Disney as Model and Rival - Center for the Study of Digital Games

Disney as Model and Rival - Center for the Study of Digital Games

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released. W h a t l i n k s these d i f f e r e n t styles is t h e challenge o f c r e a t i n g t h e
i l l u s i o n o f m o v e m e n t — t h e i l l u s i o n o f life, i n f a c t — u s i n g a series o f s t i l l
images.
T h e A n i m a t o r Test
F o r Y a s u o Ötsuka, a n i m a t i o n i s a b o u t t h e j o y o f m o v e m e n t — t h a t is, t h e
s h o c k o f d e l i g h t a t s e e i n g o n e ' s d r a w i n g s m o v e . W h e n Ötsuka f i r s t a p p l i e d
f o r a j o b a t T o e i i n 1956, h e w a s g i v e n a n i l l u s t r a t i o n o f a b o y h o l d i n g a
s l e d g e h a m m e r . O n e o f T o e i ' s a n i m e d i r e c t o r s t o l d h i m t o d r a w five o r six
k e y frames t o depict t h e b o y u s i n g t h e s l e d g e h a m m e r t o drive a stake i n t o
t h e g r o u n d . Ötsuka t h o u g h t , t h i s w i l l b e easy. A s t h e d i r e c t o r s t a r t e d t o
l e a v e t h e r o o m , h e s t o p p e d a n d a d d e d , " O h , a n d b y t h e w a y , t h e h a m m e r is
m a d e o f i r o n . I t ' s s o h e a v y t h e b o y c a n b a r e l y l i f t i t . " ^ Ötsuka says, " I
r e a l i z e d , t h i s w a s g o i n g t o b e h a r d e r t h a n I t h o u g h t " (Ötsuka 2001: 21-23).
Ötsuka s t o o d u p a n d a c t e d o u t t h e m o v e m e n t s . I f t h e h a m m e r w a s t o o
m
2^
heavy, t h e b o y w o u l d have t o lean over, grab o n e e n d o f t h e h a n d l e near t h e
head, b e n d his knees, lean back, a n d heave. I n a d o c u m e n t a r y a b o u t his
c a r e e r i n a n i m a t i o n , Ötsuka r e - e n a c t s h i s t r a i n o f t h o u g h t i n f i g u r i n g o u t
15. A n i m a t o r t e s t s h o w i n g k e y f r a m e s a n d a n u m b e r o f i n - b e t w e e n f r a m e s f r o m t h e
d o c u m e n t a r y film Ötsuka Yasuo no Ugokasu Yorokohi ( z o o 4 ) .
t h a t t h e b o y c o u l d raise t h e h a m m e r o n l y t o a v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n o r h e ' d f a l l
b a c k w a r d . W h e n t h e h a m m e r h i t t h e stake, t h e b o y w o u l d a l m o s t stagger.
Ötsuka sat b a c k d o w n a n d , w i t h p e n c i l i n h a n d , t u r n e d t o t h e b l a n k p a g e s ,
each w i t h holes a t the t o p t o align t h e m i n a m e t a l b o l d e r called a " t a p "
{tappu). H e g o t t o w o r k o n t h e b a c k l i t d e s k a n d d r e w t h e k e y f r a m e s . T h e
documentary
film
shows a key-frame a n i m a t i o n challenge made m o r e
d i f f i c u l t b y c h a n g i n g o u r v i e w o f t h e character, w h o is s h o w n at a n angle
i n s t e a d o f d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e s i d e (see figure 15). T h e n u m b e r s b e t w e e n t h e
across m e d i a a n d c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h o t h e r n a t i o n s , a n d t h i s i n t u r n helps
explain the particular directions pursued by other a n i m e studios, too. T o
extend o u r discussion o f t h e relationships b e t w e e n " n i c h e " a n d "mass,"
w h i c h a l s o r e l a t e t o scales o f a n a l y s i s f o r c r u c i b l e s o f c r e a t i v i t y , l e t ' s c o n s i d e r b r i e f l y t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f u s i n g a n o t i o n o f n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r as a n
e x p l a n a t i o n , i n o r d e r t o see h o w m o r e p r o x i m a t e e x p l a n a t i o n s b e t t e r c h a r a c t e r i z e a n i m e ' s e m e r g e n t success.
k e y f r a m e s {genga) r e f e r t o t h e n u m b e r o f i n - b e t w e e n f r a m e s [dóga) t h a t
w o u l d h a v e t o b e fiUed i n l a t e r t o p r o d u c e s m o o t h m o v e m e n t . C a l c u l a t i n g
T h e Japanese H a v e A l w a y s L i k e d Stories w i t h Pictures"
these n u m b e r s is part o f t h e j o b o f t h e director, a n i m a t i o n director, a n d
A l t h o u g h s o m e a n i m e creators a n d scholars i d e n t i f y historical c o n t i n u i t i e s
i n p o p u l a r c u l t u r e as a w a y t o d e f i n e n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y , t h e s e a s s e r t i o n s
s h o u l d be i n t e r p r e t e d w i t h c a u t i o n . C o n s i d e r t h e a n i m e director Isao
T a k a h a t a , w h o i s m o s t f a m o u s p e r h a p s f o r d i r e c t i n g t h e s t u n n i n g film
Grave oftheFireflies (1988). T h e film p o r t r a y s t h e h o r r o r o f t h e A l l i e s ' fireb o m b i n g o f J a p a n e s e c i t i e s i n 1945, a p r a c t i c e t h a t k i l l e d f a r m o r e p e o p l e
t h a n t h e a t o m i c b o m b s a n d t h a t d e c i m a t e d m o r e t h a n sixty Japanese cities
( S a y l e 1995). ( T w o l a r g e c i t i e s w e r e s p a r e d t h e firebombing: K y o t o , f o r i t s
h i s t o r i c a l i m p o r t a n c e , a n d H i r o s h i m a , w h i c h figured i n o t h e r p l a n s . ) T a k a -
k e y - f r a m e artists. D r a w i n g s l i k e these w o u l d c o n s t i t u t e a b o u t o n e a n d a
h a l f s e c o n d s o f film. M a k i n g a n i m a t i o n r e q u i r e s n o t o n l y a n i m m e n s e
a m o u n t o f w o r k b u t also special t a l e n t .
Ötsuka's d e v o t i o n t o d r a w i n g , a n d e s p e c i a l l y t o t h e a r t o f d r a w i n g
m o v e m e n t , g a v e h i m a r o l e i n T o e i ' s success. H e w o r k e d w i t h t h e d i r e c t o r s
H a y a o M i y a z a k i a n d I s a o T a k a h a t a , a l t h o u g h Ötsuka a c k n o w l e d g e s
sadly
i n t h e course o f t h e d o c u m e n t a r y t h a t h e d i d n o t have w h a t i t takes t o be a
director. T o e i expanded i n the p o s t w a r p e r i o d t h a n k s i n part t o synergies
9Z
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P O S T W A R
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w h i c h is based o n a n o v e l , depicts t h e
firebombing
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A N I M E
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T a k a h a t a is n o t a l o n e i n finding r e s o n a n c e b e t w e e n c o n t e m p o r a r y a n i m a t i o n a n d t r a d i t i o n a l art f o r m s . T h e m e d i a studies scholar T a k u j i O k u n o
perspective o f t w o c h i l d r e n caught i n t h e h o r r o r a n d its a f t e r m a t h .
T a k a h a t a spent m a n y years w o r k i n g alongside t h e master a n i m a t o r
(2007) a r g u e s t h a t t h e r o o t s o f t o d a y ' s " C o o l J a p a n "
products—anime,
H a y a o M i y a z a k i . I n a b o o k h e w r o t e p r o p o s i n g a t h e o r y f o r anime's suc-
m a n g a , J - P o p m u s i c , a n d v i d e o g a m e s — a r e t o b e f o u n d i n t h e aesthetics o f
cess i n J a p a n , h e n o t e s t h a t t h e r e i s n o c o u n t r y w h e r e m o r e a n i m e a n d
e a r l y m o d e r n J a p a n . H e c o n t r a s t s t h e E u r o p e a n a r t s , s u c h as o i l p a i n t i n g
m a n g a is p r o d u c e d a n d e n j o y e d . " W h a t explains t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y devel-
a n d classical m u s i c s u p p o r t e d b y a r i s t o c r a t i e c o u r t s , w i t h Japanese arts o f
o p m e n t o f m a n g a a n d a n i m e i n J a p a n ? " h e a s k s ( T a k a h a t a 1999: 3 ) . H e
the townspeople a n d merchants that
r e m i n d s u s t h a t i n t h e a f t e r m a t h o f t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e Pacific war,
(1600-1868). H e p r o p o s e s t h a t p i c t u r e s c r o l l s o f t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y l e d t o
manga, " r e q u i r i n g o n l y p e n a n d paper," were cheap t o m a k e a n d t h u s m o r e
t h e e a r l y c o m i c - b o o k - s t y l e kibyóshi o f t h e E d o e r a , w h i c h b e c a m e m a n g a i n
flourished
during the Edo period
e a s i l y p r o d u c e d t h a n t h e a t e r o r films, a n d a n y o n e , i n c i t i e s o r i n t h e
the t w e n t i e t h century. H e identifies lavish k a b u k i performances
c o u n t r y s i d e , c o u l d e n j o y t h e m . H e s i n g l e s o u t t h e m&nga. kamisama ( g o d )
precursors t o a n i m e . T h i s effbrt t o l i n k today's C o o l Japan f o r m s t o prac-
as t h e
O s a m u T e z u k a for pioneering e m o t i o n a l l y m o v i n g dramas i n his comics,
t i c e s t h a t e m e r g e d i n t h e E d o p e r i o d a p p e a r s e l s e w h e r e , as w e l l . T h e n e o -
g e n e r a t i n g large audiences a n d , i n t u r n , o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r o t h e r artists. A s
p o p a r t i s t T a k a s h i M u r a k a m i (2000) r e l a t e s s o m e o f t h e i n n o v a t i o n o f
t h e o u t p u t o f m a n g a grew, a n i m e producers h a d a large catalogue t o d r a w
a n i m e t o so-called eccentric artists o f t h e E d o p e r i o d because b o t h rely o n a
f r o m a n d an audience already devoted t o m a n y o f the
characters.
visual plane t h a t eschews a 3D perspective i n favor o f a "superflat" m e r g i n g
M o r e o v e r , as t h o s e a u d i e n c e s m a t u r e d , s o d i d t h e o u t p u t o f m a n g a a n d
o f layers. T h e "special characteristic o f [ t h e a n i m a t o r Y o s h i n o r i Kanada's]
a n i m e c r e a t o r s as t h e y s t r o v e t o i n n o v a t e i n n e w d i r e c t i o n s .
s t y l e , " h e says, " l a y i n h i s a b i l i t y t o p r o d u c e e f f e c t s l i k e t h o s e o f [ t h e w o o d -
fictional
B u t T a k a h a t a seeks a m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l e x p l a n a t i o n a n d i n s o d o i n g
block artists] Sansetsu, S h o h a k u , a n d H o k u s a i i n images o f warships,
"The
t a n k s , r o b o t s , a n d g i r l s " i n , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e f e a t u r e film Galaxy Expressggg
b i g g e s t c a u s e {saidai nogen'iri), w h i c h i s n o t l i m i t e d t o t h e p r e s e n t , " h e
( M u r a k a m i 2000: 15). T h i s i s a c o m m o n w a y t o i d e n t i f y t h e c o n t i n u i t i e s
w r i t e s , "is t h e fact t h a t t h e Japanese p e o p l e have e n j o y e d a n i m e a n d m a n g a -
w i t h i n cultural settings t o characterize n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y t h r o u g h t i m e .
u s e s w h a t I v i e w as t o o s i m p l i s t i c a m o d e l o f c u l t u r a l r e s o n a n c e .
l i k e t h i n g s f r o m l o n g ago all t h e w a y u n t i l t o d a y a n d h a v e also b e e n g o o d at
Lest this tendency t o m a k e cultural generalizations seem
especially
m a k i n g t h e m " ( T a k a h a t a 1999: 3 ) . T o i l l u s t r a t e t h i s , h e p o i n t s t o p i c t u r e
J a p a n e s e , I w o u l d n o t e t h a t a k i n d o f Americajinron ( t h e o r y o f A m e r i c a n
s c r o l l s {emakimono) d r a w n i n t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y . W h a t d e f i n e s
uniqueness) can be f o u n d i n studies o f U.S. a n i m a t i o n . S u c h perspectives
manga
a n d a n i m e , h e says, i s n o t t h e r e l i a n c e o n c a r i c a t u r e b u t t h e t e c h n i q u e s o f
t e n d t o m a i n t a i n a n a t i o n a l frame o f reference a n d t o m a k e loose c u l t u r a l
t e l l i n g s t o r i e s w i t h p i c t u r e s t h a t u n f o l d ( o r i n t h i s case, u n r o U ) o v e r t i m e .
c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n a n i m a t e d w o r k s a n d broader social trends. I n p o i n t -
F r o m t h i s perspective, p i c t u r e scrolls are i n effect " t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y a n i m a -
i n g o u t contrasts between pure cinema and a n i m a t i o n , the scholar Paul
t i o n , " t h e title o f his b o o k . T a k a h a t a extends this idea o f resonance histor-
W e l l s puts i t this way.
ically b y s h o w i n g h o w scroU artists used " m a n g a - l i k e " drawings t o p o r t r a y
movements o f spinning wheels and
flying
arrows. H i s experience
with
a n i m e a l s o a l l o w s h i m t o see p i c t u r e s c r o l l s i n t e r m s o f filmic t e c h n i q u e s . I n
t h e b o o k , h e diagrams h o w p i c t u r e scrolls w e r e u n r o l l e d t o p o r t r a y o n e
scène a t a t i m e . T h e r e a d e r a l s o c o u l d " z o o m o u t " b y u n r o l l i n g b o t h e d g e s
a t o n c e o r " p a n " a c r o s s a scène ( r o l l i n g u p a n d r o l l i n g o u t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y ) ,
p r o d u c i n g c a m e r a - l i k e efïects a l m o s t a m i l l e n n i u m a g o . T a k a h a t a ' s b o o k is a
w o n d e r f u l o v e r v i e w o f t h e s t o r y t e l l i n g magie t h a t ancient Japanese artists
e m p l o y e d . B u t as a n e x p l a n a t i o n f o r a n i m e ' s c u l t u r a l s t r e n g t h , i t r e l i e s t o o
heavily o n the appearance o f similarity, w h i c h , i n t u r n , short-circuits history.
T h e a n i m a t e d film c l e a r l y s a i d s o m e t h i n g d i f f e r e n t a b o u t A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e
a n d said i t i n a d i f f e r e n t v o i c e . I n m a n y senses i t s e m e r g e n c e w a s g r o u n d e d
i n w h a t h a d b e c o m e t y p i c a l l y A m e r i c a n g r a n d n a r r a t i v e s — p i o n e e r s creati n g a language o f expression w h i c h explored n e w frontiers; apparently o r d i n a r y p e o p l e a p p l y i n g t h e i r a r t i s a n a l s k i l l s t o a c h i e v e f i i l f i l l m e n t as i n d i v i d uals a n d as p r o g r e s s i v e w o r k i n g c o m m u n i t i e s ; s u c c e e d i n g w i t h i n t h e h a r s h
c o n d i t i o n s o f i n d u s t r i a l c a p i t a l i s m a n d t h e n e w m a c h i n e age; e x p r e s s i n g t h e
desire f o r a l i b e r a l d e m o c r a t i e c o n s e n s u s t h a t e m b r a c e d u t o p i a n v a l u e s a n d
ideals. (2002: 10)
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W h i l e this d e p i c t i o n o f the deep insights t h a t cartoons c a n offer is elo-
11). L a b o r u n i o n s f o r a n i m a t o r s n e v e r b e c a m e a p o w e r f i i l f o r c e i n J a p a n ,
q u e n t a n d insightfiil, i t risks t r a p p i n g analysis i n a m o d e o f resonance w i t h
w h e r e a s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , t h e s t r u g g l e s a n d successes o f t h e a n i m a t o r s '
larger t r e n d s t h a t m a y be m o r e m e t a p h o r i c a l t h a n n o t . T o be fair, Wells's
u n i o n is a r e m a r k a b l e s t o r y ( S i t o 2.006). O n e w o n d e r s , t o w h a t e x t e n t d o e s
g o a l i s t o s h o w t h a t " m e r e c a r t o o n s " c a n a n d s h o u l d c o u n t as s u b s t a n t i a l
t h i s h e l p e x p l a i n t h e p o o r w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s o f Japan's a n i m a t o r s t o d a y ?
c u l t u r a l texts i n t h e i r o w n r i g h t , a n d h e adds concrete details t o t h e
I n a n y case, l a b o r i s s u e s r e m a i n a c h a l l e n g e f o r a n i m a t o r s , a n d t h e a r r i v a l o f
m e t a p h o r i c a l c o n n e c t i o n s h e proposes. B u t t h e r e is still a danger, i t seems
c o m p u t e r s has n o t e l i m i n a t e d t h o s e concerns. H o w , t h e n , does a n i m a t i o n
t o m e , o f o v e r s i m p l i f y i n g t h r o u g h ideas o f c u l t u r a l resonance.
g e t g o i n g as a n i n d u s t r y ? I n J a p a n , m a n g a w a s i m p o r t a n t .
N e a l Gabler's b i o g r a p h y o f W a l t D i s n e y also w o r k s w i t h i n a n a t i o n a l
T h e m a n g a w r i t e r a n d c r i t i c E i j i Ötsuka ( n o r e l a t i o n t o t h e a n i m a t o r
frame o f reference, a t times s h o w i n g h o w t h e narrative structure o f D i s -
Y a s u o Ötsuka) t e l l s t h e h i s t o r y o f m a n g a b y b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e c o m i c s i n
ney's f i l m s resonates w i t h larger c u l t u r a l reahties. F o r G a b l e r ,
A m e r i c a n newspapers i n t h e early t w e n t i e t h century. C o m i c b o o k charac-
Disney's
success i s A m e r i c a ' s success: " I n b o t h D i s n e y ' s i m a g i n a t i o n a n d t h e A m e r i -
t e r s s u c h as t h e Y e l l o w K i d a n d L i t t l e N e m o h e l p e d i n c r e a s e
newspapers'
can i m a g i n a t i o n , o n e c o u l d assert one's w i l l o n t h e w o r l d ; o n e c o u l d ,
c i r c u l a t i o n a n d k e p t c o n s u m e r s c o m i n g b a c k (Ötsuka a n d Ösawa 2005).
t h r o u g h one's o w n p o w e r , o r m o r e accurately t h r o u g h t h e p o w e r o f one's
T h i s use o f characters w a s i m p o r t e d t o Japanese c o m i c strips. F o r e x a m p l e ,
i n n a t e g o o d n e s s , a c h i e v e success. I n a t y p i c a l l y A m e r i c a n f o r m u l a t i o n ,
t h e m a n g a p u p p y c h a r a c t e r N o r a k u r o w a s c r e a t e d i n 1931 a n d h a d s a t i r -
n o t h i n g b u t goodness a n d w i l l m a t t e r e d . Disney's best a n i m a t i o n s — . S w o u '
ically depicted Japan's w a r t i m e efforts i n Asia. T h e hapless N o r a k u r o k e p t
White and the Seven Dwarfs, Pinocchio, Bambi, a n d Dumbo—vfere a r c h e -
getting h i m s e l f i n t o trouble b u t eventually f o u n d ways out. A s T h o m a s
t y p a l expressions o f t h i s idea" ( 1 0 0 7 : x v i i ) . G a b l e r traces i n great d e t a i l t h e
L a M a r r e (1008) p o i n t s o u t , t h e u s e o f a n i m a l s i n w a r t i m e a n i m a t i o n
c o u r s e o f W a l t D i s n e y ' s l i f e a n d t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f h i s s t u d i o as a w a y t o
c o n v e y e d a l i n k a g e b e t w e e n a n i m a l species a n d racial g r o u p s i n w a y s t h a t
s u p p o r t t h e s e b r o a d c l a i m s . T h e p r o b l e m is n o t t h a t G a b l e r i s w r o n g i n h i s
r e i n f o r c e d t h e i m p e r i a l i s t l o g i c o f t h e day. H u m o r o u s c o m i c s c a n b e se-
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , b u t h e doesn't take fiill advantage o f w h a t c u l t u r a l analysis
r i o u s business. O f course, t h e infiuences c a n be traced t o d o m e s t i c f o r m s
h a s t o o f f e r . B y c h a r a c t e r i z i n g D i s n e y ' s b e s t a n i m a t i o n as " a t y p i c a l l y A m e r -
o f p o p u l a r c u l t u r e , as w e l l — f o r e x a m p l e , i n t h e w a y s t h e s t r e e t p e r f o r -
ican f o r m u l a t i o n , " Gabler equates certain artistic w o r k s w i t h n a t i o n a l
m a n c e o f s t o r y t e l l i n g t h r o u g h a s e r i e s o f p i c t u r e s {kamishibai) w a s t h e r a g e
i d e n t i t y , a n d c u l t u r e b e c o m e s a d e a d s p e c i m e n , s t u d i e d as i f p i n n e d t o a
i n 1930S ( N a s h 1009). S o m e o f t h e a r t i s t s w e n t o n t o p r o d u c e m a n g a , as
b o a r d r a t h e r t h a n f l u t t e r i n g chaotically i n its n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t .
d i d s o m e o f t h e c h i l d r e n i n t h e a u d i e n c e as t h e y g r e w u p .
F o r T o e i , h o w e v e r , t h e Standard f o r q u a l i t y a n i m a t i o n w a s s e t b y D i s -
D i s n e y as M o d e l a n d R i v a l
ney. T h e a n i m e h i s t o r i a n Yasuo Y a m a g u c h i o u t l i n e s a variety o f i n n o v a t i o n s b y D i s n e y t h a t i n f i u e n c e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a n i m e , a n d styles o f
A n alternative t oassociating D i s n e y solely w i t h A m e r i c a is t o consider
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n were n o t a l l t h a t were borrowed ( Y a m a g u c h i 2004: 36-38).
h o w t h e c o m p a n y w a s p e r c e i v e d as b o t h a m o d e l a n d a r i v a l i n t h e e a r l y
T o e i s e n t a y o u n g f i l m director, T a i j i Y a b u s h i t a , t o L o s A n g e l e s t o l e a r n t h e
days o f p o s t w a r Japanese a n i m a t i o n . W h e n Yasuo O t s u k a was h i r e d , T o e i
p r o d u c t i o n s y s t e m d i r e c t l y f r o m D i s n e y ( Y a m a g u c h i 2004: 67). S o m e o f
a i m e d t o create feature films w i t h p o t e n t i a l f o r e x p o r t , b u t n o t p r i m a r i l y t o
t h e influences, w h i c h crossed categories
t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . T o e i ' s f i r s t r e l e a s e i n 1958, Hakujaden ( L e g e n d o f t h e
organization, and corporate branding, included the foUowing:
w h i t e s e r p e n t ) is based o n a C h i n e s e f o l k t a l e ; w i t h t h e h e l p o f a H o n g
K o n g m o v i e c o m p a n y , i t reached H o n g K o n g , T a i w a n , t h e U n i t e d States,
a n d B r a z i l . T h e n e x t f e w years s a w t h e release o f t h r e e m o r e T o e i f e a t u r e
f i l m s , a m u c h faster rate t h a n D i s n e y ' s o n e release e v e r y t w o years. T o e i
v i e w e d i t s e l f as m o r e r a t i o n a l i n p r o d u c t i o n . B y 1961, t h e c o m p a n y h a d
three h u n d r e d workers, but there were labor problems, including the form a t i o n o f a l a b o r u n i o n , strikes, a n d l o c k o u t s ( T o e i A n i m a t i o n 1006:10-
o f a n i m a t i o n aesthetics,
* T h e u s e of e x a g g e r a t e d e x p r e s s i o n s — f o r
labor
example, t h e "squash a n d
stretch system" o f d e f o r m i n g characters t o emphasize t h e i r personalities.
* T h e storyboard s y s t e m , w h i c h a l l o w e d D i s n e y t o use a variety o f
sequential p i c t u r e s t o c o n v e y t h e s t o r y a n d t h e f e e l i n g o f t h e scènes t o
the animators.
* A c u r r i c u l u m f o r t r a i n i n g n e w t a l e n t , w h i c h was necessary because w i t h
*
C H A P T E R
T H R E E
e a c h h i t p r o d u c t i o n , a n i m a t o r s w o u l d be h i r e d a w a y f r o m D i s n e y a t
P O S T W A R
A N I M E
*
consider some o f the interactions between media and performance histo-
h i g h e r salaries. D i s n e y r e s p o n d e d b y d e v e l o p i n g a s y s t e m t o t r a i n n e w
ries i n t h e U n i t e d States a n d J a p a n a n d c o n s i d e r h o w t h e y relate t o differ-
workers.
e n c e s i n s t y l e s o f a n i m a t i o n . T h e a n i m a t i o n d i r e c t o r P e t e r C h u n g ofl^ers
* T h e division-of-labor system, w h i c h allowed the D i s n e y studio t o w o r k
o n a n i m a t e d s h o r t s a n d f e a t u r e - l e n g t h films a t t h e s a m e t i m e .
s o m e i n t e r e s t i n g insights. C h u n g was b o r n i n S e o u l b u t lives p r i m a r i l y i n
L o s Angeles. H e w o r k s closely w i t h A m e r i c a n , Japanese, a n d K o r e a n ani-
* Establishment o f the D i s n e y b r a n d — f o r example, by describing all
m a t i o n s t u d i o s , so h e has a p e r s p e c t i v e o n s o m e o f t h e n a t i o n a l differences
w o r k s as " W a l t D i s n e y p r e s e n t s " a n d p o l i s h i n g t h e b r a n d i m a g e b y
w h i l e also b e i n g a l i v i n g e x a m p l e o f t h e c o l l a b o r a t i v e w o r k t h a t crosses
h a v i n g D i s n e y h i m s e l f p e r s o n a l l y introducé t h e w o r k s .
n a t i o n a l b o u n d a r i e s . H e w r o t e a n d d i r e c t e d t h e s h o r t a n i m a t e d film t h a t
* T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f m e r c h a n d i s i n g , w h e r e b y t h e ficensor o f a n i m a t e d
a p p e a r s o n t h e c o m p i l a t i o n D V D Jnimatrix,
a. project o v e r s e e n b y S t u d i o
c h a r a c t e r s w o u l d receive 3-7 p e r c e n t o f t h e sales p r i c e o f g o o d s r e l a t e d
4 ° C o f T o k y o t h a t a i m s a t e x t e n d i n g t h e Matrix f r a n c h i s e t h r o u g h s h o r t
t o t h o s e c h a r a c t e r s , w h i c h w a s n e c e s s a r y t o offset t h e d e f i c i t s i n c u r r e d
films
b y a n i m a t i o n p r o d u c t i o n . ( Y a m a g u c h i 2004: 36-38)
triculated, w a s p r o d u c e d b y t h e D N A a n i m a t i o n s t u d i o i n K o r e a . I t fea-
I n t h i s l i s t , w e c a n see s o m e o f t h e w a y s t h e c r e a t i v e c r u c i b l e o f a n i m e w a s
b o r n . T h e influences shade f r o m aesthetic styles (squash a n d s t r e t c h )
t h r o u g h t e c h n i q u e s o f d i v i d i n g u p t h e w o r k . Y e t T o e i also t o o k p r i d e i n
v i e w i n g D i s n e y as a r i v a l i t c o u l d t o p t h r o u g h " m o r e r a t i o n a l " f o r m s o f
p r o d u c t i o n o r g a n i z a t i o n . S o m e o f these practices r e m i n d u s t h a t "technological" decisions can have a d r a m a t i c i m p a c t o n t h e k i n d o f labor
required o f animators.
b y f a m o u s a n d u p - a n d - c o m i n g d i r e c t o r s . C h u n g ' s i n s t a l l m e n t , Ma-
t u r e s a f e m a l e r e s i s t a n c e fighter w h o l u r e s t w o S e n t i n e l s ( e v i l r o b o t s ) i n t o
a trap i n an effort t o negotiate w i t h those w h o c o n t r o l the M a t r i x . C h u n g
g a i n e d f a m e i n p a r t f o r h i s Aeon Flux s e r i e s o f a n i m a t e d s h o r t s t h a t a i r e d
o n M T V , w h i c h w e r e set i n a d y s t o p i c f i i t u r e r u l e d b y a s a d i s t i c d i c t a t o r .
( H e disavowed any involvement i n — a n d any blame f o r — t h e live-action
film
v e r s i o n t h a t starred C h a r l i z e T h e r o n . ) H e d r a w s i n a style t h a t c a n be
p e r c e i v e d as " a n i m e - l i k e " i n t h e s e n s e t h a t i t c o n t a i n s p o i n t e d l i n e s , s p i k y
hair, a n d fiituristic settings, b u t C h u n g dismisses t h e idea t h a t a p a r t i c u l a r
style o f d r a w i n g distinguishes a n i m e a n d a n i m a t i o n .
Peter C h u n g o n N a t i o n a l DifFerences
T h e c u l t u r a l a n a l y s i s o f n a t i o n a l s t y l e a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n f l u e n c e is c o m plex. I n Japan studies, a focus o n processes o f t r a n s n a t i o n a l a d a p t i o n has
b e e n u s e d as a c r i t i c a l w e d g e t o c o u n t e r a c t t h e e t h n o c e n t r i c v i e w t h a t t h e
Japanese are e i t h e r passive v i c t i m s o f o u t s i d e i n f l u e n c e o r active o n l y i n t h e
sense o f c h o o s i n g t o i m i t a t e o t h e r s . W h a t are w e t o m a k e o f s q u i d p i z z a ,
T o k y o D i s n e y l a n d , a n d t a n g o i n J a p a n ? J o s e p h T o b i n (1992: 4) t a c k l e s
these issues t h r o u g h t h e c o n c e p t o f " d o m e s t i c a t i o n " i n a n e f f o r t " t o i n d i c a t e a p r o c e s s t h a t is a c t i v e ( u n l i k e W e s t e r n i z a t i o n , m o d e r n i z a t i o n o r p o s t modernism), morally neutral (unlike imitation or parasitism), and demyst i f y i n g ( t h e r e is n o t h i n g i n h e r e n t l y strange, exotic, o r u n i q u e l y Japanese
g o i n g o n here)." H e aims t o c o m b a t t h e e t h n o c e n t r i s m o f analytical perspectives t h a t v i e w e v e r y t h i n g i n t e r m s o f its W e s t e r n o r A m e r i c a n o r i g i n s .
A d r a w b a c k o f t h i s a p p r o a c h , h o w e v e r , lies i n r e i n f o r c i n g t h e b o u n d a r y
r a t h e r t h a n h i g h l i g h t i n g t h e d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n J a p a n a n d t h e rest.
H o w can one balance this m i x o f dialogue a n d divergence? W e m i g h t
1.
I n N o v e m b e r 2006,1 v i s i t e d C h u n g at h i s h o m e o v e r l o o k i n g t h e c i t y o f
L o s A n g e l e s . F o r h i m , w h a t m a k e s J a p a n e s e a n i m a t i o n d i s t i n c t i v e h a s less
t o d o w i t h t h e d r a w i n g style t h a n w i t h h o w i t is p r o d u c e d . T h e m o s t
o b v i o u s d i f f e r e n c e , h e s a i d , is t h a t " i n A m e r i c a n a n i m a t i o n t h e d i a l o g u e is
r e c o r d e d first. E v e n t h o u g h t h a t m a y s o u n d l i k e a l i t t l e t e c h n i c a l , p r o c e d u r a l issue, i t a c t u a l l y affects h o w a n i m a t i o n is used, t h e aesthetics, a n d
t h e e n t i r e a p p r o a c h t o t h e i d e a o f a n i m a t i o n as p e r f o r m a n c e . T h i s i s a
central difference b e t w e e n A m e r i c a n a n i m a t i o n a n d Japanese animation.""*
A s T o e i ' s h i s t o r y c o n f i r m s , i t is m o s t c o m m o n i n Japanese a n i m a t i o n f o r
v o i c e s t o b e r e c o r d e d a f t e r t h e a n i m a t i o n i s d r a w n — h e n c e , t h e t e r m afu
reko ( a f t e r r e c o r d i n g ) . S o m e t i m e s e x c e p t i o n s a r e m a d e , as i n t h e case o f
G o n z o ' s Red Garden, f o r w h i c h t h e v o i c e s w e r e r e c o r d e d first (see c h a p t e r
4). Zenmai Zamurai u s e d t h e a f t e r - r e c o r d i n g m e t h o d , a n d i n t h e v o i c e r e c o r d i n g session I observed, I was surprised by h o w little a t t e n t i o n was
given t o closely m a t c h i n g t h e m o u t h m o v e m e n t s t h a t h a d been a n i m a t e d .
T h e focus instead was o n h a v i n g the r i g h t e m o t i o n p o r t r a y e d by t h e voice
actors.
*
C H A P T E R
P O S T W A R
T H R E E
A N I M E
*
as v a u d e v i l l e p e r f o r m e r s . I t a f f e c t e d e v e r y t h i n g . [ F o r e x a m p l e , ] t h e i r s t a g i n g
T h e differences t h a t f o U o w f r o m r e c o r d i n g voice actors first, h o w e v e r ,
c a n b e p r o f o u n d . I n t h e case of Red Garden, t h e p r o d u c e r s v i e w e d t h e p r e r e c o r d i n g as e s p e c i a l l y h e l p f u l f o r e m p h a s i z i n g t h e n u a n c e s o f t h e p a r t i c u lar actresses' p e r f o r m a n c e s . B y h a v i n g t h e a n i m a t o r s r e s p o n d t o t h e voice
actresses, r a t h e r t h a n t h e o t h e r w a y a r o u n d , t h e p r o d u c e r s gave m o r e
w e i g h t t o t h e a c t r e s s e s ' w o r k . T h i s is p r e c i s e l y w h a t C h u n g p o i n t e d t o i n
e x p l a i n i n g h o w r e c o r d i n g t h e v o i c e s first m e a n s t h a t a c a s c a d e o f d i f f e r ences f o l l o w i n h o w artistic decisions are m a d e :
Popeye a n d Betty Boop s h o r t s b y t h e F l e i s c h e r b r o t h e r s , a m o n g o t h e r s . T h e
A m e r i c a n a n i m a t o r s t h i n k o f t h e m s e l v e s as p e r f o r m e r s , as a c t o r s . T h e y t a k e
e x t r e m e s w h e n a n i m a t e d characters are i n e x t r i c a b l y l i n k e d — f o r e x a m p l e ,
is m u c h m o r e
proscenium-based.^
I n Japan, animators drew inspiration f r o m Disney and f r o m the animated
e m p h a s i s o n c h a r a c t e r s w i t h p e r s o n a l i t i e s is n o t u n i q u e l y J a p a n e s e , t h e r e fore, b u t t h e l i n k i n g o f characters t o particular actors a n d
performances—
s u c h as M i c k e y M o u s e ' s b o r r o w i n g f r o m B u s t e r K e a t o n i n Steamboat
Bill—tends t o b e m o r e c o m m o n i n U . S . a n i m a t i o n . T h i s c a n b e t a k e n t o
very seriously their job o f i n t e r p r e t i n g the voice performance and giving i t
R o b i n W i l l i a m s as G e n i e i n Aladdin o r E d d i e M u r p h y as D o n k e y i n
t h e c o r r e c t p h y s i c a l gestures. A l s o , u s u a l l y f o r A m e r i c a n f e a t u r e films, a n
Shrek.
a n i m a t o r is cast f o r a p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r . F o r e x a m p l e , i n D i s n e y ' s Aladdin,
Y e t t h e a t t e n t i o n t o p h y s i c a l m o v e m e n t as a w a y t o p o r t r a y p e r s o n a l i t y
o n e a n i m a t o r w i l l w o r k o n t h e A l a d d i n c h a r a c t e r , a n o t h e r o n G e n i e , a n d so
n e c e s s a r i l y introducés a l o c a l i z a t i o n d y n a m i c b a s e d o n w h a t w e o b s e r v e
o n . I n J a p a n , t h e a n i m a t o r s e a c h w o r k o n e n t i r e scènes. I n J a p a n , t h e y are
d a i l y . Y a s u o Ötsuka d e s c r i b e s t h e m i x e d r e a c t i o n i n T o e i ' s e a r l y d a y s t o a
m o r e l i k e i l l u s t r a t o r s . T h e t e r m f o r a n i m a t o r is "genga man," [ o r ] " o r i g i n a l
b o o k s h o w i n g a n i m a t i o n techniques created by P r e s t o n Blair, an A m e r i -
d r a w i n g person." T h e [animator's] role is t o m a k e a d r a w i n g , n o t t o per-
c a n . I t w a s a t i m e b e f o r e c o p y m a c h i n e s , a n d o n e o f Ötsuka's s u p e r v i s o r s
f o r m . B u t this comes o u t o f w o r k i n g f r o m drawings, n o t f r o m a voice
h a d c o p i e d t h e b o o k b y h a n d . B l a i r d e p i c t s t e c h n i q u e s s u c h as t h e " t a k e "
track.**
(surprise), anticipation (the pose before m o v i n g ) , f o U o w - t h r o u g h (body
T h i s also m e a n s t h a t , w h i l e m a k i n g t h e d r a w i n g s , t h e a n i m a t o r t e n d s t o
w o r k m o r e closely w i t h t h e storyboards p r o d u c e d by t h e a n i m e d i r e c t o r
t h a n w i t h t h e actors' voices. I observed t h i s
firsthand
at meetings b e t w e e n
t h e d i r e c t o r o f Red Garden a n d t h e t h r e e genga man ( t w o m e n a n d a
w o m a n ) going t h r o u g h the storyboards he had drawn. A l t h o u g h the director emphasized the importance o f m a t c h i n g m o u t h movements t o the
r e c o r d e d voices, m o s t o f t h e discussion focused o n o t h e r aspects o f d r a w i n g p a r t i c u l a r scènes, s u c h as h o w r a i n s h o u l d b e p o r t r a y e d a n d t h e s p e e d
at w h i c h a character w o u l d fall.
A c c o r d i n g t o C h u n g , t h e differences relate t o t h e origins f r o m w h i c h
t h e respective t r a d i t i o n s d r e w :
p o s i t i o n a f t e r a m o v e m e n t ) , a n d so o n ( B l a i r 2003 [1949]). S o m e c h a r a c ters are a n i m a l s ( s q u i r r e l s , dogs, r a b b i t s ) ; o t h e r s are c a r t o o n i s h
people.
A n i m a t i o n styles go global t h r o u g h t h i s k i n d o f o b s e r v a t i o n a n d a p p r o p r i a t i o n . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , Ötsuka (2001: 38-39) r e p o r t s , t h e a n i m a t o r s a t
T o e i feit t h e r e was a bias a n d a lack i n Blair's guide: " T h e t e x t b o o k was
b o r n f r o m a n a l y z i n g actual m o v e m e n t s , b u t these w e r e still t h e exaggerated
gestures o f Europeans a n d A m e r i c a n s
T h e y p o r t r a y e d ' W e s t e r n {hata-
kusai; l i t . , s m e l l i n g o f b u t t e r ) ' m o v e m e n t s , l i k e t h e w a y s o m e J a p a n e s e w h o
h a v e l i v e d a b r o a d w i l l s p r e a d t h e i r a r m s a n d s h a k e t h e i r h e a d w h e n t h e y say
'öh n o ! ' " T h i s helps t o clarify the challenges o f defining a n i m e i n t e r m s o f
" J a p a n e s e n e s s . " T h e r e is a d a n g e r i n d e f i n i n g " J a p a n e s e n e s s " as t h a t w h i c h
is n o t " W e s t e r n , " b e c a u s e o u t s i d e i n f l u e n c e s a r e o n l y " o u t s i d e " i n a l i m i t e d
A m e r i c a n a n i m a t o r s c o m e o u t o f v a u d e v i l l e . T h e o r i g i n o f a n i m a t i o n as
sense. F o r Japanese a n i m a t o r s , t h e skills a n d p r a c t i c e s o f Blair's g u i d e w e r e
m e d i a w a s s h o r t films. W h e n films first s t a r t e d b e i n g s h o w n i n t h e a t e r s ,
c l e a r l y r e c o g n i z a b l e , a n d Ötsuka c o p i e d t h e e n t i r e b o o k h i m s e l f " I h a v e t o
t h e y w e r e p r e c e d e d b y v a u d e v i l l e acts, o u t o f w h i c h g r e w B u g s B u n n y s h o r t s
d o i t w i t h m y h a n d s o r I c a n ' t l e a r n i t , " h e says i n t h e d o c u m e n t a r y a b o u t
a n d so o n . A l l o f these f o r m s w e r e b o r n o u t o f p e r s o n a l i t i e s — B u g s
Bunny,
h i s career. B u t t h e u r g e n c y t o m a k e s o m e t h i n g t h a t s p o k e t o t h e m a n d t h e i r
D a f f y D u c k , M i c k e y M o u s e , G o o f y , P o p e y e . T h e y are m u c h less a b o u t t h e
audiences also m e a n t t h a t Japanese a n i m a t o r s a d a p t e d a n i m a t i o n t e c h -
s t o r y . . . . [ T ] h e character o f M i c k e y M o u s e was t h e equivalent o f a Buster
niques t h r o u g h t h e i r o w n life experiences, i n c l u d i n g close o b s e r v a t i o n o f
Keaton. That's the way that they functioned i n the entertainment w o r l d .
styles o f physical m o v e m e n t a m o n g f e l l o w Japanese.
F r o m t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g i n A m e r i c a n a n i m a t i o n , a n i m a t o r s saw themselves
N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e e m e r g e n c e o f T o e i ' s a p p r o a c h t o a n i m a t i o n w a s less
lOO
*
l ^ M A F ' l t R
P O S T W A R
T H R E E
a n exercise i n d e f i n i n g a u n i q u e Japaneseness t h a n a n effort t o secure a
s u s t a i n a b l e p o s i t i o n i n a n e v o l v i n g m e d i a m a r k e t . A f t e r t h e success o f i t s
A N I M E
*
Astro Boy, T e z u k a , a n d M a n g a ' s P l a c e i n A n i m e
first f e a t u r e film, r e l e a s e d i n o n l y n i n e m o n t h s ( " s e v e r a l t i m e s f a s t e r t h a n
W h i l e T o e i was w o r k i n g o n feature
films,
O s a m u T e z u k a , r i g h t l y re-
D i s n e y , " a c c o r d i n g t o T o e i [2006: 20]), t h e c o m p a n y w o r k e d o n r a t i o n a l -
g a r d e d as a " g o d o f m a n g a , " a i m e d t o m o v e i n t o t h e w o r l d o f T V a n i m e —
izing t h e labor process w i t h a "first k e y f r a m e " g r o u p a n d a "second key
o r T V m a n g a {terebi manga), as i t w a s k n o w n a t t h e t i m e . T e l e v i s i o n
f r a m e " g r o u p d i v i d i n g u p t h e w o r k . T h r e e m o r e f e a t u r e films w e r e p r o -
b r o a d c a s t i n g b e g a n i n J a p a n i n 1953, b u t f e w h o m e s h a d sets. I n t h e
d u c e d i n less t h a n t h r e e y e a r s . A n i m a t i o n f o r T V b e g a n i n 1963 w i t h
f o l l o w i n g year, s o m e o f t h e largest televised events w e r e p r o f e s s i o n a l w r e s -
Tetsuwan Atomu ( M i g h t y A t o m , a l s o k n o w n as A s t r o B o y ) , t o b e d i s -
t l i n g matches b e t w e e n R i k i d o z a n a n d M a s a h i k o K i m u r a versus t h e Sharpe
c u s s e d l a t e r . T o e i s o o n f o l l o w e d w i t h Ken, the Wolf Boy {Ookami shonen
brothers ( M i k e and Ben), w h o were t h e n visitingJapan f r o m the U n i t e d
Ken),
States. A t t i m e s , t h o u s a n d s o f people w o u l d s t a n d o n t h e streets o u t s i d e
w h i c h , like A s t r o Boy, was based o n a m a n g a a n d i n c l u d e d a sponsor-
ship tie t o a confection company.
t r a i n stations t o t r y t o w a t c h t h e T V sereens inside t h e stations ( C h u n
T o e i h e d g e d its bets b y w o r k i n g o n several d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f a n i m e
2007). A s t h e 1950S p r o g r e s s e d , e c o n o m i e g r o w t h e x p a n d e d
consumer
p r o d u c t i o n a i m e d a t s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t m a r k e t s . D u r i n g t h e 1960S, T o e i
s p e n d i n g s o t h a t b y 1958, T V sets, w a s h i n g m a c h i n e s , a n d r e f r i g e r a t o r s
w o r k e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y o n o n e T V s e r i e s a n d t w o f e a t u r e films e a c h year.
b e c a m e k n o w n as " t h r e e s a c r e d t r e a s u r e s " ( Y a m a g u c h i 2004: 74). T e z u k a
O n e o f t h e features was designed f o r t h e e x p o r t m a r k e t (released i n t h e
e s t a b l i s h e d h i s a n i m a t i o n s t u d i o M u s h i P r o i n 1961, b u t , as Y a s u o Y a m a g u -
s p r i n g ) ; t h e o t h e r f e a t u r e film w a s o r i e n t e d m o r e t o t h e d o m e s t i c m a r k e t
chi notes, " P r o d u c t i o n t i m e and budgets [for T V a n i m a t i o n ] were simply
f o r r e l e a s e o v e r t h e s u m m e r o r w i n t e r v a c a t i o n ( T o e i A n i m a t i o n 2006:
unrealistic." T o e i was t a k i n g about eighteen m o n t h s and spending about
17). T h e success o f t h e s c i e n c e - f i c t i o n a d v e n t u r e Cyborg oog (1966) as a
60 m i l l i o n y e n ( r o u g h l y $167,000 i n 1961 d o l l a r s ) t o p r o d u c e n i n e t y -
f e a t u r e film f o r t h e d o m e s t i c m a r k e t p u s h e d T o e i i n n e w d i r e c t i o n s , p a r t l y
m i n u t e f e a t u r e films w i t h a s t a f f o f t w o h u n d r e d t o t h r e e h u n d r e d p e o p l e ,
because i t was t h e company's
comparable t o t h e schedules a n d budgets o f o t h e r studios w o r k i n g i n t h e
first
h i t b a s e d o n a m a n g a ( b y Shotaró
I s h i n o m o r i ) . A f t e r 1966, T o e i s h i f t e d i t s e m p h a s i s t o w a r d T V series.
field,
Maho Tsukai Sally ( S a l l y t h e l i t t l e w i t c h ) , f r o m 1967, w a s t h e c o m p a n y ' s
m i n u t e T V s h o w w o u l d require about o n e h u n d r e d people, a p r o d u c t i o n
i n c l u d i n g Disney. A t t h a t rate, Y a m a g u c h i p o i n t s o u t , a single t h i r t y -
first
T V series i n c o l o r . I t s t a r t e d t h e " g i r l w i t c h " b o o m , a g e n r e t h a t
t i m e o f s i x m o n t h s , a n d a b u d g e t o f a b o u t 30 m i l l i o n y e n ($80,000). B u t
b e n e f i t e d f r o m t h e sale o f t o y s t h a t a p p e a r e d as m a g i c a l i t e m s i n t h e s h o w .
t h e m a r k e t f o r a t h i r t y - m i n u t e T V p r o d u c t i o n w a s 500,000—600,000
Gegegeno Kitaró (1968), b a s e d o n a m a n g a b y S h i g e r u M i z u k i , i n a u g u r a t e d
y e n ( r o u g h l y $1,500), a n d t h a t is w h a t T e z u k a a g r e e d t o . " N e e d l e s s t o say,
h o r r o r a n i m e o n T V a n d got caught u p i n a m o n s t e r b o o m i n Japanese
t h i s m e a n t w o r k i n g a t a l o s s , " n o t e s Y a m a g u c h i (2004: 74-75).
p o p u l a r c u l t u r e . Taiga Masuku ( T i g e r m a s k ) o f 1969 w a s a fighting a n i m e ,
Nevertheless, T e z u k a benefited f r o m a n impressive catalogue o f charac-
a n d i t c a p t u r e d t h a t era's p o p u l a r gekiga, a r e f e r e n c e t o e x t r e m e d r a w i n g
ters t h a t w e r e already p o p u l a r . T h e o u t p o u r i n g o f e m o t i o n t h a t arose f r o m
s t y l e s i n m a n g a , e s p e c i a l l y o f fighting a n d a c t i o n s e q u e n c e s . T h e f e a t u r e
h i s r i v e t i n g s t o r i e s c o u l d b e v i e w e d as a k i n d o f u n t a p p e d r e s o u r c e , a s o c i a l
film
e n e r g y t h a t c o u l d be c a p t u r e d t h r o u g h b o t h t e l e v i s i o n a n i m a t i o n a n d its
Puss in Boots (1969) w a s a r e m a r k a b l e h i t f o r T o e i ; t h e a n i m a t e d c a t
P e r o f r o m t h e Puss in Boots s e r i e s h a s s i n c e b e e n t h e c o m p a n y ' s
mascot
c o n n e c t i o n t o m e r c h a n d i s i n g . I n t h i s respect, T e z u k a m a d e a n e n o r m o u s
( T o e i A n i m a t i o n 2006: 34-35). I t i s t h i s b a c k - a n d - f o r t h b e t w e e n t h e
impact o n the development o f manga and anime. H e was incredibly pro-
c o m p a n y a n d m a t u r i n g audiences t h a t led t o t h e emergence o f certain
l i f i c f r o m t h e t i m e h e b e g a n p u b l i s h i n g i n t h e l a t e 1940S u n t i l h i s d e a t h
styles. I n d e e d , r e a d i n g t h e h i s t o r y o f T o e i f r o m t h e c o m p a n y ' s
perspective
i n 1989. D i s n e y ' s i n f l u e n c e i s n o t e w o r t h y h e r e , t o o . T e z u k a r e p o r t e d l y
m a k e s clear t h a t t h e c o m p e t i t o r s t h e c o m p a n y t h o u g h t m o s t a b o u t w e r e
w a t c h e d Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, w h i c h w a s first s h o w n i n
o t h e r s t u d i o s i n J a p a n . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , c o n t r a s t s w i t h t h e Astro Boy a p -
T o k y o i n 1950, m o r e t h a n e i g h t y t i m e s a n d Bambi, w h i c h p r e m i e r e d i n
proach deserve a l o o k .
T o k y o i n 1951, m o r e t h a n fifty t i m e s ( S c h o d t 2007: 59). T e z u k a e v e n
p r o d u c e d his o w n c o m i c b o o k verslons o f t h e B a m b i a n d P i n o c c h i o stories.
lOI
lOl
*
t ; H A P T E R
P O S T W A R
T H R E E
A N I M E
*
o w n e x p l a n a t i o n , however, w o u l d lead t h r o u g h D i s n e y a n d T e z u k a a n d
t h e early h i s t o r y o f a n i m a t i o n . I s h o u l d n o t e , h o w e v e r , t h a t w h e n I've asked
J a p a n e s e f r i e n d s a n d c o l l e a g u e s f o r t h e i r o p i n i o n s o n t h i s issue, o n e o f t h e
i n t e r e s t i n g responses goes l i k e t h i s : " W h y d o y o u t h i n k a n i m e characters
a r e W e s t e r n ? T h e y a r e s p e a k i n g J a p a n e s e , so o b v i o u s l y t h e y a r e J a p a n e s e . "
S o m e W e s t e r n e r s ' i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f b i g e y e s as " w h i t e " m a y b e m o r e a
m e a s u r e o f W e s t e r n p r e j u d i c e t h a n o f J a p a n e s e y e a r n i n g . M o r e o v e r , as t h e
c a r t o o n i s t S c o t t M c C l o u d (1993) a r g u e s , g r e a t e r a b s t r a c t i o n i n c a r t o o n
d r a w i n g also leaves m o r e r o o m f o r readers t o i n s e r t t h e i r o w n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . P e r h a p s it's h u m a n t o see o u r s e l v e s i n a b s t r a c t i o n s o f p e o p l e , a n d
t h a t c o u l d b e o n e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e persistence o f t h i s t h o r n y issue i n
discussions o f a n i m e .
M o r e g e n e r a l l y , h o w e v e r , I t e n d t o see t h e l a r g e e y e s as a s t y l e . S o m e
e x p l a i n i t i n t e r m s o f t h e expressiveness o f eyes: B i g g e r eyes e n a b l e i l l u s t r a t o r s t o p l a y m o r e w i t h t h e n u a n c e s o f c o m m u n i c a t i n g w i t h one's eyes. B u t
t h e r e is a l s o t h e c e n t r a l i t y o f T e z u k a i n m a n g a h i s t o r y i n J a p a n a n d T e z u ka's o w n o b s e s s i o n w i t h D i s n e y c h a r a c t e r s . T e z u k a l e a r n e d f r o m B a m b i
a n d S n o w W h i t e — n o t t o m e n t i o n P o p e y e a n d B e t t y B o o p , w h o also have
large eyes. E m u l a t i o n c a n h e l p e x p l a i n a g l o b a l style. G i v e n t h a t a n i m e is
w h i c h w e r e p u b U s h e d first w i t h o u t o b t a i n i n g p e r m i s s i o n fi-om D i s n e y , o n l y
n o w a s s o c i a t e d w i t h " b i g e y e s " m o r e t h a n D i s n e y is, w e c a n a l s o see h o w
t o b e o f f i c i a l l y l i c e n s e d y e a r s l a t e r . I t i s t e m p t i n g t o see a m e t a p h o r i c a l
generational differences i n audiences ( a n d p r o d u c t i o n s ) can obscure s o m e
portrayal o f Tezuka's complex relationship w i t h D i s n e y i n his manga M ? -
o f these h i s t o r i c a l c o n n e c t i o n s . I n t h e e n d , w h a t m a k e s t h e eyes i n T e z u k a ' s
tropolis publishcd i n 1949. O n e o f i t s h e r o e s . D e t e c t i v e B a n , is i m p r i s o n e d b y
c h a r a c t e r s s o i n f l u e n t i a l w a s i n d e e d h i s v e r y success as a m a n g a a r t i s t , e v e n
b a d guys i n t h e i r u n d e r g r o u n d fortress. T h e j a i l is o v e r r u n b y e n o r m o u s
i f t h i s d i d n o t t r a n s l a t e i n t o success f o r h i s a n i m e s t u d i o .
irradiated m i c e t h a t closely resemble t h e f a m o u s M i c k e y . I n t r y i n g t o
flee.
T e z u k a ' s p o p u l a r i t y also paved t h e w a y f o r o t h e r m a n g a artists. S c h o d t
B a n falls o n a m o u s e a n d k i l l s i t . T o m a k e h i s escape, B a n slices o p e n t h e d e a d
p r o v i d e s a f a s c i n a t i n g e x a m i n a t i o n of Astro Boy i n t h e c o n t e x t o f T e z u k a ' s
m o u s e , s e w s h i m s e l f i n s i d e , a n d r u n s o f f , t e r r i f y i n g t h o s e a r o u n d h i m (see
life, n o t i n g t h a t l a t e r stars o f m a n g a p u b l i s h i n g , i n c l u d i n g F u j i k o F u j i o ,
16). Is t h i s T e z u k a t a k i n g o n D i s n e y a n d u s i n g i t f o r h i s o w n p u r p o s e s ?
L e i j i M a t s u m o t o , Shótarö I s h i n o m o r i , Taró R i n , a n d Y o s h i y u k i T o m i n o ,
Yes a n d n o . F r e d e r i k S c h o d t a n d o t h e r s m a k e t h e i m p o r t a n t p o i n t t h a t D i s -
figure
g a i n e d t r a i n i n g i n h i s s t u d i o ( S c h o d t 1007: 49; Y a m a g u c h i 1004: 81). Y e t
ney was n o t Tezuka's o n l y influence. H egrew u p enthralled b y the all-
T e z u k a ' s success, e s p e c i a l l y i n t e r m s o f a n i m e , w a s m i x e d . L a t e r i n l i f e ,
w o m e n Takarazuka Revue i n the n e i g h b o r h o o d outside Osaka where he was
T e z u k a j o k e d t h a t m a n g a was his wife, w h i l e a n i m a t i o n was his mistress.
r a i s e d , a s t u d y i n c o m p l e x g e n d e r d y n a m i c s (see R o b e r t s e n z o o S ) . T e z u k a
" H e loved manga, [but] his passion for a n i m a t i o n was almost b e y o n d
a l s o l i n k e d Jstro Boy t o i n s p i r a t i o n f r o m M i g h t y M o u s e ( S c h o d t 1007).
c o n t r o l , " says S c h o d t (1007: 5 6 ) . D e s p i t e t h e h u g e p o p u l a r i t y o f t h e T V
W h y t h e B i g Eyes i n A n i m e ?
A r e c u r r i n g q u e s t i o n i n a n i m e s t u d i e s is, w h y t h e b i g eyes? S o m a n y o f t h e
series Astro Boy, M u s h i P r o w e n t o u t o f b u s i n e s s .
C a n F a i l u r e B e a K i n d o f Success?
characters " l o o k W e s t e r n " (i.e., w h i t e , C a u c a s i a n ) , I o f t e n hear. D o e s t h i s
A s m e n t i o n e d , T e z u k a proposed a n extremely l o w budget for m a k i n g
m e a n t h a t t h e Japanese w a n t t o be w h i t e ? T h i s is a c o m p l i c a t e d q u e s t i o n
Astro Boy. H e p l a n n e d t o m a k e u p f o r t h e b u d g e t s h o r t f a l l p a r t l y t h r o u g h
and, frankly, difficult t o prove one way or the other, once and for all. M y
m e r c h a n d i s i n g a n d b y u s i n g m o n e y f r o m sales o f h i s m a n g a ( S c h o d t 2007:
lO?
104
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C H A P T E R
P O S T W A R
T H R E E
A N I M E
*
56). A c e n t r a l m e r c h a n d i s i n g o u t l e t t u r n e d o u t t o b e Astro Boy s t i c k e r s
e v e r , a t l e a s t , n o t f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h o s e l i k e Y a s u o Ötsuka, w h o
b u n d l e d w i t h M e i j i chocolate bars. M a r e S t e i n b e r g argues t h a t t h i s t i e - i n
v i e w e d a n i m a t e d m o v e m e n t as t h e g o a l . I n d e e d , Ötsuka (2004) d i s c u s s e s
i g n i t e d a b o o m i n character m e r c h a n d i s i n g p a r t l y because m e d i a became
t h e e n d u r i n g l e g a c y of Astro Boy w i t h a s o m e w h a t d i s a p p o i n t e d a i r . I n t h e
u b i q u i t o u s a n d constant: T h e " a n y t i m e - a n y w h e r e p o t e n t i a l o f the stickers
early days o f T o e i , t h e s t o r y a n d characters w e r e all created w i t h i n t h e
arguably l e d t o t h e n e w c o m m u n i c a t i o n a l m e d i a e n v i r o n m e n t a n d cross-
c o m p a n y . B u t i n t h e case o f a n i m e b a s e d o n m a n g a , t h e p r o c e s s o f p r o d u c -
m e d i a connections t h a t characterize t h e a n i m e system a n d t h e force w h i c h
t i o n a n d t h e s o u r c e s o f success a r e s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t : " T h e s t o r y a n d t h e
d r i v e s i t : t h e c h a r a c t e r " ( S t e i n b e r g 1008:113). S t e i n b e r g g i v e s a s e n s e o f t h e
characters w e r e already w o r k e d o u t , a n d t h e y a i m e d t o get v i e w e r r a t i n g s
social d y n a m i c s o f t h e classroom a n d p l a y g r o u n d , w h e r e h a v i n g a sticker o f
f r o m t h e p o p u l a r i t y o f t h e m a g a z i n e . I t d i d n ' t j u s t m a k e i t easy t o g e t
a powerfiil boy robot transformed media into s o m e t h i n g attached t o one-
s u p p o r t f o r a p r o g r a m ; i t also m a d e [ t h e p r o g r a m ] easier t o p r o d u c e "
s e l f ( a p e n c i l case, a b a c k p a c k ) a t a l l t i m e s . Y e t i t m i g h t m a k e m o r e s e n s e t o
(Ötsuka 2004: 29). T h i s e v e n h a n d e d a s s e s s m e n t b e l i e s a g r e a t s e n s e o f l o s s
c o n s i d e r t h e " a n i m e s y s t e m " as s o m e t h i n g t h a t e m e r g e s f r o m t h i s c i r c u l a t -
f o r Ötsuka. I n t h e d o c u m e n t a r y a b o u t h i s l i f e , h e e x p r e s s e s f r u s t r a t i o n a t
ing energy and that finds different expression depending o n t h r o u g h
w h a t b e c a m e o f a n i m e a f t e r Astro Boy: " A n i m e i s m a s s p r o d u c t i o n n o w .
w h o m a n d t o w h e r e i t passes. I see t h i s s o c i a l e n e r g y o f t h e p e o p l e w h o c a r e
W i t h T V shows a n d films based o n already p o p u l a r m a n g a
as t h e f o r c e t h a t d r i v e s w h a t e v e r " s y s t e m " ( p a r t i a l , u n f i n i s h e d , m u l t i d i r e c -
sponsors k n o w t h e y can get a large audience t h a t c o m e s j u s t t o hear t h e
t i o n a l ) e v e n t u a l l y emerges, a social e n e r g y t h a t arises f r o m people's c o m -
v o i c e a c t o r s a n d t o see t h e s t o r y ( w h i c h t h e y a l r e a d y k n o w ) . Y o u c a n u s e
m i t m e n t s a n d shared interests. C h a r a c t e r s are a n o r g a n i z i n g p r i n c i p l e , a n d
pans a n d tricks, a n d the characters d o n ' t even have t o m o v e . I d i d n ' t t h i n k
characters,
m e r c h a n d i s e c a n b e s e e n as p h y s i c a l e x t e n s i o n s o f o u r f e e l i n g s f o r c h a r a c -
t h a t a n era w o u l d c o m e w h e r e audiences w o u l d t u r n o u t because t h e y
t e r s . T e z u k a ' s Astro Boy l e d t h e w a y f o r T V a n i m a t i o n , b u t t h e p r o c e s s e s
w a n t e d t o hear a voice actor o r because i t was a p a r t i c u l a r story." H e h a d
had been under way for some time.
h o p e d people w o u l d w a t c h for the quality o f the h a n d - d r a w n a n i m a t i o n .
D e s p i t e t h e c h a l l e n g e s , M u s h i P r o m a n a g e d t o m a k e a v/te^y Astro Boy
T h e conflict between those w h o love the art o f drawing m o v e m e n t and
episode b y radically reducing t h e n u m b e r o f frames t h a t needed t o be
t h o s e w h o w o r r y a b o u t t h e cost o f p r o d u c t i o n is a basic o n e i n a n i m a t i o n ,
d r a w n ( Y a m a g u c h i 1004: 80). T h e yffctVly Astro Boy, w h i c h p r e m i e r e d o n
a n d T e z u k a c a n n o t be b l a m e d for all o f it. W h e n I i n t e r v i e w e d H i r o s h i
N e w Y e a r ' s D a y i n 1963, w a s t h e f i r s t a n i m a t e d T V s e r i e s t o a i r r e g u l a r l y i n
Y o s h i o k a , a p r o d u c e r a t T o e i A n i m a t i o n , i n 2006, h e h a d b e e n i n t h e
J a p a n . S e p a r a t e cels w e r e u s e d f o r a r m a n d l e g m o v e m e n t s w h i l e t h e r e s t o f
business f o r m a n y decades. H e dismissed t h e idea o f " t h e curse o f T e z u k a , "
the character was left unchanged. O n l y three m o u t h m o v e m e n t s — o p e n ,
t h a t is, b l a m i n g o n e p e r s o n f o r t h e l o w b u d g e t s p r o v i d e d f o r a n i m e p r o -
c l o s e d , a n d m i d d l e — w e r e u s e d . C o m m o n l y u s e d scènes, s u c h as A s t r o B o y
d u c t i o n a n d t h e practices o f l i m i t e d a n i m a t i o n . " W e all h a d those p r o b -
flying, w e r e b a n k e d a n d reuscd. C u t s w e r e k e p t s h o r t ( o n l y a few seconds)
l e m s , " Y o s h i o k a s a i d . I n d e e d , as t i m e w e n t o n , T o e i b e g a n t o r e l y m o r e o n
s o t h e w e a k n e s s e s i n t h e a n i m a t i o n w o u l d b e less a p p a r e n t . T o s h o w a c a r
m a n g a - b a s e d a n i m a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g , as m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r , Cyborg oog, a
g o i n g b y , o n e c e l w a s m o v e d a c r o s s a b a c k g r o u n d ; f o r w a l k i n g scènes, t h e
m a n g a b y Shótarö I s h i n o m o r i .
b a c k g r o u n d w a s s l i d ( a n d legs w e r e n o t s h o w n ) . T h e M u s h i t e a m a i m e d t o
S t i l l , i t i s t e m p t i n g t o see i n Astro Boy a s p l i t t h a t c o n t i n u e s t o c o m p l i -
m a k e h a l f - h o u r e p i s o d e s u s i n g o n l y t w o t h o u s a n d d r a w n f r a m e s . I n fea-
cate t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h a t m a t t e r s i n t h e a r t o f a n i m a t i o n . L a M a r r e p o i n t s
t u r e f i l m s s u c h as T o e i ' s , i t w a s c o m m o n t o u s e o n l y o n e c e l f o r t w o f r a m e s
t o t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n " d r a w i n g m o v e m e n t " (as i n c h a r a c t e r a n i m a -
o f f i l m , b u t f o r Astro Boy, o n e c e l f o r e v e r y t h r e e f r a m e s s h o t w a s t h e
t i o n ) a n d m o v i n g d r a w i n g s (as i n s l i d i n g f o r e g r o u n d a n d b a c k g r o u n d c e l s )
s m o o t h e s t a n i m a t i o n used, a n d o f t e n t h e a n i m a t o r s t r i e d t o use o n l y o n e
as t w o w a y s t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e a r t o f a n i m e . T o see f u U a n i m a t i o n as t h e
d r a w n cel, w i t h z o o m s a n d p a n s g i v i n g t h e i l l u s i o n o f m o v e m e n t . D e s p i t e
p i n n a c l e o f a c h i e v e m e n t a n d l i m i t e d a n i m a t i o n i n t e r m s o f its l a c k is t o
t h e s e v e r e l y l i m i t e d a n i m a t i o n , Astro Boy w a s a n e n o r m o u s success, d r a w -
d o w n p l a y t h e aesthetics o f s l i d i n g planes o f images, w h i c h is precisely
i n g a u d i e n c e r a t i n g s o f 30 p e r c e n t o f a l l h o u s e h o l d s .
w h e r e L a M a r r e (2009) sees t h e d i s t i n c t i v e n e s s o f a n i m e as a m e d i u m . F o r
T h i s was n o t a n entirely beneficial development for a n i m a t i o n , h o w -
h i m , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n these planes o f d r a w i n g s are a p o w e r f i i l
*
C H A P T E R
T H R E E
P O S T W A R
A N I M E
*
t o o i for U S t o r e t h i n k o u r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t e c h n o l o g y m o r e g e n e r a l l y . I f
r e m a i n w e l l p o s i t i o n e d f o r years t o c o m e . T h e catalogue has a c e r t a i n social
c i n e m a t i s m arises f r o m a " b a l l i s t i c " v i e w o f a m o n o c u l a r
camera—flying
a n d c u l t u r a l p o w e r precisely because a w i d e range o f Japanese audiences
t h r o u g h s p a c e l i k e a h u l l e t o r as i f o n e w e r e w a t c h i n g o u t t h e f r o n t o f a
are f a m i h a r w i t h t h e v i s u a l s t o r y t e l l i n g styles a n d are d e v o t e d t o p a r t i c u l a r
t r a i n , f o r e x a m p l e — t h e n " a n i m e t i s m , " a c c o r d i n g t o L a M a r r e , is t o see t h e
characters. A s audiences f o r m a n g a g r o w i n t h e U n i t e d States a n d o t h e r
w o r l d f r o m t h e side, l o o k i n g o u t t h e w i n d o w o f a t r a i n , u n d e r s t a n d i n g
countries, this should bode well for expanding anime
scale a n d d i s t a n c e b y o b s e r v i n g h o w t h e t r e e s a n d h i l l s o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e
slide b y a t d i f f e r e n t speeds. T h i s is a v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g i n s i g h t , a n d i t has
audiences.
I n t h e i n a u g u r a l i s s u e o f Kino, a m a g a z i n e d e v o t e d t o m a n g a
analysis,
t h e e d i t o r s a s k a p r o v o c a t i v e q u e s t i o n : " W h y is i t t h a t i n m a n g a , u n l i k e i n
m a d e m e see t h i n g s i n a n i m a t i o n i n w a y s I h a d n e v e r s e e n t h e m b e f o r e . I
o t h e r m e d i a f o r m s , t h e h i t series are also t h e best series?" T h e m a g a z i n e is
a m f a m i l i a r w i t h a n i m a t i o n p i c t u r e a l b u m s t h a t f o c u s o n " t h e a r t o f . .."
p u b l i s h e d b y K y o t o S e i k a U n i v e r s i t y , t h e first c o l l e g e i n J a p a n t o h a v e
(fill i n the b l a n k ) , w h i c h o f t e n emphasize the elaborate backgrounds
opened a d e p a r t m e n t i n manga. T h e editors offer this answer:
and
settings o f v a r i o u s w o r l d s . I also have c o m e t o expect a n i m e b o o k s t o b e g i n
w i t h t h e characters a n d t h e i r biographies. B u t t h i n k i n g o f a n i m a t i o n b y
b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e m u l t i p l a n e c a m e r a a n d i n t e r m s o f s l i d i n g planes is
taken
fiirther
b y L a M a r r e t h a n b y a n y o n e else. B y d r a w i n g a t t e n t i o n t o t h e
d i v e r g e n t layers o f a n i m a t i o n , L a M a r r e draws i n s p i r a t i o n f r o m t h e m u l t i plane camera, w h i c h facilitates t h e art o f sliding planes o f images a n d t h u s
e x p a n d s o u r sense o f w h a t c a n b e o b s e r v e d i n t h e w o r l d o f a n i m e . T o
f o l l o w t h i s m e t a p h o r , w e m i g h t also e x t e n d o u r t h i n k i n g a b o u t a n i m e b y
v i e w i n g i t as a p l a n e s l i d i n g a g a i n s t a b a c k g r o u n d o f m a n g a a n d r a i s i n g t h e
p o s s i b i l i t y f o r n e w aspects o f characters a n d w o r l d s i n o t h e r m e d i a f o r m s .
O r t o p u t i t a n o t h e r way, w e m i g h t read the d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n planes i n
t e r m s o f cross-media synergies, especially i n t h e a d d i t i v e value o f m a n g a
characters a n d i n t e r m s o f t h e i r audiences.
"Democratie Capitalism" o f Megahit Manga
A b o u t 6 0 p e r c e n t o f c u r r e n t a n i m e p r o g r a m s are based o n m a n g a series.
T h i s c o n t i n u i n g c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n m a n g a a n d a n i m e adds a n o t h e r d i m e n s i o n t o t h i n k i n g about w h o makes anime and w h a t anime makes. T o
s o m e e x t e n t , m a n g a artists m a k e a n i m e i n t h e sense t h a t t h e y p l a y a n
i m p o r t a n t role i n p r o v i d i n g t h e characters, premises, a n d w o r l d s o n w h i c h
t h e m a j o r i t y o f a n i m e T v series are based. B u t I w o u l d argue t h a t n o t o n l y
t h e force o f i m a g i n a t i o n o f t h e artists b u t also s o m e o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r
features o f the m a n g a i n d u s t r y strongly c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e h e a l t h o f t h e
a n i m e i n d u s t r y G r a n t e d , t h e l o n g h o u r s a n d l o w w a g e s f o r a n i m a t o r s is a
t h r e a t t o t h e l o n g - t e r m s u s t a i n a b i l i t y o f a n i m e as a g l o b a l m e d i a f o r c e . A t
the same t i m e , the e n o r m o u s back catalogue o f m a n g a — n o t t o m e n t i o n o f
o t h e r c o m m o n s o u r c e s o f a n i m e , i n c l u d i n g y o u n g a d u l t fiction ( " l i g h t
novels" i n Japan) and videogames—suggests t h a t Japanese companies w i l l
A l t h o u g h i t m a y s o u n d l i k e a n exaggeration, m a n g a represents the perfect
c o m b i n a t i o n o f d e m o c r a c y a n d c a p i t a l i s m . U n l i k e films, m u s i c , a n d l i t e r a t u r e , w h i c h c a n t u r n l o u s y w o r k s {dasaku) i n t o h i t s t h r o u g h t h e s t r a t e g i e
use o f m a r k e t i n g a n d r e v i e w s , i n t h e w o r l d o f m a n g a t h i s r a r e l y h a p p e n s .
T h i s i s because m a n g a r e a d e r s pass a r o u n d c o p i e s o f m a g a z i n e s a n d r e a d
m a n g a f o r free w h i l e s t a n d i n g i n b o o k s t o r e s a n d c o n v e n i e n c e stores. M a n g a
r e a d e r s are less s w a y e d b y p r o m o t e r s a n d c r i t i c s . T h a t m e a n s t h a t m e g a h i t
m a n g a are t h o s e t h a t p r o m p t p e o p l e t o say " I w a n t t o r e a d t h i s ; a n d I w a n t
t o get o t h e r s t o r e a d i t t o o . " ( " M e g a h i t t o n o hösoku" 2006: 3 )
T h e editors d r a w a t t e n t i o n t o t h e i n t i m a t e "call a n d response"
between
m a n g a artists a n d readers. U n p a c k i n g s o m e o f t h e details o f t h i s process
can help u s u n d e r s t a n d v i b r a n t crucibles o f creativity b e y o n d t h e studios
t h e m s e l v e s . T h i s ofi^ers a u s e f u l c o n t r a s t t o T a k a h a t a ' s c u l t u r a l a n a l y s i s
("the Japanese like stories w i t h pictures") b y s h o w i n g a m o r e d y n a m i c ,
I n t e r a c t i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p r o c e s s b y w h i c h p o p c u l t u r e success
e m e r g e s t h r o u g h s p e c i f i c d y n a m i c s r e l a t e d t o m a r k e t i n g , p r i c i n g , access,
and distribution, n o t t o m e n t i o n contrasts i n terms o f content.
M a n g a ' s success as a m e d i a f o r m r e l i e s o n t h e f e e d b a c k l o o p b e t w e e n
p r o d u c e r s a n d a u d i e n c e . M a n g a is c h e a p t o b u y a n d c a n b e accessed f o r
f r e e r e l a t i v e l y easily. T h e fiall p r i c e f o r w e e k l y m a g a z i n e s is r o u g h l y $ 3 , a n d
t h e y c o n t a i n a b o u t t w e n t y difi^erent serials. Y e t these c a n also be read f o r
f r e e w h i l e s t a n d i n g i n c o n v e n i e n c e s t o r i e s , a p r a c t i c e k n o w n as tachiyomi
( " r e a d i n g w h i l e s t a n d i n g " ) . F o r t h e e d i t o r s o f Kino, t h i s i s i m p o r t a n t
because it reduces t h e influence o f p r o m o t e r s a n d critics, n o t u n l i k e i m a g i n i n g a democracy w i t h o u t lobbyists and pundits. Reading for oneself o r
h e a r i n g b y w o r d o f m o u t h is t h e m o r e l i k e l y m o d e f o r l e a r n i n g a b o u t n e w
m a n g a . M a n g a i n p r i n t are also easily passed a r o u n d , a k i n d o f grassroots
*
C H A P T E R
T H R E E
P O S T W A R
c i r c u l a t i o n w h e r e r e a d i n g i t s e l f is p a r t o f a s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p . T h i s t a k e s u s
f i i r t h e r t h a n G l a d w e l l i n t h i n k i n g a b o u t c r u c i b l e s o f success as d e p e n d i n g
o n audiences.
Publishers take advantage o f audiences' passion by i n c l u d i n g postcards
w i t h t h e magazines, a s k i n g w h i c h stories w e r e t h e readers' m o s t a n d least
favorite. O n e o f the m a j o r publishers, Shogakukan, reports receiving three
t h o u s a n d t o f o u r t h o u s a n d p o s t c a r d s e v e r y w e e k . U n p o p u l a r series are
q u i c k l y cut. T h o s e t h a t survive f o r years have prevailed against stiff c o m p e t i t i o n , v y i n g against o l d favorites a n d a constant s t r e a m o f n e w artists
a t t e m p t i n g t o b r e a k i n . O n e c a n u n d e r s t a n d t h e t e n s i o n as a p r o f e s s i o n a l
m a n g a artist i n a c o u n t r y w i t h a n endless supply o f s e m i - p r o m a n g a artists.
T h e largest a n n u a l c o n v e n t i o n i n J a p a n revolves a r o u n d f a n - m a d e c o m i c s
(döjinshi). W h e n I a t t e n d e d C o m i c M a r k e t i n A u g u s t
2006,1
was s t u n n e d
b y t h e size a n d i n t e n s i t y o f t h e e v e n t . O v e r t h r e e d a y s , a l m o s t h a l f a m i l l i o n
p e o p l e a t t e n d . R o u g h l y t h i r t y t h o u s a n d dójin c i r c l e s ( a m a t e u r g r o u p s )
o c c u p i e d s m a l l t a b l e s t o s e l l t h e i r w a r e s , g e n e r a l l y f o r less t h a n $ 5 e a c h .
A N I M E
*
censorship i n the realm o f popular culture. T h e f o l l o w i n g were some o f
the rules o f the n e w A m e r i c a n code:
* P o l i c e m e n , j u d g e s , g o v e r n m e n t officials a n d r e s p e c t e d i n s t i t u t i o n s s h a l l
n e v e r be p r e s e n t e d i n s u c h a w a y as t o c r e a t e d i s r e s p e c t f o r e s t a b l i s h e d
authority.
* A l l scènes o f h o r r o r , excessive b l o o d s h e d , g o r y o r g r u e s o m e c r i m e s ,
d e p r a v i t y , l u s t , s a d i s m , m a s o c h i s m s h a l l n o t be p e r m i t t e d .
* Profanity, obscenity, s m u t , vulgarity, o r words or symbols w h i c h
a c q u i r e d u n d e s i r a b l e m e a n i n g s are f o r b i d d e n .
* S u g g e s t i v e a n d salacious i l l u s t r a t i o n o r suggestive p o s t u r e is
unacceptable.
* F e m a l e s s h a l l be d r a w n r e a l i s t i c a l l y w i t h o u t e x a g g e r a t i o n o f a n y
physical qualities.
* T h e t r e a t m e n t o f l o v e - r o m a n c e stories shall emphasize the value o f t h e
h o m e and the sanctity o f marriage. ( H a j d u
2008:
290-91)
M o s t o f t h e tables sold f a n - m a d e comics, b u t a v a r i e t y o f t h i n g s w e r e f o r
A s H a j d u n o t e s , w h e n t h e c o m i c s i n d u s t r y r e c o v e r e d i n t h e 1960S, i t f e i l
s a l e — b u t t o n s , T - s h i r t s , I n f o r m a t i o n guides, character goods,
videogames,
back o n t h e f o r m u l a s o f superheroes. T h i s helps explain t h e greater diver-
a n d so o n . M a n g a p u b l i s h e r s are n o t e n t h u s i a s t i c a b o u t t h e practice o f
sity and m o r e extreme content o f manga f r o m Japan compared w i t h the
selling fanzines, w h i c h t h e y feel cannibalizes t h e i r m a r k e t . Y e t i n t h e larger
U n i t e d States.
s c h e m e o f t h i n g s , i t m a y b e t h a t t h e g l o b a l success o f m a n g a a r i s e s i n p a r t
A s t h e s o c i o l o g i s t S h a r o n K i n s e l l a (1998) e x p l a i n s i n t h e case o f a d u l t
f r o m t h e w i d e s p r e a d a m a t e u r p r o d u c t i o n t h a t also b u i l d s e n e r g y a r o u n d
manga, t h e e x t r e m e f o r m s o f s t o r y t e l l i n g t h a t appeared i n Japanese comics
this popular culture w o r l d .
w e r e also occasionally vilified, b u t t h e i n d u s t r y d i d n o t s u c c u m b t o t h e
S o m e large-scale c o n t r a s t s b e t w e e n s u c h m e d i a w o r l d s c a n e x p a n d o u r
s a m e k i n d o f s e l f - r e g u l a t i o n . W h e t h e r a n e w l a w p a s s e d i n T o k y o i n 2010
n o t i o n s o f e m e r g e n c e a n d m e d i a success b y p o i n t i n g t o a l t e r n a t i v e p a t h s
t h a t a i m s t o p r e v e n t s o m e o f t h e m o r e d i s t u r b i n g aspects o f c h i l d - r e l a t e d
a n d d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s . T o d a y , J a p a n e s e m a n g a i s v i e w e d as v i o l e n t , sex-
e r o t i c i s m / p o r n o g r a p h y i n c a r t o o n s w i l l s e r v e as a t u r n i n g p o i n t r e m a i n s
u a l l y transgressive, a n d d i s t u r b i n g i n its t h e m e s — a t least, c o m p a r e d w i t h
t o b e seen. B u t a t t h e least, w e can o b s e r v e t h a t a greater o p e n n e s s i n
A m e r i c a n c o m i c s . B u t t h a t has a v e r y specific h i s t o r i c a l basis. A s D a v i d
m a n g a c r e a t e d a k i n d o f space w h e r e a d u l t t h e m e s c o u l d be p o r t r a y e d a n d
H a j d u d e s c r i b e s , t h e w i l d spaces o f A m e r i c a n c o m i c b o o k p r o d u c t i o n i n
examined. T h i s , t o o , helps t o explain h o w a n i m e gradually shifted f r o m
the
1930S
1950S.
and
1940S
i n t h e U n i t e d States t o o k a sharp t u r n i n t h e early
U n t i l t h e n , he argues persuasively, c o m i c b o o k artists w e r e " c u l t u r a l
b e i n g p r i m a r i l y a children's f o r m t o o n e t h a t spoke t o teens a n d adults, a
process I explore fiirther i n the next chapter.
insurgents," w h o h e l p e d i n s t i l l " i n t h e i r readers, a disregard f o r t h e niceties
o f p r o p e r society, a p a s s i o n f o r w i l d ideas a n d fast a c t i o n , a c y n i c i s m
t o w a r d a u t h o r i t y o f all sorts, a n d a tolerance, i f n o t a n appetite, for images
ofprurience andviolence"
(2008:330).
C r i m e , horror, and lurid taleswere
the bread a n d b u t t e r o f early A m e r i c a n c o m i c books. T h a t all changed
w h e n outrage a m o n g some critics exploded, a n d a c o n s o r t i u m o f p u b l i s h e r s e s t a b l i s h e d a C o m i c s C o d e i n 1954, a r e m a r k a b l e s a l v o o f self-
Conclusion
T h e early p o s t w a r h i s t o r y o f a n i m e reveals a c o m p l i c a t e d process o f e m u l a t i o n a n d l e a r n i n g f r o m overseas, a l o n g w i t h c o n t r a s t i n g approaches w i t h i n
J a p a n i t s e l f D i s n e y a n i m a t i o n s e r v e d as b o t h r i v a l a n d m o d e l f o r a v a r i e t y
o f a n i m e t h a t developed i n Japan, n o t o n l y i n t e r m s o f style, b u t m o r e
109
IIO
*
C H A P T E R
T H R E E
P O S T W A R
broadly i n terms o flabor organization, branding, merchandising, and
t r a i n i n g n e w t a l e n t . Y e t t h e d e m o c r a t i e c a p i t a l i s m o f m a n g a i n J a p a n also
m e a n t t h a t t h e catalogue o f o r i g i n a l w o r k s t o d r a w o n encouraged a closer
l i n k b e t w e e n a n i m e a n d m a n g a , w h i l e also e x p l a i n i n g a relative absence o f
variety i n A m e r i c a n comics after the C o m i c s C o d e was established.
A n i m e offers t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o explore t h e c o m p l e x w o r k i n g s o f value
i n t o d a y s t r a n s m e d i a e n v i r o n m e n t , especially i n h o w v a l u e arises t h r o u g h
t h e social c i r c u l a t i o n o f m e d i a objects, n o t j u s t i n t e r m s o f m o m e n t s o f
c o m m o d i f l c a t i o n . T h e s t o r y o f a n i m e ' s "success" m i g h t be best u n d e r s t o o d
as a cast o f c h a r a c t e r s p l a y i n g o u t t h e i r p a r t s t h r o u g h s h a r e d d r a m a t i c
p r e m i s e s i n a w o r l d t h a t c h a n g e s as t i m e g o e s o n . F r o m t h a t p e r s p e c t i v e , i t
m a k e s s e n s e t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t t h e success o f t h e a n i m e i n d u s t r y , f o r
example, i n d o m i n a t i n g T V broadcasts w o r l d w i d e , nevertheless does n o t
e n s u r e success f o r e a c h i n d i v i d u a l a n i m e s t u d i o . S u c c e s s l o o k s v e r y d i f ferent d e p e n d i n g o n w h e r e o n e stands. M y effort t o m o v e t h e analysis
f r o m r e s o n a n c e t o e m e r g e n c e is p a r a l l e l e d b y a m o v e f r o m c o n t e n t i n d u s tries t o collaborative creativity. I n the examples o f Toei's feature films a n d
M u s h i P r o ' s i n t e r e s t i n T V , h o w e v e r , w e c a n see t h a t t h e a n i m e i n d u s t r y is
characterized by a variety o f cross-cutting c o m m i t m e n t s and
approaches.
M y interest i n collaborative creativity draws attention t o the n e t w o r k s o f
c o o p e r a t i o n a n d spheres o f c o m p e t i t i o n t h a t p r o d u c e today's w o r l d s o f
anime.
T h e concept o f collaborative c r e a t i v i t y is m e a n t t o r e m i n d u s t h a t
a n i m e ' s i n f l u e n c e c a n n o t be g a u g e d solely b y e x a m i n i n g w h a t h a p p e n s o n screen o r o n l y b y h o w i t is m a r k e t e d b y studios. M o r e broadly, a n i m e is
i l l u s t r a t i v e o f processes o f c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n t h a t reach across m e d i a
f o r m s a n d across categories o f p r o d u c e r s . T h u s , c o l l a b o r a t i v e c r e a t i v i t y
can also p r o v i d e n e w i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p o w e r i n m e d i a ,
b o t h i n t e r m s o f t o p - d o w n o r b o t t o m - u p forces a n d i n t e r m s o f W e s t e r n
h e g e m o n y versus local difference. K a r l M a r x p r o p o s e d t h a t those w h o
c o n t r o l t h e means o f p r o d u c t i o n have t h e o v e r r i d i n g p o w e r i n sociale c o n o m i c relationships, b u t g i v e n t h a t fans can p o w e r f u l l y i n f l u e n c e t h e
m e a n i n g s a n d values o f p o p u l a r culture, w h o u l t i m a t e l y c o n t r o l s t h e
"means o f production"? T h e o rd i n a ry oppositions n o longer h o l d once w e
a c k n o w l e d g e t h a t fans a n d c o n s u m e r s are i n d i s p e n s a b l e actors i n generati n g the value o f c u l t u r a l goods. T h i s brings u s back t o the energy a r o u n d
a n i m e , w h i c h arises t h r o u g h its c i r c u l a t i o n a n d t h e c o m b i n e d e f f o r t s o f
large n u m b e r s o f people, w h o s e c o l l abo rati ve approaches t o c r e a t i v i t y
A N I M E
*
b u i l t an i n d u s t r y t h r o u g h h a r d w o r k , t h r o u g h synergies w i t h o t h e r m e d i a ,
a n d b y d e v e l o p i n g a f a n base t h a t has g r o w n a n d m a t u r e d o v e r t i m e . A t
each stage o f t h e process, c o l l a b o r a t i v e c r e a t i v i t y arises f r o m b o t h a f o c u s
o f a t t e n t i o n and a circulatory m o v e m e n t that constantly reframes and
r e d e f i n e s w h a t a n i m e is a b o u t . W e m i g h t t h i n k o f t h i s c o l l e c t i v e e n e r g y as
a k i n d o f soul, the tendrils that r u n t h r o u g h media and connect us t o
o t h e r s . T h i s b e c o m e s e v e n c l e a r e r as w e t u r n t o q u e s t i o n s o f r o b o t , o r
mecha, a n i m e a n d its r e l a t i o n s h i p t o toys i n t h e n e x t chapter.