Winter 2015

THE QUARTERLY NEWSLETTER OF THE NEW YORK
STATE WILDLIFE REHABILITATION COUNCIL, INC.
Volume 35, Number 2
Feb. 2015
NYSWRC Board Meetings are open to everyone.
E-mail Kelly Martin,
President
Too Cold!, Too Long!, Too Much! by Beverly Jones
2015 NYSWRC Annual
Conference
Nov. 6-8 in Syracuse
NYSWRC Board of Directors
Kelly Martin, President
[email protected]
Barb Hollands, Vice Pres.
[email protected]
Cheryl Hoople, Secretary
[email protected]
Amy Freiman, Treasurer & Release
[email protected]
Jean Alden, Membership
[email protected]
Barb Cole
[email protected]
Maggie Ciarcia
[email protected]
Virginia Frati
[email protected]
Sue Heighling
[email protected]
Beverly Jones
[email protected]
Ellen Kalish
[email protected]
Terri Murphy
[email protected]
Veronica Serwacki
[email protected]
Lauren Schulz Eddings
[email protected]
Matt Zymanek
[email protected]
Advisory Board:
Andrea Sammarco, Attorney at Law
George Kollias, DVM, PhD
Noha Abou-Madi, DVM, Msc.
Karen Moran, DVM
Webmaster: Molly Gallagher
[email protected]
www.NYSWRC.org
Back issues of Release are available in color online.
Many of you may have read the press release that was sent out
by the DEC in March of 2014. The report stated that
thousands of dead ducks were observed along the shore waters
of Lake Erie and the Niagara River. Sightings of dead ducks
were reported as far East as Irondequoit Bay on Lake Ontario.
The DEC’s Wildlife Health Unit examined hundreds of dead
birds and diagnostic testing did not reveal any infectious
diseases. Starvation was listed as the primary cause of death.
The die off was determined to be a natural, weather-related
event due to extreme and prolonged cold temperatures. This
article will share with you the experiences of the SPCA
Wildlife Department during this water bird crisis.
In Western New York, the winter bird migration is dominated
by the arrival of hundreds of thousands of diving ducks.
These birds summer in Alaska and in the Northern Canadian
Shield. The birds begin to arrive around the middle of
December with their peak numbers occurring in the middle of
January, and most will depart by the end of March. Local
DEC wildlife biologists perform annual winter waterfowl
surveys during the winter months in order to monitor bird
populations over time.
Diving ducks are specialty birds that live their entire lives on
the water. 250,000-350,000 birds arrive annually to winter on
the Niagara River and Lake Erie. The Buffalo area is a
magnet for these migratory diving ducks for two essential
reasons, one because it has open water and two because it
offers an abundant food supply. Open water is created by the
New York Power Authority’s Ice boom that stretches across
the head water of the Niagara River. This ice boom was put in
place in 1961 in order to keep the Niagara River and Niagara
Falls free of ice buildup from Lake Erie. Water remains open
in the Dunkirk harbor, located on Lake Erie, 40 miles south
west of Buffalo due to the nearby Dunkirk Power Plant. The
steam generator power plant draws in cold water from the lake
to cool their equipment. The water is warmed in the process
and is then returned to the lake.
Editor’s note:
I welcome your articles, poems, information, questions and artwork. We are pleased to print articles from our members,
but caution each reader that NYSWRC is not responsible for the accuracy of the content or information provided, and
does not necessarily endorse the policies proposed. Submissions should be sent to: [email protected]
Page 2
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The second important factor for the birds is food
availability. While some species of water birds like
canvasbacks do eat plant vegetation and some species like
scaups eat mussels, diving ducks are primarily fish eaters.
Every one of these migratory water birds needs fish in the
winter to fuel their metabolisms. Lake Erie is a highly
productive lake, and as such, allows for the creation of a
“fish factory” of emerald shiners. Wintering water birds
thrive on the massive volume of fish which are available to
them all winter long. The open water and abundant fish
supply are what congregate the migratory birds. Because of
the high number of water birds in the area, this corridor is
designated as a globally significant Important Bird Area or
IBA. There are only 75 IBA’s in the lower 48 States. So
why then, was Buffalo not the usual haven for migratory
diving ducks during the winter of 2014?
The answer is due to the arrival of the Polar Vortex. The
Polar Vortex is an area of low pressure, dense arctic air
which spins in a circular pattern with wind speeds up to 100
mph. This Vortex is semi-permanent, is often in place at
the poles and is strongest during the winter. Beginning in
early January of 2014, powerful high pressure system
originating in the Eastern Pacific stretched to the North
Pole and shoved part of the Polar Vortex South and deep
into the United States. This shift of Arctic air created
temperatures so low that they shattered many of the all-time
low temperature records kept by many states. When the
strong air from this system weakened and fell apart, the
Polar Vortex retreated back to the North Pole, returning
areas to “historically” normal temperatures.
Due to the Polar Vortex, ice cover on the Great lakes
reached historic levels. Peak ice hit on March 6th when
92% of the Great Lakes were frozen over. By early
January, the arctic air caused the Niagara River to
completely freeze in many locations and in other places,
shoreline ice reached 200 feet out into the river. The long
lasting extreme cold created expansive and persistent ice
cover and ice shelves. In a typical winter, the water will
freeze but the ice will break up after a few days. But the
winter of 2014 was anything but typical. To follow the
impact of the Polar Vortex on the migrating diving ducks,
we will take a walk through the winter calendar month
by month.
The already frigid weather worsened when Buffalo was hit
by a blizzard on January 7th. A blizzard has strong
sustained winds of 35 mph or greater which last for a period
of 3 hours or longer, is accompanied by frigid temperatures
and creates a visibility of less than a quarter mile. The air
temperature during the January blizzard was minus 5
degrees with a wind chill of minus 28 degrees. These
temperatures tied the 1942 record of coldest blizzard on
record. Lake effect snow dumped 7-14” of snow around
the Niagara Falls/Greater Buffalo area and up to 24” of
snow in the south towns. All of Erie County was in a State
of Emergency. Prior to this storm, the last declared
blizzard to hit Buffalo was in 1993.
On January 8th, the day after the blizzard 6 diving ducks
arrived at the SPCA Serving Erie County Wildlife
Department. This group of water birds included two horned
grebes, one red necked grebe, one red throated loon, a
common loon and a ruddy duck. Because of the strong winds
the night before, we were not surprised that these birds were
found stranded on the ground away from water. The 3 grebes
and red throated loon were in good weight, had great water
proofing and were feisty. The common loon and ruddy duck
were strong, but a bit thin. All were checked for water
proofing and were fed live fish which they ate ravenously. It
was decided that the grebes and red throated loon would be
released the next day but the ruddy duck and common loon
would stay in the wildlife hospital awhile longer.
Diving ducks are specialty birds for many reasons, but one of
the things that make them unique is their inability to manage
land well. Some of these birds walk poorly on land while
others cannot walk on land at all. So to release these birds,
they must be placed directly into water. Because our usual
release locations into Lake Erie and the Niagara River were
frozen over, we contacted our local Coast Guard to see if they
could help us get the birds to open water. They explained
they were unable to do this because their rescue boat was
frozen into the ice and rescues were being done only by
helicopter. To their thinking, our dilemma did not warrant
taking diving ducks out for a helicopter ride.
Our next thought was to drive the birds to the Dunkirk boat
harbor for release as we have had great luck with that location
in the past. When we arrived at the dock, we were
disappointed to discover that the power plant was in low
operation and very little warm water was being returned to the
harbor. There were pockets of open water with lots of birds
within the harbor but the shore line and the water surrounding
the docks was beginning to freeze. Because skim ice was
preventing us from lowering the birds into the water from the
dock, Jean Alden and I drove around town looking for
something to help us open up the water. We found a house
under construction where we dug through large mounds of
frozen earth in search of large stones and big chunks of frozen
dirt. We loaded up the back of Jean’s SUV and raced back to
the harbor before our dirt bricks melted into mud. We began
hurling the debris through the skim ice which drew the
attention of a nature photographer who was on the dock in
search of cool things to photograph. Apparently he found us
to be as interesting as the birds because he stayed with us to
watch. So, after much effort on our part, we finally opened up
the water enough to release the birds.
The release went well as all of the birds landed directly in the
water. We did have an “Oh-no” moment when one of the
horned grebes lifted out of the water and landed on an ice
shelf. We had always been told that loons and grebes need
open water in order to take flight so we became very
concerned that the little guy was now stranded. Fortunately,
we soon learned that either this theory does not apply to light
weight grebes or that it does not apply to ice shelves in
general because we were delighted to watch the little grebe lift
Too Cold!, Too Long!, Too Much!
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himself up and fly away. Happily we had a nature
photographer along to document the event.
Four more birds were admitted over the next couple of days.
Two of these birds were strong with great water proofing so
they went back out to open water. Two had medical
problems so they had to stay. The common loon and ruddy
duck from our original group of 6 were doing great and they
were released on January 13th. We had released 8 of the 10
birds admitted thus far so we were feeling pretty good about
things, but this feeling came to sudden end with the
admission of more diving ducks late January and early
February.
Our concern was that two of the next four birds that came in
were emaciated and weak and died two days after
admission. The other two were very thin but were strong
enough to survive. Still ignorant of the water bird crisis, we
reasoned that since the birds were found in suburban back
yards, they must have come down accidentally and been
stranded for a few days before being noticed. By the time
the two surviving birds were ready for release, the Dunkirk
harbor was nearly frozen over as was most of Lake Erie.
Access to the Niagara River was still very limited. We
could reach open water in the Niagara River in a couple of
locations but that water was very fast moving and it was not
our preferred choice for a release. Fortunately, one of our
wildlife volunteers has a family connection to a local
marina. Since the US Border Patrol docks boats there, the
water is always kept open. When we went to visit the
marina, we were thrilled to see lots of diving ducks
swimming in the water. We could also see lots of emerald
shiners in the water, so we figured this was the best place to
release our stranded birds.
This became our plan of action for the next couple of weeks.
From February 1st to February 15th, we admitted 19 more
diving ducks. The majority of these birds were red breasted
mergansers and greater scaups. When a diving duck came in
to the SPCA we would give the bird a physical exam, swim
the bird to evaluate water proofing, and feed the bird several
big meals of fish. If they were strong and water proofed, we
would take them to the marina for release. Weak birds or
those with poor water proofing would stay with us for
treatment until they were in good shape. Knowing we could
not possibly house all of the birds that came in to us for the
long term, we thought this to have been a pretty good plan,
but we were really beginning to worry because the birds did
not stop coming. We could not figure out why they were still
being admitted in numbers like we had never before seen.
As time went on the birds were arriving with body
conditions that were getting worse and worse.
We sent several carcasses to the DEC’s Wildlife Health
Unit for necropsy where it was determined that the cause of
death was starvation. We suspected this to be the case as the
birds were responding very well to supportive care and good
nutrition.
By this time, diving ducks were being reported in places
where they had never before been seen. They were on
creeks and small rivers and any place where there was open
water. It was frightening to know that the starving birds
were leaving the Niagara River in search of food elsewhere.
A duck hunter reported seeing 350 red heads, which eat
only fish and river vegetation, land in a corn field to eat the
corn. Water birds were found in wood lots and back yards
and on roads and highways. The birds were flying around
in search of open water and food until they were completely
out of energy and then would literally fall out of the sky and
hit the ground exhausted.
We wondered if the birds were starving because there was a
crash in the fish population or if it was because the ice
shelves and ice cover were preventing the birds from
getting to the fish. We learned through the DEC that the
problem was the ice, not the fish. The fish were plentiful,
but they were hiding under the massive ice shelves out of
reach of the diving ducks. I heard of an ice fisherman who
went out on the river to fish. As soon as he made a hole in
the ice to drop his line, his hole was overrun with diving
ducks trying to push themselves into the water. He soon
left his fishing hole because it broke his heart to watch the
starving, and desperate birds in their frantic search for food.
The last two weeks of February presented us with another
48 diving ducks. All of these birds were emaciated and
weak with little or no water proofing. Some of the birds
died shortly after admission and others were immediately
euthanized as death was certain. DEC Wildlife biologist,
Connie Adams who was collecting deceased waterfowl by
the truck load was quoted as saying:
“This is unprecedented. We’ve never seen anything like
this. We are contributing it to prolonged ice cover for an
extended period of time. I knew it was going to be bad
when I was first alerted to the situation, but it is worse
than I thought.”
By now, we knew that a release at the marina was no longer
the safe haven we once thought it to be. The number of live
birds on the water had greatly diminished and there were
numerous dead birds visible on the ice near the docks. We
kept hoping that the weather would break so the ice would
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melt and food could become available but the cold
temperatures marched steadily on… We had now reached
the first of March. We were mentally and physically
exhausted as well as emotionally drained.
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On March 3rd , I sent an e-mail to Erica Miller titled “Water
bird overload situation—do not read if you are already
depressed.” We were wondering if she was seeing this
same kind of die off in the Delaware area. Less than an
hour later, Erica sent back a reply that was full of support,
suggestions and connections. Erica said they were only
seeing a high mortality rate in American coots and that few
of the birds were surviving to make it into rehab. Erica
forwarded our sad story along to Sarah Tegtmeier. Sarah
is a global oil spill response coordinator for Tri-State Bird
Rescue and Research, Inc. Sarah quickly e-mailed back
that she was at a conference in New Hampshire and that
she and her co-worker, Ryan Wheeler could be with us by
the week’s end. On March 7th, Sarah and Ryan walked into
the SPCA full of support, enthusiasm, energy and a plan to
streamline our process of rehabilitating starving water
birds. They were exactly what burned out rehabilitators
needed.
Sarah and Ryan’s big tour consisted of a walk through the
SPCA, a drive to see the frozen river and marina and a stop
at the local bait shop to buy more shiners. The SPCA
wildlife hospital consists of 4 small rooms that are 10 x 10’
in size. It was comforting and a boost for our morale to
hear Sarah compliment us on our set up for managing the
water bird crisis in such a small space. Sarah’s kind and
warm words had me realize that it is as helpful and
necessary to hear what you are doing well as it is
helpful and necessary to learn how you can do things
better. The set ups and methods we were using were all
taught to us by Erica and Sarah at past NYSWRC and
NWRA conferences, so she was able see firsthand the
positive impact of their lectures and workshops.
Sarah and Ryan contributed to us in many amazing ways.
They went shopping at Home Depot and returned with
supplies so that Ryan could build us two collapsible swim
pools. The smaller was 4’x4’x2’ in size and the larger
4’x8’x2’ in size. Up until then, we had only one large
swim tub and two very large plastic totes for swimming
birds. Sarah taught us how to get the diving ducks to eat
dead smelt which greatly reduced the amount of live fish
we needed to purchase. She also showed us how many
smelt each bird should be eating per feeding so we knew
how much to supplement until they were eating enough on
their own.
Sarah helped us to create a method for keeping track of
how each bird was progressing and how to move the birds
along so they could obtain appropriate water proofing more
quickly. She provided us with helpful euthanasia
guidelines so we could better triage the severe cases that
we were receiving. She also gave us release criteria to give
the birds the best chance of survival after release. Sarah
and Ryan also spent time talking with area rehabilitators
from Messinger Woods, Hawk Creek and Wild Kritters of
Niagara County who stopped by to watch and to learn.
They shared with them the work they were doing with us
and answered any questions they had. They were a bright
light in our darkest days and it was wonderful to have
them with us.
Within the first two weeks of March another 64 diving
ducks were admitted. Although by now we had our water
bird protocol well organized and we felt confident in the
knowledge of the care each bird required, we were still
taking in more birds than we had the ability to reasonably
manage. We were also very upset at the thought of
putting all of this effort into the birds only to release them
back onto empty water to die of hunger. I had commented
to Sarah as we were looking at birds that were good for
release, that with oil spill situations the birds are treated
and then released into clean water, and they are not
returned to an oily ocean.
Holding these birds until a spring thaw was not an option
for us. Keeping them in captivity in small enclosures for
extended periods of time was stressful for them.
Maintaining their water proofing was also very difficult.
Once they achieved good water proofing did not mean that
it would stay that way. They could easily backslide if
their swim schedules were disrupted or if they became
soiled. We were also concerned that the birds could
eventually develop feet or keel issues despite being kept
on loon beds and in water as much as possible. We also
did not have the space to house lots of diving ducks long
term.
It was suggested we send out a call to all federally
licensed rehabilitators in the state and have everyone take
a couple of birds. The concern there was that these birds
are not at all like mallards and Canada geese. They are
very difficult to manage without the proper training and
set up. We did not feel it was the right thing to do to the
birds or to the rehabbers. We had rehabilitators with
experience in the care of dabbling ducks bring us diving
ducks after doing their best with them, and it was
heartbreaking to look at the birds and to see that despite
how hard the rehabbers tried, they just did not have the
experience or equipment to care for the birds
appropriately. We did transfer out several birds but only
to rehabilitators that had experience with diving ducks.
On March 11th, I contacted Joe Therrien from Special
Licenses at the DEC and explained our situation. I shared
that we were most tormented by the fact that we did not
feel we had a viable release location for these birds after
we brought them back to strength. Joe was very
understanding and supportive and immediately reached
out to others in the DEC for suggestions. The next day I
received a phone call from Beth Bunting from the Animal
Health Diagnostic Laboratory at Cornell. She too was
wonderfully supportive and caring. She was in contact
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with DEC regional managers for possible release locations
into the Finger Lakes area. Meanwhile, back at the
ranch…A second blizzard hit on March 12th. During this
blizzard, 14 inches of snow fell in the city of Buffalo and
air temperatures reached a high of only 20 degrees. By the
end of this storm, the season snowfall total reached 120.5
inches, 2 feet more than average. On March 14th Beth
phoned to say we had permission from the DEC to relocate
birds to Cayuga Lake. The water was open and there were
no reports of lots of dead birds so it appeared to be a good
option. Beth gave us directions and said she would meet us
to help with the release.
Two days later, Paula Jaszka and Madalyn Fliesler, SPCA
wildlife volunteers, drove 8 SPCA birds and 4 area
rehabilitator’s birds to Cayuga Lake for release. On March
18thKaren Moran, our wildlife veterinarian, spent her
birthday driving to Ithaca to release 3 SPCA birds and to
transfer 2 SPCA birds and 1 area rehabber bird to the
Cornell Wildlife Clinic. Karen arrived at the release
location on Cayuga Lake to find 3 dead birds on shore, a
Red head, a Greater Scaup and a Canvas Back. There were
not any Redheads released two days before so we knew
that bird was not from Buffalo, but the bird was thin so we
did not take that as good sign. The Greater Scaup was in
good weight and all of the Buffalo birds released were still
thin so we knew that bird was not from our release either,
and we took his healthy weight as a good sign. The
Canvasback, however, had paint on his head so we knew
that bird was a Buffalo bird and that made us very sad.
Two days after Karen’s trip, Jean and I drove 5 SPCA birds
and 2 area rehabilitator’s birds to Syracuse for transfer to
Jean Soprano. Jean had experience with diving ducks so
she kept a few and then transferred the others to another
rehabber that she knew who had experience as well. We
were very grateful to Beth Bunting for helping us move
some birds out of the area. But, we were still deeply
concerned about the chance of survival for the rehabilitated
water birds.
On March 22nd at 3 AM, I sent an e-mail to Karen titled
Can’t sleep.
“Can’t sleep… don’t know how long I laid there before
finally getting up… I am sitting here having another melt
down… crying... I can’t get the birds out of my head… I
just don’t feel good about any of it… and I feel like I am
supposed to be enthusiastic and cheerful and motivating
for others and I really feel like curling up into a ball.
Perhaps I am making myself too significant… I watched
a great documentary yesterday on Net-Flix called “I am”.
It is about a film director that had a life changing
experience that caused him to really take a look at what
is important in this world, and it goes into how all things
are connected, all life forms on this planet, and how we
humans separate ourselves from nature—and it will be
the end of us if we continue on our current path. But his
point was that it is not too late. It was really inspiring
and made me feel better for a while, until I started
thinking about the water birds again…”
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Karen responded,
“ I understand your pain. We sure are trying our hardest
and draining ourselves physically and mentally over
these birds, but I can never be happy when I say we
released some. I have to pretend to be excited for the
sake of those asking about it. I just have to hope that a
few manage to overcome the odds and that we gave them
enough strength and waterproofing that they could
survive out there and find food. Anyway, I don’t know
if knowing that I feel the same way helps.”
On March 15th we admitted 11 diving ducks. This was the
highest number admitted in a single day, and it was a very
dark and bleak day for us in wildlife. But then, between
March 16thand March 30th we admitted only 11 more
birds. The crisis seemed to have ended as quickly as it
began. For those of you who have never rehabilitated a
loon, grebe or diving duck you may be wondering what is
so difficult about them. We will now walk you through the
work involved in caring for these specialty birds.
Sarah, Ryan and Dr. Moran at washing station
These are the steps that each of our birds went through
upon admission:



Perform physical exam (ALWAYS wear latex gloves)
Obtain temperature, weight and blood for a PCV
Assess hydration status and administer SQ fluids if
necessary
 Evaluate PCV, total solids and the buffy coat
PCV, packed cell volume: This tells you the amount of red
blood cells in the blood and shows level of anemia
Total solids: This tells the amount of protein in the bloodshows degree of emaciation
Buffy coat: This tells the amount of white blood cells in
the blood-indicates infection
 Consider euthanasia if Temperature is in the low 90’s
and PCV is < 10%
 If anemic, treat with Liqutinic. Recheck the PVC in 3
days to reassess for continuation of iron. Do not give
Iron dextran or IM injections initially as it can cause
muscle damage if the bird is too thin.
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Administer Vit. B orally
Give one dose of Vit. E if the bird was stressed during
capture (capture myopathy)
Place bird on Itraconazole to prevent aspergillosis.
Check fecal
If the bird has lice, use powder instead of spray
If cold, put into incubator set at 90 degrees and check
temperature every hour. Remove from incubator when
body temp reaches 102 degrees
would not eat, then we would offer live fish in a bowl with a
food guard. We would also offer krill, meal worms, blood
worms and Mazuri diet.
The fun part of diving bird care was learning from Sarah the
“How to train your bird to eat dead fish” game. You need to
wiggle the fish back and forth in the bird’s face several times
and then toss the fish into the water in front of them. You
need to be patient as it can take a few sessions before the
bird picks up on it. Once they start eating the dead fish, toss
one fish at a time into the swim tub at the end of the swim
session. Red Breasted Mergansers were the most fun to feed
because they would take the smelt right from your hand and
suck them down like pasta. Scaups were much messier
eaters as they would smack their bills on them and masticate
them as they went down.
We would spray birds with water after removing them from
the swim tub and placing them back on net beds as smelt are
very greasy. You do not want to leave dead fish in the swim
tub with the bird because dead fish secrete a slime coat that
will soil the feathers. It is critical that you use an over flow
tub for swimming and feeding.
Loon on “loon bed”
Diving ducks require many special features in order to be
housed correctly. All birds must be placed on loon beds
made of netting. You never want to leave them on blankets
or towels as they will soil themselves which will damage
their water proofing. Prior to the crisis, we only had two
loon beds in the hospital. We quickly realized that we
needed many more. Fortunately Karen likes to MacGyver
things so she managed to create an assembly line in her
living room to produce eight new beds.
Diving ducks are social birds who usually like the company
of their own species. We typically housed two together in a
medium sized shore line cage or three in a large shore line
cage when appropriate and necessary. Opaque plastic
covers were placed on the doors of the enclosures to allow
light through but acted as a visual barrier for the birds.
When putting food into the enclosures with the birds, we
discovered that you need to place plastic guards on all the
dishes. This will prevent the birds from sitting in their food
bowls and becoming soiled.
If the bird was weak and emaciated upon admission, we
would tube feed 50% diluted Emeraide Piscivore for the first
two feedings then switch to full strength. We would keep the
bird on a tube diet for several days and start feeding fish
when the bird is stronger. If the bird was strong and thin we
would, give 100% Emeraide Piscivore and offer solid food
immediately. We would tube feed for a couple of days along
with the fish. When the bird was eating fish well, we would
discontinue the tube feeding. We would try to hand feed
whole lake smelt at the end of a bird’s swim time. If the bird
It is estimated that in the wild, a diving duck will consume
20% of its body weight in fish per day. Our goal was to try
to get 20% of the bird’s average healthy weight, not
incoming emaciated weight, of food into the bird per day.
Meal plan with live fish: (Before Sarah arrived)
greater scaup (950 gr.) 25 cc piscivore, 1/8 cup meal worms,
1 TBS krill and 40 grams live fish TID
red breasted merganser (1000 gr) 30 cc piscivore , 1/8 cup
meal worms and 40 grams live fish TID
canvasback (1200gr.) 35 cc piscivore, 1/8 cup meal worms,
¼ cup mazuri and 50 grams live fish TID
horned grebe ( 475 gr) 10 cc piscivore and 30 grams live fish
TID.
Meal plan with dead fish: (After Sarah arrived)
greater scaup (950 gr.) 7-8 (75 gr.) Lake smelt, Krill and
meal worms TID
red breasted merganser (1000 gr.) 10-12 (110 gr) Lake
smelt, meal worms TID
canvasback (1200 gr.) 13-15 (140 gr.) Lake smelt, meal
worms, Mazuri diet TID
(If the birds ate under this amount, they were supplemented
with tube feedings)
We know the birds would have eaten more live fish than we
fed them but we did not have the ability to give them live
fish until they did not want any more. Because of expense
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and availability, we had to ration the fish and supplement
with piscivore, meal worms and Krill. Things were
simplified dramatically when Sarah arrived and we
switched to lake smelt. Each smelt weighs about 10 grams
vs the emerald shiners that only weighed a couple of grams.
The smelt were also far cheaper and easier to purchase. We
do not have an accurate estimate for the amount of money
we spent on live fish as wildlife volunteers were
continuously donating fish or money to purchase fish. We
do know, that despite these supplemental deliveries, for two
months the SPCA wildlife department was making daily
trips to the nearby bait store and purchasing three scoops of
live fish for $18. At times, we would frequent several bait
shops in one day if our local bait shop ran out.
It was frustrating to discover that even when the birds ate all
of the fish they wanted, which was 20% or greater of their
healthy weight in food per day, they still were not putting
on significant amounts of weight. This can be seen from the
following few examples:
SPCA Wildlife Hospital:
horned grebe 7 days 349/339g
greater scaup 6 days 686/642
ted head 5 days 613/635
greater scaup 5 days 593/580
greater scaup 5 days 597/592
greater scaup 11 days 582/647
greater scaup 18 days 767/739
greater scaup 8 days 559/594
greater scaup 14 days 733/688
yundra swan 32 days 3.7kg-4.7kg
Cornell Wildlife Clinic:
greater scaup 12 days 523/586
greater scaup 12 days 657/707
canvasback died despite two blood transfusions to treat
anemia.
We concluded that because the birds were so starved, that it
would take a very, very long time to get these birds back to
good weight if it was possible to do at all in captivity. Most
of the birds were coming in weighing nearly half of what
they should weigh. The risk of a lengthy amount of time in
captivity could compromise them in other ways. It was
disheartening to know that we were still releasing the birds
with emaciated weights. An even bigger challenge than
feeding was restoring their water proofing.
Restoring and maintaining water proofing was very difficult
work. Before Sarah and Ryan came to visit, we were using
2 large totes with wheels and one large swim tub with an
over flow system. Because we were trying to swim about
20 birds, we were sometimes doing 60 water changes a day.
These totes had to be pulled out of our wildlife room and
into the garage so they could be dumped, cleaned, refilled
and dragged back into wildlife. This was back breaking
work. Halfway through the crisis, carts were made for the
totes which helped significantly. Things were much better
after the creation of the two new swim pools, as we could
Page 7
swim multiple birds at a time for much longer periods.
We would only give a Dawn bath if the bird was very soggy
or very dirty. Swimming in an overflow tub can fix water
proofing without bathing if the bird is only surface wet. If a
bird is bathed, you cannot swim them again for 1-2 days,
instead, mist them 4 x’s a day with warm water. When it
was time to swim them, put them in water for only 10-15
minutes initially and gradually increase the swim time.
Bathing a bird is a very detailed procedure. This is not
about putting the bird in the sink, adding some soap to the
water and then rinsing them under the stream. You must
have the right water temperature, water pressure (by using
appropriate water nozzles) and the correct soap
concentration to do a proper job. The procedure is also
very stressful on the bird. So stressful, in fact, that we did
lose one bird after bathing it.
Swim time was based on the bird’s strength and feather
condition at the time of admission. These birds were so
depleted of fat that their uropygial glands could not produce
enough oil to maintain good water proofing. This added to
our concerns for release as we could not put significant
weight on them and we were not sure how well they would
do over time. We would swim the birds, monitor their
waterproofing and increase swim time as the bird improved.
It is important to note that the birds had to be completely
dry before putting them back into a tub to swim again.
We provided supplemental heat to chilled or poorly water
proofed birds through both incubators and ceramic heating
units. Maintenance staff grew a bit wary of us as we
continuously blew fuses. Cage dryers or heat lamps would
also work well. If the bird was very soggy, we did not
swim for the first day or two but instead misted the bird
with water 4 times a day. If the bird was still soggy after a
couple of days then we would consider a Dawn bath.
Now we’ll discuss the four pool swim system that we used
to restore the bird’s water proofing and we named the pools
to make them easy to identify.
The Guppy pools are two blue totes were kept in wildlife.
We started by swimming birds 5-15 minutes in the guppy
pool three times a day. The room air temperature was 72
degrees and we used warm water.
The Garage Oasis pool is a big black tub located in the
garage. The birds were placed here when stronger, where
they would swim for 20 minutes to 1 hour three times a day.
We were constantly checking on them to look for a
decrease in waterproofing to prevent them from getting
water logged. The Air temperature was about 70 degrees
and we used warm water for swimming. The pool had an
over flow with the garage hose continuously on to agitate
the surface of the water. This will keep the water surface
free of oils and contaminants.
The Heated pool is a small collapsible pool in the heated
barn room. The birds were swum here for 1-3 hours, two or
three times a day once they were eating well and had good
water proofing. The temperature in the barn was about 60
Page 8
Too Cold!, Too Long!, Too Much!
degrees. We left the barn hose running continuously with
cold water.
The Sunny pool is the large collapsible outdoor pool. When
water proofing was very good, the birds were moved to the
outdoor sunny pool for up to 6 hours. This pool also had a
hose with cold water continuously running. Ideally, you
want the birds in an outdoor tub for 24 hours before
releasing but since our birds seemed to respond quickly to
improved water proofing, Sarah felt that 6 hours was
adequate. Both pools were spot cleaned with a shop vac a
couple of times a day and both were drained, cleaned and
refilled daily. Sarah helped us to organize our swim
sessions so we knew who was going where for how long
through the use of a dry erase board. Once we had this plan
mastered, birds were being constantly moved about from
swim pool to dry dock multiple times a day. Again, with so
many birds to swim, we were having a very hard time
keeping each bird in the water for as long as they needed to
be. We created a water proofing score chart so we could
monitor how the birds were doing.
Water proofing score chart:
Scale 1 out of 4
Very poor-Bird is very soggy and rides low into the
water
Poor-The bird is surface wet, the bird rides low in the
water and the water reaches at least ½ way through
the feathers and almost to the skin, the feathers do
not curl around the surface of the body
Good-There are a few areas of surface wetness but the
feathers curl around the body
Great-There is beading of water, the bird looks dry and
rides high on the water. The feathers are dry
beneath the surface of the bird.
To check for water proofing, you really need to look at the
condition of the feathers beneath the surface as well.
The following are intake numbers and the months the birds
were admitted into the SPCA Wildlife hospital:
Jan 1st – April 30th 2013 admitted 3 common loons….
Jan 1st- April 30th 2014 admitted 159 fish eating diving
ducks
13 birds admitted in January
67 birds admitted in February
75 birds admitted in March
4 birds admitted in April
During the same 4 month time period we admitted 8 Ringbilled Gulls, 4 Canada
Geese and 14 Mallards.
The breakdown of the
159 diving ducks were as
follows:
greater scaup - 67
red breasted merganser -28
canvasback -13
horned grebe -11
bufflehead -8
red necked grebe -7
red headed duck -6
common loon -4
lesser scaup - 4
hooded merganser -3
white wing scoter -2
golden eye -2
red throated loon -1
ruddy duck -1
long tailed duck -1
tundra swan -1
Contributing rehabilitators: intake and final dispositions
SPCA Serving Erie County: 159
Released -79
Died -27
Euthanized -35
Transferred -18
Messinger woods: 47
R-36
E/D -7
T-4
Wild Kritters of Niagara County: 27
R -5
E/D - 16
T-6
Hawk creek: 25
R -24
E/D -1
NOTE- when looking at final outcomes, know that all
contributing rehabilitators worked very hard and did their
very best. Some had better success as their birds arrived
earlier and were in better condition while others received
birds late in the crisis and their birds were very debilitated.
It has been said by DEC biologists that at least a quarter of
a million birds died during this water bird crisis. This is
only an estimate because most of the dead birds were
never recovered. Many died on the ice out of reach and
many others died in the water and then sank. The DEC
biologist who does the Buffalo area winter bird survey told
me that in the seven years that he has been doing these
counts, only once did he find a dead diving duck- a female
red breasted merganser.
2014 set a record for late Ice out. The ice shelves
remained through mid-May which was well past the time
the birds would have left to migrate North. We know the
birds were physically stressed and compromised before
migration. Did they have enough in them to complete
their journey? Fortunately, this past summer had perfect
nesting conditions for those birds that did make it back.
Although there was great sadness and sorrow in this crisis,
Page 9
Too Cold!, Too Long!, Too Much!
there were also positive things learned. Through the
instruction and guidance provided by Sarah and Ryan and
the large number of birds to care for, we gained insight into
what it would be like to respond to an oil spill crisis. We no
longer shrink in fear at the sight of a single common loon.
We recently used the “Teach your bird how to eat dead fish”
game on a cormorant and found it worked like a dream. We
know that we went beyond what numbers we were capable
of adequately handling so we are now in the conversation
about setting limits. The swim pools are a gift that keeps on
giving. They were used to house 5 tortoises that arrived this
past summer in a single confiscation case along with 100
small exotic birds, 14 large parrots, 5 dogs and 6 cats.
Our most rewarding release was that of a Tundra Swan. The
swan was admitted on February 28th. She had been found
sitting on shore, watching the other swans out in the River.
X-rays and blood work confirmed that she was suffering
from severe emaciation. It took five days of nutritional
supportive care before she had the strength to stand. She
was a very sweet natured swan and was easy to manage,
despite her very large size. She became our comic relief
during the crisis. Her feet were as big as dinner plates and it
was fun to watch her flap them on the floor while she
strolled around for exercise. Water proofing was never a
problem for her and she ate like a champ. Watching her
improve every day brought us much needed joy. She had
been with us for a month when we decided to load her up
and send her on her way.
Time magazine featured an article on the polar vortex and
climate change getting the conversation out to the public.
Because we all love nature and because we all love
wildlife, we all need to educate ourselves and then become
involved in the bigger conversation. The Audubon Society
has just recently released a seven year study outlining the
impact of global climate change on the birds of North
America. If you are a member of the Audubon Society,
please read and share this issue. If you are not a member,
you can obtain the study on line. The book HOT Living
through the next fifty years on Earth by Mark Hertsgaard is
also an important book to read and then share.
We all feel that we connect well with animals. Obviously,
as that is why we do what we do. But how are we with our
human connections? Strong connections to human beings
are critical to the survival of a wildlife rehabilitator. We
cannot do this work alone. Your most valuable tool in your
rehab tool box is the human tool. If I had not had my
SPCA Wildlife co-workers and volunteers, my local
rehabilitator friends, my friends from Tri-State and the
DEC or my own family and friends to turn to during this
crisis, I would have been as dead in the water as those
diving ducks. Rehabilitators need to reach out and make
connections to other rehabilitators. And attending a
NYSWRC conference is a wonderful way to strengthen
those connections so that we can share the questions that
we find ourselves asking…
Was our best good enough?
Was this the right thing for us to do?
What if this happens again?
And remember… “You are what hope looks like to a bird.”
David Yarnold, CEO and President-Audubon
I have spent quite some time talking about our feathered
beautiful creatures but I would like to end by spending a few
moments talking about another kind of beautiful creature,
my cousin Meghan who is 10 and my cousin Cora who is 6.
It is because of them that I know I need to be involved in a
much larger conversation,
the conversation of Global
climate change. I don’t
know what this
conversation looks like for
me as I have yet to create
it, but this water bird crisis
was an epiphany for me.
Megan & Cora
Connie Adams at work.
Page 10
The Frog’s Den
At conference last year we shared our experiences of the 2014 water bird crisis. We struggled both physically and
emotionally with the work but we came out on the other side with the realization that we need to be a part of the
bigger conversation. This conversation will include global climate change and other human impacts on our natural
world. To begin our involvement in this conversation, we have created a section in RELEASE which we have
titled “The Frog’s Den”. Granted, frogs do not live in dens, but a den is defined as a secret and safe place to hide,
and we do know that all wild animals need these types of places to survive. So, it will be through “The Frog’s
Den” that we will share news of our natural world and how we can be a positive difference. As with RELEASE,
your contributions are welcomed. To start off our segment, we thought it appropriate to share a wonderful poem
written by Kiana Shurkin of Columbia, Maryland. Kiana was the Grand Prize Winner of the 2014 SAVE THE
FROGS! poetry contest, for her poem "The Cry Of The Frogs”. (Thank you Kiana for permission to share your
amazing poem!) We encourage you to look into the wonderful work that Save The Frogs does to protect
amphibians by visiting www.SaveTheFrogs.com . Hoppily yours, Bev Jones and Karen Moran
The Cry Of The Frogs
By Kiana Shurkin
The echo of a footprint
Is all that will remain:
A webbed, tiny silver glint
Among the drops of rain.
On the sad forgotten pond
There floats a lonely lily pad
If only we could wave a wand,
Return the friend it had.
Fading on the breeze
Like the tinkling of a chain,
Are the imprints of nocturnal criesA song they sang in vain.
When all we have are whispers
Lonely echoes in the night
We'll think what might be different
If we'd listened to their plight.
When we lay in awkward silence
Mourning absence of their song
We'll wish we hadn't left it late
To try and right the wrong.
Without their constant lullabies
To lull us into sleep,
With only nature's mournful sighs
Our company to keep,
We'll wonder why we turned deaf ear
In time of greatest need
To songs our children cannot hear
And signs we failed to heed.
But in this solemn hour
There remains a flash of hope:
A greenish blur beside the creek,
A hopeful, timid croak:
Because it isn't yet too late
To try and spread the wordTo speak for those who sing at night
And help them to be heard.
There is still time to fight for frogs,
To save their woods and streamsTheir noble cause is not as lost
As it may sometimes seem.
For if we add our voices
To their dwindling chants
The song may just grow strong enough
To give a fighting chance.
Page 11
Reprinted From Wild Things Sanctuary Newsletter,
by Victoria Campbell, NYSWRC member; An Update
As many of you know, Wild Things Sanctuary now
specializes in native bat care. So far, I've admitted about 50
bat patients this year. Who knew that specializing in bats
could keep me so busy! They come from all over as there are
so few places that work with bats. However, I also help out
with other animals when I can, and am able to oversee
"junior" rehabilitators' (those who work under my license)
who work with a variety of different species.
In total, our Wild Things Sanctuary team helped about 150
animals in 2014, in addition to talking to hundreds of
members of the public online and on the phone about injured
animals and wildlife concerns. Here are some of our patients'
stories:
Two Big brown bats injured by cats. Because of their
injuries, I don't yet know if these two will be releasable. I
hope one day New York State will allow permits for
unreleasable bats to be used for education purposes;
meeting bats in person would really help people care more
about these personality-packed little animals that are in
trouble in so many ways. For now, many thanks to the
Organization for Bat Conservation that has helped us with
unreleasable cases.
“Lola” may look like a baby alien, but she is a Big brown bat
pup. Her mother died giving birth to her twin. I didn’t know
if this tiny newborn would survive. But Lola bounced back
and was among the biggest and healthiest of the orphan pups
this year! On the left, she is a day old sucking on a tiny
sponge as a pacifier. On the right, she is almost four weeks
old lying on top of her adopted brother “Frankie.” We are
learning a lot about specialized bat care: from infant formula
to adult care, medications, and wound healing.
Just another bat?
Actually this tiny 4
gram fellow is a
Northern long-eared
bat, a rarity
nowadays as sadly
they are a species
devastated by White
-nose Syndrome. He
was found on the
Cornell campus with an injured tail. In the next few months
these bats may be federally listed as an endangered species
under the Endangered Species Act. They are already listed as
endangered in several states. Wild Things Sanctuary was
happy to help him and give him a safe, clean place to
hibernate for the winter. He's up to a whopping 8 grams!
A young Great Horned Owl chick was found after her nest
was destroyed in Ithaca, New York. After unsuccessfully
trying to reunite her with her parents for several days, I
brought the baby to Wild Things Sanctuary. To have a
chance at being wild, I knew she needed owl foster parents.
The Adirondack Wildlife Refuge, six hours away, has
several adult owls and agreed to take her in. She was
successfully raised by her foster parents and was released a
few months ago. She is doing well and stops by from time
to time if she needs an extra snack while she perfects her
hunting skills.
Page 12
Cotton Rabbit
(Sylvilagus spp.)
Natural history
The cottontail is found
throughout the eastern and
Midwestern United States,
and is common
throughout much of its
range. The high
reproductive capacity and adaptability of this species has
made the cottontail one of the most important game
animals in North America.
Taxonomy
Class Mammalia, Order Lagomorpha, Family Leporidae
Cottontail rabbits belong to the same family as hares and
European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus).
Species
There are approximately ten cottontail species
including the:
 Eastern cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus) widest
distribution
 Audubon’s cottontail (S. audubonii )
 Brush rabbit (S. bachmani)
 Marsh rabbit (S. palustris)
 Mountain cottontail (S. nuttallii)
 Although distinct species, all are commonly
referred to as “cottontails”.
Diet
Cottontail rabbits eat a wide variety of plant foods
including grasses, sedges, sprouts, leaves, fruits, buds,
and bark. During the summer months, cottontails
primarily eat grasses, legumes, succulent annuals,
weeds, as well as the occasional garden vegetable. The
winter diet includes small grains, as well as twigs,
bark, and buds of shrubs and trees.
Reproduction
The doe creates a shallow nest made of grass and lined
with fur. Here the young remain hidden by litter or leaves.
The doe cottontail may breed the same day the litter is born
and may repeat the young rearing process three or four
times during the breeding season. A new nest is generally
constructed for each litter. The doe’s milk is extremely
rich, and the young are nursed once or twice daily for 3-5
minutes at a time.
Most rabbits presented for medical care are young, less
than 1 year of age. Trauma is a common reason for
presentation. Other health conditions reported in cottontail
rabbits include:
Ectoparasites like ticks, lice, mites, and especially fleas
are frequently observed on cottontails rabbits (see
Ectoparasite Control in Small Mammals).
Cuterebra cutaneous myiasis (also known as “warbles”
or “bots”): Large fly larvae are commonly found in the
subcutaneous space of the neck and chest during warm
weather months. Adult flies lay eggs on the rabbit fur,
which later hatch into larvae that bore through the skin.
Cuterebra larvae grow until they are approximately 1.5
inches (3.8 cm) long, at which time they emerge from the
rabbit’s skin and fall off the rabbit. The larva then
burrows into the ground where it pupates and later
emerges as an adult fly. Mortality is rare in infected
rabbits.
Coccidiosis is found in most cottontails. Eimeria
media and E. perforans can infect the intestines,
potentially causing fatal enteritis in stressed juveniles.
Hepatic coccidiosis is caused by E. steidae.
Fibroma virus, a member of the poxvirus, causes
Shope’s fibroma or “rabbit horn”. Disease is spread by
arthropod vector. Skin lesions are occasionally seen on
the legs, feet, and ears of cottontail rabbits. Lesions
begin as a slight thickening of subcutaneous tissues, and
progress over several months before suddenly
regressing.
Papillomavirus causes horny warts on the neck, shoulders,
ears, or abdomen of cottontail rabbits.
Favorite food items often include white and crimson
clover, Bahia grass, and green succulent vegetation
like alfalfa, wheat, barley, ryegrass, and winter peas. A
captive diet frequently consists of a variety of greens,
grasses, clover, and hay.
There is no treatment for either type of skin lesion, and
both conditions usually resolve spontaneously over several
months. Interestingly these viruses are a possible
explanation for myths about the “jackalope”, a mythical
rabbit-like creature with the antlers of an antelope.
Husbandry
Cottontail rabbits serve as the “poster child” for prey
species, as they serve as fair game for nearly all predators.
This species tends to be high strung and easily stressed.
Cottontails do not bear the rigors of captivity well and
should be maintained in captivity for as short a period as
possible. Provide adequate visual security like a hide box
and house them as far away as possible from the sight,
sound, and smell of dogs and cats.
Cottontails are solitary animals that are relatively
intolerant of conspecifics.
Myxomatosis causes fibrotic skin nodules and is also
transmitted by arthropod vectors. Wild rabbits are
generally considered quite resistant to myxoma virus,
however the brush rabbit (S. bachmani) is the natural host
of the North American (Californian) strains. Some
cottontail species (S. nuttallii, S. audubonii) are also
susceptible to South American (Brazilian) strains of
myxoma virus. Unlike the disease seen in European
rabbits, myxoma virus does not appear to cause
disseminated disease in healthy cottontails.
Cottontails are also crepuscular and nocturnal. Feeding
activity peaks 2 to 3 hours after dawn and during the hour
Staphylococcus aureus infection is transmitted by skin
abrasion or insect bites, Infection can manifest as
abscessation of lymph nodes, and can even become
systemic. Diagnosed is confirmed by bacterial culture.
Page 13
Cottontail rabbits can also serve as asymptomatic
carriers or intermediate hosts of a number of infectious
organisms including Sarcocystis falcatula, Taenia
pisiformis, Francisella tularensis (tularemia or “rabbit
fever”), Listeria monocytogenes, Pasteurella spp.,
Yersinia spp., Leptospira spp., and Rickettsia rickettsia
(Rocky Mountain spotted fever).
Normal physiologic values
Temperature
101.3-103 F
Pulse
not available (n/a)
Respiration
n/a
These conditions are very unlikely to be responsible for
admission for medical care, however gloves and protective
clothing should ideally be worn when handling injured
rabbits since they can serve as potential reservoirs of
disease.
Mean life span
<3 years
Sexual maturity
2-3 months
Venipuncture
Collect larger volumes from the jugular vein or lateral
saphenous vein. Smaller samples may be taken from the
cephalic vein.
Gestation
25-31 days
Litter size
1-7 (average 3-4)
Birth weight
23-33 g
Eyes open
Day 4-5
Gestation
25-31 days
Litter size
1-6 (average 2)
Weaning age
6-8 weeks
Emerge from nest
˜ Day 14
Weaning age
Day 16-22
Independent
Week 7-8
Body weight, 6
months
0.5 kg (1.1-1.2 kg)
Avoid antimicrobials that attack only gram-positive
bacteria such as beta-lactams. P.L.A.C.E.:
Penicillin
Lincosamide, lincomycin
Amoxicillin, ampicillin
Cephalosporins, clindamycin
Erythromycin
Adult weight
1.76-3.37 lb (0.81.53 kg)
Eyes open, ears
erect, ˜ 4 inches
(10 cm) long
Target
environmental
temperature:
65-70°F
15.6-21.0°C
References & Further Reading:
Target
environmental
humidity
30% to 50%
Daily h2o intake
120 ml/kg/day
The principles and precautions for cottontail rabbit restraint
are the same as for the European rabbit, however the highstrung nature of the cottontail requires particularly swift and
sure technique.
Rabbits possess a relatively lightweight, delicate skeleton
paired with extremely strong, well-developed back and leg
muscles. With improper restraint, rabbits that struggle or
kick run the risk of a broken back or leg. Always restrain
rabbits on a non-slip surface such as a large, heavy towel or
pad.
Gloves and protective clothing may also be indicated due to
potential zoonotic risk (see ‘Important medical conditions’
above).
Antibiotics to Avoid
Hernandez-Divers SM. Wildlife diseases: what you might
see come into your practice. Proc Amer Assoc Zoo Vet 2009.
Mikita K. Slvilagus floridanus eastern cottontail. Animal
Diversity Web. Available at http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/
Sylvilagus_floridanus/. Accessed on Mar 19, 2013.
Silvers L, Barnard D, Knowlton F, et al. Host-specificity of
myxoma virus: Pathogenesis of South American and North
American strains of myxoma virus in two North American
lagomorph species. Vet Microbiol 141(3-4):289-300, 2010.
Wardyn SE, Kauffman LK, Smith T. Methicillin-resistant
Staphylococcus aureus in central Iowa wildlife. J Wildl Dis 48
(4):1069-1073, 2012.
Yarrow G. Cottontail rabbit biology and management.
Available at http://www.clemson.edu/extension/
natural_resources/wildlife/publications/fs8_cottontail%
20rabbit.html. Accessed on Mar 19, 2013.
Written by: Christal Pollock, DVM, Dipl. ABVP-Avian;
Lafeber Company Veterinary Consultant. Mar 20, 2013.
38.0-39.6 C
smaller species
reach puberty
earlier than
larger species
Eyes open, ears
erect, ˜ 4 inches
(10 cm) long
Page 14
What is ranavirus? Frequently Asked Questions
o Ranavirus is a genus (i.e. group) of viruses that are
highly infectious and often lethal to aquatic and
terrestrial cold-blooded wildlife. Ranaviruses can cause
mass die-offs, especially in aquatic
populations. These viruses are found nearly worldwide.
What species are affected by ranavirus?
o At this time any species of fish, amphibians (frogs &
salamanders) and reptile (turtles & snakes) could be
susceptible to the virus, although not all species have
been documented with ranavirus. As of 2013, ranavirus
was known to infect >104 species and subspecies.
What are symptoms of ranavirus?
o Clinical signs of disease can include swelling of the
legs and body, internal hemorrhaging, redness of the legs
and vent, and discoloration of internal organs.
o White plaque in mouth, wheezing and swollen eyes
may also be present in reptiles.
o Behavioral changes may include lethargy, anorexia
and erratic swimming.
o Note that many of these symptoms can be signs of
other diseases as well.
What is the prognosis for animals infected with
ranavirus?
o Ranaviruses are commonly lethal to larvae or young
individuals, quickly spreading through populations that
tend to congregate in large groups. Some infected
populations of amphibians have suffered 90% mortality.
o Adults can also become infected, but many are likely
to survive the illness. However, once infected with
ranavirus, their overall health may suffer and they can
become more susceptible to other diseases and to
depredation.
How is ranavirus transmitted?
o The virus is primarily transmitted by contact between
carriers of the virus and uninfected individuals. Any
animal or object that enters a wetland could potentially
pick up and transmit the virus. The virus can then be
passed to other individuals in the same wetland or be
transported to other wetlands via the host’s movements.
o Depending on environmental conditions, the viruses
can survive in water for several weeks outside the host,
and for shorter periods of time under dry conditions.
Drying may also inactivate the viruses.
Can humans prevent the spread of ranavirus? YES!
o Humans may be the number one long-distance
transmitters of ranavirus, due to our ability to travel great
distances and visit many wetlands. (e.g. to conduct
research, to fish, to kayak).
o If you frequent wetlands, be sure to decontaminate
your boots and other gear between each visit. Items
that come into contact with water NEED to be cleaned
prior to entering another wetland. For decontamination
procedures and other information visit the NEPARC and
SEPARC websites.
o DO NOT TRANSPORT WILDLIFE. To reduce the
spread of disease, fish, amphibians, and reptiles should
not be released in
areas where they did not originate. This includes
transportation and release of live or dead animals.
o If you think you observe an outbreak (e.g. 10 or more
dead or dying amphibians or two or more freshly dead
turtles or
snakes) contact your state wildlife agency.
For more information visit http://www.nwhc.usgs.gov/
disease_information/other_diseases/ranavirus.jsp
Ranavirus - USGS publication
USGS scientists have isolated ranaviruses associated
with die-offs involving more than 20 species of
amphibians and turtles.
Massive die-offs of amphibians are often caused by
ranaviruses. USGS scientists have isolated ranaviruses
associated with die-offs in over 25 states involving more
than 20 species of turtles and amphibians in mortality
events ranging from one to thousands of individuals
affected. Some events may involve a single species,
others may involve multiple species. Frogs and
salamanders in the same pond, for example, may die
from ranaviral infections at the same time.
Ranavirus-caused die-offs in amphibians have occurred
on private, State, and Federal lands, including several
National Parks and Wildlife Refuges. Many of the
amphibian species involved in die-offs are fairly
common and widespread in the United States, but some
are either declining in number or are already threatened
or endangered.
Host species: The USGS National Wildlife Health
Center has isolated amphibian ranaviruses from 16
species of frogs, one species of toad and six species of
salamanders. Mortality events due to ranaviruses occur
most commonly in larval amphibians such as mole
salamanders (Ambystoma spp.), true frogs
(Lithobates spp. and Rana spp.) and chorus frogs
(Pseudacris spp.). Infrequent isolates have been obtained
from adult newts (Notophthalmus viridescens), adult tree
frogs (Hyla spp.) and post-metamorphic Columbia
spotted frogs (Lithobates luteiventris). In states east of
the Mississippi River, especially Atlantic coastal states,
mortality events tend to involve all species within the
wetland (frogs, toads and salamanders) while those in
western states, with less amphibian species diversity,
tend to involve only one species.
Ranavirus infections in turtles occur mostly in captive
colonies of eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina
carolina) and true tortoises, but die-offs of free-ranging
box turtles also have been observed. Because box turtles
in the wild usually are solitary animals, it has been
difficult to document die-offs of multiple box turtles
from an area.
Page 15
Distribution: Amphibian ranaviruses probably are
present in every state with the possible exception of
Hawaii. Globally, ranavirus diseases in amphibians have
been diagnosed in North and South America, Europe,
Asia, and Australia.
All confirmed cases of ranaviral infection in wild eastern
box turtles on file at the USGS NWHC are from
Maryland. Most of the affected turtles came from a
single field study site. Additional ranaviral disease
outbreaks in box turtles have been reported by others in
New York, Pennsylvania, Georgia, and Florida.
Unexplained die-offs of wild box turtles with signs
resembling ranaviral infection, although not confirmed,
have been reported in Virginia and North Carolina.
Seasonality: Because mortality events due to
ranaviruses mostly affect larval amphibians, there is a
strong correlation between the presence of amphibian
larvae in the spring and summer with ranaviral die-offs.
Mortality events often are first detected in April when
large populations of wood frogs (Lithobates sylvaticus,
formerly Rana sylvatica) are present in eastern and
northern wetlands. Early and mid-summer die-offs due
to ranaviruses tend to involve a variety of amphibian
species nationwide. Late summer and autumn mortality
events involve mostly larval bullfrogs (Lithobates
catesbeianus) and tiger salamanders (Ambystoma
tigrinum).
Cause/Etiology: Ranaviruses are DNA-based viruses of
the genus Ranavirus, in the family Iridoviridae.
Occasionally, amphibian ranaviruses are called
iridoviruses; however, this can be confusing because
there is a genus of insect viruses called Iridovirus. Some
isolates of amphibian ranaviruses have been named;
most noteworthy are Frog Virus-3 (FV-3), first isolated
in the 1960s, and Ambystoma tigrinum (tiger
salamander) Ranavirus. Other strains or isolates of
ranaviruses have informal names (e.g., Bohle virus in
Australia, Redwood Creek virus in northern California,
Southern High Plains virus, etc.), but the status of most
isolates as species or strains of Ranavirus has yet to be
clarified.
Signs and Lesions: Field signs of a ranaviral epizootic
include sudden or explosive onset of illness in
amphibians in a wetland, often with hundreds or
thousands of sick and dead amphibians found in a 1–5
day period. Overall mortality rates in juvenile frogs and
salamanders in a wetland can exceed 90%. Affected
individuals usually present with subtle to severe
hemorrhages in the ventral skin, especially at the base of
the hind limbs and around the vent opening.
Hemorrhages may be present from tip of chin to tip of
tail ventrally and may be pinpoint or irregular patches.
Other clinical signs include lethargy, swimming
erratically, weakly, or on their sides, and mild to severe
fluid accumulation under the skin (in lymphatic sacs) of
the abdomen and proximal hind limbs. Internally, there
may be fluid accumulation (clear or red-tinged) in the
body cavity (called hydrocoelom), and hemorrhages on
the serosal surfaces of viscera, especially heart, stomach
and liver. Occasionally, white minute foci of necrosis are
evident in the liver or spleen. Ulcers of the skin and
palate tend to be randomly scattered, but are detected in a
low percentage of casualties.
Turtles with ranavirus infection show weakness, swollen
eyelids, discharge from the nose and mouth, and the
tongue and palate may show dull white or thick yellow
plaques. At dissection, these plaques also may be found
in the pharynx and esophagus. Occasionally, turtles may
show ulcers on the bottom of their feet. Like ranaviral
infections in tadpoles and salamanders, infection in box
turtles spreads throughout the body affecting many
organs including blood vessels. Additional research is
needed to determine whether ranaviruses from box
turtles and amphibians are identical and may be
transmitted between the different genera and species.
Significance/Zoonotic Risk: At present, ranaviral
infections appear to be limited to ectothermic vertebrates
(i.e., fish, amphibians and reptiles). The virus generally
cannot be cultured at temperatures above 30oC, so it
probably is not infectious to domestic mammals and
humans. At present, it is unclear how many strains or
species of ranavirus are infecting and killing amphibians
and turtles. Ranaviral outbreaks involving more than one
class of vertebrates (i.e., fish and amphibians, or
amphibians and reptiles) at a site are rarely reported in
the wild, but such mortality events are of great interest
ecologically. Ongoing research by USGS scientists and
others will help to determine whether die-offs due to
ranavirus are causing or contributing to population
declines in turtles and amphibians.
For additional information about amphibian diseases,
please contact:
Dr. D. Earl Green, U.S. Geological Survey
National Wildlife Health Center
6006 Schroeder Rd.,
Madison WI 53711-6223
(608) 270-2482
Tadpole with swelling of the legs;
a clinical sign of ranavirus
NYSWRC
1850 N. Forest Rd.
Williamsville, NY, 14221
www.NYSWRC.org
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