this PDF file

LYSIPPOS’ SCULPTURE
R
are is the artist that can reshape the idea of art as it is known in order to redefine how people
view great works. One such man, Lysippos, is considered to be one of the three great sculptors of
the fourth century.1 In fact, Reber goes so far as to state that he is the last of the “seven great masters
of sculpture”.2 Lysippos was a great innovator in sculpture who altered it in fourth century Greece
to include new concepts and ideas. As the court sculptor to Alexander the Great, he was quite near
to the great Hellenistic king which, in turn, affected his art. He is credited with innovations in multiple areas, including his ‘canon of proportions’ and his composition of space. Further, he brought
about major developments in the making of sculpted portraiture.
His style can be seen in a multitude of works, as he influenced
many generations of sculptors after his time. Lysippos’ works were
so loved that in the first century BCE Marcus Agrippa placed one
of his works, the Apoxyomenos, in front of his baths in Rome.3 The
Emperor Tiberius loved this statue so much that he stole it for his
own personal enjoyment and only returned it after the people demanded it be restored at its place at the baths.4
Lysippos was from Sikyon, in the Peloponnese5 and specialized in athletic statues, such as the Agias at Delphi, and male
gods such as, and especially, Herakles.6 The time during which he
was active in sculpting is unknown. Morgan estimated between the
years of 372 BCE and 316 BCE;7 however, Pollitt claims that his
activity ranged from the 360s BCE to as late as 306 BCE when he
made a portrait of Seleukis I.8 Lysippos is often cited for his productivity and realism,9 and Pliny records that he produced up to
1500 works of art, a truly staggering number of pieces.10 This number is based on the myth that Lysippos put one coin in a box for
Figure 2: APOXYOMENOS
every commission he gained, and a relative who inherited the box
Photograph
courtesy of Jean-Pol
11
found 1500 coins inside. Reber asserted that this high number of
Grandmont [CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://
12
works meant that some of them suffered in quality, though there
creativecommons.org/licenses/byis the possibility that they were produced by his disciples. Despite sa/3.0) or GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/
copyleft/fdl.html)], via Wikimedia
this degree of productivity, none of his original works have been
Commons
13
found. The majority of the figures used to study him are copies,
usually Roman marbles. Due to this lack of original sculptures, it can be very challenging to deciPollitt, 1972, 139.
von Reber, 1882, 245.
3 Paris and Harrison, 1890, 298.
4 Plin. HN 34.61.
5 Ibid.
6 Morgan, 1949, 228.
7 Morgan, 1949, 229.
8 Pollitt, 1972, 174.
9 Morgan, 1949, 229.
10 Plin. HN 34.37.
11 Chase and Post, 1971, 120.
12 von Reber, 1882, 344.
13 Paris and Harrison, 1890, 301.
1 2 Mitchell Elvidge
26
pher whether a work belonged directly to Lysippos’ hand or just
his school.14 He also worked exclusively in bronze,15 a fact that
may be connected to his origins as a sculptor.
There is some debate among the sources as to how Lysippos came to be a sculptor. On the one hand, Pliny believed that he
started as a bronze worker and later turned to art after hearing the
artist Eupompos remark that nature should be the one inspiration.16 On the other hand, Reber came to the conclusion that Lysippos started as a worker of bronze and taught himself art using
the fifth century sculptor Polykleitos’ work Doryphoros (‘spear
bearer’, see fig. 1) as a model.17 Similarities can be seen between
the Doryphoros and a copy of one of Lysippos’ earlier works, the
Agias at Delphi (fig. 3), in both the posture and proportions of
the figure, which supports this theory. Like the Doryphoros, the
Agias assumes a similar contraposto stance, has a gaze focused
into the distance, and also a
like-muscular
composition.
Furthermore, according to
Pollitt, Cicero says that Lysippos “made the Doryphoros of
Polykleitos his ‘master”,18 further expanding on the thought
that he was influenced by his
Figure 1: DORYPHOROS
fifth century predecessor. It is Photograph courtesy of Sailko [GFDL
said, however, that Lysippos (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html)
boasted that he owed nothing or CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via
to the influence of others, but
Wikimedia Commons
19
was a student of nature. Even
so, due to the conflict of information, it is difficult to discern where
Lysippos began his career in art.
Figure 3: AGIAS AT DELPHI
Photograph courtesy of Sailko [GFDL
(http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.
html) or CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/bysa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Whether or not Lysippos used Polykleitos’ work as a
guide, he did follow him in at least one area: Polykleitos worked
on his statues using a specific set of proportions and the idea of
symmetria, or equal proportions, which he referred to as his ‘canon
of proportions’.20 In a similar fashion, Lysippos developed his own
canon that adhered to the same concept of symmetria.21 This canon
is one of the first results of his unique principles of design, in which
he made the head to be one eighth the size of the body instead of
the one seventh of Polykleitos’ statuary.22 In addition to the smaller
Morgan, 1949, 123.
von Reber, 1882, 340.
Plin. HN 34.61.
von Reber, 1882, 340.
Cic. Brut. 86 in Pollitt, 1986, 47.
Paris and Harrison, 1890, 296.
Pollitt, 1972, 106.
Plin. HN 34.61.
Pollitt, 1986, 48.
Lysippos’ Sculpture
27
head, he made the bodies of his figures slimmer.23 The result, and intended effect, of these two changes was to make the figures appear taller without increasing their height.24 The beginnings of this
canon are seen in the Agias, and completed in his Apoxyomenos, in English ‘youth scraping himself
with a strigil’ (fig. 2).25 One can see that the Apoxyomenos, while very slender and wiry, still seems
quite tall and muscular. This is important because Lysippos believed in creating his works of art to be
perceived ‘as they appear’ rather than ‘as they were’, connected to his idea of ‘optical symmetria’ and
apparent proportions.26 This means that he designed his figures to be an optical illusion: to appear
a certain way based on perception. His approach to the realism of statues was decidedly a middle
ground. He wanted to “create something between the categorical idealism of Polykleitos and the
crass realism of artists like Demetrios of Alopeke”.27
Lysippos also innovated in the composition of space. He altered the ‘square’, in which older
sculptors such as Polykleitos had worked,28 and which one might think of as an invisible, three dimensional, cube-shape marking the boundaries of a statue. The crafting of statues within this square
is apparent in the Doryphoros, in comparison to the Apoxyomenos. The arms and legs of Lysippos’
statues were made to extend beyond this traditional three-dimensional limit.29 For instance, the Apoxyomenos reaches out far
in front of itself. This causes the work to extend into the viewers’
space, and challenges them to examine the sculpture from multiple
angles of interest in order to fully understand and view the work.30
Torsion was also used in the body in order that there would be
no single angle from which to view the statue, and viewers would
be forced to move around and adapt to the space rather than the
sculpture adapting.31 Therefore, sculptures such as the Apoxyomenos do not ‘pose’, but, as Lysippos intended, forces the viewer to
experience the work as they would an everyday optical experience,
through foreshadowing and overlapping.32
Lysippos also proved highly innovative in three other areas: theatricality, expressionism, and allegory. The theatricality of
Lysippos work is best illustrated by the fact that he brought colossal size back to public as opposed to only cult statue.33 Lysippos is
said to have created a colossal Herakles statue at Tarentum.34 Yet,
colossal statuary went out of style after the Persian wars due to
its connection with the Near East.35 Lysippos’ range of size in his
works went from colossal to as small as the Epitrapezios Herakles
23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 Paris and Harrison, 1890, 296.
Stewart, 1993, 32.
Paris and Harrison, 1890, 297.
Pollitt, 1972, 175.
Stewart, 1993, 33.
Plin. HN 34.61.
Pollitt, 1986, 48.
Pollitt, 1972, 176.
Pollitt, 1986, 48.
Pollitt, 1972, 176.
Pollitt, 1986, 49.
Plin. HN 34.40.
Pollitt, 1986, 49.
Figure 4: EPITRAPEZIOS
Photograph courtesy of Urban [CCBY-SA-2.5 (http://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by-sa/2.5)], via Wikimedia Commons
Mitchell Elvidge
28
(fig. 4).36 Lysippos used the extreme size, either large or small, to
evoke a shock value in the viewer; these Herakles figures exploited
both extremes.37 In this regard, he designed his works to startle
and engage his viewers emotionally.38 Lysippos’ theatricality further follows through into the dramatic, elaborate expressions and
the heavy muscular builds of characters like the Farnese Herakles
(fig. 5).39
His innovations in expressionism are also prominent. In
the statue Farnese Herakles, a colossal from Naples, the depiction
of the hero is one of weariness and an inability to stand on his
own, using his club as a crutch.40 His massive musculature, larger
than life qualities, and heroic status are ironically contrasted with
his apparent weariness, showing Herakles as ready for a rest
after his many great deeds.41 Opposite this is the very small Epitrapezios Herakles, which, despite its size, is feasting and full
of energy.42 Pollitt suggests that
Figure 5: FARNESE
Photograph courtesy of Marie-Lan
Lysippos was working from the
Hellenistic philosophical ideal Nguyen [CC-BY-2.5 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5)], via
that, after one’s labour is done,
Wikimedia Commons
one can move to a higher plane
of existence and shed the pain of ordinary life.43 According to Pollitt, this could mean that the Farnese Herakles and the Epitrapezios
Herakles are in a manner a ‘before and after’ shot of Herakles, the
Farnese weary from life and the Epitrapezios the ascended Herakles feasting in the higher realm after gaining his immortality.44
Figure 6: KAIROS
Photograph courtesy of Agnostizi
[Public domain or CC-BY-SA-3.0
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons
36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 Chase and Post, 1971, 120.
Pollitt, 1972, 189.
Pollitt, 1986, 49.
Pollitt, 1986, 50.
Pollitt, 1972, 109.
Pollitt, 1986, 51.
Pollitt, 1972, 190.
Pollitt, 1986, 52.
Ibid.
Pollitt, 1986, 53.
Pollitt, 1972, 187.
Paris and Harrison, 1890, 301.
Lysippos had a growing fondness for the use of allegory in
sculpture,45 which he innovated by making his ideas more complex
in order to appeal to the learned.46 The best example of his use
of allegory is in the piece called Kairos (fig. 6), which means “the
right time” or “opportunity”.47 The original was a bronze erected
in the town of Sikyon, and the work only survives today through
a relief carving and its identification in literary references, such as
Lysippos’ Sculpture
29
that by Poseidippos.48 The statue represents the illusive nature of
Kairos, quick moving with its winged feet, hard to recognize due
to its face being covered with hair, and impossible to catch once it
has passed, which is represented by the baldness on the back of its
head, displaying a lack of hair to grab.49 Due to an increasing diversity in city centers such as Alexandria, artists like Lysippos could
no longer rely on the masses understanding subtle nuances in gesture or references to literature.50 To this end, Lysippos designed the
statue to be didactic,51 and he had to appeal to the people’s sense of
knowledge as well as to provide them with information.52
Lysippos was the court sculptor of Alexander III “the
Great”.53As such, he made many statues of Alexander in his time,
starting with a portrait of him in his boyhood.54 In fact, he was the
only person whom Alexander authorized to reproduce his image
in sculpture because he felt that he was the only person talented
Figure 7: HEAD OF ALEXenough to do so.55 Horace also
ANDER THE GREAT
comments on Alexander’s prefPhotograph courtesy of Vlas2000
erence for Lysippos, citing the [CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://creativecomimportance of a king choosing
mons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via
Wikimedia Commons
his publicist well.56 Indeed, Lysippos’ works functioned as propaganda for the Macedonian king, and57 his time with Alexander
influenced his work in various ways.
Figure 8: POMPEY
Photograph courtesy of Bach Pedersen
[Public domain], via Wikimedia
Commons
48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 Pollitt, 1986, 53.
Pollitt, 1972, 187.
Pollitt, 1972, 184.
Paris and Harrison, 1890, 301.
Pollitt, 1972, 184.
Paris and Harrison, 1890, 299.
Plin. HN 34.61.
Plut. Vit. Alex. 4.
Stewart, 1993, 26.
Pollitt, 1972, 178.
Morgan, 1949, 332.
Morgan, 1949, 229.
Pollitt, 1972, 183.
Pollitt, 1986, 20.
Pollitt, 1986, 21.
Firstly, Lysippos was the first famous Greek sculptor
known for his portraits,58 and he produced many of Alexander
and his entourage.59 While working for Alexander, Lysippos perfected royal portraiture.60 He created the new ‘heroic-ruler’ type
of portrait, which would be used for centuries after by rulers who
reckoned themselves successors of Alexander.61 The best example
of Lysippos’ portraits of the king is the Head of Alexander from
Pella (fig. 7).62 A notable example of the imitation of the ‘heroicruler’ portrait is by the Roman consul Pompey (fig. 8) in the first
century BCE. In this work, the use of Lysippos’ style can be seen in
Mitchell Elvidge
30
areas such as the hair and a leftward tilt of the head, much like the
Head from Pella. Further, Lysippos was concerned with creating
the appropriate personality for his portraiture, and as a result developed the “personality portrait” genre of art.63
As the head from Pella demonstrates, Lysippos styled his
portraits of Alexander in a very unique way. He caught Alexander’s head slightly lifted to the left, and perfectly caught his melting
gaze.64 He wanted to emphasise the personality of Alexander by
both showing his heroism and kingliness, but also by showing his
irritability and flaws, all in a highly expressive face.65 His slightly
parted lips and raised eyes give the impression of inner strength
and purpose, according to Stewart.66 These portraits were meant
foremost to convey his aretē, in other words excellence and ethos,
or character.67 Interesting about Lysippos’ portrayal of Alexander
is his ability to take qualities that might otherwise be considered
un-heroic, such as the limpid eyes, and use them as an advantage
for the image.68 Furthermore, Lysippos rendered him as a mortal
but brought out and idealized his appearance in order to reveal
the character underneath.69 Lysippos was considered unmatched
Figure 9: APHRODITE
in his ability to capture Alexander’s ‘true’ self,70 by catching his
KNIDOS
‘leonine’ and ‘virile’ character.71 Lysippos’ portrayal of hair is also
Photograph courtesy of Mr Arifnajaoften praised, and authors such as Pliny note that ‘he contributed
fov [CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via much to the art of casting statues by representing the hair in great
Wikimedia Commons
detail’.72 This is a trait that he developed when working on perfecting his portraiture. This attention to detail in hair is apparent in the anastolē (cowlick) on the Alexander head from Pella, a conscious effort to render natural qualities realistically.73
A second influence from Alexander comes from the travels Lysippos undertook with him.
Pollitt says that Lysippos’ travels shaped the way that he developed his art, such as discovering the
diversity within cities that they visited, some of which were distinctly “un-Greek”.74 Travelling also
provided the opportunity to introduce the sculptor to other forms of art. One such example is the
above-mentioned Near Eastern influence of the re-introduction of colossal sculpture to the public.75
Thirdly, the Kairos can be considered representative of the Diadochoi, the men who fought
for Alexander’s throne after his death.76 These are both other ways which his relationship with his
patron affected his art.
63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 Pollitt, 1972, 180.
Plut. Vit. Alex. 4.
Pollitt, 1972, 180.
Stewart, 1993, 113.
Pollitt, 1986, 20.
Stewart, 1993, 37.
Stewart, 1993, 37.
Paris and Harrison, 1890, 299.
Stewart, 1993, 37.
Plin. HN 34.61.
Stewart, 1993, 73.
Pollitt, 1986, 49.
Ibid.
Pollitt, 1986, 54.
Lysippos’ Sculpture
31
As previously mentioned, Lysippos was one of the three
great sculptors of the fourth century BCE. His contemporaries
were the sculptors Praxiteles and Scopas.77 Praxiteles and Scopas
were much more important to the development of theme, whereas Lysippos was a technical innovator.78 Praxiteles, like Lysippos,
worked with slender characters.79 Praxiteles’ major development,
however, was in the nudity of his subjects, such as his Aphrodite
at Knidos (fig. 9); female nudity was only rarely represented before this, such as on the ‘Ludovisi Thone’.80 Furthermore, Praxiteles’
medium of work was marble, not bronze like Lysippos’.81 It is possible that the Eros of Lysippos (fig. 10) was meant to rival the Eros
done by Praxiteles; Lysippos’ use of tension, torsion, and limb projection contrast with the serene and static elegance of Praxiteles’
work.82 Scopas, who was not associated with any known school of
sculpture, was interested in expressing strong feelings through his
work, as is shown on his sculpture Meleager (fig. 11).83 In these
Figure 10: EROS
two examples from Praxiteles
Photograph courtesy of Marie-Lan
and Scopas, it can be seen that Nguyen [CC-BY-2.5 (http://creativeboth sculptors still worked from commons.org/licenses/by/2.5)], via
Wikimedia Commons
inside the square that Pliny says
is typical of the previous generation of sculptors, and from which
Lysippos deviated.84
Figure 11: MELEAGER
Photograph courtesy of Bibi Saint-Pol
[Public domain], via Wikimedia
Commons
77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 Paris and Harrison, 1890, 296.
Pollitt, 1972, 176.
Chase and Post, 1971, 113.
Chase and Post, 1971, 116.
Chase and Post, 1971, 117.
Pollitt, 1986, 48.
Chase and Post, 1971, 118.
Paris and Harrison, 1890, 297.
Paris and Harrison, 1890, 301.
Pollitt, 1986, 55.
von Reber, 1882, 344.
Pollitt, 1986, 55.
Lysippos’ style was continued in his school of art, and
thus his influence affected art for some time after his death. Three
of his sons followed in his footsteps as sculptors and appreciated
his canon: Euthykratos, Daippos and Boëdas.85 Euthykrates, for
example, produced an Alexander hunting scene while Daippos
sculpted a statue called the Perixyomenos, or ‘man scraping himself all over with a strigil’,86 and both concepts allude to works of
their father. Perhaps one of the more famous works sculpted by
a disciple of Lysippos is the Colossus erected circa 280 BCE, the
Helios of Rhodes by Chares of Lindos.87 The descriptions of the
Colossus and a head found of a Helios statue on Rhodes, which
is thought to be a copy of the Colossus, both bear a remarkable
resemblance to the portraits of Alexander done by Lysippos.88 It
also seems that Lysippos’ use of the colossal statues also was an
Mitchell Elvidge
32
influence on Chares.
Another of Lysippos’ students was Eutychides, who produced the ‘Tychē, or Fortune, of Antioch’ (fig. 12).89 ‘Tychē’ is very
much in the style of his master in both its projection of limbs and
also in its heavy use of allegory, such as the sheaf of wheat she
holds in her hand and the personification of a river deity.90 Chase
and Post continue on to state that Lysippos’ style even affected the
famous Venus de Milo, in an exaggerated use of Lysippos’ canon.91
There are many other works from this time that tempt scholars to
call them Lysippan, which stands as a testament to the great influence of his school.92
As one can clearly see, Lysippos was by no means a
fleeting name in ancient art, but he had a profound effect on the
development of sculpture. He brought great detail and vibrant personality to his art, developed sculpture in several different ways,
and perfected portraiture. He redeveloped the canon of proportion
of Polykleitos and brought greater detail in areas like character expression to his sculpture. He is credited with literally breaking the
Figure 12: TYCHE OF
mould, the ‘square’ used by Polykleitos and his contemporaries,
ANTIOCH
and redefining how to use three dimensional spaces. He was so
Photograph courtesy of Jastrow [Pubgood that even Alexander the Great gave him the monopoly on
lic domain], via Wikimedia Commons
creating his sculpted image. Lysippos, in short, was a great innovator. His techniques led to a more refined and expressive form of art, changing the ideals of sculpture
from the previous generation and profoundly influencing those following him
Mitchell Elvidge
WORKS CITED
Chase, G. H., and Post, C. R. A History of Sculpture. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood, 1971.
Morgan, C. H. “The Style of Lysippos.” Hesperia Supplements 8 (1949): 228-34.
Paris, P., and Harrison, J. E. Manual of Ancient Sculpture. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1890.
Pliny. The Natural History (The Art of Ancient Greece, 1400 - 31 B.C.: Sources and Documents by J.J.
Pollitt, p. 143-147). Trans. J. J. Pollitt. Eaglewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1965.
Plutarch. Greek Lives. Trans. Robin Waterfield. Ed. Philip A. Stadter. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2008.
Pollitt, J. J. Art and Experience in Classical Greece. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1972.
Pollitt, J. J. Art in the Hellenistic Age. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1986.
89 90 91 92 Chase and Post, 1971, 129.
Pollitt, 1986, 55.
Chase and Post, 1971, 131.
Pollitt, 1986, 58.
Lysippos’ Sculpture
33
Stewart, A. F. Faces of Power: Alexander’s Image and Hellenistic Politics. Berkeley: University of California, 1993.
von Reber, F. History of Ancient Art. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1882.