Engineering a Stronger Type of Sailcloth

Transcription

Engineering a Stronger Type of Sailcloth
Darienne DeWalt
Massachusetts Academy of Math and Science
Abstract
Sunfish sails often rip due to the force of the water on the sail when the sailboats are
capsized. The sailcloth is especially susceptible to tears because it is weakened by environmental
factors, primarily UV degradation. To address this problem, a new type of sailcloth was engineered
from two layers of Dilon spinnaker fabric and organza sewn together in the warp and fill directions.
Five types of sailcloth that are currently used for other sailboats were selected as controls. Each
type of cloth was tested for stretch resistance along each axis, damage from flutter testing, and
tensile strength after exposure to UV light for 100 hours. An engineering matrix was created using
the results from each test as well as the price and weight of each type of cloth. It was found that
Dilon-Organza is more expensive and heavier than Dacron, but it is also much stronger. When
exposed to UV rays, the new material's tensile strength increased by 17.9%, as opposed to Dacron,
which had a tensile strength decrease of 26.4%. Because Dilon-Organza sails would not be
degraded by UV rays, they would last longer than Dacron sails and would cause less waste from
replacement sails.
Introduction
From sunfish to schooners, many people enjoy sailing because it is an exciting activity that
everyone can enjoy. There are sailing camps, yacht clubs and sailboat races all over the world and
many people participate in them (The Sailing Company, 2014). Sails have changed greatly since
the sailboat was first invented in about 4000 BC (The Sailboats of Ancient Mesopotamia, 2012).
However, sail cloth durability still needs to be improved, because even today problems occur.
Some of these problems are the mast puncturing the sail, damage to the cloth because of UV rays,
the grommets tearing through the cloth, chaffing of the cloth because of rubbing against other parts
of the boats, and the cloth wearing out quickly. The sport of sailing puts a lot of stress on the cloth
and it is important that sailcloth is strong. Sailcloth is very important to the success of the sailboat,
weather it is a large schooner meant for traveling for days or a small racing boat (Staff of Sailing
Magazine, 2010). Using new types of cloth to make sails may provide the answer to some of the
problems with the durability of sailcloth.
The sailcloth used on sailboats has also changed greatly since the papyrus sails of ancient
Mesopotamia. Sails have been made from animal skins, hemp fibers, duck cloth, and carded cotton.
There is a large variety of types of sailcloth that are used today, from canvas to specially
customized laminate with more fibers where the sail must tolerate a greater load. Today, most
sailcloths fall within two categories: woven sailcloths and laminate sailcloths. Woven sailcloths
are made on a loom, usually completely machine run, and laminate sailcloths are made of different
fibers and/or light woven cloths which are combined using a heating process. Different
constructions and materials cause types of cloth to have different properties. To determine which
type of cloth should be used for a certain sail, the activities of the boat, the climate it will be sailed
in, the uses of the boat, and the desires of the customer should be considered.
Engineering a Stronger Type of Sailcloth | Page 6
Literature Review
The History of Sailing
Sailboats have been used for everything from war to trade to recreation since they were first
invented by the Mesopotamians around 4000 BC. The Mesopotamians needed sailboats to
transport goods to trade with nearby cities and countries they also used their sailboats for fishing.
They invented the first sailboat by adding sails to the simple wooden boats which were used by
other civilizations. The addition of the sail allowed the Mesopotamians to navigate the rough
waters of the Euphrates and the Tigris Rivers (The Sailboats of Ancient Mesopotamia, 2012). The
long, narrow hulls of these sailboats were made of reeds or wood and were curved on the bottom.
The sails were large squares woven out of papyrus, because papyrus was readily available to the
Mesopotamians (Millburn, n.d.).
Figure 1. Ancient Mesopotamian Sailboat. The first sailboats had curved
wooden hulls and square papyrus sails (Clause, Holtrop, & Vaughn, n.d.).
Sailing using square sailing rigs such as the ones the Mesopotamians used became
increasingly widespread and other civilizations adopted this design. By 2000 BC extensive sailing
trading networks had been established and were in use throughout the Mediterranean Sea. In 1200
BC the Greeks and Phoenicians needed larger ships to transport more goods for trading, so they
invented the first big cargo ships and used them in the Mediterranean. These new sailboats for
trading could hold more goods because they had a larger hull as well as a larger sail. Because the
merchants were able to transport more of their wares to sell in fewer ships, they did not have to
make as many trips so they could make more of a profit. As trading ships got bigger, one sail was
not enough. Phoenicians started building ships with two masts and two sails around 500 BC
(InPaperMagazine, 2011).
Figure 2. Greek trading ship with two sails. A second sail and mast was
added to the Greek trading ship around 500 BC (Bargmann, n.d.).
In 400 AD, the first catamarans, boats with two hulls side by side, were built along the
Southeast Asian coasts, and in 900 AD lateen and triangle sails came into use. Lateen sails are
long, triangular shaped sails that go across the boat at an angle. Triangular sails allowed the boats
to go faster because the angle of the sail allowed the boat to be pulled, as well as pushed by the
wind. Because the sailboat could be both pulled and pushed by the wind, sailors could sail upwind
as well as downwind. Before the invention of the triangle and lateen sails, many slaves had to be
kept onboard the ship at all times to row the boat upwind. Triangle and lateen sails became
increasingly widespread and are much more common than square sails today (InPaperMagazine,
2011).
Figure 3. Sailboat with triangle sail. Sailboats were first
made with triangle sails around 900 AD (Canbooks, 2002).
By the early 1000s people realized that there were many uses for sailboats other than just
trading. The Vikings began to use sailboats for colonization and war, an idea which European
merchants soon adopted. Another development in the world of sailing occurred from 1500 to 1650
when flax fibers started being used to make sails. These new sails made of flax were stronger than
the cloth that had been used before (Matthews, 1907). Yet another use for sailboats was introduced
when King Charles the Second started sport sailing in England in 1660. Sailing spread quickly as
a sport and in 1720 the first yachting club was founded in Ireland. In 1900 sailing became an
Olympic sport. Sailing was also being used for war and trade and more masts were added to
sailboats to harness more wind power (InPaperMagazine, 2011).
Sailboats played a major role in history and they are still used widely today. From colonization
across the globe to expansive trading networks, much of our history would not have been possible
without the invention of the sailboat. Although sailboats are no longer used for war, trade, or
colonization, sailboats are still an important part of agriculture in the developing world and sailing
is a well-known sport and recreational activity (The Sport of Sailing, n.d.).
Problems with Sails Today
Despite thousands of years in which new developments have been made in the sailing world,
there are still problems with sails. The eyelets tear out, the sails are punctured, the stitching wears
down, the sail is stretched, mildew and other growth, or the cloth gets worn out (Chris Howes,
sailor and sailmaker, personal communication, December 22, 2014)(Staff of Sailing Magazine,
2010).
Even if sailors are careful when storing and putting away their boat, tears are likely to occur.
If a sail tears, there are a few ways to “fix” it: the tear can be taped using sail tape, a patch of the
original sailcloth can be sewn over it, or duct tape can be used. There are problems with each of
these methods however. If the original sailcloth is used, then there is more stitching which will
wear down and tear more easily. If duct tape or sail tape are used, then it does not look as good
and it will come off before the sail would normally wear down (The Multihull Company, n.d.).
Figure 4. Duct Tape Sail Patch. Duct tape is often used to
patch sails but it is not idea because it comes off and is not
aesthetically pleasing (VisionQuest, 2010).
Rips in Cloth vs. Rips in Stitching
There are two things that can rip on a sail: the cloth and the stitching. Rips in cloth are much
more common and are usually due to too much stress on the cloth. Once there is a small rip in the
sail, it will not be able to withstand the necessary amount of pressure and the tear in the sail will
grow. As the tear gets larger it becomes increasingly difficult to repair. Rips in the stitching are
less common and they usually occur because the threads on the sail are worn out (Sail, 2014). Rips
in the stitching are not as bad as rips in the cloth because the stitching is easier and less expensive
to replace.
What Weakens Cloth
There are many factors that can weaken cloth; these include dying of the cloth, exposure
to UV rays, how much the sail luffs (flaps about because the boat is facing directly into the wind)
when under sail, and whether or not the sails are covered when not in use. When a woven sailcloth
or the fibers of a laminate sailcloth are dyed, they because weaker because of the stress on the
fibers that occurs during they dying process. If the fibers have already been weakened, they will
rip more easily on a boat under sail. For this reason many sails are made using white sailcloth.
Exposure to UV rays is the primary factor that weakens the sailcloth. Sails need to be replaced
much more frequently when the placed they are used is sunnier. This effect on sails can be seen in
as small a location difference as the areas above and below Cape Cod, on the East side of
Massachusetts. Another factor is how much the sail luffs. If a sailboat is pointing directly into the
wind, then the sail will flap around right above the boat and the sailor must scull, or move the tiller
back and forth, to get the wind to fill the sail again. This rough movement of the sail causes it to
wear out more quickly. Additionally, if the sail is covered when the boat is not in use it will last
much longer than if the sail is exposed to the elements. If it is not covered overnight and other
times when it is not being used, the sail will become more frayed and is more likely to get mildew
on it (Personal communication, Chris Howes, December 22, 2014).
Sunfish sails are especially likely to be under these conditions and the material they are
made of is cheap and not as high quality as many other types of sailcloth. Since sunfish are often
used for beginning sailors to learn on, they are often not treated as well as they should be and the
sails luff more frequently than sailboats which are sailed mostly by experienced sailors. Dacron
used for sunfish sails is also usually dyed so it will be more aesthetically pleasing to recreational
sailors. Sunfish and other small sailboats are often left out without sailcovers or boatcovers when
they are not being used and are therefore exposed to the elements more than necessary (Personal
communication, Chris Howes, December 22, 2014).
Current types of Sailcloth
Many different types of cloth are used to make sails. Different types of cloth are used
depending on the requirements for the sail. The main requirements for different types of sailcloths
are stretch resistance, weight, puncturability, tensile strength, resistance to degradation from UV
rays, price, and aesthetics. Each of these qualities are important for different uses of sails. Stretch
resistance is important so the sail will stand up against the wind and increase the speed the boat
can travel at. Similarly a lighter sail will also allow the boat to reach higher speeds because there
will be less weight to slow it down. Low puncturability and high tensile strength increase the
durability of a sail. Resistance to degradation from UV rays is also important for sailboats because
it is paramount that the sails last for many years without ripping and they are often exposed to
strong sunlight while under sail. Price and aesthetics, while generally not considered to be the most
important qualities of a sail by sail experts, are factors that sailors, especially recreational sailors,
consider when deciding what sail to purchase. One example is if a sail is going to be used for a
short amount of time but must be lightweight with the greatest resistance to stretch, then a filmon-film laminate cloth would be a great choice. For any type of cloth however, some qualities of
the cloth must be compromised to optimize other qualities of the sail. For example, to make film-
on-film laminate cloth as light as possible for racing sails, an extra layer to protect the core fibers
from the damaging UV rays of the sun cannot be added. This property of sails constructed from
film-on-film laminate sailcloth causes them to not be a good choice for a sail that needs to last a
long time. Similarly, laminate cloths, while more stretch-resistant than woven cloths are less
abrasion and flex resistant. If a laminate does not have the durability requirements for a boat’s sail,
then another layer can be added. If a film-on-film sail needs to be protected from the degradation
caused by the sun, then UV film is added to protect the core fibers. If a sail needs to be more
durable, then taffeta is added to one side of the sail so the cloth will be more resistant to abrasion
and it will not wear out from flexing as easily. The downside to adding layers to laminate sailcloths
however, is that the cloth becomes both heavier and more expensive. There are two main categories
of sailcloth: woven sailcloth and laminated sailcloth (Doyle Sails, n.d.).
Figure 5. Some Types of Sail Cloth. Types of sailcloth vary greatly from woven
fabrics such as Dacron and Canvas to laminate sailcloths composed of multiple
layers.
Woven Sailcloth
The main types of woven cloth used to make sails are canvas, Dacron, taffeta, ripstop and nylon. The
most common use for each of these cloths are shown below.
Canvas
Large ships, very heavy but strong, often used for sail covers
Dacron
Small recreational boats, with ripstop fibers for larger boats, part of a laminate for
large cruising vessels, heavy yarns and thick cloth for crising boats that need UV
protection.
many types of laminate for large cruising sailboats, helps protect from UV rays
Used in woven cloth to prevent puntures from becoming large tears
Mostly used for spinnakers, light and strong for its weight, not as strong as many
other sailcloths
Taffeta
Ripstop
Nylon
Canvas
Historically, the most commonly used type of cloth was canvas and to this day many people
still associate sails with it, although it is only used sometimes, for larger ships. Canvas is a stiff
cloth thought to have been named after cannabis, the Latin word for hemp. Hemp and flax fiber
were used to make sailcloth for many years (Matthews, 1907). When the power loom was invented,
canvas could be made out more types of fibers. It was made from flax, hemp, tow, jute, cotton,
and mixtures of those fibers. Flax canvas can withstand lots of pressure and rough usage. Canvas
is used to make a large variety of items from sails to shoes. Canvas is also used to cover goods or
railways, wharves and docks. Cotton, flax and jute canvases are also made into yarn. This yarn is
usually 2-ply, meaning it is composed of two strands, which makes that thickness of the yarn more
consistent. It is generally made using a plain weave, but is sometimes made using a special weave
to allow for more prominent open spaces. There is a reason that canvas has been used to make sails
for so long. It is a strong, weather resistant cloth that can be used for everything from paintings to
sail and dock covers (Canvas, 2014).
Figure 6. Canvas Sail Cloth. Canvas the oldest type of
Sailcloth that is still used today (Great Lakes Skipper, 2014).
Dacron
Today, the most frequently used type of woven sailcloth is Dacron, a type of polyester cloth.
Dacron became the main sail material for fore and aft sails almost forty years ago, yet it still has
many subtleties which can be hard to explain. It has been further developed since the 1950s when
it was first produced. However, there is much variation in the quality and durability of different
thicknesses of Dacron produced by different companies. Unfortunately, it is hard to tell the
difference between the best quality Dacron, which will last and hold its shape, and poor quality
Dacron, which will rip and change its shape. The production history of the fabric and the fibers
used to make the fabric is necessary to determine the quality of the Dacron. Even with that
knowledge, comprehensive testing is necessary to make sure every roll of cloth is good quality.
The four factors that play a role in determining the quality and cost of Dacron sailcloth are yarn
quality, yarn content, tightness of weave and type of finish (Doyle Sails, n.d.).
The yarn quality of the Dacron is very important because it can effect both the stretchiness and
the strength of the cloth. To be good quality yarn for the manufacturing of Dacron sailcloth, the
yarn spun from polyester fiber must have high tenacity (breaking strength), high modulus
(resistance to stretch), low creep (long term stretch), and good “weaving quality.” The yarn content
can also greatly change the quality of the cloth. It is dependent on the aspect ratio (the luff length
divided by the foot length) of the specific sail. If the aspect ratio of the sail is lower, than it needs
a more balanced weave, whereas if the aspect ratio is higher, the sail needs more, heavier fibers
along the load lines and fewer across the sail (Doyle Sails, n.d.). A balanced weave is one that is
made of fibers of the same weight, or denier (Standard Fiber, 2014).
The tightness of the weave is also important to help determine the quality of the sailcloth. The
dernier of the fabric’s weave also plays a significant role in determining the quality of Dacron
sailcloth as well. The weave of the fabric is determined by a multitude of factors including the size
of yarn and the amount the yarn shrinks. The smaller the denier, or fiber thickness, of the yarn
used is, the tighter the weave will be. Additionally the higher shrink yarns will produce a tighter
weave than lower shrink yarns (Doyle Sails, n.d.).
Figure 7. Dacron cloth with fill-oriented weave. In filloriented weaves the strands going in the fill direction
(upper right to lower left) are thicker than those in the
warp direction, which causes a tighter weave (Doyle
Sailmakers, n.d.).
Finally, the type of finish used on the cloth also affects the quality of Dacron sailcloth. The
hand, or the feel, of the cloth is greatly affected by the finish. For example, if a material is highly
resinated and it relies on the resin for stability, then the sail will begin to change shape as the resin
breaks down. Therefore the resin quality and quantity greatly affect the quality and cost of the
cloth. The weave itself should provide the stability of the weave. These characteristics are
considered and accounted for when a sail maker chooses the cloth for a sail. A thinner type of
Dacron, for example, would be used for a smaller boat so the sail would be lightweight. A thin
type of Dacron is used for sunfish sails. This cloth is good for sunfish sails because it is lightweight
and has a high tensile strength. However, these sails also stretch more than other fabric and they
are easily puncturable (Doyle Sails, n.d.).
Figure 8. Dacron Sail Cloth. Dacron, a type of
polyester is the most commonly used type of
woven sailcloth (Sailrite, 2014).
Taffeta
Taffetta is a woven fabric, which, unlike other types of sailcloth, is not used on its own to
make sails, but is instead glued to fiber and film to create laminate sailcloth. Laminate sailcloth
uses taffeta for overall strength and durability and fibers and films are used to increase the strength
in certain places. Taffeta is a light woven fabric made of thin polyester threads. It is an important
part of laminate sailcloths because it increases the sail’s resistance to tears, UV, flex and chafe
(Elvstom Sails, n.d.).
Figure 9. Taffeta is a woven cloth that is used in laminate sailcloth (Pearson, 2010).
Ripstop
Ripstop is a fiber which is used as a part of other sailcloths, rather than to make its own
sailcloth. Ripstop is usually used as part of a Dacron or nylon sailcloth to prevent large tears from
occurring after the cloth is punctured. Ripstop is not only used in sailcloth; it is also used in
outerwear, kites, parachutes and camping equipment. The ripstop threads running through the cloth
can often be seen in a square or hexagonal pattern along the warp and fill of the cloth.
Figure 10. Lines where the ripstop fibers are can
usually be seen as square or octagonal patterns in
sailcloth (Luddite, 2007).
Nylon
Nylon is a thin fiber which is mostly used for spinnaker sails because it is very light and has great
tensile strength although it is easily puncturable and stretches easily. It is only good for downwind
sails because of these characteristics (Contender Sailcloth, 2014).
Figure 11. Nylon sailcloth is used mostly for spinnaker
sails (Bainbridge International, 2013).
Laminate Sailcloths
Laminated sailcloth was first manufactured in the 1970’s and 1980’s. Initially, it was used
only for the high performance racers of the America’s Cup, but once it had been on the market for
a while it became more available and is now used for performance cruisers at small yacht clubs.
Laminate sailcloth is made using Dacron and taffeta, as well as other fibers. Dacron or another
type of fiber is combined with a mylar film and, in some cases, taffeta cloth to create more durable
and stretch resistant cloth. There are three main reasons that laminated sailcloth is so widespread.
The first reason is that lamination combines materials with different characteristics to gain
advantages from each type of cloth more effectively than other methods. The second reason
laminated cloth is so widespread is that films like Mylar® and PEN reduce stretch in all directions
very efficiently. This is especially useful in “off threadline” directions, or directions other than the
lengthwise and crosswise grains. The third reason is that when they are part of a laminate, fibers
can be placed in a straight, non-interrupted path. Currently, there as many types of laminated
sailcloth as there are of woven sailcloth, if there are not more types of laminated cloth (Doyle Sails,
n.d.).
There are four main construction styles for laminated sailcloth. The first main construction
style is Woven/Film/Woven or Woven/Film. This type of material, which is a woven material on
one or both sides of a film, is used in both inexpensive fabric for cruising and some of the most
expensive and high-quality laminate sailcloths. The less expensive versions of this cloth are
usually composed of a loosely woven Dacron taffeta and a Mylar film laminated together. The
film is used to increase the sail’s resistance to stretching and the taffeta is used to increase the
sail’s resistance to ripping and abrasion. High-end sails with this construction use a woven Spectra
or Kevlar taffeta which is laminated to a film layer. The high-modulus (stiffer) woven fibers in
these sails resist stretch along the grain, while the film on the sail controls the stretch along the
bias. High-modulus means that the cloth is stiffer. In new styles of laminate sailcloth, yarns,
usually Spectra or Technora, are laid in the laminate to reinforce the bias of the cloth. Overall
woven/film/woven cloths and woven/film cloths are used because they are cost and weight
efficient. However this type of cloth is stretchier than other types since it has a woven core of
inserted warp yarns (Doyle Sails, n.d.).
The second main construction style used for sailcloth is Film/Scrim/Film or
Film/Insert/Film, which can also be called film-on-film. Structural fibers are laminated between
two sheets of film in this type of sailcloth. As a result, the fibers which must bear the load when
the boat is under sail are straight rather than crimped, as they are in woven cloth. This allows the
sail maker to use the cloth’s full stretch-resisting potential. Because this type of cloth is laminated
film to film, a strong and reliable bond is attained and a smaller amount of glue can be used to
make the sail. In film-on-film constructed sails, Kevlar is the structural fiber that is used most
frequently. Pentex is also used commonly and it is becoming an even more popular film-on-film
laminate. It is being used more because it does not use aramids or other exotics, which are
sometimes prohibited. This type of laminate is used for most carbon fiber sailcloths. The
downsides to using this construction style for sailcloth are that film does not block UV rays from
damaging the structural fibers and that the film is less abrasion and flex resistant than woven cloths.
Because it wears down more quickly than other types of sailcloth, film- on film sails can only be
used for short-lived racing sails for which a minimum stretch and weight are the main objectives.
Sometimes, a UV film is added to this type of sail to help protect the core fibers of the sail from
the sun. If a sail of this construction needs to be more durable, then taffeta is added to one side of
the sail so the cloth will be more resistant to abrasion and it will not wear out from flexing as easily
(Doyle Sails, n.d.).
The third construction of laminate sails is Woven/Film/Scrim/Film/Woven. This is made
by laminating a woven material, usually taffeta, onto either sides of the core fibers. This type of
construction is particularly useful because it can use the strength of threads going in the warp and
fill directions as well as x ply fibers. The taffeta layers alsto protect the film and the fiber from UV
degradation, flex and abrasion. Core fibers can include Spectra, Kevlar, Pentex and Vectran. In
many cases one fiber is used in one direction with another at 90 degrees and a third fiber at a
diagonal for additional support and stretch resistance; these are called x-ply fibers. The taffeta
cloth used in the laminate is a type of polyester, sometimes Spectra or Kevlar are used as well.
Having a strong core to prevent stretch with a woven fabric as well makes a very strong and stretch
resistant cloth, but this type of cloth is very heavy and expensive so it is mostly used for large
cruising ships (Doyle Sails, n.d.).
The fourth construction of laminate sails is Woven/Scrim/Woven. This type of construction
allows the sail to be lighter but still retain much of the strength present in
Woven/Film/Scrim/Film/Woven cloths. If the fibers are too thick, however, a satisfactory bond
can be unattainable. Another issue is that it is near impossible to include x-ply fibers with this
construction (Doyle Sails, n.d.).
Laminate sailcloths are made with one or two fibers surrounded by mylar film and/or
polyester cloth. There are three main types of fibers that are used frequently in laminate sailcloths
and a few others which are used less frequently. The three main types of fiber are carbon, aramid,
plyester, and spectra (aka. Dyneema) is sometimes used to make laminate sailcloth as well. There
are a couple main types of aramids used for sailcloth, twaron and Kevlar. The four types of fibers
are often used in combination as well to make use of the properties of both fibers. Two fibers
which are used to complement each other frequently are Carbon and Technora (a type of aramid).
Carbon holds the shape of the cloth, but it breaks more easily; Technora is very strong. Therefore,
the fibers complement each other well. This same idea is used with other types of fiber. Laminate
cloths are great because they hold their shape and do not stretch very easily. Polyester laminates,
as well as polyester cloths, are used mostly for cruising boats because they are not stretch resistant
enough for racing boats. Similarly, vectran is too heavy for racing boats and can only be used for
large cruising sailboats (Personal Communication, Greg Marie, Engineer/Designer, December 22,
2014).
Chemistry of Fiber
Types of fibers must have two main qualities to be used for textile fabrics. Firstly, the fibers
must be long enough to be able to be spun into a thread, which can later be woven into cloth.
Secondly the fibers must be fairly flexible so the cloth will not be so stiff that it can’t move. There
are a few fibers that do not exhibit these properties but are still sometimes used in textiles. Spun
glass, asbestos, and various grasses are used for specific types of textiles even though they do not
have both of these qualities. Cotton, wool, silk and linen, which have the best qualities for textile
cloths, have organized structures and are natural materials. They are known as the principle fibers
(Matthews, 1907).
There are four groups of textile fibers Matthews says, crediting Georgevics for the system
of qualification. They are the animal fibers, the vegetable fibers, mineral fibers, and artificial fibers
(Matthews, 1907).
Figure 12. Types of fibers. There are four main types of fibres: vegetable, animal, mineral and synthetic.
Synethetic fibers are, in turn, separated into subcategories (Singh, 2013).
All four of the four principle materials are animal or plant fibers. Wool and silk are animal
materials and cotton and linen are vegetable fibers. Animal fibers are made mostly of nitrogen but
also contain sulphur. They are sometimes parts of the animal such as its skin or fur and are
sometimes made from excreted filaments such as from a caterpillar, spider or mollusk. These types
of fibers cannot withstand high temperatures. Plant fibers are made of usually simply structured
plant cells made of cellulose (which is sometimes mixed with alteration products). They can
withstand high temperatures and also stand up well against dilute alkalies. Because animal fibers
conduct heat at a lower temperature, they are warmer than plant fibers. Animal and plant fibers are
widely used, unlike mineral and artificial fibers. The primary mineral fiber is asbestos, which is
made from the naturally occurring mineral asbestos. It is composed primarily of magnesium and
calcium but often also includes iron and aluminum. For this rock to be spun into cloth, it must be
initially mixed with cotton which will later be destroyed by heat, or softened in hot water so it will
become pliable before being woven. Asbestos is a non-inflammable material, meaning it cannot
be burned or set alight so it is often used for gloves, aprons and stage curtains. It is also used for
insulation of wires to protect them. It is rarely dyed or further processed after it is woven into cloth.
There are two groups of artificial fibers: fibers derived from mineral fibers and fibers derived from
animal or vegetable fibers. A few types of fibers with mineral origins are spun glass, metallic
threads and slag wool (Matthews, 1907).
Figure 13. Slag wool. Slag wool is a mineral fiber which is commonly used
for insulation (Aditya, 2014).
To manufacture spun glass, the glass is melted and stretched to make a fine thread. This
thread is often used to make different ornamental objects and is sometime woven into fabric to
make a stiffer, more unusual cloth. A variety of metals are also made into threads this way. Threads
of copper, silver, and copper covered with gold are used for decorative fabrics. Slag wool is a
packaging material made by blowing steam through the stone waste matter after refining ore.
Artificial silks are the main type of animal or vegetable fibers that are used in textiles. They are
made of gelatin or cellulose derivatives by forcing them through tiny tubs and treating them
chemically (Matthews, 1907).
Chemistry of Polyester
Polyester or poly- (trimethylene octadecandioate) was first formed in 1930 when J. W. Hill
first made a fiber from a molten polymer. He discovered this while working with W. H. Carothers
and his team at duPont’s Wilmington laboratories to study polycondensation reactions, more
specifically polyesterification. That is how cold-drawing was discovered. Cold-drawing is the
process of stretching a cloth irreversibly when it is a melt-spun fiber to make it a stronger and a
less stretchy material. This team of researchers later worked on polyamides and developed nylon,
after creating unsuccessful types of polyester which melted at too low of a temperatures or were
not stable enough (McIntyre, 1985).
In 1941, J. R Whinefield and J. T. Dickson made a partially aromatic polyester with a base
of terephthalic acid which had a melting point as high as that of the new material nylon. This first
polyester, poly-(ethylene terephthalate) or PET, also had strong fibers and good hydrolytic
stability. Today, it is the most important synthetic fiber and it is used to make a wide variety of
products from packaging materials to bottles to sails. Its chemical structure is
𝑅 = (𝐶𝐻2 )2 (McIntyre, 1985).
Figure 14. Chemical Structure of Polyester. Polyesters are used to make a
wide variety of products (Ophardt, 2004).
A few other polyesters have also been manufactured commercially, but they are not used
nearly as much. Two of them are also synthesized from terephthalic acid: poly-(tetramethylene
terephthalate) or poly-(1,4-butylene terephthalate), which is abbreviated as PTMT or PBT and
poly-(1,4-butylene terephthalate). Another polyester, which is produced in Japan is called poly(ethyleneoxybenzoate) or polyetherester. Two other types of polyesters, polyoxyacetyl or
polyglycolide and polydioxanone are used for surgical suture (stitches) (McIntyre, 1985).
Sail Design Process
Historically, sail making and sail design was imprecise and required many, many, workers
to sew the sail. Sails would be built in huge, industrial sail lofts and would have to be designed by
cutting the pieces similarly to the sizes and shapes of similar sails. The process could not be
customized to the specific requirements of the boat. The sailcloth would be spread over a huge
area of floor with many people sitting in chairs or standing to hand sew, or later machine sew each
seam of the sail. The cloth was thick and hard to puncture with a needle so sailmakers would need
leather hand protectors to avoid sewing their own skin. Sails had to be made in pieces, so there
were seams to sew along the edges and across the sail. After the sails had been made, they would
be tested in a large field and on a test rig in the sail loft, which would normally be used for growing
crops. They would then have to be altered when design flaws were found after rudimentary testing.
These sails often still had minor design flaws when they were sent to customers.
Many modern technologies are used for sail making today including three dimensional
modeling, pressure distribution modeling, FEA and CFD analysis, and uniform fiber distribution.
The first step is to determine the geometry of the sail. All the dimensions must be determined
either by measuring the boat or using CAD to find the required outside dimensions of the sail.
These measurements can then be entered into a sail design program to produce a three dimensional
model of the boat with the sail. The model is described by the percent chord depth, the maximum
draft position, entry and exit angles (the angles at the top and bottom of the sail when the wind is
blowing), and twist (the amount the leech differs from a straight line in degrees). The 3D model is
crucial for the sail to fly the way it is supposed to because it allows the sail maker to consider all
parameters of the boat. A small design flaw can cause multiple problems, making the boat slower
or less safe (Doyle Sails, n.d.).
Figure 15. Three dimensional model of a sail.
Computer models of sails allow the sail maker’s to
optimize the efficiency of the sail's shape. (Doyle
sails, n.d.)
After they have the three dimensional shape, the engineers can test the sail on a computer.
This can be done using CFD analysis, which allows the engineers to see how the sail will fly and
to improve the lift and drag ratios. CFD analysis works very well for testing sails because it is
quick and the results are easy to record and analyze. It is better than Wind Tunnel testing, which
was previously used because, unlike Wind Tunnel testing, it lets the boat designers and engineers
see the lift and drag coefficients at any point on the sail and then change the sail’s design in the
program. The flexibility of the program helps the team see the interaction between the different
sails and ensure that the sails will work well together. Additionally it confirms that all the other
parts of the boat are accounted for and will not interfere with the functionality of the sail. CFD
analysis can test if the mast or lines will obstruct the sail. If necessary, the rigging or mast can then
be moved or altered. After the shape of the sail is finalized the sail is tested for pressure distribution
and finite element analysis (FEA) is used. To use the finite element analysis most effectively, the
material’s properties and the loading on the sail must be considered. Because sailcloth is not
equally stretchy in every direction, a polar plot (a plot of something based on angles) of the
material’s stretch resistance is used along with the placement of the fabric in the sail. The direction
of the sail and how the sails on a sailboat are lined up are very important considerations when
properly designing a sail. Additionally the sailcloth chosen must be strong enough to handle the
different amounts of stress in each direction (Doyle Sails, n.d.).
To make sure the sail will maintain the shape required to propel the boat at high speeds in
the expected weather conditions, the program FEA is used to perform a Stress-Load analysis. The
expected load of the sail in given conditions is shown on the planned layout of the sail. This data
can then be used to finalize the plan for the layout of the sail cloth for the sail (Doyle Sails, n.d.).
Figure 16. Stress-load analysis using three-dimensional modeling. Modeling the sail and
analyzing the stress on it allows the sail manufacturer to chose a cloth which will not rip
immediately.
After all this analyzing is completed, the final three-dimensional shape and curvature of
the sail can be decided and the material and thickness can be chosen. The sail can then be broken
down into smaller pieces and go into production. The sail model is broken into smaller portions
using geodesics. The shortest distance between two points on a curved surface is called a geodesic.
This is similar to a great circle route when crossing an ocean. Sails designed using a three
dimensional design program are referred to as molds because they are mold shapes. This does not
mean the sail material is molded; no sail material is. Sails are made by shaping flat plates to
simulate the three-dimensional shape and then they are later made full size out of cloth (Doyle
Sails, n.d.).
Because of the careful planning engrained in this process and the load analysis which is
part of it, the sails fly exactly as they should as soon as they are made and they hold their shape
until they wear out (Doyle Sails, n.d.).
Engineering Proposal
Engineering Problem
When sunfish sailboats capsize, the sails rip easily due to force from the water on the sail.
Engineering Goal
The engineering goal is to design a type of sailcloth that will not rip as easily as pre-existing
sunfish sails.
Method
A new type of sailcloth will be engineered from two types of light fabric, which will be
held together with an adhesive. The multiple layers of fabric with an additional layer will allow
the cloth to be stronger and less likely to rip. By using two types of light fabric which are somewhat
inexpensive a stronger cloth of similar weight to Dacron will be created. Four types of sailcloth
that are currently used for other types of sailboats and Dacron, the type of sailcloth currently used
for sunfish sails, will be acquired from Dimension Polyant sailcloth producers (Putnam, CT).
These five types of cloth will be tested alongside the newly manufactured cloth and the types of
cloth it will be made up of. They will be tested for stretch resistance, tensile strength, resistance to
UV degradation, weight, and price.
Methodology
Types of Sailcloth Used for Testing
Before a new type of sailcloth was engineered, a variety of types of sailcloth were
considered for testing as a comparison between different types of cloth. This allowed the
researching to have a good understanding of what fibers could be used in a new type of sailcloth.
Five types of cloth were selected for testing as controls. These cloth samples encompassed a wide
variety of sailcloth fibers and constructions currently on the market for various types of boats.
The first cloth that was tested was a laminate cloth constructed with yellow aramid fibers
in the warp direction and an x-ply of polyester and dyneema cord yarn, or spun yarn (two fibers
that are twisted together) in a clear three mil film. This type of cloth is standard for 49ers, which
are sailboats used in the Olympics, and highly regulated.
Figure 17. 49er Custom Laminate. This sailcloth
is mostly used for Olympic sailboat racing.
The next type of cloth was a black, fill-oriented, flex laminate, constructed with technora
fibers. It is used mainly for high-performance racing sails, and has strong fill and warp yarns as
well as 20° and 30° “double x” patterns so the laminate can tolerate stress in six directions. Like
the aramid-dyneema laminate, this laminate is constructed with a clear film, using a film fiber film
construction.
Figure 18. Flex Black Laminate Sailcloth. This
type of sailcloth has fibers in six directions so it
will be able to tolerate stress in many directions.
A warp-oriented, internal taffeta, polyester fiber, laminate sailcloth with fibers of even
denier in the warp and fill directions and a warp oriented x-ply was tested. It was made using a
film, taffeta, fiber, taffeta, film construction. This type of cloth is designed for mainsails on 20 to
25 foot racing sailboats.
Figure 19. PX05 IT TI02-54". This laminate has an
internal taffeta layer to add additional strength in every
direction.
A 4 oz. resinated Dacron sailcloth, the type used for sunfish sailboat racing, with equal fill
and warp strength was also tested. Unlike the first three types of cloth that were tested, the Dacron
sailcloth is a woven type of sailcloth.
Figure 20. 170 TNF Resinated Dacron. This type of
sailcloth is regularly used for sunfish sails.
A second type of woven sailcloth, 284 Pro Radial sailcloth, was tested. It is used primarily
for large cruising vessels and is slightly fill-oriented.
Figure 21. 284 Pro-Radial. Pro-Radial is a heavy
type of sailcloth used for large cruising ships.
Organza, a type of cloth for dress-making is very stretchy and could not possibly be used
for sailcloth by itself, however, it is very strong, and could be used with another type of cloth to
make a sailcloth.
Figure 22. Organza. Organza is a dress-making fabric;
however, it is very strong along the warp and fill.
Dilon is a type of sailcloth used for spinnaker sails, sails which are only used to go
downwind because they are not very strong and they might rip. Therefore, this cloth would not
work for sunfish sails by itself.
Figure 23. . Dilon Spinnaker fabric. Dilon is used for large billowy
sails called spinnakers for going downwind.
A new type of sailcloth, called Dilon-Organza was created using Dilon, a type of sailcloth
that can only be used for spinnaker sails going downwind because it will rip and Organza, a strong
type of cloth used for dressmaking. This allowed the Dilon-Organza to combine the strengths of
the two fabrics in one cloth.
Figure 2417. Dilon-Organza. This sailcloth was made with
two layer of Dilon sailcloth, one layer of Organza, rubber
cement and all-purpose thread.
Manufacturing Dilon-Organza Sailcloth
Prototypes of Dilon-Organza
Initially, three Prototypes of Organza-Nylon were created, with one layer of Organza
between two layers of Dilon. The first type was created using rubber cement, the second used
stitching, and the third used both rubber cement and stitching. After creating the prototypes that
used rubber cement and both rubber cement and stitching, other researchers helped to test the cloth
by attempting to rip each type of cloth. The Dilon-Organza which was held together by only rubber
cement was easily ripped. The Dilon-Organza was more difficult to rip. One researcher was able
to rip the cloth which used both rubber cement and stitching between rows of stitching, but not
across them. Based on this testing, it was determined that the Dilon-Organza should have stitching
along both the warp and the fill.
Figure 25. Dilon-Organza Prototype. This prototype was
created with red Dilon, rubber cement, and stitching in the
warp direction.
Manufacturing of Dilon-Organza
To test Dilon-Organza, 1 yard of sailcloth was required. A yard of Dilon was spread on a
flat surface. Rubber cement was spread across the sailcloth with a large paintbrush. A layer of
Organza was spread flat on top of the Dilon with rubber cement. A layer of Dilon sailcloth was
spread on top and constant pressure was applied to the cloth and it was left to dry. Seams were
sewn in the warp and fill directions along the entire yard of cloth. The seams were sewn
approximately two inches apart. The cloth was tested like a woven cloth.
Figure 26. Stitching Dilon-Organza. Seams were sewn in the warp
and fill directions approximately two inches apart.
Testing of Cloth
Four types of testing were conducted on each of the five types of pre-existing sailcloth:
flutter/impact flutter testing, tensile strength testing, stretch testing, and UV resilience testing. The
procedures for each type of testing varies slightly between woven and laminate sailcloths due to
variance in potential problems with the cloth.
Flutter/ Impact Flutter Testing
For each type of woven sailcloth, two 18x2” strips of cloth were cut along the warp, fill
and bias using a ruler and a 45° set square. Each pair of strips of cloth was marked for which axis
it was cut along. Strips along the warp were marked with a zero because they are coming off of
the spool of cloth, strips along the fill were marked with a nine because they are 90° from the
threads coming off of the spool (warp threads), and strips along the bias were marked with a four
because they are at a 45° to the warp threads. One strip from each axis of the cloth was marked F
for flutter and the other was marked L for lab. The strips marked flutter were evenly spaced and
attached to the arms of the flutter testing machine. The door was shut and the automatic timer was
set for 30 minutes.
For each type of laminate sailcloth one 18x2” strip of cloth was cut in the warp and fill
directions and two strips of sailcloth were cut along the bias using a ruler and a 45° set square.
One of each type of cloth was set aside and the remaining bias strip was attached to one arm of the
flutter testing machine by folding over the end and stapling it to itself. A metal stand was set up
below the machine so the cloth would make impact with it every revolution. This type of testing
is called impact flutter testing because off the stand. The automatic timer was set for 15 minutes.
The laminate strips were compared with the strips which had not undergone impact flutter testing
as a visual reference.
Figure 27. Impact Flutter Testing. A metal stand is
placed below the flutter testing machine for impact
flutter tests.
Laminate/Woven Stretch Testing
The 18x2” strips along each axis which had been set aside were clamped into a VwickRoel Zmart-Pro machine. The machine was set to its laminate or woven stretch testing and the two
clamps of the machine moved further apart. For each type of laminate sailcloth one piece of cloth
from each axis was tested for its resistance to stretch up to one inch of elongation. For each type
of woven sailcloth two pieces of cloth from each axis were tested for their resistance two stretch.
One strip of sailcloth cut along each axis was new sailcloth and the other three strips were the
strips which had been flutter tested. The data from the force applied to each strip of cloth was
recorded with the Vwick-Roell computer program and graphed for both laminate and woven
sailcloths.
Figure 28. Vwick-Roell machine for tensile strength
and stretch testing. This machine has two petals that
control the clamps which are used to hold the strip of
cloth in place.
Resistance to UV Degradation Testing
The cloth’s resistance to UV degradation was conducted using a QUV accelerated
weathering tester, which reproduces the damage caused by sunlight rain and dew over months or
years outdoors. The cloth was held in place by a metal flap over the area exposed to UV light and
water. A lid was lowered over the cloth. One set of samples were left in the QUV weathering tester
for 200 hours, 100 hours of exposure to UV light, and 100 hours of exposure to moisture. A second
set of samples were not put in the QUV machine before testing at all. One hour of exposure to
intensified UV light in the QUV machine is equivalent to 17 hours of natural UV light. Therefore,
the 100 hours of UV exposure that the cloth underwent was the equivalent of 70 days and 20 hours.
Tensile Strength Testing
Six 8x2” strips of each type of sailcloth were cut along the warp using a ruler. A VwickRoell Zmart-Pro machine was used on its tensile test setting to determine how much force is
required to break material. The Vwick-Roell program was set to the tensile test setting and the two
clamps got closer together. The cloth was clamped down and the program was run to collect the
data for cloth that was not put in the QUV machine and cloth that was put in the QUV machine
for 200 hours. The amount of force exerted on the cloth until it broke was recorded on a graph by
the Vwick-Roel Program.
Weight Measurement
The weight of each material was measured and the weight of the material was recorded on
each graph. The weight of the cloth was determined by using a die cutter to cut an exact sized
piece of cloth and measuring it on a scale.
For laminate sailcloths three squared of cloth were cut, one from the left side of the piece
of cloth, one from the middle and one from the right side. To determine the weight of woven
sailcloth one square of cloth is cut from any part of the piece of cloth because woven cloths tend
to be more balanced. These squares of cloth were placed on a flat cutting table. A metal ring was
placed on top of each square to get a piece of cloth of the required size and shape. A Herman
Schwabe die cutter was placed over the ring and used to get a precise circle. Each of the circles
was weighed on a Vibra digital scale and the weight was recorded in grams per meter squared.
Figure 29. Piece of PXO5 IT Laminate sailcloth on
precision scale. The cloth was cut into an exact circle using
a die cutter machine and then placed on a precision scale.
Price Analysis
Using the Dimension Polyant Sailcloth Manufacturers Price Guide for the sailcloths used
for comparison, the Jo-Ann Fabrics price of organza, and the sum of the theoretical materials cost
if the materials were purchased wholesale for Dilon-Organza, the prices of the types of cloths were
compared on a chart.
Damage from Wash
Each type of sailcloth was put in a washing machine to make sure the layers of cloth would
stay together (if it was a laminate), and to get an idea of how well the cloth will stand up against
weathering when it is on a ship. They were left in a specially wired washing machine with no soap
for 6 hours. They were compared and rated on a scale of 1-10.
Weatherability Testing
The weatherability of the cloth is to determine if wind and water would pass through the
cloth. To test the cloth for wind permeability, a stream of air was blown at the cloth while it was
fastened at both ends, and a light piece of cloth (the indicator) was fastened at one end behind it.
If the wind moved the indicator, then the cloth was wind permeable. If the indicator did not move,
then the sailcloth was considered to be not permeable. To test if the cloth was waterproof, water
permeability testing was conducted by pouring water on the cloth and letting it sit for five minutes.
If the water penetrated the cloth, it was considered to be not waterproof. If the water did not
penetrate the cloth, then it was waterproof.
Figure 30. Water Permeability Testing. Here a prototype of DilonOrganza sailcloth constructed using only rubber cement was tested
to see if it was waterproof.
Results
Engineering Matrix
To determine if the new type of sailcloth was more suitable for sunfish sails than other
types of sailcloth, a measured data matrix and an engineering scoring matrix were created. Eight
criteria were evaluated for each type of cloth. The tensile strength of a cloth is a huge factor in the
durability of the cloth because it is important that the cloth does not rip when under load. The
resistance of the cloth to weather factors such as UV light and moisture is another important factor
to consider because sails are often left out on the beach without sailcovers. The stretch of the cloth
in each direction was also considered as an important criteria because if a piece of cloth is stretched
easily, it will lose its shape and not catch the wind as well. Damage from flutter testing was
considered because when a boat is under sail, the sail sometimes flaps around in the wind and will
often hit other parts of the cloth or the boat. Weight was considered because if the cloth is too
heavy, it will cause the boat to capsize. Price was included on the decision matrix because if a
cloth is expensive customers will not buy it.
Table 1, below, is the measured data matrix, which contains summary data from the tests.
It was created using each type of cloth that was tested and the criteria that were important.
A- 49er Custom Laminate
BCDE1-
Flex Black 15 Laminate
PXO5 IT
4 oz. Resinated Dacron
284 Pro-Radial
Dilon
Criteria
Measurements
Force Required
to Stretch Cloth
1% warp (lbf)
Force Required
to Stretch Cloth
1% fill (lbf)
Force Required
to Stretch Cloth
1% bias (lbf)
Force Required
to Break the
Cloth (lbf)
Difference
in
Force Required
to Break Cloth
after
UV
exposure (lbf)
Weight (sm. oz.)
Price (dollars)
Wash (scale 110)
Weatherablity
(Y/N)
Existing Models
A
86.5
B
93.4
C
75.0
D
47.0
E
85.8
Prototype
Components
1
2
22.3
4.3
Prototype
46.9
153.3
32.1
57.1
48.5
9.8
12.0
34.1
44.5
39.0
25.1
24.4
28.6
9.1
1.2
6.9
309.79
468.94
404.20
261.91
511.74
147.43
36.77
209.36
148.01
-19.32
47.97
69.09
-10.33
13.26
8.87
-37.51
3.83
21.50
6
5.23
31.35
3
5.32
14.75
2
3.85
7.55
1
6.23
26.59
1
1.59
5.20
1
0.77
4.19
1
4.69
16.39
2
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
P
22.2
2- Organza
P- Dilon-Organza
Table 1. Measured Data Matrix for various types of sailcloth.
Based on this matrix, an engineering scoring matrix (Table 2) was created. It used the
numbers in the measured data matrix and max scores based on importance of qualities for the
sunfish sailcloth to get general scores. The scores were added to get a total score which determined
the type of cloth which would work best for sunfish sails. The total scores for each type of cloth
were divided by the highest possible total score and multiplied by 100 to get the percent score.
Based on the percent scores and the total scores, the cloths were ranked in order of which would
work best for sunfish sails overall. It was determined that Dilon-Organza would be the best type
of cloth for sunfish sails, followed by Flex Black 15 Laminate. Dacron, the material currently used
for sunfish sails was ranked fifth after Dilon and 284 Pro-Radial sailcloth.
Criteria
Measurements
Max
Score
Existing Models
Prototype Components Prototype
A
B
C
D
E
1
2
P
3
2.78
3.00
2.41
1.51
2.76
0.72
0.14
0.71
3
0.92
3.00
0.63
1.12
0.95
0.19
0.23
0.67
2
2.00
1.75
1.13
1.10
1.29
0.41
0.05
0.31
8
4.84
7.33
6.32
4.09
8.00
2.30
0.57
3.27
15
0.00
13.53
8.09
6.38
12.80
10.90
11.25
15.00
6
2.64
1.10
1.00
2.62
0.00
5.10
6.00
1.69
9
3.26
0.00
5.50
7.89
1.58
8.67
9.00
7.11
5
2.22
3.89
4.44
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
4
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
0.00
4.00
Total Score
55
22.66
37.60
33.52
33.70
36.37
37.28
32.25
37.76
Percent Score
100%
41.20
68.37
60.94
61.27
66.13
67.78
58.64
68.66
8
2
6
5
4
3
7
1
Force
Required
to
Stretch Cloth
1% warp (lbf)
Force
Required
to
Stretch Cloth
1% fill (lbf)
Force
Required
to
Stretch Cloth
1% bias (lbf)
Force
Required
to
Break
the
Cloth (lbf)
Difference in
Force
Required
to
Break
Cloth
after
UV
exposure (lbf)
Weight
(sm.
oz.)
Price (dollars)
Wash (scale 110)
Weatherablity
(Y/N)
Rank
Table 2. Engineering Scoring Matrix for types of cloths that could be used for sunfish sails.
Stretch Testing
The 1% of each type of cloth tended to be lowest along the bias of the cloth because there
are fewer and thinner threads in that direction. The stretch of the bias is less important than the
warp and the fill because a smaller load is generally exerted on it. The stretch resistance in the
warp and fill directions tended to be based on which way the cloth was oriented. If the cloth was
fill-oriented, it generally had a greater stretch resistance in the fill direction. Similarly, if the cloth
was warp-oriented it generally had a greater stretch resistance in the warp direction. The graphs of
the laminate stretch tests are attached as appendices.
For the 49er custom laminate sailcloth, which is a warp-oriented sailcloth, the %1 of the
cloth in the warp direction is 86.5, whereas the 1% in the fill and bias are 46.9 and 44.5
respectively. This is represented in figure 31 below. The red line, which represents the elongation
in the warp direction, does not have much of a curve and is very consistent. This means that the
cloth will stretch uniformly as the force applied on the cloth is increased. The green and blue lines,
which represent the fill and the bias, are very close together and even cross then they have stretched
approximately 0.3 inches. The 1% values, 46.9 and 44.5, represent this because they are close
together.
Figure 32. Stretch test graph for 49er custom laminate -54". The warp has a greater stretch resistance than the fill and bias, which
are very similar
The Flex Black 15- 54” laminate sailcloth is fill oriented, with a 1% value in the fill
direction of 153.3. This 1% value is 66.8 pound feet greater than the largest 1% value of the 49er
custom laminate. This shows that the Flex black is either stronger than the 49er custom laminate
or an especially unbalanced cloth. By looking at the graph shown in figure 32, it can be determined
that the cloth is somewhat unbalanced but it is not unbalanced enough to create such a large
difference in 1% values. There is a larger gap between the 1% values of the two other directions
of the cloth for the Flex Black laminate than there was for the 49er custom laminate. This is
probably because the Flex Black laminate has more fibers in the warp than the 49er custom
laminate had in the fill.
Figure 33. Stretch test graph for Flex Black laminate. The cloth has fibers in both the warp and the fill but there are more in the fill
so it is fill-oriented.
The 1% stretch values of the PXO5 IT TI02 - 54” laminate sailcloth were generally lower
than those of the 49er custom laminate and the Flex Black laminate. The warp of the cloth was the
strongest, and it had a 1% value of 75.0 pound feet. Larger 1% values mean that the cloth is less
stretchy and it usually also means the cloth is stronger. All three lines on the graph (Figure 33
below) curve up more quickly than the lines do on the graphs of the other laminate sailcloths that
were tested.
Figure 34. Stretch test graph for PXO5 IT TI02-54". The large increase in elongation after 50 lbf of force shows that the cloth has
a low stretch resistance.
None of the strips of laminate sailcloth which had been fluttered had any noticeable
damage. The woven stretch tests included the fluttered strips of sailcloth. There are six lines on
the graphs of woven stretch tests, instead of the three lines that there are on the graphs of laminate
stretch tests. For woven stretch tests there are two lines on the graph for each direction of the cloth.
One set of lines are the lab strips of cloth, or the controls, and the other set are strips which had
been fluttered.
The 4 oz. Resinated Dacron Sailcloth, or 170 TNF, was slightly fill-oriented. Dacron is a
pretty balanced cloth, however, and the 1% of the lab in the warp direction was 47.0, just 10.1 lbf
smaller force than the lab in the fill direction which was 57.1. The bias of the cloth was less stretch
resistant than the fill and the warp, with a 1% value for the lab of 24.4. The flutter strips of the 4
oz. Dacron were consistently less stretch resistant than the labs.
Figure 35. Woven stretch report for 170 TNF, a type of resinated Dacron. The flutter strips consistently have a lower tensile
strength.
The graph of the woven stretch test for Pro-Radial Sailcloth was very similar to that of the
170 TNF woven sailcloth. The main difference was that the flutter strips of the Pro-Radial had 1%
measurements for stretch resistance which were much closer to the lab in the same direction than
the flutter strips of the 170 TNF were. In fact, on the woven stretch test report of Pro-Radial
sailcloth (Figure 35), it is hard to determine if there are one or two lines. The woven stretch test
graph of Pro-Radial sailcloth also shows that it has a high stretch resistance and is a strong type of
cloth. This is shown by the high 1% numbers: 87.3 for the lab in the warp, 85.7 for the flutter in
the warp, 42.8 for the lab in the fill, 42.5 for the flutter in the fill, 25.7 for the lab in the bias and
25.1 for the flutter in the bias. These high values for 1% show that Pro-Radial sailcloth has a high
stretch resistance.
Figure 36. Woven stretch test for Pro-Radial. Pro-Radial sailcloth is very resistant to damage from flutter testing.
Dilon-Organza and its two components were tested as woven sailcloths, rather than
laminate sailcloths. This was decided because Organza is a woven cloth and Dilon is a nylon cloth.
If each type of cloth was tested as it normally would be, the various types of cloth would be very
difficult to compare and contrast. Another reason that these three types of cloth were tested as
woven sailcloths is that the Dilon-Organza is held together well with the rubber cement and the
seams so the layers were not likely to come apart. Therefore, with the weaves of the component
cloth and the stitching, it made sense for the three cloths to be tested as woven sailcloths.
The graph for the woven stretch of the Dilon-Organza sailcloth showed that there is not
much of a change in stretch resistance when the cloth is fluttered for 30 minutes. The decrease in
the 1% values along the bias, for example, is only 0.8 lbf. Similarly, there is a decrease in the 1%
values along the bias of 2.0 lbf. In the fill direction, instead of a slight decrease in stretch resistance
there is an increase of 2.3. This shows that fluttering the cloth does not greatly affect the stretch
resistance of the cloth. The graph also shows that Dilon-Organza is a fill-oriented cloth. In the
bias, Dilon-Organza has a similar stretch resistance to the three laminate sailcloths. It has a greater
stretch resistance in the warp and the fill than the laminate sailcloths. Compared to the two woven
sailcloths which are currently used it has a smaller stretch resistance in all directions. This is shown
by the woven stretch test graph (figure 36) in which the lines curve upwards more than those in
the graphs of the other two woven sailcloths.
Figure 37. Woven stretch test graph for Dilon-Organza. Dilon-Organza has a small difference in tensile strength after flutter.
The graph of the Dilon (Figure 37) shows that it has a very low stretch resistance. The lines
for two directions of the cloth reach the top of the graph halfway across the chart. This means that
they stretched 1 inch after less than 25 lbf of force. The Dilon is warp oriented. When the DilonOrganza was constructed, the warp of the Dilon was placed along the fill of the Dilon-Organza
which is what causes it to be fill-oriented. The 1% values in each direction are quite low and the
flutter strips have a considerably lower 1% value in every direction.
Figure 38. Woven stretch test graph for Dilon. This graph shows that Dilon has a much lower stretch resistance than most cloths.
The graph for Organza by itself showed even lower 1% values and general stretch
resistance. When the researcher first tried to get a woven stretch test graph for Organza, the VwickRoell machine was unable to graph it because it had such a low stretch resistance. To get a graph
for the woven stretch test of this cloth, the cloth had to be stretched before it was clamped. Even
after the Vwick-Roell machine was able to graph it, it was clear that the Organza had very low
stretch resistance.
Tensile Strength after UV Exposure
The data for the tensile strength of each type of cloth has been summarized below in table
3. The graphs which were made by the Zwick-Roell program are attached as appendices. For most
types of sailcloth, the fibers are significantly weaker after exposure to UV light in the QUV
machine. The 49er custom laminate had the greatest decrease in tensile strength after UV exposure,
with a 47.8% decrease. Dacron had 26.4% decrease in tensile strength. Organza, PXO5 Internal
Taffeta laminate sailcloth, and Dilon had percent decreases of 24.1%, 11.9%, 8.9%, respectively.
The tensile strengths of three types of sailcloth increased when they were exposed to UV light.
There were 284 Pro-Radial woven sailcloth, Flex Black 15 Laminate, and Dilon-Organza. The
Pro-Radial Sailcloth increased in tensile strength by 2%. The Flex Black 15 Laminate increased in
tensile strength by 4.1%. They both have special modifications to reduce damage when exposed
to UV light. The Flex Black 15 contains fibers which, although it is especially susceptible to UV
degradation, is dyed black, which minimizes the effects of UV exposure. The 284 Pro-Radial is
especially UV resistant because the material has a lot of crimp in it. The slight increases in
maximum force are due to slight variation in the pieces of cloth. The tensile strength of DilonOrganza increased by 17.9% which was much greater an increase than either of the other types of
sailcloth with an increase in tensile strength after UV exposure.
Table 3. Maximum force each type of cloth can withstand before breaking.
Types of Cloth
Dilon-Organza
Dilon
Organza
49er Custom Laminate
PXO5 IT
284 Pro-Radial
Maximum Force in lbf
Average Lab
209.36
147.43
36.77
309.79
468.94
404.20
261.91
511.74
Average UV
246.87
134.17
27.90
161.78
488.26
356.23
192.82
522.07
Weight
Organza and Dilon are considerably lighter than other types of cloth. The next lightest
sailcloths, which are very similar in weight, are 49er Custom Laminate and 4 oz. Resinated Dacron.
Dilon-Organza is of a similar weight, just 0.84 sailmakers ounces less than Dacron. Flex Black 15
Laminate and PXO5 IT Laminates are the next heaviest at 5.23 and 5.32 sm. oz. Finally, 284 ProRadial sailcloth is the heaviest, as it is designed for large cruise ships and weight is not very
important.
Table 4. Weight in g/m2 and sm. oz. of each type of cloth.
Types of Cloth
Dilon-Organza
Dilon
Organza
PXO5 IT
284 Pro-Radial
Weight (g/m2)
201
68
33
164
224
228
165
268
Weight (sm. oz.)
4.69
1.59
0.77
3.83
5.23
5.32
3.85
6.26
Price
Organza and Dilon are the least expensive types of sailcloth, but neither would be strong
enough for sunfish sailboats by itself. Dacron is also relatively inexpensive. PXO5 IT and DilonOrganza are on the cheaper end of the mid-range of prices. 49er Custom Laminate, 284 Pro-Radial
and Flex-Black 15 Laminates are more expensive.
Table 5. Price per yard of each type of cloth.
Types of Cloth
Dilon-Organza
Dilon
Organza
PXO5 IT
284 Pro-Radial
Price per Yard
$16.39 ($5.20 + $4.19 + $7.00)
$5.20
$4.19
$21.50
$31.35
$14.75
$7.55
$26.59
Damage from Wash
Each of the laminate sailcloths used as controls were damaged from the wash. The layers
of the laminate did not come apart. This data, organized in Table 6 indicates that PXO5 IT laminate
is the most durable of the laminates tested, followed by Flex Black 15, and then 49er custom
laminate which is significantly less durable. The layers of each type of laminate are well bonded,
as shown by the lack of layer separation after wash. The woven sailcloths were not damaged by
the wash nor were layers separated. This test is usually not conducted on woven sailcloths for this
reason. Dilon-Organza was slightly damaged by the wash but the layers did not separate.
Table 6. Damage and layer separation of each type of laminate sailcloth after washing.
Types of Laminate Sailcloth
Damage from Wash (1-10)
Dilon-Organza
Dilon
Organza
PXO5 IT
284 Pro-Radial
2
1
1
6
3
2
1
1
Layer Separation
(yes/no)
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
after
Wash
Weatherability
The only type of cloth in the study which was not waterproof and did not harness the wind
power was the Organza. Every other type was waterproof and had the ability to harness wind
power. The weatherability testing shows that Organza would not work as sailcloth by itself because
the wind would pass through the sail and the boat would flip all the way over when it capsized.
Table 7. Water permeability and wind permeability of each type of cloth..
Types of Cloth
Dilon-Organza
Dilon
Organza
PXO5 IT
284 Pro-Radial
Waterproof
yes
yes
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
Harnesses Wind Power
yes
yes
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
Data Analysis and Discussion
The goal of engineering a stronger type of sailcloth suitable for sunfish sailboats was
achieved. Dilon-Organza better for use in sunfish sails than any of the other cloths which were
tested including Dacron, the material sunfish sails are currently made out of. This was determined
using two matrices: a measured data matrix and an engineering scoring matrix. To create these
matrices, the first thing that was considered was which qualities are most important for sunfish
sails. The most important quality of a sunfish sailcloth was determined to be resistance to UV
degradation, because UV damage is the largest problem with sunfish sails (Howes, Marie,
D’Albora, McClintock). Sunfish sailboats are mainly a recreational sailboat, used for camps,
resorts, water rentals and individuals. They are a common first sailboat, and many people get
sunfish when they know little about sails and sailboats. For these reasons, sunfish are often left out
on the beach, sometimes without even rolling up the sail. This constant exposure to sunlight
weakens the fibers of the fabric causing it to tear easily when it is underway or when the boat
capsizes. The next most important quality a sunfish sailcloth must have is a low price. Just as
sailboats are often left outside because they are primarily used by individuals just learning to sail,
the beginning sailors are looking for an inexpensive boat and sail to get them on the water.
Beginning sailors are generally not as concerned about optimum performance of the boat
as much as they are about the cost. The quality with the next highest max score was the force
required to break the cloth, or the initial tensile strength. This is more important than the weight,
wash, and weatherability because it is the main factor in determining how much force the cloth
can handle. The force required to break the cloth was scored with the same amount of weight as
the combined score of the force required to stretch the cloth %1 in each of the directions. The force
required to stretch the cloth 1% along the bias was weighted as somewhat less important than the
force in each of the other two directions because there is less load in that direction of the cloth
when the boat is under sail. The engineering matrix showed that while Dilon-Organza is an average
type of sailcloth in many categories, it is very UV resistant which is extremely important for
sunfish sails and for its purpose, Dilon-Organza has a high tensile strength and resistance to
damage after wash. The large increase in tensile strength of the Dilon-Organza after exposure to
UV light was unexpected because Dilon-Organza has no modifications to prevent UV damage.
The researcher believes that the cause of the increase in tensile strength could be due to a tightened
weave, the spreading of the rubber cement into an even layer, or a stronger bond of molecules in
the rubber cement.
Conclusions
Dilon-Organza is a great sailcloth for sunfish sailboats and is better than Dacron. It
increases in strength by 17.9% when exposed to UV light, rather than decreasing by 26.4% as
Dacron did. Because UV degradation is such a large problem with sunfish sails, Dilon-Organza
should be sold as a new sailcloth for sunfish sails. It is currently too expensive and slightly heavy
to be used as a replacement for Dacron sailcloth, however if it were made into a laminate sailcloth
then it could be lighter and less expensive. If Dilon-Organza were made into a laminate sailcloth
it could most likely replace Dacron as the main type of sailcloth for sunfish sailboats. Currently
the increased tensile strength and overall increased strength of Dilon-Organza does cause the
benefits of using Dilon-Organza to outweigh the addition cloth. Because Dilon-Organza is not
degraded by UV light, it will last much longer than Dacron without rips, abrasion and weakened
cloth. Therefore, Dilon-Organza sunfish sails would not have to be replaced as often and would
cause less waste.
Limitations and Assumptions
There were a few limitations to the testing of the Dilon-Organza sailcloth and a few
assumptions that had to be made when creating a better sailcloth.
One limitation to the research was that the researcher was unable to test and compare every
type of cloth on the market because there are hundreds of different types of sailcloth on the market
for different types of boats. Similarly because types of sailcloths for various types of boats were
compared some testing which is normally only used for laminate sailcloths had to be applied to
woven and nylon sailcloths as well. Therefore there may have been slight variation due to the types
of cloth. The description and labeling at the top of each graph recorded by the Vwick-Roell
machine was entered by the researcher and her mentor at the lab and there may have been human
error in the labeling at the top in fields such as the lot number. Another limitation is that time
constraints prevented 200 hours (= 3400 hours natural sunlight) of UV exposure in the QUV
machine and only allowed 100 hours (=1700 hours natural sunlight) of exposure. The increase or
decrease in tensile strength might change after a longer amount of time in the QUV machine. A
further limitation was that, because the research was conducted in the winter it was not possible
for the cloth to be tested on a real sunfish sailboat on the water. Finally, because the organza had
too low a stretch resistance, it was necessary for the researchers to stretch the cloth before clamping
it in the Vwick-Roell machine causing the graph to show a greater stretch resistance for this
particular type of cloth than it actually had.
It was assumed that the testing mimicked the real world application of the sail because it is
used frequently in the industry to test sailcloth. The second assumption that was made was that the
new sailcloth had to be light so it would not cause the sunfish to capsize.
Applications and Future Experiments
Dilon-Organza will allow people to have sails that will last longer, and will get stronger
when they are exposed to UV light. With the invention of Dilon-Organza sunfish sails, beginning
sailors, as well as summer recreational parks and clubs will no longer have to worry about putting
their boats in the shade of covering them to minimize the damage of UV light. Sailors will also be
able to use their sails in good working order for longer before having to replace them. If Dilon-
Organza is manufactured and widely produced it will also be possible for sailors to choose colored
sails in various patterns which will be just as visually appealing as their Dacron counterparts.
Dilon-Organza could be used for any small recreational boat, up to approximately 20 feet in length.
The researcher is currently looking into making a laminate version of Dilon-Organza using
a heat and pressure treating process to combine the two types of sailcloth. This would allow the
researcher to use a much smaller amount of rubber cement so the Dilon-Organza would still
increase in tensile strength when exposed to UV light but would not be as expensive or heavy. If
a laminate Dilon-Organza were created it would greatly increase in tensile strength when exposed
to UV light, as well as being lightweight, inexpensive, strong, and weatherable. This would allow
Dilon-Organza to replace Dacron on the market for sunfish sailcloth because it would be a superior
sailcloth in almost every aspect. The researcher is also planning to patent Dilon-Organza. As a
future extension, the cause of Dilon-Organza’s increase in tensile strength could be researched to
determine how this property of Dilon-Organza could be used in other types of sailcloth. DilonOrganza could be left in the UVQ machine for increments of 400 and 600 hours to see if the
increase in tensile strength will continue. A sail made out of Dilon-Organza could be created and
the cloth could be tested on the water. There are many extensions to this research and this cloth
has many applications that would benefit sailors all over the world.
Literature Cited
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http://www.dawn.com/news/617729/sailboat-history-timeline
The Mutihull Company. (n.d.). What is in Your Sail Repair Toolkit. Retrieved November 29,
2014 from http://www.multihullcompany.com/Article/What_is_in_Your_Sail_Repair_Toolkit
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http://www.sailing.org/olympics/london2012/basics/background_and_history.php
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Matthews, J, M. (1907). The Textile Fibers, Their Physical, Microscopical and Chemical
Properties. Chapter 1
Doyle Sails. (n.d.). Sail Design Process. Retrieved October 22, 2014 from
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McIntyre, J. (1985). Polyester Fibres. In M. Lewin and E. Pearce (Eds.), Handbook of Fiber
Science and Technology: Volume IV Fiber Chemistry (pp. 1 – 68). 270 Madison Avenue, New
York 10016: Marcel Dekker, Inc.
Elvstrom Sails. (n.d.). Materials – Yarns. Retrieved December 23, 2014 from
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3_data1.pdf
Images
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http://www.nabataea.net/sailing.html
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fkc8%2BJjG5O6aCvOzXlFpsPyAo9CRY2303eZdM9xPplt8vzeA%3D%3D
Appendices
Laminate Stretch Test Report- 49er 3 mil Custom Laminate- 54”
Legends
Legends
Legends
warp 0°
Nr
1
condition
10 lbf
25 lbf
50 lbf
100 lbf
200 lbf
Lab
2.4
5.5
10.3
17.5
29.6
fill 90°
Nr
2
condition
10 lbf
25 lbf
50 lbf
100 lbf
200 lbf
Lab
3.5
8.3
17.0
-
-
bias 45°
Nr
3
condition
10 lbf
25 lbf
50 lbf
100 lbf
200 lbf
Lab
3.7
8.8
17.9
84.2
-
1%
lbf
86.5
1%
lbf
46.9
1%
lbf
44.5
Laminate Stretch Test Report- Flex Black 15-54”
Legends
Legends
Legends
warp 0°
Nr
1
condition
10 lbf
25 lbf
50 lbf
100 lbf
200 lbf
Lab
3.9
7.5
11.0
16.5
27.9
fill 90°
Nr
2
condition
10 lbf
25 lbf
50 lbf
100 lbf
200 lbf
Lab
2.3
4.5
6.9
11.1
20.4
bias 45°
Nr
3
condition
10 lbf
25 lbf
50 lbf
100 lbf
200 lbf
Lab
4.9
10.7
20.5
-
-
1%
lbf
93.4
1%
lbf
153.3
1%
lbf
39.0
Laminate Stretch Test Report- PXO5 IT TI02- 54”
Legends
Legends
warp 0°
Nr
1
condition
10 lbf
25 lbf
50 lbf
100 lbf
200 lbf
Lab
2.0
4.9
9.9
23.3
102.0
fill 90°
Nr
condition
10 lbf
25 lbf
50 lbf
100 lbf
200 lbf
1%
lbf
75.0
1%
lbf
Legends
2
Lab
5.0
12.2
26.8
-
-
32.1
bias 45°
Nr
3
condition
10 lbf
25 lbf
50 lbf
100 lbf
200 lbf
Lab
6.1
15.7
41.4
-
-
1%
lbf
25.1
Woven Stretch Test Report- Dacron 170 TNF
Legends
Legends
Legends
warp 0°
Nr
1
2
condition
10 lbf
25 lbf
50 lbf
100 lbf
200 lbf
lab
flutter
3.0
3.7
7.8
9.1
17.0
19.1
65.5
72.0
-
fill 90°
Nr
3
4
condition
10 lbf
25 lbf
50 lbf
100 lbf
200 lbf
lab
flutter
2.1
2.7
5.6
6.8
12.3
14.8
82.3
83.8
-
10 lbf
25 lbf
50 lbf
100 lbf
200 lbf
5.7
7.4
16.2
19.8
57.9
-
-
-
bias 45° condition
Nr
5
lab
6
flutter
1%
lbf
47.0
42.5
1%
lbf
57.1
52.0
1%
lbf
24.4
20.5
Woven Stretch Test Report- 284 Pro Radial- 54”
Legends
Legends
Legends
warp 0°
Nr
1
condition
10 lbf
25 lbf
50 lbf
100 lbf
200 lbf
flutter
2.0
4.5
8.8
19.1
71.7
fill 90°
Nr
3
condition
10 lbf
25 lbf
50 lbf
100 lbf
200 lbf
flutter
4.2
8.6
16.3
58.4
-
bias 45°
Nr
4
condition
10 lbf
25 lbf
50 lbf
100 lbf
200 lbf
flutter
4.9
13.5
33.9
-
-
1%
lbf
85.8
1%
lbf
48.5
1%
lbf
28.6
Woven Stretch Test Report- Dilon-Organza
Legends
warp 0°
Nr
1
2
condition
10 lbf
25 lbf
50 lbf
100 lbf
200 lbf
lab
flutter
7.0
8.0
18.1
19.8
48.3
49.1
-
-
1%
lbf
22.2
20.2
Legends
Legends
fill 90°
Nr
3
4
condition
10 lbf
25 lbf
50 lbf
100 lbf
200 lbf
lab
flutter
5.6
4.8
11.9
10.9
23.9
22.7
86.8
83.5
-
bias 45°
Nr
5
6
condition
10 lbf
25 lbf
50 lbf
100 lbf
200 lbf
lab
flutter
24.9
29.2
-
-
-
-
1%
lbf
34.1
36.4
1%
lbf
6.9
6.1
Woven Stretch Test Report- Dilon 150
Woven Stretch Test Report- Organza
Legends
Legends
Legends
warp 0°
Nr
1
2
condition
10 lbf
25 lbf
50 lbf
100 lbf
200 lbf
lab
flutter
46.3
47.8
-
-
-
-
fill 90°
Nr
3
4
condition
10 lbf
25 lbf
50 lbf
100 lbf
200 lbf
lab
flutter
12.9
16.9
46.4
50.7
-
-
-
bias 45°
Nr
9
10
condition
10 lbf
25 lbf
50 lbf
100 lbf
200 lbf
lab
flutter
95.8
-
-
-
-
-
1%
lbf
4.3
4.1
1%
lbf
12.0
9.3
1%
lbf
1.2
0.9
Tensile Strength Test Report- 49er 3 Mil Custom Laminate- 54”
Legends
Legends
warp 0° condition Fmax pro 5cm L Fmax
Nr
lbf
in
1
lab
271.64
0.10
2
lab
317.38
0.10
3
lab
340.36
0.12
Nr
lbf
in
4
UV
173.11
0.06
5
UV
158.30
0.05
6
UV
153.93
0.05
Tensile Strength Test Report- Flex Black 15- 54”
Legends
Legends
Nr
lbf
in
1
lab
426.10
0.14
2
lab
480.17
0.16
3
lab
500.55
0.17
Nr
lbf
in
4
UV
506.36
0.19
5
UV
456.97
0.17
6
UV
501.45
0.18
Tensile Strength Test Report- PX05 IT TI02- 54”
Legends
Legends
Nr
lbf
in
1
lab
401.00
0.60
2
lab
386.65
0.59
3
lab
424.96
0.66
fill 90° condition Fmax pro 5cm L Fmax
Nr
lbf
in
4
UV
358.15
0.61
5
UV
351.48
0.56
6
UV
359.05
0.58
Tensile Strength Test Report- Dacron 170 TNF
Legends
Nr
lbf
in
3
lab
278.35
0.81
4
lab
264.32
0.73
5
lab
243.06
0.61
Legends
Nr
lbf
in
6
UV
194.02
0.63
7
UV
179.80
0.49
8
UV
205.37
0.63
Tensile Strength Test Report- 284 Pro Radial- 54”
Legends
Legends
fill 90° condition Fmax pro 5cm L Fmax
Nr
lbf
in
1
lab
535.04
0.68
2
lab
502.38
0.64
3
lab
497.81
0.63
Nr
lbf
in
4
UV
544.37
0.72
5
UV
526.05
0.69
6
UV
495.80
0.66
Tensile Strength Test Report- Dilon-Organza
Legends
Legends
warp 0°
Nr
1
2
3
condition
Fmax pro 5cm L Fmax
lbf
in
CONTROL
229.86
0.93
CONTROL
202.60
0.76
CONTROL
195.63
0.73
Nr
lbf
in
4
UV
245.43
1.00
5
UV
247.24
0.93
6
UV
247.95
1.00
Tensile Strength Test Report- Dilon 150
Legends
Legends
warp 0°
Nr
1
2
3
condition
Fmax pro 5cm L Fmax
lbf
in
CONTROL
148.84
0.92
CONTROL
145.04
0.89
CONTROL
148.42
0.85
Nr
lbf
in
4
UV
134.97
0.69
5
UV
133.88
0.68
6
UV
133.66
0.74
Tensile Strength Test Report- Organza
Legends
Legends
warp 0°
Nr
3
4
5
condition
Fmax pro 5cm L Fmax
lbf
in
CONTROL
38.89
0.59
CONTROL
36.97
0.54
CONTROL
34.46
0.48
Nr
lbf
in
6
UV
27.76
0.43
7
UV
26.62
0.37
8
UV
29.31
0.43
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank several mentors who assisted in various aspects of this project:
Mrs. Julia Nasrani-Wildfong for her guidance and advice in both researching and engineering.
Mrs. Borowski for guiding her in the process of Science and Technical writing and correcting and
giving feedback on her paper. Ms. Kathy Duquette for helping her in the lab at Dimension Polyant
sailcloth producers. Mr. Tom D’Albora and Mr. Moose McClintock from Dimension Polyant gave
her advice and materials and shared their extensive knowledge in sailing and sailcloth
manufacturing with her. Mr. Chris Howes and Mr. Greg Marie from Doyle Sailmakers gave her
information about how sails are made and what causes sails to tear and also gave her a tour of the
sail loft and a demonstration of the sail design process. In addition to Dimension Polyant and Doyle
sailmakers, the author would like to thank Sperry sails for giving her demonstration materials. The
staff of the Mystic Seaport Library helped her with her research, especially Ms. Maribeth and Ms.
Nancy Seager and she was glad to have the resources of such an extensive maritime collection.
Professor Li, an expert and professor of microscopy helped with the use of the Nikon stereo
microscope and allowed the author access to a lab with this technology. Mrs. Nancy Rice assisted
with sewing and shared her knowledge. Her parents contributed funding, transportation and
assistance with conducting preliminary testing. Isay Katsman constantly supported her with her
project and gave many helpful suggestions about projects in the STEM fields.

Engineering a Stronger Type of Sailcloth

Transcription

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