Human Rights at Home and Abroad: Past, Present, and Future

Transcription

Proceedings of
11th Annual Frederick Douglass Institute
Undergraduate Interdisciplinary Conference
In collaboration with the Institute for Human Rights and Social Justice
Human Rights at Home and Abroad:
Past, Present, and Future
Edited by Betina Entzminger
Bloomsburg University
Kehr Union
April 14-15, 2011
Table of Contents
Introduction
2
Conference Program
3
"Welfare in America," Janice Artman, Melissa Moschella, Laura Renninger and Marissa Warner, Bloomsburg
University
7
"Employee Rights and Nike," Ryan Brong, Maxim Golant, Demetrius Heckstall, and Nicholas Hunt, Bloomsburg
University
17
"Music's Role in Social Activism during the Civil Rights Movement and the Vietnam War," Stephanie Bullen,
26
"Child Labor: A Hidden World," Sara Connor, Bloomsburg University
34
"A Nation of Immigrants . . . Well Not Recent Immigrants," Jasmine Cooper, Bloomsburg University
46
"African Americans in the Workplace," Seth Eck, Brielle Felo, and Lauren McLain, Bloomsburg University 54
"Gay Rights: Discrimination and Acceptance," Morgann Goodling, Bloomsburg University
63
"Immigration in the Workplace," Danita Inwek and Cortney Snyder, Bloomsburg University
76
"Conservation," Moira Jefferson, Kutztown University
80
"Distortion and Exploitation: The Realities of the Human Terrain System," Kristin Kelly, Bloomsburg University
88
"A Different Kind of Hate: Internalized Homophobia and the Effects on Mental Health and Relationships," Jessica
Lohmann, Mansfield University
94
"Sexual Abuse in Prison: Will it EVER be Considered a True Problem?,” Terrell McClure, Bloomsburg University
108
"Psychology Experiments: When Should They Stop?,” Danielle Miller, Bloomsburg University
119
"The Passing Problem: Framing Passing as the Prevention of Trans Community Mobilization,” Taylor Roberts,
129
"Human Experimentation: Guinea Pigs or Volunteers for a Cure,” Ashley Robertson, Bloomsburg University
144
"Keep Minority Education Hope Alive,” Brandi Spencer-Phoenix, Bloomsburg University
157
"Beautyism in the Worplace: Disguised Discrimination,” Kevin Troutman, Nagy Ahmed, and Ben Richardson,
166
"Human Rights Challenges in Algeria: A Historical Perspective,” Brian White, Kutztown University
172
1
Introduction
The 11th Annual Frederick Douglass Undergraduate Interdisciplinary Conference took place on
April 14 and 15, 2011 at Bloomsburg University. Our theme for this year‘s conference was ―Human
Rights at Home and Abroad: Past, Present, and Future,‖ and the Frederick Douglass Institute was
fortunate to collaborate with the Institute for Human Rights and Social Justice, a student group at
Bloomsburg University advised by Dr. Babak Mohassel. Our keynote speaker, Travis Johnson, Family
Law Staff Attorney for The Door in New York City, gave a talk entitled ―All Children Are Created Equal,
Too: The Disparate Treatment of Youth Rights in the United States‖ to an audience of about 250
students, faculty, and staff. Johnson argued that U.S. born young people who are sexually exploited are
rarely viewed as victims by the courts, unlike their immigrant peers. Johnson argues that minors, who
cannot legally consent to sex with an adult, should not be charged with prostitution and related criminal
charges.
In addition, the conference featured approximately 50 student presentations from Bloomsburg
University, Mansfield University, Kutztown University, and West Chester University. Many other
students and faculty attended these presentations. These proceedings contain a selection of those
conference presentations.
A student Presentation
Students sign in at Conference Registration table
Notice: Student writers retain the copyright to their original work. The writing herein may not be used without the
consent of the individual authors.
2
Conference Organizers: Betina Entzminger, Associate Professor of English; Brian Johnson, Director of
Bloomsburg University‘s Frederick Douglass Institute; and Babak Mohassel, Assistant Professor of
Criminal Justice. Special thanks to Ashley Coleman, support staff.
11th Annual Frederick Douglass Institute
Undergraduate Interdisciplinary Conference
In collaboration with the Institute for Human Rights and Social Justice
PLEASE SEE THE STUDENT POSTER PROJECTS ON DISPLAY IN BALLROOM LOBBY
ON T HE ANTHROPOLOGY OF SEX AND SEXUALITY AND ON H UMAN TRAFFICKING
Thursday, April 14
Session 1: 9:30-10:45
Panel A
Childhood and Maternity in Cultures Around the World
Room 409
Panel Chair: Dr. Conrad Quintyn, Bloomsburg University
―The Alaskan Inuit: How Children Are Raised‖ by Jonathan Palumbo, Bloomsburg University
―Street Youth Culture in Portland Oregon‖ by Kevin Ward, Bloomsburg University
―North Korean Childhood‖ by Nick Telepak, Bloomsburg University
―Lack of Contraception and Maternal Death: Why Are So Many Lives at Risk‖ by Breanna Bzura,
Panel B
Medicine and Human Rights
Room 410
Panel Chair: Brian Johnson, Bloomsburg University
―Medicine and Human Rights: The Impact on Enforcing the Unknown Rights of Us All‖ by Ashley
Robertson, Bloomsburg University
―Psychology Experiments: When Should They Stop?‖ by Danielle Miller, Bloomsburg University
―Medical Cannabis‖ by Kyle Slyman
―Welfare in America‖ by Melissa Moschella, Janice Artman, Laura Renninger, and Marissa Warner,
Panel C
Center
Effects of Immigration and Discrimination on the Workplace
Multicultural
(Lower Level)
Panel Chair: Dr. Ted Roggenbuck, Bloomsburg University
―Illegal Immigration and American Jobs‖ by Ricky Lochen, Ryan Dogherty, and Kyle Kelly, Bloomsburg
University
―Immigration and Diversity in the Workplace‖ by Cortney Snyder and Danita Inwek, Bloomsburg
University
―African Americans in the Workplace‖ by Seth Eck, Brielle Felo, and Lauren McLain, Bloomsburg
University
―Corporate Social Responsibility Strategies‖ by Bree Washburn, Tommy Muir, Sean Duffy, and John
Katona, Bloomsburg University
Session 2: 11:00-12:15
“LGBT Ally Advocacy”
Multicultural Center
By Elena Brobyn-Novarro and Virginia Larson, Graduate Students in the LGBTA Resource Center
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Conference Presenters: Send a clean copy of your presentation or paper to
[email protected] by May 15, 2011 for inclusion in our electronic conference
proceedings. Proceedings will be emailed to you this summer.
Session 3: 12:30-1:45
Panel A
Human Rights Affecting Children
Room 409
Panel Chair: Dr. Tina Entzminger, Bloomsburg University
―Child Labor: A Hidden World‖ by Sara Connor, Bloomsburg University
―Child Labor in Pakistan‖ by Chuck Gilmore, Greg Maisch, Kevin Sofia, and Elyse Madonna,
―Keep Minority Education Hope Alive‖ by Brandi Spencer-Phoenix, Bloomsburg University
Panel B
Business Practices and American Economy
Room 409
Panel Chair: Dr. Maggie O‘Connor, Bloomsburg University
―Outsourcing Information Technology‖ by Eric Loxton, James Gittens, and Alex Barra, Bloomsburg
University
―Wal-Mart and the Law‖ by Nicholas DeLuca, Jarrod Kramer, Robert Skotch, and Carson Tom,
―Transnational Corporations and Human Rights‖ by Eric Frantz, Michael Rosendale, Justin Pierce, and
Jason Gurzau, Bloomsburg University
Session 4: 2:00-3:15
Panel A
Music and other Media and Society
Room 409
Panel Chair:
Taheera Entsuah, Kutztown University
―Music‘s Role in Social Activism During the Civil Rights Movement and the Vietnam War‖ by Stephanie
Bullen, Bloomsburg University
―How Media Shapes Perceptions of Immigrants and Minorities‖ by Jazmine Cooper, Bloomsburg
University
―Music Censorship and Public Welfare‖ by Holly L. Freese, Bloomsburg University
Panel B
Law Enforcement and Behavior
Room 410
Panel Chair: Dr. Tina Entzminger, Bloomsburg University
―Sexual Abuse in Prison: Will it EVER Be Considered a True Problem‖ by Terrell McClure,
―Trust the People in Blue?‖ by Kareem Norton, Bloomsburg University
―Class Frustration in Southeastern Pennsylvania: the 2008-09 Arson in Coatesville, PA‖ by Juliette
Honsinger, West Chester University
―Procrastination: What It Is, What It Does, and How to Beat It‖ by Jake MacLean Bloomsburg
University
Panel C Discrimination Based on Sexual Orientation, Gender and Disability
Center
Multicultural
(Lower Level)
Panel Chair: Dr. Cristina Mathews, Bloomsburg University
―Deaf and Blind Employees in the Corporate World‖ by Lee Watts, Angela Shirk, Alvin Jennings, and
Hao Yang, Bloomsburg University
4
―The Glass Ceiling‖ by Tiffany S. Dietterich, Courtney Nyce, Samantha Lott, and Jeffrey Williams,
―Gay Rights: Discrimination and Acceptance‖ by Morgann Goodling, Bloomsburg University
Session 5: 3:30-4:45
Panel A
Sexual Orientation and Human Rights
Room 409
Panel Chair: Dr. Lynn Pifer, Mansfield University
―A Different Kind of Hate: Internalized Homophobia and the Effects on Mental Health and
Relationships‖ by Jessica Lohman, Mansfield University
―The Passing Problem: Framing Passing as the Prevention of Trans Community Mobilization‖ by Taylor
Roberts, Bloomsburg University
―Sexual Orientation and the Workplace‖ by Melissa Piccinich, Nina Dacey, and Rob Donahue,
Panel B
Human Rights Challenges
Room 410
Panel Chair: Dr. Maria Sanelli, Kutztown University
―Distortion and Exploitation: The Realities of the Human Terrain System Project‖ by Kristin Kelly,
―Human Rights Challenges in Algeria: A Historical Perspective‖ by Brian White, Kutztown University
―Tracing the American Debate between Human Rights and Conservationism‖ by Moira Jefferson,
Kutztown University
―Nike and Human Rights at Home and Abroad‖ by Maxim Golant, Ryan Brong, Nicholas A. Hunt, and
Demetrius A. Heckstall
Panel C
Women’s Rights and Gay Rights
Multicultural Center (Lower Level)
Panel Chair: Dr. Christina Francis, Bloomsburg University
―Women‘s Rights in the Military‖ by Amanda Galardi, Cass English, Ian Lewis, and Irene Fiske,
―Gender Discrimination: A Hidden View of Sexual Harassment‖ by Briana Davis, Bloomsburg
University
―Sexual Orientation and the Law‖ by Jenna Evelair, Mike Pendrak, and Bethany Pisulak, Bloomsburg
University
Keynote Address
7:00 p.m., Kehr Union Ballroom
“All Children Are Created Equal, Too:
The Disparate Treatment of Youth Rights in the United States”
Travis Johnson, Family Law Staff Attorney with The Door in New York
U.S. born young people who are sexually exploited are rarely viewed as victims by the courts,
unlike their immigrant peers. Johnson argues that minors, who cannot legally consent to sex with
an adult, should not be charged with prostitution and related criminal charges.
5
Friday, April 15
Session 6: 9:00-10:00
Film: Further Off the Straight and Narrow
Hideaway (Lower Level)
In honor of the National LGBT Day of Silence, there will be no talking during the session.
Session 7: 10:05-10:55
Panel A
Socialization of the Child—Around the World
Panel Chair: Dr. Sue Dauria, Bloomsburg University
―Amish Childhood and Adolescence‖ by Natalie Wagner, Bloomsburg University
―The Child in Romania‖ by Amanda Adler, Bloomsburg University
―Chinese Child Socialization‖ by Kayla Vollmer, Bloomsburg University
Room 409
Panel B
Gender Discrimination in the Workplace
Room 410
Panel Chair: Dr. Louis Rodriguez, Kutztown University
―Gender Discrimination in Workplaces: Human Rights, Ethical Issues and Laws Against It‖ by Gregory
Allen-Jackson, Bloomsburg University
―Differences in Discrimination against Women in the Workplace between the United States and Other
Countries‖ by Jackie Broderick, Jaclyn Palumbo, and Donnie Meade, Bloomsburg University
―Beautyism in the Workplace‖ by Nagy Ahmed, Kevin Troutman, and Ben Richardson, Bloomsburg
University
Session 8: 11:00-12:50
Institute for Human Rights and Social Justice Panel Multicultural Center (Lower Level)
―The Role of Sexual Exploitation in Power Relations within Cults‖ by Shannon Bilder, Bloomsburg
University.
―The Case of Darfur: Human Rights Abuses and Displacement in Sudan‖ by Steve Crossland and
Brandon Brown, Bloomsburg University
―Gang Members or Politicians: Haitian Gang Crime Affects Human Rights‖ by Ashley Acri,
―Human Rights Issues and Corruption in Sub-Saharan Africa‖ by Eric Bisong, Bloomsburg University
―Trouble in Somalia: Displacement and Human Rights Violations‖ by Dominick Mireles, Bloomsburg
University
―Navigating Credibility in the Context of Human Rights Adjudications‖ by Dr. Babak Mohassel,
Session 9: 1:00-1:45
Film: Displaced Lives
Multicultural Center (Lower Level)
6
Janice Artman, Melissa Moschella,
Laura Renninger and Marissa Warner, Bloomsburg University
Welfare in America
Abstract
What will become of America if welfare continues to be misused by U.S. citizens? Will people
who in fact need help be able to receive welfare or will the misuse of other individuals ruin the primary
purpose of welfare?
This research paper discusses the primary purpose of welfare, the requirements to be qualified for
welfare, the misuses of welfare programs, and finally the present and future state of welfare programs in
America.
Primary Purpose of Welfare Programs
Welfare began in the 1930s during the Great Depression. Welfare is when a family or individual
receives financial help from the government because they have little or no income to support themselves.
Before welfare, some individuals were in numerous financial troubles and didn‘t have much to look upon
for support. The Great Depression began in the 1930s while President Herbert Hoover was in office.
President Hoover had a very optimistic attitude and thought the economy would sort itself out (50
Interesting Facts about the Great Depression). This ended up not being the case, the financial markets
crashed and people started naming things after President Hoover because he ended up being wrong about
the economy. People would call food that they got from the soup kitchen Hoover Stews. They would call
shanty towns Hoovervilles. People even had to use newspapers as blankets, which they called Hoover
Blankets. Jack rabbits that they would use as food would be called Hoover Hogs. Hoover Wagons were
named off of people using mulls to pull their cars because they couldn‘t afford to get gas or fix them.
During the Great Depression, the unemployment rate increased to 25% and the gross domestic profit
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dropped to 25% (50 Interesting Facts about the Great Depression). Many people were affected by this
financial crisis and things were very horrific.
Prior to the Great Depression, Congress supported various programs to assist the poor. One of
these programs was the Civil War Pension Program. This plan provided financial support to Civil War
Veterans and their families (The History of Welfare). However, not much was there to help financially
support individual families and their children.
In 1932, President Franklin D. Roosevelt came into office and he had a very optimistic attitude
about the financial crisis and was very hopeful to the future. He wanted to try and find ways to help the
people and economy. President Roosevelt established programs that were known as the New Deal to help
farmers and curve the unemployment rate in the United States (The History of Welfare). The Social
Security Act was amended in 1935 and this act had many programs along with it to help aid various
people of the population. Along with this act was a program called Aid to Dependent Children (AFDC).
The program guaranteed cash assistance to families that didn‘t have enough money to support their
children (The History of Welfare).
Federal legislation required the states to provide assistance to all eligible families. For these
programs, the federal government and the states shared the costs and rule making. By 1994, the financial
aid to families reached 14 million dollars (The History of Welfare). Americans found many ways to
misuse the welfare system. In 1996, Congress passed a reform signed by President Clinton (US Welfare
System - Help for US Citizens). The Federal Government now provides assistance through the Temporary
Assistance for Needy Families (TANF). And the welfare system is back in control of the welfare system.
Welfare varies from state to state. Some types of welfare are health care, food stamps, child care
assistance, unemployment, cash aid and housing assistance. Now, not everyone is able to qualify for
welfare. You have to reach a certain requirement to be considered for welfare and this can help in the
process to stop people from misusing welfare.
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Requirements Considered to Qualify for Welfare
There are many different forms of welfare which include different requirements for each type.
We will focus on the requirements considered to qualify for cash assistance; which is the most common
type of welfare used today in the United States.
There are five forms of cash assistance available to families in the United States. The five
different types of cash assistance include the following: Temporary Assistance for Needy Families
(TANF), Refugee Cash Assistance Program, General Assistance Program, Diversion Program, and State
Blind Pension Program. In order to provide the most accurate requirements to qualify for cash assistance,
we will focus on the most frequent type of cash assistance, TANF. We then will further focus on the
requirements that must be metin Pennsylvania.
TANF may be used for up to five years throughout a person‘s lifetime. It is considered to be for
temporary use and money is received on a monthly basis. TANF is most commonly used among the
following people: parents and their children who reside in their household, women who are pregnant, and
other relatives that care for children in their household.
There are many requirements that must be fulfilled in order to receive TANF. The first
requirement that must be met is the person must be a resident of Pennsylvania and must be a U.S. citizen.
Secondly the welfare recipient and household members receiving the cash assistance must be able to
provide their own social security numbers. Thirdly, in order to receive cash assistance, the recipient
receiving the welfare must either participate in a training program or must actively look for employment.
The fourth requirement includes full participation in preparing a plan with their assigned caseworker for
what must be done to no longer receive the assistance of welfare.
Another major requirement that must be met includes the participation in child support payments
and paternity tests. If child support payments are currently not being received by a dependent child‘s
parent, then payments must be determined to aide in helping the family. Also, if child support payments
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are not being received as a result of identification problems of the father, paternity tests must be
performed in order to determine who must make the child support payments.
An additional requirement is based on the value of the recipient‘s resources. A few examples of a
recipient‘s resources include: bonds/stocks, checking accounts, and savings accounts. These resources
must have a value of less than $1,000. Finally, the last requirement needed to determine eligibility of
TANF is the reporting of income. All income must be reported including: wages from employment,
child support payments, miscellaneous winnings, unemployment benefits, Social Security payments, and
interest received (PA Department of Public Welfare).
All of the requirements mentioned above must be completed and proper documentation must
support the information. The United States has tried to lower welfare fraud through this list of
requirements, but U.S. citizens continue to abuse the welfare system.
Misuses of Welfare Programs
Welfare fraud refers to the intentional misuses of various state funded welfare programs by
acquiring benefits that are undeserved of the recipient. These misuses can be withholding information or
providing inaccurate or false information to receive benefits. The most common types of welfare fraud are
failure to report additional income, failure to disclose information regarding household members, or
supplying false information about an inability to work. Some cases have exposed people to contriving an
illness or injury to receive extra benefits.
A few real-life examples are from a woman named Dorothy Woods. She was jailed on 12 counts
of welfare fraud and collected over $300,000 by claiming 38 non-existent children. Another woman,
Barbara Williams, had collected over $239,000 in fraudulent benefits. She was jailed for eight years
(What Is Welfare Fraud?, 2009).
In 2006, Pennsylvania conducted an 18-month audit on the Department of Public Welfare's
special-allowance program. The auditors reviewed a random sample of 3,201 payments, of which 45% of
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those cases had issues with welfare fraud. These frauds include, a beauty school, which had altered their
invoices to show $821 instead of $3, and a father in Philadelphia, who changed his name and social
security to receive extra benefits (Mauriello, 2009).
As this crime increase, the penalties also increase. The current penalty for committing welfare
fraud in each U.S. state warrants a ―felony convention, sometimes landing a perpetrator several years in
prison‖. Today, many states are starting to offer large rewards for reporting welfare fraud (What Is
Welfare Fraud?, 2009).
President Clinton led a Presidential Campaign to bring reformation to the federal welfare system.
In 1996, he signed into effect the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act
(PRWORA). This act of welfare reformation gave each state control over the welfare systems and
reduced the federal government‘s responsibilities. It introduced the Temporary Assistance to Needy
Families program and Aid to Families with Dependent Children program.
Clinton stated in response to passing the bill, ―this act gives us a chance we haven‘t had before to
break the cycle of dependency that has existed for millions and millions of our fellow citizens, exiling
them from the world of work.‖ PRWORA gave states the ability to design their own system as long as it
followed the basic federal requirements. Those requirements were to end welfare as an entitlement
program, require recipients to begin working after two years of receiving benefits, placing a lifetime limit
of five years on benefits paid by federal funds, enhancing the enforcement of child support, and aim to
encourage two-parent families and discouraging teenage pregnancies.
Each state now has the ability to design and fund their program individually. They can take those
requirements from the federal government and apply them as necessary to the people within the state.
This could be through the use of programs designed to help those on welfare with job training, education,
job placement, and support systems. States are then required to limit benefits after an extended period of
time and most states are to terminate all benefits after five years (Julie Britt, 2001).
Today, senators and representatives are working together to create more reformation in the
Welfare system. Some have introduced a fraud detection system and income eligibility verification
11
system that would review all applicants for welfare funding (Farry, 2011). Others have asked for
restrictions on the usage of EBT cards. This is to ensure that money distributed to those in need use the
money for necessities, not leisure activities. This would include denying EBT cards at ―adult businesses‖
such as bars, tattoo shops, gambling facilities, and others. It could also limit the amount of money
withdrawn as cash (Durbin, 2011).
Welfare reformation is an on-going event as new ways to manipulate the systems arise. However,
the PRWORA and other future bills are designed to help those in need and offer assistance for the basic
necessities in life, not for personal entertainment.
Welfare Now and in the Future
Welfare is a great aspect of our government. It provides a multitude of opportunities which were
mentioned before, for people who may otherwise not be able to afford or achieve these opportunities,
without the help from the government. With that being said, there are also many misuses of the welfare
system, which were also previously mentioned. Funds are being spent to provide assistance to people who
need help, but also for people who just do not want to work or feel that they can take advantage of the
welfare system offered by the government. Welfare funds now and in the future are being affected by
misuses and are causing many business problems to companies.
According to CNS news, welfare has been the fastest growing federal government spending
increasing 292% since 1989 (Lucas). In 1996, welfare spending totaled around $300 billion, while in
2008 it was totaled at approximately $500
billion, federal, state and local amounts
combine (as shown in the graph). Furthermore,
the breakdown of the actual amounts for 2008
is as follows: federal spending alone is equal to
$322.3 billion, state is around $128 billion,
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while local totals approximately $86.8 billion. In the following years welfare spending is still on the rise.
In 2010, just two years later, the welfare fund is up to $727.3 billion (federal: $502.3 billion, state:
$170.8, local: $86.9). As you can see, in a twelve-year period, 1996-2008 the amount of money spent had
increased about $200 billion, but looking at a more recent two-year period, 2008-2010, welfare spending
has increased basically the same amount. This is an astonishing increase in government spending in such
a short period of time (Government Spending Details). Since 1989 welfare spending has increase and in
more recent years has increased at an alarming rate. Will the amount of money being spent ever decline?
Looking into the future of welfare is a scary thought. How much more can welfare really increase
and will the government be able to afford the amount of money out-flowing? In 2014 the forecasted
amount is supposed to drop to about $389 billion for federal spending with a total amount of roughly
$600 billion. As shown in the graph above, welfare spending is supposed to decrease by a small amount
each year starting with the year 2011 (Government Spending Details). The continuous decline will most
likely not last for too long unfortunately. Based on historical information, the amount of money being
spent on welfare programs are at an incline. It is possible for the spending to drop a slightly, but to remain
at a decline is far out of reach. The misuses of welfare are the main problems and the cause of the
increasing funds in welfare programs and are the basis of business problems.
The misuses of welfare do not only affect government spending, but also create business
problems. The main problems that arise are: employees want to work less, people are not motivated, less
funding for businesses and businesses are paying more. Employees want to work less to remain within the
limits of the welfare to meet the required qualifications. Workers are not actively looking for work and
are not performing to the best of their ability in order to stay on welfare or be able to obtain welfare
funding. Also, as welfare increases there is less funding available for businesses and lastly, the more
people who are on welfare the more money businesses have to pay into unemployment taxes to fund those
receiving welfare. The misuses of the welfare system are leading to the rise of many different problems
and action needs to be taken.
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Conclusion
Welfare programs are a wonderful attribute that our government has. In order for the welfare
system to continue working in the proper way, misusage must be taken seriously. Individuals who
actually need the help will not be able to receive the assistance of welfare if it continues as is. For optimal
growth in America‘s economy, welfare spending must be decreased and workers must enter the labor
force. Welfare must return to its primary purpose, requirements must be limited and fully examined, and
the misuses of welfare must be stopped.
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Works Cited
"50 Interesting Facts about the Great Depression." Random Facts | Fun Trivia | Interesting Insight. 2007.
Web. 30 Apr. 2011. <http://facts.randomhistory.com/2009/04/12_great-depression.html>.
Durbin, K. (2011, March 2). Bill to cut welfare fraud advances. Retrieved April 28, 2011, from The
Columbian: www.columbian.com/news/2011/mar/02/bill-to-cut-welfare-fraud-advances
Farry, F. (2011, April 5). Farry Supports Welfare Reform Bills in Committee. Retrieved April 28, 2011,
from Pennsylvania House Republican Caucus:
pahouse.gop.com/newsitems.aspx?NewsID=10949
"Government Spending Chart in United States 1996-2016 - Federal State Local." Government Spending
in United States: Federal State Local 2011 - Charts Tables History. Web. 26 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.usgovernmentspending.com/downchart_gs.php?year=1996_2016>.
"Government Spending Details: Federal State Local for 2008 - Charts." Government Spending in
United States: Federal State Local 2011 - Charts Tables History. Web. 26 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.usgovernmentspending.com/year2008_0.html#usgs302>.
Julie Britt, T. M. (2001, April 25). Innovations in Welfare Reform. Retrieved April 28, 2011, from The
University of Vermont: www.uvm.edu/~vlrs/doc/welfare_reform
Lucas, Fred. "Obama Will Spend More on Welfare in the Next Year Than Bush Spent on Entire Iraq War,
Study Reveals | CNSnews.com." CNS News | CNSnews.com. Web. 26 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.cnsnews.com/node/54400>.
Mauriello, T. (2009, August 21). State audit uncovers welfare misuse. Retrieved April 23, 2011, from
Post-Gazzette: www.post-gazzette.com/pg/09233/992361-454.stm#ixzz1lt7t58pw
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Pennsylvania Department of Public Welfare, . (November, 2010 05). TANF and Moving to
Independence. Retrieved from
http://www.dpw.state.pa.us/foradults/cashassistance/tanfandmovingtoindependence/index.htm
"The History of Welfare." US Welfare System - Help for US Citizens. 2011. Web. 01 May 2011.
<http://www.welfareinfo.org/>.
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May 2011. <http://www.welfareinfo.org/>.
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www.spamlaws.com/welfare-fraud
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Stephanie Bullen, Bloomsburg University
Music’s Role in Social Activism during the Civil Rights Movement and the Vietnam War
America has found itself socially divided on numerous occasions. Broken into fragments, people
made alliances, for or against the decisions and actions of their culture, their society, and their
government. Two of the most prevalent issues that illustrate these divides are the Civil Rights Movement
and the Vietnam War. The ways of the past and the possible future were not agreed upon by the nation,
and action was taken. It was in these times that people used everything they had as a tool in their purpose.
Their minds guiding them to a path, their feet marched them to town squares and state capitals, their
hearts remained resilient through the devastating losses and glorious wins. However, it was the music that
was one of the strongest instruments in the fight for a person‘s beliefs. Through radio waves, vinyls, and
etched into the memories of listeners, did music they capture the attention of its audience and
immortalized the struggle of the decade.
The picture of lynch victims Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith‘s bodies hanging lifeless from a
tree with a large crowd beneath them, inspired what is referred to as the first protest song. After seeing
the picture, Bronx high school of Jewish heritage, Abel Meeropol, wrote a poem titled ―Strange Fruit.‖
Meeropol published the song, set it to music and performed the piece throughout New York. Soon after,
the song found its way to the camp of jazz singer Billie Holiday.
―In terms of the songs of its day (1939) as well as in terms of what white America was willing to
hear black America say, ―Strange Fruit‖ was far ahead of its time. Probably only Billie Holiday
could have gotten away with it. (She had already been sp damaged by what she had gone through,
there was little else for her to lose.)
At first disturbed by the song and reluctant to perform it, Holiday came around and soon began
to close her acts with the song. After her record label, Columbia, refused to record the song for fear of
backlash, Holiday approached friend Milt Gabler and recorded the song. The single, although rarely
played on the radio, became popular and sparked an outrage at the magnitude of lynchings that were
26
going on in the south. An estimated 4,000 people were lynched with over seventy percent of that number
being African-Americans. The uproar of wrongful death spotlighted the abuse African-Americans
suffered at the hands of white people. It was in this anger that action was taken and people began to unite
in order to make the changes they wanted to see.
During the civil rights movement slave spirituals were brought forth from the past, revamped, and
merged with church hymns to suit the purpose of the times. Such an example is seen here:
From Black Spiritual to Civil Rights Movement Freedom Song: Illustrative Examples
Original Black Spiritual
Civil Rights Movement Freedom Song
Woke up this morning with my mind stayed
Woke up this morning with my mind stayed on
on Jesus . . .
freedom . . .
Don’t you let nobody turn you roun’ . . .
Ain‘t gonna let nobody turn me roun‘ . . .
Go tell it on the mountain that Jesus Christ
Go tell it on the mountain to let my people go. . .
was born. . . .
.
I shall not, I shall not be moved . . .
We shall not, we shall not be moved . . .
Keep your hand on the plow, hold on. . . .
Keep your eyes on the prize, hold on . . .
Over my head, I see Jesus in the air . . .
Over my head, I see freedom in the air . . .
This little light of mine, I’m gonna let it shine .
This little light of mine, I‘m gonna let it shine . . .
..
Been in the storm so long . . .
Been in the storm so long . . .
Oh freedom . . .
Oh freedom . . .
27
The church hymn ―Jesus on My Mind‖ was transformed into ―Freedom on My Mind‖ and used, at first by
the college activist population. From there, the song as well as its technique spread throughout the
movement and became a popular occurrence throughout the movement. Activist Hollis Watkins described
it the use of this music as a ―natural entrée into the hearts, souls, and minds of black people in presenting
and offering something that was not foreign to them" (American Experience). With these Negro spirituals
and church hymns, a sense of comfort was generated at gatherings. The spirituals of the African slaves
were belted out for all to here but only a select few to understand. This was not the case when it came to
the involvement of slave spirituals during the civil rights movement; all were to hear and know the
struggle and its significance.
―We Shall Overcome‖ has been regarded as the anthem of the Civil Rights movement, but there
were many other tunes that voices were lent to. Songs such as ―This Little Light of Mine‖ was popular
among activists and used nationwide in anything, from activist meetings to protests. In some cases,
certain areas had specific music that they sung for their causes. During the Montgomery Bus Boycott, the
400-500 boycotters would sing church hymns; ―Onward Christian Soldier‖ and ―Lift Him Up‖ were
popular during that particular situation. Martin Luther King Jr. stated in his book Why We Can‘t Wait,
that civil rights activist, ―sing the freedom songs today for the same reason the slaves sang them, because
we too are in bondage and the songs add hope to our determination that ‗We shall overcome, Black and
white together, We shall overcome someday. ‘‘
Popular music also made its presence known during the civil rights movement. Musicians with
opinions on both sides of the matter used their voices and their instruments to speak to their community,
and the world. Music itself doesn‘t take sides, musicians do. During the civil rights musicians were on
both sides of the argument. Southern singer Johnny Rebel began to release anti-desegregation and antiracial equality music in the south. Rebel‘s, whose real name is Clifford Joseph Trahan, music was so
popular during this time that his album went gold. Some of his most well-known works included, "Who
Likes a Nigger?," "Nigger Hatin' Me," "Still Looking for a Handout," "Some Niggers Never Die (They
Just Smell That Way)," "Stay Away from Dixie," and "Move Them Niggers North.‖ Rebel‘s music
28
wasn‘t nationally known, but it was popular enough to garner him a gold record and an honorary
membership to the Klu Klux Klan. In a recent interview for a website Rebel stated that he wasn‘t racist
and had this to say about his music and views:
―It wasn't any resentment. It was just a fun thing. We'd laugh...it was
all fun stuff, and we just laughed at that stuff...I mean, when I wrote Some
Niggers Never Die...I swear to God...my wife....I was making myself laugh.
She'd say, "I can't believe you're saying that!" But, you know, it was all in
humor...and I...I told her I wanted to tell you this. I'm not a 'nigger
hater'. It's just their damn attitude. I'm beginning to be a racist. I'm
beginning to realize that now. Because...of that damn attitude! You know?
It's the younger blacks. Not the older blacks…I mean...God-damn!
Everybody thinks we owe 'em something. And, of course, they weren't like that
before the damn civil rights bill...it got started by Martin Luther King...he
started all that horse crap...making these niggers believe a bunch of horse
crap...‖
On the other side of the argument were those working towards the change. Billie Holiday got the
ball rolling, but it was artists like Mahalia Jackson, Sam Cooke and other musicians of the time used their
talent and fame to present their message, in their own way, through the radio waves. Genre was no barrier
for those who were united under their fight for a singular cause. Protest song writers Phil Ochs and Joan
Baez popularized a number of folk-like tunes about the government‘s mistreatment of AfricanAmericans. In Rhythm and Blues came the strong, powerful statements of Aretha Franklin‘s ―Respect‖
and James Brown‘s ―Say it Loud, I‘m Black and I‘m Proud‖ declared messages of power and pride within
the African-American community. Jazz lent a great many musicians to the cause, probably putting out the
most songs attributed to the movement than all genres. Then there were the artists whose music
transcended genre confines. Ray Charles‘ music was not only listened to, but some of his hits were
transformed and used during protest. Then there were Nina Simone and Bob Dylan, with songs like
29
―Mississippi Goddam‖ and ―Only A Pawn in Their Game‖ the two musicians let the world know of the
problems going on in the country and exactly how they felt about it.
Popular musicians didn‘t end their involvement in social justice with the civil rights movement.
As the fight for civil rights softened, America found itself segregated over America‘s involvement in the
Vietnam War. Support for the Vietnam War was in the majority of the people until around 1965. The
draft rate increased and young men in disagreement with the procedure, held demonstrations. From there,
things only became worse in 1968, when the Viet Cong launched the Tet Offensive and the My Lai
massacre. Before this, messages coming out of Vietnam gave the appearance that South Vietnam and the
American military had everything under control. This attack proved that more time, troops, and money
would need to be put into fighting this war, a notion that caused weakening for support of America‘s
involvement in the war.
Opposition for the war, although united under the same cause, was separated into groups, all
contending for different reasons. 1962‘s ―Where Have all the Flowers Gone?‖ by the group Peter, Paul,
and Mary was one of the first popular songs credited for objecting the Vietnam War. For the next three
years, only that group and Bob Dylan would release songs that rang true towards the anti- Vietnam War
movement. R. Serge stated that, ―if you want to reach young people in this country (and revolutions are
made by the young; the old make counter-revolution) then write a song‖, and that‘s just what was done.
Written by nineteen year-old P.F. Sloan, ―Eve of Destruction‖ (sang by Barry McGuire) was the first song
to call out the Vietnam War and the government in an outright manner (Serge 140). Lyrics such as:
‟The eastern world, it is exploding |Violence flarin‟,bullets loadin‟ |You‟re old enough to
kill, but not for votin‟ | You don‟t believe in war, but what‟s that gun your totin‟ | An even
the Jordan River has bodies floatin‟|But you tell me | Over and over and over again, my
friend| Ah, you don‟t believe | we‟re on the eve of destruction „‟ (P.F. Sloan)
Radio stations refused to play the song calling it, ―an aid to the enemy in Vietnam‖, but that didn‘t stop
the record from becoming number one. From there musicians didn‘t hold their tongues or their pens;
songs came out back to back and on top of each other. ―I Ain‘t Marching Anymore‖, ―Draft Dodger Rag‖,
30
and ―I Feel Like I‘m Fixin to Die‖, all released in 1965, related the feelings of the young men at the time,
not wanting to go to war, but still candidates.
It was at this time that there was also a counter-movement to the anti-war demonstration.
Maybelle Carter released ―I Told Them What You‘re Fighting For‖ as a song to support the troops
fighting in Vietnam. It states, “I stood today for hours on a downtown city street | Carrying a sign that
read “our soldiers fight for peace” | I said there is no soldier in that land who likes the war | Yes, son I
told them what you‟re fighting for” singing from the point of view of a mother who held a demonstration
for the support of her son and his comrades (Carter). There were songs glorifying the life and death of a
soldier, such as “Ballad of the Green Beret”, sung by Staff Sergeant Barry Sadler. The song recounts the
bravery and honor of soldiers, who fight in the war for the oppression of others; dying, with their last
request to their wives to “put silver wings on my son‟s chest” (Sadler).
Singer Merle Haggard, angered while watching anti-war protest in jail, released “Okie from
Muskogee” and a response called “The Fightin‟ Side of Me” that supported the soldiers and the war,
while also speaking negatively of the hippie movement, stating that when they talk bad of the war they‟re,
“walking on the fightin‟ side of me” (Kristofferson). Kris Kristofferson‟s “Vietnam Blues”, performed by
Dave Dudley, was another that spoke against the rallies held against the Vietnam War. In a 1995
documentary he recants his view, ―my attitude toward Vietnam today is 180 degrees different… killed 2
million Vietnamese, as well as killing 56 thousand Americans… we did worse than that though… I think
we killed for a lot of Americans the notion that America stands for liberty and justice for everybody… it‘s
up to anybody who does have the information, to try to pass it on‖ (Kris Kristofferson Vietnam Blues).
Although the opposition came on strong with poignant lyrics and heartfelt tunes, in the end it was
those in disagreement with the U.S.‘s involvement with the war in Vietnam, whose messages seemed to
have the lasting effect. When recounting the era one of the songs that support the war may be mentioned
but it is the anti-war songs that were the most popular and in tune with the emotions of society. By 1971,
Freda Payne‘s ―Bring the Boys Home‖ echoed the cries of the families of the soldiers, and Edwin Starr‘s
―War‖ proclaimed the people‘s definition for the term. John Lennon and Yoko Ono‘s ―Give Peace A
31
Chance‖, relayed the pleas of the soldiers stuck in Vietnam, the innocent civilian caught in the crossfire,
and the majority of the nation.
In the case of the Civil Rights Movement and the Vietnam War, controversial topics were the
focus on the minds of the people. It was in their opinions that they sought out musicians telling the story
of the nation the way they saw it. Opinions, emotions, demands, pleas, all put to music notes in order to
let their message sing through the speakers into living rooms and blaring over audiences and crowds.
Music‘s involvement in social activism was a uniting force that added its own special component to the
fights of America and its people. For protest music, it‘s not just about the lyrics, or the artist, or the venue,
―it‘s the experience of letting the rhythms of the music capture you, together, that affirms the group,
strengthening the will to fight and keeping the struggle going‖ (Serge 128).
32
Works Cited
"American Experience.Eyes on the Prize.The Story of the Movement | PBS." PBS: Public Broadcasting
Service. 23 Aug. 2006. Web. 27 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/eyesontheprize/story/09_summer.html>.
"Johnny Rebel Interview 1st and Only." The Official Johnny Rebel Website. Web. 07 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.aryan88.com/whiterider/officialjr/Part5.html>.
King, Martin Luther. Why We Can't Wait. New York: Harper & Row, 1964. 86. Print.
―Kris Kristofferson Vietnam Blues (His Life and Work, 1993)‖. YouTub.com. 18 March 2011.
biggestkrisfan. 1 January 2009. < http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UYCUQ_eSa5E>
Serge, R. Sounds of Social Change: Studies in Popular Culture. [S.l.]: Rand Mcnally, 1972. Print.
Ward, Brian. "History Now. The Historians Perspective." The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American
History . Home. June 2006. Web. 01 May 2011.
<http://www.gilderlehrman.org/historynow/06_2006/historian2.php>.
33
Sara Connor, Bloomsburg University
Child Labor: A Hidden World
An estimated 246 million children worldwide are victims of child labor, starting at the young age
of four until they are legally considered adults (Iowa Child Labor). Child labor is mostly heard of as
occurring in other countries all around the world. Surprisingly, child labor is still happening in the United
States. In 2008, a meat packaging company in Iowa, called Agriprocessor, was raided and caught with 57
underage employees (Preston). Not only did the raid discover the underage children, but they found that
the company was breaking almost every safety law Iowa has made for meat packaging plants. The
employees were as young as thirteen years old and were forced to work for almost 18 hour shifts at a time
(Preston). Although child labor is mostly spoken of as something that has happened in the past, currently
children all over the world are still working in extremely unhealthy conditions and being treated
unfairly at an age as young as four.
Globally, child labor is described as anything that causes children to miss school, puts them in
unhealthy conditions, or puts them in danger (Iowa Child Labor). There are some organizations that try to
keep track of the age of children who are working and the conditions they work in. However, in many
third world countries, child labor is seen as a normal thing. Some governments do not have many child
labor laws. If there is a form of restrictions, they are not strictly followed. The most common laws around
the world for child labor are restrictions about what is allowed for different age groups. The age groups
show the specific work a child is permitted to do, depending on their age. If a child is between the ages of
thirteen and fifteen, one would be allowed to work ―light labor‖ (Smith). Older than that is considered
eligible for hard labor, even though they consider someone a child until the reach the age of eighteen
(Smith). Although some places respect the law of children not working until they are a certain age, most
around the world do not. Children are encouraged by their families to start working at a young age.
Although the children could go through awful events or have serious injuries or illness, they are eager to
work because it is seen honorable to be able to get a job.
34
According to ―Child Labor in India‖, Africa is considered the poorest continent on earth. Each
family living there needs as many members as possible to be working, which makes it the continent that
abuses child labor laws the most. It has been reported that out of all the children that are working in the
world, 32 percent of them work in Africa.(Cohen) In Tanzania, a young boy by the name of Hamisi was
made an errand boy at a local mining site. Many children are sent to work in mines at an age as young as
five and six years old, so they never attend school. These children are taught that working as soon as
possible is the only way for them to be successful (Iowa Child Labor). Most stop attending school early
because they want to be able to work. Adults usually tell the children that going to school and learning
pointless things will not get them money, a house, or family in their lives (Iowa Child Labor). Hamisi left
his home, school, village, and family at the age of eleven to be an errand boy (International). One of
Hamisi‘s duties was to go deep into the mines, as far as 300 meters, by rope to deliver supplies to the men
digging in the mines. His title was often referred to as ―snake boy‖ because they were required to crawl
along underground tunnels throughout the mine to complete deliveries (International). The boys will
usually work an eighteen hour shift, with one meal consisting of a cooked plant and buns. Hamisi stated,
―I nearly suffocated inside the pits due to an inadequate supply of oxygen‖ (International). Due to his lack
of oxygen and lack of nutrients, he has trouble breathing and is suffering from malnutrition
(International). His health is declining and he cannot afford the little health services that are around him
(International). For all the hard work, effort, and danger Hamisi goes through, he only makes about sixty
cents, minimum, each day. If he is asked to perform more tasks through out the day, he can earn up to one
dollar and twenty cents (International).
Hamisi‘s type of work isn‘t the only way child labor is being abused in Africa. In 2006, it was
discovered that almost half of the chocolate in the United States, that was being made in Africa, was
being produced by children working in cocoa fields (Cohen). They were working in unbearable
conditions where many were dying of dehydration and heat strokes (Cohen). A reporter for an
organization called The Human Rights Watch, Jonathen Cohen, states that, ―The cocoa fields is just the
35
top of the iceberg‖. Because Africa is the place with the most child labor law abuses, some other child
labor law abuses are overlooked. (International).
For example, it is estimated that in China half of the children that drop out of school are sent to
work in factories (China). Over twenty percent of their work force is made up of children, and it is
increasing more and more each year (China) Not only do these children get paid little to no money, but a
lot of children get kidnapped and sold off to factories to work (China). In 1994, around forty-eight shop
owners kidnapped more than one hundred children and took them across country borders to have them
work for them (China). When this was discovered and the children were rescued and taken back to their
homes. Some had said that they were forced to work for at least ten hours a day with no pay (China).
Many think China should increase the amount of effort they make to be sure children are staying safe
(International). If countries are going to have laws like these, they need to be able to follow through with
protecting their people and trying to keep them safe.
Some foreign countries are very strict with their child labor laws. In 2001, countless amounts of
child labor rings were found in Russia (Johnson). The Russian Federation then decided to update their
labor laws (Johnson). There are now specific codes that they follow very strictly. The codes state that any
child under the age of sixteen may not be hired to work, and if an employee is under the age of eighteen,
they may not work after the sun goes down (Russia). They also state that any one under the age of 18 is
absolutely forbidden to work somewhere that involves ―gambling, night cabarets and clubs, spirits,
tobacco, narcotic and toxic production, transportation and sale‖ (Johnson). These are considered
dangerous to their health and are forbidden. These rules are similar to some child labor laws in the United
States of America.
Even though it is thought of to only happen in developing countries, child labor secretly happens
in the United States every day. It is said that almost 4 percent of all 12- to 17-year-olds are employed
illegally in the United States (Foster). Surprisingly, in industrialized countries, the number of children
working illegally are almost even to the number of children in underdeveloped countries that are abused
through child labor (Department of Labor). Child Labor is classified in the United States by a federal law
36
called the Fair Labor Standards Act(FLSA)(youth and labor). The FLSA controls minimum wage, hours
worked, and they make sure companies keep records of their workers. Due to the FLSA, the United States
allows children of the age sixteen and up to have a part time job as long as they are not missing any
school. According to child labor laws in America, children under the age of sixteen are not allowed to
work, or to get paid for working. The FLSA also makes sure children that are working are being trained
properly and working safely (Wage and Hour Division). There are many different types of child labor and
the only type of labor children are allowed to do younger than sixteen is dealing with agriculture, like
working on a family farm.
When a child works on a farm, there are a few exemptions from the FLSA. If one is sixteen or
older they may do anything they would like on the farm whether it is considered dangerous or not (Farm
Jobs). If one is between the ages of fourteen and fifteen, they may do anything that is considered nonhazardous, as long as they are not missing any school (Farm Jobs). A child who is twelve or thirteen can
work on a farm as long as they have their parents‘ consent. If a child is under the age of twelve one may
only work on one‘s family farm and must be supervised a majority of the time (Farm Jobs).
In 2008, a family in Michigan, was found having their children work on their farms picking
blueberries from sun up to sun down. Since it is legal for children to work on their family farms, nothing
could be done. However, the dangers of the children working were very risky for their health. The ages of
the children ranged from four years to fourteen years old. According to one of the children working,
Ethan, age 8, states, "The tractor's coming from here and the kids are right there. They could poison
themselves because it's too dangerous for them". He is referring to the pesticides that were made to apply
to the fruit. They were so powerful and the children were so close to the toxins given off by them, that
they were in danger, which made him nervous for his younger siblings. Although he was in the middle of
the age group, he was considered a ―big kid‖ to the younger ones and he sometimes felt responsible for
when they were to get sick (ABC). Many of the children told ABC News reporters that the sun was so hot
all day that it made them feel sick, but it was their job to help their family make money. (ABC). About a
month or two later, another family was found, in North Carolina, with the same issues. The Association of
37
Farmworker Opportunity Program (AFOP) said that the children at this farm were ranging from the ages
six to nine, and they had the same response when they were asked by the AFOP representative why they
were working so hard in the hot sun. They replied by telling him that they wanted to help their family to
make money. Some of the young boys said that they needed to learn how to be ―the man of the house‖ for
when they have their own family (ABC).
In 1997, the United States had nearly 290,200 children from ages four to thirteen working
illegally, with about 13 hundred of them having to work in very dangerous sweat shops that were filled
with labor violations (Foster). From February 1998 until March 1998, just on the East coast alone, around
165 children were found working illegally in the United States (Foster). In March of 2011, a Regal
Cinema company was caught having children under the age of sixteen work for the company, allowing
them to handle dangerous equipment, and having the workers work shifts more than the legal amount of
hours (Associated Press). The children were being paid ―under the table‖ because they were too young to
be eligible to receive working papers. According to Floyd Prozanski, getting paid ―under the table‖
refers to a employer paying his employee without taking out taxes out of the paycheck or using any type
of documentation that this person has worked. The types of documentations required to have someone
work legally for a company are called working papers. Working papers are legal documents that give
information about one self for employment. They require a parent or guardian, and the child‘s school, to
sign certain papers agreeing that the child is in a stable condition to work. The papers are also used to
remind the employer of the amount of hours the child is allowed to be working, and what types of
activities they are to do, or not to do (Department of Labor). However, working papers are only involved
if everything is being done legally.
On May 12, 2008, a meat packing plant in Iowa was busted for having nearly 400 illegal workers
employed at their factory (Preston). The complaint charges that the plant employed workers under the
legal age of 18, including seven who were under 16, from Sept. 9, 2007, to May 12. Some workers ..
worked on machinery prohibited for employees under 18, including conveyor belts, meat grinders,
circular saws, power washers and power shears (Preston). A senior executive of this company claimed
38
that the minor workers had lied about their age, therefore, he figured there was no way to prove that they
knew, or did not know, about the ages of the workers (Preston). With that statement, he had gotten the
company in more trouble because he was proving that, upon hiring these employees, they did not ask for
legal identification or documents, proving that they were legal. Even though it was known that the people
they were hiring could be illegal, they were still forced to begin very hard work at a young age, with the
employers not caring what it could mentally, physically, or emotionally do to these people. They are
usually only concerned about the company‘s productions and not the children's well-being
Children working in large factories usually end up with terrible injuries that can sometimes be
fatal (Wilhelm). The companies do not train the children in how to use the machines, and they are too
young to understand (Wilhelm). In an interview John Allett, a victim of child labor, described what it was
like to work in the textile factories at the age of fourteen.
I was an eye-witness of one. A child was working wool, that is, to prepare the wool for
the machine; but the strap caught him, as he was hardly awake, and it carried him into the
machinery; and we found one
limb in one place, one in another, and he was cut to bits;
his whole body went it, and was mangled (Sadler)
With such harmful harmful surroundings and demanding job, child labor can almost be considered
modern day slavery.
The children who work so hard so young are taught that they are working for many justified
reasons. The very first, and most common, reason is to help bring more income into their family
household (Clarence). With the economy being in such poor condition right now, people are losing their
jobs left and right. Many who are losing jobs are losing the little income that they were receiving. The
parents tell the children that by helping out with money, they can make things better for their family. At
the age of thirteen, many children who come from a poor household, are given the responsibility to take
care of the house. A child explained to a reporter,
I only bring home about a dollar a day. If I were to go to school, or miss a day of work,
my family would not be able to eat for the day. They would go to bed hungry, and it
39
would be my fault. I need to be able to take care of my family now, and prepare myself
for taking care of my family when I am grown (Foster).
With the children being home all the time in order to work, they are not sent to any type of schooling.
They are told that the education they would get at a school would not be useful in their every day lives.
According to the Human Rights Watch, 45 percent of children who work in the agriculture sector in the
United States drop out of high school. (Knowledge)
Children are told working for their whole lives will help to teach them self-discipline, leadership,
hard work, and how to plan for and raise their own family when the time comes (Clarence). Another
reason it is encouraged for children to work is social roles. In America today, it is seen that boys have to
be very manly, unemotional, and strong. They need to be the ―man of the house‖. This is known as the
cowboy syndrome, where all young boys are taught that they need to be the main providers for their
families. Unfortunately, children are also sent to work when crisis strikes. If parents or guardians were to
fall ill or pass away, they would then pass the responsibility on to their children to help take care of each
other. One would expect the oldest child to take responsibility for the rest of the family, but in reality, it is
almost impossible. If the oldest child is younger than sixteen, they are not able to get a job that would be
able to support themselves alone. One option they would have would to be for them and their siblings to
go to an orphanage where they can stay together until the oldest child is eighteen. At the point, they
would be able to get a reliable job that would be able to support the expenses of the entire remaining
family. Even though all of the above reasons come with good intentions, it is still breaking the law. The
reason there are laws against children working such jobs is because their bodies are too underdeveloped to
handle to extreme conditions they can be put through. Many times it ends in permanent injury to the
children or it can be potentially fatal (Clarence). The most depressing part of this hateful act is that
majority of the employers of underage children know the health risks, and continue with making them
work anyway. The type of employers don‘t really care about the child‘s health, they only care about
making a profit. Having to work so intensely can be really frightening to a child, it is likely that they will
never forget what they went through while working under these conditions.
40
It is said that a person‘s childhood is the ―best years‖ of their lives. If one was to miss the
thrilling, fun-filled adventures of childhood, it could very well affect their adult lives (Bagadgeri). A child
needs room to grow for themselves, to feel freedom and independence. If one is sent to work with so
much responsibility as such a young child, they miss out on all of those things, plus more. They do not
learn how to make social relationships with children their own age, they are not shown compassion that
most children get, and it will affect them for the rest of their lives (Bagadgeri). One result of child labor in
their adult lives is not being able to ―unconditionally love‖ (Bagadgeri). They will love their families and
want to take care of them, but they will see no harm in doing to their children exactly what was done to
them. If they were to not send their children to help make money for their house, it could be seen as poor
parenting (Bagaderi). However, if the children are not sent away to school, it can create many brain
developing problems, such as illiteracy (Knowledge). For present day workers, it it really hard for people
to get a job with out a college degree. Many people who have been a loyal employee to a company, are
losing their jobs to young adults who are fresh out of college, because they are considered well-educated.
If people keep losing their jobs in the same trend that is happening now, they will struggle to hold a job
that will pay enough for them to take care of their family (knowledge). If that isn‘t enough to convince
someone not to make children work this young, there is also the fact that children die every day from
being over-worked. Each year, millions of children work in grueling and extremely demanding
conditions which will most likely leave them with health problems that will eventually kill them
(Conditions).
Child labor has gone on for far too long. Thousands of American citizens have no idea that young
children are still working illegally, and being treated unfairly, right under their noses. People are more
caught up with the products they are getting, then how they came to be. Would you ever think that the
blueberries you bought could have possibly cost a young child his life? America is extremely unaware
and uniformed of how cruel the treatment of working children can be and at how young of an age it can
begin. However, there‘s hope that it can be stopped. Organizations, such as UNICEF, fundraise and hold
protests to try and spread the realization of child labor and the effects it has on the world. Organizations
41
like this can draw more attention to the media, and let society know that it is still an occurring problem.
The government needs to crack down and keep checking-up with different companies to make sure they
are not breaking any child labor laws. Many people consider it to be hopeless to try and stop child labor
because companies and employers are so sneaky about having underage employees. If people can realize
how serious of an act this is, someday in the future, child labor could possibly be something that was once
only heard about.
42
Works Cited
ABC News. "The Blueberry Children." News: The Blotter. ABC News, 15 Aug. 2008.
2011.
Web. 1 Apr.
<http://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/slideshow?id=8953113>.
Associated Press. "Theaters Fined for Labor Violations." The New York Times 22 Mar. 2011, 13A
sec. Print.
Bagadgeri, Arvind. "Child Labour." Aid Workers Network. 5 Jan. 2009. Web.
2 Mar. 2011.
<http:www.aidworkers.net/?q=node/1948>.
"Causes of Child Labor." University of Iowa. Child Labor Public Education Project. N.p., 2009. Web.
18 Apr. 2011. <http://www.continuetolearn.uiowa.edu/laborctr/child_labor/about/causes.html>.
"Child Labor." Department of Labor. Mar. 2008. Web. 5 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.labor.state.ny.us/workerprotection/laborstandards/ workprot/
wp16or17.shtm>.
"Child Labor in U.S. History." University of Iowa. Child Labor Public Education Project. N.p., 2009.
Web. 1 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.continuetolearn.uiowa.edu/laborctr/child_labor/about/us_history.html>.
"Child Labor in China." Humans Rights Watch. Blood Sweat and Tears: The
Story of Child Labor.
16 Nov. 2007. Web. 1 Apr. 2011. <http://library.thinkquest.org/03oct/01908/1024/
whatisitchildlabor.htm#>.
"Child Labor in Russia." Humans Rights Watch. Blood Sweat and Tears: The
Story of Child Labor.
18 Feb. 2008. Web. 5 Apr. 2011. <http://library.thinkquest.org/03oct/01908/1024/
Child Labor Public Education Project. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Mar. 2011
<http://www.continuetolearn.uiowa.edu/laborctr/child_labor/about/what_is_child_labor.html>.
Cohen, Jonathen. "Child Labor in Afria." Blood, Sweat, & Tears: The Story of
Child Labor. 18 Aug.
2007. Web. 8 Apr. 2011.<http://library.thinkquest.org/03oct/01908/1024/
43
"Farm Jobs." FLSA - Child Labor.‖ N.p., 2007. Web. 1 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.workworld.org/wwwebhelp/fair_labor_standards_act_flsa_child_labor.htm>.
Foster, David. ―America's Secret World of Child Labor. Associated Press Writers, 1998. Web. 2 Mar.
2011.
<http://pangaea.org/street_children/americas/AP1.htm>.
"Health Issues." University of Iowa. Child Labor Public Education Project. N.p., 2009. Web. 19 Mar.
2011.<http://www.continuetolearn.uiowa.edu/laborctr/child_labor/about/health_issues.html>.
ICFTU. "Child Labor." ICFTU. N.p., 2006. Web. 6 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.icftu.org/focus.asp?Issue=childlabour&Language=EN>.
International Labour Organization, "Child Labour Stories" (2005). Child
Labor. Paper 6.
<http://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/child/6>
Johnson, Walter. "Child Labor Laws in Russia." EHow. 7 Sept. 2003. Web. 3
May 2011.
<http://www.ehow.com/list_6694580_child-labor-laws-russia.html>.
"Knowledge." The Path of Innocence. 12 Dec. 2001. Web. 9 Mar. 2011.
<http://library.thinkquest.org/trio/TTQ02189/effects.htm>.
Preston, Julia. "Meatpacker Faces Charges of Violating Child Laws." New York Times. 9 Sept. 2009.
Web. 9 Mar. 2011<http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/10/us/10meat.html
adxnnl=1&ref=childlabor&adxnnlx=1302255158-1cC+yE
Prozanski, Floyd. "Under-the-Table-Pay Is Unacceptable." The Debate Room.
+8QaKa8lWIVg91Ug>.
17 July 2009. Web. 12
Mar. 2011. <http://www.businessweek.com/debateroom/archives/2009/07/
under-the-
table_pay_is_unacceptable.html>.
Sadler, Michael and John Allett. "Factory Accidents." Factory Accidents. 21Sept. 2001. Web. 22 Mar.
2011.<http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/IRaccidents.htm>.
Smith, S. E. "Do Most Countries Have Child Labor Laws?" Wisegeek. N.p., 27 Jan. 2011. Web. 5 Apr.
2011. <http://www.wisegeek.com/do-most-countries-in-the-world-have-child-labor-laws.htm>.
"U.S. Laws." University of Iowa. Child Labor Public Education Project. N.p., 2009. Web. 16 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.continuetolearn.uiowa.edu/laborctr/child_labor/about/us_laws.html>.
44
"What Is Child Labor?" University of Iowa. Child Labor Public Education Project. N.p., 2009. Web. 18
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.continuetolearn.uiowa.edu/laborctr/child_labor/about what_is_child_labor.html>.
Wilhelm, Alex. "Apple Used Child Labor Laws." TNW. N.p., 2007. Web. 9 Mar. 2011. 16 Mar. 2011.
<http://thenextweb.com/apple/2010/02/27/apple-child-labor-china-history-sketchymanufacturing/>.
Williams, Clarence. "Images for Child Labor." Social Change. 2004. Web. 16
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.childlaborphotoproject.org/childlabor.html#myths>.
"Youth and Labor." United States Department of Labor. N.p., 2010. Web. 1 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.dol.gov/dol/topic/youthlabor/>.
45
Jasmine Cooper, Bloomsburg University
A Nation of Immigrants… Well Not Recent Immigrants
America is a country that is renowned for its layers of different cultures, religions and ethnicities.
The so called ―salad bowl‖ was a place people from all nations sought refuge from the chaos of their
nation. The imagery of steps carved from gold was most appealing to all who planned the trip to the new
world. America was built upon the sweat and hard labor of immigrants and has prospered to be one of the
world‘s greatest nations. Though the use of the ―I‖ word is often pictured with someone jumping over a
boarder, unless you are 100% Native American, everyone in this country is an immigrant. But what does
it mean to actually be displayed as an American. The face of an American shifted from black hair, a
reddish brown complexion, to the prized blonde hair blued eyed so called ―Aryan race.‖ Today,
Americans carry the pride of their nation‘s accomplishments and joy of being born in the ―land of the free
and home of the brave‖ as they sing before every sports game. Every morning grade schoolers stand up in
class and honor their nation. The six o‘clock news frames the thirty minute broadcast to show the wonders
of our nation and the slums of the surrounding countries. The vain nation declares itself to be America
though the other part of America lies just underneath the country. Those people are actually considered
South Americans. Children receive an embedded framing of the world proclaiming that North America‘s
form of democracy is superior to the other savage ways of the world. They even witness on the news as
our country travels across the world to show the savages the proper way to run a country. Ethnocentrism
has become so engraved in the American society that we subconsciously look down upon the ways of the
world. We feel sorry for the family that has no television to watch or iPod to listen to because we find it
almost impossible to function without music in our ears, or something to keep our eyes glued to for hours
at a time. The Media plays a crucial role in the way the news is displayed and the rest of the world is
portrayed.
According to the Atlantic review, more than half of Americans believe their culture to be superior
to others. (Atlantic review) With our bleached, scratched jeans and over-sized sunglasses what is there
46
not to love? Family has become an optional thing of value. many Americans would much rather go in
their rooms and eat a quick microwave meal and watch reality shows for hours on in than eat dinner
around a dining room table. Most dining rooms in American society are actually more for ostentation than
for quality family time. In today‘s western society, someone who doesn‘t engage in the majority affairs of
watching televisions for hours, and dressing as the media tells them to is no longer viewed as an
individual or as being unique, but just flat out weird. It‘s an absolute essential part of young American
culture to have a Facebook where you can discuss Snooky‘s and J Wows‘ latest affairs on Jersey shore or
play online games for endless hours, and every girl must own a pair of 150 dollar UGG boots. Media
entertainment shows like the MTV awards and the Oscars have become so popular over the years that
almost every major channel broadcasts them. Sports entertainment shows have become so popular that
schools have been closed for the Philly‘s parade and Super Bowl Sunday is on its way to becoming a
national holiday. News Media shows like E News and TMC show Americans, both young and old, ways
to part their hair, what clothes to wear, and how to perceive others. No longer are parents role models for
kids and young adults but celebrities have taken the spot of being looked up to by children all over
America. If a celebrity decides to bleach one side of their head or dye the front of their bangs bright pink,
you can be certain that by the next weekend girls all around the states will show off that same style.
American society has become completely commercialized and if you are not down with the popular
trends, you must be a foreigner. But the image displayed to other nations media of American children
holding hands and singing ―We Are the World‖ isn‘t quite as it seems.
The Media is one of the biggest influences in our everyday life. Most people wake up to the radio,
or a song programmed to the alarm clock. When shopping, music is constantly played throughout the
stay. When driving in a car, a radio is fully equipped and music is streaming though the speakers during
the drive. Televisions have become almost as essential as breathing. The average American watches up to
about 30 hours of television a week (Atlantic Review) According to USA today, the average American
has more TV‘s in their house than there are people. The media is a constant pulse beating through our
minds that shapes our perceptions of society.
47
If there were a contest on what country could hoard the most money, yet stay the thinnest, I‘m
sure America would claim that trophy. With E! News and Media Takeout showing the youth of the nation
pictures of celebrities so thin, they can barely hold themselves up, there is no wonder why over 86% of
women have suffered from some sort of eating disorder by the age of 20. (WikiAnswers) It is perhaps
more entertaining for American youth and adults, to watch a show about celebrities going to rehab, than it
is to read a book on addictions and how to prevent them. The media not only influences what people
watch, it can also influence the way people treat and feel about one another, whether the feelings are
known or felt subconsciously.
Nightly news stations like Fox and NBC are some of the Media‘s biggest ways of shaping the
perception of immigrants and minorities. If a crime was committed by a person of color, their height,
weight and picture will more than likely be displayed for all of America to see, however, if a white person
has committed the same crime or something worse, their picture would be absent and they would be
labeled as the ―perp‖ or ―offendent.‖ Fox News is notorious for taking people of colors words and
framing them to make them look offensive or criminal. (News One) For example when President Barrack
Obama ran for the 2008 election, his Reverend was displayed as being anti-American and a black activist
against white control. (News One) The news media has done such a good job of installing into the
public‘s eye, the barbarianisms and criminality ways of black people that when a South Carolina woman
cried wolf, and said a black man kidnapped her children in broad daylight, the world readily believed her.
(BNet) It was not until the woman‘s finger prints were found in the car that police stopped looking for
black suspects. (BNet) It seems that the goal of the media is to install fear of minorities into the minds of
white America and to convince minorities that the only way for them to not be stereotyped into that fear
category is to assimilate into the Anglo-Saxon core culture as much as possible.
If a young white child turns on the television, they will almost always find a face and features that
match their own. If a minority turns on the TV, they will more than likely have to flip around channels to
see someone of their race. Or if a minority views someone of their culture on the television it is likely the
48
person is either a criminal being arrested or acting as a criminal on a series. Entertainment weekly
recently published an article arguing that ―…the five major broadcast networks are whiter than the
Caucasian percentage (66.2 percent) of the United States population.‖ In a small community with not
much diversity, the media is not only there for entertainment purposes, but it is also a factor in which
people view unfamiliar races and ethnicities minorities. If a child has been raised in a community where
they are in contact with mostly people of their own race and ethnicity, their primary view of the outside
world is through television. A lot of what the child knows about people of other races is what is presented
to them by the media. Since there aren‘t people of other races around to shape the child‘s perception of
the race, they are going to view the whole population like how the media and/parents present. If the
child‘s parents have grown up in the same segregated area, their perception is often highly influenced by
what the media portrays.
A white child that has grown up in a white community, watching white people on television, and
listening to white people on the radio doesn‘t feel the major impact the media has on their life because,
what they are seeing is viewed as normal and ordinary. In this sense, the maxim ―Majority rules‖ can be
taken literally when it involves consumerism in the world. Just as lefties complain that most writing
utensils and tools are made for right handed people, and vegetarians complain that it is a hassle to get a
veggie burger at the commons, minorities complain they the live in a world that is centered on the core
values of the white race.
One of the biggest factors of the education you receive, your income and social status, and the
safety of your surroundings, deals a lot with your place of residence. ―Home sweet Home‖ is supposed to
be a place where you can let your children play in the park. A place where you leave your door opened to
let in a fresh breeze. But for many American‘s their ―home‖ isn‘t always that sweet and welcoming.
According to Nadra Kareem Nittle, a journalist for About.com, schools today are more segregated now,
than they were in the 1960‘s after the Supreme Court ruling in Brown vs. Board of education.
(About.com) Not only are American schools mostly segregated but the structure is completely segregated
49
in return. Because most whites move out of neighborhoods with heavy numbers of minorities moving in,
the minorities tend to live together in areas where there aren‘t good doctors, proper education to supply
better doctors, or sufficient health care. With this lack of proper care, the environment becomes littered
with crime, drugs and other hazards that make the living environment inhospitable. This crimes leads to
the framed news footage which covers the after effects of this neglected society and labels it as a cultural
of poverty instead of seeing that it‘s a structural occurrence.
The education system, after all, was made to assimilate uncivilized people into the American way
of life. Most of what is viewed on television is displayed to please the majority. Skinny jeans were made
famous to convince the majority that the anorexic look is fashionable. Make-up is displayed, even on
children‘s channels, to tell the world that beauty should be painted onto your face. Actors even show the
masses the favored northern accent and other European accents, while most Asian accents are viewed as
annoying and hard to understand.
The news not only portrays biased media to display fear of minorities, it also uses media to
exaggerate an install fear of immigrants. The media has done a great job in proving the Bandura effect by
sliding in small comments about how immigrants are crossing the boarders just to steal Americans jobs.
Most immigrants don‘t come into America fixated in media affairs so they stick out like a sore thumb.
The media adds insults to injury by broadcasting how threatening immigrants are illegally crossing the
border, not paying taxes, and stealing American money by taking all of the jobs. The media also
dehumanizes them by referring to them as illegal aliens who are here for negative reasons. The
immigrants are also looked down upon for working jobs that Americans stray from because they view
themselves as being too good for such laboring and tedious jobs. These ―aliens‖ are used as scapegoats
for all of America‘s problems. For example, some people insist that the recession is still occurring
because illegal‘s come in to our country and don‘t pay taxes. Government money that can be used for
improving the education system is being wasted because the government has to fund security to block the
border. (Our Dime) The news also tells stories of how the crime rate is up in states where the illegal
50
immigrants have fled. With the constant repetition of how these bad aliens are illegally entering our
country, fear of them is circulating into hate.
The tragedy of 911 was a horrific day where ordinary individuals did extraordinary things to
protect the lives of others. On that day, many people came together without the worry of race, religion or
ethnicity. That day America was truly united for the sake of saving ones fellow man. But unfortunately
the courage and unity of that day was short lived. President George W. Bush decided to make a rebuttal to
the attack on the world trade center in front of our nation and nations throughout the world. After the fall
of the twin towers our own president said in front of the entire world that America would be unleashing a
―crusade‖ on terrorism. (Europe Cringes) Though it seems to some as just a slight reference to violence,
psychologist Albert Bandura has reliable evidence that even small dehumanizing comments can affect
people‘s attitudes and judgments. Many failed to realize that a crusade was a two hundred year war were
Romans slaughter millions of Muslims to retain Christian control over the world. (Crusades) Psychologist
Stanley Milgram also concluded that mentally healthy people can be lead to partake in heinous acts when
encouraged by officials. Though Americans weren‘t told directly to mistreat Muslim and immigrant
Americans, Bush‘s hint of having a crusade against terrorism, according to Bandura, is enough of a push
to trigger negative behavior. The New York Times found an increase of hate acts towards Arab
immigrants after 911. (After 911) Other immigrants were also stereotyped and mistreated because they
looked similar to Middle Eastern immigrants.
The Media can be used for entertainment on a rainy day or it can be a tool to subliminally mold
the masses into believing what the rulers behind the media wants us to believe in. America has become
so attached to the media that few are aware of the hold the entertainment world has on them. Traditional
values have been replaced with a non-ceasing list of wants and needs. The structure of American society
is causing minorities to be stereotyped as lazy and unwilling to learn. This so called ‗culture of poverty‘ is
in reality the effects of the sticky floor affect, which limits minorities from excelling beyond expectations.
America, a country that once thrived with the pride of being unique, is now a narcissistic country
51
obsessed with outward appearance and continues to condone inequality. The country that was once a
nation under God, that might have be indivisible, never provided liberty and justice for all.
52
Work Cited
Our Dime, Dustin. "Another 600 Million Wasted on Border Control." Our Dime. WorldPress. Web.
"Europe Cringes at Bush 'crusade' against Terrorists / The Christian Science Monitor - CSMonitor.com."
The Christian Science Monitor - CSMonitor.com. Web. 04 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.csmonitor.com/2001/0919/p12s2-woeu.html>.
ELLIOTT, ANDREA. "After 9/11, Arab-Americans Fear Police Acts, Study Finds." New York Times.
New York Times. Web
atlanticreview.org/archives/871-Americas-Cultural-Superiority.html
www.usatoday.com/life/television/news/2006-09-21-homes-tv_x.htm
newsone.com/nation/casey-gane-mccalla/top-5-fake-fox-news-racist-scandals
findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1355/is_n3_v87/ai_15969316
wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_the_percentage_of_anorexia
53
Seth Eck, Brielle Felo, Lauren McLain, Bloomsburg University
African Americans in the Workplace
Discrimination is an ongoing problem, not only in the United States, but in other countries as
well. That is why we decided to focus our presentation on African Americans in the Workplace. The
purpose of this project is to discuss how African Americans are discriminated against in the workplace,
and how being discriminated against has affected them. African Americans were affected by the 1964
Civil Rights Act and were treated differently before and after its passing. Stereotyping has affected
African Americans from slavery and segregation, and still does to this day. Ever since the late 1990s,
there have been more African Americans to get into the higher positions of a company. Their core values,
customs and cultural differences have played an important role in how they have succeeded in the
workplace throughout the years.
The theme of the Frederick Douglass conference was, ―Human Rights at Home and Abroad: Past,
Present, and Future.‖ Our topic relates to this theme due to the fact that we discuss driscrimination against
African Americans, and their rights within the workplace, and out of the workplace. We discuss the
history of African Americans, regarding slavery in the past, what they deal with within the workplace
(such as the glass ceiling), and how others can help eliminate discrimination against them in the future.
This is an important message for college students because, while they experience new people, cultures
and races in their new environment, they can remember what we discussed in our presentation about
discrimination against African Americans. Our information can also help them when they enter the work
force, regarding African Americans and how they are treated in the workplace.
Before the creation of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, the African Americans were treated horribly.
They were tortured; they had no freedom, had to listen to and do what their masters said, and had no
opportunities to do anything that they pleased, unlike the Euro-Americans. A ―Euro-American‖ (or
European American) is a citizen or resident of the United States who has origins in any of the original
54
countries of Europe and is the descendant of European immigrants (European American, 2011). Years
later, in 1955, Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat on a bus, and was arrested. Her actions sparked
protesting and boycotting (which Martin Luther King, Jr. was in charge of). This marked the day that
many historians consider to be the beginning of the civil rights movement. A year after Martin Luther
King Jr. started protesting, the bus system was desegregated. He then gave his famous ―I Have a Dream‖
speech in front of the Lincoln Memorial to various ethnic groups in 1963, a year before the act.
The act was then created, and it stated many important issues regarding equality. Title seven of
the 1964 Civil Rights Act created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC). They
enforce laws that prohibit discrimination based on race, color, religion, etc. in hiring, promoting, firing
and all other terms and conditions of employment (Carr-Ruffino, 2009).
After the act, a poll was taken in 2003. It asked eight questions regarding equality and civil rights.
One question asked African Americans and Euro-Americans if they agreed that, ―Civil rights have greatly
improved our lifetime.‖ 25% of African Americans agreed, while 48% of Euro-Americans agreed (CarrRuffino, 2009). This shows the difference in opinion between the African and Euro-Americans. The last
question on the poll asked how much they agreed that ―Euro-Americans have equal job opportunities.‖
17% of African Americans agreed and 55% of Euro-Americans agreed (Carr-Ruffino, 2009). This
question had the biggest gap (-38%) out of all of the questions, which is sad, because this shows that
African Americans still, do not feel equal regarding job opportunities.
While researching for this topic, we found an article from Boston‘s Bay State Banner Newspaper
that was written on February 24, 2011. The article was called, ―Are Companies Excluding Jobless from
Applying?‖ It stated that some companies may be weeding out job applicants just because they‘re
unemployed. The EEOC is trying to figure out whether this could violate federal job discrimination laws
or not. They‘re investigating whether excluding the unemployed may have a greater effect on African
Americans, Hispanic Americans and other minorities that tend to have higher jobless rates. Helen Norton,
a professor at the University of Colorado Law School said that employers and staffing agencies have
advertised jobs with the explicit restriction that only currently employed candidates would be considered.
55
The jobless rate is 15.7% among African Americans. Therefore, this problem could have a greater effect
on them. Officials are concerned that this practice could hamper the government‘s efforts to help millions
of unemployed people get back to work (Hananel, 2011).
African Americans have been stereotyped throughout time. Mostly all of African American
stereotypes come from the legacy of slavery and segregation. In order to justify slavery, Euro-Americans
created degrading stereotypes of Africans. Stereotypes are irrational beliefs towards a particular group of
people. Euro-Americans observed an abused slave whose rage finally consumed him and who lashed out
violently. After this Euro-Americans began saying that African American men are violent. Even to this
day, the stereotype of African Americans being violent still stays with them. A cultural custom that may
perpetuate this stereotype is African American‘s preference for using direct confrontation to resolve a
conflict. Most Euro-Americans, Asian Americans and Latino Americans prefer more indirect methods.
This is why that their actions are often seen as hostile. They like more face-to-face conversation when
there is a problem and most people don‘t appreciate this. The face-to-face conflict may make others
nervous and out of their comfort zone. This action to African Americans is just being truthful and
assertive, but others find it as anger or rage. Even though African American men have more arrest and
convictions, doesn‘t mean that they are more violent. There are a lot of other ways to go to jail that have
nothing to do with violent action at all (Carr-Ruffino, 2009).
Another stereotype that is given to most African Americans is that they are less intelligent than
other people. Reality is that school grades and scores on tests like the SAT exam depend more on
socioeconomic status than any other factor, including ethnicity. Children that come from low-income
households, and whose parents don‘t receive a great education, will get lower grades than others. Children
whose parents receive a higher education, and have a greater income, will get higher grades in school.
When the socioeconomic status goes up, in turn so do the children‘s grades. African Americans have
different learning styles that help them improve in school. They are better at recognizing rhythms and
patterns than other cultures. They are better at doing oral projects, like presenting in front of the class,
56
then having to take a written test. At the same socioeconomic level African Americans have higher
aspirations to achieve a college degree than Euro-Americans do (Carr-Ruffino, 2009).
The third stereotype that African Americans are accused of is being lazy and irresponsible. It is
said that African Americans don‘t like to get jobs. How is this true when about the same proportion of
African Americans as Euro-Americans hold jobs? This must mean that Euro Americans are lazy too.
Even though they work at some of the same jobs as Euro-Americans, African American men receive only
70 percent of the pay. African American women receive 62 percent of the pay as Euro-Americans. They
are historically stuck doing much of the hard labor that helped establish the U.S. economy. This has not
changed, because they are still stuck doing the industrial work, and working at down sized corporations.
African Americans must work twice as hard and must stay in a position longer than normal workers just
to prove they are not lazy and incompetent, and that they can handle the next assignment. EuroAmericans believe that African Americans are too incompetent to handle higher-level responsibilities;
this is why they have to stay at their lower level positions longer (Carr-Ruffino, 2009).
The last stereotype that African Americans are accused of is being resentful troublemakers. This
stereotype is related to the violent and blaming stereotypes. Most African American communities believe
in speaking up assertively. Expressing your feelings that you are feeling, and directly confronting issues
are highly valued beliefs in the African American community. That is why people outside their
community may believe they are being rude towards them. It is actually not meant to be the way that they
interpreted their feelings. Euro-Americans and African Americans act in different definitions of ethnic
prejudice. African Americans might get up in your face to argue their case. Euro-Americans might take
that the wrong way and get defensive. They might start yelling at the African American, which in turn
starts an argument between the two. The argument could either be verbal or violent. Either way this could
look badly for the African American, and get the troublemaker stereotype. Even though it‘s not always
their fault when trouble is caused, they get the wrong image because of the stereotype (Carr-Ruffino,
2009).
57
America has become more and more diverse, but the same cannot be said for the corporate part of
America. Many African Americans have moved into better paying jobs, but still hit a glass ceiling when
they move into the middle management positions. African Americans have had trouble breaking through
the class ceiling their entire life. There are many obstacles that they have to go through before they will be
able to break through the glass ceiling. Many African Americans feel pressured to drop their identity to fit
in. They feel pressured to become almost white in order to become accepted into the workplace. They
believe that they have to change their speech, the way they dress, and their hair in order to fit into the
corporate culture. They also have to deal with their fellow employees believing they were just an
affirmative action hire. Affirmative action is an attempt to promote equal opportunity. It is instituted in
government and education settings to ensure that minority groups within a society are included in all
programs (Carr-Ruffino, 2009).
African Americans have all these barriers in breaking through, but once they do, they usually stay
there. Once an African American family breaks the cycle of poverty and get adequate jobs, the cycle will
stay for the entire family. The children will start doing better and school, which in turn will get a better
education, and receive a higher income once they receive an occupation.
There are not a lot of African Americans that broke the glass ceiling, but there is still a good
amount that pushed through. African Americans have been making it to the top position of Fortune 500
companies since 1995. The top position of a Fortune 500 company is a CEO. Fortune 500 companies are
the 500 largest corporations in the U.S. They are ranked based on revenues, profits, and market value.
Some of the people that have received the CEO positions are Franklin Raines, Kenneth Chenault,
Thomas-Graham, Richard Parsons, Stanley O‘Neal, Ann M. Fudge, and Ronald Williams. They are
CEO‘s of places like American Express, CNBC, Time Warner, Merrill Lynch, Young & Rubicam
Brands, and Sears Holding. Organizations such as Executive Leadership Conference (ELC) have played a
role in helping these people become CEOs. Two of these people are members and the other two are
supporters. ELC contains 300 of the most senior African-American corporate executives in Fortune 500
companies. ELC is trying to have more African Americans become leaders at all levels of corporate
58
America. It is committed to offering executives access to leadership networks and career coaching so they
can receive higher jobs and better income in the workplace (Carr-Ruffino, 2009).
African Americans and Euro-Americans have similar and different worldviews. They are
democratic societies, short term decision makers, arm‘s length communication styles, and they rely on
direct communication techniques. Based on the history of the African Americans in the United States,
their other views are different then Euro-Americans. Since the African Americans struggled with slavery
for so many years they tend to be an ―I‘m controlled‖ culture, whereas Euro Americans are ―I control.‖
African Americans rely on family, and put others before themselves. They have tight-ties with family
members, along with other close friends. Euro-Americans are about themselves, and have loose ties with
others. African Americans are a play it safe culture, and avoid risk, unlike Euro-Americans. They tend to
focus more on what is happening in the present. Euro- Americans deal with time by taking things step-bystep. Economically, African Americans used to be very agricultural, but they are now shifting away from
that. Euro-Americans are in a post-industrial economic society (Carr-Ruffino, 2009).
African Americans core values are sharing, expressing personal style, being real and genuine,
being assertive, expressing feelings, bouncing back, and not trusting. Their value of sharing represents
interrelating, interdependence, collectivism, and spirituality. Expressing personal style represents their
individuality, and they focus on shapes and patterns. They can recognize patterns better than other
cultures. African Americans are real and genuine because they learn the truth from direct experience and
can see the good and the bad. They belief that if something bad happens to you, it is because you needed
it to learn and grow. They are assertive because they stand up for their personal rights. They have a strong
voice and angry verbal arguments. People often see this assertiveness as violence, blaming others, or
being a troublemaker. They also express their feelings openly and verbal. They use expressive and direct
forms of communication. They negotiate more loudly than others and are very animated. African
Americans tend to do better with oral responses than written responses. Other people see this expression
as either anger or violence. Another value they have is their ability to bounce back and to be resilient. The
revitalization of the African American culture can be shown through the older members. They have been
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through experiences that the younger generation has not. They are also not trusting with the
establishment. This means that they are less willing to trust Euro-Americans. Some will even try to avoid
working with them. Many think before they speak because their words might make someone believe in a
stereotype. Even though it is hard for them to trust Euro-Americans due to their past, many are taking a
slow process a building trust with them (Carr-Ruffino, 2009).
African American customs in their community life are centered on the church. The church plays
an important role in providing social change for their community. They are leaders in the Civil Rights
Movement. They are also helping the underclass break out of poverty. There customs in family life
involve their extended families. Their extended family includes people who they consider non-blood
relatives. These people are essential to the family. They believe that anyone who has played a parental
role in their life is a parent. This can be their actual parents and grandparents, along with others in the
community. Their personal relationships involve acquaintances and friends. There acquaintances include
co-workers and casual friends. They have four rules that they follow when communicating with their
acquaintances. They follow role prescriptions, they are polite, they watch their words, and they support
their community members. Their relationship with friends is more intimate than Euro-Americans. They
like to discuss school, work, religion, interests, hobbies, and physical condition. They focus on,
acknowledging the individual, developing intimacy, being supportive, and appreciating the culture. In the
African American culture women are considered sexually assertive and they aren‘t less respectable
because of these traits. The men are more direct when they express their sexual interest and women do not
get insulted by this (Carr-Ruffino, 2009).
The Urban Village Concept is centered on the concept ―It takes a village to raise a child.‖ It is a
combination of the African culture and American values. They believe in economic empowerment. They
achieve this through networking, mentoring, and cooperative economics. Some African Americans also
celebrate Kwanza. Kwanza is used to honor their African heritage. It takes place from December 26
through January 1. It is based on seven principles. These principles are unity, self-determination,
60
collective work and responsibility, cooperative economics, purpose, creativity, and faith (Carr-Ruffino,
2009).
Affirmative Action was designed to end unfair workplace discrimination against certain groups of
people who have historically experienced discrimination. It opened doors to better-paying jobs for
minorities and women, which made them new competitors for jobs formerly held by Euro-American men.
Affirmative Action requires employers to take action to bring in under-represented groups of people into
better jobs. This increases the chances for a minority employee to actually get one of these jobs—without
having to file a complaint. If a company doesn‘t meet its diversity goals, it is not penalized, as long as
management can show that they are making a good-faith effort to create a diverse workforce (CarrRuffino, 2009).
We conducted an interview with an African American leader, to get his perspectives and
experiences. He stated that it was challenging to work his way into his current position. Those challenges
were no different than any other group would have experienced. He did not experience a glass ceiling
because others have fought for decades to ensure his rights and equality, but he still had to work hard to
get to the position he is in. When asked about stereotypes, he said that they are difficult to fight, but that
every group has them. The stereotype that he has dealt with the most has been his ―being too young.‖
With Affirmative Action an organization cannot hire someone based purely on their ethnicity. According
to this African American leader, a person must meet qualifications for a position. After the hiring process,
if the person they choose is of a different ethnicity, it will create diversity in the workplace, but the person
must still have the qualifications necessary for the job.
Overall, our findings from researching our topic have helped us, and hopefully others as well,
learn more about African Americans and what they deal with on a daily basis in the workplace. Whether
it is stereotyping or trying to break through the glass ceiling, all ethnicities have dealt with these issues,
including African Americans. We now have a better understanding of what African Americans and those
of other ethnicities have to deal with. We hope that when we enter the workforce, we will be able to be
better employees due to our research and knowledge on the topic of discrimination.
61
Works Cited
Carr-Ruffino, Norma. Managing Diversity. 8. Custom Publishing: Custom Publishing, 2009. 80-81, 141153, 225-264. Print.
European American. Wikipedia. Retrieved April 13, 2011, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_American
Hananel , Sam. (2011, February 24). Are Companies Excluding Jobless from Applying?. Retrieved from
http://www.baystatebanner.com/natl18-2011-02-24
Tidwell, Dr. Michael. Interview by Lauren McLain. April 12, 2011. Print. 24 Apr 2011.
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Morgann Goodling, Bloomsburg University
Gay Rights: Discrimination and Acceptance
Many people take their basic human rights for granted. In America for instance, there is one right
that people take advantage of over and over again. This is the right for two people to be married. Millions
of people around the world get married; however imagine being someone who is not able to get married.
Imagine being in love with someone and wanting to spend the rest of your life being married to this
person, but an unwritten rule is denying this right to you. This is a circumstance that both gay men and
lesbian women in the United States and the United Kingdom have to deal with. Instead of marriage
governments have decided to offer civil unions or civil partnerships. With this small step towards an
equalization of rights for homosexuals in both the United States and the United Kingdom discrimination
seems to be disappearing, however much discrimination is still in existence. As a result of both
progression and discrimination the topic of gay rights has become a very controversial issue in the United
States and the United Kingdom; although when comparing the two countries it seems as though the
United States has made this topic more debatable and controversial compared to the United Kingdom.
This debate between granting and denying rights to homosexuals is not always a black and white
issue for everyone. Undoubtedly, this issue for many people is considered to be a gray one because they
are not exactly sure how they feel about it. Their minds are constantly changing and most are beginning to
believe that all citizens including homosexuals should be granted all rights. However, many still think that
homosexuals do not deserve these rights based solely on their sexual orientation. According to Chris
Cuomo, ―it is difficult to get a clear sense of the state of American lesbian and gay politics these days
(2006, p. 75), and the same goes for the United Kingdom. There are those in the gray area who do not
necessarily agree with the lifestyle of homosexuality, but they do not feel that they have the right to tell
someone how to live his or her life and say what rights they should be granted or denied. With these
citizens starting to express their opinions more publicly there is a larger amount of people who are
starting to change their minds on this issue.
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Those who believe homosexuals do not deserve rights have organized hate groups. These groups
have been developed by these inhabitants in order to spread their opinions around countries and to stop
any type of progression being made. They believe any kind of sexual relationship between two people of
the same sex is wrong and it must be stopped.
In recent years a shift has occurred concerning the opinions of gay rights and because of this,
―disputes over gay rights policies have occupied a prominent place on the American public agenda in
recent years‖ (Brewer, 2003, p.1208). This shift looks to have caused the topic of gay rights to be very
controversial in both the U.S. and the U.K. With the issue of gay rights on the rise in recent years people
are now expressing their opinions on this issue more than ever. People are strongly stating whether they
agree or disagree with the lifestyle of homosexual individuals and couples. Citizens of both countries
seem to be changing their ways of thinking and believe gay men and lesbian women should be granted all
of the basic human rights given to heterosexuals without discrimination. Paul Brewer provides
information about a study that was done in order to show this change in public opinion in the United
States. Brewer explains, that from as recent as thirty years ago most people believed that any type of
sexual relations between any two people of the same sex was ―always wrong‖ and because of this ―there
was a small increase in hostility toward homosexuality during this period‖ (2003, p.1208). Nevertheless,
Brewer then goes on to say that a couple of years later, around the year 1992, the ―hostility decreased
rapidly‖ and people began to accept same-sex couples (2003, p.1208). Thanks to this shift in public
opinions, government officials in the Unites States have started to acknowledge homosexuals as deserving
of the same rights that are given to heterosexuals. Gays and lesbians have started to gain many rights that
allow them to live as though heterosexuals do.
One right that homosexuals now have is the right to adopt and foster children. This advancement
is seen both in the U.S. and the United Kingdom. Badgett and his accompanied authors explain a few
findings in the U.S.:
More than 16,000 adopted children are living with lesbian and gay parents. Gay and
lesbian parents are raising four percent of all adopted children in the United States. An
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estimated 14,100 foster children are living with lesbian or gay parents. Gay and lesbian
parents are raising three percent of foster children in the United States. (2010)
These four findings prove that the United States is improving in the ability of homosexuals to adopt and
foster the many children that need a home. The government is allowing these willing individuals to give a
child or children a warm and loving home. On the other hand, even with this progression there are still
―three states that currently restrict GLB (Gay Lesbian and Bi) individuals or couples from adopting‖,
according to Badgett and his fellow authors (2010). Because these three states are still discriminating
GLB individuals and couples from adopting probably means that other states might be thinking the same
thing and might even consider going back to their old ways of discrimination. States compare themselves
to one another in seeing how governments are being run and how it affects its citizens. States want to see
both the good and bad aspects of the other governments to make changes to their own in order to make it
better. This could mean states changing their own laws to make themselves a better place, so why
wouldn‘t they think about changing laws/rights for homosexuals. Undoubting, with new rights being
given to homosexuals that were once denied, this had added more fuel to the fire so to speak. Gay rights
become more controversial with every change made and don‘t seem to be stopping any time soon. In
comparison, the United Kingdom has had problems with homosexuals being able to be parents.
According to Helen Cosis Brown and Shelia Kershaw, ―the notion that lesbians and gay men, because of
their sexual preference, were unsuitable to parent‖ (2008, p. 123). Gays and lesbians had problems
adopting children and being denied the ability to donate eggs and sperm to fertility clinics. These issues
have developed due to some citizens not believing that homosexuals had the ability to parent. This was
the main concern for those individuals. This idea was thought because only one sex was available to be a
parent (either two moms or two dads) and not one of each sex to parent the child. In their minds this type
of family was not capable of raising a child because children need both a mom and a dad and without one
or the other a child would not grow up ‗normal‘. Homosexuals were denied that ability to adopt and foster
children because of their sexual orientation and not their abilities to parent. Brown and Kershaw of the
U.K. report:
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Prior to the Civil Partnership Act 2004 coming into force, only single people and married
couples could jointly adopt a child. Now, lesbian and gay couples can demonstrate that
their partnership is an ‗enduring family relationship‘ [Sec. 144(4), ACA, 2002], they have
a legitimate right to adopt a child jointly as a couple. (2008, p.127)
The act allows homosexuals from all over the nation to parent, which proves that the topic of gay rights is
not as controversial in this nation as it is in the United States because some states in the still continue to
deny this right to same-sex couples and homosexual individuals. As a result homosexuals are now
capable of adopting and fostering children. Homosexuals from both countries have almost completely
risen above the issue of gay parenting even though some discrimination still exists in the United States.
Thanks to laws/rights changing homosexual couples are now legally capable of providing children in
orphanages and fostering centers the home/family, love, and support that they deserve and have always
wanted. However, this amazing triumph is not the only right that gays and lesbians have overcome in
recent years. More have followed.
Another discrimination making the topic of gay rights so controversial are the rights for gays and
lesbians to be involved in the workforce equally and the ability to serve in the armed forces equally. In the
Unites States gay men and lesbian women are now protected from this discrimination just like
heterosexuals have been for many years. They cannot be turned away from a job or fired from a job based
solely on their sexual orientation. Many gay individuals were once unwelcome to work in certain
establishments because of their sexual preference. People in charge of these establishments thought that
gay individuals would corrupt their place of work and make outsiders not want to be associated with that
type of business. The biggest turn around that homosexuals have seen in the work force is the right for
them to serve their country in the armed forces yet, this turnaround has been consistent in keeping the
topic of gay rights controversial. This turnaround was the repeal of the Don‘t Ask Don‘t Tell Policy
which was set into place by the Clinton administration. The policy allowed for both gay men and lesbian
women to serve in any branch of the armed forces without having to disclose their sexual orientation. A
person was not able to make their sexual orientation known because if it became public news the
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individual would be dismissed. It does not make sense that a person would be dismissed from the armed
forces because of their sexual preference when they are physically and mentally capable of serving the
country. They have the same training and abilities as everyone else serving, but for one small reason they
are incapable of serving their country. Recently the Don‘t Ask Don‘t Tell policy was repealed which now
means that gay men and lesbian women can openly serve in the any branch of the American Armed
Forces (Berger, 2010). The United Kingdom in comparison has also in the past discriminated against
people based on their sexual preference.
Just like the in the United States the United Kingdom would not hire someone if their sexual
orientation was known prior to hiring on the other hand, this topic does not seem to be very controversial
anymore. Brown and Kershaw illustrate, ―unlike protection given to individuals on gender to racial
grounds, there was no protection through legislation on the grounds of sexual orientation‖ (2008, p. 124).
This quote demonstrates that this topic was once controversial, but the nation has overcome this form of
discrimination against homosexuals and has seemed to eliminate the tension that was once present. The
United Nations armed forces have no discrimination against homosexuals serving. Everyone is treated
equally and no law exists to deny gays and lesbians this ability. Because no law exists making it illegal
for homosexuals to serve in the armed forces it reinstates the fact that the United States is more
controversial. The U.S. still is having issues with homosexuals serving in the armed forces even with the
repeal of the Don‘t Ask Don‘t Tell Policy. This progression has allowed both gays and lesbians the ability
to benefit from the protection allowing this type of discrimination from happening. Homosexuals are able
to be openly gay in the workforce and in serve in the armed forces without having to worry about being
dismissed just because of their sexual orientation. Even though it appears that both the United Kingdom
and the United States are equalizing gay rights, one right is still not a reality for them.
With progression in both allowing homosexuals the ability to parent and also the rights to work
and serve in the armed forces without discrimination, same-sex marriage is the main reason that the topic
of gay rights is incredibly controversial in the United States. Marriage is a very common in the United
States. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights allows for anyone (who is the legal age to marry) the
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ability to be married without any form of discrimination, but for some reason same-sex couples have been
left out of this right. Marriage is not a realistic thing to them. The right for homosexuals to marry has not
yet happened in the United States. This is the one basic human right that seems to be unchanging for
homosexuals in the U.S. and causing this extremely controversial topic to be never ending. It seems that
no matter what is being done to overturn this provision against homosexuals the right for these couples to
marry is still being denied to them. Same-sex couples do not have the option to be married based solely
on their sexual orientation. Richard Mohr the author of the book The Long Arc of Justice: Lesbians and
Gay Marriage, Equality And Rights states that ―paradigmatic of the denial of queer equality is the
indignity of offering the consolation prize of ‗civil unions‘ rather than marriage for same-sex couples‖
(Cuomo, 2007, p.83). Chris Cuomo also quotes Mohr by saying, ―the full right to gay marriage as a
remedy that would establish an important freedom but also help establish dignity, by removing the
indignity of that secondary status, and forced complicity with legal structures that maintain inequality‖
(2007, p. 84). Some states in the United States seems to think that by offering civil unions to same-sex
couples instead of marriages that it would silence the voices of those who believe same-sex couples
should be able to be considered a legally joined couple. Did those governments really think that this
would happen? Marriage is recognized throughout the entire country and is protected by federal laws
while civil unions are only protected under the laws of the state that they live in, which has to be a state
that recognizes civil unions. Another fact about civil unions is that these couples have no way of
separated once committing to each other. People who are married have the option of divorce, where as
once two people join a civil union there is no way to eliminate their agreement to each other. Another
difference between marriages and civil unions is that since the federal government does not recognize
civil unions, same-sex couples must fill out forms as a single family and not as partners. This separation
establishes that some of the American people cannot come to an agreement that everyone, including
homosexuals, should have the same human rights.
The United Kingdom‘s government appears to have similar beliefs he issue of same-sex marriage
as the United States. It looks as if this basic human right is the only one that homosexuals are still be
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denied and discriminated against. Same-sex couples only have the opportunity to be in civil partnerships
and not marriage. Brown and Kershaw make it clear that ―the legislation grants legal status to lesbian and
gay partnerships, the government made it very clear that the Act was an equality measure, and not an
introduction of same-sex marriages‖ (2008, p.127). How can the government really think that the
introduction of civil partnerships is going to make the topic of gay rights stop? The denial of same-sex
marriage proves that it is not an equality measure, but discriminations on what human rights a
homosexual is able to have. Civil partnerships work similarly to civil unions in the U.S. However, civil
unions do contain many differences. To begin, civil partnerships entitle the couple to the same treatments
and benefits given to any type of married couple. Also unlike in the United States, same-sex couples are
allowed to get a divorce just like any heterosexual couple is allowed to. In the United Kingdom civil
partnerships are recognized everywhere. This means that the couple does not have to worry about going
to a certain area of the nation and not being recognized as a legal partnership, unlike in the United States
where only certain states recognize civil unions. The Civil Partnership Act allows for the same treatment
of gay and lesbian couples the same way heterosexual couples are treated (Brown and Kershaw, 2008,
p.127). This is good news for same-sex couples because equal treatment allows them to feel comfortable
with themselves and able to love whoever they want and not have to worry about someone treating them
differently.
Brown and Kershaw explain:
Whilst the civil partnership is distinct from marriage, it enables lesbian and gay couples
legal obligation, rights and responsibilities as married couples. Amongst other things, this
means that once lesbian and gay couples have registered their partnership, as ‗civil
partnerships‘ they are treated in the same way as married couples for the purpose of
benefits, pension rights, protection from domestic violence, as well as being legally able
to inherit part of their deceased partners estate and be recognized as their partner‘s next
of kin. (2008, p.127)
These statements provide same-sex couples with a sense of comfortably with their relationship and do not
have to worry about being treated any differently then heterosexual couples. Even though civil
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partnerships are not marriage, civil partnerships help calm the controversy of gay rights and help to make
homosexuals more equal to heterosexuals. However, conflicting ideas of what gays and lesbians should
be able to do are still in exist.
The conflicting opinions of people are the reason why controversy on this topic seems to cause
the most problems with this topic. Many citizens in both United States and the United Kingdom hope that
sometime in the near future their governments will allow same-sex marriages to happen. If civil unions
and civil partnerships are already permitted to same-sex couples with most of the same opportunities and
benefits, what does it matter if gays and lesbians were legally allowed to marry? This is only making
another distinction between heterosexuals and homosexuals saying that heterosexuals are the primary
group granted all human rights while homosexuals are a secondary group who are only granted certain
rights. Same-sex couples in the United States are hoping for their civil unions to be recognized nationally
if gay marriage is nowhere in sight. Both state and federal governments should be more open to these
couples are realize they are just like everyone else and who they love shouldn‘t make them bad and
unwilling to be treated like every other citizen. To those who do not believe gay men and lesbian women
should not be granted rights believe same-sex relationships are wrong and therefore do not deserve to be
treated like everyone else.
To some, gays and lesbians are thought to be going against the natural order of life. These
couples are not able to have children naturally together and therefore are going against nature. This is
thought of as wrong to some people and because of this homosexuals should are going against what
nature is telling them to do. These people also believe that since two people of the same sex cannot
naturally have children then why should they be able to get married when to them that is what marriage is
for. Marriage is to produce children and without same-sex couples being able o do this same-sex marriage
has no purpose. With these opinions on gays and lesbians so well known it is not farfetched to be believe
that these opinions are responsible for the controversy and denial of rights/discrimination. However with
a recent change in opinions it has affected the recognition of gay rights. With this recent recognition of
the homosexual lifestyle many support groups have began to develop and more equalization of rights
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have come into existence. The supporters of gay rights have placed into act the Liberal Movement, which
according to Michael LaRegina, ―calls for equal rights for homosexuals‖ (1997). This movement works
towards gaining all rights for homosexual Americans that are currently given to heterosexual Americans.
Michael LaRegina also states, ―they (homosexuals) are being denied rights which they do not deserve, but
rather to which they are entitled as citizens and human beings‖ (1997). LaRegina recognizes that just
because a person has a homosexual lifestyle does not mean that they do not have the right to be granted
the same human rights that people living the heterosexual lifestyle are entitled to. The United Kingdom
also has many Acts and regulations set in place to make the equalization of human rights more likely.
Some examples include: the Equality Act (Sexual Orientation) Regulations, The Fostering Services
National Minimum Standards, and the Embryology and Fertilization Act (EFA) (Brown & Kershaw,
2008, p.123-124). All of these work to make the chance of equalization more likely. They allow for
homosexuals to have the rights described for them in these documents have helped with the equalization
of all people.
The Equality Act (Sexual Orientation) Regulations ―make it illegal to discriminate on the grounds
of sexual orientation in the provision of goods, facilities and services‖ (Brown &Kershaw, 2008, p.122).
This act acknowledges homosexuals are being the same as everyone else and helps to insure that they are
treated with the same respect. This means that all social services such as restaurants and stores must not
discriminate someone because of their sexuality. It helps to protect them. The Fostering Services National
Minimum Standards allows for same-sex couples to adopt and foster children. Capable same-sex couples
are able to provide a home to the children living in orphanages the home they want, need and deserve.
Another act, the Embryology and Fertilization Act, permits the capability of gay men and lesbian women
to donate eggs and sperm to fertility treatments. This was once denied to homosexuals because there were
people who believed homosexual contained tainted sperm and eggs and if they were used all of the
children resulting would also be homosexual. This was not ideal to the public, but luckily the law was
overturned and now homosexuals have this ability. Other forms of support besides acts and regulations
exist.
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Another form of support that exists in the United States for homosexuals and gay rights is Pride
Month (June). Pride Month was organized in order to celebrate the movement and progression towards
the equalization of homosexuals to heterosexuals. Secretary of State, Hillary Rodham Clinton, spoke at a
conference during Pride Month and stated that advances have been made in order to equalize rights for
same-sex couples, however she also knows, ―that there is still a lot of work to be done but that we are
moving in the right direction‖ (2010). Hillary Clinton is a very powerful and influence person in
government right now and she has a big influence on people. It is refreshing to see that not everyone
currently in government agrees with the current discrimination of homosexuals. However, she knows that
the U.S. is on the right track to acknowledging gays and lesbians as equal American citizens and therefore
they should be entitled to the same human rights. Sexual orientation should not be the reason why certain
individuals are not allowed to have rights. What does it matter who someone loves? America is based on
freedom, so why should sexual orientation keep homosexuals from true freedom? It makes no sense but
there are plenty of American citizens who believe homosexuality is wrong and with this they have
organized hate groups in order to try and stop with equality act.
When it comes to the lives of homosexuals, people seem to be putting their own personal beliefs
and opinions before the rights and freedoms that should be guaranteed to all citizens in the United States.
Even with acknowledgement of gay rights and its many supporters, many hate groups still exist. Currently
in the U.S. there are many hate groups who try and diminish the progress that has been made towards
equalization of all people. Evelyn Schlatter, the author of 18 Anti-Gay Groups and Their Propaganda,
states that: ―the Abiding Truth Ministries serves mainly as a launching pad for an international anti-gay
campaign‖, in which founder Scott Lively believes that homosexuality is linked to the Nazi Party (2010).
Also, Evelyn Schlatter explains that another hate group is the ―American Family Association‖ in which
they ―seek to support traditional moral values, but in recent years it has seemed to specialize in combating
the homosexual agenda‖ (2010). It does not seem to matter the amount of progression that is being made
in the U.S., many hate groups are continuing to exist and express their opinions and beliefs louder than
ever. By these groups making their opinions and beliefs so well known it is no wonder that gay rights in
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the U.S. have become very controversial. These conflicting opinions have caused many debates
concerning gay rights and have most likely halted true equalization of homosexuals to heterosexuals. The
members of these groups want to go back to the time when homosexuals were not given the rights they
are given today. In comparison, the United Kingdom does not go without any form of hatred towards
homosexuals.
According to Brown and Kershaw, ―One of the many problems that lesbians and gay men faced
was violence and harassment‖ (2008, p.125). This is a result of people still wanting to deny human rights
to homosexuals. It is not something that should be taken lightly. ―Nor is it unknown for young lesbians
and gay men to leave home because of their parents‘ abusive or hostile attitudes towards them‖ (Brown &
Kershaw, 2008, p.125). Children should not have to worry about their parents beating them because of
their sexual orientation. Parents should love their children no matter what. No child wants to live in fear
that their parents are going to abuse them because they like the same sex. It is nice to see that the
Domestic Violence, Crimes, and Victims Act helps to keep this from happening (Brown & Kershaw,
2008, P.125). However, even though is act is set in place to protect these victims it does not mean that the
violence and harassment has stopped. No one knows what happens behind doors, but this act hopefully
controls the violence better. This has caused the government to set laws into place to help protect gay men
and lesbians from the horrendous acts of violence that they are likely to experience.
It is not a mystery that the issue of gay rights has sparked a huge controversy in the United States
and the United Kingdom. This controversy has made it difficult to equalize homosexuals in both
countries, but the United States has made this issue more controversial. The United Kingdom has more
acts and regulations set in place to help equalize homosexuals while the United States has some
regulations set in place, but more debate on this topic exists here. Some of the acts to equalize
homosexuals allow for gays and lesbians the right to adopt and foster children and the ability for them to
work and serve in the armed forces without discrimination based on sexual orientation. However, hatred
still exists causing extreme controversy. Hate groups, violence and harassment exist making it difficult to
come to an agreement on gay rights. Also, discriminations, such as the denial of marriage to same-sex
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couples, exist solely because some people believe that any type of same-sex relations is wrong and
therefore these people should not be provided with rights that make them equal to everyone else. There
are citizens in both the United States and United Kingdom that are letting their personal beliefs and
opinions in the way of allowing homosexuals human rights that are laid out in the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights. This declaration provides rights that should be given to all people. Unless an agreement
is formed homosexuals will be thought of as a secondary group of people not deserving of rights and
equality to heterosexuals who are considered to be the primary group.
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Reference Page
Badgett, L.M.V., & Chambers, K., & Gates, G., & Macomber, J. E. (2010). Adoption and Foster Care by
Lesbian and Gay Parents in the United States. Urban Institute. Retrieved April 4, 2011 from:
http://www.urban.org/publications/411437.html
Berger, J. (2010). Senate Repeals Ban Against Openly Gay Military Personnel. The New York Times.
Retrieved April 4, 2011 from: http://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/12/us/politics/19cong.html
Brewer, P.R. (2003). The Shifting Foundations of Public Opinion about Gay Rights. The Journal of
Politics, 65(4), 1208-12220.
Brown, H.C., & Kershaw, S. (2008). The Legal Context for Social Work with Lesbians and Gay Men in
the UK: Updating the Educational Context. Social Work Education, 27, 122-130.
Doi:10.1111/j.1468-0468-0432.2004.00231.x
Clinton, H. (2010). Remarks at an Event Celebrating Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender (LGBT)
Month. U.S. Department of State: Diplomacy in Action. Retrieved March 2, 2011 from:
http://www.state.gov/secretary/rm/2010/06/143517.htm
Cuomo, C. (2006). Dignity and the Right to Be Lesbian or Gay. Philosophical Studies: An International
Journal for Philosophy in the Analytic Tradition, 132(1), 75-85.
Divorce Rates in America. Marriage 101. Retrieved April 4, 2011 from: http://marriage101.org/divorcerates-in-america/
LaRegina, M. (1997). The Struggle for Gay Rights in America. The West: Enlightenment to Present.
Retrieved March 2, 2011 from: http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/laregina-gayrights.html
Schlatter, E. (2010). 18 Anti-Gay Groups and Their Propaganda. SPLC: Southern Poverty Law Center.
Retrieved March 22, 2011 from: http://splccenter.org/get-informed/intelligence-report/browse-allissues/2010/winter/the-hard-liners
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Moira Jefferson, Kutztown University
Conservation
Since the end of the late 1800‘s, men brought attention to the destruction of natural resources. As
more people continued to conquer uninhabited wilderness, men became increasingly concerned for the
exploitation of natural resources. As countries progress, preservation of natural resources align with the
issue of human rights because we depend on natural resources to survive. Moreover, the controversy over
conservation is a topic of interest when referenced to human rights mainly because it opens up the
discussion of whether humans should have a hand at attempting to manipulate nature for optional energy
sources.
Conservation involves the act of preserving natural resources such as forest and lakes
(―Conservation,‖ Oxford English Dictionary). The act of conserving natural resources did not concern
many Americans until settlers began moving out west during the late 1800‘s. One of the first men who
played a major roll in conserving America‘s natural beauty was John Muir. In the following years, a
middle-aged man became increasingly aware of the destruction of what he loved so much. The middleaged man, in 1901, became the President of the United States. Theodore Roosevelt implemented
legislation that protected many lands. Nonetheless, the importance of conserving natural resources, not
only in America but other countries as well, includes the preservation of many indigenous species and
benefits of the ecology. Although it may cost taxpayers to conserve natural resources, with the
establishment of national parks and non-profit foundations, money is generated into the economy. Finally,
a major impact on protecting the wilderness involves preserving the natural beauty, which encompasses
the world.
When gold was discovered out west during the mid 1800‘s, many people began to settle the west
for longer periods of time. However, it was not just their settling which impacted the land, it also was the
mining business, which kept towns afloat. Mining was considered a large business that had a ―basic
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dynamic that encouraged rapid and thorough exploitation of the earth‘s resources‖ (Nash, 521). Along
with large scale mining, came the transportation means, which also contributed to the destruction of
forests. Railroads, as well as mining, depended largely on wood in order to stabilize mines and transport
the goods on railroads to markets. Documentation from ―California State Board of Agriculture estimat[es]
in the late 1860s that one-third of the state‘s forests had already disappeared‖ (521).
During the time the Timber and Stone Act was being passed through legislation, John Muir
argued for the preservation of the country‘s natural beauty. His philosophy was to ―climb the mountains
and get their good tidings. Nature‘s peace will flow into you as sunshine flows into trees. The winds will
blow their own freshness into you, and the storms their energy, while cares will drop off like autumn
leaves‖ (Our National Parks, 1). Muir and his followers also believed ―preserving the wilderness was a
spiritual and psychological necessity for over-civilized residents‖ (Nash, 651). Thus, he was greatly
against the destruction the lumber and mining businesses caused to natural resources and the profits they
gained.
In 1890, after coming across the Great Valley of California, his efforts to preserve the ―‘all one
sheet of plant gold, hazy and vanishing in the distance…‘‖ persuaded President Harrison to pass the
Forest Reserve Act of 1891, which classified certain domains of public land as forest reserves (521). The
most notable national reserve, which Muir helped to create, is known as Yosemite National Park. Two
years after Yosemite National Park was founded, Muir established and was inaugurated as the first
president of the Sierra Club. The mission of the Sierra Club members is to protect and promote the use of
eco-friendly appliances in order to protect the loveliness of the wilderness surrounding us all. Members of
the club protect, promote, and educate others of the destruction of the wilderness in ways, which are
lawfully abiding as to not demean the club. With his ―back-to-nature‖ philosophies, John Muir‘s ideas
and foundations for preserving America‘s natural beauty greatly influenced millions and continue to be
practiced each year.
At the turn of the century, Americans elected an outdoorsman and naturalist Theodore Roosevelt
as president.. Although he had many achievements during his presidency, the ones he cherished the most
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were the ones in which he developed many conservation programs. Under his presidency, Roosevelt
―tripled the land set aside for national forests, bringing the total to more than 150 million acres‖ (Nash,
650). While tripling the land for national forests, President Roosevelt also established ―150 national
parks, 51 federal bird preservations, 4 game preserves, 5 national parks‖ and many more preservations
(Theodore Roosevelt Association). Roosevelt also founded the National Conservation Commission to
take an inventory of all the natural resources in the United States. Although he was known as a master
hunter, Roosevelt felt it necessary to respect the animals and develop game preserves to save animals
from becoming extinct in the United States. His acts of conserving upset big businesses due to the fact
that Roosevelt did not feed into their briberies. Rather, he continued to protect the wilderness because he
felt that was more important than receiving money in an illegal manner. During President Roosevelt‘s
presidency, many natural resources were preserved to save the greater good of the people and the natural
beauty of the United States. Roosevelt did not allow big business to persuade his policy setting.
In the past few decades, the conservation of natural resources has taken a back seat to other major
issues. However, on April 20th, 2010, the BP oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico brought the topic of
conservation to the forefront of American minds. The main concern of the BP spill after it was capped on
July 15th, was that the total number of oil being dumped into the Gulf of Mexico reached an astounding
―4.9 million gallons with only 800,000 thus far being captured‖ (BBC News). Many men and women
feared for the preservation of marine wildlife endangered by the spill. Other people wondered what the
United States government would do the punish BP for their mistake in the oil spill. However, recent
presidents have allowed for Corporatocracy to occur. Corporatocracy is the term used to describe the
federal governments primary interest in large corporations, which ends up giving the corporation control
of the government. With the BP spill, the government allowed BP to exploit natural resources from the
Gulf in order to avoid a free market.
Alfred Webre of The Examiner states in his article that ―[it is] difficult to measure because of the
lack of reliable information from the U.S. government and BP‖ (Webre, 1). This comment shows that the
government remains fearful for severely punishing BP for the oil spill due to the government being paid
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by big businesses for allowing them to harm natural resources. Recently, the United States opened the
Gulf of Mexico back up for more drilling of oil. Astoundingly enough, a top contender for the oil is BP
whose negligence led to the disastrous spill. As the American government resorted to Corporatocracy, it
neglects to provide for the welfare of the ecosystem.
Although the government resorted to Corporatocracy, the larger issue at the time was the impact
on human rights that the oil spill created. When the spill occurred in mid-April, the ecosystem was
immediately affected by the large amounts of oil being dumped into the Gulf. With the ecosystem
beginning to be exterminated by the oil, it posed as a huge detriment to the present and future generations
that live off of supplies from the Gulf because the ecosystem was no longer edible or sustainable.
However, the greater impact the spill continues to effect was the number of job losses. Every man
has the human right to work in society and make a living for him and his family. Yet, when the Gulf Spill
occurred, the right of work was in jeopardy due to the threat on the ecosystem. With the BP oil spill, the
rights of life all humans‘ possess were at risk due to the international corporations inadequate emergency
response.
Another conservation topic that involves the justification of human rights, is Josh Fox‘s
documentary, Gasland. In 2005, President Bush signed the Energy Bill, which Vice President Chaney had
pushed through Congress, exempting all oil and natural gas industries from dozens of Environmental
Protection Agencies and Democratic laws, such as Safe Drinking Water Act and Clean Air Act to name a
few (GASLAND). Once Bush signed the Energy Bill, oil companies immediately began to buy or lease
land that contain large amounts of natural gas and use Halliburton technology to extract such gas.
In the documentary, Fox travels across the United States divulging the truth about Hydraulic
fracturing, or most notably known as, fracking. Fracking ―is a means of natural gas extraction employed
in deep natural gas well drilling. Once a well is drilled, millions of gallons of water, sand and proprietary
chemicals are injected, under high pressure, into a well. The pressure fractures the shale and props open
fissures that enable natural gas to flow more freely out of the well‖ (GASLAND). During the process of
fracking, natural gases are not only emitted into the drilled well, but also the drinking water aquifers
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located only a few thousand feet above the fractured spot, that supply thousands to millions of homes
with healthy drinking water. Fox states on the Gasland website that over 80,000 chemicals are injected
into the earth‘s crust with each fracking process and out of that number, 65 compounds used are deemed
hazardous to the human health (GASLAND). The families affected by the hazardous drilling have
reported arsenic poisoning and cancer from drinking the gas-ridden tap water. While one particular family
is capable of lighting the water pouring out of the kitchen faucet on fire due to the presence of high levels
of gas.
Josh Fox‘s depiction of the dangers natural gas drilling has on the environment and humans
surrounding the drilling holes, does impact human rights in the United States. In human rights, men and
women are entitled to an environment that provides an adequate lifestyle. However, in the thirty-seven
states that approve fracking, humans are at a great risk of diseases that will eventually kill them due to the
unstable environment that possess an unlimited amount of harmful chemicals and presence of gas in the
drinking water. Thus, those operating with hydraulic fracking are not only making the dangers to humans
present, but also to the environment, which ultimately sustains life.
Not only are human rights being effected in the United States, but also on an international level.
In the past five years, indigenous tribes in the Peruvian Amazon recklessly protest the laws pass by
President Garcia, that allows for the destruction of the Amazon‘s rainforest for oil and gas exploration,
logging and mining. Indigenous groups started to protest the destruction by blockading roads and airports,
threatening to set fire to oil pumping stations, and shutting down the oil pipeline that enables oil to travel
from the jungle to the Pacific Ocean. The government has been selling and leasing concessions to foreign
investments for the exploitation of natural resources, which Peruvians argue, only make the elites richer
while the poverty rate continues to loom at a dangerous 40 percent (Ortega, ―Thousands of Indigenous
Peruvians…,‖ 1).
Peruvians also show increasing aggravation at the government because the biodiversity of the
Amazon, which ―scientists estimate is home to some [10 percent of the world total] plant species and to
1,816 bird species,‖ is continuously at risk for extinction (Ortega, 1). Vivienne Ortega reports that a
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―Duke University study published [in 2008] said contract block for oil and gas exploration cover[s]
approximately 72 percent of Peru‘s rain forest‖ (―Security Forces Kill at Least…,‖ 1). Indigenous groups
fear the Peruvian government will do nothing to preserve the regions land rights of the Amazon that are
being violated. It is also fearful that thousands of natural resources, such as animal and plants, will be
eventually destroyed due to the mistreatment of the land.
While the preservation of the Amazon is at risk and land rights are being infringed upon, basic
human rights of the Peruvians and indigenous groups are being violated as well. Indigenous tribe protests
came to a boiling point on June 6, 2009, when ―22 tribesmen and nine [Peruvian] policemen‖ were killed
while trying to disperse a road blockade to an oil pumping station owned by Petroperu (Ortega,
―Security…,‖ 1). Although it is unknown if the indigenous tribesmen did, in fact, carry any weapons or
kill the policemen, their human right to live was being violated, as well as, not allowing them to protect
the land for which their own families resided on for generations.
Not only are people losing the basic right to live; the way in which they sustain life, the
ecosystem, is being destroyed. Without the ecosystem, indigenous tribes will be forced to move away
from their own homes due to the lack of food. Also, ―indigenous peoples assert that new laws undermine
their rights and open up their ancestral lands to private companies for mining, logging, plantations, and oil
drilling without their consultation or consent‖ (MacLennan, ―Police Open Fire on Indigenous…,‖ 1).
Human rights coalitions have asked for the Peruvian government to immediately stand down after the
killing incident, however, the government remains to state that they are only protecting their own rights.
The insufficient control and protection the Peruvian government has to offer to their own citizens and
environment, presents a real danger for a massive uproar by those who are not receiving the justification
needed in order to sustain life.
Recently, conservation has been on the forefront of the world‘s mind as Japan was recently hit
with a massive earthquake and tsunami in the beginning of March. The destruction, caused by nature, to
Japan continues to be discovered as worldwide efforts to help clean the countryside and rescue Japanese
citizens persist. The main worry Japanese officials have does not only pertain to the repair of Japan, but
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also to the matter of the Fukushima nuclear energy plant located along the coast. When the tsunami hit the
Japanese coast, it shut down the cooling system to the plant and caused massive amounts of radiation to
lead into the air and now the sea. According to representative at ―Tokyo Electric Power Co… plutonium
ha[s] been detected in soil samples that were taken [March 22nd] at five spots [on] the plant [grounds]‖
(AFP, ―Japan on Maximum Alert…,‖ 1). Although it is unsure when the Fukushima plant situation will
finally be resolved, as the radiation seeps deeper into the soil and sea and continues to spread, human
rights will become the topic of discussion. Japanese officials greed for optional ways of providing energy
has ultimately created what would have only been nature acting against itself, into man battling and
harming nature.
Since the beginning of conservation, the discussion of human rights has loomed right along side.
In the United States, the legal drilling of natural gas has destroyed not only nature, but also the healthy
living ecosystem many American citizens reside in. While the BP Oil Spill destroyed the ecosystem in the
Gulf of Mexico that provides for the lives of millions of people. The disruption of human rights in Peru
has caused and international outcry to the unruly deaths of thirty and more indigenous tribesmen
attempting to save the Peruvian Amazon from ultimate destruction. Furthermore, the uncertainty of
Japan‘s radiation has the world on edge as countless ecosystems futures are risk of destruction, harming
the forthcoming years. Although conservation may not seem an important topic of conservation, the
destruction of many natural resources does hinder the lives of all human beings in the world.
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Works Cited
―BP Gears Up to Plug ‗World‘s Biggest‘ Oil Spill.‖ BBC News 3 Aug. 2010. 10 Oct. 2010
<http://www.bbc.co.uk>.
―Conservation.‖ Oxford English Dictionary. Online Version Nov. 2010. KU Rohrbach Library. 30 Mar.
2011 <http://www.oed.com>.
GASLAND. 2010. International WOW Company. 17 Mar. 2011 <http://www.gaslandthemovie. com>.
―Japan on ‗Maximum Alert‘ Over Nuclear Plant.‖ BREITBART. 29 Mar. 2011. AFP. 29 Mar. 2011
<http://www.breitbart.com>.
MacLennan, Gregor. ―Police Open Fire on Indigenous Blockade in the Peruvian Amazon- 25 Civilians
and 9 Police Dead, 150.‖ The Indigenous Portal. 7 June 2009. Mohawk Internet Technologies. 20
Mar. 2011 <http://indigenousportal.com>.
Muir, John. Our National Parks. 1901. Sierra Club: John Muir Exhibit. 2010. Sierra Club. 1 Oct. 2010
<http://sierraclub.org>.
Nash, Gary B., Julie Roy Jeffrey, John R. Howe, Allan M. Winkler. Allen F. Davis, Charlene Mire, Peter
J. Frederick, and Carla Gardina Pestana. The American People: Creating a Nation and a Society.
Ed. Gary B. Nash. Vol 2. New York: Pearson Longman, 2008. 2 Vols.
Ortega, Vivienne. ―Security Forces Kill at Least 31 Indigenous Peruvians Protecting Rainforest.‖ (We)
Can Do Better. 6 June 2009. 20 Mar. 2011 <http://candobetter.net>.
Ortega, Vivienne. ―Thousands of Indigenous Peruvians Protest Invasion of Amazon by Oil, Mining, and
Agricultural Companies.‖ (We) Can Do Better. 1 June 2009. 20 Mar. 2011
<http://candobetter.net>.
United States. The Theodore Roosevelt Association. Conservationist. By Rogina L. Jeffries. May 2010. 1
Oct. 2010 <http://www.theodoreroosevelt.org>.
Webre, Alfred Lambremont. ―Will the BP Oil Spill Accelerate Disclosure of Teleportation, Anti-Gravity
and ET/UFO Presence?‖ The Examiner Seattle 11 June 2010. 10 Oct. 2010
<http://www.examiner.com>.
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Kristin Kelly, Bloomsburg University
Distortion and Exploitation: The Realities of the Human Terrain System Project
Throughout history, anthropologists have been involved in military actions that may have helped
an area of people but have overall harmed them. In regards to the American Anthropological Association
(AAA) code of ethics, if an anthropologist involves themselves with any ―military actions or war efforts‖
they will more than likely be violating the code of ethics. After analysis of the code of ethics from the
AAA, anthropologists should not be involved in any government military operations, nor should their
anthropological data be used for this purpose.
During World War II anthropologists were called on by the government to help aid in studying
Japanese Americans in the government project called War Relocation Authority. This agency was
responsible for placing Japanese Americans in relocation camps where they were confined for some time.
While anthropologist‘s intentions may have been to improve conditions, they also negatively affected the
Japanese Americans in these relocation camps. An article titled Engineering Internment: Anthropologists
and the War Relocation Authority by Orin Starn, states anthropologists were involved with ―Restrictions
of discourse about removal, legitimation relocation, and promotion of racial stereotypes about the
Japanese‖ (700). Anthropologists were hired to study Japanese Americans at the camps and did not
receive informed consent from these supposed informants. This is a violation of informed consent which
states that ―Participation must be voluntary. People must be told of the potential costs and benefits.‖
Anthropologists involved in these camps were determining who should stay longer and remain under
observation, and caused harm to these people forced to reside here.
The Japanese at these camps were American citizens therefore their dignity was harmed because
the United States government removed them from their homes and did not treat them as citizens with
rights. It should be unquestionable as to whether or not anthropologists should be involved in war efforts
and military actions. The evidence shows how wrong this can be. Starn wrote, ―Ethnographers attempted
to predict the reactions of various groups in the community to contemplated actions of the administration‖
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(702). The information provided to the government in regards to this research could have perhaps helped
them determine who should stay longer, or who should be isolated if deemed a leader of a supposed riot.
Furthermore, if an anthropologist revealed information to the government that they received from an
informant, they would be causing harm to their informant. This is especially the case if the informant told
the anthropologist out of confidentiality. Anthropologists working for government agencies such as the
War Relocation Authority cannot entirely be honest to their informants about what their intent is,
however, they have a duty as an anthropologist to tell the people they are studying what their intentions
are for their research. Regardless of the rules and expectations of the United States government,
anthropologists should remember that their duty to their informants is their sole responsibility. In the
American Anthropological Association‘s statement on the Human Terrain System Project it states ―HTS
anthropologists work in situations where it will not always be possible for them to distinguish themselves
from military personnel and identify themselves as anthropologists.‖ This can also closely correlate to
anthropologists working in the relocation camps because they have a duty to the government but they also
have a responsibility to remain honest to their informants, and they may get caught up in both obligations
and give information to the government rather than obey the requests of their informants. A more recent
case of social scientists being involved in military operations is taking place in Iraq and Afghanistan and
is known as the Human Terrain System.
The Human Terrain System Project (HTSP) is presently being debated in regards to its intentions
and the government‘s use of social scientists to aide them in studying populations in Iraq and
Afghanistan. There are differing views on this project. In an article written by BlackAnthem, a website
produced by the military, staff Sgt. Chanelcherie states that the mission of the project is to ―Provide
insight into the population and its culture in order to enhance operational effectiveness and reduce civilian
and military conflict.‖ The military is justifying their actions in saying that it will help the local
populations by educating them and helping them remain stable. Furthermore the article reads that
―specialists simply help the division assist the Iraqi populace in ways uniformed personnel can‘t.‖
However, this could mean anthropologist may stray from the guidelines of the code of ethics in order to
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help in military efforts. In the statement released by the American Anthropological Association on the
HTS Project, it says that an anthropologist‘s inability to distinguish themselves from military personnel
places a ―significant constraint on their ability to fulfill their ethical responsibility as anthropologists to
disclose who they are and what they are doing.‖ According to the code of ethics ―anthropological
researchers must be open about the purpose, potential impacts, and source of support for research projects
with funders, colleagues, persons studied or providing information, and with relevant parties affected by
the research.‖ Anthropologists working with the military to provide them information about potential
threats from communities in Iraq or Afghanistan may not be honest to their informants about why they are
collecting information from them. This information therefore could potentially harm informants, their
families and communities. Their names and information can be released without their knowledge putting
them at risk. This violates one of the most important rules of the AAA code of ethics, which states that an
anthropologist must ―do no harm.‖ Informed Consent must also be taken into account when studying
populations during ethnographic research.
The issue with anthropologists involving themselves in the War Relocation Authority is mirrored
also with the Human Terrain System. Many violations can be seen throughout the AAA code of ethics as
well as in informed consent. In an article written in The Washington Post titled, ―Rough Terrain‖ it states
that ―Under an experimental program in Afghanistan, teams of anthropologists and social scientists are
working alongside soldiers to help win the war by winning over the Afghan people.‖ This quote tells the
main idea of the Human Terrain System. The idea that by bringing in social scientists, people that are
trained to talk with and retrieve information from individuals, they are able to learn everything about an
entirely different culture of people with plans to use this information to conquer these people. They want
to find their weak points and use that to cause destruction. This goes against the duties of an
anthropologist. Anthropologists must follow the guidelines of the American Anthropological Association
code of ethics. The code of ethics states, ―anthropological researchers must determine in advance whether
their hosts/providers of information wish to remain anonymous or receive recognition, and make every
effort to comply with those wishes.‖ Furthermore, the American Anthropological association‘s statement
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on the Human Terrain System states that ―HTS anthropologists work in a war zone under conditions that
make it difficult for those they communicate with to give ―informed consent‖ without coercion, or for this
consent to be taken at face value or freely refused. As a result, ‗voluntary informed consent‘ is
comprised.‖ This can be interpreted that anthropologist know of these hazards in working with military
projects and should not participate because they will be violating a multiplier of research ethics. A
passage from the AAA code of ethics relates well to everything an anthropologist violates if they
participate in military efforts. It reads:
Anthropologists have a responsibility to be both honest and transparent
with all stakeholders about the nature and intent of their research. They
must not misrepresent their research goals, funding sources, activities, or
findings. Anthropologists should never deceive the people they are
studying regarding the sponsorship, goals, methods, products, or
expected impacts of their work. Deliberately misrepresenting one‘s
research goals and impact to research subjects is a clear violation of
research ethics, as is conducting clandestine research (3).
If anthropologists are not being truthful about why they are researching their informants, they are
violating the code of ethics. They have put their informants in danger and if any harm is caused to their
informants, they have ruined any chances of future anthropologists coming to do field work in these areas
because they will no longer be trusted by the people living in this area.
In conclusion, anthropologists should not involve themselves in military efforts or war actions.
They are putting themselves in danger as well as their informants by releasing perhaps personal
information about their informants to government agencies. They are also lacking honesty about the
purpose of their research. In both cases during World War II and then with the Human Terrain System,
the government is trying to get information about these people not so that they can help them, but so that
they can control them more easily if they have information about who the leaders of the villages are and
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who they associate themselves with. Regardless of their initial intentions, they will be violating informed
consent and the American Anthropological Association code of ethics.
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Works Cited
"American Anthropological Association's Executive Board Statement on the Human Terrain System
Project." Editorial. Aaanet.org. 31 Oct. 2007. Web. 1 Oct. 2010.
DeMellom, Sgt. Chanelcherie. "Social Science: Saving Lives in Iraq." BlackAnthem.com: Military News.
24 Sept. 2010. Web. 07 Oct. 2010. <http://www.blackanthem.com/>.
Gazeri, Vanessa M. "Rough Terrain." Washingtonpost.com - Nation, World, Technology and Washington
Area News and Headlines. 30 Aug. 2009. Web. 07 Oct. 2010.
<http://www.washingtonpost.com/>.
Starn, Orin. "Engineering Internment: Anthropologists and the War Relocation Authority." American
Ethnologist 4th ser. 13 (1986). Rpt. in JSTOR: American Ethnologist. Vol. 13. Blackwell, 1986.
700-20. Ser. 4. JSTOR. Web. 5 Oct. 2010.
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Jessica Lohmann, Mansfield University
A Different Kind of Hate:
Internalized Homophobia and the Effects on Mental Health and Relationships
Abstract
This paper will present a brief overview of heterosexism as well as an explanation of internalized
homophobia. Looking at how sexual identities develop and the minority stress theory it can be seen how
social stigma can have a significant impact on a person‘s well-being. Past research supports the
hypothesis that internalized homophobia negatively affects the mental health and relationships of sexual
minority adults. The current paper will specifically examine the effects of internalized homophobia on
depression, suicide and substance abuse as well as self-disclosure and relationship quality. It has been
concluded from the research that internalized homophobia has led to decreases in self-disclosure and
relationship quality, in both romantic and non-romantic relationships, and an increase in depression,
suicide, and substance abuse.
In today‘s society everyone claims to cling to their individuality and take pride in the things that
set them apart from everyone else. Yet, whenever there is a difference in another person, we, as a society,
feel the need to label the difference. Then we attach negative attributes to those labels and thus
stereotypes are born. Of course the process of creating a stereotype is much more complicated and they
evolve over periods of time, but putting aside all of the pomp and circumstance it generally boils down to
this. What is most ironic about the labeling process is that the differences society generally labels and
assigns those negative attributes to, are the things that people cannot change about themselves.
With the seemingly countless –isms our society has created and intertwined out of hatred, it is
difficult to disentangle them and isolate one that specifically causes harm to a person. Each has a specific
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toll that they can take depending on the coping strategies and support systems the person has in place.
This paper focuses on heterosexism and the damaging effect it can have on the lesbian, gay and bisexual
(LGB) population, specifically exploring its role in the formation of internalized homophobia and how
this can lead to the development of mental health and relationship issues.
Internalized homophobia is a phenomenon that developed due to the heterosexist society we live
in. Heterosexism exists in two forms, there is the ideology that is embedded into institutional practices
that works to the disadvantage of sexual minorities (Herek, Gillis & Cogan, 2009), then there is
heterosexism that exists in individuals. Individual heterosexism takes the form of people discriminating
against other individuals solely because they are a part of a sexual minority group.
LGB individuals are faced with heterosexist discrimination on a daily basis from the time they are
very young. When children are first socialized they usually absorb the concepts of sexual stigma to
varying degrees, sexual stigma being a negative regard, inferior status and powerlessness the society
places on anyone with nonheterosexual behaviors, identity, relationships or communities (Herek, Gillis &
Cogan, 2009). In children this takes place when they learn to accept the expectation that they will grow up
to be heterosexual.
The assumption that children will grow up to be heterosexual is just one of the many assumptions
that is made based off heterosexual privilege. Heterosexual privilege is an extension of Peggy McIntosh‘s
White Privilege: Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack. It is made up of basic everyday things that
heterosexuals take advantage of and don‘t even notice, being the majority sexual orientation, while nonheterosexuals are hyper aware of these things. Some of these things include displaying pictures of people
they are dating in their offices of dorm rooms, talking about weekend plans with their spouse with coworkers, or greeting their partner with a kiss in a group of friends. Such privileges are not extended to
gay, lesbian or bisexual individuals (Whitley & Kite, 2010), at least, not without a cost associated with it.
To prove that this phenomenon exists, Martin Rochlin (1977) developed the Heterosexual Questionnaire
(see appendix 1), that illustrated how simple questions that some heterosexuals make towards nonheterosexuals can be seen as offensive or completely bizarre when the tables are turned. Since these
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questions are rarely if ever asked towards heterosexuals, it shows a form of heterosexual privilege. In this
case it‘s referring to the privilege to talk about personal relationships openly without seeming to flaunt
one‘s sexuality, knowing that one‘s sexuality will not be used to undermine achievement and the
reassurance that one‘s hiring, promotion or firing are not related to one‘s sexual orientation (Johnson,
2006).
For a non-heterosexual child, this first occurrence of being excluded by heterosexual privilege
often occurs the time when they are first starting to explore their sexuality. This may be in the early stages
of identity confusion, the first stage in the coming out process, this can be traumatizing.
Coming-out is a process that is widely misunderstood among most heterosexuals. Most assume
that it is the defining moment when a friend or relative announces that he or she is gay, lesbian or
bisexual, but this is not the case. The coming-out process is not defined by a specific moment in time, but
rather occurs over a period of years. Since the realization by psychologists that this is in fact a lengthy
process, there have been many models developed surrounding sexual identity formation in gay, lesbian
and bisexual individuals. Some researchers even go as far as to create separate models of development for
gays and lesbians.
Cass (1979) proposed six stages for sexual identity development in gay, lesbian and bisexual
individuals that serves as a model for the coming-out process. Stage 1 is labeled as the confusion stage. In
this stage the individual first notices same-sex attraction and begins questioning their own sexual identity.
Stage 2 is labeled as identity comparison. In this stage the individual compares their own experiences to
that of their peers, looking specifically at the sexual attractions their peers are expressing towards others
and realizing that it is different from their own. Stage 3 is identity tolerance. This stage is defined by the
individual assuming that their experience with same-sex attraction means that they are probably gay,
lesbian or bisexual. In this stage they have not yet come to terms with this possible identity. Stage 4 is
labeled as identity acceptance. In this stage the thinking that same-sex attraction means the individual is
probably gay is confirmed. The individual comes to terms with this attraction being a part of their
identity. Stage 5 is identity pride. After accepting that being gay, lesbian or bisexual is a part of the
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individual‘s identity, the individual will begin to take pride in their identity. They have not only accepted
that their sexual identity is a part of them, but that it is a positive part of their life. The final stage is
identity synthesis. This final stage is life long after the other stages have been successfully passed
through. In this stage the individual‘s sexual identity is incorporated into their larger identity and is not
usually considered the defining characteristic of who they are. They are gay, lesbian or bisexual, but they
realize that this identity is not all of who they are; it is only part of their whole person.
Internalized homophobia signifies a failure in the coming out process to ward off heterosexist stigma and
overcome negative self-perceptions and attitudes (Morris et al., 2001). It first appears in a person, usually,
during the early stages of this process and can prevent later stages from being successfully passed
through. In some individuals, the manifestation of internalized homophobia can occur later in the coming
out process, even after the acceptance of their identity and may never fully dissipate (Meyer, 2003). This
means that gay, lesbian and bisexual individuals maintain varying degrees of residual antigay attitudes
that are integrated into their self-perception. Gorsiorek (1988) describe this as residual, covert,
internalized homophobia and said that covert forms of internalized homophobia are more common and
less noticeable because these individuals will have accepted their identity, yet sabotage themselves in
various ways.
Since internalized homophobia can be so ingrained in a person, there are undoubtedly effects on
mental health. There have been many studies conducted on mental health and how it correlates to
internalized homophobia and because of that there have been several theories developed on what exactly
is influencing these mental health outcomes. No theory is more convincing than the Minority Stress
Theory.
Meyer (2003) proposed model on minority stress and how different aspects of life can influence
mental health outcomes that can be both positive and negative depending on various factors (Figure 1).
Minority stress is a part of every aspect of life and plays vital role in all of life‘s stressors. The first box in
Meyer‘s model Box (a) pictures circumstances in the environment. These are parts of everyone‘s life
whether they are part of a minority group or not. Meyer references socioeconomic status and how a
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person‘s minority status (b) can and does play a role in these general environmental factors. Based on the
environment the person is in different life stressors (c) will appear. General stressors can include things
like the death of a family member or friend, or job loss. Once again these are things that everyone can
experience. One‘s minority status can affect the general life stressors in that the job loss could be directly
related to coming out at their place of employment and being fired because of it.
Next, Meyer moves on to stressors that are unique to minority populations, those that identify
with the minority group (e), which are the distal and proximal minority stress processes. The distal
stresses are things like prejudicial events such as discrimination or violence targeted towards individuals
in the minority group. These are the events that occur outside the person which cause stress in their life.
Proximal stresses are the stresses that are internal, the expectations of rejection or discrimination based on
experiences the person has had, witnessed or heard about. These proximal stresses also include
concealment and internalized homophobia. Here, internalized homophobia is seen as the most proximal of
the minority stressors. The weight these stresses, both distal and proximal, will carry largely depends on
the characteristics of the minority identity (g). When the minority identity is more prominent in the
person‘s self-view the stressors will have a greater impact verses if the minority identity isn‘t the primary
way the person identifies themselves.
One of the most important counterbalances in Meyer‘s model is the coping and social support
aspect (h). Being able to cope with not only every day stresses, but the minority stresses faced by LGB
individuals every day and having the support from family, friends and the surrounding community is a
significant factor in the mental health outcomes. If the individual has a strong system of support they are
more likely to be able to cope (positive mental health outcome) with the stress than if they feel isolated
and alone (negative mental health outcome). All of these factors contribute to the mental health of the
individual and Meyer‘s proposed model shows that if all the factors are kept in balance the individual can
have a positive outlook.
The minority stress theory has been used in a great deal of studies concerning internalized
homophobia and the negative effects it can have on the well-being of an LGB individual. Waldo (1999)
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found various minority stress factors have been associated to decreased job satisfaction, increased
psychological distress and more reported health problems. Minority stress factors have also been linked to
negative body image in gay men, feeling less competent and more defensiveness in lesbians, lower
relationship quality and higher rates of reported domestic violence among LGB couples (Rostosky,
Riggle, Gray & Hatton, 2007) all of which will be discussed in depth in specific relation to internalized
homophobia.
Much of the research on internalized homophobia and mental health has taken the minority stress
perspective (Frost & Meyer, 2009). Research suggests that the lesbian, gay and bisexual population, in
comparison to the heterosexual population, has a higher rate of mental health issues, such as depression
(Hatzenbuehler, 2009; Safren & Heimberg, 1999), suicide (Meyer, 2003) and substance abuse (Weber,
2008; Safren & Heimberg, 1999)
In sexual minority individuals, internalized homophobia can lead to self-devaluation and poor
self-regard (Lehavot & Simoni, 2011). Having a poor self-concept and low levels of self-esteem is one of
the first things that can commonly lead to depression. Herek, Gillis & Cogan (2009) said that internalized
homophobia can lead to a reduced trait self-esteem which can cause symptoms of anxiety and depression
as well as reducing positive affect.
Hatzenbuhler (2009) proposes that the long term stress associated with internalized homophobia
leads to maladaptive emotional regulation, which refers to the strategies we use consciously or not, to
increase, maintain or decrease our emotional responses to life events. These emotional deficits are what
he says leads to depression in sexual minority individuals with higher levels of internalized homophobia.
Depression is not the only effect internalized homophobia has on mental health. There is a
disturbing trend that occurs in the lesbian, gay and bisexual population when it comes to suicide. Gibson
(1989) reported that suicide is highly prevalent in sexual minority populations. A trend he, as well as
other researchers has noted is that rates of suicide and suicide attempt was even more prevalent in LGB
youth. Garofalo et al. (1998) conducted a survey of Massachusetts high school students and found that
LGB youth were three times more likely to have reported a suicide attempt in the year prior than their
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heterosexual peers. It was concluded that a higher risk for suicide attempts or suicide ideation is not only
more prevalent in LGB youth than it is in heterosexual youth, but also that this risk starts at an earlier age
in the LGB population as well. Evidence from this and other studies support the minority stress theory in
saying that LGB populations are at a higher risk because of the unique stresses they face due to their
sexual minority status (Meyer, 2003), which can be at an all-time high during their teen years.
One of the other mental health issues facing sexual minority individuals is substance use and
abuse. For sexual minority individuals, the guilt and shame felt when struggling with internalized
homophobia can be a heavy burden to bear. Without proper coping mechanisms or social support in place,
anyone with a significant amount of stress is more susceptible to the use and/or abuse of alcohol and
drugs as a means to attempt to cope.
Cajab (2000) hypothesized that individuals in the LGB population are more likely to turn to
substance abuse because of the relief it supposedly has to offer them. Cajab stated that substance use and
abuse can be particularly appealing to LGB individuals because it can serve as a disconnect from the
feelings of shame and anxiety, it provides acceptance in another area of their lives and drinking in bars
fosters a sense of social comfort. Also stated was that drinking in an unfamiliar bar or other social
environment allows for anonymity where the individual may be more likely to act on feelings that they
have suppressed and denied and drinking can also create blackouts about sexual activity.
As seen in suicide, sexual minority youth have an earlier onset for substance use and abuse
compared to their heterosexual counterparts. Sexual minority youth have higher self-reported rates of
alcohol and tobacco use as well as poly substance use.
The effects of internalized homophobia seem to create a domino effect in the individuals that are
struggling with it. One mental health issues leads to another and then they all have an effect on the way
the individual relates to others. Things like concealment of one‘s identity and issues with relationship
quality are connected not only to the mental health effects of internalized homophobia, but also to each
other.
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The concealable nature of sexual orientation creates different interactions between the members
of majority and minority groups than between the members of non-concealable majority/minority groups,
for example race or ethnicity. In the case of race or ethnicity, a person‘s membership to a certain group is
often immediately evident, however when heterosexuals have contact with a member of a sexual
minority, it can be done without the person even being aware of it. This even includes contact with friends
or family, such relationships that sometimes predate the person‘s knowledge or acceptance of their sexual
orientation (Johnson, 2006).
Being out in a community is something that requires a great deal of thought and consideration. In
our society, with high levels of anti-gay hate, being out and disclosing one‘s identity isn‘t only a matter of
being comfortable with one‘s sexuality, it‘s a matter of safety, sometimes life or death. The ability to
conceal one‘s sexual orientation can seem, from the outside, to have its good points. Some people might
consider it a blessing to not be walking around with a huge neon sign saying ―Oh Heeeeyyyy, I‘m
gaaayyyy‖, but actually being able to conceal your sexual orientation can actually be detrimental to one‘s
mental health. Concealing one‘s identity can be seen as a coping strategy, used to avoid the negative
consequences of the stigma related to it. LGB individuals may conceal their sexual orientation to keep
themselves protected from what they view as the ―real‖ harm, such as being fired from their job of the
threat of physical violence (D‘Augelli & Grossman, 2001).
Contradictory to what some may assume to be true Smart & Wegner (2000) described the cost of
hiding one‘s stigma as very damaging. They said that the result of concealing the stigma is a constant
preoccupation with hiding it that involves both conscious and unconscious cognitive processes. They
even went as far as to say that the inner experience of the person that is hiding a concealable stigma is
comparable to their own private hell.
Contrary to what Smart & Wegner say about concealing a stigma being the individual‘s private
hell, when an individual that is trying to conceal their sexual orientation is in a relationship, the hell isn‘t
just their own.
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The dynamics between two people in a relationship can be a very delicate balance. Adding
something or taking away something that was once there has the ability to tip the scale dramatically. This
is the case in both romantic and non-romantic relationships. The anxiety, shame and devaluation of
lesbian, gay and bisexual individuals as well as one‘s self is inherent to internalized homophobia and is
most likely to be overtly manifested in interpersonal relationships with other gay, lesbian, or bisexual
individuals (Frost & Meyer, 2009).
At the core of the stigma about being a member of a sexual minority group are the
unsubstantiated ideas that lesbian, gay and bisexual individuals are incapable of intimacy and that they
cannot maintain health, long-term relationships (Meyer & Dean, 1998).
Frost and Meyer (2009) stated that experiencing the feelings of anxiety, shame and devaluation,
internalized homophobia, in the context of sexual or other interactions is likely to decrease the quality and
satisfaction of the relationship. They say that in an effort to avoid these feelings the individual will avoid
deep relationships with other members of their sexual minority group and instead turn to sexual
encounters devoid of emotion. This information can provide a possible explanation as to why this is a
central part of the stigma surrounding sexual minority groups.
Romantic relationships between same-sex individuals are created and maintained in a society full
of stigma and discrimination (Rostosky, Riggle, Gray & Hatton, 2007). Because of this there is naturally
more stress and strain placed on the relationship. As in any couple, hetero- or non-heterosexual, the
partners are interdependent on each other (Rostosky et al., 2007), which means that when there is an
additional stress, internalized homophobia, placed on one of the partners, it has a significant impact on the
other.
In a romantic relationship where either partner of a same-sex couple is experiencing internalized
homophobia, the relationship itself serves as a reminder of one‘s sexual orientation. This can lead to
problems related to ambivalence, conflicts within the relationship, misunderstandings and mismatched
goals for the relationship (Mohr & Fassinges, 2006). These relationship problems are also related to other
previously discussed issues raised by internalized homophobia.
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Concealment of one‘s sexual identity while in a committed romantic relationship can cause major
issues in the relationship. Concealment from family or friends can be easily misconstrued as
embarrassment of one‘s partner, especially if the partners don‘t openly discuss the feelings connected to
internalized homophobia. Not being fully accepting of one‘s sexual orientation could mean that the
individual is subconsciously thinking or hoping that it may change. This may lead them to not put as
much emotional investment into the relationship as their partner, or not expecting the relationship to last
leading to lower relationship quality and satisfaction within the relationship.
Internalized homophobia can infiltrate every aspect of a sexual minority individual‘s mental
health and relationships. It has been found to increase, depression, suicide attempts and rates of substance
abuse and can also cause an individual to conceal their sexual orientation and cause relationship issues in
both romantic and no romantic relationships. The only relief in sight is for internalized homophobia to be
less prevalent and for that to happen society as a whole would have to decrease the heterosexist attitudes
that lead to internalized homophobia in the first place.
Appendix A
Heterosexual Questionnaire
Martin Rochlin (1977) developed a set of questions for heterosexuals that are similar to those that gay,
lesbian and bisexual individuals are often asked when talking about their sexual orientation, but that
heterosexuals are rarely asked. 3
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1. What do you think caused your heterosexuality?
2. When and how did you first decide you were a heterosexual?
3. Is it possible your heterosexuality is just a phase you may grow out of?
4. Is it possible your heterosexuality stems from a neurotic fear of others of the same sex?
5. Isn‘t it possible that all you need is a good Gay lover?
6. Heterosexuals have histories of failures in Gay relationships. Do you think you may have turned
to heterosexuality out of fear of rejection?
7. If you‘ve never slept with a person of the same sex, how do you know you wouldn‘t prefer that?
8. If heterosexuality is normal, why are a disproportionate number of mental patients heterosexual?
9. To whom have you disclosed your heterosexual tendencies? How did they react?
10. Your heterosexuality doesn‘t offend me as long as you don‘t try to force it on me. Why do you
people feel compelled to seduce others into your sexual orientation?
11. If you choose to nurture children, would you want them to be heterosexual, knowing the
problems they would face?
12. The great majority of child molesters are heterosexuals. Do you really consider it safe to expose
your children to heterosexual teachers?
13. Why do you insist on being so obvious, and making a public spectacle of your heterosexuality?
Can‘t you just be what you are and keep it quiet?
14. How can you ever hope to become a whole person if you limit yourself to a compulsive,
exclusive heterosexual object choice and remain unwilling to explore and develop your normal,
natural, healthy, God-given homosexual potential?
15. Heterosexuals are noted for assigning themselves and each other to narrowly restricted,
stereotyped sex-roles. Why do you cling to such unhealthy role-playing?
16. Why do heterosexuals place so much emphasis on sex?
17. With all the societal support marriage receives, the divorce rate is spiraling. Why are there so few
stable relationships among heterosexuals?
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18. How could the human race survive if everyone were heterosexual, considering the menace of
overpopulation?
19. There seem to be very few happy heterosexuals. Techniques have been developed with which you
might be able to change if you really want to. Have you considered aversion therapy?
20. Do heterosexuals hate and/or distrust others of their own sex? Is that what makes them
heterosexual?
(h) Coping and Social Support (community and individual)
(a) Circumstances
in the
environment
(b) Minority status
-Sexual orientation
(c) General
Stressors
(d) Minority Stress
Process (distal)
(i) Mental Health
Outcomes
-Positive
-Negative
- Prejudice events
(f) Minority Stress Processes
(Proximal)
-Expectations of rejection
-concealment
(e) Minority Identity
-Internalized Homophobia
-gay, lesbian, bisexual
(g) Characteristics
of Minority Identity
-prominence
-valence
-integration
Figure 1. Meyer(2003) Minority Stress Model
105
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health among lesbian, gay, and bisexual older adults. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 16.
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Hatzenbuhler, M. (2009). How does sexual minority stigma ―Get under the skin?‖ A psychological
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gay men. Health Psychology, 27(4), doi: 10.1037/0278-6133.27.4.455
Herek, G, Gillis, J, & Cogan, J. (2009). Internalized stigma among minority adults: insight from a
psychosocial perspective. Journal of counseling psychology, 56(1), doi: 10.1037/a0014672
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Lehavot, K & Simoni, J. (2011). The impact of minority stress on mental health and substance
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Smart, L., & Wegner, D. M. (2000). The hidden costs of stigma. In T. F. Heatherton, R. E. Kleck, M. R.
Hebl, & J. G. Hull (Eds.), The social psychology of stigma (pp. 220–242). New York: Guilford
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prejudice and discrimination (pp. 459-496). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
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Terrell McClure, Bloomsburg University
Sexual Abuse in Prison: Will it EVER be Considered a True Problem?
On August 9, 1973, Stephen Donaldson, a peace activist, was arrested for trespassing after
participating in a pray-in at the White House. After refusing to post bond, Donaldson was sent to jail in
Washington, D.C. In the days that followed, Donaldson experienced a terror that is far too common for
what could easily be every inmate in an American correctional facility. Human Rights Watch explained
his traumatic experience ―Throughout Donaldson‘s horrific two night stay behind bars, he was gang-raped
approximately sixty times by numerous inmates. Upon his release Donaldson relived the appalling events,
by being courageous and speaking out to the public. Donaldson was among the first survivors of jailhouse
rape to come forward publicly to describe his abuse, launching a personal crusade to save other inmates
from the sexual victimization. Stephen Donaldson contracted HIV through prison rape; and unfortunately
that was the cause of his death‖. If this happened to Donaldson it could happen to anyone behind bars. In
prisons across the nation, many inmates face parallel realities every day (Cronan, P. John and Man, D.
Christopher).
―Best estimates put the annual number of prison rapes at about 140,000, which is more than half
the amount of rapes of women reported to police‖. Prisoners maintain certain basic rights, which survive
despite the individual being incarcerated. ―Respect for one‘s bodily integrity; that is, not being assaulted
is such a fundamental right‖ (Lynne Rienner). Although this is a basic right that should be protected and
enforced inside prison walls, that is not always the case. In fact, sexual abuse within prison is a deed that
occurs more often than most citizens realize, yet it often goes unpunished; correspondingly this abuse
causes disease, fear, mental suffering, and in the most extreme cases death.
Most citizens don‘t know the severity of rape in prison; they may think prisoners exaggerate their
stories to obtain empathy. But as taxpaying, law abiding, U.S. citizens who have never even been
ticketed, why should we be concerned with the struggles of inmates; if there really are any? The prisoners
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are in jail because they broke rules and couldn‘t lead an honest life; why should we trust their word now?
Everyone deserves a second chance, not everyone in prison is a murderer, rapist, or child molester. There
are some honest people in prison that have made a few mistakes but are ready to make amends. Yes they
are prisoners, and many people incarcerated need to serve life sentences for the crimes they committed,
but as one general population we must remember that an eye for an eye leaves the whole world blind.
In the land of the blind the one eyed man is king, and in many situations the staff within the
facilities heir the throne. Other than the victims, correctional officers should be obligated to report
inmate-on-inmate abuse. Incentives are instilled to discourage guards from reporting rape. They can be
penalized if they report abuse and the claim was fraudulent. Even though the C.O. was trying to protect
the inmate‘s safety, the guard‘s job may still be at risk. In turn, many correctional officers turn the other
cheek when an inmate claims they were raped. Securing their job comes before the claims of any
prisoner. Several prisoners have come forth in search of protective custody, after being raped, but many
are denied because the guards are protecting their careers. (Hensley, Christopher)
Prisoner classification policies are applied to avoid abuse. Such policies reduce probability for a
potential victim to be placed with the dangerous inmates. ―However, overcrowding helps practical
demands overrule personal demands, and many prisoners are placed with the dangerous inmates
regardless. Another downside of the massive prison population is the lack of supervision‖. If inmates
cannot be adequately supervised then they are at higher risk to be raped. Obviously, rape is easiest to
achieve when there no staff to witness the act. As if it wasn‘t hard already for an inmate to get a guard to
report his case, but now with the shortage of staff members is adding insult to injury.
Many of the predators in the prisons pretend to be friendly only to get feeble inmates as their cell
mate. Once they are cell mates the predator offers to protect the victims from all other inmates, but in turn
must do him favors. This is how a weak inmate becomes the sexual slave of another inmate. He is baited
by someone who is thought to be a friend; when actually he is targeting the weaker inmate upon arrival to
the cell. If the weaker inmate tries to fight or snitch, they will either be beaten severely by their cell mate;
or be thrown to the wolves.
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A popular television show (Lock-Up, MSNBC) conveys to America the severity of sexual abuse
in prison. They show visited Kentucky state penitentiary, where they interviewed longtime inmate Fleece
Johnson. Throughout the interview he explains the importance of an incarcerated male relieving his
sexual desires. Fleece states that ―They won‘t let us have a woman… so somebody is going to have to
give up some booty‖. Inmate fleece describes his sexual appetite for ―booty‖ and how he would do
anything just to get it. Fleece told Lock-Up that at times ―booty was more important than food and water‖.
If an inmate is willing to place his sexual desires before nourishment, penal facilities must treat abuse in
prison as a punishable offense. It is common knowledge that men may be raped in prison, but few people
realize that women are at a high risk as well. ―Female inmates also face horrifying sexual abuse, often
from the very individuals sworn to defend their safety; prison guards‖. ―A study of incarcerated women
found rates of sexual coercion between 6% and 27% in the facilities‖ (Cronan). This study also showed
that one fifth of the incidents could be classified as rape, and half of the perpetrators were women; which
means the other half were staff members. Still not accounted for are the women who are scared to come
forward for fear of punishment and embarrassment. Fear of rape in prison not only occurs in the male
penal system but it also thrives within the female systems as well.
Discreetly, victims are targeted by already incarcerated inmates upon arrival to the penal facility.
Age, height, weight, appeal to the inmate, and sexual preference are many of the characteristics observed
of the new inmates to mark them as candidates for sexual abuse.
Human Rights Watch‘s research has revealed a broad range of factors that
correlate with increased vulnerability to rape. These include youth, small size, and
physical weakness; being white, gay, or a first offender; possessing a feminine
characteristics such as long hair or a high voice; being unassertive, unaggressive, shy,
intellectual, not street-smart, or a passive; or having been convicted of a sexual offense
against a minor (Lynne Rienner).
Every prisoner is vulnerable and may become a victim of rape, but the inmates that exhibit many of the
listed qualities are at higher risk for abuse.
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Prisoners refer to the new inmates as ―fresh meat‖ and often refer to the initial rape as turning out
the victim. Following the abuse, the victim loses all credibility and most importantly his ―manhood‖. The
victim is now labeled as weak, inferior, and is considered a female in the eyes of all inmates. If the victim
does not retaliate he becomes a mark or marked, and is subject to rape by all inmates. The prisoners who
are unable to escape the grasp of sexual abuse find themselves being identified as inmate‘s property.
The word inmate‘s property commonly used in prison to refer to sexually subordinate
inmates, and it is no exaggeration. Victims of prison rape, in the most extreme cases, are
literally the slaves of the perpetrators. Forced to satisfy another man‘s sexual appetites
whenever he demands, they may also be responsible for washing his clothes, massaging
his back, cooking his food, cleaning his cell, and myriad other chores. They are
frequently a rented out for sex, sold, or even auctioned off to other inmates, replicating
the financial aspects of traditional slavery. Their most basic choices, like how to dress
and whom to talk to, may be controlled by the person who owns them. Their name may
be replaced by a female one. Like all forms of slavery, these situations are among the
most degrading and dehumanizing experiences a person can undergo (Cronan, P. John
and Man, D. Christopher).
While incarcerated, male prisoners are stripped of the most traditional means of asserting their
masculinity and, consequently, turn to intimidation and aggression‖ (Cronan, P. John and Man, D.
Christopher). In a male based environment everyone wants to be the alpha male, and the path to obtaining
this dominance is by way of sexual assault. A Texas inmate stated…
While incarcerated, the inmates lack a female population as an object for their dominance
and aggressions, so they turn to males. Prison rapists rewrite their previous conception of
homosexual behaviors into an acceptable masculine role, which is highly physical and
powerful, and transform their male victims into surrogates for women (Arthur J. Lurigio,
Davis, C Robert and Susan Herman).
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With previous forms of expressing their masculinity inaccessible, rape is in turn, the most effective way
left to signify dominance over other individuals (taking their manhood).
After all that has happened to the victim, regaining their manhood would be on the brink of
impossible. A Texas inmate stated that there was only two ways to regain your manhood, one being you
kill perpetrator or two you rape someone else. Many inmates go with the latter option and find a victim
weaker than themselves, because it is the easier option of the two. Once the act is done other inmates
realize that the inmate that was once a weak and feeble prey has become a predator as well. The once
victimized inmate then makes a statement that he can take the pain as well as deliver it. (Cronan)
Delivering such pain does not go unnoticed, but the guards rarely but their jobs on the line for
inmates. Many inmates are given mere slaps on the wrists, or placed in solitary confinement for one week,
two weeks, or a month never more. (Barnett, Arnold). For example, a Texas inmate reported to Human
Rights Watch that the correctional officers in his cell block allowed an inmate assigned to a different cell
stay with him for two days. During the two days the inmate was raped continuously and his life was
threatened. When the inmate informed authorities of the acts that took place over the two days it was
logged as an alleged attack. The perpetrator was charged with verbal threatening, and escaped disciplinary
action for the more serious offense.
When inmates try to regain their manhood they complete tasks they never thought they would. On
the popular series Lock-Up a knowingly homosexual man was interviewed. He stated for him to regain
his manhood he had to kill the man who initially raped him. Once he was dead the inmate told MSNBC
that no one troubled him again about trying to take his manhood. He stated ―Because of me being an open
homosexual I was thought to be an easy target, But after I killed that man I wasn‘t a pushover anymore‖.
When no one listens to homosexuals, the only escape route is killing the initial perpetrator.
Homosexual inmates are the most likely to be sexually abused. Because many of the openly gay
inmates are not afraid to showcase their sexuality, correctional officers do not see their abuse as rape.
Gays in prison are bashed even more in prison than outside of prison. Every sexual act they commit
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guards view as consensual because they are gay. The guards assume that the like being raped, but
honestly why would anyone enjoy the physical and mental abuse of rape?
Sexual abuse, for inmates causes an ongoing negative strain on their psyche. Many of the inmates
who become victims frequently showcase excessive psychological abuse. Correctional facilities‘ main
goal is to rehabilitate inmates and help mold them back into law abiding citizens. But when inmates
become victims and they are not being recognized as victims they cannot be rehabilitated correctly.
Victims told Human Rights Watch that they suffer from ―nightmares, deep depression, shame, loss of
self-esteem, self-hatred, and considering or attempting suicide‖ (Cronan). Experts believe that the cycle of
violence is perpetuated after a rape occurs, in turn, creating a more violent person than before.
Rape trauma syndrome (a variant of post-traumatic stress disorder) has been identified by
psychiatrists as a common result of rape. Diagnosed victims showed symptoms of severe depression,
paranoia, fatigue, and sleep deprivation (Cronan). Many of the inmates stated they felt worthless and
hated themselves for not preventing the assault. Experts established a generalized outline which
categorizes the effects of rape into three forms of impact; short, intermediate, and long-term impact.
The short-term reaction to rape is characterized by a range of traumatic symptoms, including
nightmares and other forms of sleep disturbance, intense fear, worry, suspicion, major depression, and
impairment in social functioning. In the second stage, victims often experience depression and self-hatred,
as well as social and sexual dysfunction. The long-term effects of rape, which may surface a year or more
after the assault, often involve destructive or self-destructive behavior; common symptoms are anger,
hyper vigilance to danger, sexual dysfunction and a diminished capacity to enjoy life. (Cronan)
Victims that are diagnosed with rape trauma syndrome often develop trust issues. (Blumstein,
Alfred) If the victims are not properly diagnosed and treated they will live the rest of their lives through
that traumatic incident. One inmate told Human Rights Watch that every night he goes to sleep he sees
the face of his attacker. He sees his face in his dreams and when he awakes in the morning. Imagine
reliving the worst day of your life over and over, for many prisoners who are diagnosed with rape trauma
syndrome often relive their attacks daily.
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Sexual assault rates for men in prison extend to 14% who reported sexual victimization in a study
of medium security prison (Arthur, Davis, Herman). In prison, sexual abuse is far more severe and
frequent which give prisoners feelings of helplessness and terror, and increased risk of suicide. It is
difficult for male inmates to report assault because of the harsh repercussions. For instance, if any inmate
tells on another inmate for any wrong doing he is considered a snitch (Arthur, Davis, Herman); when
someone in prison is branded a snitch that inmate is subject to retaliation from all inmates who frown
upon snitches, or that inmate could be assaulted again. Further assault that would lead the inmate to
believe that the only way out of the situation is to keep the wrongful act concealed.
Many victims told Human Rights Watch about their fears of becoming the ―Wife‖ or the ―Kid‖ of
their rapists. A small portion of those victims also spoke out about being forced to partake in sexual
services for a whole gang, for an extended period of time. Prison Staff members often view this as
consensual because the act is not violent, but that is not the case. Of the victims interviewed many of
them said they stopped fighting because it was useless. They were not getting any help so they resigned
themselves to their situations and stopped fighting. Although in some cases the physical force is absent,
mental force is present; which is arguably just as effective if not more (Cronan).
When an inmate is controlled by mental force, close to nothing can be done to break free. After
being mentally drained they have no fight left are easily sold or rented as a sexual slave. They become
brainwashed slaves and a symbol of power for the owner of the sex slave (Mariner, Joanne). ―Sexual
slavery is a form of slavery recognized as such under international law and prohibited under both treaty
law and customary international law. Notably, the crime of slavery does not require government
involvement or State action, and constitutes an international crime whether committed by State actors or
private individuals‖. (Joanne)
For many inmates that are sexually assaulted; rape is the least of their worries. Sure, the inmates
fear the rape, but contracting HIV is the foremost consequence that haunts the inmate; for it may be
deadly. Victims of prison rape face a premature death sentence because of the possibility of contracting
HIV/AIDS, an inadvertent intention of the criminal justice system. Many inmates are injuries don‘t meet
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―emergency grievance criteria‖, therefore they are denied protective custody and remain subject to rape.
In turn, the rapes continue, and the victim‘s likelihood of contracting HIV is severely heightened (Arthur,
Davis, Herman)
―In 1997 approximately 18,000 inmates were infected with the HIV/AIDS virus, making.
Between 1991 and 1993 one in three deaths were attributed to AIDS-related causes, compared to one in
ten outside the penitentiary‖ (Cronan). Making the situation worse is the lack of preventative measures.
There is close to nothing being done to educate prisoners of the harsh realities of the spread of
HIV/AIDS. The penal facilities are aware of the abuse going on yet refuse to implement reduction devices
such as condoms, and clean needles.
Implementing such devices could help eliminate the virus from within U.S. prisons. If the inmates
were aware of the extent to which the deadly virus is spreading, then maybe they would be less likely to
rape a potential victim. Educated people would not knowingly infect themselves with a deadly virus, and
if condoms were available it would prevent the disease from further spreading. Condoms may or may not
persuade inmates to rape, but if you can‘t prevent the inevitable at least you can protect the victims.
Simply adding such preventative measure could help decrease the rates of HIV/AIDS related deaths.
Brutal rapes that occur within prison can take their toll on any man, physically and mentally. If
the victim is does not contract a disease and die from that, or is ―shanked‖ (stabbed) in retaliation for
snitching, then suicide is next on the list. Human Rights Watch conducted a survey which relayed a
shocking result. The survey showed that, out of the nineteen willing inmates surveyed, all have tried to
commit suicide and many more considered it as an option (Mariner, Joanne). Still not accounted for are
the rapes that are not reported. Several inmates are too embarrassed to come forth so the incident never
gets documented. If the situation is not addressed the bottled up anger can be a ticking time bomb.
Unfortunately, at the end of that short fuse is suicide.
Suicide ranks third as cause of death in prison; the origin of the suicides are expected to be caused
by some form of abuse. ―From 1984 to 1993, the rate of prison suicide was more than 50 percent higher
than the national average outside of prison‖ (Cronan). Although the data is old the numbers are still
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significant. Since 1943 prison population has grown more than 62% in the United States (Blumstein,
Alfred). The steadily increasing prison populations increase the risk for inmates to be violated.
Suicides are far too common in the U.S. penal system, considering the harsh reality of it, one is
too many. These rapes not only have a primary effect which is attached to the victim, the rapes also have
a secondary effect directly tied to loved ones. Take in to consideration the story of Rodney Hulin…
My name is Rodney Hulin and I work at a retirement home here in Beaumont, Texas. I
am here today because of my son. He would be here himself if he could . . . . But he
can‘t because he died in [an adult prison]. . . . [At age seventeen], my son was raped and
sodomized by an inmate. The doctor found two tears in his rectum and ordered an HIV
test, since up to a third of the 2,200 inmates there were HIV positive. Fearing for his
safety, he requested to be placed in protective custody, but his request was denied
because, as the warden put it, Rodney‘s abuses didn‘t meet the emergency grievance
criteria. For the next several months, my son was repeatedly beaten by the older inmates,
forced to perform oral sex, robbed, and beaten again. Each time, his requests for
protection were denied by the warden. The abuses, meanwhile, continued. On the night of
January 26, 1996 seventy-five days after my son entered Clemens Rodney attempted
suicide by hanging himself in his cell. He could no longer stand to live in continual terror.
It was too much for him to handle. He laid in a coma for the next four months until he
died (Cronan).
For many incarcerated teens the trauma caused by rape is too much to bear and consequently many take
their own lives.
―Sexual abuse in prison is one of America‘s oldest, darkest, and yet most open, secrets, It is the
rare convict who will never engage in homosexual acts, in the vast majority of cases, mutual attraction or
affection does not drive prison sexual relationships; rather most sexual acts in prison are the coerced
products of dominance, intimidation, and terror (a Texas inmate)‖.
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Even though the exact extent of prisoner-on-prisoner rape remains unknown, the threat of sexual abuse is
a reality of life in prison.
How many victims must die before America steps up and puts an end to sexual abuse in prison?
Sexual abuse in prison has been tolerated long enough. It is shunned within our community but we care
less when it happens to a criminal? We as humans should never celebrate the harm or the death of another
living being. Whether a prisoner dies from disease, abuse, or suicide enough is enough. For the inmates
who take their own lives we can only imagine how hard life must have been if dying was an option. We
can only learn from the stories of the victims that have passed and hope to change things in the future.
Change classification policies so that victims are not easily targeted, change policies so that condoms are
allowed and cleans needles are obtainable (tattoos only). Everyone is protected by the 14th amendment,
and shall not fall victim to cruel and unusual punishment. Yet, in prisons across the U.S the rate of abuse
in continuously rising. If we begin to protect our inmates from abuse while on the inside, they will not be
as emotionally and mentally drained. We need to rise and take action now, not wait until the shoe is on
the other foot.
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Work Cited
Arthur J. Lurigio, Davis, C Robert and Susan Herman. Victims of Crime. Los Angeles: Sage Publications,
2007.
Barnett, Arnold. Operations Research. 1st ed. Vol. 35. Informs, Jan. - Feb., 1987. 18-34. Web.
Blumstein, Alfred. "Prison Populations: A System out of Control?" Crime and Justice. . 10. 1988. 231-66.
Cronan, P. John and Man, D. Christopher "Forecasting Sexual Abuse in Prison: The Prison Subculture of
Masculinity as a Backdrop for "Deliberate Indifference"" The Journal of Criminal Law and
Criminology. 92., 1973-. 127-86.JSTOR. Web. 27 Feb. 2011.
Hensley, Christopher. Prison Sex: Practice and Policy. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2002.
Jacobs, James B. "The Prisoners' Rights Movement and Its Impacts." , Crime and Justice 1960-802
(1980): 429-70. JSTOR. Web. 27 Feb. 2011.
Mariner, Joanne. No Escape: Male Rape in U.S. Prisons. New York: Human Rights Watch, 2001. 54-100.
"Prison - Prisoners' Rights." Http://law.jrank.org. Web. 3 Mar. 2011.
Simon, Rita J., and Heather Ahn-Redding. The Crimes Women Commit: the Punishments They Receive.
Lanham, MD: Lexington, 2005.
Travis, Jeremy, and Visher, A. Christy. " Transitions from Prison to Community: Understanding
Individual Pathways ." Annual Review of Sociology 29 (2003): 89-113. JSTOR. Web. 27 Feb.
2011.
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Danielle Miller, Bloomsburg University
Psychology Experiments: When Should They Stop?
Some Psychologists perform experiments without thought to their effects on the subject. One of
these experimenters is Psychologist John Money. He convinced a couple to have their son get a sex
change after a circumcision incident. After Bruce was turned into a girl, she was named Brenda and was
raised, dressed, and treated as a girl. Many psychological experiments have been performed in the past
and are still being performed today. Some experiments are helpful to an individual while other
experiments can hurt the patient‘s mental health. Experiments that cause lasting emotional and physical
stress to a subject, such as the one above, should not be carried out because they can lead to low selfesteem, depression, and suicide.
According to Morton Hunt, the first psychological experiment was conducted in the seventh
century B.C. by the King of Egypt. The King wanted to know if his people were the first civilization to be
on the earth, so he initiated an experiment done on children and how they were raised. The King had
children put in isolation from infancy and gave them no instruction of language. He was certain that
whatever language the children grew up to speak was the language of the first civilization on earth (Hunt
1993, p.1). Even though the King‘s logic was somewhat correct in that language is made in the mind
(epsychlopedia), the morality of putting young children in solitude and not conversing with them was
wrong. This shows that the earliest people to record their findings had an interest in the human mind. And
tried to find out how the mind works by performing experiments. Psychologists have determined that
children who have had no affection from the people in their lives grow up to be antisocial, have learning
disabilities, and having extreme reactions to touch. There was also a case where two little girls lived
together in total isolation without parents. When these girls were found they spoke their own language
making it hard to help the children.
In Psychology the main goal when performing experimentations is to figure out what is going on
in the other person‘s mind. When becoming a psychologist a person already has a curiosity for how other
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people are thinking. Many experiments are performed for a psychologist‘s own purposes in helping
reduce their curiosity. Many psychology experiments are performed in the wake of natural and humanmade disasters. There were many experiments performed after the holocaust, Abu Ghraib, and 9/11 in
trying to figure out how people could do horrible crimes like that. After the holocaust psychologists were
looking at why multiple people would kill their friends, neighbors, and sometimes even their own family.
The people were said to have done this in order to save their own lives by conforming to peer and
government pressure. There are also experiments done after the natural disasters such as hurricanes and
earthquakes to find a way to best deal with the loss of loved ones and possessions. These experiments
were not always for the best for the subjects. Some were temporarily stressed and for some it changed
their lives forever.
In response to Abu Ghraib, Philip G. Zimbardo conducted an experiment called the Stanford
Prison experiment. This experiment had 24 male college students from North America who were living
around Stanford at the time of the experiment. The 24 males were split into two groups. One of these
groups was guards and the other was inmates. When the inmates first arrived they were stripped and
deloused. The men had to wear nylon stockings covering their hair and they wore smocks with only their
identification number on them. On the first day, the boys acted normally casually putting themselves into
the roles they were given. After that first day, the boys started to behave as though they were really
inmates. The guards started to give out punishments and sending them to solitary confinement. As the
days went on the prisoners rioted and the guards punished them by taking away their clothes and
mattresses. After the riot the guards became more brutal in their quest to assert their authority over the
prisoners. The first inmate was released less than 36 hours after the experiment had begun. He was said to
be showing slight emotional disturbances such as crying uncontrollably and severe rage (Zimbardo, 19992009).
This experiment was supposed to last two weeks, but after the sixth day, the inmates became so
subservient and the guards had escalated to abusing the inmates in the middle of the night that the study
was ended early. It took so long for Zimbardo to end the experiment because he was drawn so far into it.
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That was a real problem because as the psychologist they have to be able to say at what time the subjects
had enough. That the experiment did not have to go any farther than it already had even if the
experimenter did not get the results that he/she wanted. Zimbardo observed that out of the 50 outsiders
who had witnessed the experiment, only one had objected to what he was doing, saying that it was
immoral (Zimbardo, 1999-2009).
The humiliation that these students went through, Zimbardo says ―was so that we would be better
equipped to behave morally in future real-life situations‖ (Zimbardo, 1999-2009). Even though we would
be better equipped to handle a situation like this, it was not right to do this to the students. The experiment
was harmful and degrading to the subjects and should not have been performed, it was morally wrong
even if was for the ―greater good‖. What does the ―greater good‖ even mean for who is it good the
experimenters or the subject? It is supposed to benefit the world just like learning from our mistakes yet
we still keep making the same mistakes over and over again. Zimbardo should have stopped the
experiment the minute he saw how it was affecting the subjects.
Psychologist Stanley Milgram was well known for his experiment at Yale University on
obedience. This experiment consisted of three people: the subject, the confederate and the scientist. The
subject and the confederate were both placed in an area to wait for the scientist. When the scientist came
out, he had the two men draw slips of paper both saying ―teacher‖. The drawing was rigged so that the
confederate would say that he was the learner. The scientist then took the two men to a room that had the
shock wires. The scientist strapped the learner in and then gave the teacher a sample of the shock. Right
before the scientist and the teacher left to go to the other room, the confederate stopped them, saying that
he was recently to the doctors and the doctor had diagnosed him with heart problems. He then quickly
reassured them that after consulting with his doctor he had been deemed physically fit to participate in the
experiment. The scientist and the teacher then left the room. In the next room the scientist told the teacher
what to do (Experiment-Resources.com2008).
The teacher had to verbally give the learner a list of paired words. After the list was read the
teacher had to go back through and say the first word of each pair and then give four possible answers.
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The learner was then to press a button indicating which word he wanted. The first couple rounds went
fine and then the learner missed one. At that point in time the teacher had to give the first shock. The next
couple rounds went the same way and each time the teacher had to increase the voltage of each shock.
After a couple of rounds the learner started to complain that the shocks were too much and that he wanted
out. When the teacher looked to the scientist for guidance, the scientist told him ―please continue‖
(Experiment- Resources.com, 2008).
Most of the subjects did continue; very few of them stopped at this point. Not one of the
participants had stopped giving shocks before 300 volts given. The rounds kept going and after a little
while the confederate stops responding. The teacher once again asks the scientist if he should stop, and
the scientist tells him ―the experiment requires that you continue‖ (Wikipedia). Still at this point people
kept going; stating that whatever happened to the other person was the scientist‘s fault or laughed
nervously.
When all four verbal prods: please continue, the experiment requires that you continue, it is
absolutely essential that you continue, and you have no other choice you must continue (Wikipedia). If
the subject still wanted to quit after they were given successively or the teacher presses the 450 volts of
shock three times the experiment was stopped. The scientist asked him how he was and the men mostly
showed concern for the other person. The confederate then enters the room and explains to the subject
what was going on. What the person did not know was that the minute they had left the room the
confederate got out of his ―constraints.‖ He then got out a machine that had prerecorded answers on it,
and after a certain number of voltage increases the confederate would bang on the wall (Wikipedia).
This experiment shows the impact that an ―authority figure‖ has over people. That even though
the people wanted to stop the scientist convinced them that it was vital for them to continue. What we
learned from this experiment can be used when teaching people even young children who to trust and
who to follow directions from. Even though we learned this the way the experiment was conducted was
wrong. The stress that this caused on the participants in thinking that they had actually killed or severely
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harmed someone was high and even though it was temporary. There had always been the chance that the
effects could have been long term.
In researching Stanley Milgram I came across another of his lesser known experiments. In this
experiment he had a group of first year graduate students conduct an experiment. The experiment
consisted of the students going on the subway and asking a passenger for their seat. Dr. Stanley Milgram
was trying to explore the set of rules that we as human beings set but do not write down or verbalize. Our
sets of unwritten rules, like walking on the right side of the hallway, that are usually taught by
observation from generation to generation. The Milgram‘s students did not want to participate in the
experiment until one student named Ira Goodman volunteered to participate with a partner (Luo, 2004).
The students performing the experiment thirty years later say that they can still feel the anxiety
from the experiment. A couple of weeks before the article was published a pair of reporters replicated the
experiment. A surprising 13 out of 15 gave up their seats and one of the answers they got was, ―a
construction worker sneered to a male reporter, ―If you were a women, then…‖ he got up anyway‖ (Luo,
2004). This experiment was unethical because of the strain put on the students one student remembers the
feeling of wanting to vomit. While other students remember feeling faint but all the students that
participated and the reporters felt the sense that what they were doing was wrong. Dr. Milgram did not
even get useful information from this experiment in no way can we use what he learned to better our
world. Though I do know what it feels like to go against these unwritten rules. Even just walking down
the wrong side of the hall and making the people move over makes me feel anxious and upset (Luo,
2004).
Though some experiments are not always morally right we can take away positive information in
what we learned. We can put these findings into good use by being able to prevent guards at prisons from
exerting unnecessary humiliation on inmates. We also use the knowledge from Asch‘s experiment to help
children when their peers are pressuring them into doing drugs. We also have the knowledge and
understanding of obedience in which Milgram focused on in his electric shock obedience experiment.
Even with the good things we learn from these immoral experiments it leaves the question. Is it ok for
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psychologists to cause emotional damage in a person for better knowledge of what is happening in the
world?
In researching the Milgram experiment I came across other experiments done where a person was
in a distressing situation. The experiments that were done were more ethical. In one of these experiments
an actor pretends to be sick or hurt in some way. They lie somewhere where they will be noticed and in
high trafficked areas. There are cameras hidden around the scene and someone is watching the
proceedings from a nearby building. They wait until someone steps forward to help the person. When
someone does step forward they come out of the buildings and confront the person. They explain what is
happening and ask why they got involved (YouTube- Bystander effect). There are many experiments
conducted like this one. There is one where an infant is locked in a car on a hot day, another where a dog
is trapped in a hot car, on where a young child is approached by a stranger while at a play ground asking
them to help find his dog, and one where a child is abducted. In these experiments not many people stop
to help the person or dog. This is referred to as the bystander effect where when a lot of people are around
you believe that someone else will help.
This was not the case when a young girl was approached by a stranger at a park when her nanny
leaves to use the restroom. Every time the stranger came to talk to the little girl a parent from nearby
would step in and ask the man to leave the girl alone and threatening to call the police. They then changed
the scenario a little instead of the man being a stranger the man knows the little girl who lives down the
street from him. Even then there was only one parent that let the little girl walk away but when questioned
she said she kept watching to see where they were going (YouTube-what would you do?). These are the
type of experiments that are ethical there is no psychological harm on the unknowing subjects. We can
also use the information that was acquired when we are teaching children what they should do when they
are in that type of situation.
As adults we can use the information ourselves. For example in the experiment with the baby
being locked in the car crying it took close to ten minutes for one person to stop and call 911. When one
person stopped the other people who had been walking by would stop and help ask whose car it was. That
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we should not just walk by and believe someone else will help; we should take action and help the person
that is in the situation. We should teach our children, youth, and even adults that it is ok to not conform to
what other people are doing.
Another study which was done by Solomon Asch is called a study of conformity. This study can
be viewed as an experiment derived from what happened with the holocaust and how one person got so
many people to kill. In Asch‘s study, a group of five or six men are brought into a room. All the subjects
are confederates except one person who is sitting at the last chair around the table. The instructor came in,
set up poster boards with lines on them and explains what they have to do. The task is simple: each
person had to indicate which two lines were the same lengths. The first four times during the experiment
the confederate‘s state the right lines but the next time around the all say the wrong answer. At this point
in time the subject says the right answer and usually gives the other people strange looks. After a few
times with the confederates giving the wrong answer the subject conforms to what the others are saying.
This experiment showed how easy and fast it was for someone to conform to a group (Age-of-the-sage
(n.d.).
By the end of the holocaust if you were not helping Hitler you were against him so many people
did what they were told in fear of being killed. This experiment also went along way with the
understanding of peer pressure and how groups convince people to do things against their will. This
experiment is not totally bad and the effects were not severe just slight stress when the confederates gave
different answers that were not right. It shows how easy it is for one person to conform to a group, but if
just one more person opposes what the confederates say then the subject is more likely to give the right
answer. The opposing confederate does not even have to give the correct answer just a different one.
The ethical experiments can be used in place of the unethical ones. With ethical studies we can
still use them to understand how the human mind works. We can also use them to better help and
understand our world. Doing this without harming a person is what should be done not just getting the
information any way possible. Completing ethical experimentations may bring up the subject of money
and how much these experiments will cost. The cost of these experiments might be a little more costly, all
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the time and preparation to come up with studies where the mind will stay healthy. If a doctor or professor
wants to conduct an experiment they should want to leave the person the way they were before the
experiment. There should be no question between the cost of the experiment and the health of the
participant.
Little Brenda‘s parents treated her as though she was born a girl, though she acted much like a
boy destroying all the dolls that were given to her. Brenda‘s brother Brian once stated “the only
difference between my brother Bruce and me is that he had long hair while mine was short. In everything
else we were equal." When Brenda (Bruce) hit puberty she was administered the female hormone,
estrogen. As Brenda grew older the details of her genetically male body started to become defined such as
the muscular neck, male voice, and broad shoulders (Goiar, 2005-2011).
Dr. Money published an article on the experiment showing his success in making a biologically
male a female. In this article Money states ―"Brenda" had been a resounding success, "the child's behavior
is so distinctly feminine like a little girl of her age, which differs completely different from behavior of
his twin brother Brian". This article turned into a published book which influenced medical advances
during that time. Which is not good since the medical field was operating on false information. This can
seriously harm other/more patients that could have been helped in a different more correct form of
treatment(Goiar, 2005-2011).
Despite all of Brenda‘s male features Dr. John Money tried to convince the parents to have a
vaginal area surgically created for her. Around this time Brenda began objecting to see Dr. Money,
threatening to commit suicide. Brenda had already attempted suicide three times, one such time was on an
over dose of pills leaving her in a coma. Brenda‘s situation was hard on the whole family including her
twin brother who would go to therapy sessions with her. In these therapy sessions Dr. Money would have
Brenda stand naked while showing her sexually explicit images. Other times he would have Brenda on
her hands and knees with her brother standing behind her with his crotch touching her backside. Dr.
Money called these types of therapy sessions sexually stimulating (Goiar, 2005-2011).
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At the age of 15 Brenda (Bruce) was finally told what had happened when she was younger.
Bruce stopped using the name Brenda and adopted the name David, had surgery done to remove the
breasts that he had acquired when using hormones, and had his genitals replaced through multiple
surgeries. David ended up getting married and because he could not have any children of his own he
became the adoptive father of three children. After the death of David‘s twin brother Brian, which was
caused by an overdose of antidepressant medication, David fell into depression and he lost his job.
David‘s wife soon after asked for a separation that same day. After all the emotional turmoil, David
committed suicide at the age of 38 (Goiar, 2005-2011). After all that David had gone through, the sex
change, the teasing in school, his therapy sessions, and the loss of those who kept him strong, his attempts
at suicide finally worked.
These psychologically distressing experiments are just the tip of the iceberg. There have been
many more conducted and some of them may not have been documented. Like the ones that were
conducted in insane asylums with the types of therapy done on the patients, and the studies that do not
give us any useful information. Even though we do learn how to act if these were ―real life‖ situations and
why people do certain acts. The effects that individuals obtained from the studies were too great to justify
the use of the experiments.
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References
Age-of-the-sage. (n.d.). Solomon Asch experiment (1958) a study of conformity. Retrieved from
www.age-of-the-sage.org/psychology/social_conformity.html.
Discovering Psychology (2001). History of Psychology. Retrieved from
www.learner.org/discoveringpsychology/history/history_nonflash.html.
Epsychlopedia. (n.d.). History of Psychology. Retrieved from
http://library.thinkquest.org/C005870?history.index.php?id=historyp1
Experiment-Resources.com(2008). Stanley Milgram experiment. Retrieved from Expeirment Resources:
http://www.experiment-resources.com/stanley-milgram-experiment.html
Goiar, C. (2005-2011). Who is David Reimer? The original Harry Benjamin syndrome site. Retrieved
from http://shb-info.org/reimer3.html.
Hunt, Morton (1993). The Story of Psychology. New York: Double Day
Luo, Michael (2004, September 14). Revisiting a Social Experiment, And the Fear That Goes With It.
The New York Times p.1.
Wikipedia. (n.d.) Milgram experiment. Retrieved from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milgram_experiment
What would you do? (n.d.). YouTube -A young girl in danger. Retrieved from
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BFz-Yyw7uQI&feature=related
The bystander effect.(n.d.). YouTube. Retrieved from
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OSsPfbup0ac&feature=related
Zimbardo, P. G. (1999-2009). A simulation study of the psychology of imprisonment conducted at
Stanford University. Retrieved from http://www.prisonexp.org/
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Taylor Roberts, Bloomsburg University
The Passing Problem
Framing Passing as the Prevention of Trans Community Mobilization
Community has been defined by sociologists in terms of a common system of values and/or
morals, distal proximity, and shared use of language, as well as other visible characteristics of individuals
who adhere to the standards of the community. Because of the adoption of new forms of technology,
these factors for community building are changing, but they still remain an important basis for
community formation. The transgender community is a community that has recently began to form and is
therefore still realizing the implications of imposing its values on members of the community. In this
paper, I will assess the ways in which the enforcement of a binary interpretation of gender from forces
inside and outside of the transgender community has negatively affected the formation of the inclusive
transgender community necessary for mobilization and rights acquisition.
Language and Definitions
There is a boundless amount of language used by gender radicals to define themselves, and even
within the community not all of the terms are fully realized. There are as many genders on this planet as
there are people, and therefore there is an extensive set of vocabulary used to try to define the theoretical
concept that is each individual person‘s gender. Transgender is an umbrella term that includes all people
who transgress gender roles. Those who are transgender I will refer to as transgenderists or simply trans.
Within the category of transgender, there is a vast array of identities which have been adopted.
Transsexual is a common term for a transgendered individual who either desires or has achieved a
physical sex transformation. On a flyer for the Gender Identity Project that was used in 1997, they include
the following identifications, all of which fall under the umbrella of
transgender: ―fem queen, male to female transsexual [MTF], female to male transsexual [FTM], drag
queen, drag king, male of transexual experience, female of transexual experience, gender non-conformist,
cross-dresser, etc. etc.‖ (Valentine 2007). There are gender radicals who reject the binary entirely. They
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describe themselves as gender queer and live their lives in the gray area between woman and man
(Gherovici 2010). Cissgender and cisssexual are terms that refer to people who have not experienced
dissonance between their physical sex and their subconscious gender; in other words, people who are not
transgender or transsexual (Serano 2007). The main focus of this paper will be on the enforcement of
passing. Passing is the ability to be perceived as the gender which one is attempting to be recognized as
without being read or detected as a transgenderist.
Because most people believe that there are only ‗men‘ and ‗women,‘ transgendered
people need to live as one or the other in order to avoid verbal and physical harassment.
In transgendered communities, this is known as the need to pass. Passing is about
presenting yourself as a ‗real‘ woman or a ‗real‘ man- that is, an individual whose
‗original‘ sex is never suspected. Passing means hiding that fact that you are transsexual
and/or transgendered (Namaste 2000).
Gender as a Construct
Among gender scholars it is generally accepted that gender is not a biologically determined
attribute, but rather a pervasive social construct that extends into all areas of our lives. By thoroughly
examining gender as a construct, one becomes more perceptive of the ways in which gender
transgressions are policed by society. Any person who is not perceived publicly as either a man or a
woman inevitably poses a challenge to the current system of gender which we live under, and is therefore
subject to gender policing (Gagne et al. 1997). Although it is commonly known in the
trans community that gender is not an unchanging definite, gender is so seldom challenged that it can still
feel like a reality. The construction of the gender binary as a natural occurrence is so strong a presence in
the lives of transgenderists and cissexuals alike that trans individuals often find it more plausible that they
have been born with the wrong genitalia, than that gender is indeed a fluid social construct and not a
biology based constant (Gagne et al. 1997)
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Those individuals who do not enact the gender that has been prescribed to them are often
challenging to the structure of social order (Gagne et al. 1997). The pressure of being the poster-child for
gender transgressions can be overwhelming to transgenderists who just want to live as a member of their
intended gender. It is often more convenient to make the effort to pass than to constantly defend ones
gender identity. ―Sexed bodies (male or female) are not the basis of gender identities (men or women);
rather, our binary conception of gender produces these sexed bodies‖ (Namaste 2000). By enforcing the
gender binary on transgendered individuals, the body of a transgenderist is often altered to emulate the
primary and secondary sex characteristics of the gender which they identify with.
Trans Erasure
Trans erasure refers to the societal capacity to completely remove transgenderists from social,
political, and legislative dialogue. Trans erasure denies the existence of trangenderists as anything besides
freaks, perverts, and/or comic social actors. The successfulness of trans erasure is dependent not only on
the lack of acceptance for gender deviance in society, but also the silence of transgendered individuals
about their past and their experiences. Transgenderists are expected to
keep silent about their other-gendered history and their transgendered status, particularly post-operative
transsexuals (Bornstein 1994).
The highest purpose of the transsexual is to erase him/herself, to fade into the ‗normal‘
population as soon as possible. Part of this process is known as constructing a plausible storylearning to lie effectively about one‘s past… Authentic experience is replaced by a particular
kind of story, one that supports the old constructed positions (Gherovici 2010).
To this end, some transgenderists not only hide their transgendered histories from cissexuals, but hide
from other trans people in order to maintain anonymity.
See, when we walk into a restaurant and we see another transsexual person, we look
The other way, we pretend we don‘t exist. There‘s no sly smile, no secret wink, signal, or
handshake. Not yet. We still quake in solitude at the prospect of recognition… (Bornstein
1994).
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The fear of exposure leads some transgenderists to shy away from community building (Roen 2002).
There is a common assumption that if one transgendered person (who might otherwise pass) is
accompanied by a detectable transgenderist, that they are more likely to be read as transgender as well.
For this reason, non-passable transgenderists are often seen as a liability (Gagne et al. 1997). ―Two or
more transexxuals together, goes the myth, can be read more easily as transsexual- so they don‘t pass‖
(Bornstein 1994).
There are transgenderists who are beginning to express discontent at the culturally imposed
standard of silence. Kate Bornstein, a famous transsexual gender radical asserts that the best way for trans
people to liberate themselves is to open up dialogue amongst themselves; to start asking sincere
questions, and intently listening to each other (Bornstein 1994). Bornstein often participates in talk-shows
where she is criminalized and ridiculed for being a transsexual, but finds that these outlets are the best
way to educate masses of people about the plight of transgendered people. Of one talk-show
experience she said, ―I was a freak all right, but I was only a freak to the degree that I remained silent.
When I spoke, I had a chance to educate, and, paradoxically, I became less of a freak‖ (Bornstein 1994).
Emotional Impact of Trans Erasure
The societal standard of silence imposed on transgenderists deeply effects the emotional lives of
trans people. Trans people are told by society that they should not exist, or worse, that they already are
non-existent. In a study by Schrock and colleagues, they found that suicide was more commonly
discussed in transgender support groups than transgender politics (Schrock et al. 2004). These kinds of
emotional reactions to societal oppression and discrimination are common throughout the trans
community. In the journal article entitled Coming Out and Crossing Over, the sample included many
transgenderists that battled with drug and alcohol addictions as a reaction to the pain of being forced to
enact a gender that they did not relate to (Gagne et al. 1997). A small portion of the sample even reported
that they had mutilated their genitals in their youth in a puerile attempt to change their gender (Gagne et
al. 1997). Because most of the participants in Schrock‘s study had contemplated or attempted suicide, it
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goes without saying that collective action and political mobilization was nearly impossible (Schrock et al.
2004).
Like many transgendered people, they felt a debilitating blend of shame, alienation, fear,
powerlessness, and inauthenticity. Even if political opportunities abounded, such feelings
could stifle activism. Emotional pain took priority over social change (Schrock et al. 2004).
In conjunction with her opinions about trans erasure, Kate Bornstein wrote an entire book which attempts
to dissuade young gender deviants from committing acts of violence against
themselves (Hello Cruel World.) Bornstein encourages youth to do anything it takes to stay alive just one
more day, and then repeat. ―So you have some choices: you can get real good at hiding, or you can get
beat up. You can commit suicide-or you learn how to laugh‖ (Bornstein 1994).
Coming Out
Coming out is a nerve-wracking and intimidating experience. For transgenderists, this experience
differs immensely from that of sexual minorities because their transitions are public and permanent; they
cannot restrict their transition from being known to a many people at a time (Gagne et al. 1997).
―Lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals can selectively come out, whereas transgenderists, because of changes
in gender or biological appearance, are often forced out of the closet, creating awkward or even dangerous
situations‖ (Gagne et al. 1997). After the initial steps of physical transition, it is nearly impossible to hide
ones intentions to transition. This can lead to many different kinds of discrimination and oppression,
including workplace discrimination. Gagne and colleagues studied a group of transsexuals and found that,
―although there were a few people who were permitted to transition on the job, it was more common for
transsexuals to be fired, demoted, pressured to quit, and harassed by other workers‖ (Gagne et al. 1997).
Even though some workplaces are more accepting than those Gagne refers to, there are some issues that
inevitably need to be faced by employers when a worker transitions. One specific issue is that of gendered
space and the availability of restrooms.
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Gendered Space and Restroom Availability
―…There [has] never been a single instance in my life when I… walked into a public restroomwomen‘s or men‘s- by habit; my entire life I have been excruciatingly aware of any gendered space that I
enter‖ (Serano 2007). The discussion of restroom availability is often stifled, despite the fact that it is a
concern that trans people must deal with every time they enter a public space. Gendered spaces like
restrooms create barriers to gender queer and trans identified people‘s safety because of the constant
threat of violence, harassment, and even police interference leading to arrest (Chess et al. 2008).
Genderqueer and trans-identified folks have been attacked in public restrooms simply
because their appearance threatens gender norms and expectations. This issue of bathroom
violence is consistently delegitimized in both queer and non-queer spaces as not important or
sexy enough to be a ‗real‘ issue. In many gay activist circles, there seems to be a pervasive
sentiment that no one (read: no straight people) will take us seriously if we start talking
about bathrooms. Additionally, there is a tremendous cultural shame around the violence
itself- either you should have been able to protect yourself or you must have deserved it or
both (Chess et al. 2008).
Medicalization of Transsexuality
The medicalization of transsexuality has impacted the formation of a transgender community. By
framing transsexuality as a disorder, transsexuals are faced with the expectation of seeking a cure.
However, the cure for transsexuality is considered to be physically becoming either a man or a woman
and living under the binary system of gender that is comfortable for our society. In therapy sessions,
transsexuals are often encouraged to deny their transsexuality by creating stories about their lives before
their transition that indicate that they have always been their current gender. ―Transsexuality is the only
condition for which the therapy is to lie‖ (Bornstein, 62). Transsexuality is also the only diagnosable
mental disorder that is curable only through cosmetic surgery. Medical procedures undergone by
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members of the trans community can include electrolysis, breast binding, mastectomy, plastic surgery,
voice therapy, and hormone therapy (Namaste 2000).
“First You Die, and Then You Get Their Attention” (Bornstein 1994)
―Do a web search. Google will give you 9,080 hits for ‗transgender murder‘‖ (Muscio 2002).
The issue of violence against transgenderists is arguably the most pressing dilemma facing the trans
community, because it is not just a political matter, but literally a matter of life or death. Violence is a
very real threat to those who do not have the ability, or do not wish to pass, and especially to those who
successfully pass upon first glance, but are later detected as transgendered. Violence enacted against
transgendered people is often an attempt to police the gender presentation of the victim (Namaste 2000).
There is privilege associated with having a gender. When one is genderless, refuses to pass, or cannot
pass as a specific gender, they are denied this privilege. Those who do not adhere to the expectations of
one gender are often humiliated, mocked, sexualized, or otherwise victimized (Bornstein 1994).
If a transsexual does not ‗pass,‘ cissexuals often use it as an excuse to deny that person the
common decency of having their self-identified gender acknowledged or respected. Sometimes
cissexuals even use these situations as if they were an invitation to openly humiliate or abuse
transsexual (Serano 2007).
When FTMs are assaulted, for instance, rape is a routine part of the violence they endure.
This suggests that gender functions not merely as a cue to identify potential victims. FTMs
who are raped are told, through the act of sexual assault, that they are ‗really‘ women, and
will be treated as such. Biology is destiny (Namaste 2000).
In transgender support groups, it is common for members to use humor as a defense mechanism against
fear and anger rather than stoking those emotions in order to mobilize (Schrock et al. 2004). Group
members even discussed physical harassment and violence as a joke (Schrock et al. 2004). Passing is
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another tactic which transgenderists use to make themselves less vulnerable to transphobic violence,
rather than mobilizing to create a less violent sphere in which transgenderists can peacefully exist.
Benefits of a Transgender Community
―We are all longing to go home to some place we have never been- a place, half-remembered, and
half-envisioned we can only catch glimpses of from time to time. Community.‖ (Bornstein 1994).
Because transgenderists are not represented in the media in an accurate or relatable way, most
trans people develop their perspectives in solitude (Bornstein 1994). By finding peers whom they could
relate to because of shared experience, members who were new to the trans community were able to
alleviate their feelings of isolation (Gagne et al. 1997). Many transgendered people find a new sense of
self-recognition when they become aware of the existence of a transgendered community: This
community gives them safe space to experiment with potential identities (Gagne et al. 1997).
Transgendered individuals seek out the validation of both significant others and a community of similar
people in order to find stability in their identity (Gagne et al. 1997).
Many transgenderists find their first experience in a support group of transgendered people to be
highly gratifying. It is common for new participants to report a feeling of freedom and
complete acceptance within the group unlike any they had previously known (Gagne et al. 1997).
―Interacting with other differently-gendered people allowed newcomers to feel like they were born into a
new kind of family where it was safe to be themselves‖ (Schrock et al. 2004). Sandra, a participant in a
study of community building among transgendered individuals, said this of her first experience attending
a community support group:
I told [the support group] my story. I was honest with myself and with the people in the
room, and it was very cleansing. I felt really good…. I was amazed, it was like I broke
through a shell; an underground society that had before been out of reach. And all of a
sudden there I was in touch with it. It was right in front of me. It‘s almost like I had come
home (Schrock et al. 2004).
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Her emotional reaction to sharing her story with people she could relate to can be attributed to the
feeling of relief that comes with authenticity. The validity of our gender identities, or the feeling that we
are seen as valid in our gender expression, comes from recognition by others who will interpret us as
―authentic social actors‖ (Gagne et al. 1997).
Transgender communities provide different contributions to the lives of different classifications
of transgenderists. For the variety of subcategories of male-to-female transgenderists there is a different
goal achieved by attending trans community groups. For example, transsexuals may attend meetings to
receive the support and knowledge that they need to learn how to pass as a woman in society. Crossdressers on the other hand, may use the group as a social outlet that provides them with opportunities to
get out and be seen (Gagne et al. 1997). Individuals in the group who consider themselves gender radicals
may use the group as a catalyst for revolutionary movement (Gagne et al. 1997). Although new members
to trans support groups were not often interested in trans activism, their participation in these groups
occasionally primed them for interest in social movements (Schrock et al. 2004).
Barriers to Community Building
The desire to pass as a legitimate social actor is the biggest barrier to the formation of a
transgender community. The unspoken standard amongst members of transgender support groups is the
ability to pass undetected as a transgenderist. This standard is upheld in a variety of ways, from teaching
and encouraging members to pass more effectively, to excluding any individuals of transgender
subcategories that do not conform to the trans communities‘ standard of passability. Because of the
communities‘ orientation towards creating passable transgenderists, particularly transsexuals, many leave
community oriented groups as soon as they achieve the goal of passability.
New members to the trans community often start out defining their gender in terms which are
challenging and disturbing to the current binary system of gender. However, when they are told by
members of their transgender in-group that they are not doing gender correctly, they ―often end up
redefining their identities in ways that conform to hegemonic belief systems and institutional demands‖
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(Gagne et al., 479). New members occasionally admit to feeling forced to enact one gender or another
rather than existing between the poles, because they fear being pegged as illegitimate social actors by
members of their in- and out-groups (Roen 2002). For this reason, there are individuals who live the
entirety of their young lives as members of a false gender before making the brave decision to transition,
only to be forced to become members of another false-gender for their remaining years (Bornstein 1994).
The cultural imposition of passing upon transgenderists is not of use to transgenderists themselves, but is
intended to allow the rest of society to remain comfortable with their perceptions about the meaning of
gender. ―… Through the mandate of passing, the culture uses transsexuals to reinforce the bi-polar gender
system, as transsexuals strive for recognition within their new gender, and thus the privilege and chains of
their new gender‖ (Bornstein 1994).
Within the trans community, there are subcategories that perpetuate in-group tension and a
general lack of respect for those who do not or cannot completely adhere to the expectations of the
community. There are very few groups that cater to the entirety of the transgender community, and most
groups are still divided along the lines of gender (Bornstein 1994). A good portion of transgender support
groups are available solely to transsexual women, which leaves transsexual men and other nontranssexual gender deviants out to dry (Roen 2002). In these types of groups it is common for passing to
be the main topic of discussion. These groups dedicate much of their time and resources to teaching born
males how to perfect their public presentation as women, thus further excluding those who may
technically be included in the community, by making them feel devalued because they do not wish to pass
as women (Schrock et al. 2004). Sources within the community often attempt to impose a rigid hierarchy
based on the categorization of individuals into sections based on their gender identity and their ability to
pass as their intended gender (Bornstein 1994). This hierarchy places those who can successfully pass as
women above those who cannot or do not attempt to, and both of these subcategories above those
attempting (successfully or unsuccessfully) to pass as men, leaving gender queers and similar
subcategories at the bottom of the community imposed structural hierarchy.
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In trans support groups it is not uncommon for the topic of sex to be completely ignored.
Because of the communities‘ general fear of stigmatization, trans groups will often distance themselves
from other sexual or gender deviants that are considered by society to be perverted (Schrock et al. 2004).
However, by denying affiliation with these so-called ‗perverts,‘ the trans community is hindering its
ability to create a larger social movement by excluding transsexual prostitutes and sexual minorities
(Schrock et al. 2004). This also leaves trans identified sexual minorities vulnerable to criticism, even
within groups of like-minded peers. These exclusionary tactics are used in an attempt to obtain validity
from society as a whole. In Schrock et al.‘s research, the authors quote Leslie Feinberg, famous trans
activist:
A timid denial that ‗we‘re not all like that‘ only serves to weaken the entire fightback movement.
We can never throw enough people overboard to win approval from our enemies. Should we try
to argue that we‘re as ‗normal‘ as those who organize against our civil rights? Forget it! I am
queer and proud of it (Schrock et al. 2004).
By minimizing the exclusionary tactics of some transgender support groups, trans members may feel
more supported by their community and thus, more likely to involve themselves in political action (Roen
2002).
Framing Passing as the Problem
The system that our society has accepted; that of a gender binary, demands that individuals who
are not comfortable in their prescribed gender, ―present themselves in ways that convince others
that they are, in fact, members of the sex category suggested by their gender‖ (Gagne et al. 1997). Thus,
there is a strong orientation towards passing.
―Given the limited range of identities available to them, it is interesting, but not surprising, that
the overwhelming majority of transgendered individuals adhere to traditional conceptualizations of sex
and gender‖ (Gagne et al. 1997). Gender, even within communities that question the concept, is still so
pervasive that a community based on gender deviance is still subject to gender policing by members of
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the community. One participant of Roen‘s study described her opinion on the importance of passing in the
community context.
When you‘re sitting in a room full of people in dresses who are trying to look stunning-trying to
look nice- and there‘s this bony person sitting there with a balding head… you kind of think ‗My
God, what are you doing?‘ [laughter] ‗Wanna take you out and shoot you!‘ [laughter] because
you know amongst yourselves that you are trying to maintain a standard and she‘s not pulling it
(Roen 2002).
In this instance, a refusal or inability to pass is seen as a detriment to the community. However, I assert
that imposing the passing standard is in itself far more detrimental to the formation of community.
According to some transgenderists, passing as the ‗other sex‘ is the ultimate sell-out. Here,
passing is portrayed as complicit with normative gendering and therefore as contrary to the
gender-transgressive ethic of transgender politics (Roen 2002).
Those who adhere to this viewpoint see passing as an extension of cissexual privilege which we must
renounce in order to mobilize as a community. ―In this case, passing becomes the outward manifestation
of shame and capitulation. Passing becomes silence. Passing becomes invisibility. Passing becomes lies.
Passing becomes self-denial‖ (Bornstein 1994). By accepting gender as a fluid concept rather than a rigid
categorization which dictates our lives, the trans community may be able to overcome its strong
orientation towards passing and become more inclusive to those who do not wish to obtain this cissexual
privilege.
Conclusion
By rejecting cissexual privilege and eliminating their strong proclivity towards passing, the trans
community is able to free themselves to affiliate with larger social movements.
The concept of transgenderism recognizes that discrimination against women, gay persons,
and transsexual individuals, as well as other groups that are typically perceived as independent
from one another, springs from the same source, the privileging of the masculine and
subordination of the feminine (Flynn 2001).
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According to this quote, trans activism fits perfectly into the greater social movement which fights against
those who revile femininity. ―I argue that trans litigation should be considered an integral component of
feminist and gay rights advocacy‖ (Flynn 2001). Instead of excluding and dismissing different individuals
and subcategories from the community, the trans community has been granted the opportunity to affiliate
itself with other groups that are fighting for the same things; basic civil rights for all regardless of their
sex, sexual orientation, gender, or gender identity.
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Works Cited
Bornstein, Kate. 1994. Gender Outlaw: On Men, Women, and the Rest of Us. New York:
Vintage Books.
Douglas Shrock, Daphne Holden, Lori Reid. February 2004. Creating Emotional Resonance:
Interpersonal Emotion Work and Motivational Framing in a Transgender Community.
Social Problems. Vol. 51. pp. 61-81.
Flynn, Taylor. March 2001. “Transforming” the Debate: Why We Need to Include Transgender
Rights in the Struggles for Sex and Sexual Orientation Equality. Columbia Law Review.
Vol. 101. pp. 392-420.
Gherovici, Patricia. 2010. Please Select Your Gender: From the Invention of Hysteria to the
Democratizing of Transgenderism. New York and London: Routledge.
Muscio, Inga. 2002. Cunt: A Declarion of Independence. Berkeley, CA: Seal Press.
Namaste, Viviane K. 2000. Invisible Lives: The Erasure of Transsexual and Transgendered
People. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press.
Patricia Gagne, Richard Tewksbury, and Deanna McGaughey. August 1997. Coming out and
Crossing over: Identity Formation and Proclamation in a Transgender Community.
Gender and Society. Vol. 11. pp.478-508.
Roen, Katrina. Winter 2002. “Either/Or” and “Both/Neither”: Discursive Tensions in
Transgender Politics. Signs. Vol. 27. pp. 501-522.
Serano, Julia. 2007. Whipping Girl: A Transsexual Woman on Sexism and the Scapegoating of
Femininity. Berkeley, CA: Seal Press.
Sloop, John M. 2004. Disciplining Gender: Rhetorics of Sex Identity in Contemporary U.S.
Culture. Amherst and Boston: University of Massachusetts Press.
Simone Chess, Alison Kafer, Jessi Quizar, and Mattie Udora Richardson. 2008. Calling All
Restroom Revolutionaries! Sycamore, Mattilda Bernstein. That‟s Revolting!: Queer
Strategies for Resisting Assimilation. 216-229. Brooklyn: Soft Skull Press.
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Valentine, David. 2007. Imagining Transgender: An Ethnography of a Category. Durham and
London: Duke University Press.
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Ashley Robertson, Bloomsburg University
Human Experimentation: Guinea Pigs or Volunteers for a Cure?
Late in the month of August, most individuals prepare for the start of a new school year. The
beginning of the school year is usually a reminder that an annual visit to the doctor is necessary to receive
a physical. For some, this yearly checkup can cause fear because most associate this visit as an
opportunity to receive many shots. How do doctors know what kind of shots to give? How are vaccines
created? What is the reliability of any vaccine on the human body? Human testing, an underestimated,
and often controversial subject is the answer to these questions.
Human testing is often neglected because most individuals think that the only medical testing is
on animals. Why would scientists want to use a human test subject and risk their life? Isn‘t that unjust?
Although human and animal bodies share some of the same properties, the way the bodies react to certain
medications or even other products differs. The medical knowledge that is obtained from human testing
experiments can improve society‘s overall health. Therefore scientists and their participants who
successfully conduct human testing should follow the Nuremburg Code as well as creating a new oath
that protect the rights of their subjects during experimentation.
Some of the human testing experiments can be intense or mundane, ranging on what researchers
want to conclude. For example, medical researchers want to test vaccines and see the effects on the
human body, or, cosmetic researchers could want to test out qualities of shampoos and their effects on the
scalp. Since the spectrum of experiments can vary, the guidelines should be concrete no matter what the
experiment consists of to ensure the quality of the experiment and safety of the test subject.
Human testing is a privilege scientists are able to experience. Their experiments are created to
better society as a whole. Making sure that their test subjects are healthy before, during, and after the
experiment is just as important as the results that are concluded. In the past, the government felt as if this
aspect was not important.
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In June, 2003, the U.S. military revealed that it had been conducting unusual experiments on
American soldiers in the 1960's. The Pentagon recently declassified a set of reports on programs
known as Project 112 and Project SHAD (shipboard hazard and defense). These programs had
been carried out between 1961 and 1970 and were designed to identify American military
vulnerability to chemical and biological weaponry. During the tests, large numbers of soldiers —
who were unaware that they were being used — were exposed to toxic substances and suffered
consequences to their health. (Military Admits Experiments on Soldiers, 2003, Nutrition Health
Review: The Consumer's Medical Journal)
This current statement released from the government is very important. Not only were they violating the
human rights of their own soldiers who served for this country, but waited to tell the public for over forty
years! The test subjects were not volunteers and were not aware of the experiment. The government just
decided to test these military weapons and hope for the best. Unfortunately, the government has the
ability to do these cruel things to its own citizens and get away with it. This should not sit well with
anyone in the United States. The Washington Post reported that efforts from legislation have been made
prior to this event in 1997, but the results of making human rights more important in human testing failed.
An incident from uranium miners was released stating that the miners were used to test for the United
States nuclear arsenal. Years later, approximately 600 workers developed lung cancer. This number is
very high and since this was such a controversy, legislation proposed that they, ―would give the 600
miners or their survivors a total of $50 million over 15 years‖ (Strobel, 1997). This is also costing the
government tons of money to try and heal the wounds that cannot be repaired with money. Can money
really be the solution? Could this really be used compared to the pain, chemotherapies, and death these
workers have to suffer from the government‘s error? This sort of an apology cannot give back the lives
these workers once lived. The Nuremberg Code and a new experimentation oath would be appropriate to
help protect these workers so that the government will not be able to violate another 600 people‘s human
rights.
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Although the government has power over many things in this country, this should not give them
the right to violate human rights and put their own people in poor health. Anyone for that matter should
not be able to harm humans in or outside of human testing. So why not take out human testing altogether?
If human testing was stopped, people would not be in these types of unfortunate situations. Most people
do not think of the opportunity scientists have to experiment on real human subjects. Human testing
should be something to be looked at as a way to promote interest in learning more about the human body,
not destroy it. Keeping things a secret to avoid human rights trouble is not the best way to promote this
kind of opportunity. If the Nuremberg Code and a new experimenter oath were created, this would
prevent these maladaptive ways to experiment, promote safer human testing, and also make the public
aware of the experiments that are being conducted. Human experimentation should lead to success stories,
not tragic, secretive ones.
The enforcement of a new oath and the Nuremberg Code seem reassuring, but others have created
an oath to prevent human testing as a whole. Jacob Sullivan (2008) reports in his article:
the Declaration of Helsinki, first adopted in 1964 and amended five times since, prohibits
experimentation on humans. The declaration draws clear lines for acceptable medical research
involving human subjects, such as vaccines. The document was created in order to outlaw the
kind of brutal, inhumane experimentation performed on human subjects by Nazi doctors. (Should
doctors change the Hippocratic Oath?)
Attempts in the past have been made, such as those efforts from Helsinki, and had little to no effect. The
only reason this ‗document‘ exists is from research done over the internet. It is not reliable in current
times because this declaration is unknown to the public. If this ‗document‘ were to be in effect, it would
affect today‘s human testing experiments. The ‗Declaration of Helsinki‘ states prohibiting human
experimentation. This would stop so many discoveries that were founded during the late sixties and
beyond that society would not have the modern technologies and medicines to save lives today. This
would include modern day cancer technologies such as chemotherapies, as well as other methods to make
chemotherapy less harsh on patients through human testing.
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The Nuremberg Code was created in World War II when Nazi soldiers were put on trial for
human experimentation and the destruction of human rights and human ethics. The soldiers tested many
things including: ―limits of human endurance to high altitudes and freezing temperatures. Medically
related experiments included inoculation of prisoners with infectious disease pathogens and tests of new
antibiotics. Various mutilating bone, muscle, and nerve experiments were also performed on nonconsenting prisoner subjects‖ (Michalczyk, 1994, p.184-185). Since the subjects were not consulted
about the experiments, and many were in the concentration camps in Germany and were already forced to
endure many horrible tortures, the Nazi soldier trials are the reason the Nuremberg Code was created.
This code consists of guidelines scientists and doctors should follow when conducting a successful
experiment when humans are the test subjects.
The Nuremberg Trials provided progress in human testing because the world was able to learn
from the Nazi soldier‘s abuses. The ten guidelines were created after the trial to be taken seriously and
effectively for scientists, researchers, and doctors who would be interested in using human test subjects.
The first part of the Code speaks of protecting the test subject from any sort of harm, the Nuremberg Code
states:
The voluntary consent of the human subject is absolutely essential. This means that the person
involved should have legal capacity to give consent; should be so situated as to be able to
exercise free power of choice, without the intervention of any element of force, fraud, deceit,
duress, over-reaching, or other ulterior form of constraint or coercion; and should have sufficient
knowledge and comprehension of the elements of the subject matter involved as to enable him to
make an understanding and enlightened decision. This latter element requires that before the
acceptance of an affirmative decision by the experimental subject there should be made known to
him the nature, duration, and purpose of the experiment; the method and means by which it is to
be conducted; all inconveniences and hazards reasonable to be expected; and the effects upon his
health or person which may possibly come from his participation in the experiment.
The duty and responsibility for ascertaining the quality of the consent rests upon each individual
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who initiates, directs or engages in the experiment. It is a personal duty and responsibility which
may not be delegated to another with impunity. (p. 181-182)
Since this is the most detailed of the guidelines created in this code, the main importance is to protect the
subject‘s human rights, not to neglect or abuse them. The majority of the code does contain information
about technicalities of the subject‘s health and well being. This Code states that the test subjects must
consent to every part of the experiment, so the test subjects in the experiment are completely voluntary
and not forced into anything they are not comfortable with. Since the Nuremberg Trials, most people
assume that human test subjects are protected, which they are not. Test subjects can have privacy rights
broken, cannot be fully informed of the full experiment and its intentions, and can be manipulated in
participating in experiments that they did not originally volunteer to participate in, which are violating a
human‘s rights. These Codes are designed to specify important aspects to make sure that the Nuremberg
Code will prevent past issues and abuses of human experimentation.
The Nuremberg Code contains many important aspects to protect the test subject with their
consent of the experiment, and also requires the actual experiment to have a legitimate outcome that
benefits science or medicine. Human testing can be beneficial to society‘s health because the experiments
that are conducted can reveal valuable information about the human body. Where would society be
without chemotherapy for cancer patients? How would individuals survive without the vaccines that are
provided to promote immune health? All these questions and many more can be answered by human
testing. From this testing, the human race can benefit medically and can further advance studies that may
result in cures. Besides advancing medically, society can get a better understanding of the body through
human testing. They can be aware of the experiments that are being conducted to also improve their
lifestyle. For example, a growing problem in today‘s society is obesity, and through human testing,
researchers can gather data for diet and exercise plans that can benefit the population. If human testing is
less controversial it will lead to more scientific and medical curiosities. These curiosities will continue as
a domino effect once more research is found, resulting in more efficient experiments to better society‘s
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health. Scientists can also create more experiments to improve the medical field. This will help the
population‘s health.
The Nuremberg Code is meant for all humans who are involved in human testing. What about the
almost developed humans in the womb? Would these terms still apply? Drawing embryonic fluids from
an expecting mother can predict disabilities or diseases an infant. Since the embryonic fluid is being used
for research, do doctors have a right to invade the mother, as well as the embryonic sac of the infant to
draw fluid? This also can be similar to the debate about abortions whether or not the child is alive and has
the right to live since they are entitled to their human rights. Shafer (1983) adds, (from a critique of Hans
Jonas), ―those who are least able to give voluntary and informed consent should be the last chosen as
subjects for hazardous research,‖ (p. 79) and from this kind of viewpoint, can conclude that scientists do
not have the right to test infants. Scientists would be violating the baby‘s human rights because they are
being used as a hazardous type of research. Since the parents are the ones who ultimately make the
decision and are allowing doctors and scientists to test embryonic fluids, they are giving their consent to
scientists to test their infant for any abnormalities.
Therefore, the baby and mother‘s rights would be protected if the guidelines of the Nuremberg
Code are being followed properly. A poll was taken that asked a sample of parents if they would choose
to abort if certain types of illnesses and disabilities for their future infant were discovered during
pregnancy. Rabino (2003) concluded this research by stating the percentages of parents that thought
abortion was ethical; ―82% be severely mentally retarded, 76% die of a disease by age four, 62% develop
a severe childhood disease, or 43% die of a disease as a young adult (p. 376). These are the top four
reasons parents thought abortions were ethical if they found out if their child would fit into any of these
categories. Research by ―Wertz and Fletcher (1995)…someone who knowingly brings a child into the
world with a serious genetic disorder is "not fair to the child," (Rabino, 2003, p.376). So, although this
type of human testing seems to be viewed negatively, to most parents, it can be a helpful tool to ensure
their future child is going to live a healthy long life.
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Another important part of human testing would be the actual experiment. The Nuremberg Code
also includes details about how experiments should be carried out which is stated in many parts of the
Code:
The experiment should be such as to yield fruitful results for the good of society, unprocurable by
other methods or means of study, and not random and unnecessary in nature…should be so
designed and based on the results of animal experimentation and a knowledge of the natural
history of the disease or other problem under study that the anticipated results will justify the
performance of the experiment… and should be conducted only by scientifically qualified
persons. The highest degree of skill and care should be required through all stages of the
experiment of those who conduct or engage in the experiment. (p. 181-182)
The reason to conduct human testing has to be legitimate and have purpose. It seems like common sense,
but this needs to address everything about the experiment and its participants involved in human testing.
Scientists cannot randomly decide to make a random vaccine and start testing on volunteers. There needs
to be clear focus and reasoning for the experiment that wants to be performed. Also, the professionals that
are conducting the experiment need to be legitimate and qualified for the success of the experiment. An
everyday person cannot decide that they want to act like a scientist and start playing with dangerous
equipment. The professionals with degrees in science and medicine are the ones to dictate the researching
topics that need to be conducted. The specialists involved in the experiment also need to be careful in
their procedures so that the right results are collected safely, without any intentional harm and violation.
Although the Nuremberg Code is presented as just a set of guidelines, there is still a question as
to how the public knows that these guidelines will be in effect with every experiment involving human
test subjects? The answer is: the public will never know since these are not enforced like they should be.
Since it is only a code, and not a law, technically it can be broken. The parts of the codes presented seem
to temporarily protect the rights of the subjects, not permanently protect human subjects. The idea of
making the Nuremburg Code mandatory for all human testing experiments would seem more just in
modern times. In addition to the Nuremberg Code being used effectively, an oath should be created,
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similarly to the Hippocratic Oath to ensure the professionals are going to fulfill their requirements for the
experiment.
Since the Nuremberg Code, like the Declaration of Human Rights, is not a legal document, it acts
as a reference of guidelines that should be considered if human experimentation needs to be conducted for
research. The Nuremberg Code should be mandatory for all human experimentation projects for the
protection and well being of any human test subject. In addition to the Nuremberg Code, a new oath,
similar to the Hippocratic Oath, should be specified for experimenters to take since they can potentially
risk someone‘s life, even with the subject‘s consent. The Hippocratic Oath is also a set of rules doctors
have to swear by to create and maintain a professional career in the medical field. Some of the ideas that
are expressed include patient confidentiality, nonsexual relationships with patients, and the overall wellbeing of a patient. If a specific oath was created (and enforced with the Nuremburg Code) for scientists
and participants to take, the medicine field would have a greater success in research. This new oath
should contain the protection of patients‘ privacy, health, and emotional state. The new oath should also
be more specific about long term effects of experiments. Experiments should not cause long term
problems, or if they might, can be taken away immediately. Test subjects and the experimenters must
maintain a professional relationship at all times, as well as be informed of every step in the experiment.
All people who are qualified should be made to swear by this oath and enforce it, with knowledge and
understanding of the Nuremberg Code. This would mean that no torture or manipulation of any sort is to
be conducted for the result of an experiment. Also, the outcome of the experiment is to better society, so
any attempt to ruin a subject‘s personal life, or cause psychological problems is also forbidden. The
professionals in experiments are having the opportunity to better the population, so they should treat their
subjects as human beings with their specific needs, not by textbook and chart definitions. Topics like
human testing are still controversial, but with the enforcement of a new oath and Nuremberg Code, these
topics would not be so controversial since everyone is protected.
If these guidelines were to be taken seriously, the outcome of the experiment itself would
improve. Having test subjects who are willing to proceed and have trust in researchers that their rights are
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protected with an experiment makes everything else run smoothly. Some may ask, even with the safety of
the test subject, and their consent, why would someone want to be a part of experimental tests? Many
individuals have a natural curiosity and want to be a part of the discovery of new technologies that could
potentially save thousands of individuals. Plus, most test subjects are paid for their participation. The
benefits of an individual as a test subject can vary. Test subject want to volunteer to experimentation to
help further research for the benefit of saving lives. Other participants can participate just to receive
payment. Although many people agree with human testing, many can still view volunteers of the
experiments as guinea pigs that are letting scientists take over their bodies for no good reason.
Experiments are conducted every day to help promote better health to the public. Scientists and
medical professionals are always eager to learn more and research, but throughout history, scientists were
hesitant to participate in human testing because they wanted to avoid the controversies and legal troubles
they may face. The ability to gather information from a human subject was ideal, but many scientists
could not find participants who wanted to volunteer. Also, scientists and medical professionals did not
know the outcomes of their experiments and did not want to put anyone in danger. What was their
solution? They decided to take their experiments and perform them on their own bodies. They are
classified as the ‗guinea-pig scientists‘. Technically, since they are performing dangerous experiments,
and the result is unknown, they are violating their own human rights. Knowing the risks that could
potentially kill them, they decided to proceed anyway. The risk of the experiments was very high since
most were injecting themselves with vaccines, illnesses, and strange substances including bugs! These
scientists wanted to know if their hypotheses were accepted or rejected right away.
Although human testing can be an efficient way to conclude if an experiment succeeds or fails,
scientists testing on themselves can be seen as a less threatening way to harm the public through human
experimentation. Mel Boring and Leslie Dendy explain in their book Guinea Pig Scientists:
It is clear that guinea pig scientists are still with us, still curious and determined and concerned
for others. They are the bold ‗test pilots‘ in the world of human body science. With more science
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working in the world now than ever before, new self-experiments are starting all the time. There
are still many questions left to answer and many stories yet to be written. (2005, p. 176)
The benefits from self-experimentation can put others in better safety, but the Nuremberg Code and new
experimentation oath should be mandatory for these brave scientists as well. They are human and should
be protected in every aspect. Also, scientists should choose whether they would like to have volunteer
subjects or choose to conduct the experiments on their own bodies. It should depend on the data they want
to collect to better determine the outcome of their specific experiment.
For example, ―Koichiro Fujita of the Tokyo Medical and Dental University, has been swallowing
tapeworm eggs off and on since 1996, hoping that the worms living in his intestine will make his allergies
better‖ (Boring & Dendy, 2005, p. 176). After Koichiro studied in third world countries and helped in
removing infectious parasites and worms from the local people, he discovered that they were more
susceptible to gain allergies. These allergies could be to different types of foods and other substances, but
he found it intriguing to know that allergies were increasing for the people he had removed the parasites
and worms from. Even though the worms are supposed to decrease the body‘s immune system, he
hypothesized that if he were to inject himself with these types of tape worms, his allergies would
decrease. Scientists who are in a rush to know answers can find a better way to experiment. With the help
of the Nuremberg Code and a new experimentation oath, scientists can be less afraid and choose to use
volunteer human test subjects instead of themselves.
The right criteria for conducting a human experiment should be created by making the
Nuremburg Code and researcher oath mandatory, as well as making sure the test subject is safe and aware
of the experiment; so why is all of this important? Well, by making these criteria a reality, many things in
the future can improve. If these guidelines were enforced, there would be less controversy over whether
human experimentation is ethical and would not violate human rights. Attempts are starting to be made to
lessen controversy from organizations like the Department of Veterans Affairs, who also care for patient
rights by continually: ―working to ensure the highest standards of human subjects' protections in all of its
research activities‖ (Burris, Feussner, Lavori & McGlynn, 2002, V-11). Organizations attempts like these
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can also help in the subject‘s well being. The safety of test subjects would make the public less critical
about human experimentation because the causes are completely different from those of the past (from the
Nazi experiments). Also, this would create a safer environment for future scientists and researchers to
make sure that everything is running correctly and no legal actions can be made by any mistakes that are
made. Most problems involving human testing arise when researchers are exposed to having secret
research experiments. By making the guidelines mandatory, these fears can be avoided so researchers do
not conduct experiments in a harmful or unsafe way.
Many other organizations have considered these types of events and in result, have discussed
ways that they can contribute to keep test subjects in good health. The Bulletin of the World Health
Organization states:
Global challenges raised by biomedical advances require global responses. Some international
organizations have made significant efforts over the last few years to establish common standards
that can be regarded as the beginning of an international biomedical law. One of the main features
of this new legal discipline is the integration of its principles into a human rights framework. This
strategy seems the most appropriate, given the role of ‗‗universal ethics‘‘ that human rights play
in our world of philosophical pluralism. (Adorno, 2002, p. 959)
The people in this organization have found it important for human rights to be incorporated in their
studies. Their main focus is on human testing related to genetic type testing and cloning. These scientists
are thinking outside of just the results of the experiment and are making sure that everyone involved will
be in good health and therefore receive positive results. This biomedical law idea was proposed in 2002
from the Bulletin of the World Health Organization, but since then has not been researched to see if their
efforts were strong enough. Cloning and genetic testing can be seen as invasive and as violating human
rights. But what if these scientists are given volunteers? Does this mean that they need to be ‗more ethical
and moral‘ and turn them down? The organization who wants to create the universal biomedical law
states: ―In spite of all its weaknesses, however, the current human rights system is the only mechanism
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available to protect people. This is why the integration of some principles relating to biomedicine into a
human rights framework seems fully justified‖ (Adorno, 2002, p. 960). This shows the importance of
specific guidelines then need to be added to human rights. By the mandatory guidelines provided by the
Nuremberg Code and a new experimentation oath, this organization can have their attempts become a
success. Not only would their plan become a reality, it will make scientists less afraid to want to conduct
experiments to avoid any legal trouble with human rights.
Human experimentation, the underestimated, controversial, and life saving method to better
public health can now be conducted safely. The Nuremberg code and the introduction of a new
experimentation oath should be taken by the scientist or medical professional and the test subjects.
Human rights will become a bigger part of experimentation to ensure the safety of everyone involved in
human testing. For those who still believe human experimentation should be stop altogether since it
violates human rights, they have to consider that,
there will still be a need for human experiments. The public demands cures for cancer, heart
disease, AIDS, spinal cord injuries, and other afflictions. We want vaccines for the new infectious
diseases that keep emerging. Thousands of clinical trials are under way each year. Many ‗guinea
pigs‘ will continue to be patients who volunteer, hoping for a cure, but sometimes brave scientists
will lead the way and be tested first‖ (Boring & Dendy, 2005, p. 3).
Human experimentation‘s involvement with the Nuremberg code and new experimentation oath will
promote the positive attitudes and health of society. Test subjects will not be viewed as tortured guinea
pigs, but volunteers for a cure.
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References
Andorno, R. Biomedicine and international human rights law: in search of a global consensus.
Bulletin of the World Health Organization (2002), 80 (12) pp. 959-963.
Boring, M., Dendy, L. (2005). Guinea pig scientists. New York, NY: Henry Holt
Feussner, J.R., Burris, J.F., McGlynn, G., Lavori, P.W. (2002). Enhancing protections for human
participants in clinical and health services research: a continuing process. Medical Care, 40
(9). pp. V4-V11.
Michalczyk, J.J. (1994). Medicine, ethics, and the third Reich: historical and contemporary issues.
Kansas City, MO: Sheed & Ward.
Military Admits Experiments on Soldiers. (2003). Nutrition Health Review: The Consumer's Medical
Journal, 14 (87). Retrieved (April 2011) from:
http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=6&hid=8&sid=c5eee4c6-48f4-43f1-bb93cf884337d101%40sessionmgr14&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=awh&
AN=12512992
Rabino, I. (2003). Genetic testing and its implications: human genetics researchers grapple with
ethical issues. Science, Technology, & Human Values 28,(3). pp. 365-402.
Schafer, A. (1983). Group experimentation with human subjects: a critique of the views of Hans
Jonas. Journal of Medical Ethics, 9(2). pp. 76-79.
Silverman, Jacob. (2008, July 31) "Should doctors change the Hippocratic Oath?" Retrieved (April
2011) from: http://health.howstuffworks.com/medicine/healthcare-providers/hippocraticoath.htm
Strobel, W.P., (1997, March, 29). Rules set to protect human subjects;
secret experiments stirred indignation. The Washington Times. Part A; NATION; Pg. A2.
Trials of War Criminals before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals under Control Council Law No. 10,
Vol. 2, pp. 181-182. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1949.
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Brandi Spencer- Phoenix, Bloomsburg University
Keep Minority Education Hope Alive
In some classrooms it is very easy to spot the students of a minority race. Often you can count the
minority students with one hand. A few people might explain that it was during college or during one of
their secondary education levels the first time they had a class with a minority student. Since many
students of the majority race did not encounter many minority students there are often assumptions and
stereotypes used as common knowledge. Common minority stereotypes are that they are lazy, dumb, and
unemployed. Are these stereotypes created in response to the high drop-out rates amongst minorities?
These high drop-out rates have to decrease considering that by 2023, the census bureau suggest, more
than half of all children will be minorities (CNN 2008). Minorities will soon be the majority. These dropout rates can hurt the United States‘ economy in the long run. Keeping minorities in school is not an easy
task. We must establish school pride. If minorities‘ schools had better teachers, increased parent
involvement, adequate schools, more after school programs, and more motivation they would be more
likely to stay in school and the minorities‘ drop-out rate will decrease. The time is now! Let‘s fix the
problem! Considering that by 2023, the census bureau states that more than half of all children will be
minorities (CNN 2008).
In the year 2042 minorities are expected to become the majority in the United States (CNN 2008).
Hispanics and African Americans are the two minorities expected to make the biggest increase in
population.
The Hispanic population is projected to nearly triple, from 46.7 million to 132.8 million, from
2008 through 2050, the bureau said. Its share of the total U.S. population is expected to double
from 15 to 30 percent. "Thus, one in three U.S. residents would be Hispanic," the Census Bureau
said in a news release (CNN 2008).
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In the next four decades the majority of people in our country will no longer resemble our founding
fathers. The African-American population is expected to increase from 41.1 million to 65.7 million by
2050, going from 14 percent of the U.S. population to 15 percent (CNN 2008).
At the same time, African American unemployment rates and underemployments rates remain
high. Underemployment rates includes those who are unemployed, part time workers, and people who
make as low as poverty levels. According to the ninth edition of Racial and Ethnic Relation text book,
from 1970 until present day poverty rates for African American women heading households with children
under the age of 18 remain above 40 percent and increased one percent in a recent survey (Feagin 2008).
Those women grow up and have kids and these kids have kids and then the poverty cycles continue. Also,
the ninth edition of Racial and Ethnic Relation text book, states that one-fourth of all African American,
and one-third of all African American children fell below the poverty line in 2008. Most African
Americans are classified as either middle class or poor. One factor that contributes to why African
Americans have lower incomes is based on education.
Unemployment rates amongst Puerto Ricans are also said to be one of the highest throughout
eastern cities (Feagin 2008). Most Puerto Rican immigrants come to the United States with a trade or a
skill, but often these trades and skills are unused. Puerto Ricans find work often in lower-paid blue-collar
and service jobs. There is also a claim that due to discrimination in the workplaces and inadequate
schooling facilities those minorities are left in poverty. We must decrease our poverty rates in United
States by starting with our young first. A great way is to improve our school districts throughout the
country.
Education is cumulative. Everything you learn in early years becomes advanced and used
throughout your educational career. According to Alliance for our Education 2009 Fact Sheet,
Most dropouts are already on the path to failure in the middle grades and engage in behaviors that
strongly correlate to dropping out in high school. Various researchers have identified specific risk
factors, such as low attendance or a failing grade, which can identify future dropouts—in some
cases as early as sixth grade (Fact Sheet 2009).
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Most six graders are between the ages of eleven and twelve. Before they even reach adolescence
some teachers can predict whether their minority students are on the verge of dropping out of school. Are
we failing our young minorities?
The 1989 movie ―Lean on Me,‖ based on a true story, was about a principle who attempted to
improve the test scores of one of the worst schools in the state of New Jersey. Joe Clark was
working at an elementary school before he took the position as principal of East Side High. East
Side High was supposed to be an inner city multicultural high school, but instead Clark walked
into a world of crime, drugs, and walls full of graffiti. He was questioned about his many tactics
for improving the school. His first strategy was to kick out all of the kids who had no chance of
graduating. He believed that it was important to expel all of the unfit kids because they were
preventing other students who had potential from learning. Clark expelled 300 minority students
whom he claimed were "educationally hopeless and overage underachievers, parasites, hoodlums,
and drug pushers" (Education Digest, 1989). After expelling these students the next step was to
secure the other students. Although putting chains on the doors was a fire hazard, Clark put
chains on the doors to keep his students in and keep the ones that were expelled out. Clark‘s
second step was to get his students to develop school pride. He made all students learn the school
song and those who had detentions paint the school‘s walls that were covered with graffiti.
Towards the end of the movie under Clark‘s leadership the students‘ test scores more than
doubled, but in reality the students‘ test scores did not change. In fact, students at Eastside High
had the lowest test scores in the state of New Jersey between the years of 1986 to 1988.
It was unfortunate that he kicked 300 hundred students out of school, but I believe that he did the right
thing. It is important for the students to learn. I believe when students have school pride they enjoy going
to school every day. I witnessed he effectiveness in having school pride. I develop closer relationships to
all my teachers. Since I knew all my teachers I was no longer ashamed to ask questions.
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Negative impacts are often the result of racially segregated schools such as low retention rates,
poor reading levels, high student teacher ratios, less qualified teachers, and lower expectations. In most
cases children of color usually do better when attending a majority white school. It is not because other
children of color are incapable of doing well; it is just because they do not have the best resources. Most
of these schools which majority minority students attend usually lack good media and Internet centers,
newer and more computers, newer buildings, and more classes for advance students (Feagin 2008).
Despite the Brown vs. Broad of Education case, segregated schools still exist. Four out of ten black and
Latino children were at extremely segregated schools which 90 to 100 percent were children of color
(Feagin 2008). A large majority of these students are not prepared for college. Many minority parents
complain about underfunded and discriminatory educational systems. Minorities that live in poor
neighborhoods do not have any or little political influence over the politicians who control the
government money necessary for creating equal school opportunities. According to the ninth edition of
Racial and Ethnic Relations text book, as the country becomes more diverse, this lack of skills will
become even more of a disadvantage in social and political interactions, and in getting jobs with globally
focused companies and government agencies (Feagin 2008). According to the ninth edition of Racial and
Ethnic Relation text book, as the country becomes more diverse, this lack of skills will become even more
of a disadvantage in social and political interactions, and in getting jobs with globally focused companies
and government agencies (Feagin 2008).
Many Hispanics students drop-out because they have difficulties with the English language. If
you cannot speak English in the United States it can be quite hard for a person to understand and finish
school. English is a necessity for all subjects. Comprehensive skill is relevant no matter what level of
education you are in. Writing is also important. Since, most of these students are brought up not knowing
how to speak proper English they usually do not know how to write grammatically correct. These
students often score lower than average on the SAT‘s, making it hard for them to get into college.
However, SAT scores generally rise with two things: the income and education levels of their parents—a
fact borne out in the 2010 College Board profile report (Abdul-Alim 2010).
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White students, for instance, scored an average of 530, 555, and 508 on reading, math, and
writing portions of the SAT, whereas Black students scored 426, 436, and 408; Mexican or
Mexican American students scored 451, 451, and 451; Hispanic, Other Hispanic, Latino or Latin
American students scored 449, 446, and 449; and American Indian or Alaska Natives scored 484,
479, and 474, respectively (Abdul-Alim 2010).
These statistics show that minority students‘ test scores are worse than white students‘ test scores.
Since minority test scores are usually the lowest many people might be oppose to bettering
education for minority. People might wonder why these students cannot help themselves. All these
minority students have to do is apply themselves by studying harder. Some might believe in a well-known
theory called social Darwinism. In terms of intellect only the well- educated succeeds and become
financially successful. This is not a communist nation. Why should wealth have to be shared? Not
everyone can become successful.
Others may not think there is anything wrong with inner city schools. The problem is these
children are not grateful to receive free education. How can you complain about something that is free?
Others may think that minorities make excuses for themselves. The poem, ―Invictus‖ by William Ernest
Henley, states ―I am the master of my fate… I am the captain of my soul.‖ In other words, you make the
decision for your own life. If you want something you need to work hard and earn it. History should not
be an excuse of why you cannot do better economically.
Some people just do not care, while others are unaware about the injustices in the inner city
schools. Some people wonder why help these underprivileged children if they have a history of failing.
There are statistics to prove it! New York City Public Schools in 2007, black students scored an average
of 30 points lower than white students in math and reading. The majority (55 percent) of black eighthgraders in New York City and 48 percent of Hispanic eighth-graders haven't reached basic proficiency in
math, and about half haven't achieved basic proficiency in reading (Harris).
Why should we care about these inner city schools when we do not live in the inner city? We
cannot teach these inner city parents how to raise their kids. It is best that we mind our own business.
161
None the less it is important that we decrease the high drop-out rates amongst minorities. If we
were to decrease these high drop-out rates amongst minorities there would be more professional people.
The number of people who suffers from poverty would also be decreased. Lastly, we would have a
smarter America.
The first step in decreasing minority drop-out rates is to develop and create better teachers. I
believe that my teachers that worked at my high school were a few of the best teachers in the world
because they had close relationships with the students. Going to school knowing you had teachers who
cared meant a lot to me. There were times in my life where I wanted to quit, but always had a teacher to
influence me to do better. My teachers impacted my life so much I decided that I wanted to major in
Education to become a teacher. I attended a boarding school in Philadelphia. This school was best
described as ―not the best school, but a school where a lot of the students had potential.‖ I came to the
conclusion that most of the inner city schools‘ students probably share that same concept. During an
academic school year we are around our teachers and peers more than we are around our parents. School
is a big part of all of our lives. Just one person coming into the classroom with a negative attitude can
affect many people. Negative energy is contagious. You can always notice when a person does not care. It
is important that our teachers come to school with positive attitudes. If teachers develop unity with their
students than students would began to develop trust in their teachers. Students would try to achieve the
higher expectations that teachers set because they would truly believe that teachers actually care.
It is important that the teachers and students develop unity. Teachers should get to know the
students and vice versa the students should get to know the teachers. You tend to have respect for a
person you care and have personal ties to. I believe that schools should have clean up days. During these
clean up days the students and teachers would get together and clean, paint lockers, and plant gardens
outside the school‘s grounds. During these days teachers would be interacting with students and getting to
know more about them. When a teacher knows what students are interested they would be able to relate
their academic curriculum towards their students‘ interest. Relating the academic curriculum to students
would allow students to be more interested in school.
162
Students should have more adequate schools. George Bush‘s, No Child Left Behind Act made
school more responsible for their student test scores. Initially, No Child Left Behind Act was established
to help improve the performance of America's elementary and secondary schools while at the same time
ensuring that no child is trapped in a failing school.
The NCLB Act, which reauthorizes the ESEA, incorporates the principles and strategies
proposed by President Bush. These include increased accountability for States, school
districts, and schools; greater choice for parents and students, particularly those attending
low-performing schools; more flexibility for States and local educational agencies
(LEAs) in the use of Federal education dollars; and a stronger emphasis on reading,
especially for our youngest children (U.S Department of Education 2008).
The No Child Left Behind Act was designed for 3rd through 8th graders to test if these students are
proficient in math and reading. Schools who do fail to meet the requirements can be subject to
improvement, corrective action, and restructuring measure (U.S Department of Education 2008). The test
results are grouped by race, ethnicity, and class. One of my teachers agreed with the No Child Left
Behind Act because it made school accountable. Marianne and David McGrath disagree with my teacher
suggesting they stated in their editorial that ―There swirls a madness of high stakes testing mandated by
President Bush's No Child Left Behind Act, which has been more like the electro-shocking of the
students, teachers and schools, rather than a measure for improving education in cities like Chicago
(2004).‖ I personally like the No Child Left Behind Act. I just wish that it was enforced more.
I believe that all schools should have some sort of after school program. After school programs is
a good way of keeping our students out of trouble. Also, some after school programs better the physical
life of others.
Copious research compiled by the Afterschool Alliance shows that quality programs improve
student achievement. These kids are more likely to go to school, be engaged in their regular
lessons, and earn better test scores and grades. Take, for example, Citizen Schools where average
163
graduation rates are about 20 percent higher for participants than similar peersn (Amy
Buffenbarger 2011).
Some after school programs such as tutoring should promote academic excellence. Other after school
programs should promote life skills, such as cooking and sewing.
Another step in getting the drop-out rates to decrease is bettering the involvement of parents in
students‘ education. School should not depend on students to send report cards and notices home. The
schools should personally email, call, or mail notices home that is related to meetings and report cards.
When the parents get more involved with the schools the parents will gain trust and have higher
expectations in their children‘s education. When students realize that their parents care they would feel
more motivated to reach their parent‘s higher expectation.
We should want our children to have better education. It is not fair that we short change students
of the minority. What make things worse is that children of a minority are not short change by just
economics, but also by themselves and their parents. It is time that we encourage academic excellence,
sports, after school activities. It is time that we get the parents more involved and make them responsible
for their children education. These drop-out rates can hurt the United States‘ economy in the long run. It
is time to make a smatter America!
164
References
Abdul-Alim Jamaal, (2010) SAT Takers Grow More Diverse, Scores Stagnate
http://diverseeducation.com/article/14124/
Alliance for Excellent Education, (2009) High School Dropouts in America,
cited Education Digest, 1989
http://course1.winona.edu/pjohnson/h140/lean.htm
Buffenbarger Amy (2011), After-School Programs Prove Key to Closing Gaps,
http://neapriorityschools.org/2011/03/14/after-school-programs-prove-key-to-closing-gaps/
Cable News Network, (2008) Minorities expected to be majority in 2050,
http://articles.cnn.com/2008-08-13/us/census.minorities_1_hispanic-population-census-bureauwhite-population/2?_s=PM:US
Feagin Joe and Clairece, (2008), Racial and Ethnic Relation:ninth edition, Uppersaddle
Harris Alis, (2009) No Excuses, http://www.worldmag.com/articles/15852
U.S. Department of Education (2010) One Hundred Seventh Congress of the United
States of America, http://www2.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/esea02/beginning.html
McGrath. David and Mariannen, (2004) Why George Bush's No Child Left Behind Act is a
failure, http://www.cod.edu/people/faculty/mcgrath/child.htm
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
Brian White, Kutztown University
Human Rights Challenges in Algeria: A Historical Perspective
France and Algeria have had a close, complex and tense relationship since the 1830 invasion of
Algeria. Throughout the history of Algerian colonization the French used violence, discrimination, and
torture to gain the upper hand against the Arab population. This history of hostility along with the
Algerian people‘s desire for independence began the Algerian War of 1954-62. During the war,
specifically during the Battle of Algiers in 1957, the French increased their use of torture and
discrimination, while those on the Algerian side made use of bombings on French settlers known as
Pieds-Noirs. It was the way in which both sides handled the war, mainly by violating the fundamental
human rights of the French and Algerian citizens that led to the creation of the Fifth Republic and the
current anti-immigration sentiment among some of the French public. The purpose of this paper is to
highlight the use of torture by the French army during the Algerian War, specifically during the Battle of
Algiers, and to show how those actions and the actions taken by the Front de Libération Nationale known
as the FLN have had a continuous and lasting impact on the French people.
To discuss the background of French and Algerian relations, Algeria was conquered fully by
1848. Instead of being treated as another colony Algeria was incorporated as an integral part of France.
By the 1860‘s Algeria was fully incorporated, split into departments, and given representation in the
National Assembly.1 This series of events made Algeria effectively equal to the rest of France. In reality
that could not have been any further from the truth. The Pieds-Noirs were treated vastly superior to the
native Arab population. The French government went on to violate the rights of the Arab population by
refusing to educate them, exploiting their farm land and forests and allowing the population to fall into
1
David Prochaska, Making Algeria French; Colonialism in Bone, 1870-1920. (New York: Cambridge University
Press, 1990), 2.
172
deep poverty.2 Many historians agree that the French were guilty of ―depersonalization, deculturation,
forced resettlement, and some cases of genocide.‖3 This suggests that the treatment of the Arabs in the
Algerian War was little different than what the French had been doing all along. By 1954 Arab Algerians
had been through enough unfair treatment by the French government and decided it was time to take a
stand. During the war the Algerian FLN would take command of gaining an Algeria free from France by
using terrorism and other means.
The FLN routinely used terrorism against the Pieds-Noirs in major cities in Algeria and in
France. The main areas targeted were popular bars, cafeterias, and cafes that were frequented by large
numbers of European settlers.4 The FLN used the bombings to further their cause of gaining a free
Algeria. They were also used to gain support of the native Muslim Algerians by showing them that a
fight against the French could be won. In addition the terrorist bombings used by the FLN were used to
force the Algerian police and the French army to respond with the use of force and greater control.5 This
made the Algerians crave independence even more because there was now a physical force that was
repressing them and taking away their rights instead of just French policy and the politicians who enacted
it.
One of the most prominent examples of attacks against human rights occurred during the Battle
of Algiers. The battle occurred between January and October of 1957. The battle is usually thought to
have begun when three female FLN members planted bombs in two popular European bars, and a travel
center. Because of these and other attacks against white civilians, specifically the Pieds-Noirs, the French
military was called in to take over police duties in Algiers. In addition to policing Algiers, on January 7,
1954 the Resident Minister of Algeria gave General Jacques Massu absolute power over civilian and
2
Ibid., 3.
Ibid., 4.
4
Kim Hendrickson and Abbey Lustgarten, ―Battle of Algiers: A Case Study.‖ Disc 3. Battle of Algiers, Criterion
Collection. DVD. Directed by Kim Hendrickson and Abbey Lustgarten. 2004.
5
Ibid.
3
173
military matters in Algiers.6 This gave Massu the power to set up segregated zones in the city to keep the
Arab population contained in one area. He also was able to place any person deemed dangerous to public
security under arrest. This generally included all of the Arab inhabitants of the city because any one of
them could have been involved with the FLN. Massu also had the authority to search and remove people
from their homes any time day or night.7 Almost immediately after taking command a policy of random
arrest and hostile interrogation of prisoners was initiated. Torture was used as a means to discover both
the membership of the FLN and to discover the locations of bombs and bomb makers who were scattered
throughout the city.8 This was the rationale behind the use of torture by the military. The French military
used the ―ticking bomb‖ scenario to validate the use of forceful interrogation.9
The Battle of Algiers marked the most intense period of French military action during the
Algerian War of Independence. During this ten month period the French military involve itself in more
torture and sent more Algerians to internment camps than during any other time in the war. The military
used their power in a manner that violated the fundamental human rights of the Algerian population.
Tens of thousands of suspected rebels were arrested and tortured while thousands more were sent to
camps to await the same fate. Of the many thousands of people randomly taken from their homes few
were actually connected with the FLN.10 By some accounts made by military officers only three or five
out of every hundred prisoners were sympathizers of the FLN and out of that number even less were
responsible for making or setting the bombs the French military claimed to be looking for.11 While the
military was searching for this small portion of the population thousands of innocent people were falsely
arrested and needlessly tortured. The exact number of Algerians who were tortured throughout the entire
war is unknown but if a similar rate of torture occurred throughout the rest of the war to the amount that
occurred during the Battle of Algiers the number would easily be in the hundreds of thousands.
6
Patrick Rotman, ―L‘ennemi Intime: États D‘armes.‖ Disc 3. Battle of Algiers, Criterion Collection. DVD.
Directed by Patrick Rotman. 2002.
7
Ibid.
8
Ibid.
9
Ibid.
10
Ibid.
11
Ibid.
174
As previously mentioned many Algerians were taken to internment camps to await interrogation
and to be separated from the rest of the city‘s population. During the ten month span of the battle
Algerian police records show that about 24,000 people were taken from the city and placed in various
camps.12 The main camp was at Beni-Messous, with various others spread throughout the area around
Algiers. The man in charge of the main camp was Ceccaldi-Raynaud and by his account in one day 1,000
people were brought to the camp in the span of a few hours and there was only enough room left for
300.13 This led to massive overcrowding which would have made the conditions in the camps highly
unsanitary and dangerous to those who were forced to live in them. There are no records to show how
many people died just from living in the camps or the torture they received in the camps, but from records
kept by Secretary General of the Police, Paul Teitgen, it is know that of the 24,000 arrested and interred
as many as 4,000 simply disappeared.14 Many people that disappeared were known to have been killed by
having their feet set in cement and then being thrown out of helicopters and planes into the ocean. Those
who were killed or had their bodies disposed of this way were later known as Bigeard‘s shrimp after
Colonel Bigeard who ordered it done.15
Throughout the war and specifically during the Battle of Algiers, many high ranking members of
the French military resigned because of the use of torture. Included in those who resigned were head of
Algerian police Teitgen and Ceccaldi-Raynoud.16 In Teitgen‘s letter of resignation he clearly stated how
he and many others felt:
I‘ve been convinced for three months now that acting anonymously and without
responsibility can only lead to war crimes…I wouldn‘t dare make such a statement were
it not for a recent visit to the Paul-Cazelles and Beni-Messous camps, where I recognized,
12
Ibid.
Ibid.
14
Ibid.
15
Ibid.
16
Ibid.
13
175
on certain prisoners, signs of abuse and torture like I personally suffered 14 years ago at
the hands of the Gestapo in Nancy.17
Many of the French troops who fought in Algeria had also fought in World War II and had seen
the acts perpetrated by the Germans or had experienced torture by them first hand like Teitgen had. Even
with this experience the French army was still willing to do the same to the Algerians. Throughout the
war the French denied the used of torture because they had to. One of the many reasons they did this was
because France had already signed the Geneva Convention and ratified it in 1951. By admitting to using
torture France would have been in violation of Article 3 Section 2 (a)(c)(d). These state that in a case of
conflict with territory under member control that the following acts would be prohibited:
(a) Violence to life and person, in particular murder of all kinds, mutilation, cruel
treatment and torture;
(c) Outrages upon personal dignity, in particular humiliating and degrading treatment;
(d) The passing of sentences and the carrying out of executions without previous
judgment pronounce by a regularly constituted court, affording all judicial guarantees
which are recognized as indispensable by civilized peoples.18
During the war the French army repeatedly and knowingly violated these laws that were created
to guard the human rights of all people. This would have put France in a tumultuous situation with the
international community and is one of the many reasons why the Fourth Republic was replaced by the
Fifth Republic.
The Fourth Republic had been weak since its creation in 1946. It had a history of cabinet
instability with twenty-four cabinets serving in the twelve years of its rule.19 This constant change of
17
Ibid.
Jewish Virtual Library. The Fourth Geneva Convention (August 12, 1949).
www.Jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/Human_Rights/geneva1.html (accessed April 1, 2011).
19
John D. Huber and Cecilia Martinez-Gallardo, ―Cabinet Instability and the Accumulation of Experience: The
French Fourth and Fifth Republics in Comparative Perspective,‖ British Journal of Political Science 34 no. 1
(January 2004): 27.
18
176
personnel made it very difficult to effectively rule especially in the colonies. The form of government the
Fourth Republic brought was incapable of making any decisions on how the war would be handled.20 By
1956 the Assembly held a vote to grant special power that would allow the government to do whatever it
felt necessary to win the war in Algeria and keep it as a part of France. When the action passed, France
not only increased pressure on Algeria by using torture, but also increased repression inside France as
well by restricting the press and increasing arrests of those disagreeing with the government actions.21
Committees for peace and against torture were created as a direct result of actions being taken in the
Algerian War and were supported by many parties including the French Communist Party.22 The mass
public distrust of the Fourth Republic is what caused the May 1958 Crisis that led to Charles de Gaulle
taking power and creating the Fifth Republic. In the initial stages however de Gaulle‘s government was
no better at handling the situation than the previous one.23 The Algerian War brought about a change in
government, and would have continuing impact along with the new government in shaping how both
French and Arab immigrants from Algeria would be treated in the future.
The end of the Algerian War came on March 18, 1962 when a cease-fire was signed between
France and the FLN. The treaty process called the Évian Accords not only ended the war but allowed for
cooperation between both countries. Before the war Algeria had been part of France and the population
automatically had French citizenship. After the war Algerians were no longer citizens but they still had
the option to freely travel into France for work although they would not have the same rights. In
referendums France approved the Accords with 91% of the population while Algeria passed the Accords
with 99.7% in favor.24
20
Ibid., 28.
Danièle Joly, The French Communist Party and the Algerian War. (New York: St. Martin‘s Press, 1991), 110.
22
Ibid., 122-123.
23
Christopher Harrison, ―French Attitudes to Empire and the Algerian War,‖ African Affairs 82 no. 326 (January
1983): 77.
24
“Proclamation des Résultats du Référendum d’Autodétermination du 1er juillet 1962,” Journal Officiel de l’État
Algérien (July 6, 1962).
21
177
One of the major problems after the war was the status of the Pieds-Noirs. They were of
European origin but by 1962 the Pieds-Noirs had been removed by multiple generations from any
relatives living in France. The Pieds-Noirs were now outcasts in their home country of Algeria which led
an estimated 800,000 to 900,000 of the 1,000,000 Europeans to leave the country after the war and head
to France.25 Those that left made up the better part of Algeria‘s skilled work force and nearly all of those
who owned or ran businesses.26 The mass exodus of the Pieds-Noirs left a massive gap in Algeria‘s
economy and in many of its major cities and towns. It was said that in some cities such as Oran, ―one
[could] walk long distances past shuttered shops… [and] vacant property under the protection of the
government.‖27 Because large parts of the cities were inhabited by the Pieds-Noirs the economic loss was
substantial and France had to prop up Algeria‘s economy by giving it about $700,000 a day for the
remainder of 1962 until Algeria‘s economy had recovered enough to sustain itself.28 The Pieds-Noirs left
because they no longer belonged in their own country with a population that now resented their presence.
They also left because of violence against them such as the massacre in Oran where an estimated 3,000
Europeans were killed. Many of the Pieds-Noirs left everything they had and went to France because
being unwanted in France was exponentially safer than being unwanted in Algeria.
In addition to being outcasts in Algeria the 900,000 Pieds-Noirs who took the boats to France
were disliked there as well. In the eyes of the French people they were unwanted immigrants who would
take jobs and overcrowd the already full cities. This was true initially because for many weeks many of
the arriving Pieds-Noirs slept in the streets of the cities or barns in small towns.29 Most had no relatives
living in France, had nowhere to go, and had no way of getting immediate work. Although there was
some hostility initially to their ―return‖ to France they were eventually accepted back into society because
25
Neville Barbour, ―Algeria, the Taste of Independence,‖ The World Today 19 no. 5 (May 1963): 185.
Ibid.
27
Ibid.
28
Ibid., 186.
29
Ibid., 184.
26
178
of their European background.30 At the same time there was also a large number of Arab Algerians
entering France. The Muslim Algerians who were coming to France were coming both for work and
because many had fought on the French side during the war and were now viewed with hostility in
Algeria. This mass influx of people both European and Muslim had a lasting impact on the public‘s view
on immigration up to the present day.
Since decolonization began France has been bombarded with returning European settlers and
people of North African heritage mainly from Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco. This has created an
atmosphere of hostility both from the French towards the immigrants, and from the immigrants towards
the French. Since Algerians and other North African immigrants began entering France in large numbers
there have been welfare programs to help them adapt. Early on this meant stripping them of their culture
but later on attempts to provide better housing and job training have also been implemented.31 Eventually
efforts to take away the immigrants culture were stopped but conditions for them did not improve. Many
North African and Muslim immigrants live in poor communities with inadequate housing, oppressive
policing, and racial discrimination.32 It was increased immigration after the end of the Algerian War that
led to the French public not accepting immigrants into French society. The government‘s inability to
improve conditions in immigrant communities has also lead to a tense situation between the French and
immigrants entering into the country. It also contributed to the rioting of Muslim immigrants in Paris and
throughout France in 2005.
Increased immigration has also led to the rise of the extreme right in French politics. One note
worthy party in France is the Front National known as the FN which was founded on October 5, 1972 by
Jean-Marie Le Pen. The policies that Le Pen wanted to enact during his leadership of the FN were giving
―true‖ French citizens the best in social security and health benefits, and excluding and even deporting
30
Richard Alba and Roxane Silberman, ―Decolonization Immigrations and the Social Origins of the Second
Generation: The Case of North Africans in France,‖ International Migration Review 36 no. 4 (2002): 1170.
31
Dilip Subramanian, ―Riots and the Immigrant Community,‖ Economic and Political Weekly 40 no. 49 (December
2005): 5156.
32
Ibid.
179
some immigrants.33 In 2002 enough of the French public felt similarly to Le Pen about immigration
issues that he was able to gain 17% of the vote in the first round of the French Presidential elections.34
After this victory in the first round of voting, the majority of French citizens took to protesting and
demonstrating against Le Pen.35 Protests along with attacks from his competitor Jacques Chirac caused
Chirac who was the current President of France to win the election, with Le Pen gaining only 17.9% of
the vote.36 Even though Le Pen did not win the election it showed that he was a viable candidate and that
there was a large enough portion of the population that would elect him into office if the correct
conditions were there.
The Algerian War especially the period known as the Battle of Algiers brought about the
widespread use of torture and along with it discrimination against the Muslim population of Algeria. The
use of torture by the French was in response to the use of Terrorism by the FLN in an attempt to stop the
bombings and end the war. The cycle of torture to combat terrorism prolonged the war and that along
with the Fourth Republic‘s inability to rule effectively led to the failure of the government and brought
about the creation of the Fifth Republic. When France finally allowed Algeria to be an independent
country it shifted the power away from the Pieds-Noirs which forced them to relocate to France. With
their move to France along with large numbers of Muslims and other North African immigrants tensions
grew between those of European ancestry and those of Muslim ancestry. These differences allow the
French government to treat the Arab immigrants with less respect than the rest of the French population
which caused many riots in the last ten years about the place of immigrants in French society. The
immigration caused by the end of the Algerian War has also left an impact on French politics and has led
to the reemergence of the extreme nationalists.
33
Richard J. Golsan, ―The Le Pen Moment,‖ SubStance 32 no.1 (2003): 129.
Ibid.
35
Ibid., 132.
36
Ibid., 134.
34
180
Bibliography
―Proclamation des Résultats du Référendum d‘Autodétermination du 1er juillet 1962.‖ Journal Officiel
de l‟État Algérien (July 6, 1962).
Alba, Richard and Roxane Silberman. ―Decolonization Immigrations and the Social Origins of the
Second Generation: The Case of North Africans in France.‖ International Migration Review 36
no. 4 (2002): 1169-1193. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4149496
Barbour, Neville. ―Algeria, the Taste of Independence.‖ The World Today 19 no. 5 (May 1963): 184192. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40393494
Golsan, Richard J. ―The Le Pen Moment.‖ SubStance 32 no. 1 (2003): 128-143.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3685706
Harrison, Christopher. ―French Attitudes to Empire and the Algerian War.‖ African Affairs 82 no. 326
(January 1983): 75-95. http://www.jstor.org/stable/721479
Huber, John D., Cecilia Martinez-Gallardo. ―Cabinet Instability and the Accumulation of Experience:
The French Fourth and Fifth Republics in Comparative Perspective.‖ British Journal of Political
Science 34 no. 1 (January 2004): 27-48. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4092398
Jewish Virtual Library. The Fourth Geneva Convention (August 12, 1949).
www.Jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/Human_Rights/geneva1.html (accessed April 1,
2011).
Joly, Danièle. The French Communist Party and the Algerian War. New York: St. Martin‘s Press, 1991.
Prochaska, David. Making Algeria French; Colonialism in Bone, 1870-1920. New York: Cambridge
University Press, 1990.
Subramanian, Dilip. ―Riots and the Immigrant Community.‖ Economic and Political Weekly 40 no. 49
(December 2005): 5156-5158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4417484
181

Human Rights at Home and Abroad: Past, Present, and Future

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