Çalışmanın ikinci aşamasında, eleştirel düşünme becerilerinin öğrencilerin çevirilerine
olan etkisini açıklamak üzere öğrencilerle görüşme yapılmıştır. Nicel analizlerde, hem
betimsel hem de çıkarımsal istatistiklerden faydalanılmıştır. Veriler MINITAB paket
programı kullanılarak analiz edilmiştir. Çalışmanın bağımsız değişkenleri cinsiyet ve
eleştirel düşünme boyutlarıdır. Bağımlı değişkende çeviri kalitesidir. Nicel veriler için,
gruplandırılmış t-test ve korelasyon analizleri uygulanmıştır. Nitel verilerin analizi için,
metin çözümlemesi yapılmıştır. Çalışmanın sonuçları, çeviri kalitesi ile eleştirel
düşünme becerileri arasında anlamlı bir ilişki olduğunu göstermektedir. Ayrıca, eleştirel
düşünmenin öğrencilerin çeviri kalitesini arttırdığı sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Bu
sonuçlardan hareketle, derslerde eleştirel düşünmeye yönelik çalışmaların öğrencilerin
çeviri performanslarına katkı sağladığı ve kendi çevirilerine
daha eleştirel
yaklaşmalarına yardımcı olduğu kanısına varılmaktadır. Bu bağlamda, öğretmenlere
öğrencilerin çeviri kalitelerini arttırmaları için çeviri derslerinde eleştirel düşünme
tekniklerini uygulamaları ve öğrencilere eleştirel düşünme becerilerini nasıl
kullanacakları hususunda yönlendirmeleri tavsiye edilmektedir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Eleştirel Düşünme Becerisi, Dil Öğrenme, Çeviri Teoriler
iii
ABSTRACT
DOCTORAL DISSERTATION
APPLYING CRITICAL THINKING TO IMPROVE TRANSLATION ABILITY
OF UNDERGRADUATE ENGLISH TRANSLATION STUDENTS
2015, 130 pages
The main purpose of this study is to explain the relationships between the critical
thinking and translation quality to clarify the critical thinking abilities of undergraduate
students and to provide insight into this relationship. Explanatory research design,
among mixed research designs, was used. Data were collected from 106 undergraduate
students in the department of English Language Teaching at Ataturk University in
Turkey. In the first phase of the study, a questionnaire was conducted to the students to
test the relationship between critical thinking skills and translation. In the second phase,
students were interviewed to explain the effect of critical thinking abilities on their
translation quality. For quantitative data analysis, descriptive and inferential statistics
were used. Quantitative data were analyzed with MINITA package program. The
independent variables in the study are gender and the dimensions of critical thinking.
The dependent variable is translation quality. For quantitative data, paired t-test and
correlation analysis were conducted. As the qualitative data, textual analysis was done.
The results of the study show that there is a positive relation between critical thinking
skills and translation quality. Moreover, according to the results, critical thinking
increases the translation quality of undergraduate students. Moving from these results, it
is implied that critical-based activities in courses contribute to the translation
performance of students and theses activities help students to reflect on their translations
with a critical perspective. At this point, this study recommends the teachers to use
critical thinking –based techniques in their courses and to teach their students how to
use their critical thinking skills.
Key Words: Critical thinking skill, language learning, Translation theories.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my admiration to the people who have assisted my study.
My sincere gratitude goes to my supervisor Prof. Dr Mehmet TAKKAC. I heartily
thank him for his genuine interest, invaluable guidance, support, time, patience and
encouragement throughout the study. His constant support, inspiration and
encouragement helped me to keep on track towards reaching my goal.
I also want to express my special thanks to my intimate friend Morteza
Tahmasebiyan whose encouragement was of value for me.
Special thanks go to Assist. Prof. Dr. Oktay YAĞIZ and my family. Words
cannot convey how grateful I am to my family for all of the sacrifices that they’ve made
on my behalf. Their prayer for me was what strengthened me thus far. I would also like
to appreciate all of my friends who supported me in writing to achieve my goal
Erzurum-2014
Fatemeh Goharkhanehasli
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
KABUL VE ONAY TUTANAĞI ..................................................................................... i
TEZ ETİK VE BİLDİRİM SAYFASI .............................................................................. ii
ÖZET................................................................................................................................iii
ABSTRACT .....................................................................................................................iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................................. v
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................. vi
ABBREVIATIONS .......................................................................................................... x
TABLE OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................... xi
LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................... xii
CHAPTER ONE
1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Statement of Problem ................................................................................................. 1
1.2. Theoretical Framework .............................................................................................. 1
1.3. Purpose of the Study .................................................................................................. 4
1.4. Importance of the Study ............................................................................................. 4
1.5. Limitations of the Dissertation ................................................................................... 5
1.6. Overview of the Dissertation ..................................................................................... 5
1.7. Definitions of key terms ............................................................................................. 6
CHAPTER TWO
2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE .......................................................................... 8
2.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 8
2.2. Critical Thinking ........................................................................................................ 8
2.2.1. Importance of Critical Thinking in Education ............................................... 8
2.2.2. Definition of Critical Thinking ...................................................................... 9
2.2.3. The Teaching of Critical Thinking .............................................................. 12
2.1.4. Barriers to Critical Thinking........................................................................ 13
2.3. Translation................................................................................................................ 14
2.3.1. Translation Studies ...................................................................................... 15
vi
2.3.2. Translation Studies Theories ....................................................................... 16
2.3.3. Linguistic Theories ...................................................................................... 16
2.2.3.1. Catford ...................................................................................................... 16
2.2.3.2. Nida........................................................................................................... 17
2.2.3.3. Newmark................................................................................................... 18
2.3.4. Functional Theories ..................................................................................... 19
2.2.4.1. Translational action .................................................................................. 19
2.2.4.2. Skopos theory ........................................................................................... 20
2.2.4.2. Translation-oriented text analysis ............................................................. 20
2.3.5. Theories of the Cultural Turn ...................................................................... 22
2.2.5.1. Polysystem theory..................................................................................... 22
2.2.5.1. Toury's model ........................................................................................... 23
2.2.5.2. Chesterman's translation norms ................................................................ 25
2.2.5.3. Power-related approaches (Postcolonial translation theory) .................... 26
2.4. Translation Pedagogy ............................................................................................... 26
2.4.1 Models of Translation ................................................................................... 27
2.4.2. The Cultural Model ..................................................................................... 28
2.4.3. The Interpretive Model ................................................................................ 28
2.5. Critical Thinking in language Education ................................................................. 33
2.5.1. Critical Thinking in Reading ....................................................................... 36
2.5.2. Critical Thinking in translation Education .................................................. 38
CHAPTER THREE
3. METHODOLOGY.................................................................................................... 41
3.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 41
3.2. Research Design ....................................................................................................... 41
3.3. Population and Sample............................................................................................. 42
3.4. Course Tutorial Design ............................................................................................ 42
3.5. Data Collection Instruments..................................................................................... 45
3.5.1. California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory (CCTDI) ..................... 45
3.4.2. California Critical Thinking Skills Test (CCTST) ...................................... 46
3.4.3. Interview ...................................................................................................... 48
vii
3.4.4. Translation Tests .......................................................................................... 51
3.5. Data Analysis ........................................................................................................... 52
CHAPTER FOUR
4. RESULTS .................................................................................................................. 53
4.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 53
4.2. Results of California Critical Thinking Skills Test (CCTST) .................................. 53
4.2.1. Evaluation Results ....................................................................................... 54
4.2.2. Deductive results ......................................................................................... 54
4.2.3. Inference Results ......................................................................................... 55
4.2.4. Analysis Results .......................................................................................... 56
4.2.5. Inductive Results ......................................................................................... 57
4.2.6. CT overall Results ....................................................................................... 58
4.3. Results of Translation Test Before CT Course (Pre-test) ........................................ 59
4.4. Qualitative Analysis of Post-Test Interviews ........................................................... 62
4.5. Results of Translation Test After CT Course (Post-Test) ........................................ 63
4.6. Comparison of Pre-and Post-Test Scores on Translation Quality ........................... 66
4.6.1. Word ............................................................................................................ 66
4.6.2. Grammar ...................................................................................................... 67
4.6.3. Coherence .................................................................................................... 68
4.6.4. Translation Overall ...................................................................................... 69
4.7. Correlations between CT skills and translation quality (pre-test) ............................ 70
4.8. Gender differences in CT skills................................................................................ 75
CHAPTER FIVE
5. DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................ 76
5.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 76
5.2. Summary of the Findings ......................................................................................... 78
5.3. Comparison of pre-and post-test results................................................................... 80
5.4. Pedagogical implication ........................................................................................... 82
5.5. Implications for Future Research ............................................................................. 82
REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 83
viii
APPENDIX .................................................................................................................. 101
Appendix 1. Translation Test .............................................................................. 101
Appendix 2. Critical Thinking Inventory Test .................................................... 103
Appendix 3. Critical Thinking Skills Test ........................................................... 106
CURRICULUM VITAE ............................................................................................. 116
ix
ABBREVIATIONS
CT
: Critical thinking
CCTST
: California critical thinking skills test
x
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 4.1. The evaluation subscale scores of the translation students on the CCTST .. 54
Figure 4.2. The deductive subscale scores of the translation students on the CCTST ... 55
Figure 4.3. The inference subscale scores of the translation students on the CCTST .... 56
Figure 4.4. The analysis subscale scores of the translation students on the CCTST ...... 57
Figure 4.5. The inductive subscale scores of the translation students on the CCTST .... 58
Figure 4.6. The CT overall scores of the translation students on the CCTST ................ 59
Figure 4.7. Results of translation test (word) before CT course ..................................... 60
Figure 4.8. Results of translation test (grammar) before CT course ............................... 60
Figure 4.9. Results of translation test (coherence) before CT course ............................. 61
Figure 4.10. Results of translation test before CT course ............................................... 62
Figure 4.11. Results of translation test (word) after CT course ...................................... 64
Figure 4.12. Results of translation test (Grammar) after CT course ............................... 64
Figure 4.13. Results of translation test (coherence) after CT course .............................. 65
Figure 4.14. Results of translation test (overall) after CT course ................................... 66
Figure 4.15. Comparison of pre-and post-test scores on translation (word seletion)
quality ........................................................................................................ 67
Figure 4.16. Comparison of pre-and post-test scores on translation (grammar)
quality ........................................................................................................ 68
Figure 4.17. Comparison of pre-and post-test scores on translation (coherence)
quality ........................................................................................................ 69
Figure 4.18. Comparison of pre-and post-test scores on translation quality................... 70
Figure 4.19. Scatter plot of Word pre-test and CT skills ................................................ 72
Figure 4.20. Scatter plot of Grammar pre-test and CT skills .......................................... 73
Figure 4.21. Scatter plot of coherence pre-test and CT skills ......................................... 73
Figure 4.22. Scatter plot of translation pre-test and CT skills ........................................ 74
xi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1. Paired t Test Displays the Average Difference Between Pre-And
Post-Test Scores on Translation (Word Selection) Quality ........................ 67
Table 4.2. Paired t test displays the average difference between pre-and post-test
scores on translation (grammar) quality ...................................................... 68
Table 4.3. Paired t test displays the average difference between pre-and post-test
scores on translation (coherence) quality .................................................... 69
Table 4.4. Paired t Test Displays the Average Difference Between Pre-And
Post-Test Scores on Translation Quality ..................................................... 70
Table 4.5. Correlation ................................................................................................... 71
Table 4.6. Correlation Tests Between Critical Thinking.............................................. 75
xii
CHAPTER ONE
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Statement of Problem
Translation plays a significant role in communication and translators have the
very essential duty of conveying the sense of the text from one language to another.
Although translation courses have been traditionally a part of the English BA
curriculum, they have not usually been efficient enough. The students are taught
various language skills along with translation theories but as reasoning is usually
neglected in the process of translation, they get confused with pile of learned language
skills/knowledge and translation aspects. It seems that improving students thinking and
inferring ways could elevate the quality of their translations.
1.2. Theoretical Framework
The impact of globalization has led to dramatic change of communication and
consequently translation as well (Anantha, 2010). Hence universities play a pivotal role
in not only training professional translators who are able to translate various subject
matter but also competent critical thinkers (Zainudin, 2012 ).Translation means
reformulating a message from the source language into the target language. It requires
first to catch and transmit the meaning of the source language text and make an
adequate target-language sentence structure in which to insert this meaning (Malakoff,
1991).
In fact, translation is intertwined with both lexicon and thought, which results in
the advent of meaning. The contribution of thinking skills to translation opens a new
window for translators. In fact, thinking ability is the main difference between human
and animals, and even it is the distinguishing point. What is clear is that, efficient
thinking is a capability which should be learned. There have been a lot of works to
2
improve thinking ability and one of the main approaches to reach this goal is critical
thinking.
The critical thinking is a historical term on which the first time when it was
introduced was said in Greece over 2,500 years ago. Socrates (469?-399BCE) had the
greatest influence on critical thinking standards and was a good model of an ideal
critical thinker who reported that “Do not take what I say as if I were merely playing,
for you see the subject of our discussion—and on what subject should even a man of
slight intelligence be more serious?—namely, what kind of life should one live (“Reis”,
n. d.). After him, many scholars traced his method, as well. It should be noted that when
we discuss critical thinking, it does not merely imply criticism or being negative; it
means to see a person’s reaction in relation to his/her own thinking. Critical thinking
can be described as traits of good thinking processes or types of thinking. It is a kind of
creative thinking which includes replacing weak thinking with strong thinking, or
replacing strong thinking with stronger thinking (Paul, 2005). In this respect, there are
many definitions of critical thinking which are about making reflective judgements.
Ennis (1987) argues that critical thinking is reflective thinking that is paying attention to
deciding what to believe or do as cited in John J (2001). Hence, a critical thinker has the
tendency to explore questions and make judgement. It means that critical thinker
including a critical teacher is who is be able to think well and objectively about his/her
own beliefs and viewpoints as well as about those which are absolutely opposed. CT is
considered as a variety of cognitive activities including solving problems and making
informed decisions, developing evidence and arguments to support views and critically
evaluating
the
logic
and
validity
of
information
(Chaffee,
1992).
Also,
Browne&Keeley-Vasudeve (1992) believes that the development of CT skills is a main
purpose of higher education. It means that training critical thinker educators shroud be
taken account as the priority of education system. Paul (1995), as one of the leaders in
critical thinking, also considers CT as learning how to ask and answer questions in order
for analysis, synthesis and evaluation. He also mentions that not only is CT abstract and
multi-nature but also, its assessment is not definite. There are a lot of CT assessment
tests such as: The Watson-Glaser CT appraisal, (WGCTA;Watson & Glaser, 1980), The
Ennis-Weir CT essay test (EWCTET;Ennis&Weir,1985), The Cornell CT test
(CCTT;Ennis, Millman, &Tomk , 1985), The California CT skills test (CCTST,Facione,
3
1990) and a recent test, the Halpern CT assessment using everyday situations (Halpern,
2007). Based on his wide definition of critical thinking, Ennis (1987) developed a
taxonomy of critical thinking skills which includes thirteen dispositions and twelve
abilities that together frame critical thinking. For example, some of the dispositions of a
critical thinker, as mentioned by Ennis (1987) are:
(1) Seek a clear statement of the thesis or question.
(2) Take into account the total situation.
(3) Keep in mind the original and/or basic concern.
(4) Look for alternatives.
(5) Use one’s critical thinking abilities.
(6) Be sensitive to the feelings, level of knowledge, and degree of sophistication
of others.
(7) Be open-minded.
In addition to these dispositions, there are some abilities, such as:
(1) Focusing on a question,
(2) Analyzing arguments,
(3) Asking and answering questions of clarification and/or challenge,
(4) Judging the credibility of a source,
(5) Deducing and judging deductions,
(6) Inferring explanatory conclusions and hypotheses, and
(7) Identifying assumptions.
The relationship between critical thinking and reading is well established in the
literature. For example, (Norris and Phillips 1987; cited in Aloqaili, 2012) indicate that
reading is more than just saying what is on the page; it is thinking. They conclude that
critical thinking is the process which the reader uses to comprehend.
It can be inferred that reading without thinking is somehow impossible. On the
other hand, it is hard to find a reading without reasoning (Beck, 1989). Moreover, the
readers have to use the powers of the mind such as conceiving ideas, drawing
inferences, and making judgements and predictions (Shihab, 2011).
Shihab (2011) indicates that reading is reasoning. Yu-hui et al. (2010) reports on
reading as a thinking process to construct meaning.
4
In order to increase readers’ ability to achieve comprehension as a critical
thinking act, metacognition plays as a pivotal guide to train critical analytical and
independent critical thinkers (Wilen, 1995).
On the other hand, activated metacognition in CT leads to higher order learning.
Indeed, metacognition is highly utilized in difficult tasks such as critical thinking. When
an individual is engaged to make inferences, evaluate arguments, make deductions, and
interpret finding, metacognition is applied to achieve the correct outcome (Magno,
2010). Metacognition in reading causes to foster reader’s inference and maker him/her
draw a logical reasoning i.e., meaning.
1.3. Purpose of the Study
This study aims to clarify the critical thinking abilities of undergraduate
translation students and give insight into the relationship between critical thinking
abilities and translation quality of university students.
Research questions are:
1. Is there any relationship between translation quality and development of
critical thinking ability in translation education?
2. To what extent does critical thinking empower translation quality of
undergraduate student’s translations?
1.4. Importance of the Study
In the last few decades, translation has been developed due to growing
international trade, migration, globalization and technology. Hence, the translator plays
a prominent role as a cross-cultural transmitter of messages as faithfully and precisely
as possible. It is obvious that a poor translation can not only lead to misunderstanding,
but it can also be a matter miscommunication (Bolton, 2001). Therefore the importance
of training translators depends on both complete acquisition of languages and
translation strategies, as well. On the other hand, being a good critical thinker is a
prerequisite to a professional translator.
5
1.5. Limitations of the Dissertation
It is of importance that represented critical thinking skills and their application in
students’ translation performance should be demonstrated among the graduate student
participants of English departments. Therefore, findings in the current study may not
encompass all the processes and manners and challenges of all disciplines.
Since the undergraduate students of English departments are taken as the scope
of the study, it is important to note that the suggestions may not necessarily represent
the best methods that all EFL students should follow. It is most likely that EFL graduate
students from other linguistic and cultural backgrounds undergo different processes in
linguistics and affective difficulties.
At the very outset of the dissertation, the study was planned to investigate both
critical thinking inventory and skill capability of the participants. Nevertheless, as the
study progressed and data were collected from the inventory test, we concluded that,
due to the students score’s similarity and lack of high variance between grades, only
critical thinking skill test was used.
1.6. Overview of the Dissertation
In the first chapter, the research problem, rationale of the study, specific
questions to be specifically pursued, the key terms frequently seen, and the limitations
of the dissertation are given. Chapter 2 reviews the relevant theories and empirical
findings and discusses their implications for the current study. This chapter begins with
the importance of critical thinking, its definition and the barriers of critical thinking as
well. In addition, translation theories and models are discussed. This chapter also
reviews literature on nature, significance and demanding aspects of critical thinking.
Subsequent to the importance of critical thinking in language education, critical thinking
application in reading and its prominence in translation education are consequently
reviewed.
In Chapter 3, the overview of the methodology is given. Then the instruments
and the procedures of the data collection, the procedure for analyzing the questionnaire,
critical thinking skills, qualitative data consisting of interview data, and finally the
6
translation test sample are given. In Chapter 4, the data analyses of the study are
presented. First, the analyses of the quantitative data i.e., the critical thinking skills and
challenges of the graduate participants and then results of the translation test from
grammar, word and coherence point of view, following the qualitative findings are
demonstrated. In Chapter 5, the findings of the study are discussed, certain pedagogical
implications are provided, and some suggestions for further studies are finally given.
1.7. Definitions of key terms
Critical thinking
Critical thinking can be defined as qualities of good thinking processes or
thinking types. It is a kind of creative thinking which includes replacing poor thinking
with rich thinking, or replacing strong thinking with stronger thinking (Paul, 2005).
In this respect there are many definitions of critical thinking. It is about making
reflective judgements. Ennis argued that critical thinking is reflective and reasonable
thinking focuses on deciding what to believe or do (Ennis 1985; cited in Huitt, 1998).
Hence, a critical thinker has the tendency to explore questions and make judgement. A
critical thinker is the one who is able to think well and fair-mindedly about his/her own
beliefs and viewpoints as well as those which are absolutely opposed. Critical thinking
is purposeful, reasoned, and goal-oriented procedure included solving problem,
inference formulation and decision making processes (Halpern, 1999).
Critical thinking skills
Critical thinking skills include evaluation, induction, deduction, inference and
analysis skills. Indeed, such techniques lead to enhance the person’s reasoning and
logical decision making. They can also contribute to translation performance and result
in high quality performances.
Translation and critical thinking overlap
According to Toury model, translation is a decision making process, and norms
play key roles in this process. Indeed, preliminary norms lead to choose what to
translate in the first place and operational norms direct decision making during the
translation process (Herman, 1991). In comparing the CT skills and translation process,
7
it can be inferred that the same procedure takes place. On the other hand, overlapping
CT skills including deductive inference, inductive inference, and inference to value
judgements, lead to decision making process resulting from Toury norms (Ennis 1987;
cited in Aloqaili, 2012).
CHAPTER TWO
2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Critical Thinking
This section of literature review consists of three sub-sections. Section 2.1.1
outlines the development of critical thinking research in the educational context. Section
2.1.2 discusses different definitions of critical thinking. Section 2.1.3 presents the
different views on the teaching of critical thinking in the classroom.
2.2.1. Importance of Critical Thinking in Education
Critical thinking is a very important element of schooling in the 21st century,
and scholars have mentioned different definitions about it (Huitt, 2007) . He reports that
in the information age; thinking plays a significant role in one’s success in life. As
Clement (1979) declared, we should be teaching students how to think i.e., critical
thinking. Since, critical thinking is a mental process and requires students to think about
their own thinking, they need to use higher-order thinking skills –not memorize data or
accept what they read without critically thinking about it (Snyder & Snyder, 2008).
According to Thomas and Smoot (1994), the transition to the information age
has focused on good thinking as a main part of life success and consequently new
outcomes, such as critical thinking. It means that merely through old scoring standards,
the academic success or failure of the students cannot be measured.
Chaffee (1985) also indicates that developing students’ critical thinking abilities
has focal role in meaningful education. He also, explained that meaningful education
results in getting involved in reflective acquiring information and equips learners with
the instruments to carefully comprehend the world they live in.
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Critical thinking has pivotal role in some key skills such as problem solving and
decision making (Kallet, 2014). According to scholars, CT skills can be taught directly
or explicitly but as teaching CT needs high capacity and confidence of both students and
teachers, applying CT won’t be that easy. So, teachers have to make the students ready
to think critically and creatively in order to achieve their objectives. They can form
discussion groups such as debating team and jigsaw groups to increase the students’
interaction, debate and reflection (MacKnight, 2000).
2.2.2. Definition of Critical Thinking
There is not a constant definition of CT, and the definitions of critical thinking
have been changing (Huitt, 1998). Benderson 1990; cited in Fasko 2003), reports that
the philosophical and psychological viewpoints on thinking or the teaching of thinking
are fundamentally different. Critical thinking is about how to come up to problems,
questions, issues in order to get to the truth (Facione, 1998) . Indeed, critical thinking is
a multi-dimensional process in which the individual observes, analyzes and reflects on
their own knowledge and integrate it with their own background knowledge.
In the field of psychology, some researchers (Scriven & Paul, 1992; Wade,
1995) have been trying to identify all the different aspects of critical thinking and the
intellectual mental processes that people go through when they think critically, for
example, conceptualizing, applying, analyzing and synthesizing. Other researchers
focus on investigating a particular dimension of critical thinking, for example, problem
solving (Ruggiero, 1988; Johnson, 1992) and decision making (Johnson, 1992;
Ellsworth, 1994). Apart from these processes and dimensions, metacognition (Chaffee,
1985; Jones et al, 1987; Marzano et al, 1988; Paul, 1995) and disposition (Ennis, 1987;;
Beyer, 1995) are two important elements that many people consider when defining
critical thinking. Indeed, critical thinking is the skill of thinking about own thinking
(Kuhn, 1999). In developmental psychology, thinking about thinking has been most
associated with Piaget's stage of formal operations (Inhelder & Piaget 1958; cited in
(Kuhn, 1976).
Metacognition is considered, by Facione (1990) to be a core skill which has
impact on a learner’s critical thinking ability, and impacts on a learner’s academic
success (Fscion 1990; cited in Deborahm 1993). “Metacognition is being aware of one's
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thinking as one performs specific tasks and then using this awareness to control what
one is doing” (Jones & Ratcliff, 1993, p. 10; cited in Srinivasan & Crooks, 2005).
Hence, metacognitive skills are intertwined set of competencies for learning and
thinking, prerequisite to active learning, critical thinking, reflective judgement, problem
solving, and decision-making. Adults whose metacognitive skills are well formed can
be better problem-solvers, decision makers and critical thinkers as well, and
consequently are more capable and more provoked to learn (Dawson, 2008).
Several definitions of critical thinking have been introduced in the education
field. Fasko (2003) reported that “perhaps a hybrid definition would facilitate a
synthesis of these various perspectives” (p.8). Beyer (1995) took into account critical
thinking as the processes of 'making reasoned judgements' (p.8). Kurfiss indicated that
critical thinking is an investigation whose aim is to see the sights of a situation,
phenomenon, question, or problem to arrive at a conclusion about it and to integrate all
available data that can be convincingly justified (Kurfiss 1988; cited as cited in Ab
Kadir. (2007). Critical thinking is purposeful, reasoned, and goal-oriented included in
problem solving, inference formulation and decision making procedures (Halpern,
1999).
Students should be able to utilize critical thinking not only in exams but also
outside and even in their real life. On the other hand, critical thinking needs both skills
and skills plus tendencies (Siegel, 2013) . It means that the critical thinker requires both
the skills and proficiencies in order to assess the statements and actions properly. He/she
also, needs the inclination to apply those proficiencies in his/her own ordinary activities.
In fact, a person is a critical thinker if she/he is capable and ready to think critically.
Siegel also stated that assisting students to develop critical thinking is indeed paving the
route of their critical perspective that would equip their thinking and action with
adequate reasons and the ability to assess reasons properly.
Critical thinker engages in certain types of conversations and relations with
others (Burbules, 1999). They think critically about what the others say and do not
believe whatever they hear or see without pondering about it. Indeed, the critical
thinkers, use both the disposition (or propensity) and the relevant knowledge and skills
to engage in an activity with reflective skepticism (McPeck, 1985). That is, not only are
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they prone to question things, but they have relevant knowledge and understanding to
do productive performances. The term critical thinking refers to the use of those
cognitive skills which lead to the approach a desirable outcome (Halpern, 2002).
Four-Part Model for Improving Critical Thinking involves:
1. Explicitly teach the skills of critical thinking
2. Develop the disposition for effortful thinking and learning
3. Direct learning activities in ways that increase the probability of
transcontextual transfer (structure training)
4. Make metacognitive monitoring explicit and overt (Halpern, 1998).
According to (Facione, 1998), critical thinking
skills are interpretation, analysis,
evaluation, inference,explanation, and self-regulation (metacognition).
Interpretation means examination of evidence, arguments, and alternative points
of view (Ten Dam & Volman, 2004).
Facione (1990) defines interpretation as the ability to comprehend and convey
the meaning or significance of a wide variety of experiences, situations, data, events,
judgements, beliefs, rules, procedures.
Interpretation includes three major abilities according to the Delphi panel of
critical thinking experts who designed the California Critical Thinking Skills Test; the
abilities are classification, decoding, and clarifying meaning.
Analysis is the second skill identified. Facione (1990) defines analysis as “to
identify the intended and actual inferential relationships among statements, questions,
concepts, descriptions or other forms of representation intended to express beliefs,
judgements, experiences, reasons, information, or opinions” (p. 14) Evaluation is the
third skill identified; it can be defined (Facione, 1990) as “the ability to assess the
credibility of statements or other representations which are accounts or descriptions of a
person’s perception, experience, situation, judgement, belief, or opinion; and to assess
the logical strength of the actual or intended inferential relationships among statements,
descriptions, questions or other forms of representation” (p. 15).
The fourth skill is inference defined by (Facione, 1990) as “the ability to identify
and secure elements needed to draw reasonable conclusions; to form conjectures and
12
hypotheses; to consider relevant information and to reduce the consequences flowing
from data, statements, principles, evidence, judgements, beliefs, opinions, concepts,
descriptions, questions, or other forms of representation” (p. 16).
Explanation is the fifth skill identified and it is defined (Facione, 1990) as “the
ability to state the results of one’s reasoning; to justify that reasoning in terms of the
evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological and contextual considerations
upon which one’s results were based; and to present one’s reasoning in the form of
cogent arguments” (p.18). The sixth and final skill identified is metacognition or selfregulation, which is defined (Facione, 1990) as “the Self-consciously to monitor one’s
cognitive activities, the elements used in those activities, and the results educed,
particularly by applying skills in analysis and evaluation to one’s own inferential
judgements with a view toward questioning, confirming, validating, or correcting either
one’s reasoning or one’s results” (p. 19).
2.2.3. The Teaching of Critical Thinking
According to two conceptions of critical thinking, i.e. 'pure skills' and 'skills plus
tendencies' (Siegel, 1988, p.6), the teaching approaches of critical thinking can be
classified into two groups; (1) the teaching of critical thinking referring trainable and
assessable reasoning skills and processes, and (2) teaching of critical thinking as well as
dispositions and awareness along with critical thinking. Study demonstrates that it is
important to involve students actively in different critical thinking processes, such as
analysis of ideas through discussion, reflection and writing to make it significant
(Solon, 2003).
Similarly, Yuretich (2004) believed that teaching critical thinking is the teaching
of reasoning skills, for example, analysis, synthesis and evaluation and let the students
do active learning. Through applying active learning strategies, students were given the
opportunities to process and evaluate information through discussion with each other.
Therefore, giving students a critical thinking opportunity, for instance, allowing time to
pause, reflect on, analyses and discuss an issue in a context to support critical thinking,
is the key to critical thinking education. Also, in terms of teaching, engaging students in
different types of reflection, exchange of information and group discussion in a context
are main strategies for developing students’ critical thinking skills (ibid).
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D' Angelo (1971) suggested that teachers can engage students in critical thinking
via questioning, such as, asking students critical questions to provoke critical responses,
and stimulate students to ask critical questions in class. In terms of teaching, D' Angelo
believed that use of bulletin boards, displays and class projects can be so effective and
make the students ask critical questions. Students’ ideas should be heard, respected and
considered carefully (Bourdillon and Storey, 2002 as cited in Rezaei, 2011 ).They also
have emphasized that the students require to be cautious of what/why they are learning
critical thinking. What is more important is to develop students’ attitude as a critical
thinker i.e., to evaluate their own opinions and to ask question about their beliefs and
judgements. This is the most important and the most difficult part (Fok, 2002).
Regarding language teaching, using questions to develop students’ critical
thinking in the teaching of reading and writing is taken into account as a normal
process. Cook (1991), who considered reading primarily as a thinking process, focused
on the importance of engaging students in talking about the text they read. Elder and
Paul (2004), who considered critical thinking as the art of close reading, mentioned hat
“to learn well, one must read well” (p.37). They emphasized the importance of engaging
oneself in constant questioning in the reading process. Paul (2005) stressed that “a
critical mind improves reading by reflectively thinking about what and how it
reads”(p.32). Similarly, in terms of writing Elder and Paul (2006) pointed out that
revision of drafts involves both cognitive and meta-cognitive thinking processes of
students, and consequently writing could contribute to students’ critical thinking
increase. On the other hand, teaching critical thinking is feasible through breaking down
the process /thinking to a number of stages. Each step needs to be explained and trained
explicitly to give the students the opportunity of undertaking this practice as part of
formative assessment (Tittle, 2011).
2.1.4. Barriers to Critical Thinking
Four barriers often exist in the integration of critical thinking in education are (1)
lack of training, (2) lack of information, (3) preconceptions, and (4) time constraints.
Teachers often are not trained with critical thinking pedagogy (Peter 2012; cited in
Broadbear, 2003). Instructional materials often lack peripheral critical thinking
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resources. Teaching critical thinking along with the course materials requires extra time
to cover, so, time- management can be one of the major issues in teaching.
2.3. Translation
“The languages of individuals as well as of collective groups constantly evolve
through a dynamic process”(Shohamy, 2006).Human beings utilize interaction in order
to communicate and apply such an interaction through translating. As Levy sees
translating is the ‘process of communication’(Alves & Albir, 2010). Hence, languages
live and grow same as human beings.
Translation definitions:
1. The traditional view of translation, or what Chau refers to as The Philological
Stage, (Chau, 1984)
2. The linguistic definition of translation, or The Formal Linguistic Stage, and
finally
3. The post-linguistic definition of translation, which in Chau (Chau,
1984)includes The Ethno-Semantic Stage and The Textlinguistic Stage. (Benhaddou,
1991)
Since last decades, translation has been taken into account as a novel discipline
along with its theories, techniques, principles, and approaches. And the new
perspectives to translation substituted with the old ones i.e., per se literary translation
training. The colossal development of cybernetics, electronics, computers and the
sciences of information require any training to cover most possible types of translationinterpreting (Gonzalez, 2008). Ho (2005) advised that translation studies should be
carried out based on studying the cause-effect relationship between translation research
and translation practice.
According to Zainudin (2012), translation is an activity of mediate meaning
from a source language to a target language. The ability to choose the correct and
appropriate translation technique is a prominent skill to translators; therefore, it is
essential for translation students to be aware of what particular technique should be used
and why.
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According to Gonzalez Davies (2004), since the 80s, a lot of changes have taken
place in translation studies and translation is not merely one to one replacement of
words between languages. Also, Pym (2003) believes that, translation is one of the
fundamental things that people do with language, alongside speaking, listening, writing
and reading. Federici (2007) stresses, “translation is certainly a highly skilled activity, a
first-class art based on a high level of competence not only in the two languages but in
both cultures” (p.152). Thus, it can be said that, translating process overshadows both
art and science. In addition, Gonzalez (2004) mentions a dual role for a translation
teacher, “an expert in the field of translation and an expert in teaching” (p.2).
The new approaches to teaching translation include theories of translation
regarding text type and function (Newmark, 1988). It means that in most of the places,
English translation is being offered in various universities. And the “read and translate”
strategy is the most favorable method (Gonzalez, 2004). Indeed, translation instructions
and consequently putting theory into practice are not usually taught to the students in
class. What is asked from the students in most classes is reading and translating without
pondering about what they are translating i.e., literary translation. Nowadays the world
enquires competent and proficient translators in the most cases such as politics,
commerce, and economy and so on. Hence, training competent translators is vital.
2.3.1. Translation Studies
Since the mid-twentieth century, together with diffusion of translation at all
layers of economic, cultural and social life, translations and their study have been the
object of uninterrupted scholarly investigation (Riccardi, 2002). Contemporary
translation discourses have divided into two main approaches. Linguistic approach to
translation dominating the 1950s and 1960s, then shifted towards function and cultureoriented approaches in the 1970s and 1980s. Nowadays, the term of ‘translation studies',
formed by Holmes 1972 has three branches including descriptive, theoretical and
applied translation studies. According to Gonzalez Davies (2004) there are two general
approaches to translation studies in the new century, “one based on linguistics and one
based on cultural studies” (p.47).
By the 1990s, translation studies were introduced as a general discipline and
translation phenomena was investigated within a multidimensional approach.
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Translation studies are now a well- recognized concept among translation teachers and
theorists.
2.3.2. Translation Studies Theories
Translation studies theories open new windows toward translation education.
They contribute to the increase of efficiency in translation teaching, which leads to
bringing up more qualified translation graduates. In the study, main translation study
theories were classified by date of advent.
2.3.3. Linguistic Theories
2.3.3.1. Catford
The linguistic approach of translation results from the notion of Catford. Since
translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation processes
must make considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages
(Catford, 1967). Catford regarded translation depended on the existence of formal
correspondence between linguistic elements at different structural levels (Aissi, 1987).
In linguistic Theory of translation, Catford defines translation as, “The replacement of
textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language
(TL)” (Catford, 1965, p.20 as cited in As- Safi, A.B. (2011) . Using ‘textual material'
indicates the fact that Catford has renowned translation as a textual phenomena in which
TL equivalents are provided at one or more levels of language, and the replacement of
the entirety of the SL text doesn't take place in normal conditions.
According to Despoina (2013), Catford’s main contribution in the field of
translation studies lies in the introduction of types and shifts of translation. Shifts refer
to the modification that take place during the translation process. Types, firstly, include
full translation versus partial translation which differs according to the extent of
translation, and secondly, total translation versus restricted translation.
Catford 's equivalents types are; 1. Full vs. Partial translation which concerns the
extent of the SL text . In a full translation, every part of the SL text is replaced by TL
text content materials whereas in a partial translation some parts of the SL text are not
translated and may be borrowed from the SL text. 2. Total vs. Restricted translation
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which relates to the levels of language involved in translation. 3. Equivalent in terms of
bound which is related to the rank in a grammatical or phonological hierarchy at which
translation is performed and which could be classified into three different types of
translation: free, literal and word-word translation.
(Catford 1965/2000; cited in Syrus,
2009)
defines
translation
shift
as
“departures from formal correspondence in the process of going from the SL to the TL”
(p.141). He states two types of shifts as follows:
1. Level shift in which a source text item has a textual equivalent on a different
linguistic level.
2. Category shifts which occur when it is not feasible to find “simple
equivalence between SL and TL texts” (p.76). While, “it is clearly meaningless to talk
about category-shift unless we assume some degree of formal correspondence between
SL and TL”(Catford 1980; cited in Akbari (2010).
2.3.3.2. Nida
According to Nida (2006; cited in Mushangwe, 2014), translation is not a
science per se; while “the ways in which the brain manipulates information and
transfers concepts from one language to another” is necessary in translation process.
(Nida, 2006, p.11). Nida further notes that the reason why it is difficult to formulate an
adequate theory of translation is the fact that it is not that easy to recognize the
processes involved in translation. In other words, what takes place in the brain of a
translator during translation is still in vein. As described by him, the current theories of
translation indicate the semantic matching of verbal utterances regardless of giving a
picture of the mental processes involved. Nida (1964; cited in Ni Lili, 2009), developed
two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Formal
equivalence is that “the message in the TL should match as closely as possible the
different elements in the SL”. Dynamic equivalence takes the principle of equivalent
consequence as its basis. When formal and dynamic equivalence are incompatible in
translation, dynamic equivalence should be taken into consideration due to giving the
closest natural equivalent to the SL message.
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According to Nida and Taber (1974; cited in Mushangwe, 2014), “translating
consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the
source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”
(p.12). The 'closest natural equivalent' is explained by Nida (1964) as follows:
1. Equivalent, which points toward the source language message.
2. Natural, which points toward the receptor language.
3. Closest, which binds the two orientations together on the basis of the highest
degree of approximation (p.166).
Nida also believes that translating means communication (Yinhua, 2011). Nida
tries to establish a science of translating in the 1960s and 1970s and his theory is mainly
on Chomsky's TG grammar. Nida (1969) argued that languages consist of surface
structures and deep structures (kernels), and that structural differences between
languages are much smaller at a deep than at a surface level. Consequently, the best way
to translate is to reduce the source text to kernel sentences and once these kernel
sentences have been isolated. Thus, translator can transfer them into the receptor
language and restructure them to state the meaning of the passage in whatever idioms or
at whatever language level s/he desires and reformulates them to form a natural
receptor-language text. Regarding translation classification into “literal” and “free”
ones, Nida claimes that 'literal' translation focus on the form of the message ; while,
“free” translation focus on the receptor’s response. In other words, the translator should
strive to reproduce the form and content of the translation as literal and meaningful as
the original. Having dealt with the sentence meaning, the translator should analyse the
sentence from pragmatic point of view. Nida (1964) suggests that the analysis of a
source language text should not be restricted to a study of the syntactic relationships
between linguistic units or the denotative meaning of the same units. Analysis must also
deal with the connotative values of the formal structure of the communication (Aissi,
1987).
2.3.3.3. Newmark
Newmark substitutes Nida’s terms of formal and dynamic equivalence with
semantic and communicative translation respectively (Panou, 2013). The main
difference between the two types of translation proposed by Newmark is that semantic
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translation focuses on meaning whereas communicative translation concentrates on
effect. Indeed, semantic translation considers the ST and focus on the author of the
original text and its characteristics as much as possible. On the other hand,
communicative translation seeks for the needs of the addressees (ibid).
According to Venuti (2000) and Peter Newmark (1981), communicative and
semantic translations have been taken account as replacements for what was suggested
by Nida, namely formal and dynamic equivalence. According to him, communicative
translation attempts to produce an effect on its readers as close as possible to what has
influenced on the readers of the original and that semantic translation attempts to
translate, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structure of the second language
(Hauglund, 2011).
According to Riazi (2002), semantic translation is precise, but may not be able to
communicate well; whereas communicative translation communicates well, but may not
be very exact. Semantic translation can be called to be more author-oriented compared
with communicative translation which is reader-oriented. Examples for semantic
translations are serious literature works such as autobiographies and important
statements. Communicative translation, however, can be best illustrated by non-literary
writings, technical and informative texts and popular fiction (Benhaddou, 1991).
2.3.4. Functional Theories
In translation studies around 1970s, linguistics prominently had an important
role. Gradually, the linguistic approach substitutes its position with the functional
approach. In this approach, communicative purpose (i.e. meaning-oriented text) is focal.
In functionalism, reader and the target source are of importance.
2.3.4.1. Translational action
According to Munday (2001), “the translational action model proposed by HolzManttari, takes up concepts from communication theory and action theory with the aim,
amongst others, of providing a model and guidelines applicable to a wide range of
professional translation situations” (p. 77).
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Translational action focuses mostly on producing a target text that is functionally
communicative for the receiver. This means that the form and style of the TT must be
coping with what is functionally suitable in the TT culture. What is functionally suitable
has to be determined by the translator, who is the expert in translational action and
whose role is to make sure that the intercultural transfer takes place satisfactorily.
2.3.4.2. Skopos theory
In translational action, failing to consider cultural differences in more detail and
Holz Manttari's disregard of the SL (source text) were among the criticisms made
(Munday, 2001, p. 78). According to Vermeer (1996), “the purpose for which a
translator designs a translation in agreement with his commissioner so called the
'skopos' of the text” (p.6). The skopos can (and in many cases should) be explicitly
stated so that whoever hears or reads the translation knows for which skopos it was
designed. Vermeer continues to say that “translating is acting, i.e. a goal-oriented
procedure carried out in such a way as the translator deems optimal under the prevailing
circumstances” (p.7). According to skopos theory, the professional translator is (meant
to be) the bi-cultural expert competent to make decision in the case of translating
(Vermeer, 1996). The reason is that interpretations of texts are culture-specific. A text
may be interpreted differently in different cultures. The same holds well for translations
because they are texts, as well. Any text, when read in different cultures, has different
interpretations, and so have a source-text because they belong by definition to two
different cultures: the source-text interpreted under source-culture conditions and the
source-text interpreted under target-culture conditions (ibid).
However, criticisms are also made about this theory. Martin de Leon (2008)
states that, a single skopos or overall purpose is assigned to the translation and a single
main function to the target text. So, the possibility that several purposes may coexist and
the conflicts among them may arise, are not taken into account.
2.3.4.3. Translation-oriented text analysis
Nord's text analysis in translation (1988/91) presents a more detailed functional
model incorporating elements of text analysis, which examines text organization at
sentence or above sentence level. Nord makes a distinction between two basic types of
21
translation product (and process), which are documentary translation and instrumental
translation (Munday, 2001).
According to Nord (1991, p.72), Munday (2001) explains documentary
translation as a source culture communication between the author and the source text
recipient. Such is the case, for example, in literary translation, where the target text
allows the target text receiver access to the ideas of the source text but where the reader
is well aware that it is a translation. An instrumental translation serves as an
independent message transmitting instrument in a new communicative action in the
target culture, and is intended to complete its communicative purpose without the
recipient being conscious of reading or hearing a text which, in a different form, was
used before in a different communicative situation.
Nord’s model aimed at providing translation students with a model of ST
analysis which applicable to all text types and translation situations. So, this model,
according to Munday (2001) shares many of the premises of Reiss and Vermeer's work
and also Holz-Manttari's translation action but pays more attention to features of the
source text. Nord's model (1997) highlights three aspects of functionalist approaches
that are particularly useful in translator training:
1. The importance of the translation commission; to see where the two texts (ST
and TI) may diverge; this information enables the translator to prioritize what
information to include in the target text.
2. The role of source text analysis; the source text can be analyzed to decide on
functional priorities of the translation strategy. Nord's list of intratextual factors (1991)
is one possible model for the ST analysis: subject matter, content, presuppositions,
composition: including microstructure and macrostructure, non-verbal elements:
illustrations, italics, etc., lexic: including dialect, register and specific terminology,
sentence structure, suprasegmental features: including stress and rhythm.
3. The functional hierarchy of translation problems; (a) the intended function of
the translation should be decided (documentary or instrumental), (b) those functional
elements that will need to be adapted to the TI addressees' situation have to be
determined, (c) the translation type decides the translation style (source-culture or
22
target-culture oriented), (d) the problems of the text can then be tackled at a lower
linguistic level.
2.3.5. Theories of the Cultural Turn
Translation Studies are considered as the most recent and encompassing ones.
They embrace the social and cultural aspects of translation. Robinson (1997) believes
that the exalted state of the translator in more traditional ideologies was not only
extremely narrow and confining, but also utterly unrealistic and had nothing to do with
the real world of translation. In this section, some of the most important theories of the
cultural turn are explained.
2.3.5.1. Polysystem theory
The rapid formation of theories in the field of translation studies flourished
within only the span of some decades. This was by the time when linguistic approaches
gained significance in synthesizing theories into the discipline. Gradually, linguistics
broadened out from static models in 1960s to an approach which incorporated firstly
skopos theory and then registers and discourse analysis, relating language to its socio
cultural function. In the 1970s, polysystem theory reacted to the well-established static
prescriptive models and stated that translated literature can be conceived as a system
which operates in the larger social, literary and historical systems of the target culture
(Even-Zohar, 1990). Polysystem theory was introduced by Even-Zohar in the 1970s
and, in his opinion; literature is a complex and dynamic system rather than a static
collection of independent texts. According to this framework, all texts within a given
literature, from canonical centre to distant periphery, enter into a permanent struggle for
domination (Overas, 1998). “Prior to the development of the polysystem approach;
studying translation often consisted of an evaluative comparison of source and target
texts, in isolation from both the source and target contexts of literary production” (Baker
& Saldanha, 2009, p.190). Polysystem theory proved to be “a decisive move beyond the
prescriptive models prevailing at the time when it was elaborated, and placed the
phenomenon of translation within broader sociocultural contexts” (Wolf, 2007, p.6).
Following the introduction of polysystem theory into translation studies, which
appealed to scholars from different areas of specialty in the discipline, a great desire
23
aroused to examine different aspects of the theory and to gauge the degree of its
practicality on various levels of sociocultural stratas.
Scholars such as Toury and Hermans have taken up the idea of norms, derived
originally from polysystem theory and have expanded it further as a concept in its own
right. Another school of thought, known as the manipulation school or group, has
proceeded to establish a practical approach, promoting case studies, in order to make a
comparison between the ST (source text) and the TI(target text) and to describe the
relations within them on the four levels of:
1. Preliminary data
2. Macro-level text
3. Micro-level text
4. Systemic context
2.3.5.2. Toury's model
Toury (2011) believed that translation is between complete equivalence with
the source text and complete acceptability in the target language. On the other hand,
due to having variety in cultural norms, it would be hard to access a completely
acceptable translation. Holmes 'map' of translation studies, in which translation studies
has two main branches of 'pure' and 'applied' areas which subsequently subcategorize to
other subgroups, has been elaborated (Toury 2011; cited in Munday, 2001, p.10).
Toury's (1995) aim in developing the descriptive branch of translation studies is
to have a systematic branch which entails methodology and research techniques to fill
the gap. The gap he was referring to was between the notion of translation in the
beginning of the 1970s and the principles of establishing a corpus for a descriptiveexplanatory study (Toury, 1998). It is necessary to fill the missing part trough explicit
methodology and translation theories in order to achieve a reliable product.
Toury bases his theory on the polysystem work of Even-Zahar. He proposes the
following three stage methodology for descriptive translation studies (Munday, 2009):
1. Situate the text within the target culture system, looking at its significance or
acceptability.
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2. Compare the ST and the TT for shifts, identifying relationships between
'coupled pairs' of ST and TT segments, and attempting generalizations about the
underlying concept of translation.
3. Draw implications for decision-making in future translating (p.8).
According to Toury (2000), there are a set of norms, the acquisition of which is
necessary to determine whether a particular kind of behavior is suitable for the
translator and to know which factors constrain this behavior. There are three categories
of norms relevant to translation; they are preliminary, initial and operational norms
(Toury 1980; cited in Schäffner, 1998).
1.
Preliminary norms which decide the general translation approach and the
texts alternatives to be translated.
2.
Initial norms, which direct the translator’s decision to stick mainly to the
source text or to the target culture.
3.
Operational norms operational norms, which organize the true decisions
made through the process of translation.
Indeed “decision-making, is defined the process in which the translator goes
through in the course of formulating a TT” (Fuertes Olivera, 2001). On the other hand,
translation is a decision-process in which a number of successive moves, as in a game,
provoke the translator to choose among the most meaningful alternative among the
others (Levy, 1988). Indeed, a decision means a choice to be taken between a numbers
of possible alternatives i.e., solutions to a given problem (text) encountered while
translating a text. He also believes that, the made decisions are influenced by two types
of factors: (i) objecüve ones, which are of a linguistic nature and (ii) subjective ones,
which are of an extra-linguistic nature. Such factors directly or indirectly change the
prevailing conditions of the text i.e. linguistic materials as well as the textual ones lead
to make some modification of the text and consequently offer the acceptable translation.
Toury (2000) declares that norms are not constant entities and sometimes, some
kind of changes have occurred during translation process due to nature of norms.
Sometimes, these changes occur more quickly, and sometimes the process may take
longer, and this does not mean that translators are passive. Rather, many of them help
shape the process of changing.
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2.3.5.3. Chesterman's Translation Norms
Herman (1991) believes that without norms, the translator would probably be in
despair, and would be confused and even unable to decide the best acceptable solution
between the available alternatives. Given that language is made up discrete units and
that translating is a process of constant decision-making, every choice at every turn is,
in principle, motivated by a norm. Translational norms act as a kind of grid that
determines the way in which, and the extent to which, 'foreign' material is to be
integrated into the recipient culture. Norms reduce the complexity and thus domesticate
the 'otherness' of the exogenous text, whether to a large or only to a very small degree.
Toury (1999) argues that norms affect the translations and every other socially relevant
activity. He defines norm as “the translation of general values or ideas shared by a
group-as to what is conventionally right and wrong, adequate and inadequate-into
performance instructions appropriate for and applicable to particular situations” (p.14).
Toury distinguishes between initial norms, preliminary norms and operational norms
(cited in Duflou, 2007). Chesterman's norms include new areas not covered by Toury
and are then useful in description of translation process.
According to (Chesterman, 1993; cited in Munday, 2001), expectancy or product
norms are governed by some factors such as “predominant translation tradition in the
target culture, the discourse conventions of the similar TL genre, and economic and
ideological considerations” (p.118).
He (cited in Munday, 2001) makes two important points about these norms: a)
expectancy norms allow for evaluative judgements and that's because of readers' notion
of appropriate translation and their approval of the translators of such translations; b)
expectancy rules can be validated by an authority like teacher or literary critic. There
may be sometimes clashes between norm authorities and society in general.
In Chesterman’s terms, professional norms are subordinated by expectancy
norms. There are also three kinds of professional norms: a) the accountability norm,
which is ethical and deals with professional standards. b) The communication norm,
which is a social norm. The translator tries to establish the maximum communication
between the parties. c) The relation norm, a linguistic norm which deals with the
relation between ST and TT.
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2.3.5.4. Power-related approaches (Postcolonial translation theory)
In postcolonial translation, the perception of the relationship between source and
target texts has been investigated and the inequality of status has been considered. Both
original and translation are now viewed as equal products of the creativity of writer and
translator (Bassnett, 2002).
The cultural, or as some scholars tend to name, the post-colonial tum in
translation studies began earlier than 1990. Spivak (2000) is concerned with the
consequences of a generalized movement of translation of third world literature into
English. What are the practical and ideological effects of the large-scale transfer of
these works towards English? She labels translations of feminist writings from outside
Europe into the language of power as 'translationese'. This kind of translation, in
Munday's (2001) view, eliminates the identity of politically less powerful individuals
and cultures.
2.4. Translation Pedagogy
The importance of incorporating translation theories in translator training
programs was gradually realized and different scholars in the field started writing about
various translation theories and how they can affect the process of translating and the
products as the outcome. Indeed, serious research effort is required to equip the
theoretical frameworks with practice, that is, translation. On the other hand,
incorporating translation theories with practice leads to students’ progress and
consequently making logical and reasonable decisions.
The early traditional methods of training translators were in line with traditional
methods of language teaching to a great extent. The traditional approach to teaching
translation in a classroom is very much oriented towards the ‘read and translate’
approach as highlighted by Davies (2004). He believes that the traditional approach to
teaching translation in a classroom is mostly ‘read and translate’ oriented approach.
However, many progresses ·have occurred since early days of training
translators up to now. Nowadays, designing translation programs and educating
competent translators are a demanding job which requires sound theoretical knowledge
together with practical considerations. Many researchers and scholars have presented
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new theories in the field whose application has yet to be explored and evaluated. Chau
states
that with the establishment of new translation programs and expansion of
existing ones in various the day when a translation educator can set up a program based
on his own intuition and experience and proceed by trial-and-error is over (Chau, 1984).
He believes that like translating itself, translation teaching has been going through a
process of'professionalization' since the Second World War, in response to a universal
need for specialization. Formal translation training is important, although some gifted
people managed to master the required skills and become excellent translators, it would
be incorrect to conclude that training is not essential (Citroen, 1966; cited in Chau,
1984).
2.4.1. Models of Translation
Grammatical model
One of the methods of teaching translation is applying grammar. It focuses on
form not meaning. According to Benhadoou (1991), language is considered as an
objective code with a demonstrable structure, and translation is viewed as a purely
linguistic operation. According to this view, translating is the search for the correct
sentence TL lexicon equivalent via grammar (Chau, 1984). It is a useful method
especially for beginners. According to Shaheen (1991), in translation teaching, many
translation teachers only pay attention to grammar so, in their opinion, contrastive
grammar is the only method of translation teaching. Their aim in translating is the
replacement of the SL structure by the TL structure without any attention to the
assumption that that the reader may not comprehend the translation (Nida 1964).
Catford (1965) presented a 'rank-bound' translation, i.e. a translation confined to
a single rank, such as morpheme, word, or phrase. He also proposed four types of
translation: the phonological, the graphological, the grammatical, and the lexical.
Indeed, he devoted three chapters of his book to the definitions and applications of these
types (Shaheen, 1991).
The distinctive feature of this approach is its association of translating with
grammatical transfer so that comparative grammar apparently becomes the only means
of translator training. This attitude is based on the assumption that language is an
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objective code with a demonstrable structure. When translating, one does not consider
aims, as interpretation should be literal, and the task is considered as a symbol -tosymbol transformation. Linguistic signs are supposed to be essentially objective,
enabling a one-to-one matching of codes. Not surprisingly, this traditional grammatical
approach is usually welcomed by those students with little experience in translating, and
whose command of L2 is inadequate. Instructions of this kind often make such students
feel secure, though it can be argued that this is a false security, as translating is much
more than grammatical transfer.
2.4.2. The Cultural Model
This approach to translator training is the product of a view, which emphasizes
the meaning of signs in linguistic communication, and defines meaning in terms of
cultural fields and contexts. Hence, translating is essentially a cultural artifact. It is
influenced by culture in which the translator works. The Cultural approach to translating
differs from the Grammatical in that it concerns itself with the semantic rather than
syntactic aspects of verbal communication. Students are trained to be sensitive to the
culture-bound elements inherent in, and unique to, each lexical item of a language. This
model focuses on meaning by considering context. According to this view,
language is culture; translating is describing and explaining the world view of one
people to another.
2.4.3. The Interpretive Model
Translation theorists gradually abandoned the view inherent in the ‘Grammatical
Model’ that translating means decoding and recoding. The text analysis method is one
method mentioned by Chau in this model. It is primarily based on the theories of textual
linguistics, while incorporating insights from various adjacent disciplines, including
pragmatics, semiotics, sociolinguistics, literary criticism, stylistics, rhetorics, and
communication theory. The key to this approach is context and it is assumed that (at
least theoretically) anyone can eventually arrive at a full reading of a text by
meticulously recreating the original situation via the epistemic study of the co-text. Like
every reader, the translator takes into consideration the whole communicative event.
Any strategy or knowledge could be legitimately employed for the analysis of the
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source language text in the process of interpreting and be it comparative grammar,
comparative ethnology, sociolinguistics, logic, stylistics, psychology or literary
criticism.
Aissi (1987) believes that “translation should be viewed as a special case of
communication process” (p.3). In this study, the researcher did not consider translation
as a direct transfer from SL surface to TL surface, but through a stage of critical
thinking dealing with meaning.
On the other hand, translators can choose from two methods of translating,
namely direct, or literal translation and oblique translation. In some translation tasks, it
may be possible to transpose the source language message element by placing into the
target language i.e., direct translation. However, because of structural or metalinguistic
differences, certain stylistic effects cannot be transposed into the TL without upsetting
the syntactic order, or even the lexis. In this case, it is understood that more complex
methods which at first may look unusual but which nevertheless can permit translators a
strict control over the reliability of their work have to be used. These procedures are
called oblique translation methods. In the list below the first three procedures are direct
and the others are oblique (Venuti, 2012).
1. Borrowing: Borrowing is the simplest of all translation methods. The decision
to borrow a SL word or expression for introducing an element of local color is a matter
of style and consequently of the message. In other words, borrowing is a kind of source
language transfer into the TL without translating it. In some cases, borrowed terms have
no equivalents such as 'proper names' and 'cultural terms' (Aissi, 1987).
2. Calque: A calque is a special kind of borrowing whereby a language borrows
an expression form of another, but then translates literally each of its elements. The
result is either a lexical calque or a structural calque.
3. Literal translation: Literal, or word for word, translation is the direct transfer
of a SL text into a grammatically and idiomatically appropriate TL text in which the
translators' task is limited to observing the adherence to the linguistic servitudes of the
TL.
4. Transposition: The method called transposition involves replacing one word
class with another without changing the meaning of the message.
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5. Modulation: Modulation is a variation of the form of the message, obtained by
a change in the point of view. This change can be justified when, either literal or
transposed, translation results in a grammatically correct utterance, it is considered
unsuitable, unidiomatic or awkward in the TL.
6. Equivalence: one and the same situation can be rendered by two texts using
completely different stylistic and structural methods. In such cases, we are dealing with
the method which produces equivalent texts. In general, proverbs are perfect examples
of equivalences.
7. Adaptation: With this method, we reach the extreme limit of translation. It is
used in those cases where the type of situation referred by the SL message is unknown
in the TL culture. In such cases, translators have to create a new situation that can be
considered as being equivalent. Adaptation can, therefore, be described as a special kind
of equivalence, a situational equivalence.
As syllabus designers and teachers of translation theory on vocational translation
courses, Shuttleworth (2001) believes that the kind of approach which should be of
great interest to us is “the one which consists of a body of often conflicting insights
which together provide a framework within which a trainee translator can begin to make
translation decisions” (p.499). Translation, she believes, is a messy, multi-dimensional,
largely subjective process, and we do our students no favor if we even implicitly
suggest the contrary. “In translation no contrast is purely binary, while notions of
rightness or wrongness are usually relative rather than absolute” (ibid, p.503). However,
Shuttleworth states that we should try not to convey to translation trainees the idea that
translation is ad hoc and totally subjective. The truth, she believes, is of course that
“translation lies somewhere between the rule-based and the arbitrary, and it is only
through skill and experience that the translator will be able to know exactly what is
appropriate in any given situation” (ibid, p.505).
Gonzalez Davies (2004) categorized the approaches to translator training in
three groups: “Transmissionist”, which is the traditional product-oriented and teachercentered learning context where translations are chosen to be received by unquestioning
students who are instructed to read and translate; “Transactional” which is based on
cooperative learning, where there is group work and interaction, but the teacher still has
the final answer to the problems set in the activities as a positive step towards
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empowering the students; and, “Transformational” which is a student and learningcentered context that focuses on collaborative study and exploration of the translation
process with the teacher acting as leader and where procedures that bridge class work
and extramural practice have a place. The third approach is the optimal one which
translation educators should try their best to apply in their translation classes, which, of
course, requires a syllabus and curriculum which reflects the same principles and
viewpoints.
To try to achieve this optimal kind of translator training program, Olvera-Lobo
et al. (2005) suggest supplementing translator training programs which focus on purely
linguistic aspects with translation theory and processes and other instrumental skills that
are useful for language professionals (such as documentation computer resources) and
areas of specialization for translators, such as economics, medicine and law. It should be
strived to increase students' motivation and commitment to the learning process and a
proper balance should be established between theory and practice along with an
emphasis on the practical application of theory. Indeed, focusing on theory without
putting it into practice would not be fruitful (Olvera-Lobo, 2005).
Changing translation teacher's role from that of transmitter of knowledge to a
leader and as a scaffolder of the students' emerging professional competence is what
Kiraly (2005) suggests to maintain an eclectic educational approach in which “the
genesis of translation work is situated in a real or at least realistically simulated
translation project so that students have the opportunity to identify, theorize about and
deal with real world constraints in every act of translation” (p.134). On the basis of a
social constructivist view of learning, a social constructivist approach in translator
training can be offered to empower students by making them proactive agents of their
own learning through authentic, collaborative work leading to autonomy and expertise
(Kiraly, 2005).
Dollerup (2005) compares foreign language acquisition and translation training
and criticizes the fact that formal training in translation pedagogical settings is not given
enough attention. Dollerup states that many translation programs do not make clear
distinctions between the two. The essential difference, however, is that in foreign- ·
language acquisition, both students and teachers know that students must be taught and
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are acquiring knowledge under teacher guidance. “In translation teaching, independent
work is foregrounded and it is taken for granted that the emphasis will be on translation
training” (p.81). Making analogies between language teaching and translation teaching
can be quite useful in most cases and we can make use of many strategies and
techniques used in teaching foreign languages in translation classes. Aziznezhad (2006)
also believes that “in order to be successful in teaching translation, instructors should be
able to merge the language teaching techniques they may deem best for their students
with those of teaching translation” (p.16). Indeed, according to Chomsky “language
universals” similarities between languages make them easy to acquire which also
increases the possibility of translation as well.
Olvera-Lobo (2007) mentions a new approach in translator training which is
currently being implemented in several courses in the University of Granada, Spain. The
approach is called 'Professional Approach to Translator Training' (PATT) in which
students are divided into translation teams, each one in charge of managing a translation
brief. Each team comprises five members, each of whom selects a different role
(documentalist, terminologist, translator, reviser and typesetter, or project manager). For
every new translation assignment, team members adopt different roles, so that
eventually each student carries out all of the different tasks. Teachers must carefully
supervise students' progress during the translation assignments. Indeed, such a method
prepares students to know how to react in different situation. They learn how to work in
a group. Hence, their self-confidence increases and they feel free to show their real
performances confidently.
In another place, Chau quotes Nida (1979, p.214) emphasizing that “a really
successful translator must have facility with words, imagination, intelligence, and
perhaps most important of all, a love for his own mother tongue”.
Writing skills, the ability to write smoothly and correctly in both source and
target languages, are also important. Writing is, in fact, the main job of a translator.
Students should become familiar with different styles of writing and techniques and
principles of editing and punctuation in both source and target languages.
Using dictionaries is a technical skill in itself. Not all the students know how to
use dictionaries appropriately. Words have different meanings in different contexts, and
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usually monolingual dictionaries are of utmost value in this regard. Students need a
great deal of practice to find the intended meaning of words in a particular context,
using monolingual dictionaries.
Merely a complicated and systematic action of translation education can lead to
the development of flourishing translators. And the most demanding part of it starts
when translation trainees start to translate professionally out of university.
We started from the concept of translation as a communicative activity directed
towards achieving aims that involve taking decisions and solving problems, and requires
expert knowledge, like any other activity with these characteristics. In translation
studies, this expert knowledge is called ‘Translation Competence’. In our research,
translation competence was being studied from two complementary points of view: (1)
the translation process, through the collection and analysis of data obtained from
experimental studies of the mental processes used to translate, and the competencies and
abilities required; (2) the translation product, viewing translation competence in a more
specific and technical way. At this point, we can refer to a study by PACTE group
(2003) in which translation competence is defined and two perspectives are suggested
for studying it: through the collection and analysis of data obtained from an electronic
corpus consisting of texts translated by subjects participating in the experiment (Orozco
Jutorán, 2002).
2.5. Critical Thinking in Language Education
The need for 21st Century skills in a world of change requires that educators
prepare students with critical thinking skills. Miri, David and Uri (2007) found that
when teachers persistently and purposely practice thinking strategies such as
encouraging inquiry-based and open-ended discussions, students develop critical
thinking. Roberts and Billings (2009) advocated that learning to think requires
deliberate practice and to consistently teach thinking and educators should treat thinking
as a literacy skill regardless of the content area. As students become fluent as readers,
speakers, writers, and listeners, their thinking becomes more coherent and flexible.
According to Gomez and Gomez (2007), “being able to read in order to learn is
more important today than ever before” (p. 224). Comprehending text and refining skills
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such as summarizing, defining, retrieving, analyzing, synthesizing, and reflecting will
prepare students for the complexities of the knowledge world of the 21st century. Paul
(1993) stated that students who are critical readers must learn not only to question and
organize, but also to interpret, digest, and synthesize what they read. Readers who think
critically about literature also consider alternative interpretations and revise and refine
interpretations, accepting logical interpretations while rejecting distorted interpretations,
allowing them to reconstruct an author's meaning.
Paul (1993) stressed that students learn best “when their thinking involves
dialogue or extended exchange between different points of view or frames of reference”
(p. 291) and advocated engaging students in dialogical (involving dialogue or exchange
of different view points) and dialectical (testing strengths and weaknesses of opposing
viewpoints) thinking, listening, and speaking situations in the classroom. By using a
Socratic pedagogical approach, teachers stimulate student thinking. According to Paul
(1993), Socratic teaching consists of a teacher wondering aloud about truth and
meaning, while actively pursuing clarity. Categories of Socratic questions include
questions about clarification (ex. What do you mean by ?), assumptions (ex. Why would
someone make this assumption?), reasons and evidence (ex. What would be an
example?), viewpoints or perspectives (ex. How are John and Sarah's ideas alike...or
different?), implications and consequences (ex. What is an alternative?), and the
question (Why is this question important?). Socratic teaching allows students not only
to develop their thinking but also to evaluate their thinking with logical reasoning.
Critical writers recognize the challenge of actively constructing meaning by
putting experiences and ideas into words. According to Paul (1993), “there is no
command of language separate from command of thought and no command of thought
without command of language” (p. 489). The critical writer creates logical reasoning
and systematical questions and analyzes to determine whether meaning is effectively
constructed for the audience. The process of critical thought and critical writing
challenges the writer to organize, engage, and develop own mind.
Paul (1993) declared that the most difficult critical thinking skill to develop is
the skill of critical listening. Like critical reading and writing, students can also become
skillful in critical listening by actively sorting out, analyzing, interpreting, and asking
35
questions as they listen to another person's thoughts rather than passively listening.
However, according to Paul (1993), students face an added challenge if their peers
expect the opposite when listening to a teacher, listening “with casual indifference, even
with passive disdain” (p. 492). Becoming active critical listeners in the classroom,
therefore, requires students to rise above peer domination. To measure critical thinking
in reading, writing, listening, and speaking, Nosich and Paul (1993), who were
commissioned by the United States Department of Education to provide a model for
national assessment of higher order thinking, identified the following abilities in reading
and listening as indicative of higher order thinking:
• Create an accurate interpretation,
• Assess the author's or speaker's objective,
• Correctly identify the questions-at-issue or problem being discussed,
• Exactly identify basic concepts at the heart of what is said or written,
• See significant implications of the advocated position,
•Identify, understand, and evaluate the assumptions underlying someone's
position,
• Recognize evidence, argument, inference in oral and written presentations,
• Reasonably assess the credibility of an author or speaker,
• Accurately grasp the point of view of the author or speaker,
• Empathetically reason within the point of view of the author or speaker, (p.
108).
Nosich and Paul (1993) identified the following abilities in writing and speaking
as higher order thinking skills:
• Identify and explicate one's own point of view and its implications,
• Be clear about and communicate clearly, in either spoken or written form, the
problem one is addressing,
• Be clear about what one is presupposing, or taking for granted,
• Present one's position precisely, accurately, completely, and offer relevant,
logical, and fair arguments for it,
• Cite relevant evidence and experiences to support one's position,
• See, formulate, and take account of alternative positions and opposing points of
view, recognizing and evaluating evidence and key assumptions on both sides,
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• Illustrate one's central concepts with significant examples and show how they
apply in real situations,
• Empathetically entertain strong objections from points of view other than one's
own (pp. 108-109).
2.5.1. Critical Thinking in Reading
Reading comprehension can be one of the skills in which learners’ critical
thinking can be improved. Critical thinking elements encourage the learner to think
critically about the text and try to answer the questions of How and What about the text
that is, going beyond the surface meaning which stated indirectly in the passage.
According to Knott (2005), critical reader infers what the text is about; reflect on it to
know is the text arguing or offering examples. According to Oxford (1990), reading
strategies embrace cognitive strategies to manipulate the language by the learner;
memory strategies, contributing to remember and retrieve information; compensation
strategies including inferring, guessing while reading; meta-cognitive strategies to plan,
arrange and evaluate on own learning; affective strategies to lessen anxiety that can be
used to accelerate comprehension. Halpen (1999) states that critical thinking as a
cognitive skill affects our thinking. It involves making decisions, solving problems and
constructing inferences. Critical thinking can be regarded as a tool to shape and activate
schemata to engage in reflective thinking and reconstruct new ideas as Norris and
Phillips (1987) indicate. It helps to fill the gaps resulted from disconnection between
surface structures and deep meaning, that is, function of the test. According to McNeil
(1992), schema theory focuses on an interactive approach that views reading as a
process of making inference, activating prior knowledge and critical thinking. Tierney
and Pearson (1983) mentioned that background experience, the ability to relate new
information to the previous ones, contributes to composing a text and making reader
approach to meaning. In fact, being a good so called critical reader/thinker not only does
acquire high level of thinking but also, promoted cognition. The results of the study
carried out by National Assessment of Education Progress (NAEP) in 1981 revealed
that 85% of all 13-year-olds could complete multiple choice checks on comprehension
correctly and only 15%could write an adequate summary of the paragraph read. On the
other hand, they were not capable to draw on the structure and meaning of the different
37
ideas. Hence, they encountered with some problems in summary and evaluate
interpretation/critical thinking. Because teaching higher level cognitive processes
requires comprehension, inference and decision making, the reading activity can be the
logical and adequate skill to begin with (Neilson, 1989).
 Questions to conduct critical thinking when reading
 What are the main points of this text?
 Can you put them in your own words?
 What sorts of examples are used? Are they useful? Can you think of others?
 What factors (ideas, people, and things) have been included? Can you think
of anything that has been missed out?
 Is a particular bias or framework apparent? Can you tell what ‘school of
thought’ the author belongs to?
 Can you work out the steps of the argument being presented? Do all the steps
follow logically?
 Could a different conclusion be drawn from the argument being presented?
 Are the main ideas in the text supported by reliable evidence (well
researched, non-emotive, logical)?
 Do you agree or disagree with the author? Why?
 What connections do you see between this and other texts?
 Where does it differ from other texts on the same subject?
 What are the wider implications – for you, for the discipline?
Questions to guide critical thinking when undertaking academic writing
 Work out what sort of critical thinking will be involved – comparing?
Problem solving? Looking for cause and effect?
Evaluating?
What is the lecturer/task looking for?
 If you want to say something which is new or unusual, or which your lecturer
may disagree with, make sure you have EXTRA evidence and support.
 Make sure everything you say is backed up by evidence and references.
 Link what you are saying into the overall field of the discipline.
 Think about why this essay topic is worth writing about – what makes it
particularly significant.
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2.5.2. Critical Thinking in Translation Education
In the next chapter, we will try to find the relationship between two different
phenomena i.e. translation and critical thinking (CT). In order to achieve such an aim
we will again bring about some sentences of two previous chapters and investigate the
existence of relation between those concepts. We will discuss how main translation
theories could be related to critical thinking. Additionally, according to mentioned
major translation theories, utilizing different critical thinking skills by teachers or
students as a method of teaching can increase the efficiency of translation classes and it
helps to enrich the quality of students’ translation.
One of the views to translation is based on linguistics theories. Catford’s
linguistics theory belongs to this category. In this theory, Catford defines translation as
“the replacement of textual material of the SL with equivalent textual material in TL”.
He believes that equivalents are provided at one or more levels of language. In this
theory, translator tries to find textual solutions based on linguistic comparison. And
obviously, finding adequate textual solutions or finding proper equivalents from proper
linguistic level requires a translator to be aware of levels of both languages, to have a
critical mind to dig into these concepts, and to be able to correctly understand the levels
and find out. For instance, in partial translation, stated in the theory, sometimes there is
not any TL equivalent or translator would like to keep the local color of the text. In such
situations, translator’s decisions can drastically affect the reader’s cognition and change
the concept of source text. For example, instead of translating “Ayran” as yogurt drink
or buttermilk, we can directly transfer the word into the TL text and translate it as Ayran
in order to keep the local color of the text. Also, yogurt drink and buttermilk are slightly
different and depend on the SL textual. Hence, inference-making analyzing and
evaluating skills of critical thinking could be very helpful. Critical thinker like the
translator could infer the source text and analyze it and make a good decision among the
other possibilities and finally be able to evaluate his/her decision. By advent of cultural
turn in translational studies, traditional views to translation changed and were criticized
by some scholars such as Robinson (1997). According to cultural turn theories,
literature is not merely a static collection of independent text. It is considered as a
complex and dynamic system (Overas, 1998). One of the models, which have been
identified in cultural turn model, is Toury model. In fact, Toury model goes back to
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after 1970s and 1980s studies. Its objective was to differentiate between translation
trends to form norms via generalization of decision-making process (Munday, 2001).
Toury’s (1995) definition of norm is “the translation of general values or ideas shared
by a community- as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate- into performance
instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situation” (p.55). Toury (2000)
classified norms into two groups: preliminary and operational. Indeed, according to him,
operational norms can have a directing role in making decisions during the process of
translation (ibid). Translator choices in the process of translation are monitored by the
norms. It is clear that incorporating theoretical components into translation process
“accelerate and enhance the scope of the student’s progress, helping him/her to make
appropriate decisions and manipulate appropriate strategies and tactics” (Gile, 1991,
p.185). Ennic (1996) states that not only is critical thinking applicable to individual
decision making but also to group decision making as well. While engaging in CT,
students require monitoring their thinking process, evaluating their progress, making
sure about accuracy and making decisions about the use of time and mental effort
(Halpern, 2003). Darray (1999) concludes that the author constructs a text through his
ideas and images. The translator strives to transfer the meaning from SL to TL. S/he
tries to translate as if the reader would not be able to feel that as a translated text; i.e.
translator requires diagnosing a distinction between assumptions and facts. He needs to
be capable of differentiating facts from inferences and evaluate the author’s point of
view. Hence, according to Gaber (2002), CT contributes to activate the translator
cognition and let the translator be able to utilize his/her mental activates in order to have
a perfect performance during the translation process. Translation is a type of decisionmaking process categorized into some prominent activities such as: planning translation,
analyzing information, translation, revision, editing, and proof reading reviewing,
completing translation and delivering translation (Darwish, 2004). Dahroug (2007) also
states that training students to strive consciously to use their CT skills to understand and
manage their translation process is so important. That is exactly what CT believes on it.
Commeyras (1989) stated that in order for evaluating possible interpretations to
determine the meaning of the text, the learner has to comprehend the text via reasoning
skill. Reasoning is one of the main characteristics of critical thinking and its necessity to
use in translation is felt, as well. So, the students’ need to use it as they read a text such
40
for clarifying what they mean, giving reasons, evaluating reasons, elaborating,
supporting their evidence and so on. Translation, especially translation of journalistic
texts, directly relates with a variety of cognitive or critical thinking abilities. In other
words, critical thinking ability is the one that deals with deep understanding of reading
and translating.
CHAPTER THREE
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1. Introduction
In this chapter, research design, population and sample, data collection
instruments, data collection procedures, data analysis procedures and limitations of the
study are presented.
3.2. Research Design
This study is a concurrent validity study between a general critical thinking
skills test, the California Critical Thinking Skills Test (CCTST), and translation test
outcome evaluation. In this study, explanatory research design, among mixed research
designs, was used. In the first phase of the study, a questionnaire was conducted to the
students to test the relationship between critical thinking skills and translation. In the
second phase, students were interviewed to explain the effect of critical thinking
abilities on their translation quality. For quantitative data analysis, descriptive and
inferential statistics were used. Quantitative data were analyzed with MINITA package
program. As to qualitative data, textual analysis was done.
106 students (65 female, 41 male) undergraduate students in the department of
ELT at Ataturk University in the spring of 2014 participated. The students, in the first
phase, were given the critical thinking skill questionnaire and they were asked to
translate five paragraphs consequently. The questionnaire consisted of 34 questions and
45 minutes time to fill in. Within a week they were taught CTskills and method of
translating via CTskills. The study lasted from April until June.
Test takers can get 0 to 34 score in the test. Total scores ranging between 10 to
20 are considered as norm level. The common score is 16 with 4.45 SD. In California
Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory, a questionnaire including 51 questions with 6
options (0-6 score) was used. This questionnaire was scored according to Likert from
42
completely agree to completely disagree. The reliability of the questionnaire was carried
out by Delphi strategy and its validity was measured. In second part of the disposition
test, 9 decision-making and problems solving questions were asked to the students to
answer in Turkish. In the 3rd part, the students were asked to give feedback about the
test.
According to Reid (2000), content validity of the CCTST was based on its
relationship with the American Philosophical Association Delphi study research and the
agreement of experts (Facione & Facione, 1994). Construct validity was supported in
validation studies by small but significant gains in pretest-posttest scores in
experimental groups after a critical thinking course was taken. Controls did not make
the same gains (Facione & Facione, 1994). These gains were only between 0.04 and
1.45 in mean scores, but they were statistically significant for the large samples used
(McMorris, 1995). This may explain why significant changes are not seen in many of
the smaller scale studies. Construct validation was also supported by the high and
significant correlation between the CCTST and the CCTDI reported in pilot and study
samples (Facione & Facione, 1994).
3.3. Population and Sample
Population of the study is BA English students of Atatürk University and to
design an experiment, firstly participants were tested via the CT questionnaire and then
they were asked to translate four paragraphs. Then, a tutorial was taught and, in this
tutorial, critical thinking and its skills were introduced. Then, participants were tested
again.
3.4. Course Tutorial Design
There are two methods of teaching critical thinking. One of them is teaching CT
directly or overtly. It means that the teacher explains the definition of CT, its skills and
dispositions and elaborates the prominence of learning CT not only in the students’
academic life but also in their everyday life. This method mostly is taught in psychology
courses. As CT is approximately abstract and hard to explain. Most of the teachers
prefer to teach it directly in class.
43
Another method of teaching CT is indirect teaching. On the other hand, the
students can learn CT skills covertly and indirectly; that is, students are able to know
what CT skills are subconsciously during learning their own course. It is similar to what
occurs in learning and acquisition distinguishes. In CT indirect teaching, teachers make
students acquire skills without knowing exactly what happens in learning. This method
of teaching needs much more time and experienced teachers, as well.
In this study, direct method of teaching CT was used. It took 30 minutes. The
definition of CT and why it is used in our academic life especially in reading and
translation were presented. Indeed, the presented PowerPoint slide at the beginning
could draw the students’ attention to the topic and made them follow the lesson eagerly.
Firstly, a general question asked to the students to get them involve in the topic and
some of the students’ positive answers broke the ice and led to the pleasant interaction
during the lesson.
According to Commeyras (1989) and as it was mentioned in the presentation,
reasoning is one of the key characteristics of the CT and it is used in evaluation of
possible interpretations to determine the meaning of the text and it is necessary for
learners to comprehend a text. Hence, CT strategies contribute to reading
comprehension and translation. Because, as the students read a text, they can clarify
what it means, give reasons, evaluate reasons, elaborate and support their evidence.
The presented lesson also indicated the critical thinking from two demotions,
skills and dispositions. CT disposition sub- skills were also discussed in class.
Definitions were given along with examples, as well. Then, CT skills and their relation
to translation were studied. Indeed, what was introduced in class as CT skills were
similar to what happens in translation process? Interpretation as one of the main skills
was clarified, which activated students’ cognition to what they have already known.
This is what we call background knowledge and it contributes to reading comprehension
and translation consequently.
Through interpretation skill, students are equipped with capability to clarify
meaning and decode significance as Facion (1990) believes. Another CT skill
mentioned in course was analysis through which they could examine the ideas and
analyze them. The other skills such as evaluation, inference and explanation were
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elaborated in course. Some examples were demonstrated along with the definitions to
make them clear to the students and paved with the route of finding correlation between
CT skills and translation. Examples along with their interpretations are shown as
follows:
E.g. Microsoft earning beat estimates: The software maker’s effort to move
further into cloud computing seems to be paying off. Unknown words: assume that you
do not know the meaning of Cloud computing and paying off. So, how do you find the
relation between them and what you have already known. I know Microsoft is a
computing company and works in the computer sector. Referring the title Microsoft
earns a lot of money. Cloud computing: computing means what computer does. So it
should be related to the computer. (a technique in computer technology). Pay- off
literally related to money (bribe). According to the sentence, it makes company earns
money instead of losing it.
Explanation: In this example, Categorization, clarifying meaning and decoding
significance…i.e. Interpretation were used.
E.g. By the time they had turned into Oxford road, the day had fairly begun to
break. Many of the lamps were already extinguished. The public-houses with gas lights
burning inside were already open.
Interpretation: This passage consists of 3 sentences. Assume that we do not
know the meaning of “the day fairly begun to break”. But we easily can understand that
it means sunset or sunrise. But which one?!
In the 2nd one, we have “extinguish”. But, we are not sure about the meaning. Is
it off or on?
In the last sentence, it says the public-houses were already open. Ask yourself:
when is a public place open usually? In the evening or in the morning? It is obvious in
the morning. So, the previous sentences are about morning, too.
So, in the first, sentence the answer is sun rising, and, in the second one, it
means set lights off.
Steps in critical thinking process (CT in reading/translation) were another
prominent part of the tutorial. They were as follows: Summarıze, Analyze, Synthesize
45
and evaluate. In the course, it was strived to teach how to summarize the text in order to
translate it by extracting the main message of the text. The next step is called analysis
and learning how to examine the text by breaking it into component parts and by
reading between the lines to draw inferences, to gain information, which is implied. In
order to translate, first they require reading the text, notice the style and choice of words
and work together to create a tone. Students were trained to synthesize the text via put
together what they summarized and analyzed by connecting it to their own experiences.
In this way, they could create a new whole that reflects their newly acquired knowledge
and insights combined with third prior knowledge, i.e. schemata. Finally, they learned
to evaluate and monitor their thinking process in order to make the correct decisions.
3.5. Data Collection Instruments
3.5.1. California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory (CCTDI)
The California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory (CCTDI) is the leading
tool for measuring the dispositional features of critical thinking (Facione & Facione
(1992). The CCTDI measures the disposition to engage problem solving and make
decisions using critical thinking. It is believed that if someone is disposed to think
critically, he/she has the skills to apply critical thinking for problem solving. The
willing dimension in the expression ‘willing and able’ to think critically can be
measured with the CCTDI. High scores on the CCTDI are positively associated with a
strong desire to apply critical thinking skills in decision-making and problem solving.
The California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory is suitable for use with the
general adult population.
The instruments specifically developed to measure thinking disposition is the
California Critical Thinking Dispositional Inventory (CCTDI: Facione & Facione,
1992). This instrument involves 75 items measuring seven dispositions. The CCTDI
was developed through a 2-year Delphi study in which 46 experts in the fields of
education, philosophy, social sciences, and physical sciences developed a definition for
critical-thinking dispositions (Facione1990; cited in Cohen, J 2010).
The CCTDI uses a 6-point Likert format ranging from 1 (strongly agree) to 6
(strongly disagree). Each of the 75 questions is separated further into one of seven
46
different categories or subscales. The subscales of the CCTDI are truth-seeking,
inquisitiveness,
open-mindedness,
critical-thinking
self-confidence,
analyticity,
systematicity, and cognitive maturity. Each subscale is represented on the CCTDI with
between 8 and 12 questions. The maximum score in each subscale is 60, and a
minimum score in each subscale is 10. A score of 30 or less is interpreted as opposition
or weakness on the respective subscale, a score of between 31 and 40 indicates
ambivalence toward the respective subscale, a score between 41 and 50 indicates a
positive inclination toward critical-thinking disposition, and a score greater than 50
indicates a high inclination or disposition toward the respective subscale. An overall
score is compiled by summing all of the seven subscales and results in a minimum score
of 70 points and a maximum score. Other questionnaires in different occasions can be
used. In order to test the translation quality a test was prepared (Ruff, 2005).
3.4.2. California Critical Thinking Skills Test (CCTST)
The California Critical Thinking Skills Test (CCTST) is the premier critical
thinking skills test. Contrary to the CCTDI, California Critical Thinking Skills Test
measures the “able” dimension in the expression “willing and able” to think critically.
The CCTST
is extensively used in many countries and people, especially
students, require CT skills in order to succeed in their educational life in which solving
problems and making decisions play vital roles. Indeed, applying CT skills (CCTST)
strength the creativity of people encountering rational problems and leads to their
succession.
The CCTST makes available a collection of scale scores describing strengths
and weaknesses in different skill areas. The California Critical Thinking Skills Test
gives scores on these scales: Evaluation, Inference, Deduction, Induction, Analysis
skills and an overall critical thinking score (Facione, 1990).
Evaluation
Evaluation is “to assess the credibility of statements or other representations
which are accounts or descriptions of a person’s perception, experience, situation,
judgement, belief or opinion; and to assess the logical strength of the actual or intended
inferential relationships among statements, descriptions, questions, or other forms of
47
representations” (p.7). Evaluation involves the sub-skills of assessing claims or
arguments. Indeed, evaluation is interpretation of judgements about what we know and
do (Petress, 2004).
Inference
Inference means “to identify and secure elements needed to draw reasonable
conclusions; to form conjectures and hypotheses, to consider relevant information and
to educe the consequences flowing from data, statements, principles, evidence,
judgements, beliefs, opinions, concepts, descriptions, questions, or other forms of
representation” (Facione, 1990, p.7). Inference embraces the sub-skills of enquiring
evidence, conjecturing alternatives, and drawing conclusions.
Also, inference is classified in three overlapping category: deductive inference,
inductive inference, and inference to value judgements. (Ennis 1987; cited in Aloqaili
2012).
In order to make inference and guess about what we do not have adequate data,
activating schema and background knowledge is advised.
Deduction
Deduction is referred to as ‘‘top-down thinking’’ because the conclusion is
known and the purpose is to search is for specific evidence to achieve that particular
conclusion (Albercht 2009; cited in Aloqaili, 2012).
Induction
Induction is often called ‘‘bottom-up thinking’’ and conclusions are drawn from
specific ideas (Clark 1990; cited in Aloqaili, 2012). Inductive reasoning includes
making generalization rather than drawing from result and conclusion (Kurfiss, 1988).
Analysis
Analysis skills allow people to identify reasons to observe how they interact in
arguments construction. Learners identify the elements of a situation to determine the
interactions between different parts of it. It also means how components work together
in order to get a logical solution (Mooney, 2014).
48
CCTST Validity: The validity of the California family of testing instruments was
derived from the cross disciplinary theoretical definition of critical thinking that
emerged from the APA Delphi Research Study (1988-1990) and was simulated by
Department of Education supported Penn State University Research study in the mid
1990’s. Scales on the CCTST correspond to the Delphi’s main critical thinking skills.
Items on the CCTST are drawn from a group of items tested over the past 20 years.
Items used on each form of these tools have gone through the usual validation studies.
Validation samples have typical samples composed of test taker groups inside and
outside the United States. Criterion validity for the CCTST, the highest form of validity
for measurement instruments, has been demonstrated through independent research
(Facione, 1994).
The CCTST is the result of a critical thinking conceptualization that developed
from a two-year Delphi research project sponsored by the American Philosophical
Association (Facione, 1990a). In the Delphi project, 46 active scientists in critical
thinking field involved in the panel of experts. The CCTST was constructed using a
bank of 200 multiple-choice questions. Through a revision, a set of 34 questions were
selected and titled Form A. Consequently, Form B was developed by rewriting 28 of the
34 items appearing on Form A to construct an equivalent for form A. The alpha
reliability of Form B is estimated to be 0.70 (Stanley S. Jacobs, 1995).
The internal consistency of the CCTST test form B using KR-20 is 0.68-0.69, a
moderate level of reliability. The subtest reliability (Cronbach’s alpha) is lower ranging
from 0.14 for the analysis subtest to 0.68 for the Deduction subtest.
Content validity of the CCTST was supported by a panel of experts. Its
concurrent validity was supported by significant correlations with GPA, SAT Math and
Verbal, and Nelson-Denny Reading Test (Facione, 1990b).
3.4.3. Interview
After taking second translation test, some volunteer students were given an
interview. The conducted interview was recorded and the students’ feedback was
analyzed consequently. As interview is one of the most widely-used instruments in
qualitative research, it is used to make researchers provide the opportunity to collect
49
data concerning the stages or the processes. Brown and Rodgers (2002) propose
interview as the most apparent form of data collection underlining the prominence of
asking the participants about what occurs from their own point of view. Also, in
interview process, the researcher has the opportunity to interact with the participants
and this may fill the gap between the interviewer and the interviewees and provoke the
participants to feel free in elaborating their experiences. Indeed, interview can be
regarded as dialogue including some structure and objective. During the interviews,
participants, speak about their feedbacks through which they contribute to a meaningmaking process. Interview provides the opportunity to the researcher to access the
participants’ reactions about the situation which they have confronted along interview.
In order to evaluate the interviewees’ ideas, coding method was used. i.e., after the data
collection and transcription process, codes were formed out of the texts. Creswell
(2012) defines coding as “the process of segmenting and labeling text to form
descriptions and broad themes in the data” (p. 243). The participants’ feedback about
the tutorial is demonstrated in the following table.
As it can be inferred from the interview, the participants mainly focused on
efficient changing created by teaching CT skills in tutorial and its positive effect on
their translation. Under such categories and codes, it was concluded that most of the
participants believed in CT beneficial effect in their translation.
In this interview, couple of questions was asked to the students about the tutorial
and the degree of its efficiency in their second translation performance. They believed
that the presented critical thinking skills including interpretation, analysis in the course
could open a new window in their attitude to translation. Indeed, their perception about
translation was merely to read the text and translate it word by word without reflective
thinking and reading between lines. In their opinion, the mentioned skills let them
activate their metacognition and reasoning, as well. In the interview some questions
were asked from the interviewees. One of the participants who referred to the
developments and changes in her translation process by applying CT expressed her
perception of tutorial as follows:
“In my opinion, tutorial gave a new view for me about translation.
I tried to read the text completely and then summarize it in my own words
50
and then translate it. for me translation was only read and look up the
words one by one, but after tutorial I tried to use my reasoning and get
the general meaning and interpret the meaning as well. Truly speaking,
at first I was confused but examples made it clear and useful for me. But
when I could read and comprehend the text without knowing the words
one by one, I could understand the ct skills application much better than
before”.
Some of the participants regarded tutorial as an encouraging factor in making
them eager to translate via applying CT. One of the participants who considered critical
thinking skills as an act reflective thinking about own translation stated:
“After tutorial I encouraged to think critically while translation and evaluate my
performance. I learned about the necessity of reading comprehension in translation and
its relation to ct skills and I conclude that, ct skills can activate my background
knowledge and metacognition while translation. in my opinion, the examples were the
best part I think”.
For students CT could contribute to positive change in their perspective on
translation and such a difference was obvious in their second translation.
“Second time I could translate better than the first time. I think first
time I could not get the general meaning of the paragraphs while I did
know the meaning of the words. On the other hand, I translate word by
word in the 1st translation while in the second one I tried to apply what I
have learned from the tutorial and implement it on my second
translation. In the second translation, second time I could interpret and
analyses the text and find relation between words because I could the
guess the meaning of the unknown words via the applying my learned
skills”.
Critical thinking was abstract at the beginning for most of them but after
explaining the definition of it and its importance role in translation, the students were
interested in it:
“Yes we have heard some skills in our courses but we have never
used them. They are so useful and I try to use them in my reading
51
assignments. These skills were so abstract and I was not sure about their
application, but after your presentation I could understand them and I
could use them in my translation consequently. These skills changed my
view to translation and made me think about the text before word by
word translation”.
According to the interviewees’ idea, knowing CT skills made them translate the
paragraphs without looking up the words and using dictionary. They could analyze the
sentence and interpreted it logically regarding the pre and post words and comprehend it
consequently.
3.4.4. Translation Tests
The translation test consisting 10 items on the English translation was piloted
with 30 students similar to target sample before the main test. The translation answer
sheets were graded by three raters. To eliminate very hard and very easy items, the
mean points were used. The item facility and item discrimination were considered and
the items with range of item facility beyond 0.40 and item discrimination between 0.65
and 0.35 were selected. Following the piloting process and removal of the malfunction
items, 4 items were selected to include in the test. Afterwards, the internal consistency
of the test was calculated through Kudar-Richardson Formula (KR-21), the result
(r=0.77) indicating a relatively high reliability index.
( )
Where
̅
( )
̅
the facility value of the question X.
The mean mark obtained by all participants attempting question X.
The maximum mark available on the question
As the aim of the study was to evaluate the translation quality of the students and
to find the relation of CT effect on their translation performance, four paragraphs were
chosen. Two of them were from Oliver twist novel and the rest were from BBC. Indeed,
the selected samples were not so easy to translate and they were prepared to make the
students challenge with the text while the translating. The same paragraphs were given
52
to the students twice, one before the teaching CT and the second one after the CT
tutorial. In the first examination, the students were asked to fill up the CT questionnaire
and then translate the prepared texts. And the second time was when they were taught
CT skills and implementing them on the texts to be translated as follows:
T: “By the time they had turned into Oxford road, the day had fairly begun to
break. Many of the lamps were already extinguished. The public-houses with gas—
lights burning inside, were already open”.
This paragraph was given to the students twice. First time, they were asked to
translate it according to what they always used to do. In a week, a tutorial was prepared
and presented via PowerPoint and the students were asked to translate the same texts
based on what they have learned from the course and try to apply them in their own
translation. In the mentioned paragraph, there are some important points which need to
ponder. For instance, “the day had fairly begun to break” and “public-houses”.
Through tutorial, it was strived to make the students be aware of the excretions and
think about them critically applying CT skills.
3.5. Data Analysis
Both descriptive and inferential statistics were applied to evaluate the research
questions. The data were analyzed using MINITAB statistical package. The independent
variables in the study are gender and the dimensions of critical thinking. The dependent
variable is the translation quality. Paired t-test and correlation test were conducted.
According to Fisher (1925), 05 level of significance could be used as the alpha level to
test each hypothesis (Cowles, 1982 ).
CHAPTER FOUR
4. RESULTS
4.1. INTRODUCTION
The aim of this study was to apply the California Critical Thinking Skills Test
(CCTST) as a measurement instrument to assess students’ critical thinking skill and its
relation with their translation quality and also to assess the impact of critical thinking
tutorial course. This chapter presents the statistical differences between the scores of
students’ translation that were achieved before and after their attendance to the short
term critical thinking tutorial.
4.2. Results of California Critical Thinking Skills Test (CCTST)
In the study, CCTST test including 34 questions completed by 106 participants
from three translation classes was used. The major field of students of the study was
ELT. The CCTST scores are shown in five categories: analysis, evaluation, inference,
deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning and total score. The total score indicates the
overall critical thinking skills of the participants. The analysis, evaluation, and inference
sub-scales represent a portion of the critical thinking skills defined by the panel of
experts in The Delphi Report (Facione, 1990). The inductive reasoning and the
deductive reasoning sub-scales also evaluate critical thinking skills, but in more
traditional ways.
The study was conducted based on statistical data from two independent groups
(pre-tests and post-tests). So, group means for pre-test scores and group means for posttest scores were applied in this analysis. To find out statistical significance, a t-test was
used at a probability level of .05.
54
4.2.1. Evaluation Results
The evaluation scores of the translation students on the CCTST are summarized
in Figure 4.1. The mean score of the students on evaluation skill is 3 with the standard
value of 1.7. The minimum and maximum scores are zero and seven, respectively. The
evaluation scores’ distribution with 95% confidence is normal.
Figure 4.1. The evaluation subscale scores of the translation students on the CCTST
4.2.2. Deductive results
The deductive subscale scores of the translation students on the CCTST are
summarized in figure 4.2. The mean score of the students’ deductive skill is 2.65 with
the standard value of 1.62. The minimum and maximum scores are zero and seven,
respectively. The deductive scores’ distribution with 95% confidence is normal.
Deductive skill contributes to think from top to bottom, that is, what exactly happens in
translation. Students skim the text in order to get the general meaning of the text and
gradually analyze the text from whole to specific.
55
Figure 4.2. The deductive subscale scores of the translation students on the CCTST
In comparison between stats demonstrated in figures 4.1 and 4.2, it is seen that
the score of deductive skill between the students is more than evaluation skill while the
mean of scores in evaluation is more than deductive skill. Although the minimum and
maximum score between two skills are similar, SD and variance score of evaluation is
more than deductive skill. It means that the deductive skill scores are near to each other
compared to evaluation scores.
On the other hand, students could have better
performance in evaluation rather than deductive skill.
4.2.3. Inference Results
The inference scores of the translation students on the CCTST are summarized
in figure 4.3. The mean score of the students’ inference skill is 2.71 with the standard
value of 1.51. The minimum and maximum scores are zero and six, respectively. The
inference scores’ distribution with 95% confidence is normal. Indeed, inference means
“to identify elements needed to draw reasonable conclusions; to form conjectures, to
consider relevant information and to extract the consequences flowing from data, ,
evidence, judgements, opinions, concepts, questions, or other forms of representation”
(Facione, 1990).
56
In comparison among stats demonstrated in figures 4.1 and 4.2 and 4.3, it is seen
that the mean of scores in evaluation is more than deductive and inference skills.
Minimum scores between three skills are similar but the maximum score of evaluation
and deductive is 7 and inference maximum score are 6. SD and variance score of
evaluation is more than deductive and inference skills. It means that the deductive and
inference skill scores are near to each other compared to evaluation scores. On the other
hand, students could have better performance in evaluation rather than deductive skill.
Hence, it can be inferred that students’ ability of evaluation, critique or judging the
value of translation text is higher than deductive skill.
Figure 4.3. The inference subscale scores of the translation students on the CCTST
4.2.4. Analysis Results
The analysis subscale scores of the translation students from the CCTST are
summarized in Figure 4.4. The mean score of the students on deductive skill is 3.63
with the standard value of 1.61. The minimum and maximum scores are 1 and 8,
respectively. The analysis scores’ distribution with 95% confidence is normal. Indeed,
analysis means how components work together in order to get a logical solution. In the
translation process, students, also, put the items together and analyze them logically in
order to select the best equivalent.
57
In comparison among stats demonstrated in figures 4.1 and 4.2 and 4.3 and 4.4
skills, it is seen that the mean of scores in analysis is more than deductive, inference,
evaluation skills. Minimum and maximum scores of analysis are more than the others.
SD and variance score of evaluation is more than deductive, inference and analysis
skills. It means that the deductive, inference, analysis skill scores are near to each other
compared to evaluation scores.
Figure 4.4. The analysis subscale scores of the translation students on the CCTST
4.2.5. Inductive Results
The inductive subscale scores of the translation students on the CCTST are
summarized in Figure 4.2. The mean score of the students on deductive skill is 4.99
with the standard value of 1.72. The minimum and maximum scores are 2 and 9
respectively. The inductive scores’ distribution with 95% confidence is normal. Indeed,
Induction is called ‘‘bottom-up thinking’’ and conclusions are drawn from specific
ideas (Clark, 1990 as cited in Aloqaili, 2012). In translation process, induction, also,
paves the route of translation smoother. Students initially analyze the items specifically
to the whole and try to get the general meaning consequently. On the other hand,
students initially scan the text to get the specific components from word, grammar and
coherence point of view to get general meaning as a whole.
58
Figure 4.5. The inductive subscale scores of the translation students on the CCTST
In comparison among stats demonstrated in figures 4.1 and 4.2 and 4.3, 4.4 and
4.5, it is seen that the mean of scores of inductive skill is more than deductive,
inference, deductive and evaluation skills. Also, minimum and maximum scores of
inductive skill are more than the others. SD and variance scores of inductive skill are
more than the others. It means that the deductive, inference, analysis and evaluation
skills scores are near to each other compared to inductive scores. On the other hand,
students could have better performance in inductive rather than the others.
4.2.6. CT Overall Results
The total score reveals one's overall reasoning and, consequently, critical
thinking skill level. The total includes the sum score of analysis, inference, and
evaluation, which are the key skills in critical thinking. The CT overall scores of the
translation students on the CCTST are summarized in figure 4.6. The mean score of the
students on CT skill is 17.05 with the standard value of 5.20. The minimum and
maximum scores are 5 and 29, respectively.
59
Figure 4.6. The CT overall scores of the translation students on the CCTST
4.3. Results of Translation Test before CT Course (Pre-test)
For the translation test, four paragraphs were chosen. Two of them were from
Oliver twist novel and the rest were from the BBC website. The translation tests were
evaluated in three aspects, which were adequate and appropriate word selection, correct
grammar and text coherence as the main characteristics of translation quality. For each
participant, each score out of 100 and overall translation score out of 300 points were
considered. Every answer sheet was qualified by three experts in linguistics and
translation and the mean score was considered.
The adequate and correct word selection subscale scores of the translation
students on the translation tests are summarized in figure 4.7. The mean score of the
students on grammar is 35.42 with the standard deviation value of 13.62. The minimum
and maximum scores are 8.5 and 73, respectively. The scores’ distribution with 90%
confidence is normal.
60
Figure 4.7. Results of translation test (word) before CT course
The grammar subscale scores of the translation students on the translation tests
are summarized in Figure 4.8. The mean score of the students’ grammar is 33.72 with
the standard deviation value of 13.44. The minimum and maximum scores are 6 and 74
respectively. The grammar scores’ distribution with 99% confidence is normal.
Figure 4.8. Results of translation test (grammar) before CT course
61
The coherence subscale scores of the translation students on the translation tests
were summarized in Figure 4.9. The mean score of the students on coherence is 30.2
with the standard deviation value of 14.82. The minimum and maximum scores are 4
and 78, respectively. The coherence scores’ distribution with 99% confidence is normal.
Figure 4.9. Results of translation test (coherence) before CT course
The total translation score of the students on the translation tests were
summarized in Figure 4.10. The mean score of the students is 99.35 with the standard
deviation value of 39.46. The minimum and maximum scores are 21 and 223
respectively. The coherence scores’ distribution with 99% confidence is normal.
62
Figure 4.10. Results of translation test before CT course
4.4. Qualitative Analysis of Post-Test Interviews
In this study, semi-structured interview was conducted with ten students (5
female, 5 male) including 2nd and 3rd year ELT students. Open-ended questions were
asked to the participants in order not to constrain their answers and to help them convey
their experiences consistently. The purpose of the open-ended questions was to create
an atmosphere within which the participants could feel free in stating their stories
without stress. They were recorded on video. Interviews lasted approximately 10-15
minutes. Thus, they could freely express their opinions and feedback about the tutorial.
Interviewees were asked questions regarding critical thinking skills. Also, their
feedback about the presented tutorial and the impact of it in their second translation
were asked. Interviewees were satisfied with the tutorial and they believed that tutorial
and power point presentation changed their perspectives on critical thinking skills and
its effect on their translation. They were confused at the beginning of the tutorial but
after some clarifications about the objective of the course and what critical thinking was
and how it overwhelmed their translation, they were encouraged to take part in the
tutorial and apply the mentioned material in their second translation.
63
4.5. Results of Translation Test after CT Course (Post-Test)
In the first translation, student used “Gün çoktan kararmıştı” as an equivalent to
“the day had fairly begun to break” (Oliver, twist), while, in the second time, the student
used “gün ağarmaya başlamıştı”. According to what was explained in the tutorial
regarding critical thinking skills and its application in translation process and general
logic of the text, it could be interpreted that the second translated phrase was the correct
one.
In the next phrase, “lamps were already distinguished’, the student did not
translate “already” but in the second translation, student translated alrady to “çoktan”.
In the third phrase, “now and then” none of the equivalents are appropriate.
In the other phrase, the students in the first translation did not get the meaning of
the last sentence and coherence, respectively. But, in the second time, he/she could
comprehend the whole meaning of the paragraph.
Meaning of the “public-houses were already open” was completely ignored but,
in the second translation, the student’s correct interpretation of the phrase was
completely felt.
The word subscale scores of the translation students after CT course translation
tests were summarized in figure 4.11. The mean score of the students on the word is
55.43 with the standard deviation value of 10.83. The minimum and maximum scores
are 31.5 and 79, respectively. The coherence scores’ distribution with 99% confidence
is normal.
64
Figure 4.11. Results of translation test (word) after CT course
The grammar subscale scores of the translation students after CT course
translation tests are summarized in figure 4.12. The mean score of the students’
grammar is 54.40 with the standard deviation value of 9.52. The minimum and
maximum scores are 32 and 73, respectively.
Figure 4.12. Results of translation test (Grammar) after CT course
65
The coherence subscale scores of the translation students after CT course
translation tests are presented in figure 4.13. The mean score of the students’ coherence
is 55.35 with the standard deviation value of 8.98. The minimum and maximum scores
are 30 and 71.5, respectively.
Figure 4.13. Results of translation test (coherence) after CT course
The translation scores of the students after CT course translation tests are given
in figure 4.14. The mean score of the students on the word is 165.19 with the standard
deviation value of 27.28. The minimum and maximum scores are 93.0 and 217.1,
respectively. The post translation scores’ distribution with 90% confidence is normal.
66
Figure 4.14. Results of translation test (overall) after CT course
4.6. Comparison of Pre-and Post-Test Scores on Translation Quality
4.6.1. Word
Figure 4.15 shows the average pre- and post-test Word scores for all participants
included (n=106). An overall increase in scores is demonstrated from pre-to post-test. A
paired-samples t-test was conducted to determine the effect of the CT training on
participants’ knowledge. There was a significant difference between pre-test scores
(M=35.43, SD=13.62) and post-test performances after training (M=55.43; SD=10.83);
t (106), p<.001.
67
Figure 4.15. Comparison of pre-and post-test scores on translation (word seletion)
quality
Table 4.1.
Paired t Test Displays the Average Difference between Pre-And Post-Test Scores on
Translation (Word Selection) Quality
Pretest
Translation
quality
aspect
Mean
Sd
Mean
Sd
t
p
word
13.62
55.43
10.83
-12.88
0.000
35.43
Posttest
t-test
4.6.2. Grammar
Figure 4.16 shows the average pre- and post-test scores for all participants
included (n=106). An overall increase in scores is demonstrated from pre-to post-test,
with very similar findings to the previous figure. A paired-samples t-test was conducted
to determine the effect of the training on participants’ knowledge. There was a
significant difference between pre-test scores (M=33.72, SD=13.44) and post-test
performances after training (M=54.40; SD=9.52); t (106), p<.001.
68
Figure 4.16. Comparison of pre-and post-test scores on translation (grammar) quality
Table 4.2.
Paired t test displays the average difference between pre-and post-test scores on
translation (grammar) quality
Pretest
Translation
quality
aspect
Mean
grammar
33.72
Posttest
Sd
13.44
Mean
54.40
t-test
Sd
t
9.52
p
-14.51
0.000
4.6.3. Coherence
Figure 4.17 shows the average pre- and post-test coherence scores for all
participants included (n=106). An overall increase in the coherence scores is again seen
from pre-to post-test, with very similar findings to the previous figure. A paired-samples
t-test was conducted to determine the effect of the training on participant’s knowledge.
There was a significant difference between pre-test scores (M=8.98, SD=8.98) and posttest performances after training (M=55.35; SD=8.98); t(106), p<.001.
69
Figure 4.17. Comparison of pre-and post-test scores on translation (coherence) quality
Table 4.3.
Paired t test displays the average difference between pre-and post-test scores on
translation (coherence) quality
Translation
quality
aspect
Coherence
Pretest
Posttest
t-test
Mean
Sd
Mean
Sd
t
p
30.21
14.83
55.35
8.98
-18.05
0.000
4.6.4. Translation Overall
Paired t‐tests were used to compare the extent of changes in Translation quality
before and after attending short CT training. Figure 4.18 shows the average pre- and
post-test scores for all participants included (n=106). An overall increase in the scores is
again seen from pre-to post-test, with very similar findings to the previous figures. A
paired-samples t-test was conducted to find out the effect of the training on participants’
knowledge. There was a significant difference between pre-test scores (M=99.35,
70
SD=39.47) and post-test performances after training (M=165.19; SD=27.28); t (106),
p<.001. The mean of total score advanced.
Figure 4.18. Comparison of pre-and post-test scores on translation quality
Table 4.4.
Paired t Test Displays the Average Difference between Pre-And Post-Test Scores on
Translation Quality
Pretest
Posttest
t-test
Translation
quality
aspect
Mean
Sd
Mean
Sd
t
p
translation
99.35
39.47
165.19
27.28
-16.28
0.000
4.7. Correlations between CT skills and translation quality (pre-test)
Correlation test was used to examine the relationship between critical thinking
skills and translation quality. The results in table 4.2 show that critical thinking skills
including evaluation, deductive, inference, and inductive and translation Quality
71
including, word, grammar, coherence have a significant positive correlation among
university students. However, there is not positive correlation between analysis and
translation quality aspects. It can be inferred that the analysis skill of the most
participants is weak, so the skill does not play a major role in the process of their
translation.
These correlation tests reveal that total score of CT skills are positively
associated with translation quality (pre-training) and the correlation coefficient equals
0.37 and p-value is less than 0.01 (r=.37, p =.01).
The adequate word selection ability of the students with their critical thinking
skills shows that the correlation between adequate word selection ability and inference
is the strongest among critical thinking skills.
As seen in the table 4.5, the correct grammar usage of the students and their
critical thinking skills show that the correlation between grammar and evaluation is the
strongest among critical thinking skills (r=0.252, p =0.009).
Among correlations between the text coherence in the students’ translation and
their critical thinking skills, the correlation between the text coherence and inference is
the strongest among critical thinking skills (r=0.313, p =0.001).
Table 4.5.
Correlation
Pre-word
CT Skills
Pre-grammar
Pre- coherence
Pre-translation
correlation
coef.
P
value
correlation
coef.
P
correlation
coef.
p
correlation
coef.
P
EVALUATION
0.168
0.085
0.252
0.009
0.255
0.008
0.240
0.013
DEDUCTIVE
0.095
0.334
0.213
0.028
0.224
0.021
0.190
0.052
INFERENCE
0.309
0.001
0.248
0.010
0.325
0.001
0.313
0.001
ANALYSIS
-0.020
0.835
-0.018
0.859
-0.103
0.294
-0.052
0.599
INDUCTIVE
0.245
0.011
0.210
0.031
0.260
0.007
0.254
0.009
SUM OF CT
0.250
0.010
0.286
0.003
0.303
0.002
0.297
0.002
72
As shown in the Table 4.5, there are positive correlations between all threetranslation quality aspects including the proper word selection, correct grammar,
coherent text and the students’ overall critical thinking skills score.
The scatter plot of the correlations between the proper word selection and the
overall critical thinking skills score of the students are shown in figure 4.19. The
correlation coefficient is 0.25 and the P-value is 0.001.
Figure 4.19. Scatter plot of Word pre-test and CT skills
The scatter plot of the correlations between correct grammar and the overall
critical thinking skills score of the students are shown in Figure 4.20 The correlation
coefficient is 0.286 and the P-value is 0.003.
73
Figure 4.20. Scatter plot of Grammar pre-test and CT skills
The scatter plot of the correlations between translation’s coherence and the
overall critical thinking skills score of the students are presented in Figure 4.21. The
correlation coefficient and P-value are 0.303 and 0.002, respectively.
Figure 4.21. Scatter plot of coherence pre-test and CT skills
74
The scatter plot of the correlations between translation quality as the sum of
word, grammar and coherence and the overall score of students’ critical thinking skills
is shown in Figure 4.22. The correlation coefficient and P-value are 0.297 and 0.002,
respectively.
Figure 4.22. Scatter plot of translation pre-test and CT skills
Another set of correlation tests were conducted after critical thinking’s shortterm course and taking another translation test between critical thinking skills and
translation qualities. The results are summarized in table 4.6. As shown in table 4.6.
There are positive correlations between all three-translation quality aspects including
the proper word selection, correct grammar, coherent text and the overall critical
thinking skills score of the students.
75
Table 4.6.
Correlation Tests Between Critical Thinking
Post-word
Post-grammar
Correlation
P
Correlation
coef.
value
coef.
Post- cohirence
Post-translation
P
Correlation
coef.
p
Correlation
coef.
P
EVALUATION
0.242
0.012
0.225
0.020
0.330
0.001
0.284
0.003
DEDUCTIVE
0.359
0.000
0.268
0.006
0.368
0.000
0.357
0.000
INFERENCE
0.194
0.046
0.161
0.100
0.343
0.000
0.246
0.011
ANALYSIS
0.107
0.275
0.110
0.262
0.192
0.048
0.144
0.140
INDUCTIVE
0.158
0.105
0.226
0.020
0.357
0.000
0.260
0.007
SUM OF CT
0.334
0.000
0.313
0.001
0.501
0.000
0.407
0.000
4.8. Gender Differences in CT Skills
A t-test was conducted to reveal the difference of critical thinking skills in male
and female students. Based on the obtained results from ANOVA test and delta
correlation coefficient, there was no significant correlation between the score of critical
thinking test between both genders, and generally the result achieved from this research
was in contrary to the results of researchers such as Hariri and Bagheri Najd (2011) and
Khansar (2012).
CHAPTER FIVE
5. DISCUSSION
5.1. Introduction
The aim of the study was to measure students’ critical thinking skill and its
relation with their translation quality and also to design a short critical thinking course
and measure the impact of the course on the improvement of students’ translation skill.
Following the handed critical thinking questionnaire, its results were evaluated and the
effect of CT skills on the translation performance of the students was considered. In the
thesis, CT skills including evaluation, induction, deduction, inference and analysis and
their relation with translation factors were analyzed. According to the results, it is
concluded that students could have a good performance in evaluation skill. It is seen
that students are capable to evaluate the text in order to critique or judge the value of its
components syntactically, semantically and pragmatically, as well. Also, it is
understood that the ability of evaluation, critique or judge the value of translation text of
students is higher than deductive skill. Moreover, it can be concluded that in the
translation process, inference also has a prominent role. It means that students find the
suitable alternatives and choose the reasonable one through inference and conclusion
consequently. On the other, inference skill makes them wonder about their own selected
equivalents in order to choose the best one. Furthermore, it can be inferred that students’
ability of evaluation, critique or judge the value of translation text, is higher than
deductive skill, which means that students could have better performance in evaluation
rather than the others. Moreover, the inductive skills of students, the ability to
generalize to a valid conclusion from particular evidence (Leach, 2011), are higher than
the other skills. In sum, with comparing CT skills, the results show that the mean value
(4.99) and standard deviation (1.72) of induction skill are more than the others. Indeed,
Induction is ‘‘bottom-up thinking’’ and conclusions are drawn from specific ideas Clark
(1990; cited in Aloqaili, 2012). So, the capability of induction is demonstrated
obviously rather than the other skills. In translation process, induction, also, paves the
77
route of translation smoother. Students initially analyze the items specifically as a whole
and try to get the general meaning consequently. On the other hand, they initially scan
the text to get the specific components from word, grammar and coherence point of
view to get general meaning as a whole. In this process, cognitive development gives
hand in hand for translation in order to get the logical equivalent from the “specific
inaccessible” nature of skill to the “general accessible” (Brown, 1981).
5.2. CT and Translation Overlap
According to Nada’s principles (1969), in translation, the main concern is on
contextual consistency over verbal consistency (Terran, 2006). It means that
extraordinary highlighting should be placed on the contexts rather than on the isolated
words (Nida 1969; cited in Firdaus 2012). It is the same as deductive skill of critical
thinking in which reasoning is taken into account from general to the specific. Indeed,
translation of a text is similar to solving a math problem in which we need to understand
the logic of the problem referring to our schemata and what we have already known
about it, that is, interpretation skill and then try to analyze our finding to get the
acceptable and logical solution. Also, in order to find an adequate equivalent, we need
to evaluate our alternatives and choose the best one. Translation is a process whereby
textual material in one language is replaced by equivalent textual material in another
language (Catford, 1969; cited in Mushangwe, 2014). Indeed, Skopos translation theory
is based on the notion that translation not only requires linguistics’ functions but also
communicative functions (Mendoza &Ponce 2009). Thus, translators do not aim to
produce total equivalence in their final translated text. On the other hand, function is so
important. In this case, critical thinking skills (evaluation and analysis) can be equipped
with the translation theories to pave the route of translation smoother. What is important
here is considering translation of text as a whole in order to get the general meaning
(function) of the text. Translating word by word according to traditional view won’t be
efficient in this view. What a translator needs to be at first, is a critical reader, activating
his/her schema referring to background knowledge, interpreting the text and
summarizing the text and analyzing it consequently and then guessing the meaning,
evaluating the alternatives and finally making decision about choosing the best
equivalent. Nida (1964) claims that all languages agree more on the level of kernels
78
than on the level of structures. She was influenced by Chomsky’s Universal Grammar
(UG) in her theory, which suggests that all human languages have a shared system of
categories, mechanisms and constraints. It needs to be clarified that UG is not a
grammar system that suits every human language, but the mechanism of all grammars.
That is to say, all languages can be transferred in their deep structures due to sharing
‘kernels’ (Wu, 2011). According to Toury model, translation is a decision making
process and norms play key roles in this process. Indeed, preliminary norms lead to the
choice of what to translate in the first place and operational norms direct decision
making during the translation process (Herman, 1991). In comparing the CT skills and
translation process, it can be inferred that the same procedure takes place. Overlapping
CT skills including deductive inference, inductive inference, and inference to value
judgements leads to decision making process results from Toury norms (Ennis 1987;
cited in Aloqaili, 2012). Students’ performance in evaluation is high, which shows that
students are capable to evaluate the text in order to critique or judge the value of its
components syntactically, semantically and pragmatically, as well. On the other hand,
evaluation skill makes the students evaluate the text and choose the best alternative
according to their interpretation.
5.3. Summary of the Findings
The comparison of average pre- and post-test word scores for all participants
shows an overall increase in scores from pre-to post-test. A paired-samples t-test was
taken to determine the effect of the CT training. There was a significant difference
between pre-test scores and post-test performances after training.
The pre- and post-test scores for all participants demonstrate an overall increase
in scores seen from pre-to post-test. A paired-sample t-test was prepared to determine
the effect of the training participants’ knowledge. There was a significant difference
between pre-test scores and post-test performances after training. In pre-test
performance, students mostly translated traditionally. It means that word by word was
preferred in the first test. Students translated the texts according to their surface
meaning (denotative meaning). While in the second test, there was an obvious change in
their performance. Indeed, the change was the result of tutorial and the presented CT
skills, Interpretation, as one of the main skills was clarified and activated students’
79
cognition to what they had already known; this is what we call background knowledge
and it contributes to reading comprehension and translation consequently. Under the
umbrella of CT, students’ picked equivalents changed, as well. As demonstrated in table
4.5, who had a better performance in inference, skill chose the better equivalent. On the
other hand, having high inference skill made students interpret the paragraph and
clarifying meaning in order to find the suitable alternatives and choose the reasonable
equivalent through inference and conclusion consequently.
The pre- and post-test coherence scores for all participants included show an
overall increase in the coherence scores. A paired-samples t-test was conducted to
determine the effect of the training. There was a significant difference between pre-test
scores and post-test performances after training. According to the results, there is a
strong link between coherence and inference skill as well. Coherence establishes
relationship between text and cognitive process in mind of the translator (Campbell,
1998). Indeed, inference skill re-activates the brain to consider the text from different
dimensions and leads to choose the best option by the translator. Inference skill could
open a new window to the students in the route of translation through giving an
opportunity to read the text completely referring their own background knowledge and
make the students guess the meaning and get the general coherence to find a relation
between concepts.
Paired t‐tests were used to compare the change in translation quality before and
after attending short CT training.
The average pre- and post-test scores for all
participants show an overall increase in the scores. A paired-sample t-test was
conducted to determine the effect of the training on participants. There was a significant
difference between pre-test scores and post-test performances after training. The
participants’ understanding about the paragraphs was different on the shadow of
presented tutorial. Pre-test results show that the participants could not mostly grasp the
text coherence according to their translation equivalents. However, post-test results
indicate that the participants could get the most delicate concept and such an
understanding could lead to a better performance in the post-test performance.
Correlation test was used to examine the relationship between critical thinking
skills and translation quality. The results show that critical thinking skills and
80
translation quality had a significant positive correlation among university students.
However, there was not meaningful correlation between analysis and translation quality
aspects because of the fact that the analysis skill of the most participants is weak so the
skill does not play a major role in the process of their translation.
These correlation tests revealed that total score of CT skills are positively
associated with translation quality (pre-training). The adequate word selection ability of
the students and their critical thinking skills shows that there is a correlation between
adequate word selection ability and inference with the strongest link among critical
thinking skills. The correct grammar usage of the students and their critical thinking
skills show that the correlation between grammar and evaluation is the strongest link
among critical thinking skills. Among correlations between the text coherence in the
students’ translation and their critical thinking skills, the correlation between the text
coherence and inference is the strongest link among critical thinking skills.
A t-test was performed to reveal the difference of critical thinking skills in male
and female students. In terms of gender, it could be said that there is no difference
between the critical thinking score of male and female. The results achieved in this part
are consistent with the results of some researchers such as Kalateh Jafarabadi and
Abdoli (2009), and they were not consistent with the results of other researchers such as
Khansar (2012).
5.4. Comparison of Pre-and Post-test Results
Statistical tests show significant differences between students’ translation scores
that were measured before and after their attendance to the short-term critical thinking
tutorial. In the second translation test (post-test), the performance of the students was
better than the first one in three dimensions including syntax, vocabulary and coherence.
It can be claimed that the positive changes in second transition performance is in the
shade of presented CT tutorial. Indeed, CT skills and the application in translation could
open a new window for the students and paved the translation route much smoother
with contribution to logical reasoning techniques. In pre-test performance, students
mostly translated traditionally. It means that word by word was preferred in the first
81
test. Students translated the texts according to their surface meaning (denotative
meaning).
In the answer of the research question, “To what extent does critical thinking
empower translation quality of undergraduate student’s translations? It can be said that:
Interpretation as one of the main skills was clarified and activated students’
cognition to what they had already known. This is what we call background knowledge
and it contributes to reading comprehension and translation consequently. Under the
umbrella of CT, students picked equivalents changed, as well. On the other hand,
interpretation gives hand in hand to inductive skill and makes the text easy to grasp and
lead to a logical conclusion and final decision making that is, choosing adequate
equivalents. That is, CT empowers translation quality of undergraduate student’s
translations and the research question was answered.
In the answer of the research question, “Is there any relationship between
translation quality and development of critical thinking ability in translation education?
It can be said that who has higher score in CT skill presents better performance in
transition as well. On the other hand, translation theories are indirectly related to CT
skills. For instance, according to toury model, translation is a decision making process
and norms play key roles in this process. Indeed, preliminary norms lead to the choice
of what to translate in the first place and operational norms direct decision making
during the translation process (Herman, 1991). In comparing the CT skills and
translation process, it can be inferred that the same procedure takes place. On the other
hand, overlapping CT skills including deductive inference, inductive inference, and
inference to value judgements leads to decision making process results from Toury
norms (Ennis 1987; cited in Aloqaili, 2012). Students’ performance in evaluation is
high, which means that students are capable to evaluate the text in order to critique or
judge the value of its components syntactically, semantically and pragmatically, as well.
On the other hand, evaluation skill makes the students evaluate the text and choose the
best alternative according to their interpretation.
82
5.5. Pedagogical Implications
According to the results of the study, it is recommended to teachers to tutor CT
skills in translation courses. It means that applying CT skills in translation classes can
enhance the quality of students’ performance and make them think critically about their
own translation and reflect on it to present a good performance. Findings show that
there is correlation between translation theories and critical thinking skills. As
translation theories effect on translation performance, critical thinking can be
impressive, as well. On the other hand, if teachers apply critical thinking skills in their
translation classes and make students learn how to utilize such skills in translation
activities, they will encounter with high quality performance of translation. Also, it can
be inferred that learning translation technique equipped with logical thinking
instruments, would expand the translators perspective and it would not limit them with
traditional style of translation per se.
5.5. Implications for Future Research
In this study, tutorial was presented in limited time and style. For future studies,
designing tutorial in different style and materials would be much more efficient. Indeed,
teaching CT along with translation and implementing CT skills as impressive
instrument in translation teaching will lead to high quality performance of students
‘translation. It would be possible to apply such a technique in large populations. It is
recommended to use CT in teaching different fields in which reason plays an important
role. On the other hand, not only CT does optimize translation performance but also, has
efficacy in teaching different skills of language. CT can be taught in variant translation
types such as literary, scientific and so on.
83
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101
APPENDIX
Appendix 1. Translation Test
102
103
Appendix 2. Critical Thinking Inventory Test
104
105
106
Appendix 3. Critical Thinking Skills Test
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
CURRICULUM VITAE
She was born in Tabriz, in 1979. In 2001, she graduated from the English translation
Department from Tabriz University. At 2006, she embarked on her MA education, and
took her MA degree in 2008 from GAU; he studied on “Critical thinking in language
teaching”. In 2010, she began her doctoral studies in Ataturk University of Turkey. Her
research interests are critical thinking, reflective teaching and translation.

İNGİLİZCE LİSANS ÖĞRENCİLERİNİN ÇEVİRİ YETENEKLERİNİ

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