Heritage Foods in the Kawarthas Includes: Final Report Booklet By

Heritage Foods in the Kawarthas
Includes:
Final Report
Booklet
By
Kendra Abbey, Claudia Gaboury, Benjamin MacCuaig, Kellie Sherman, Jen
Bushle, and Chris Balenovich
Completed for: Kawartha Heritage Conservancy
Supervising Professor: Paula Anderson, Trent University
Trent Centre for Community-Based Education
Department: Environmental Resource Science/Studies
Course Code: 3340H
Course Name: The Canadian Food System: A Community Development Approach
Term: Fall 2010
Date of Project Submission: December 2010
Project ID: 4107
Call Number:
The support of the Government of Ontario, through the Ministry of Culture, is acknowledged.
The views expressed herein are those of Trent Centre for Community-Based Education and/or its participants and do not
necessarily reflect those of the Programs and Services Branch, the Ministry of Culture, or the Government of Ontario.
Heritage Foods in the Kawarthas
The Kawartha Heritage Conservancy (KHC) and the Trent Centre for Community
Based Education (TCCBE) have partnered to create a booklet for the public about heritage
foods in the Kawarthas.
The KHC strives to conserve natural and cultural aspects in the Kawarthas, and
heritage foods have become one of those cultural aspects. By partnering with the TCCBE,
KHC was able to engage students to conduct research on heritage foods pertaining to First
Nations and early settlement periods, as well as create a to booklet for general reading.
Heritage foods are locally produced foods that have ties to the regions history and
cultural identity. They are foods that were traditionally utilized by First Nations through
hunting, fishing and gathering and foods that were brought to this region by settlers from
countries such as England, Scotland and Ireland.
The purpose of this project is to inform the public about the importance of heritage
foods. Heritage foods are important because they keep us connected with our historical past
and cultural identity. They also provide us with a clear description of what is able to be gown
successfully in a localized area. It is crucial that we begin to emphasise the importance of
consuming locally produced foods in order to ensure a sustainable food system. Our current
food system is in turmoil, in part, as a result of an unsustainable reliance on fossil fuels.
Heritage foods are able to limit this dependence by providing crops which have been proven
to be successfully cultivated within a predetermined area. These foods are much better for
the environment because they do not require lengthy transportation to the consumer and
have proven to be successfully grown without the use of petroleum based synthetic fertilizer
and pesticides.
The shift away from heritage foods can be linked to the emergence of food as a
commodity. First Nations were dependant on the land for their food and respected the land
because it was able to provide them with food. European settlers did not know how to live
off the land. When they arrived in Canada they attempted to replicate the food system they
had in Europe, but failed and were forced to subsist on food from the landscape, which was
taught to them by First Nations. At this time food was not a commodity, as it was not
predominantly bought or sold. As pioneer farming techniques improved, farmers realized
that different areas grew different crops with more success, so they began to focus more on
those successful crops to the point that they transitioned into using monocultures in order to
attain a surplus. This marks the beginning of food as a commodity; surplus food would be
sold and the profits would be used to purchase a variety of food, rather than producing it for
themselves.
The food industry has provided society with chemically processed foods that are easy
to produce and convenient to consumers. Convenience has provided a way to leave our
heritage foods that are not as convenient but are much more sustainable to our health and
environment and provide higher nutritional value than industrialized food. Availability has
also played a part in why we have moved away from heritage foods. They are not as available
to the public or as accessible as foods provided in a grocery store. However, heritage foods
are available and are able to be grown. Education about food will help to conserve natural
and cultural aspects in Peterborough and the Kawarthas.
The First Nations aspect of the booklet focuses on the history of First Nations in the
Kawarthas different types of wild game, game birds and fish, as well as different types of fruit
and vegetables, including crabapples, wild raspberries, leeks and wild rice. It was also
important to include not only food of the First Nations but different food collection methods,
storage and cooking techniques and as well as tools for cooking and hunting. The settlement
aspect of the booklet also looks at history of settlement in the Kawarthas, including different
types of fruits, vegetables and heritage animals, including potatoes, apples, cattle, sheep, pigs
and wheat. It was also important, alongside First Nations, to look at storage and farming
methods of the settlers in the Kawarthas. The booklet also includes different heritage farms
in the Kawarthas that grow and sell many of the foods that were covered in the booklet, to
encourage and enable the public to access heritage foods.
Heritage Foods in
the Kawarthas
Heritage Foods
in Peterborough County
and the Kawarthas P
LUS R
e
cipes
!
This booklet was made in conjunction with Trent University, the Trent
Centre for Community Based Education and the Kawartha Heritage
Conservancy.
The support of the Government of Ontario, through the Ministry of Culture,
is also acknowledged.
The views expressed herein are those of Trent Centre for Community-Based Education and/or its
participants and do not necessarily reflect those of the Programs and Services Branch, the
Ministry of Culture, or the Government of Ontario.
Table of Contents
What are Heritage Foods
Why are Heritage Foods Important
History of First Nations in the Kawarthas
Culture and Spirituality
Heritage Foods of First Nations
Wild Game, Game Birds and Fish
White tailed Deer and Venison Shepherd’s Pie
Ruffed Grouse (Partridge) and Lemon Flavoured Partridge
Walleye and Pickerel Bisque
Fruits and Vegetables
Yellow Water Lily
Staghorn Sumac and Staghorn Sumac Lemonade and Tea
Fiddleheads and Fiddleheads Recipe
Wild Leeks
Wild Leek Potato Soup
Crabapple
Wild Apple Sauce
Wild Red Rasberries and Easy Red Rasberry Jam
Beaked Hazelnuts and Hazelnut Cake Recipe
Dandelions and Dandelion Greens Supreme
Wild Rice
Wild Rice Pilaf
Maple Sugar
5
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
13
14
15
16
16
17
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
Food Collection Methods: Hunting, Fishing
Trapping, Gathering
Tools
Cooking, Storage
History of Settlers in Peterborough and the Kawarthas
Why did people settle in Peterborough and the Kawarthas?
The Relationship Between First Nations and Settlers
Main Heritage Foods from Settlement and Vegetables
Potatoes and Garlic Mashed Potatoes
Indian Corn and Turnips
Turnip Puff
Meat, Poultry: Cochin
Brahma, Plymouth
Multi Purpose Animals: The Highland, The Belted Galloway,
Angus
Holstein and Irish Meat Loaf
Pigs: The Berkshire, The Yorkshire
The Tamworth and Feral
Sheep: The Cotswold, The Shropshire,
The Horned Dorset and Wine, Rosemary, and Garlic Lamb Marinade
David Fife and his Red Fife Wheat
Farming Practices, Tools, The Harvest of Wheat
Settlement and Maple Sugar
Beer and Irish Whiskey Liquer
24
25
26
27
28
29
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
46
47
What are Heritage Foods?
Heritage foods are locally produced foods that have ties to the region’s history and
cultural identity. These foods include foods both traditionally utilized by First Nations
through hunting and gathering and foods which were brought with new settlers to the area.
The heritage foods in Peterborough and the Kawarthas are a unique combination of
traditional foods of First Nations and settlers to this area from England, Scotland and Ireland.1
Upon the settlers arrival, their survival in the harsh environment was their first priority; thus,
traditional recipes and ingredients from their homelands had to be put aside in order to hunt
and fish for food2. As the settlers became established in their new surroundings they were able
to incorporate their traditional food from overseas with the traditional foods of First Nations.
Peterborough and the Kawarthas has a diverse, complex history of heritage foods.
Why are Heritage Foods Important?
Heritage foods are important because they keep us connected with our historical
past and cultural identity. They also provide us with a clear description of what is able to be
grown successfully in a localized area, without the use of inputs such as fuel, fertilizers and
pesticides. It is crucial that we begin to emphasise the importance of consuming locally
produced foods in order to insure a sustainable food system. The current food system is in
turmoil because of an unsustainable reliance on fossil fuels. Heritage foods are able to curtail
this dependence by providing crops which have been proven to be effectively harvested
within a predetermined area. These foods are much better for the environment because they
do not require lengthy transportation to the consumer.
5
History of First Nations in the Kawarthas
Long before Europeans became settlers in Canada, there were First Nations who
were already occupying Canada’s vast land, including areas which are now known as
Peterborough County and the Kawarthas. They thrived by utilizing the natural and native
resources the land provided, including forests, lakes, animals, fruits and vegetables. They used
the lands natural materials for shelter, heat, clothing and eating by hunting, fishing, trapping
and gathering. They in a very real sense managed their resources and the environment. Every
day was dedicated to the finding, hunting or trapping of food. Their seasons were dominated
by what was available and along with food came special traditions, spirituality, harvesting
methods and medicines.
Originally, Peterborough and the Kawarthas was comprised of Iroquois, Metis,
Ojibway and Mississaugas12.The First Nations in Peterborough today consist of the
Mississaugas13. There are many First Nations around Peterborough and the Kawarthas today,
including the Curve Lake First Nation, Hiawatha First Nation and Alderville First Nation14.
Curve Lake First nation is located approximately 30 minutes north of the city if Peterborough
and is a very vibrant community with much history and information about their culture. The
Hiawatha and Alderville First Nations are both located approximately 30 minutes south east of
the city both on beautiful Rice Lake. They also are thriving First Nation communities with
much to offer.
Many of the same foods and traditions have carried on with First Nations today
with changes to some of the traditional recipes with the addition of settlement foods. The first
part of the booklet will look at traditional foods and traditions of early First Nations with
recipes using traditional First Nations foods and settlement foods.
6
Culture and Spirituality
The most basic commonality of First Nations people was their relationship with the
natural world. The land was their food, their culture, their medicine and their spirit.
Small ceremonies, or rituals, took the form of chanting, singing and dancing to invoke the
Ancestral Beings to ensure a plentiful supply of sun, rain, plant and animal food. To this
day, ceremonies play an important part in First Nations life 15.
7
Heritage Foods of First Nations
Game: deer, moose, beaver, muskrat, rabbit and bear
Game Birds: duck, goose, pheasant, partridge
Fish: bass, carp, muskie, pickerel, pike, salmon, lake trout
Wild Edibles: clover, leeks, milkweed, watercress, yellow pond lily, cattails,
dandelions, fiddleheads, wild rice
Berries: crabapple, cranberries, elderberries, blueberries, wild raspberries,
Stag sumac
Nuts: acorns, black walnuts, butternuts, hazelnuts, chestnuts
Miscellaneous: tobacco, maple sugar, honey
8
Wild Game, Game Birds and Fish
Wild game was a very important part of First Nations diet. Wild game
provided the most substantial amount of food, which gave them most of their protein
and energy. Energy from the wild game was important for the First Nations, as they
expended a lot of their energy when hunting for their food, so it was very important for
them to be able to maintain their strength16. Some important types of wild game, game
birds and fish for the Aboriginal people included the White tailed Deer, the ruffed
grouse or “partridge” and pickerel.
9
White Tailed Deer
The white-tailed deer was a very important food source for the First Nations in the
Kawarthas, and still is today. The animal stands about 90cm tall and weighs more than 100
pounds. Their coat is mostly reddish-brown in the summer and changes to greyish-brown in
the winter. First Nations ate the deer meat, known as venison and relied on them not only for
food, but for clothing as well. The animal was usually hunted with spears or bows and arrows
and were usually prepared in the bush where it was killed, out of respect for the animal.
First Nations utilized every part of the animal they hunted. This included the use of
the antlers of the animal for tools and ornaments, the sinews (tendons) became bow strings,
fishing lines, and thread and their brains were used for tanning and bleaching. Deer were
fairly abundant in the Kawarthas and because they are creatures of habit, they generally used
the same trails everyday which made it easier for First Nations to hunt them17.
Venison Shepherd’s Pie
1 ½lbs ground venison 1 cup carrots, cooked
1 onion, chopped
1 cup peas
4 tbsp. Shortening
3 cups potatoes, mashed
1 cup beef gravy
Margarine
Paprika
Melt shortening in a skillet and add onions. Cook onions until transparent. Add ground venison and fry
until well browned. Drain. Pour venison and onion mixture into a 2 quart casserole dish. Mix in gravy.
Add carrots and peas in alternative layers, then cover mixture with mashed potatoes. Dot with margarine,
and sprinkle with paprika. Bake at 400⁰F for 25 to 30 minutes18.
10
Ruffed Grouse (Partridge)
The ruffed grouse is approximately the size of a chicken. It does not migrate
and, once established, lives all its life within a few hectares 19. It is found wherever there
are even small amounts of broad-leaved trees, especially poplars, birch, hop-hornbeam,
and alders and it is also adapted to a life in hardwood bush and forest20.The Ruffed
Grouse or “partridge” was a popular game bird among First Nations as it was highly
populated and provided a large amount of well tasting meat. First Nations would use
bows and arrows to hunt this bird.
Lemon Flavoured Partridge
4 partridge, cut in pieces
Salt and pepper to taste
¼ cup lemon juice
1/3 cup oil
1 clove garlic
1 tsp. parsley flakes
2 tsp. oregano
Salt and pepper partridge pieces. In a bowl, mix lemon juice, oil, garlic,
Parsley and oregano. Dip each piece of meat in a mixture and place on a
Broiler pan. Broil 15 to 20 minutes on each side. Baste occasionally with
Lemon oil mixture 21.
11
Walleye (also known as Pickerel in Canada)
Walleye was a very abundant freshwater fish native to Ontario, and was a staple
food in First Nations diet. They were hunted with bone or stone spears and grew to be
about 26lbs22 , which would easily feed an entire family. The sides of the walleye are
olive-green with gold flecks, with a spiny dorsal fin 23.
Today the Walleye is considered to be quite palatable and sought after fish in
Ontario, and, consequently, is fished recreationally and commercially for food.
Did You Know?
The common name, "walleye," comes from the fact that their eyes,
like those of cats, reflect the light.
Pickerel Bisque
fish to serve 4
¼ tsp parsley
4 cups of fish stock 1 cup heavy cream
Spring of thyme
Salt and pepper
3 tbsp. butter
Crumble crackers
1 tbsp flour
Fillet the fish. Make a fish stock, using heads, tails and bones. Strain stock, add
fillets and simmer until they flake. Remove fish and chop fine. In a saucepan, melt butter, stir
in the flour until smooth. Stir in the stock and bring to a boil, then add fish, cream, parsley,
salt and pepper to taste. Heat thoroughly, pour over the crackers and serve 24.
12
Fruits and Vegetables
It was very important to First Nations to obtain as much food and nutrients as
possible. A large part of their diet came from things that grew naturally from the surrounding
land. They were able to obtain most of the fruits and vegetables by gathering and using birch
bark baskets for their collection. Some of these important fruits and vegetables included leeks,
dandelions, fiddleheads, stag sumac, crabapples, wild raspberries, beaked hazelnuts, yellow
water lily and wild rice.
Yellow Water Lily
The Yellow water lily grows in North American lakes and resembles the taste of the
sweet potato. This plant was and is gathered in the summer and fall using a canoe. The leaves
are large and oval-shaped, with a deep curve at the heart-shaped base. The petals and sepals will
rot away, leaving a fleshy green capsule full of numerous seeds which are eventually released .
These are edible seeds that taste like chestnuts 25.
The roots of the yellow water lily contain a
large quantity of fecula (flour), which taste like a potato
and after repeated washing may be used for food. It was
also used by First Nations as a medicine for cooling and
softening. Fresh leaves could be used as good dressings
for blisters 26.
13
Staghorn Sumac (Rhus typhina)
Staghorn sumac is “known as the antler shrub”. It is a deciduous shrub that is
abundant and distinguishes the Kawarthas. The fruit clusters are the most distinguishable
characteristic, with dense clusters of fuzzy bright red berries, that are 10-20 cm long 27. First
Nations made a drink from the fruit, which tastes like lemonade, and has a very high vitamin
C content. They used the root as a powerful astringent and tonic for high fevers. The tanninrich fruit, bark and leaves were used to tan hides. The leaves and fruits were boiled down to
make black ink, and the dried leaves were an ingredient in their smoking mixtures 28.
Staghorn Sumac “Lemonade”
1 quart of Sumac berries
1 gallon of water
optional: maple syrup,
cinnamon and/or cloves
cheesecloth or drip coffee filter
To test a berry cluster for flavor, gently rub it and
then lick your fingers. They'll taste tangy if you've
got a winner. Twist or snip off the berry head.
Thoroughly muddle it in the water using a wooden
spoon or your fingers. Pour through a fine strainer
or cheesecloth removing all seeds and hairs, which
can irritate the throat. Sweeten if desired. Serve
room temperature or cold. Connect with nature29.
You can also make a delicious warm tea!
To make the tea, add 2-3 teaspoons of the fresh or 1-2 teaspoons of the dried fruits to boiled water and
allow it to steep for 15-20 minutes. It will taste much stronger than when it is prepared as a beverage 30 .
WARNING: Although it is a very safe herb, the degree of action of sumac on the female reproductive system is as yet undefined. For
that reason it is recommend that pregnant or nursing women not take it on a regular basis 31.
14
Fiddleheads
Fiddleheads are tender young ferns before they uncurl and become big ferns. To
First Nations fiddleheads evoked springtime. They were (and still are) abundant in forests
that bordered waterways or were prone to spring flooding 32. Their leaves emerge from the
soil rolled up in tightly closed spirals. They often ate them raw, or boiled in soup.
It’s known that First Nations used fiddleheads not only for their great taste but
for their medicinal property of curing intestinal worms 33.
Sautéed Fiddlehead Ferns with Parsley and Garlic:
1-pound Fiddleheads
¼ cup butter or extra-virgin olive oil
1 or 2 garlic cloves, minced very fine
2 tablespoons finely chopped fresh parsley
Salt and freshly ground black pepper Trim any brown ends off of the fern shoots
and wash them in cold water, pulling the paper-like brown skin off as you go. Drain and pat
dry. Crush the minced garlic with the back of a spoon or the side of a large knife. Heat half
of the butter (or olive oil) in a large skillet over medium heat. Add the fern shoots and turn
the heat up to medium-high. The ferns should sizzle, but don't allow the butter to burn.
Toss and stir for about 5 minutes. Add the butter (or oil), the garlic, and the parsley.
Continue cooking for one minute longer, or until you can smell the garlic and the ferns are
tender. Season with salt and pepper and serve immediately on hot plates 34.
15
Wild Leeks
Wild leeks were and are something that grow naturally in this area and are very
abundant. They sprout out of the ground early in the spring and can be seen by their medium
sized slender green leaves. They usually grow in patches deep in forests and have the distinct
smell of an onion 35.The bulbs of the plant and the leaves are both edible. This was particularly
important to First Nations as they could use the entire plant as a source of food and not just
part of it.
Wild Leek and Potato Soup
2 bunches wild leeks, washed 2 tbsp unsalted butter
1-1/2 lb potatoes, peeled and diced (about 4 cups)
6 cups vegetable or chicken stock
Salt + freshly ground pepper to taste
1/2 cup heavy cream (optional)
Finely chopped chives or parsley to taste
Separate wild leek bulbs from greens. Thinly slice bulbs and set aside. Thinly slice greens and
set aside. In large pot, heat butter over medium heat. Add bulbs and cook, stirring, until soft,
about 4 minutes. Add potatoes, stock, salt and pepper, and raise heat to high. When stock
comes to boil, reduce to simmer and cook until potatoes are tender, about 15 minutes. Stir in
leek greens and cook 2 minutes. Remove from heat. Purée in blender or food processor.
When ready to serve, bring soup to gentle simmer on medium heat. Stir in cream (if desired).
Taste and adjust seasonings. Garnish with chives or parsley. Makes 6 servings 36.
16
The Crabapple
Many of the apples we eat today are non native to Canada and Ontario and were
brought over by the settlers. However, there was one native apple tree that grew here before
any interaction from overseas, and that was the crabapple tree. The crabapple tree is known
for its beautiful blossoms and its delicious sweet fruit 37. The crabapple tree in Ontario has
yellow green fruit and pink blossoms 38. First Nations would be able to pick and eat the apples
as they grew. They could eat them raw or cooked.
Wild Apple Sauce
4lbs. wild crabapples (core them but do not peel) cut into slices
8. oz maple sugar (1/2 pound)
4 cups of water
Place all ingredients together in a large saucepan. Bring to a boil and reduce heat. Simmer
for 50 minutes, stirring frequently. Drain and mash 39.
17
Wild Red Raspberries
Wild red raspberries are very versatile and spring up spontaneously all over the
Kawartha’s. They can be grown in fields, alongside roads and houses. It is a useful and palatable
fruit that proves a blessing and a comfort in various ways because its so abundant for everyone to
eat 40. They are red in colour (sometimes yellow) and juicy, and each is an aggregate of several
tiny individual fruits. They should be picked in July or early august and checked careful for
bruised or wormy fruit 41 .
First Nations used the raspberries as a food source and the leaves were used as a tasty
and nutritive herb. They are flavourful and abundant and were used as a tincture for diarrhea
and a supportive herb for the female reproductive system. The leaves can also be used to make a
delicious tea.
EASY RED RASPBERRY JAM
3 cup crushed raspberries
3/4 cup water
1 box fruit pectin
5 1/4 cup sugar
1. Mix raspberries and sugar thoroughly. Set aside 10 minutes, stirring
occasionally.2. Stir fruit pectin and water in saucepan. Bring to a boil,
stirring constantly. Boil 1 minute. Remove from heat. 3. Stir pectin
mixture into raspberry mixture. Continue stirring 3 minutes. (A few
sugar crystals will remain.) Pour into plastic containers. Cover. Let
stand at room temperature 24 hours. Store in freezer. When ready to
use, remove from freezer; thaw about 1-2 hours. Store in refrigerator
after thawing. Makes about 6 (1 cup) containers. Preparation time 30
minutes 42.
18
Beaked Hazelnuts
The beaked hazelnut is a small bush around 3 to 4 feet high. Not only is this nut
super sweet and well flavoured, it’s a great wild source of energy, protein, unsaturated fat,
and B vitamins. The nut, which is actually the seed of the fruit, was one of the few seeds
that were consumed regularly by First Nations People in this region. Similar to but smaller
than the cultivated variety, beaked hazelnuts can be eaten as-is, roasted, candied, ground
into flour and added to soups, breads, sweets and all manner of dishes; and edible oil can be
produced from the seeds. Harvest usually occurs in the fall, and the nuts can be stored in
their husks for up to 12 months if kept cool and dry 43.
Hazelnut Cake
2 cups hazelnuts, unroasted
2 cups water
1/3 cup cornmeal
1 tbp. salt
¼ cup vegetable oil
Grind nuts and mix with water in a saucepan. Heat
to boiling; reduce heat and simmer for 30 minutes,
stirring frequently. Mix in cornmeal and salt and
let stand for 20 minutes or until it thickens. Drop
the nut batter with a large spoon on greased grill.
When browned on one side flip it over and brown
the other side. Serve with butter and honey or
maple syrup 44.
19
Dandelions
Today Dandelions are a known as a troublesome weed which establish wherever
the seeds alight, but to the First Nations they were and still are a nutritious vegetable. Many
of these plants are remarkable for their bitter, milky juice contained in the leaves, stalks, and
roots. This juice pervades in all parts of the dandelion. They are a great tonic and are very
wholesome. The herb itself, if the leaves have been blanched can be used to make a salad45.
In preparing it, the root should be washed thoroughly, but the thin brown skin should not be
scraped off because much of the tonic virtue is contained in this 46.
The root of the dandelion can also be utilized as a substitute for coffee. It must be
cut up into small pieces and dried in the oven until it is crisp enough to be able to grind in a
coffee mill.
Dandelion Greens Supreme
1tsp. Margarine
¼ cup onions, chopped
4 cups dandelion greens
¼ cup bacon, fried
2 tbsp. Beef broth or water 2 tbsp. heavy cream
Melt margarine in a deep skillet. Stir in dandelion greens,
onions, and beef broth. Cover and cook over medium heat for
10 to 12 minutes, stirring occasionally. Mix in heavy cream and
bacon. Cook until most of the liquid disappears. Season with salt
and pepper 47.
20
Wild Rice
Wild rice was a very important source of food for First Nations and was very
abundant in the Peterborough and Kawartha’s. They called the rice seed “Miomen”, meaning
Spirit or God seed. Kawartha was once known as the rice bowl of North America because of all
of the rice 48.
Harvesting Method
The first process of harvesting wild rice is to gather it. To gather the rice, two people
would go in a canoe, with the person at the front paddling while the person in the back would
use two sticks to bend the plant into the canoe and tap the rice stalk to allow any ripe rice seeds
to fall into the bottom of the canoe. When the seeds fall off the plant, the process is called
shattering. Wild Rice can only be gathered between August and October. An experienced
gatherer would gather 100 pounds of rice in day.
Once the rice was gathered, it was put in piles on the shore to cure it for 5-10 days.
They would then put it in a small fire pit in the ground to roast it. The process of roasting
ensures that majority of the bugs are removed. After this process, the rice is danced on to
remove the chaff. They would have a wooden stand to lean on while dancing because takes
several hours to remove the chaff. The rice is then put on a sheet where they throw it in the air
to remove the chaff and any dirt or dust light enough to blow in the wind. After this the rice is
ready to cook and eat. If they had a lot to store they would hang it in birch bark baskets or
boxes so mice could not eat it 49. Many First Nations today still use these methods of rice
harvesting.
21
Wild Rice Pilaf
1 ½ cups wild rice
1 ½ cups white rice
1 pound bacon
2 onions, chopped
6 ½ cups chicken stock
¾ cups of fresh parsley
Salt and pepper to taste
2 cups minced celery
Bring wild rice and 31/4 cups of chicken stock to a boil, reduce heat to a simmer, cook
for 35-40 minutes. At the same time, bring white rice and 31/4 cups of chicken broth to
a boil, reduce heat. Meanwhile, cut bacon into small pieces, fry until crisp and drain on
paper towels. Remove majority of bacon grease from skillet, leaving a small amount to
fry onions and celery until tender. Add cooked onion and celery mixture, bacon,
parsley, salt, pepper to rice mixture and enjoy. Serves 12 50.
22
Maple Sugar
Maple sugar was a very common part of First Nations diet throughout Ontario and
specifically what is now Peterborough and the Kawarthas. Maple sugar production was
conducted by many First Nations throughout the area. It provided a source of energy, as it was
the only type of sugar around.
First Nations harvested the maple sugar
by using a tomahawk, which was a type of axe, to
make a slant cut in the maple tree. They then
would drive a flat piece of wood into the lower end
of the cut. The sap wood run along the flat piece of
wood and into handmade buckets made out of birch
bark. They could and would often just drink the
sugar in the form it came in out of the tree. Or they
would boil the sap to concentrate the sugar. This
was done by filling either green birch bark kettles
or a hollowed-out basswood log with the sap from
the tree. By heating the sap on an open fire, the
watery sap would come to a boil and eventually
evaporate, leaving the sugar to remain51.
23
Food Collection Methods
The main ways in which First Nations collected their food was through hunting,
fishing, trapping and gathering.
Hunting
Outdoor life for First Nations led them to be able to connect with their
surroundings, learning things about the animals they hunted. They learned the animals
seasonal movements, hibernations and stages of growth 52.They were able to follow the trails
of the animals from tracking footprints, rustled leaves and marks on trees. Wild dogs were also
used for bringing to bay their game, especially for moose and bear 53. Longbows, wooden
arrows and spears were used to kill the game. Not only was the meat consumed from the
animal, but everything about the animal was used from their fur to their skin for clothes and
tools.
Fishing
Traditional fishing methods included use of wooden spears, and eventually they
developed multiple types of nets and traps. Nets and traps were made out of wooden branches
and brush54 Development of weirs also came into play in later times. Weirs were like dams
made out of timber, brush and stone and were built in rivers and streams, allowing the water
to flow through, but stopping the fish as they swam along. Or in some cases, the weir could be
made to funnel the fish into a trap 55.
24
Trapping
Trapping was another method of food collection for First Nations. Unlike hunting,
trapping was something that they were able to set up in advance and wait for the food to come
to them rather than they go after the food. Some common types of traditional homemade traps
were wood or rock deadfalls and snares. Deadfalls were usually used for carnivorous animals
and snares used for herbivorous animals56. Deadfalls are traps that use a heavy object like a
rock to land on the animal after it has been set and triggered by the animal. Snares are traps
that use a strong rope material to tighten around the animal after being triggered. Common
animals trapped were of the rodent family like beaver, muskrat and rabbits.
Gathering
When they were not hunting, trapping or fishing, they would be gathering their
food. Gathering was mostly conducted by the Aboriginal women. The foods that they would
gather would mostly be the fruits and vegetables. For collection, they would use birch bark
baskets.
25
Tools
The major tool for hunting deer was a spear - called amina. It consisted of a 3 metre
wooden shaft, tipped with a slender, nearly triangular bone or stone point. Fish, particularly
Walleye and Whitefish, were speared. First Nations also constructed fishhooks (made of bone)
and fished with netting made from rushes or reeds 57. First Nations also had clubs, knife blades
hafted to handles, bow and arrows, and perforating tools made from beaver incisors and stone
splinters 58. Many additional implements or working aids were created from pieces of wood,
bark, sticks, roots and shell. Birch bark was light and strong and many containers for cooking
and storage were made from it. Simple cups were folded from a rectangular piece of bark and
then sewn together at the upper edge with split roots, using bones and teeth. Although such
tools were simple, they were highly functional 59.
The birch bark canoe
Birch bark was the ideal material, being smooth, hard, light, resilient and waterproof,
they built beautiful, lightweight, easily reparable canoes out of it. Some of which were capable
of making long trips. The high sides of the canoe made it more stable in rough waters 60.
26
Cooking
Cooking was usually done over an open fire outdoors 61. First Nations lit a fire by
striking two pieces of flint rock together to produce sparks that would ignite bird down or
other easily inflammable matter, such as birch bark.
They roasted large pieces of meat on a spit, and placed smaller pieces on sticks
around the cooking fire. Fowl and other food items were cooked in birch bark containers.
Some of the bark pots were large enough to hold several large birds. First the water was
brought to a boil by placing heated rocks into the pot and then food was added. More hot
stones kept the contents of the pot boiling 62.
Storage
First Nations methods of hunting and gathering were equally important as their
methods of preservation. They cut leftover meat and fish into strips and dried or smoked it to
prevent spoiling. Vegetables and fruits were also dried 63. In this form it was easy to carry and
could be eaten without further preparation. When the climate was cold enough, sometimes it
was buried; sometimes it was hung from tree branches, out of reach of animals. Sometimes it
was submerged under water, where bacteria would prevent decomposition 64.
27
History of Settlers in Peterborough and the Kawarthas
As a country that was founded on settler-colonization; immigration has been central to the
history and the evolution of Canada. In 1818 English settlers moved past Cobourg a town south of
Peterborough to Smith Township, a township just outside of Peterborough, an area which First Nations
asserted ownership of and attempted to protect by telling stories of wild beasts and rattlesnakes 65. Smith
was the first township in Peterborough County to be surveyed in 1818. During that year a number of
English immigrants from Cumberland also made their way to Smith Township via Rice Lake and the
Otonabee River. In 1818, a number of other English settlers found their way to Peterborough County
creating Otonabee, Asphodel, Monaghan and Emily townships, however, very little land had been
brought into cultivation 66.
Adam Scott, another English settler was actually the first to settle in what is now the City of
Peterborough. He settled on the west shore of the Otonabee River at the foot of King Street. Then the
following year signed an agreement to build a grist and sawmill on site of the future town of
Peterborough. The future town of Peterborough was established as "Scott'sPlains“67.
In April of 1825, an assisted emigration program led by Britain decided to select families
from Southern Ireland who would immigrate to the Peterborough Area 68 . More than 50,000 families
petitioned to be selected to leave Ireland for Peterborough, while only approximately 2,000 individuals
were chosen 69. In the autumn of 1825 four hundred and fifteen families immigrated to be settled in the
Peterborough area, persuaded to relocate because of the offer of free land grants and all necessary aid
for settlement70. During the first year of their settlement their produce amounted to 8,900 bushels of
potatoes, 3,000 bushels of turnips, and 1,042 bushels of Indian corn71. they cleared 195 acres, 44 ½ of
which were in the fall of 1826 sown with fall wheat 72 . They had also made 1,330 pounds of maple
sugar 73. Their live stock consisted of four oxen, nine cows and ten hogs, all purchased by themselves 74.
28
Why did people settle in Peterborough and the Kawarthas?
It remains unclear why Peterborough was chosen to be settled, but one theory is
that the earliest settlers continued settlement in this area in the hopes that Peterborough
would become an important line of communication between Richmond Landing, located on
the Ottawa River, and Lake Simcoe75. The County of Peterborough and the Kawarthas was an
appealing location because of the lush forests, allowing for profitable logging, and rives and
lakes, for transportation and irrigation. In general, most settlers immigrated from their
homelands due to conflicts in their countries and the for the prospects of a better life, as well
as employment.
The Relationship Between Pre-Settlers and Settlers
The first task of early European settlers was survival. The first settlers in
Peterborough County were faced with a landscape covered by unbroken forest and harsh
winters unlike those of their European homelands76. These settlers were dependant on First
Nations to show them how to find food in this unfamiliar landscape. When settlers had
established themselves they were able to combine the foods of the First Nations with food
traditions from their own cultures; corn might be augmented with oat cakes and dried pears
and all combined with the available fish and fowel that was abundant in the Kawarthas77.
29
Main Heritage Foods from Settlement
Fruits and Vegetables: potatoes, apples, corn, turnips
Wheat: Red Fife wheat
Meat: pigs, cattle, sheep, chicken
Miscellaneous: beer, whisky, maple syrup
Vegetables
The settlers grew many vegetables and fruits after they had settled
into the land and learned how to farm. Some main vegetables and fruits
included turnips, potatoes and apples.
30
Potatoes
were a great part to the survival of the initial settlement in
Peterborough. During the first year alone Emily Township grew 22 200 bushels of
potato’s 78. The great success of the first year could be a result of the massive Irish
immigration that was conducted with Peter Robinson due to their previous
experience with the legume. Potato’s were first cultivated by the Inca people in
Peru. ‘Papa’ as they were called by the Inca, was grown on the plateaus and slopes of
the Andes Mountains. They were brought to Europe by the Spanish in 1537, when
they were discovered while searching for gold.
Potato’s were also essential to settler’s as they
could make potato vodka. Potato vodka is made through a
process of dissolving potato in water, then catching the vapor
of the drained juice. Capturing the vapor is known as
distilling79 . The more times you distilled this the stronger the
vodka got. It was a very easy process that gave the settlers their
spirits to which they drank.
Garlic Mashed Potatoes Peel the potatoes and cut into large chunks
2 lb potatoes
3 cloves garlic
3/4 cup buttermilk
1/2 teaspoon salt
1/4 teaspoon pepper
large pot of salted water
about 2 inches in size. Cook potatoes and
garlic together in pot of boiling salted water
for 15 to 20 minutes or until potatoes are
tender when pierced with a fork. Drain the
potatoes well and return to the pot with the
cooked garlic. Mash together adding
buttermilk, salt and pepper. Mash until
potatoes are fluffy 80.
31
Indian Corn was another major part of the initial settlement. This particular crop is semi-native to the
area. First Nations acquired this through trading with other communities. Maize as it was known to first
nations as was cultivated originally by Mexican tribes approximately 7000 years ago81 . During the initial
settlement in Peterborough small amounts of corn were grown. Most of the people that came over in the
first groups would not have know about corn therefore they would have had trouble growing it during
their first seasons. As well as being a very good food for the settlers. The husks from the corn
could be used to create baskets and carrying cases for food
and their other resources82. From these first successful
seasons of growing corn Canada and the Kawartha’s began
growing corn and exporting it to Europe so they could enjoy
the greatness of this crop.
Turnip’s
were one of the highest producing crops during the primary settlement in the early 1800s but
before the settlers came, one could wonder how turnips arrived in Canada. Prior to settlement of Canada
turnips were discovered in northern Africa where they grew wild, upon being conquered by the Roman
Empire they were spread to the world83.Turnips in Canada can be traced back as far as exploration goes.
They were first sown in Canada by French explorer Jacques Légume sometime before 160984 . During the
initial settlement in Peterborough, the surrounding counties had a very successful first growing season.
Settler's grew turnips on
their small home plots of cleared land. In
their first year alone they yielded 4250
bushels of turnips in Otonabee township
which was the second highest yield next to
potatoes85. Like potatoes, turnips are a root
vegetable and therefore are harvested,
planted, and stored in the similar style to
potatoes. This unexpected vegetable turned
out to be a very important part of initial
settlement in the Kawartha region.
32
Turnip Puff
2 cups cooked, mashed turnips, cooled
1 cup bread crumbs
1/2 cup melted butter or margarine
1 teaspoon sugar
1/2 teaspoon salt
1/4 teaspoon pepper
2 eggs, separated
Combine turnips, bread crumbs, margarine, sugar, salt, pepper, and beaten egg yolks. Beat egg
whites until stiff peaks form; fold into turnip mixture. Spoon turnip mixture into a buttered 1quart casserole. Bake turnip puff at 350° for 40 minutes. Turnip recipe serves 4 to 6 86 .
33
Meat
Previous to settlement, the only meat in the Kawartha’s consisted of the wild
animals that lived here, like moose, deer, types of birds and fish. After settlement, when
farming began to grow, multiple types of animals were brought over from the settlers
homelands including chickens, cattle, pigs and sheep.
Poultry
Today, chickens are our primary
egg provider. During the settlement eggs and chicken
meat were essential for survival when pork or beef
was unavailable. Origins of the types of chickens all
vary and where the birds differed was mainly in their
taste and the eggs that they produced. Once a chicken
has reached prime age and its egg production slowed,
they would be slaughtered to provide meat for the
settlers.
Cochin Chicken
The origins of when chickens actually arrived to the Kawarthas are
very uncertain, as some were wild in this area already like grouse and partridges. The Cochin
Chicken is one of the medium sized chickens that would have made the voyage with the
settlers. A gift to Queen Elizabeth from the Chinese in the early 1800s made this bird popular
and places it in the UK prior to settlement in the Kawarthas 87. This particular breed
produces a medium sized brown egg and their production rate is about 2 eggs per week. This
bird became well accustomed to life in Canada and especially in the Kawarthas because it was
able to tolerate the harsh winters. Mainly an egg producing bird the Cochin was then crossed
with many other birds to produce better eggs and meat.
34
Brahma Chicken
The Brahma chicken hails from India, but again
origins of when it came to Canada and the Kawarthas are
fairly vague88 . Due to its wide uses in Europe, it was easily
brought over in the initial European settlement. This bird has
some close similarities as the Cochin in size and egg colour.
Though instead of only producing 2 eggs a week like the
Cochin did, the Brahma gave the settlers 3 brown eggs a week
89 . This large bird also did very well in winter.
Plymouth Rock Chicken
Another popular chicken during settlement was the Plymouth Rock
or “Barred Rocks” chicken. It was very similar to the Cochin and the
Brahma in the fact that it laid brown eggs, and was hardy in the winter.
This bird weighs approximately 7-8 lbs and therefore lays bigger eggs 90.
The Plymouth Rock bird has a high production rate when it comes to
eggs and it will give its owner about 3 eggs per week, which was great if
your farm had a few birds 91 . Aside from being an egg layer as other
chickens were primarily used for, the Plymouth Rock is a very tasty bird
and it was used for meat.
Most of the birds that came over in the initial settlement produced
brown eggs, the white eggs we commonly see today came to Canada
with different species of birds. As a result of cross breeding they have
created birds that yield the perfect eggs.
Plymouth Rock
35
Multi-Purpose Animals
Canada and the Kawarthas have become widely recognized for the cattle we produce.
The Kawartha region is home to a lot of different types of cattle. They range from the
toughest cattle to the best dairy producing cattle in the world. During the primary settlement
period in the Kawartha region 4 types of cattle were used for their dairy and beef. Other
parts of the cows were used for various reasons whether its hair was used for household
items or its hide for leather.
The Highland
The unkempt sight of the Highland cow is one of the
major reasons it is unique. Its look is caused by its double
coat of hair that allows it to shed and grow hair to adjust
to the climate of the particular area it inhabits 92. Another
unique factor of this animal is the fact that it can graze on
anything from brush to grass, which makes it a very easy
to maintain this animal and keep organic 93. Its first
arrival in Canada is traced back to around 1880, but that
was in the Manitoba area, it did not come
to Ontario until 1920 94 . This animal hails from the Highlands (where it gets its name from)
and the West Coast islands of Scotland 95. The Highland cattles easy maintainability and beef
quality are reasons why many farmers have kept raising them.
The Belted Galloway
A particular type of cattle known as the Belted Galloway cow is often referenced to the
oreo cookie. This cow is best known for its large white “belt” that wraps around its mid
section. This type of cow came to the Kawarthas in 1853 from Scotland96. Developed in the
Galloway district of Scotland in the 1600s, the Belted Galloway is similar to that of the
Highland cow that it can live off of virtually anything that grows from the ground 97. Aside
from similar eating habits to the Highland its similar coat allows it to live in many conditions,
as the oil content in their hair gives it the
36
Belted Galloway
ability to shed rain and snow off its body. The
Galloway is known for producing very good
milk and meat. A study at the University of
Guelph revealed that the Belted Galloway had
the same fat content as that of fish and chicken,
which makes it one of the healthier red meats
on the market101 .
The Angus
The more commonly seen
cattle of today is the Black and Red
Angus or Aberdeen-Angus cow which
were initially brought to Canada in
1860 by a group of Quebec settlers 102.
They did not make their way to the
Kawartha's until the 1880s. This beef
cattle came again from Angus county,
Scotland where it was developed on a
mainly grass and hay diet 103.
Commonly today, you will see mostly
the Black Angus around as black, which
is the more dominant colour in
reproduction so only 1 in 4 will come
out as a Red Angus104 .
Angus
37
The Holstein
The Holstein cattle was next to come and they made a
strong impression on previous settlers in Canada and the Kawarthas.
This mainly milk producing cow is originally from Denmark and
Holland. They were first imported to Canada to Aultsville, Ontario in
1881(now non-existent due to the expansion of the St Lawrence
seaway) 98. From there they made their way up to Peterborough region
in 1890. These cows are the most commonly seen around. White with
black spots, the Holstein dominates the dairy production in present
day Canada with 93% of our total dairy production 99. The importation
of cattle to Canada has made a major impact on the way we live today,
but back then the type of cattle was chosen in order to survive.
IRISH MEAT LOAF
1 1/2 lbs. ground beef
1/2 lb. ground pork
2 c. peeled, chopped apples
1 egg
1 tsp. salt
1/2 c. shredded cheddar cheese
3 c. bread crumbs
1/2 c. minced onion
1 pkg. chopped broccoli
3/4 c. milk
1 1/2 c. potato flakes
In mixing bowl, combine beef, pork, bread crumbs, egg, onion, milk and salt; lightly mix to
blend. Stir in apples. Shape into a loaf on jelly roll pan. Cook 45 minutes at 350 degrees; drain off
fat. Prepare potato flakes according to directions. Combine potatoes with broccoli, cooked and
drained; frost loaf with mixture. Top with shredded cheese and return to oven for 15 to 20
minutes more. Let stand 5 to 10 minutes before removing to a platter for serving100.
38
Pigs
Pork is and was very popular in the Kawarthas, but no pork producing pig is native to the
Kawartha region. The pig like many other farm animals was just another animal that was brought
over by the settlers in the early 1800s. Many of the pigs that were used back then originated from
Western Europe and were imported over to Canada during the major periods of settlement.
The Berkshire
Originally from Oxfordshire, England, the Berkshire
pig was introduced to Canada in around 1830, and a few
years later, introduced to the Kawarthas 105. This pig has
very distinguishing features that are mainly surrounding
its looks. It is a black pig with white on its feet, nose, and
then at the tip of its tail. In 1867, the Canadian Farmer (a
farming magazine at the time) was quoted saying “for
quality of pork & bacon, the modern Berkshire stills stands
unrivalled”106. They loved the meat 130 years ago, and
today this same pig is still known for having tremendous
cuts of meat.
After the Berkshire pig came another shire
The Yorkshire
pig entered the Kawartha’s. This one came
approximately 5 years later in 1835. The Yorkshire pig
which bears the name of the place of its origin
(Yorkshire, England) is the most common seen pig today
107. This general purpose pig looked like the average pig
anyone can picture and were good producers of pork
and bacon. With pinkish-white skin, this pig was
essential to farmers who were looking to grow their
operations, as pigs of this breed had about 10-12 piglets
per litter 108.
39
The Tamworth
The Tamworth pig which was
widely introduced into Canada and then
the Kawarthas in 1877 hails from
Tamworth, England in the Staffordshire
county 109. These pigs which are smaller
in size and share no colour attributes to
the Yorkshire pig. The Tamworth has a
golden red hair that covers their body,
and instead of being kept in a barn these
Tamworth's are naturally outdoor pigs
and graze in fields 110 .
Tamworth Pig
Feral pig
Once different pigs were introduced to
farms in the Kawarthas, a new type of pig was created
out of all the previous pigs by interbreeding. The
Razorback or Feral Pig was a commonality in the first
European settlement in the Kawarthas. This type of
pig comes from a variety of pigs escaping their farms
and living wild in the bush111. The term razorback is
the Americanized version of the name. These pigs
dwelled in the wooded areas in the Kawarthas and
were hunted by farmers when needed or necessary.
These types of pigs were not generally great meat
because they often did not have the balanced nutrition
a farm offered, but they could be eaten if need be.
40
Sheep
Sheep were another animal that were not native to the Kawartha region. These were
again brought over with settlers from various regions. The main sheep that were brought over
were from the United Kingdom. Some of them are still very common in Canada and the
Kawartha region but some are staying as they were in the 1800s, not very popular.
The Cotswold
The Cotswold sheep was imported to the Kawarthas
sometime just after 1832 after it has already arrived in the U.S.
112 . This animal is native to Cotswold Hills, England and was
primarily used for its wool and a full grown Cotswold could
yield about 12lbs of wool per trim 113 . This sheep was also used
for the milk it produced. This is one of the first recorded sheep
to be brought to this region because of its ability to be used for
multiple purposes .
The Shropshire
After the Cotswold sheep were settled in this region,
the Shropshire sheep became popular and it stayed popular for
nearly a century. The Shropshire sheep is from Staffordshire and
Shropshire, England and was brought to this region around 1860
114 . This type of sheep has a very dense good fleece and was also
known for producing good meat 115. The female Shropshire
(Ewes) produced a very good milk as well 116 . These are the most
common sheep now and have been since their inception around
1860.
41
The Dorset/Horned Dorset Sheep
The breeds of sheep that would have been less common during settlement included the
Dorset or Horned Dorset sheep. This sheep came to Canada and this region shortly after 1860 117 .
The origins of this sheep are still widely unknown to most, but they have found that it could be a
cross between the Spanish Merinos and the Welsh Horned sheep 118 . Once fully grown these
sheep are over 200lbs. Again, the Ewes are highly regarded for their milk.
All of these sheep were raised outdoors, and were grass
and grain fed on settlement farms. The styles of farming were
very similar for each of these, and most were simply used for
their wool and milk, but sometimes their meat as well.
Wine, Rosemary and Garlic Lamb Marinade
2 ⅓ lbs. deboned lamb leg
6 cloves of minced garlic
1 heaped tbsp. minced fresh
rosemary
⅓ c. minced shallot
1 tbsp. dried oregano leaves
¼ c. olive oil
⅓ c. red wine
sea salt and black pepper to taste
Rub the surface of the meat with the garlic,
rosemary, oregano, pepper and salt. Place the
meat in a shallow baking dish, bowl, or heavy
duty plastic bag. Toss in shallot, oil, and wine.
Stir, knead or otherwise move the liquid
around so that the meat is as evenly
surrounded by it as possible. Seal up and
refrigerate for four to seven hours. Bring
meat up to room temperature before cooking.
I happen to think that lamb is best on the
grill 119.
42
David Fife and his Red Fife Wheat
Red Fife wheat is probably the most notable of the heritage foods to Peterborough. David Fife an
immigrant from Scotland, is accredited with getting the grain to Canada. He relocated with his family from
Kincardine, Scotland in 1820 120. His parents and five brothers moved to Otonabee Township in Peterborough
County and began to farm land. His family owned land all nearby each other and by 1842 David Fife farmed
almost 200 acres of his own land 121 .
During the early years of farming in the Kawartha region, most settlers
farmed a similar style of wheat. This wheat was of Siberian origin and many of the
settlers were having trouble getting a high yields 122. A poor harvest of this Siberian
wheat was the reason that David Fife reached out to his native country to get heartier
wheat that would be able to flourish in Canada. Struthers received a shipment in from
Gdansk, Poland and he realized that if the crops could survive the climate of Poland,
they would most likely be able to survive the Canadian climate that Fife had
described.
Once Fife received this wheat, he tested it by planting a small amount and discovered Red Fife wheat mixed
in with the Polish brand. After preserving the small amount of Red Fife wheat that was mixed in, Fife planted
it the following year and it flourished and came out frost and
rust free. After the initial successful growing season Fife began
to save seeds and sold them to his friends and neighbours, and
from there Red Fife wheat exploded onto the agricultural
market 123.
Once the process of separation and harvesting was complete the Red Fife wheat could be used for many
different purposes. It would be sent to a flour mill and be ground down into flour to be used in many
household purposes. Many settlement farmers only grew wheat on a small scale, enough to last the family for
the entire year.
43
Farming Practices/Tools
Farming was paramount to the settlers livelihood and success. It provided them
with the food they ate and the nutrients they relied on to get them through the long and
exhausting days of working the fields. Tools were much more basic than what is seen today
but farmers made the most out of what they had124.
The land was first broken up with a plough pulled by oxen or horses. The plough
had a sharp blade that cut into the earth and turned over the soil. It was important that the
farmer keep the blade of the plough in the ground and be watchful of large rocks, stumps or
roots. The soil then needed to be dug, turned over and leveled which was accomplished with
pickaxes, hoes, spades and wooden rakes. A harrow was then pulled over the soil to further
break up the lumps and smooth the ground125.
After the soil is prepared, the seeds
were planted. There were many reasons why a
farmer’s crop could fail including drought,
frost, floods and insects but these were chances
that needed to be taken. Once a crop was ready
for harvesting, the farmer used a sickle or
scythe to cut the crop. Seeds were separated
from the rest of the plant with a flail. Once the
crop was cut, the stalks were bundled into
sheaves and leaned against each other so they
stood up and were hauled away to the barn126.
44
Tools
Flail
Scythe
Harrow
Plough
The Harvest of Wheat
The harvest of wheat was one of the most gruelling jobs
for a settler. First, the grain had to be cut down, which could take
quite a lot of time seeing as many farmers had large amounts of
acreage. Once the harvest was cut down, it was then bundled, and
left in the field to dry for a period of time depending on the
weather. After the required drying time, it was time for the grain be
removed from the stalk. This process was accomplished by beating
the stalk against the floor or trampling it. Then the farmer would
perform the next process, which was separating the chaff from
kernels. This part was done by simply throwing the whole grain in
the air with hopes that the chaff would separate from the kernel127.
This was the complete process for harvesting wheat grains for the
most part of the 1800s.
45
Settlement and Maple Sugar
When the European settlers arrived in Canada and the Peterborough and
Kawarthas area, they discovered First Nations making a dark sugar/syrup from the sap of the
maple trees131.
Maple sugar became very important to settlers, as it was the only type of sugar
available in Eastern North America until 1875, when the sugar cane was introduced.
Eventually, maple syrup extraction methods were changed by the settlers as technology
improved132.
The settlers used augers to bore holes into the trees.
They then used wood piles, which are a type of tool that is placed
into the bored hole to allow the sap to flow through it and into a
wooden bucket. Originally, settlers used cast iron pots and kettles
to boil the sap to extract the sugar.
Located just east of the city of Peterborough, is a
farm owned by the Batten family in which maple sugar and
syrup production has been in place since before the 1800’s by
their settler ancestors. Maple sugar production was a large part
of the settler’s lives and took the hands of one or two large
families. At this farm, settlers could have anywhere between
seven and eight thousand buckets collecting the sap. It was a
tedious and hard job to collect the syrup in the short time span
of March and April.
46
Beer
During the settlement period lots of local businesses popped up,
and one was more memorable than the others. Henry Calcutt,
moved to Peterborough in 1855 and upon arrival he set up
“Calcutt Brewing and Malting Company128.” Calcutt Beer was
created from locally grown grains and he soon became the most
successful brewer in the area. After his first factory burnt down
on Maria street, he rebuilt on Burnham street (in current day
East City)129. Locally brewed beer can still be purchased in
Peterborough, one that stands out from the rest now is “The
Olde Stone Brewery,” which creates a beer that uses Red Fife
Wheat as a main ingredient.
Irish Cream Liqueur
1 cup of maple syrup
2 cups of heavy cream
3 cups of whiskey
1 tsp. instant coffee
Combine the cream and whiskey in a
blender and blend at a low speed.
Remove the top of the blender and pour
in the maple syrup slowly as the blender
runs. Add the instant coffee after the
syrup has been added. Blend the whole
mixture on low until it is thoroughly
mixed. The mixing process shouldn't
take longer than a minute. Keep the
Irish cream whiskey refrigerated. Shake
the bottle to keep everything evenly
mixed before serving130.
47
Farms and Contacts for Heritage Foods
Whole Earth Farm Studios
- Heritage animals and shares
- Hastings
Rowe Farms
- Heritage food
- Peterborough
Rodgers Venison
- Parkhill Road
Batten’s Country Choice
- Honey and Maple sugar
- Peterborough Farmer’s Market
James Whetung, Black Duck Wild Rice
- Wild Rice
- Curve Lake
48
References
102 About CAA: Breed History. Canadian Angus Association. 2010. December 1 <http://www.cdnangus.
ca/about/breed_history.htm>
Aboriginal Communications Committee for Institute of Canada. Aboriginal trapping. Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. (2010)
November 23rd from <http://www.fur.ca/files/aboriginal_trapping_eng.pdf>
A Couple from Peterborough. Yahoo: Flickr. 2010 December 1.
<http://www.flickr.com/photos/28389839@N00/2262469523>
Airdrie, Kathleen. Potatoes in History: From Peru to Europe to China to North America to Outer Space. Potatoes in History. 2009
November 29th <http://www.suite101.com/content/potatoes-in-history-a90243>
98, 99 Association: Holstein Breed: Canadian Holsteins. Holstein Canada. 2009. November 29th. <https://www.holstein.ca/Index.aspx#>
80 Best Garlic Mashed Potatoes Recipe. Cooking Nook (2009). Accessed November 2010 <http://www.cookingnook.com/best-garlicmashed-potatoes-recipe.html>
107, 108 Blair, R. Pig Farming: Yorkshire Pigs. The Canadian Encyclopedia. 2010. December 1 <http://www.t heca
nadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0003805>
130 Bradley, H. How to Make Irish Cream Liqueur. eHow. (2007). Accessed November 2010.
http://www.ehow.com/how_2076906_make-irish-cream-liquor.html.
88, 89 Breed Selection Tool: Brahma. My Pet Chicken. 2010. December 1 <http://www.mypetchicken.com/c hicken-breeds/BrahmaB16.aspx>
87 Breed Selection Tool: Cochin. My Pet Chicken. 2010. December 1 <http://www.mypetchicken.com/c hickenbreeds/CochinB30.aspx>
90, 91 Breed Selection Tool: Plymouth Rock. My Pet Chicken. 2010. December 1 <http://www.mypetchicke n .com/chickenbreeds/Plymouth-Rock-B85.aspx>
116 Breed Information: Shropshire. Canadian Sheep Breeders Association. 2010. December 1 <http://ww
w.sheepbreeders.ca/breed_profiles/shropshire.html>
104 Cattle Breeds: Angus. Oklahoma State University. 1995. November 29th. <http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/b reeds/cattle/angus/>
96, 97, 101 Cattle Breeds: Belted Galloway. Beef Site, The. 2010. December 1 <http://www.thebeefsite.com/breed s/beef/9/beltedgalloway/overview>
Cattle Breeds. Country Farm Lifestyles. 2010. December 1 <http://www.countryfarm-lifestyles.com/c attle-breeds.html>
Cattle Breeds: Red Angus. Oklahoma State University. 1995. November 29th <http://www.ansi.okstate.e du/breeds/cattle/redangus/>
References
51,131,132 Chapeskie, D. The Maple Syrup Industry in Ontario
Answers to Commonly Asked Questions and References. Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs. 2010. October
30th. < http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/facts/maple.htm#history>
5,6, 68, 69, 75 Cole, A.O.C and Jean Murray Cole. Kawartha Heritage. Peterborough Historical Atlas Foundation. 1981. Print.
100 Cooks.com (2010). “Irish Meatloaf”. Accessed 2010 December 12. <http://www.cooks.com/rec/view/0,1927,157168233203,00.html>
112, 113 Cotswold Sheep: History and Breed facts .Coyote Acres Ranch. 2010. October 27 <http://northerhors
e.com/coyoteacres/listings.asp?ltype=cotswoldsheep>
1,2 Dorothy Duncan, Nothing More Comforting: Canada’s Heritage Food. Canada: Dundurn Press Ltd, 2003.Print.
103 Farm and Forest: Beef Cattle. Bryant Watershed Education Project. 2010. December 1
<http://www.watersheds.org/farm/beef.htm>
14 Government of Canada. All Aboriginal Communities in Ontario. Aboriginal Canada Portal. (2010) October 29tth.
http://www.aboriginalcanada.gc.ca/acp/community/site.nsf/eng/on-all-b.html
65 Guillet, Edwin C. Early Life in Upper Canada. The Ontario Publishing Co. Limited. 1933. Print.
3 Guillet, E.C. Pioneer Days in Upper Canada. Toronto University Press. 1964. Print.
92, 93 Highland Cattle Characteristics. Canadian Highland Cattle Society, The. 2010. December 1
<http://www.chcs.ca/echarct.htm>
94, 95 Highland Cattle Thrive in Alberta. Highland Cattle World. 2006. November 29th
<http://www.highlandcattleworld.com/folds/Canada/canada_intro.html>
History: Early Settlers: Pioneer Hog Butchering. Bryant Watershed Education Project. 2010.December 1
<http://www.watersheds.org/history/hog.htm>
117, 118 Horned Dorset Sheep: History and Breeding Facts. Coyote Acres Ranch. 2010 October 27
http://northernhorse.com/coyoteacres/listings.asp?ltype=horneddorsetsheep
79 How to make Potato Vodka. Squidoo. 2010 December 1. http://www.squidoo.com/How-To-Make-Potato-Vodka
57, 58, 59, 61, 62, 63,64 Ingeborg M. Hunting Tools and Techniques; Food Preparation and Storage. Aboriginals People. (1998)
Accessed November 2010. http://www.heritage.nf.ca/aboriginal/beo_hunting.html
15, 16, 52,53, 54,56 Jenness, D. Indians of Canada. Canada: Canadian Cataloguing in Publication Data. 1977 Print.
27, 28, 30, 31 Lauriault, J. Plant Detail Rhus typhina. Native Plant Database. (2000). Accessed November 2010.
<http://nativeplants.evergreen.ca/search/view-plant.php?ID=00566>
109, 110 Livingstone et.al. Canadian Farm Animal Genetic Resources Foundation: Tamworth Pig. Canadian Farm Animal
Genetic Resources Foundation. 2010. December 1 http://www.cfagrf.com/Tamworth_Pig.htm
128, 129 Local Heritage, Local Food, Local Choice: Beer, Whisky, and Wine. Kawartha Heritage Conservancy. 2009.
17, 18, 21, 24, 25, 39, 41, 44, 47 Lovesick Lake Women’s Native Association.The Rural and Native Heritage Cookbook. Ontario:
Totem Books. 1987. Print.
22,23 Ministry of Natural Resources. Fish Ontario. Walleye Sander vitreus. (2009). Accessed November 2010.
http://www.mnr.gov.on.ca/en/Business/LetsFish/2ColumnSubPage/STEL02_173221.html
References
60 Montevecchi, W.A., H. Chaffey and C. Burke. (2007) Hunting for security: Changes in the exploitation of marine birds in
Newfoundland and Labrador. Page 102. Resetting the Kitchen Table: Food Security in Canadian Coastal Communities.
Nova Science Publishers, New York, New York.
7.8, 9, 10, 11, 70. 71,72,73.74 Mulvany, Charles Pelham & Charles M. Ryan. History of the County of Peterborough, Ontario.
C. Blackett Robinson. 1884. Google Books. November 13.
<http://books.google.ca/books?id=9AOAAAAYAAJ&dq=peter+robinson+settlement+in+peterborough&source=gbs_navlin
ks_s>
35 Muma, W. Wild Leek. Ontario Wild Flowers. (2010) November 15th.
http://www.ontariowildflowers.com/main/species.php?id=119
29 Murphy, J. Staghorn Sumac Recipe. (2005). Nature Skills. Accessed November 2010.
http://www.natureskills.com/lemonade_recipe.html
55 Nielsen, A. Weirs. Clayoquottoalliance. (2005) December 12th
http://www.clayoquotalliance.uvic.ca/es481a/_pdf/ES%20481A%20Student%20practicals/ES481A_ANielson_Weirs.pdf
19, 20 N/A. Ruffed Grouse. Hinterland Who’s Who. (2010) November 26th <http://www.hww.ca/hww2.asp?id=62&cid=7>
26, 40, 43, 45, 46 Parr Trail, Catherine (1906). Studies of Plant Life in Canada. Wild Flowers, flowering shrubs, and Grasses.
Toronto, William Briggs, Publisher. New Revised Edition.
4, 66, 76, 78, 85 Poole, Thomas W.. A sketch of early settlement and subsequent progress of the town of Peterborough: and of
each township in the county of Peterborough. The Peterborough Review. 1867. Google Books. November 13, 2010.
<http://books.google.ca/books?id=TdgOAAAAYAAJ&dq=BOOK++A+Sketch+of+The+Early+Settlement+and+Subsequent+
Progress+of+the+Town+of+Peterborough&source=gbs_navlinks_s>.
81,82 Prindle, Tara. Native American History of Corn. 2010 June 23. Native Tech.
<http://www.nativetech.org/cornhusk/cornhusk.html>
86 Rattray, D. Turnip Puff. About. (2010). Accessed November 2010.
<http://southernfood.about.com/od/turnipandrutabagarecipes/r/bl3021 2y.htm>
32, 33 Serre, M. Fiddleheads. The Worldwide Gourmet. (1996). Accessed November 2010.
<http://www.theworldwidegourmet.com/products/vegetables/fiddlehead/>.
114, 115, Shropshire Sheep: History and Breed Information. Coyote Acres Ranch. 2010 October 27
<http://northernhorse.com/coyoteacres/listings.asp?ltype=shropshiresheep>
105, 106 Strattons Farm: Heritage Berkshire Pork For Sale. Strattons Farm. 2010. November 28th
<http://strattonsfarm.blogspot.com/2010/01/heritage-berkshire-pork-for-sale.html>
37, 38 Sweeney, S. The Crabapple: Hold the Cides. Ontario Trees and Shrubs. 2010. November 25th.
<http://ontariotrees.com/mondaygarden/article.php?id=87>
Rempel, Sharon. The Canadian Encyclopedia: Red Fife Wheat. The Canadian Encyclopedia. 2010. December 1.
<http://www.thec anadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0010468>
References
The Calcutt Brewing & Malting Co. Jim Maitland Collection. Accessed 2010 December 1.
<http://www.ecbw.ca/jim_maitland_collection/main.htm>
124, 125, 126,127 The Iowa Agriculturalist: Harvesting: Small Grain. Silos and Smokestacks National Heritage Area. 2009.
November 28th. <http://www.campsilos.org/mod2/teachers/r1_part5.shtml>
12 Trent University. Indigenous Studies: Local First Nations. Native Studies. 2010. November 20th
<http://www.trentu.ca/academic/nativestudies/links.htm.>
36 Vellend, E. Wild Leek and Potato Soup. The Star. 2009. November 28th
http://www.thestar.com/living/recipes/article/629471
14 Welch, W. Aboriginal Culture. Aboriginal Religion. (2007). Accessed November 2010.
http://www.aboriginalculture.com.au/religion.shtml
119 Wine, Rosemary and Garlic Marinade for Lamb Recipe. Nibbledish (2008). Accessed November 2010.
< http://www.nibbledish.com/people/MissJ9/recipes/wine-rosemary-and-garlic-marinade-for-lamb>
48, 49, 50 Whetung James (2010). Interview November 6, 2010.
111 Wildlife Damage: Feral Pigs. Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. 2009. November 30th <http://dn
r.wi.gov/org/land/wildlife/PUBL/wlnotebook/Pig.htm>
83,84 Zeev's Turnips: History. Funphone Predictive Vegetables. 2010. December 1. <http://www.funphone.com /veg/zt.html>
Picture References
Picture 1
Native Code of Ethics. Evening Grain. (2006). Accessed November
2010.<http://www.stumbleupon.com/stumbler/Losgrinn/tag/counter-culture/>.
Picture 2
Theisen,H. Delta News Web. (2010) Accessed December 1st from
<http://www.deltanewsweb.com/archives/images/9908_wild_clover.jpg>
Picture 3
Taylor, Clay. White Tailed Deer. Bird Watchers Digest: Swarovski Optik Digiscoping Gallery (2010).
Accessed November 2010. < www.birdwatchersdigest.com/.../digiscope029.jpg>
Picture 4
Ruffed Grouse. Ruffed Grouse in Snow. Weather Underground. (2007) Accessed December 1st from
<http://www.wunderground.com/wximage/viewsingleimage.html?mode=singleimage&handle=NorthLight&number=50>
Picture 5
Virgil, B. Walley Illustration. Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. (2008). Accessed November 2010.
<http://dnr.wi.gov/fish/species/3iwalley.htm>
Picture 6
Staghorn Sumac. Gardening eu. (2010) Accessed December 1st from <http://www.gardening.eu/plants/Shrubs/Rhus-Typhina/531/>
Picture 7
Murphy, J. Staghorn Sumac Recipe. Nature Skills. (2005). Accessed November 2010.
<http://www.natureskills.com/lemonade_recipe.html>
Picture 8
Serre, M. Fiddleheads. The Worldwide Gourmet. (1996). Accessed November 2010.
<http://www.theworldwidegourmet.com/products/vegetables/fiddlehead/>.
Picture 9
Muma, W. Wild Leek. Ontario Wild Flowers. (2010) Accessed November 15th from
http://www.ontariowildflowers.com/main/species.php?id=119
Picture 10
How to make leeks. Qwikstep: Knowledge Database. (2010) Accessed on December 1st from
<http://api.ning.com/files/iZ0MXAJCtAd0WLmwKHHeOeap*Jj4xg8t5ZD9RoWF84AfTQLETpNPlbimQFX4mF2FPjiFO6LU53BfdCltfPPwlCc9raRbj42/wild_leeks.jpg>
Picture 11
Golden Potato Leek Soup. My Recipes. (2005). Accessed November 2010.
<http://find.myrecipes.com/recipes/recipefinder.dyn?action=displayRecipe&recipe_id=10000001108277>
Picture References
Picture 12
McCandlish, J. Images of plants collected in October 2003. Joan McCandlish. Accessed on December 1st from
<http://tigerplaid.com/crabapple2.jpg>
Picture 13
Wild Sweet Crabapple. The Morton Arboretum. (2009) Accessed December 1st from
<http://www.mortonarb.org/images/stories/tree_advice/tom-som/tom0509_wildsweetcrabapple.jpg>
Picture 14
Ryan, B. Le Femme Cronique (2010). Accessed November 2010.
< 2.bp.blogspot.com/.../s1600/RASPBERRIES.jpg>
Picture 15
A Water Lily. Cap n’ Bob and the Damsel. Perspectives on life and Politics (2007). Accessed November
2010. <capnbob.us/.../uploads/2007/08/water-lily.jpg>
Picture 16
The Many Varieties of Hazelnuts. Arbour Day Foundation (2010). Accessed November 2010.
< www.arborday.org/.../beaked-hazelnut.jpg>
Picture 17
Dandelion. Maletsky (2009). Accessed November 2010.
<www.maletsky.com/herbs/images/dandelion2.jpg>
Picture 18
Eastman, Mary. Gathering Wild Rice. The Aboriginal Portfolio, Newberry Library, Chicago (2010).
Accessed November 2010. <www.superstock.com/stock-photos-images/1095-1293>
Picture 19
Things Dogs Shouldn’t Eat. K9 Domain (2010). Accessed November 2010.
<bolincreek.org/images/IndianTobacco.jpg>
Picture 20
Chapeskie, D. The Maple Syrup Industry in Ontario
Answers to Commonly Asked Questions and References. Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs. 2010. October 30th.
<http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/facts/maple.htm#history>
Picture 23
Rattray, D. Turnip Puff. About. (2010). Accessed November 2010.
<http://southernfood.about.com/od/turnipandrutabagarecipes/r/bl30212y.htm>
Picture References
Picture 24
Montevecchi, W., Chaffey, H., and Burke, C. (2007) Hunting for security: Changes in the exploitation of marine birds in
Newfoundland and Labrador. Page 102. Resetting the Kitchen Table: Food Security in Canadian Coastal Communities. Nova Science
Publishers, New York, New York.
Picture 25
Fire log- Bid or buy. Africa’s Largest Online Marketplace. (2010)Accessed November 2010.
<REAL_WOOD_LOG_FIRE_1_PLACE_EFFECT_DVD_THE_No_1_SELLER.html>
Picture 26
Wholesale herbs and spices. Rocky Mountain Spice Company. (2009). Accessed November 2010.
Picture 27
Red Fife Wheat. Cuisine Canada Scene (2009). Accessed November 2010.
< cuisinecanadascene.com/2009/03/17/red-fife-wheat>
Picture 28
Yalung, Brian. Potato Waste to Produce Electricity. Keetsa (2010).
<keetsa.com/.../uploads/2009/02/potatoes112.jpg>
Picture 29
Koscica, Milica.“Cognac: The Elixir of the Gods.” (2004) Accessed 2010 December 1.
<http://www1.american.edu/ted/cognac.htm>
Picture 30
Mashed Potatoes:
Best Garlic Mashed Potatoes Recipe. Cooking Nook (2009). Accessed November 2010. http://www.cookingnook.com/best-garlicmashed-potatoes-recipe.html
Picture 31
Planet Earth Natural Environment Research Council. Natural Seed Treatment could drastically cut pesticide use
(2009). Accessed November 2010.
< http://planetearth.nerc.ac.uk/news/story.aspx?id=428
Picture 32
Poole, Thomas W.. A sketch of early settlement and subsequent progress of the town of Peterborough: and of each township in the
county of Peterborough. The Peterborough Review. 1867. Google Books. November 13, 2010.
<http://books.google.ca/books?id=TdgOAAAAYAAJ&dq=BOOK++A+Sketch+of+The+Early+Settlement+and+Subsequent+Progress+o
f+the+Town+of+Peterborough&source=gbs_navlinks_sp>
Picture 33
Rattray, D. Turnip Puff. About. (2010). Accessed November 2010.
<http://southernfood.about.com/od/turnipandrutabagarecipes/r/bl30212y.htm
Picture References
Picture 34
Chicken Breeds: Cochin. Chicken Eggspert. (2010)Accessed 2010 December 1.
<http://www.chickeneggspert.com/breeds/cochin/4007.asp>
Picture 35
Chicken Breeds: Brahma. Chicken Eggspert. (2010) Accessed 2010 December 1
<http://www.chickeneggspert.com/breeds/brahma/4003.as
Picture 36
Chicken Breeds: Plymouth Rock. Chicken Eggspert. (2010) Accessed 2010 December 1.
<http://www.chickeneggspert.com/breeds/plymouth-rock/4004.asp>
Picture 37
Highland Cattle Photos -Desktop/Wallpaper Pictures. Irish Views (2010). Accessed November 2010.
<www.irishviews.com/highland-cattle.html>
Picture 38
Cattle For Sale. Australian Galloway Association. (2010)Accessed 2010 December 1.
<http://www.galloway.asn.au/saleanimals/Sayer%20Miniature%20Belted%20Females.htm>
Picture 39
Angus. Amberley Park Beef Cattle. (2010) Accessed December 1.
http://www.amberleyparkbeef.com.au/angus.htm
Picture 40
Chacha, Jen (2008). “Irish Meatloaf with Holiday Potatoes” Accessed December 12, 2010.
<http://inatinykitchen.blogspot.com/2008/03/irish-meatloaf-with-holiday-potatoes.html>
Picture 41
Beef, Lamb, & Pork: Berkshire Hogs. DW Farms. (2010) Accessed 2010 December 1.
<http://www.dwfarms.com/Berkshire%20Hogs.htm
Picture 42
Potrikus, Alaina. “Introducing Big Norm: 1,600-pound hog's day includes 20 gallons of feed, 20 hours of sleep.” The Post –Standard.
(2004) Accessed 2010 December 1. <http://www.syracuse.com/news/index.ssf/2004/11/introducing_big_norm_1_600poun.html>
Picture 43
Renton, Alex. “An End to Pig-Farming Ignorance.” Guardian.co.uk (2009) Accessed 2010 December 1.
http://www.guardian.co.uk/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2009/jan/13/pig-farming
Picture 44
True Black Cotswolds.American Cotswold Record Association. (2010) Accessed 2010 December 1
<http://www.cotswoldsheep.us.com/true_black_cotswolds.htm>
Picture References
Picture 45
Shropshire Sheep. Whole Earth Farmstudio. (2010) Accessed 2010 December 1.
<http://www.wholearth.com/shropshire-sheep>
Picture 46
Horned Dorset Sheep. Coyote Acres Ranch. (2010) Accessed 2010 December 1
<http://northernhorse.com/coyoteacres/listings.asp?ltype=horneddorsetsheep>
Picture 47
Wine, Rosemary and Garlic Marinade for Lamb Recipe. Nibbledish (2008). Accessed
November 2010. < http://www.nibbledish.com/people/MissJ9/recipes/
Picture 48
David Fife. Wikipedia. (2010) Accessed 2010 December 1.
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Fife>
Picture 49
Heritage Wheat Project: Heritage Wheat Varieties. Grassroot Solutions: Rempel, Sharon. (2010) Accessed December 1.
http://www.grassrootsolutions.com/heritage-wheat/varieties.html
Picture 50
Blanchard, Jim. The garnetWheat Controversy. The Manitobe Historical Society (2010). Accessed November 2010.
<www.mhs.mb.ca/docs/mb_history/19/garnetwheat3.jpg>
Picture 51, 52, 53
Chapeskie, D. The Maple Syrup Industry in Ontario
Answers to Commonly Asked Questions and References. Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs. 2010. October 30th. <
http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/facts/maple.htm#history>
Picture 54
A Couple from Peterborough. Yahoo: Flickr. Accessed 2010 December 1.
<http://www.flickr.com/photos/28389839@N00/2262469523>
Picture 55
The Calcutt Brewing & Malting Co. Jim Maitland Collection. Accessed 2010 December 1.
<http://www.ecbw.ca/jim_maitland_collection/main.htm>
Picture 56
Homemade Irish Cream Liqueur. The Recipe Box. (2009). Accessed November 2010.
<http://www.hostesswiththemostess.com/recipe_box/homemadeirishcreamliqueur>