ETISplus D2 Annex report ITS pilot definition on usability for

Transcription

ETISplus D2 Annex report ITS pilot definition on
usability for European data modelling
ETISplus D2 Annex report ITS pilot definition on
usability for European data modelling
Riccardo Enei, Adele Vendetti (ISIS), Eckhard Szimba, Jan Ihrig (IWW), J.C. van
Meijeren,
D.M. Vonk Noordegraaf (TNO),
Sofia Esteves, Ana Gama (TIS), Sylvie
Gayda, Matthieu Bogaert (STRATEC), Benedikt Mandel, Oliver Schnell (MKm), Christian
Reynaud, Martine Poincelet (NESTEAR), Tom Voge (TML)
This report has been financed by European Commission.
Reference R20100233/30806000/MCH/RLO
Version 2
Rome, November 2010
Project acronym:
ETISplus
Project full title:
European Transport policy Information System- Development and
implementation
of
data
collection
methodology
for
EU
transport
modelling.
Call Identifier:
FP7-SST-2008-TREN-1
Duration:
32 Months
Start Date:
1 st September 2009
ETIS PLUS Consortium
1.
Beneficiary name
Acronym
NEA Transport research and training
NEA
Country
Netherlands
(NL)
2.
ISIS Institute of Studies for the Integration of
ISIS
Italy (IT)
TRT
Italy (IT)
Systems
3.
TRT Trasportieterritorio
Trasportieterritorio
4.
MKmetric Gesellschaft fuer Systemplanung mbH
MKmetric
Germany
(D)
5.
NESTEAR
NESTEAR
6.
IWW, Institute for Economic Policy Research
IWW
France (FR)
Germany
(D)
7.
TML, Transport & Mobility Leuven NV
TMLeuven
Belgium (B)
8.
STRATEC
STRATEC
Belgium (B)
9.
NTU Strategic Development and Consulting
NTU
Denmark
(DK)
10.
STRATA Gesellschaft für Daten- und
STRATA
Informationsmanagement mbH
11.
TiS.pt - Consultores em Transportes, Inovação e
TiS.pt
Sistemas, s.a.
12.
TNO
Germany
(D)
Portugal
(PT)
TNO
Netherlands
(NL)
13.
TETRAPLAN
TETRAPLAN
Denmark
(DK)
14.
NTUA National Technical University
NTUA
Greece (GR)
15.
OBET, Research Institute for Transport Economics
OBET
Poland (PL)
16.
ITC,Institute of transport and Communications
ITC
Bulgaria
Ltd.
17.
DEMIS B.V.
(BG)
DEMIS
Netherlands
(NL)
18.
UNIZA University of Žilina, Department of Highway
UNIZA University of
Slovakia
Engineering
Zilina
(SK)
ETISplus Del 2 Annex Report
Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1
IDENTIFICATION OF ITS AND THEIR USABILITY
TO SOLVE CURRENT DATA PROBLEMS
11
17
1.1
Data problems: the insights from ETIS BASE
17
1.1.1
Socio economic data
17
1.1.2
Freight demand
18
1.1.3
Passenger demand
19
1.1.4
Network data
20
1.1.5
Freight services and costs
21
1.1.6
Passenger services and costs
22
1.1.7
External effects
23
1.1.8
Conclusions
23
1.2
Overview of ITS applications
25
1.2.1
Technologies on the transport infrastructure
27
1.2.2
Technologies on the transport infrastructure and in the vehicle
28
1.2.3
Technologies in the vehicle
30
1.2.4
Extended Floating Car Data (XFCD)
34
1.2.5
Data information architecture
36
1.2.6
Conclusions
36
1.3
Potential use of data of ITS applications for the development of
network models
38
1.3.1
Technologies on the transport infrastructure
39
1.3.2
FCD techniques
41
1.4
Conclusions
42
2
ASSESSMENT OF BARRIERS TO THE
EXPLOITATION OF ITS DATA FOR EUROPEAN
TRANSPORT MODELLING PURPOSES
45
2.1
Framework for Assessing Barriers
2.1.1
The Development of a Barrier
46
2.1.2
The core dimensions of a Barrier
48
2.1.3
The Context
51
2.2
Barrier to the exploitation of data collected by deployed ITS
51
2.2.1
Barriers in the legal & regulatory field
53
2.2.2
Barriers in the organizational field
55
2.2.3
Barriers in the technical field
55
2.2.4
Economic & Finance
56
2.3
Barriers to ITS deployment for planning purposes
56
2.3.1
Legal and Regulatory
57
2.3.2
Organizational
59
2.3.3
Technical
60
2.3.4
Economic & Finance
60
2.3.5
Education
61
2.3.6
Subjective
61
2.4
Conclusions
62
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45
7
3
APPRAISAL OF POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS AND
STRATEGIES TO FULLY EXPLOIT ITS DATA FOR
EUROPEAN MODELLING PURPOSES
65
3.1
The potential of Floating Car Data (FCD) applications
66
3.1.1
Introduction
66
3.1.2
Relevance for transport modelling
70
3.2
Emerging business models
70
3.2.1
The traditional business models
70
3.2.2
The new business models
72
3.3
A real world application: the Telematics fleet
73
3.4
Conclusions
75
3.5
Possible solutions for exploitation of ITS data for the
development of (road) network models
76
3.5.1
Traffic data collection methods
76
3.5.2
Roadmap to exploit vehicle tracing techniques
81
3.6
Possible solutions and strategies to fully exploit ITS data for
European air transport modelling
82
3.6.1
Automatic raw data collection at airports for demand modelling
83
3.6.2
Usability of air navigation data for supply modelling and air
transport indicators
3.6.3
86
Intelligent use of Eurostat data and heuristics for an automatic
update of the air transport network
3.7
86
Investigation of ITS applications that could be used for
transport data collection
87
3.7.1
Introduction
87
3.7.2
ITS applications investigated for collection of transport data
87
3.7.3
Running and planned projects with ITS applications that might
deliver transport data
3.7.4
88
Identified problems concerning the use of data collected with
ITS applications
91
3.8
Floating Car Data/ Cellular Systems
92
3.8.1
User Groups
92
3.8.2
Overview
94
3.8.3
Details
95
3.8.4
Data Sources
3.9
Discussion and Analysis
4
DESIGN OF PILOT EXPERIMENTS OF NEW ITSBASED DATA COLLECTION METHODS
4.1
Pilot 1:
97
100
Gathering of origin to destination transport data by
GPS
4.2
103
103
Pilot 2: Tracking and tracing of goods transports by using fleet
management systems
104
4.3
Pilot 3: Data from electronic travel card
105
4.4
Pilot 4: Data on transport behaviour based on existing surveys
106
4.5
Pilot 5: Data on road travel movements based on odometer
readings at roadworthiness tests
5
8
REFERENCES
107
109
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ANNEX 1: DATA COLLECTION TECHNOLOGIES
113
ANNEX 2: ASSESSMENT OF BARRIERS TO THE
EXPLOITATION OF ITS DATA FOR
EUROPEAN AIR TRANSPORT MODELLING
PURPOSES
115
ANNEX 3: ELECTRONIC REPORTING IN INLAND
WATERWAYS TRANSPORT AND POTENTIAL
USE FOR DATA COLLECTION
119
ANNEX 4: RAIL FREIGHT MODELLING
133
ANNEX 5: STUDY OF BARRIERS TO ROAD TRANSPORT
ITS
141
ANNEX 6: FLOATING CAR DATA AND CELLULAR
SYSTEMS
157
ANNEX 7: MULTI CRITERIA ANALYSIS
167
ANNEX 8: DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES
177
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9
INDEX OF TABLE
Table 1: Data requirement – passenger demand -
19 Table 2. Relationship between the identified main barriers and
requirements to the effective exploitation of deployed ITS
53 Table 3: Examples of characteristics of delivery of traffic count data
by national authorities
78 Table 4: Major data areas from task 2.1
168 Table 5: Scoring of the technologies for the 6 categories
173 Table 6: Total scoring creates the following ranking of Technologies
174 Table 7: Scoring for criterion proven technology
175 INDEX OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Classification of technologies (based on Vonk Noordegraaf
et. al., 2009)
26
Figure 2: Communication from GPS
32
Figure 3: Communication from cellular phone
33
Figure 4: Schematic view of the use of traffic data
38
Figure 5: Availability of road traffic data from UN/ ECE (year 2005)
40
Figure 6: Examples of time variation curves for different road types
and time aggregation level
41
Figure 7: Road choice behaviour under road charging
42
Figure 8: Relationships between the ITS applications and data
problems
44
Figure 9: The proposed framework for Barriers Assessment
45
Figure 10: The process of development of a Barrier
46
Figure 11: Main Purposes for ITS deployment
47
Figure 12: The core dimensions of a Barrier
48
Figure 13: The Stage Dimension
48
Figure 14: The Agent Dimension
49
Figure 15: The Field Dimension
50
Figure 16. Requirements for an effective exploitation of deployed ITS
52
Figure 17. Main barriers to the effective exploitation of deployed ITS
52
Figure 18. Main barriers to ITS deployment
57
Figure 19: Comparison of networks – modelling network versus
UN/ECE network
77
Figure 20: Roadmap for data consolidated processing of traffic count
data
80
Figure 21: Accessing GPS tracing data
81
Figure 22: Structure of the ITS platform. Illustration based on (ITS
Platform Northern Jutland, 2010)
Figure 23: Overall structure of the Track based system (ghTrack
Platform, 2010)
10
104
TM
105
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Executive summary
This Deliverable combines the two Deliverables of the WP2 “Innovative data
collection concepts; use of ITS” of the ETIS PLUS project.
In particular, this Deliverable summarises the conclusions of the four tasks in
which the WP2 is structured. Namely:
Task 1: The identification of ITS applications and their usability to solve current
data problems
Task 2: The assessment of barriers to the exploitation of ITS data for European
transport modelling purposes
Task
3: Appraisal of possible solutions and strategies to fully exploit ITS data
Task
4: Design of Pilot experiments of new ITS-based data collection
for European modelling purposes.
Hence, the structure of this Deliverable is based on the four tasks above
mentioned, of which in turn the key results are described as follows:
•
The chapter 1 summaries the findings of the Task 1, aiming at identifying the
promising ITS applications and their potential usability to solve the current
data problems. After having reviewed the main problems encountered in
developing transport data set for transport models, the review of ITS
applications has been carried out with the aim to identify the most promising
applications that are potentially able to address the main problems emerged
during the analysis of the transport data sets. The most promising ITS
applications can be classified in three categories:
1.
the technologies on the transport infrastructure,
2.
the technologies on the transport infrastructure and in the vehicle and
3.
the technologies in the vehicle.
More specifically, the ITS applications that are highly promising with
reference to the freight, passenger and network data sets are the following:
•
Technologies on the transport infrastructure, e.g.. road sensors, cameras,
etc, that can provide useful information concerning traffic flows along specific
O/D, addressing in such a way the need to have detailed data at lower
geographical scale
•
Technologies on the transport infrastructure and in the vehicles, e.g., RFID,
an OBU with DSRC, that provide information apt to fill the gaps in O/D on a
small scale and some routes information
•
Technologies in the vehicle, e.g.. mobile devices, GPS/ GPRS applications, etc
and floating car data tools, which can provide real-time information on
congestion,
vehicle
speed
and
direction,
addressing in such a way the lack of data at
O/D
and
route
information,
network level and improving
considerably the calibration of assignment models
•
The chapter 2 summarises the results of Task 2 on the assessment of
barriers to the effective exploitation of the promising ITS applications
identified in the Task 1. The assessment of barriers has been based on a
general framework that has taken into account the systemic nature of the
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11
process of development of barriers and its core dimensions. Some important
barriers
have
been
reviewed,
e.g.
legal
&
regulatory,
organizational,
technical and economic & financial, and analysed through case studies (in
annex to this report). The following conclusions can be drawn:
•
Annex 2 – Assessment of barriers to the exploitation of ITS data for
European air transport modelling purposes: In this paper, prepared by
MKmetric, the sources and the barriers concerning air transport are described
according to the demand and supply, passenger and air cargo points of view.
The lack of a common regulatory framework to oblige member states to
report the required data according to pre-defined requirements ensuring
good quality of data and facilitating the integration and comparison of data
arriving from different sources has been identified as one of the main
barriers to overcome.
•
Annex 3 – Electronic reporting in inland waterways transport and
potential use for data collection: This paper prepared by STRATEC focuses
on
the
collection
of
freight
data
for
inland
navigation,
namely
the
implementation of the electronic reporting that has been implemented by
European State members in the context of the River Information Services
directive, and how this information can be used in the Transtools1 model
(barriers and drivers). It presents case studies from France, Belgium and
Holland describing how the electronic reporting has been put in place, as well
as an overview of its implementation status of several countries. Again, the
lack of a common regulatory framework hampers data availability and
data quality. Furthermore, the case study shows how privacy issues may
hinder the effective exploitation of collected data. Fragmentation of data
holdings (enforced by privatization trend) leads to both institutional and
operational difficulties in accessing and fully exploiting the existing data.
•
Annex 4 – Rail freight modelling: This paper carried out by NESTEAR
focuses on the new technologies that open new perspectives in the domain of
modelling tools for rail freight: GIS framework and Geo localization of
mobiles.
•
Annex 5 – Study of barriers to road transport ITS: The main objective of
this paper prepared by TIS is to identify some examples of road data
collection technologies that are being implemented, or have been already
implemented,
focusing
on
the
principal
barriers
to
the
implementation/development of those technologies. In particular, it has been
stressed the lack of a supportive organizational structure, bridging
public (data users) and private sector (data provider). The establishment of
public-private partnerships could be very important for the success of ITS
deployment for several reasons, ranging from technical requirements to
finance restrictions. Unclear benefits may also arise when the main
stakeholders of the project are not sufficiently informed about the aims of
the
project,
its
costs and
expected
benefits for
the society
and for
themselves and are not called to express their opinions and concerns to have
an active participation on the decisions taking during all the stages of the
project.
•
Annex 6 – Floating Car Data and Cellular Systems: This paper prepared
by TML describes case studies of three companies that have implemented
floating car data and cellular systems: TOMTOM, ITIS, and PTV, and a case
1
Transtools is a network model developed by cooperation projects initiated by European
Commission, the Institute for Prospective Technological Studies (IPTS) and DG TREN
12
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study of OPTIS project, which is a project that uses the floating car data
technology to provide travelers information in Sweden. As a result, potential
deployment barriers in the context of floating car data/ cellular systems are
described; i.e. privacy issues barriers, that may still arise even if the ITS
does not the identification of a vehicle or individual but enables the creation
of a record that may be accessed later for potentially controversial purposes
•
Annex 7– Multi criteria analysis: The main focus of this paper carried out
by TNO is to describe an assessment methodology that identifies the most
promising applications based on the ITS technologies presented in task 2.1.
This methodology sets the criteria on the aspects that were previously
identified and presents the main conclusions and recommendations of this
analysis. Standards and Interoperability aspects, i.e. how well does the
technology cooperate with other relevant methods, have been identified as
important barriers. Furthermore, poor business cases and models may not
only hinder the participation of the private sector but also compromise the
potential benefits of the deployment because of lack of funds for proper
maintenance and repair of ITS systems
•
Annex 8 – Data Collection Techniques: this paper prepared by TIS
presents some examples of national transport models, which may or may not
have models for traffic simulation. Since it is not yet possible to obtain real
traffic information for all sections of the road network on a national scale,
some countries have simulation models to estimate traffic across all the
sections of their road networks. These models can also be linked to a
National Transport Model, which aggregates other information such as the
road infrastructure characteristics and socio-economic data.
•
The chapter 3 summarises the possible solutions and strategies to overcome
the barriers identified in the task 2. The first contribution (carried out by
ISIS) stresses the potential relevance for transport modelling arising from
Floating Car Data (FCD) applications, with particular reference to the
telematic fleets, originally developed for business applications within the
insurance system (according to which the insurer installs an OBU consisting
of a GPS receiver, and a GPRS transmitter to the insured car, in change of
discount fees to the insured). The OBU detects speed, guiding styles and
represents a key instrument to avoid frauds, but can also provide the key
data for transport modelling. Namely:
o
evaluating and projecting traffic correlations (origin-destination matrices)
from current and historical traffic flows.
o
calculating the current traffic condition on the basis of O/D-matrices as
well as statistical analysis of traffic data surveyed online.
The strategy to overcome the main barriers to fully exploit the FCD source
data is based on two steps:
1.
Identification of data processing and data needed. In order to
overcome
aspects),
the
is
technical
necessary
barriers
to
identify
(standards
the
data
and
interoperability
needed
from
FCD
applications, providing an overview of the data processing steps used to
prepare
the
data
needed
for
transport
modelling,
including
pre-
processing, data quality checking, and aggregation to a common data
standard, and finally the mobility and reliability analysis.
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13
2.
Involvement of data provider. In order to overcome the growing
presence
of
private
data
providers
which
may
arise
barriers
of
accessibility to FCD data, is necessary to design win-win strategies with
private
data
providers,
e.g.
data
acquisition,
providing
access
to
transport data, identifying potential customers for data providers, etc.
•
•
With reference to the strategies to ensure the exploitation of ITS
data for the development of road network data (providing traffic
count data), the second contribution (developed by IWW) suggests
to address the institutional barriers, establishing common
standards for data exchange at EU level, and obliging EU
Member States and private data to provide data. An overview of
possible potential ITS applications for the air sector data has been
provided in the third contribution (Mkmetric). The contribution
stresses the potential benefits from the automatic raw data collected
in airports during check in procedures (all data potentially useful for
tracking O/D destination). Other potential applications arise from the
use of navigation data for supply modelling and air transport
indicators. A focus on the use of GPS data and Bluetooth
technologies has been provided by TNO in the fourth contribution.
Concerning the strategies to overcome the barriers, with particular
reference to data confidentiality, contractual agreements
have to be established with private data providers, i.e. a
trusted party receives the data and only delivers aggregate results
for other purposes that cannot be traced back to specific companies.
An overview on potential implementation strategies to fully exploit
the use of floating car data/ cellular systems has also been
developed by TML. Among the suggested strategies, it is worthwhile
to stress the following ones, that have already been stressed in the
previous contributions:
o To agree on European rules for access to public data in affordable
manner;
o To specify quality level recommendations aiming at optimal data
quality;
o To explore, develop and demonstrate new and innovative
business models
The fourth chapter describes the five Pilot studies that have been planned to
test the promising ITS applications. These are covering the following areas:
1.
Gathering of origin to destination transport data by GPS
2.
Tracking and tracing of goods transports by using fleet management
3.
Data from electronic travel card
4.
Data on transport behaviour based on existing surveys
5.
Data
systems
on
road
travel
movements
based
on
odometer
readings
at
roadworthiness tests
The first two Pilot studies address the main conclusions drawn in the chapter
3, summarising the possible solutions and strategies to fully exploit ITS data,
through the potential relevance for transport modelling arising from Floating
Car Data (FCD). In particular, the first two Pilot studies will test the
capability to integrate in the ETIS database data and traffic information
coming from 500 GPS devices installed in cars of private households and/or
in trucks of selected transport companies
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The other Pilots have been designed to meet the ETISplus project WP4 tasks.
Namely:
•
For Task 4.2 – Use of already existing data basically collected with another
purpose than giving input to a statistically based description of transport
behaviour, we have defines the Pilot 3
Data from electronic travel card. In
order to carry out this Pilot, contact has been established to the Danish
Travel Card Agency, which will assist NTU when making an overview of how
data collected from electronic travel cards, possibly can supplement and
complement data in the ETIS database.
•
For Task 4.3 – Demonstration of the chain approach, we have defines the
Pilot 4: Data on transport behaviour based on existing surveys. In such a
case, the examination will be based on interviews with researchers at DTU /
Transport who has worked with ETIS through TRANSTOOLS and with data
from the transport surveys.
•
For Task 4.4 – Possibilities related to use of data obtained as part of the
regular EU inspection of vehicles is addressed, we have defines the Pilot 5:
Data
on
road
travel
movements
based
on
odometer
readings
at
roadworthiness tests. Calculations will be based on odometer readings from
the total vehicle fleet or from a sample. Data collected by this method will be
used to calibrate/validate figures for external effects concerning emissions
level and energy consumption from road transport.
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15
1
Identification of ITS and their usability to
solve current data problems
1.1
Data problems: the insights from ETIS BASE
The insights from the ETIS BASE project represent the natural background for
the review of the ITS applications. The ETIS BASE pilot was in fact designed to
support the TENT policies, in particular through the capability to provide a
harmonised transport database and a tool for policy assessment able to be used
at EU policy level.
This implies that the problems in data availability analysed in ETIS BASE were
strictly relevant for the ETIS PLUS objectives, to the extent that they addressed
the key data areas (or themes), included in the TRANS-TOOLS model. Namely:
1
Socio Economic Data
Household
data,
vehicle
stocks,
GDP,
Value
Added.
Mainly on NUTS2 level.
2
Freight Demand
A base matrix with Freight Transport Chain Data
on NUTS2 level. From this base matrix a number
of matrices are available on a more aggregate
level that are less complex (without transport
chain data).
3
Passenger Demand
Origin-destination database, at NUTS2 level, for
road, rail and air.
4
Network Data
Four network databases, for road, rail, airports,
and inland waterways.
5
Freight Services and Costs
O/D database of transport costs, distances and
journey times, for road, rail and sea networks.
On NUTS2 level.
6
Passenger
7
Services
and
O/D database of passenger transport costs and
Costs
journey times for road, rail, and air.
External Effects
Emissions (also included in Network Links), and
Airport emissions.
The review of the main problems in data availability and quality identified in ETIS
BASE allows to set the scene for the identification of the key areas where
potential improvements from the ITS applications are needed.
The following sections summarises the main problems identified for each data
area:
1.1.1 Socio economic data
The problems with socio-economic data mainly relate to the different spatial
dimensions and data availability across the European countries with reference to
the three basic levels with which they are used in modelling:
•
national level
•
regional level
•
local level
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17
The national level is well defined in national statistics with a fairly good
harmonisation at European level as well as at the world level, although the
details available are much more limited for non EU countries.
The regional level is more difficult to define; in fact, only as a first approximation
the European NUTS II level can be considered as regional level. In fact, the
NUTS II level does not always correspond to what is called the administrative
region, implying different dimensions according to the history of the countries.
The reference to the NUTS III level in some case may be used as to derive
regional data.
The third level, which is the “local” level, is also sometimes difficult to define
rigorously. In some case the reference to NUTS IV or NUTS V level may be a
possibility, in other case, as for NUTS V, the definition does not exist in all
countries and then the reference to “urban database” can be useful to made.
However, data gaps are likely to be faced.
As attention turns towards climate
change impacts of transport, local transport, which is the largest
passenger
sector, starts to acquire greater significance from a European perspective.
The problems in having homogenous definition of spatial level may be higher to
the extent we move from the EU 27 level to the neighbouring countries, e.g.
Mediterranean and Balkans countries, etc.
In general, it should be considered that information at NUTS II level are
subdivision of details provided at NUTS III level and this property of “embedded”
definition of information can be useful where some data are missing, because the
NUTS II estimations can always be extended to NUTS III level as a first
approximation.
Furthermore,
when
facing
the
difficulty
of
obtaining
data
combining different information with different area, the techniques of “raster”
cells can be used so that an estimation of local spatial distribution of activity can
be
made
in
correlation
with
local
spatial
distribution
of
population
or
employment. In fact, the “raster” cells represent grids of geographical areas for
which the local spatial distribution of activity is available, e.g. the population
distribution at NUTS II. This information can be used as proxy of socio-economic
data at narrow geographical levels, e.g. passenger demand at NUTS III level.
1.1.2 Freight demand
The approach and the overall philosophy of the “transport chain principle”
implies that the transport flows implicitly related via multi-modal sequences. This
means that, besides the ultimate origins and destinations, the location of
transhipment points (e.g. ports, terminals and distribution centres) and the
mode sequences before and after transhipment would ideally be known.
In
practice, these chains can be constructed from survey data or inferred from
models. Methods of estimation uses a top down approach, which means that we
take the rough country to country trade information and refine this, step by step,
using various national data sources. The phases in the top down approach are
the following:
1.
The building of a country to country matrix
2.
Including transhipment regions on the basis of transhipment statistics
3.
Regional division of country to country totals
18
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4.
Incorporating domestic transport
The relevant data required for the implementation of the top down approach
described above are the following:
a.
International region to region trade and transport flows
b.
Transport mode on the European territory of intercontinental flows
c.
Port transhipment data
d.
Inland terminal transhipment data
e.
Intermodal transport statistics
f.
Container transport data
g.
Commodity characteristics
h.
Transport performance data (number of transport units, loading factors,
number of loaded/empty trips)
In general, the main problems (data gaps) may be summarised in two main
categories:
1.
Problems in the coverage of geographical scale at intra-zone level, i.e. from
NUTS II level to NUTSIII and local level.
2.
Problems in data knowledge: the lack of detail found in intra-EU trade and
transport statistics, e.g. region to region flows, containerisation, transport
mode and handling characteristics.
1.1.3 Passenger demand
Passenger origin/destination data is typically estimated, since there are no
European trip matrices being collected directly.
The trip matrix estimation
approach addresses the first three steps of the classic four-step-approach, which
is trip generation, trip distribution and modal split. For each step different data
are needed for the use of the model and for calibration. The data requirements
of the passenger model are listed in the following table.
Table 1
Data requirement – passenger demand
Item
Definition
Unit of
measurement
Scope/Segmentation
Passenger
matrix
Number of passenger trips
between zones
Pass/year
Geo: EU25+CH+NW at NUTS 3 level;
neighbouring countries at aggregate level;
Modes: Car, Train, Plane.
Population
Amount of inhabitants
Individuals
Employment
Amount of employed
persons
Individuals
Car
ownership
Level of private
motorisation
Cars/1000
inhabitants
Travel
distances
Distance between origindestination pairs
Km
NUTS 3 O/D pairs
Travel times
Time required to travel on
origin/destination pairs
Hour
NUTS 3 O/D pairs
Travel costs
Cost of travelling on
origin/destination pairs
Euro/passenger
Geo: NUTS 3 O/D pairs
Modes: Car, Train, Plane
Demand segments: Business – Non
business.
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Euro/vehicle
19
Item
Definition
Unit of
measurement
Scope/Segmentation
Car
occupancy
factors
Average number of
passengers on cars
(including driver)
Ton/veh
Business – Non business.
Value of
travel time
Monetary value attached
to travel time
EURO/h
Business – Non business.
Calibration/Validation data
Amount of
demand
Trips in the reference year
Trips/year
Traffic
performance
Performance of passenger
transport modes in the
reference year
Pass*km/year
Veh*km/year
It can be observed that for the trip generation mainly socio-economic data like
population, employment, car ownership rates are needed to generate the number
of annual journeys per individual per region. Concerning the trip distribution, the
attractiveness of a destination and region-specific socio-economic indicators are
needed. Additionally information about the travel like time, distance and costs
are used, too. In the third step the mode for the travel is chosen. Travel costs
and time and information about the trip itself like frequencies and number of
transfers are used to split the trips between the modes. In terms of calibration,
the model is calibrated with data from transport statistics and feedback from the
economics and assignment model.
1.1.4 Network data
The following networks are included in the TRANS-TOOLS model:
•
Road;
•
Rail (passenger and freight);
•
Air (passenger and freight);
•
Inland waterway (freight only);
•
Maritime transport (freight only)
The road network contains 38,000 road segments covering the whole of Europe
and includes attributes such as: segment length, segment type (road or ferry),
no. of lanes, speed flow function, and traffic counts on selected segments.
Updating has been done (in TEN CONNECT) to achieve a proper treatment of :
•
Segments e.g. motorways are not connected as they should be (dangling
links).
•
Coverage e.g. Some important roads particular around the major cities are
missing.
•
Ferry lines are in many cases not correct and outdated.
•
Attributes e.g. Information on no. of lanes is missing on a few segments.
The rail networks, freight and passengers, (17,600 links) originates from the UIC
network and includes comparable detailed attributes necessary for assignment:
link length, passenger travel time, time for freight carriage, max speeds for
passenger and freight trains, line type, no. of tracks, and for selected links
passenger and tonnes carried. Data are not available at line level and so it is
impossible to differentiate between line competing services with respect to fare
and travel time, and frequency (waiting times) will not enter the assignment and
assessments. The number of attributes is limited to link length, type and
20
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observed data on passengers and tonnes making it necessary to estimate
attributes e.g. travel time on secondary rail links.
The maritime network includes the list of main ports. Inland waterways includes
about 800 links in Middle and East Europe. The data source includes attributes
like length and travel time but misses cost data.
The air network includes a detailed list of airports in Europe (419 nodes) and
links between airports describing distance, travel time and costs (4,800 links).
The preferably line service attributes to include competing air services and
calculation of waiting times are not provided by the network.
In general, it can be said that in many cases it is not possible to distinguish the
vehicles on a specific link, by the trip purpose of the users or the distance of
respective journey. In order to fill this gap an estimation using transport models
is often necessary. In fact, the models can estimate the demand according to
different user groups, assigning demand by origin and destination zones and
distinguishing the traffic load on a link by distance class and user segment. In
particular, the share of international traffic can be estimated, which is an
important indicator for the relevance of a project, concerning the European
dimension. The shortest paths between two network nodes can be calculated
through the network, which reflect the users’ route choice in real transportation
networks. Hence, the generalised costs for each network link can be estimated,
reflecting the users cost for passing this link. The network links have to carry
attributes, which allow an estimation of the link travel times, under realistic
conditions (e.g. congestion).
After the freight OD matrix has been made available additional information that
is not available in data sources can be added relatively easy by applying
estimation procedures. For instance when the transport volume between an
origin and a destination is known, transport performance information (expressed
in tonne kilometres) can be calculated by multiplying the volume by the distance
between the regions.
1.1.5 Freight services and costs
Supply side data is typically concerned with transport costs (freight rates),
freight services, network impedances, capacities and performance criteria e.g.
punctuality. The freight services and costs include the components of the
transport Level of Service (LOS), time and costs. Data relate to a wide series of
indicators overlapping in some cases with the network data. Examples:
•
Current level of application of rail interoperability recommendations and
standards (%) (track gauge, electric power supply, train safety)
•
Travel times by road, by origin and destination
•
Travel times by rail, by origin and destination
•
Travel times by air, by origin and destination
•
Travel times by short sea shipping and inland waterway, by origin and
destination
•
Freight and passenger service frequency (including intermodal)
•
Rail transport delays
•
Travel cost by road, by origin and destination
•
Travel cost by rail, by origin and destination
•
Travel cost by short sea shipping, by origin and destination
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21
Data are estimated by the assignment module and the availability of data at
network level, e.g. traffic counts, travel time, could help to calibrate the model
calculation.
1.1.6 Passenger services and costs
As for the freight transport, passenger models produce yearly demand which
need to be distributed into time periods before assignment to include congestion
effects and differences in level of service. Concerning road passenger, it applies
three types of days: weekdays, weekdays within a holiday period and Sundays.
The
passenger
model
originally
included
three
trip
purposes:
business
(commuting and work related trips), tourism, and other private trips (e.g.
shopping, visits) which should be distributed according to the type of day by
different shares of AADT. For instance, business trips are mainly done on
weekdays.
After the improvements in the TRANSTOOLS Model, the trip purposes applied for
passenger trips include the following:
•
Home-Business (HB)
•
Home-Private (HP)
•
Home-Vacation (HH)
•
Home-Work (HW)
The Home-Work purpose is new, and is taken out of the Home-Business
segment. The reason is that Home-Work has other characteristics, particularly
another value of time, than Home-Business, and this makes it difficult to
forecasts the two segments under one umbrella.
The methodology for generation of travel times of passenger cars implies the
application of a modelling approach, which relies on information from other work
packages as follows:
•
capacity, maximum speed, distance
•
passenger flows
The calculations of road travel costs refer to the fastest paths between a certain
O/D pair and represent the “out of pocket costs”. Hence, the most important cost
components are fuel costs and road charges. Furthermore, in order to derive the
costs per passenger an average passenger car occupancy rate is taken into
account. A country specific differentiation of values for the latter variables would
be envisaged, but is subject to further analyses on data availability.
Rail travel times between two O/D zones are defined as the travel time from the
NUTS2 centroid to the nearest main train station, plus the travel time between
main stations.
Concerning air transport, passenger travel time, costs and frequencies are
collected on specific O/D pairs.
In general, at present, the databases have very limited information on travel
costs, whereby this is assumed only based on services (speed of rail, and some
knowledge on the low versus other air companies). No information is available
concerning frequencies, therefore this is estimated based on traffic volumes and
22
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geographical areas. As for the freight services and costs, the availability of real
data about the variation of the OD pattern between day types could be needed to
improve estimation of congestion effects, costs and LOS of passenger transport.
1.1.7 External effects
The external effects concern emissions level and energy consumption. According
to the framework adopted in the model, the following data are required with
respect to emission and fuel consumption:
Input data
•
Emission factors (g/veh-km), i.e., parameters used to compute the amount
of several pollutants emitted by vehicles, segmented by pollutant (CO2, CO,
NOx, SO2, PM, VOC), by country, and by mode (car, LDV, HDV, bus/coach,
train, ship, plane).
•
Fuel consumption factors (liters/veh-km), i.e., parameters used to compute
the amount of fuel consumed by road vehicles, segmented by fuel type
(gasoline, diesel, LPG), by country, and by road mode (car, LDV, HDV,
bus/coach).
Calibration/validation data
•
Total emissions (tons*1000/year), i.e., total amount of greenhouse gases
and pollutant emitted by transport in a given period, segmented by pollutant
(CO2, CO, NOx, SO2, PM, VOC), by country, and by mode (car, LDV, HDV,
bus/coach, train, ship, plane).
•
Total fuel consumption (million litres/year), i.e., total amount of fuels
consumed by road transport in a given period, segmented by fuel type
(gasoline, diesel, LPG), by country, and by road mode (car, LDV, HDV,
bus/coach).
Current updates are being carried out in order to improve data availability, e.g.
vehicle technology, geographical coverage, etc of the TREMOVE model, this is the
model that is now commonly used in European policy studies for assessing
emissions and energy consumption.
1.1.8 Conclusions
In current databases, such as ETIS (European Transport policy Information
System) BASE, that are being used as input for transport models (e.g. TRANSTOOLS), there are general problems regarding data availability and data quality
and there are specific gaps.
The main problems assessed in the current data bases can be summarised as
follows:
Road count data is too limited
The databases include data from the UNECE European road census (E-Road)
which is held every five years. This census focuses on motor traffic on main
international traffic arteries in thirty-seven European countries. Data is collected
on the road traffic flows (average annual daily traffic, AADT) over a road section
by vehicle category, as well as breakdowns of vehicle flows by night, peak-hour
and holiday traffic. The AADT is the average calculated over a year of the
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23
number of vehicles passing a point in a given counting section each day (usually
expressed in vehicles per day). This can be measured by continuous traffic
counts for the entire year, short-term traffic counts or a combination. The data
for the UNECE European road census is only collected at a limited number of
locations in Europe. Moreover, not much is known on the vehicle characteristics
(e.g. weight, emission class) and type of passenger transport (e.g. business,
leisure) or freight transport (e.g. containers, bulk).
Region to region transport data is limited
For passengers, comprehensive region to region data does not exist. For freight,
the
data
that
is
currently
collected
on
interregional
transport
is
mostly
aggregated at the NUTS 2 or 3 levels. For some countries the data is even
aggregated at the national level resulting in region to country data or only data
on the incoming/outgoing flows. In addition, there is also a lack of data on intrazonal traffic. Most data is aggregated at the NUTS 2 level. This implies there is
hardly information available on local traffic. Last, for countries outside Europe
holds that the data is most aggregated.
Mode to Mode transhipment data at interchange points (e.g. seaports) is lacking
In case of transhipments the region to region information is currently not aligned
with the origin destination information. For example, a freight flow can origin
from the Unites States and can be transhipped in Antwerp before continuing the
journey to the final destination in Germany. In this case the region to region
information would indicate a freight flow from the Unites States to Antwerp and a
separate freight flow from Antwerp to Germany. Hence, currently only the
transport legs are registered.
No registration of the use of distribution centres in freight data
Freight is often transported over long distances including multiple transhipments.
Not only the registration in seaports is lacking, also information on the use of
distribution centres within the supply chain is lacking. This information gap
makes reconstruction of the complete transport chain, including the origin and
destination and route followed, almost impossible.
Freight Mode Share Data
Another example of a problem in the current data bases includes the lack of
detail (e.g. port and mode) in intra-EU trade statistics since 1992. This lack of
statistics makes the calibration of freight data in the transport models less
reliable. In addition, some categories of freight transport are not consistently
defined. For example, the share of containerisation and the types of goods being
containerised differ between various countries.
Network Performance and Bottlenecks
The most important problems concern the collection of more data on specific
network points, on specific links and on specific routes chosen. This emerges in
the databases for passenger and freight transport and regardless of the mode of
transport. If the quality of the data from these data bases would significantly
increase, it would benefit all transport studies that make use of this data.
If
there is more detailed, accurate, reliable and complete information on passenger
and freight transport, for example the analyses of bottlenecks in the network,
the prediction of growth in transport demand and the options for modal shifts
can become much more accurate. Hence, this would improve the transport policy
making processes.
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In recent years more and more traffic data collection methods have become
available. These methods support measuring real-time data. This paper analyses
the options of using ITS technologies for data collection. We specifically focus on
the options to increase the number of road counts, to improve the quality of the
road count information and to collect region to region transport information. It is
not expected that through the use of ITS applications all data problems will be
solved. However, it is expected that the use of ITS applications will contribute
substantially
to
the
improvement
of
data
availability
and
the
improved
possibilities to estimate data gaps.
The rapid developments in ITS methods do not allow giving an exhaustive review
of all available methods. In this paper we provide the ITS classification and
review the most promising data collection methods. For innovative technologies
we also anticipate the discussion on the bottlenecks that need to be overcome
before these technologies could be applied in practice, which will be analysed in
detail in the task 2.2 and 2.3.
1.2
Overview of ITS applications
The use of ITS technologies has largely increased in the last years providing
significant contributions to the transportation system performance; this is
particularly evident in the road transport where the benefits of ITS applications
are different varying from increased safety and travellers mobility convenience,
reduced congestion, delivered environmental benefits.
It is worth noting how the ITS deployment in the last years has been helpful and
successful
in
improving
traffic
management
(i.e.
traffic
control,
driver
information, travel demand management) and transportation operations, for both
public and commercial services (i.e. public transport management, commercial
fleet management ) and accordingly increasing intermodality for transport
modes, in increasing safety of vehicles and pedestrians, the related emergency
system as well as electronic payment management.
On the other side, data
analysis and management is a key issue of the ITS implementation as the
amount of data to be collected, analyzed and translated into information to be
distributed
to
the
users
is
significant
and
requires
ITS
expertise
and
professionals. It should be stressed that ITS technologies are expected to further
contribute to the traffic data collection and to improve the level and quality of
networks information as they are becoming an important way to overcome some
of the most important barriers of the traditional approaches.
Therefore, this chapter mainly focuses on the deployment of ITS technologies to
gather traffic data and transport information with particular reference to road
transport. An important classification criterion, described in turn in the next
sections,
is
the
position
of
the
measurement
equipment.
Measurement
equipment can be placed:
a)
on a fixed location on the transport infrastructure, e.g. next to the transport
link (e.g. roadside),
b)
on a fixed location next to the transport link and in the vehicle,
c)
only in the vehicle.
Methodologies that make use of equipments next to the transport link and in the
vehicle to detect the vehicle are called beacon transponder systems. Data
specifically collected through the use of the vehicle location are called Floating
Car Data. In order to provide an overview of ITS technologies and applications it
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25
can be useful to adopt the distinction between the measurement of traffic
indicators
and
the
data
communication
needed
to
further
process
the
information. The figure below shows an overview of the different technologies
available.
Figure 1
Classification of technologies (based on Vonk Noordegraaf et. al., 2009)
Point data
"In-situ" technologies provide traffic data by the use of detectors located on the
transport infrastructure, e.g. alongside the road; notably, they measure vehicle
speeds only for a given point of geography or a given point of time.
These techniques have been employed for many years reaching a certain level of
maturity and they are well recognised to provide precise and relevant data on
the current traffic situation. In this context, intrusive sensors, those that involve
placement of the sensors on top of or in the lane to be monitored, represent the
most usual devices used (i.e. inductive loops, piezo-electric sensors, and
pneumatic rubber road tubes). On the other hand, non-intrusive sensors (i.e.
passive acoustic sensors and video image detection devices) seem to be also
particularly efficient also due to the fact that they do not interfere with traffic
flow either during installation or operation. It is important to say that public
services mainly rely on these data to assess and predict traffic situations. In
fact, on-road measurements are considered essential and therefore to be kept in
the future.
The annex 1 shows brief descriptions to the most basic technologies (sensors
that detect a vehicle combined with equipment for data storage), commonly used
to collect point data.
Point-to-point data
In this overview we distinguish two different methods to collect point-to-point
data. The first method only uses technology on the transport infrastructure. The
most common technology is based on cameras. The second method combines
technology on the transport infrastructure and technology in the vehicle.
Floating car data
A method that only makes use of technology in the vehicle is referred to as
floating car data. Satellite positioning by Global Navigation Satellite System
(GNSS) is used to determine the vehicle locations. Often this positioning
technology
is
built
in
the
vehicle.
This
is
combined
with
a
wireless
communication technology.
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November 26, 2010
Mobile
A second method that only makes use of technology in the vehicle is using a
mobile phone. This positioning technology is often not build in the vehicle given
the primary functionality of a mobile phone.
1.2.1 Technologies on the transport infrastructure
Sensor networks
Road sensors are considered a common technology. A new development in this
field is wireless sensor networks in the asphalt. An example is the Traffic
Infrastructure Sensor Network as being developed by TNO. The concept is based
on wireless networks of cheap and low-maintenance miniature sensors, with four
sensors per square meter. The sensors form a real-time monitoring system that
communicates the collected data wireless with the road side unit. Algorithms are
used to translate detections into individual vehicle tracks (position and speed)
and determine road parameters as (capacity, location of traffic jams). The
algorithms are developed and measurement experiments have been carried out.
Future research will focus on energy supply, sensor casing and enlarging the
communication range.
Cameras and ANPR
Cameras are used to register the vehicles. With Automatic Number Plate
Recognition (ANPR) software the number plates are extracted from the video
images, making it possible to identify unique vehicles at one location or at
multiple locations to determine a vehicle trajectory. This system is also called a
Video-based
license-plate
recognition
system.
These
systems
often
use
additional sensors for the detection of vehicles, such as loops, magnetic loops
and radar. The highest accuracy is obtained when the cameras are positioned on
gantries above the roads, with pictures being taken of the front and back number
plates. Cameras positioned above roads are more expensive than roadside
cameras. The percentage of pictures that can be used for identification ranges
between 96.6% and 98.6% when double-sided pictures are taken. Driving
between high trucks and in bad weather can affect the accurate reading of
number plates. Foreign number plates can also be more difficult to read. It is
estimated that for between 2.8 % to 4.5% of the cases, the pictures cannot be
processed fully automatically; therefore, the plates must be read manually.
Manual reading results in high operational costs. In addition, the maintenance
cost can also result in high costs, especially when the system is applied on a
large
scale.
Cameras
and
ANPR
are
the
most
common
technology
for
enforcement.
Video based monitoring
A new development is the use of video cameras to detect vehicles at one point,
over a short section (using a single camera) or over a longer section (using a
series of cameras). This technology does not make use of ANPR. The video
images are used to identify unique features of the vehicles (sizes, towing hooks)
and are capable of detecting unique vehicles without linking this to the number
plate. This can be used to detect different types of vehicles and follow unique
vehicles without running into privacy issues.
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27
Satellite for snapshot of traffic
TNO and DLR have executed a field test in 2009 to investigate the options of
using satellites combined with radar technology to detect traffic. DLR has access
to the TerraSar X satellite that, using synthetic radar technology, can create a
three-dimensional image of the observed earth surface. Moving objects can be
identified by applying this technology and it is possible to determine the position
and speed of the vehicles. The detection is quick. Hence, a snapshot of the traffic
situation is made. The maximum corridor that can be covered this way is 7
kilometers. Earlier tests have shown that the satellite can detect 65% of the
trucks and 30% of the passenger cars. The accuracy of determining the speed of
the detected vehicles is 2 to 3 km/h. Future research is needed to overcome
problems from differentiations with road side objects and
the limited satellite
availability - this specific satellite can only take a snapshot at a fixed time slot
(sunrise/sunset) once in every 2 days.
1.2.2 Technologies on the transport infrastructure and in the
vehicle
OBU and DSRC
Beacon transponder systems are characterized by their On-Board-Unit (OBU) and
type of communication. Radio Frequency IDentification (RFID) is a combination
of measurement and data communication. Other types of data communication
are radio waves, infrared, and Dedicated Short Range Communications (DSRC).
Both RFID and OBUs with DSRC are often applied in commercial operation.
However, as RFID can be seen as a simplified form of an OBU with DSRC as the
latter has more functionality.
AVI technologies (Automatic vehicle identification) can be used to identify
vehicles at fixed location by means of electronic transponders (tags) as the
vehicle pass the sensors: in fact each reader senses vehicles as they pass a
reader station and transmits the time and location to a central controller. As the
vehicles pass through successive tag readers, software calculates average travel
times and speeds for a roadway segment.
AVI technologies are most commonly applied for electronic toll collection (ETC).
It is important to highlight that one of the most important advantage of this
technique is its ability to continuously collect large amounts of data with minimal
human resource requirements. AVI technology has demonstrated itself as highly
accurate. On the other side, data collection process is constrained primarily by
sample size characteristics and the coverage area of the AVI infrastructure (i.e.
antenna readers or ETC booths). In particular, in AVI systems, especially
systems with many antenna locations and probe vehicles, a large amount of data
storage space is needed. Moreover, privacy issues are of a certain importance.
The technology requires that unique tag IDs are tracked between sequential
antennas to determine travel times. The IDs correspond to individual drivers of
probe vehicles, as the drivers are often registered to use an ETC system. The
technology may allow individual vehicles to be tracked along the system.
ETC is fast becoming a globally accepted method of toll collection, a trend
greatly aided by the growth of interoperable ETC technologies.
ECT technology is implemented in the following European countries:
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November 26, 2010
•
Austria - Videomaut for motorways and expressways in Austria subject to
special tolls
(http://www.videomaut.at/) and Ggo-maut for the national
Autobahn network in Austria
•
Germany - LKW-MAUT for trucks on Autobahns
•
Italy - TELEPASS on Autostrade motorways in Italy
•
France - Télépéage usually branded liber-t on French motorways (run by the
Federation of French Motorway Companies)(ASFA).
•
Czech Republic – Premid for trucks on highways (2007)
•
United Kingdom and Ireland:
•
Ireland - Eazy Pass on national toll roads in Ireland
•
United Kingdom - DART-tag for the Dartford Crossing
•
United Kingdom - London congestion charge in London
•
United Kingdom - Fast tag Mersey tunnels: Queensway Tunnel and Kingsway
Tunnel
•
United Kingdom - M6 Toll tag in the Midlands
•
United Kingdom - Severn TAG for the Severn Bridge crossing and Second
Severn Crossing
•
United Kingdom - Tamar Bridge planned for 2006
•
Norway – AutoPASS in most of the country
(http://www.autopass.no/om_autopass/english.stm)
•
Oslo
•
Denmark/Sweden: BroBizz for the Øresund and Great Belt bridges
•
Sweden - Stockholm congestion tax in Stockholm
•
Portugal - Via Verde (all tolls) - http://www.viaverde.pt/ViaVerde/vPT/
•
Turkey - OGS
•
Slovenia – ABC - http://www.popabc.si/?lang=2
•
Spain - VIA-Tor Telepeaje
•
Malta, Valletta
The European Commission is currently studying the creation of a trans-nationally
compatible electronic toll system throughout the Europe.
difficulties
associated
with
this
potential
There are many
implementation
and
technical
interoperability 1.
The combination of an electronic toll collection system and a traffic information
and management system can be referred to as an electronic toll and traffic
management (ETTM) system. This combination offers an expanded utility for
vehicles equipped with electronic tags to not only process tolls, but also service
ITS applications. Electronic toll collection systems can provide useful travel time
data, particularly on systems with a large percentage of motorists using ETC.
Some system adjustments will most likely be necessary to provide an effective
data collection effort.
Mobile device with Bluetooth
About 15% of the Dutch people always have their Bluetooth of their cell phone
(or other mobile device) turned on. This percentage is much higher in cars, being
40-48% as Bluetooth is commonly used for car kits. There is a good distribution
among different groups. With the use of sensitive antennas it is possible to
detect a Bluetooth signal. As each Bluetooth signal is unique, it offers options to
detect individual road users. As the signal is not linked to the individual who
1 Directive 2004/52 - Electronic Fee Collection (EFC) Interoperability Directive1 developed by the
European Commission
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29
owns the device with the Bluetooth signal, it does not invade privacy. If the
antennas are placed along road, it would possible to detect road users and to
determine their speed. With sufficient antennas in a network, even origin
destination data can be collected. Another option is to send a text message to
the road user (which he needs to accept before opening) which could for example
include an invitation to participate in a study. The first tests with this technology
for traffic applications will take place in 2010.
1.2.3 Technologies in the vehicle
Nowadays, fixed sensors represent mature technologies that are able to provide
accurate and relevant information (i.e. traffic flow, vehicles speed) with a low
point location’s error. For this reason, they will continue to be largely used by
public service for estimating traffic flows. On the other side, it is important to
highlight that fixed sensors are featured by different weaknesses that influence
their overall implementation. In particular, high costs of implementation and
maintenance as well as the limited local area of use that entails the installation
of many devices to record traffic flow related to large area.
In
this
section
the
ITS
technologies
that
support
in-vehicle
techniques,
specifically the Floating Car Data techniques (FCD) or probe vehicle technique,
are analyzed.
FCD has a key role in developing as well as implementing new Intelligent
Transportation System. FCD represents a consistent and effective source for
collecting traffic data less costly than the traditional methodologies for which
implementation and maintenance costs are considerable. FCD allows to collect
real-time traffic data by locating the vehicle via for example a mobile phone/
device or GPS/ GPRS over the entire road network. In this way the vehicle is
equal to a sensor being able to transmit information to a central server (i.e.
location, speed, direction of travel, etc.). More in detail, the average travel time
is analyzed by statistical methods like the Kalman filter focusing on the
temporal/spatial dispersion.
Accordingly, for the coming years they are expected to represent an alternative
or complementary source to existing techniques as these technologies will
become much more available, largely widespread and easily to be used.
Notably, this section investigates two key FCD technologies: GPS based system
and Cellular based system.
Satellite positioning with GPRS/UMTS/Wimax/LTE
Satellite positioning by using a Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) for
determining the location is often applied. This is commonly referred to as GPS.
GPS devices are widespread in navigation systems, taxi fleets, freight transport
fleets and as security device in passenger cars. It must be noted however, that
there are other GNSS are available than GPS and the European Galileo is
expected to become available in the coming years. In a study of TRL the
accuracy and reliability of GPS was tested on several routes representative of
overall driving behavior. The distance accuracy of GNS-based OBUs is high: less
than 1% is achievable with additional sensors. These can be in-vehicle sensors,
such as the odometer, speedometer, gyroscope, or accelerometer. Map matching
and smoothing methods to minimize errors are other options to enhance the
accuracy of GPS. Without these additional sensors, the distance errors are 1,2%
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and 4,5%. The positional accuracy of GNSS-only and enhanced solutions was
less than 5 meters. Methods that only make use of technology in the vehicle can
use wide-area communications-based systems, such as (General Packet Radio
Service) GPRS (in addition to GSM) and Universal Mobile Telecommunications
System (UMTS). The latter is more accurate, because the cell dimensions are
smaller. Successors are Wimax and LTE.
Notably, Global Positioning System (GPS) is a U.S. space-based global navigation
satellite system consisting of a constellation of satellites and a network of
ground stations used for monitoring and control. It provides reliable positioning,
navigation, and timing services to worldwide users on a continuous basis in all
weather conditions, timeframe (i.e. day and night), anywhere on or near the
Earth which has an unobstructed view of four or more GPS satellites.
Between
24 and 32 GPS satellites (called NAVSTAR) orbit the Earth at an altitude of
approximately 11.000 miles. These act as reference points from which receivers
on the ground compute positions. In particular, by measuring the travel times of
signals transmitted from the satellites, distance measurements of GPS receiver
from
four
different
satellites
can
be
determined,
then
through
some
mathematical computations the receiver can calculate its position. GPS system
has been applied for many civil, commercial, and research applications of
technology
including
recreational
(e.g.,
backpacking,
boating),
maritime
shipping, international air traffic management, and vehicle navigation.
Each data point recorded by the GPS device includes the vehicle position, speed,
time, and the distance between the current and the last time points. GPS data
can also be used to estimate other traffic values including average travel speeds,
traffic delays and congestion level of particular motorways. The length of a
vehicle queue can be estimated through the values of traffic flow rates and road
section capacity. However, with the GPS recorded data, a vehicle queue can be
identified on the speed profile curve.
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31
Figure 2
Communication from GPS
Source: “Travel Time Data Collection Handbook” - FHWA report
As far as satellite Galileo is concerned, in the medium-long term satellite-based
technologies are expected to improve the advantages compared to existing
traditional systems, notably by making use of a direct and bidirectional
connection between satellite and vehicle (satellite network) and bypassing
mobile cell network.
Galileo aims to set up the EGNOS service “European
Geostationary Satellite Navigation Service” as competitive alternative to the
American GPS.
Galileo is intended to provide more precise measurements than
available through GPS or GLONASS (Galileo will be accurate down to the metre
range) including the altitude above sea level, and better positioning services at
high latitudes. The political aim is to provide an independent positioning system
upon which European nations can always rely on.
The most important advantages are:
•
A higher precision of the geo-position (3-5 m) compared to the current GPS
information
•
An increased global coverage of the satellite, in particular for the mountains
regions and for the urban areas
•
More reliability of the signals and more bi-directional communications
On the other side, the most critical weakness is the high implementation and
maintenance costs that indeed have already delayed the expected execution.
Galileo should be operational in 2013. Finally, it should be mentioned the
contribution that the combined use
of GNSS (Global
Navigation
Satellite
Systems) technology and ETC systems may provide in reducing infrastructure
costs and facilitate regional tolling variations such as pollution-tax for highly
polluted areas. A GPS allows a vehicle to locate itself within a given charge area
or network. As the on-board unit contains both the appropriate charging
structure and information concerning when the vehicle should be charged.
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Charges are applied using the position information provided by the GPS system.
Then the charge is subtracted directly from a smart card located in the on-board
unit or stored in the customer’s account. Charged corridors can be defined
around specific zones in urban or rural areas where all vehicles (or specific
categories) using the roadway will be subject to charges. Two important
examples are the Germany and in Switzerland cases. The former truck tolling
system uses GPS information to identify when a vehicle is located on a tolled
Autobahn. Vehicle location pricing technology is also being used for truck tolling
systems in Switzerland. The Puget Sound Regional Council (PSRC) is carrying out
a pilot project with the aim to determine traveler response to value pricing and
the effect of pricing on traveler decision making, and a potential implementation.
Cellular positioning of mobile devices and GPRS/UMTS/Wimax/LTE
Cellular positioning is based on triangulation, time advance, time of arrival and
angle of arrival, which uses the signals of three antennas. The mobile device is
used as sensor to determine the location. The main distinction is between mobile
phones in active or idle modes. There are new developments in which the mobile
phone is used as a sensor instead of the network. Higher accuracies can be
obtained using several triangulation methods, this is particularly true for the last
generation of mobile UMTS technology (£G). A test by TNO demonstrated a
positional accuracy of 25 to 150 meters in the longitudinal direction of the road,
with an accuracy of 95 to 99% in a semi-urban area. The advantage is that this
offers potentially better coverage than GPS, because tunnels and high buildings
do not present problems, in fact it is particular efficient in urban areas where the
lower distance between antennas makes easier monitoring data. Furthermore, it
is more difficult to tamper with the signals, because the position is calculated
from the network on which communication also takes place. Therefore this
technology can be used as an independent and reliable enforcement and backup
option to validate the positioning.
Figure 3
Communication from cellular phone
Source: “Travel Time Data Collection Handbook” - FHWA report
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33
This technique represents a cheap device compared to the others system (i.e.
stationary traffic detectors and GPS-based system) as any hardware/device is
needed for transmitting data that are collecting continuously. On the other side,
sophisticated algorithms are necessary to transform high quality data.
Some drawbacks related to cellular based system are however to be faced:
•
Complex
processing
data:
extraction
methodologies
requires
the
reconstruction of the road and cellular network within a digital mapping
system and the handling of a large volume of information that should be
filtered in some way.
•
Accuracy and sampling issues: determination of sample size, sample timing
and statistical significance (i.e. level of standard deviation) to get reliable
and accurate information. Accordingly further R&D efforts are still needed
•
Privacy
concerns:
protection
ensuring
that
all
the
data
collected
are
anonymous.
•
Data ownership: this is a critical issue that has to be tackled in the shortterm given the impressive deployment of the market
Mobile device with Wifi
Wifi, when enabled, can be used for positioning. Several companies are
investigating the options such as Skyhook en Google. The accuracy is in the
range of 200 meters.
1.2.4 Extended Floating Car Data (XFCD)
It is important to highlight that the new vehicles and the latest related
technologies allow to have more precise information useful to improve the
assessment of traffic conditions. In particular, in-vehicle information can be
useful to monitor traffic jams, detect weather conditions (e.g. data from the
activation of windshield wipers, temperature sensors and headlights), road
surface state (e.g. the operation of ABS system can be used to detect slippery
road conditions, risk of aquaplaning or black ice).
Many potential information based on on-board computer systems can be
available both to the road managers and users. Any hardware installed into the
vehicle is necessary while a software, easily installed, is required. The data can
be transmitted to the traffic centre or directly exchanged between vehicles. XFCD
is being tested and validated in the frame of several demonstration projects
worldwide. Compared to FCD, XFCD is a more cost-effective way of collecting
data due to the fact that only the most relevant data are sent to the road
managers.
Travel Diaries
The recent developments made in carrying out household travel survey are of
great importance.
The current data collection techniques allow investigation of the travellers’
behaviour based information (i.e. trip purpose, trip frequency, speeds, etc.) that
are necessary in developing travel demand models and estimating traffic
volumes on different corridors. Travel diaries are the standard methods to gather
household travel activity information. Survey methods have evolved from PAPI
method (Personal and Pencil Interview) through CAPI method (ComputerAssisted telephone Interview) to Electronic Travel Diary (with or without GPS).
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Moreover, CASI (Computer-Assisted Self-Interview) have become widely used.
Using GPS implies that respondents are equipped with a GPS receiver.
The surveys using GPS system carried out so far have shown great potential in
improving data accuracy and
minimizing the respondents burden compared to
the other type of techniques. In fact, this method is able to get more information
not feasible with standard approaches, and anyway it has advantages compared
to traditional methods:
•
the burden on the respondent is reduced. Compared to manual method no
passenger is needed for writing (recording) information
•
the quality of the data is increased: reduction in human error, including
missed checkpoints or incorrectly recording information
•
Data collection is automated, moreover data are stored in digital formats,
facilitating the direct analysis of the data;
•
more and better detailed information becomes available (i.e. route choice,
path and speed profile, more precise travel times, congestion level: detail
traffic delay and the exact queue length)
e.g.: registration of the travel
distance) and continuously collected along the entire travel time corridor
On the other side, the main disadvantages of the vehicle data collection with a
GPS unit are:
•
Large amount of data collected and storage requirements;
•
Losing signals from the satellites due to urban canyons, tunnels, trees, and
power lines;
•
Building or retrieving the base map;
•
not user-friendly equipment : sometimes some assembly is usually required;
•
kind of equipment easily updates;
•
setting up the geographic information system (GIS) to use the incoming data
is time consuming. GIS software is an integral part of using the GPS system
for travel time data collection efforts. GIS software is often used to display
the GPS positional data on a roadway network. In addition, GIS software
packages are a valuable tool for the calculation of desired measures (e.g.,
travel time, average speed).
GPS travel diaries used in the past surveys may be classified into two types:
interactive and passive. In the first case the respondent is responsible to interact
with the hand-held computer to input some survey information (i.e. trip start and
end, trip purpose, etc.) while in the second case the respondent is responsible to
carry and turn on the device whenever he travels with no other interactions
needed. Other important information like the purpose of the trip are collecting in
other ways (i.e. paper survey, phone call, computer-aided software estimation).
Generally a GPS receiver was connecting to a data logger or a Personal Digital
Assistant (PDA) hand-held computer. It should be said that the GPS-aided
electronic travel diaries and loggers used in the last years have shown some
drawbacks (e.g. hardware failure, software bugs, no use of the unit, loss of GPS
signal, improper GPS antenna orientation) that can be adequately solved by
using the latest technologies; notably, recent studies and applications have
shown that different solutions can be applied to overcome such drawbacks. In
particular by:
•
using more efficient, easier and better set up systems and devices,
•
adding sensors and long lasting backup batteries, improving antennas
system,
•
increasing onboard processing power and intelligence,
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35
•
implementing wireless communications,
•
improving high-speed internet.
New developments have improved the accuracy of the GPS system by fixed
ground GPS monitoring stations. To this end, newly developed class of GPS
receivers (High Sensitivity GPS) aim to improve point precision and data
accuracy
also
in
the
narrow
street
canyons
of
urban
areas.
Further
improvements are needed to develop a more user friendly system and more
accurate data collection. In the near future, GPS mobile phone-based survey
could be used to complement or substitute the conventional paper-based or PCbased
activity
diary
survey
methods.
It
is
expected
that
the
graphical
representation of the current position and travel trajectory on the mobile phone
monitor display using GIS map could contribute to increasing respondents’
interest, motivation and willingness to participate in the survey. The main
service providers involved are smart phone and navigation device producers, car
manufacturers
operators,
(e.g.
satellite
Fiat:
“Blue&Me”solution
network
operators
(e.g.
by
Bluetooth),
Galileo).
In
mobile
particular,
phone
some
references are provided below:
•
TomTom (http://www.mobility.tomtom.com/)
•
Cellint (http://www.cellint.com/)
•
Airsage (http://www.airsage.com)
•
IntelliOne (http://www.intellione.com/)
•
ITIS Holdings plc (http://www.itisholdings.com)
•
Mediamobile (http://www.mediamobile.com)
•
INRIX (http://www.inrix.com)
1.2.5 Data information architecture
Furthermore, it should also be mentioned the role of the open systems and
architecture that have a key role in the use of ITS for traffic monitoring and data
collection. Open architecture: is a type of computer architecture or software
architecture that allows adding, upgrading and swapping components. Typically,
an open architecture publishes all or parts of its architecture that the developer
or integrator wants to share. Open architectures generally require license
agreements between entities sharing the architecture information. Concerning
transport and mobility sector, the open architectures represent a key technology
for mapping and data collection due to the easy integration with position
systems like GPS. Google and Microsoft are two of the most important private
cartographic developers. While public programs are still unsuitable both at
international and national level, universities and research centers are quite
active in this contest (i.e. Open street map).
1.2.6 Conclusions
In general, FCD is likely to improve traffic modelling mostly due to the fact that
it can be very useful to provide real time calibration of historical traffic models
and also because of the intelligent combination of FCD with on-road sensors
represents the perfect inputs to dynamic traffic models. The integration of
different data needs new algorithms providing optimal solutions for traffic
management problems.
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In
conclusion,
the
main
advantages
and
disadvantages
in
using
such
technologies are the following:
•
Low cost per unit of data – data may be collected simply and at low cost as
any operation is needed once the equipment has been set up;
•
Continuous data collection - Travel time data may be collected continuously
(e.g. 24 hours per day). If the infrastructure is permanently installed, data
are collected as long as probe vehicles continue to travel.
•
Automated data collection - Data can be collected electronically. Probe
vehicle systems are electronic, and data are automatically transmitted from
the probe vehicle to the ITS control facility.
•
Data are in electronic format - Collected data are already in an electronic
format. This is a key issue in the transformation of raw travel time data into
a useful format for analysis.
•
No disruption of traffic - The traffic is not influenced by the experimenter as
data are collected by probes within the traffic stream. Moreover, probe
vehicles are often driven by persons not directly involved with the data
collection effort, thus data are not biased towards test vehicle driving styles.
•
Conversely, the main disadvantages are:
•
High implementation cost - High initial cost for equipment, installation and
training of personnel to operate the system and collect data.
•
Fixed infrastructure constraints - Data can be collected only inside the
coverage area of the probe vehicle system, further expensive infrastructure
should be placed for enlarging the area. Therefore, the coverage area of a
probe vehicle system, including locations of antenna sites, should be
accurately studied before the implementation to ensure that data will be
collected at strategic locations.
•
Requires skilled software designers - Software built for the data collection are
complex programs generally designed in-house or by a consultant. The
software is typically customized for a particular probe system.
•
Privacy issues - Probe vehicle techniques involve tracking vehicles as they
travel the freeway and arterial street system. This raises concerns that
motorists may be more likely to receive traffic citations or have their travel
habits monitored.
•
Not recommended for small scale data collection efforts - Probe vehicle
systems are most cost-effective for collecting data within a large study area
due to their large implementation costs.
It should also be mentioned the criteria under which the sample is built. In fact,
in traditional travel time studies, the sample sizes are established by the test
conductors prior to data collection based on the level of accuracy expected and
on the budgetary constraints as well. Conversely, due to the fact that probe
vehicle systems are designed to collect data for real-time traffic monitoring, fleet
monitoring, or electronic toll collection (ETC), the sample sizes are determined
by availability of instrumented probe vehicles in the traffic stream. Moreover, it
is important to highlight another aspect that should be taken into consideration
when
collecting
and
analyzing
probe
vehicle
data:
the
driver
or
vehicle
composition of the sample, that is the type of vehicles or type of drivers that
may compose the sample. In fact the sample may be biased if the data were
collected by transit vehicles. The following traffic composition characteristics
should be considered when composing or evaluating probe vehicle samples:
•
vehicle type - automobile, truck, transit vehicle, or other;
•
driver type - depends on vehicle type; and
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37
•
travel lane representation - certain vehicles may primarily use certain travel
lanes.
Finally, it should be said that due to the wide implementation of intelligent
transportation system (ITS) projects it seems to be clear the necessity to
establish
standards
compatibility,
and
and
protocols
in
interchangeability
order
to
between
provide
various
interoperability,
technologies.
Interoperability can allow probe vehicles to travel all over the country and still
provide valuable data collection or receive traveler information. Compatibility can
allow different manufacturers’ equipment to communicate without interference.
Interchangeability allows one manufacturer’s device to be replaced with a device
from a separate manufacturer.
The
following
figure
shows
the
potentials
in
combining
the
available
technologies.
Figure 4
Schematic view of the use of traffic data
Source: JRC “Road Traffic Data: Collection Methods and Applications”
1.3
Potential use of data of ITS
development of network models
applications
for
the
The current chapter deals with the way how data stemming from ITS applications
can – potentially – be used for the development of the network models within
ETISplus. In the framework of ETISplus, the development of network models also
embraces traffic assignment.
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In general, ITS applications are applied for all modes of transport. However, the
most reasonable usage for the purposes of ETISplus can be expected for the
development of the road network model. Thus, the current chapter focuses on
how data of ITS applications could be used to enhance the development of the
road network model, including assignment. As far as assignment is concerned,
the current chapter refers to assignment of passenger cars.
The application potential is elaborated with regard to following two data
collection methods:
1 Technologies on the transport infrastructure
2 FCD techniques (or vehicle tracing techniques)
1.3.1 Technologies on the transport infrastructure
This kind of applications allows for surveying
•
the number of vehicles, differentiated by types of vehicles,
•
and the point of time a vehicle crosses on a certain section of the road
network
If such data were available for ETISplus, data gaps in traffic count data could be
bridged. In the following figure the availability of UN/ECE traffic count data for
the year 2005 is shown. The map illustrates that there are not any traffic count
data available for countries such as Italy, the Netherlands, Greece or Ireland.
Furthermore, for those countries for which data are available, only the trunk
road network is covered. On top of that, the UN/ECE traffic count data do not
distinguish between the types of vehicles. Thus, a wider use of traffic data
provided by technologies located on the infrastructure can substantially help to
fill these data gaps.
Given the importance of traffic count data for the calibration and the validation
of modelled assignment results, a wider use of data by ITS traffic data collection
may well improve the quality of assignment models.
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39
Figure 5
Availability of road traffic data from UN/ ECE (year 2005)
Moreover, since traffic data collection is performed under consideration of the
temporal dimension, the traffic flows (by types of vehicles) can be observed over
the period of time of a day, week or a year. Thus, time variation curves (see the
next figure as an example) can be generated, which inform on the distribution of
traffic volumes over a certain period of time (day, week, year). A consideration
of such data could be used to further improve the assignment in terms of finer
and more link-specific consideration of capacity bottlenecks and congestion
effects.
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Figure 6
Examples of time variation curves for different road types and time
aggregation level
1.3.2 FCD techniques
FCD techniques permit more detailed conclusions on the behaviour of car drivers
on route choice. Following information can be exploited by vehicle tracking
techniques:
•
origin and destination;
•
time of travel and trip duration;
•
route choice.
If this information is surveyed together with the socio-demographic environment
of the users, the obtained data can be exploited with regard to different demand
segments. Furthermore, if the geographical coordinates of the surveyed origin
and destination can be interrelated to a spatial context of origin and destination,
also a trip purpose-specific exploitation of the obtained data is feasible.
The relevance of the data raised by FCD techniques is due to the fact that the
method delivers information on drivers’ route choice, potentially differentiated by
demand segment and trip purpose. Thus, by exploiting these data, the model
parameters of the generalised cost function applied for road assignment – which
contains variables such as travel time, maintenance costs, fuel costs, or toll
costs –, can be estimated in an accurate manner. As far as data availability and
data concept allows, the parameters can be estimated specifically for individual
demand segments and trip purposes.
Thus, in case the data sample is large enough, the data surveyed by FCD
techniques allow for an estimation of model parameters of the generalised cost
function underlying the assignment routine, or, at least, for validation of the
road assignment.
A more specific example of exploitation of such data is to obtain insights in
drivers’ preferences if road charges are applied (see the figure below).
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41
Figure 7
Road choice behaviour under road charging
Furthermore, FCD data may be used to compile and apply information on multipurpose trip chains, whose consideration for assignment may well enhance the
level of accuracy and degree of detail. Finally, like the use of traffic data
collection methods, the application of FCD data may be used to enhance the
depiction of congestion effects in the road network.
1.4
Conclusions
The Figure 8 summarises the conclusions that can be drawn concerning the
identification
of
the
most
promising
ITS
applications
in
terms
of
their
contribution to solve data problems in modelling.
The starting point of the analysis has been the analysis of the problems
encountered in developing transport data set for transport models. Socioeconomic data, freight and passenger demand, network data, freight and
passenger costs and level of services, external effects (emissions and energy
consumptions) have been reviewed in order to stress the main data gaps. The
findings of the ETIS BASE projects have represented the knowledge base upon
which the analysis has been carried out.
The review of ITS applications has been the further step, with the aim to identify
the most promising applications that are potentially able to address the main
problems emerged during the analysis by transport data set. In particular,
keywords like data gaps, missing information on trips destination, type of goods,
travel time, have been taken into account in order to steer the ITS review. A
particular useful ITS classification has been:
i) the technologies on the transport infrastructure,
ii) the technologies on the transport infrastructure and in the vehicle and
iii) the technologies in the vehicle.
As shown in the Figure 8, combining the two streams of research, i.e. main data
problems and ITS categorization, it can be shown that socio-economic data and
external impacts are the data sets for which the ITS applications may have
potentially the lower relevance, in particular in terms of a direct relevance. In
fact, concerning the estimation of emission level and energy consumption,
having better traffic data through ITS applications could improve for example the
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assessment of energy consumption and emissions, i.e. through the availability of
robust data on fleet composition and type of vehicles along the routes; but this
could be an indirect, second order effect, of the assessment of traffic flows.
Concerning socio-economic data it can be said that the most promising
applications must basically rely on the use of GIS data for filling the gaps, i.e.
through the provision of detailed data at a lower geographical scale, or
supporting the application of raster and buffer techniques for the estimation of
the missing data.
On the other hand, the ITS applications are highly promising with reference to
the freight, passenger and network data sets. In particular:
•
Technologies on the transport infrastructure, e.g.. road sensors, cameras,
etc, can provide useful information concerning traffic flows along specific
O/D, addressing in such a way the need to have detailed data at lower
geographical scale
•
Technologies on the transport infrastructure and in the vehicles, e.g.,RFID,
an OBU with DSRC, providing information apt to fill the gaps in O/D on a
small scale and some routes information
•
Technologies in the vehicle, e.g.. mobile devices, GPS/ GPRS applications, etc
and floating car data tools, which can provide real-time information on
congestion, vehicle speed and direction, O/D, route information addressing in
such a way the lack of data at network level and improving considerably the
calibration of assignment models
This improvements in data collection are basically cross cutting among transport
modes and type of transport (passenger and freight), even if road transport
(passenger and freight) appears to be the transport mode with the higher
benefits, at least in the short term.
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43
Figure 8
Relationships between the ITS applications and data problems
DATA PROBLEMS
Socio economic
Freight demand
Passenger demand
Network data
External effects
- Data harmonization
among NUTS levels
- Intra-zone traffic flows
- Road count data
- Container transport
- Commodity type
- Transhipment data
-
- Data gaps in links by
attributes, e.g. type
of traffic, type of
vehicles, etc
- Emission level
- Energy consumption
Traffic flows
Travel Time
Intra-zone traffic flows
Distance of trips
Congestion
Travel time
Costs and LOS
Vehicle speed
Direction
ITS APPLICATIONS
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2
Assessment of barriers to the exploitation
of ITS data for European transport
modelling purposes
2.1
Framework for Assessing Barriers
For the purpose of the present report, a 'barrier' is defined as something that
delays or hinders the development and/or realisation of the process of using
Intelligent Transport Systems to improve the collection of data for the purpose of
European transport modelling. In this context, a ‘barrier’ hinders either the
effective exploitation of data collected by deployed ITS or the implementation
and deployment of ITS for data collection purposes.
A barrier is not merely a problem, it is an obstacle to the development and/or
realization of process that may lead to its premature ending. Behind each barrier
usually stands a resistance to change, a conflict. Barriers are usually a negative
reaction from one, or more, agents to a process developed, or carried out, by
agents (other or even the same) and can occur at different stages of the process
for a variety of reasons (or motivations) given the underlying context (political,
cultural, social, legal, etc.).
Notably, the influence of the context on the occurrence of barriers is very
significant; while in one context a process might face a set of barriers, in a
different context the barriers faced by the same event may very well be different
or even nonexistent.
For these reasons, the assessment of barriers must take into account the
systemic nature of the process of development of barriers and its core
dimensions. However, given the myriad of possible contexts and scenarios, the
proposed approach for the assessment of the barriers is to analyse the possible
barriers (supported on a literature review, case studies and expert opinion) and
give indication regarding the possible influence of the context to the “expression”
of those barriers (by performing and analysing case studies).
Figure 9
The proposed framework for Barriers Assessment
Source: TIS
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45
The assessment of the barriers in the context of this report is supported on the
framework detailed below and depicted in the previous figure. The proposed
framework is designed to accommodate the European, National, Regional and
Local Levels and to allow the consideration of all transport modes. It is based on
the approaches proposed by the projects TENASSESS and MARETOPE and on the
framework for ITS deployment developed by Lin (2003).
2.1.1 The Development of a Barrier
The development of a barrier starts with an event triggered by or carried out
within the process of change. This event may be an action or the release of
information on intentions regarding future actions.
Agents assess either the observed impact of the event or the impact they expect
in the future. After that assessment, agents may be motivated for behavioural
reactions or not. If they do decide to react, by actually doing something against
the process of change (attack and be actively offering resistance) or by not
supporting it (escape and be passively offering resistance), then that reaction
may raise a barrier to the process by delaying or cancelling it.
The described process of development of a barrier is depicted in the following
figure.
Figure 10
The process of development of a Barrier
Source: adapted from the MARETOPE project
As the MARETOPE project stresses, sometimes some impacts are deferred in time
which may lead to barriers to appear long after the occurrence of the event that
triggered them. This is especially risky because barriers may only appear in the
implementation or operation phases and not on early stages of the process.
P e rc e p ti on s a n d E x pe c t at i o n s
Agents may offer resistance to a process due to because of lack of knowledge or
lack of will, or better:
1) They not understand the aims and backgrounds; or
2) They do understand the aims and backgrounds but:
a)
do not believe them;
b)
do not will (to support the process) because they do not have benefits;
or
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c)
are expecting/experiencing negative consequences.
The way an agent perceives an event or builds expectations regarding the future
impacts of that event may be very different from how other agent might do it.
This happens because of “information asymmetry” or, very often, because agents
have different sets of beliefs, values, etc. conditioned by past experiences and
the social, political and cultural context, which shape the way they “see the
world”.
Function Creep
Sometimes the barriers raised are not directly related to the process/event in
question but with expectations regarding the phenomena of “function creep”, in
the sense that agents may expect the project to be used for different purposes
or aims than the ones announced or as a way of paving the ground for, or
making possible, the implementation of other projects.
Figure 11
Main Purposes for ITS deployment
Source: TIS
For example, ITS deployment may serve many different purposes, including:
electronic toll collection, real-time traffic management, travellers and freight
information, incident and hazard response, law enforcement and planning
(medium and long-term). There are some evidences that the purpose for ITS
implementation influence the barriers, mostly in the subjective field, that the
process faces. The problem of function creep is that even if the ITS deployment
has a specific purpose, agents may think that there are other hidden purposes
behind that decision and may raise barriers because of those other purposes. As
an illustration, a government decides to implement APNR for planning reasons
but travellers may think that the data may be used to speeding check (law
enforcement) and raise barriers to the process because of that.
Interdependent Barriers
Barriers may be functionally interdependent (TENASSESS, MARETOPE) either
because they are complementary (TENASSESS) or because of what might be
designated by cascade effects (MARETOPE). Complementary barriers are barriers
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47
that occur in parallel and have a common genesis or one is supporting the other.
Therefore, a tool to overcome one barrier may very likely abolish the other
dependent barriers. Sometimes, like a cascade effect, a new barrier occurs as
the result of the process of overcoming another barrier, in this sense the first
barrier is substituted or replaced by another barrier (substitution barriers,
TENASSESS).
2.1.2
As proposed in the Barriers Model developed by the TENASSESS project, three
core dimensions are adopted (see Figure 12) stage, agent and field.
Figure 12
Source: TIS
The Stage dimension refers to the phase of the development and/or realisation
process at which the barrier occurs and which (as well as the subsequent
phases) is hinder by the occurrence of that barrier.
The Agent dimension is related to the type of actor that imposes the barrier as a
result of its (lack of) reaction to the perceived impact of the events triggered, or
carried out, at a given stage. As already mentioned, the barriers may appear on
stages subsequent to the stage that caused the event that was in the genesis of
the barrier.
The Field dimension regards the type of problem area to which the barrier
relates.
Stages
Based on the proposals of the MARETOPE and TENASSESS project, four temporal
stages are adopted (see Figure 13): the Design Stage, the Decision Stage, the
Implementation Stage and the Operational Stage.
Figure 13
The Stage Dimension
Source: TIS
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The Design Stage comprises the conception and planning phases and requires
the coordination of various opinions (TENASSESS). This stage starts with the
identification of a need for the changing process and finishes with the final
design of the process;
The Decision Stage starts after the design stage and finishes with the approval of
the design of the process (output of the Design Stage). Usually, achieving a final
decision requires the contribution of several agents each one with private
incentives to integrate their interests into the final design, therefore, this stage
involves significant efforts for coordinating and making agents cooperate.
The Implementation Stage: after the final decision is taken, the implementation
stage starts, which carries out all actions required to the implementation of the
final plans.
The Operational Stage begins with the conclusion of the implementation of the
project and respects the time span during which the project starts producing
results. Depending on the project, this stage may require maintenance actions
and involve or not several players.
Agents
In the context of this report, agents may be part of the informal politics arena,
of the official politics arena; of the Public Administration or be a Market player.
An agent may belong to more than one category depending on the process of
change (e.g. social partners). The following figure presents the four main
categories adopted to distinguish type of agents as well as their most relevant
subcategories.
Figure 14
The Agent Dimension
Source: TIS
Agents consider that part of the informal politics are the public opinion in
general, and more organized movements or “forces of pressure”, namely the
citizens associations, lobbying or interest groups and social partners. Public
opinion manifests itself in several ways and the most fundamental is by voting
(for local, national and European elections). Its power is directly connected to
what Lin (2003) designates by “turnover rate”, which refers to how much the
situation is likely to affect the next election’s results and, consequently, the
elected parliament members and the government in charge. The citizens and
labour movements have usually much attention from the media (especially the
social partners and citizens associations and movements) and, therefore, are
able to largely influence public opinion. Generally, lobbying groups opt for less
“perceptible” means to influence a process.
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49
In the context of this report, agents belonging to the official politics are the
European Union and the Member States, which are evidently interrelated. Within
each Member State, the most relevant agents are: the government in charge,
the national parliament, the regional and local authorities and the national
parties represented in the parliament and that may constitute opposition forces
to the government in charge.
The public administration agents are the ones normally responsible for the
implementation of European and national policies at the national, regional or
local levels which comprises the coordination among other relevant agents and
the supervision of the all process. Thus, the agents in this category are:
national, regional and local administration bodies and regulators.
In the context of ITS and data collection, market players have a significant role.
These agents are travellers (driver of a private transport or passengers),
transport
operators,
freight
operators,
network
managers,
infrastructure
operators, equipment providers, value added services providers and other
providers relevant for ITS deployment.
Agents are usually interrelated and their reactions to a process influence the
reactions of other agents. One example, already brought up, is the power of
public opinion reactions (perceived or expected) to constraint the reactions of a
government.
Field
The field to which a barrier is related may be distinguished as an objective field
or a subjective field (see Figure 6). The subjective field includes the problems
raised by subjective reasons usually related with the social, cultural and political
beliefs of agents. The problems or matter part of the objective field are ones
associated with tangible aspects, assessments or reasons and are related to
organizational, legal and regulatory, economic and finance, technical and
educational matters.
Figure 15
The Field Dimension
Source: TIS
The organizational field relates to collaboration problems within three dimensions
(Lin, 2003): horizontally (between public agents within the same organizational
level), vertically (within agents at different organizational levels) and between
agents from the public sector and agents from the private sector. Usually, a
process, especially in the decision and implementation stages, requires the
participation, coordination and cooperation of a plurality of agents. Problems
may arise within the organizational structure of an agent but also because of
unclear, ineffective or even inexistent institutional arrangements that pave the
ground for the collaboration among agents.
The legal and regulatory field relates to the regulations or laws established or in
force in the European context or in a specific national context that may work,
directly or indirectly, as a constraint to the process in question.
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The economic and finance field includes problems related with the economic and
financial viability of the project. The economic viability is not only related to the
assessment of the attractiveness of the project by comparing the expected
benefits to the estimated costs (efficiency aspects), but also to the distribution
of costs and benefits within agents at the European, national, regional and local
levels (equity aspects). The financial viability concerns three important aspects:
the expected financial return of the project, budget constraints and costs
allocation or financial responsibility.
The technical field comprises issues related to the standardization and technical
interoperability of systems, and, in this particular context, questions like
accuracy,
space
coverage,
deployment time
and
requirements,
scalability,
robustness and reliability, etc.
The educational field relates both with public and human resources “technologic
literacy”. The more familiar the public is regarding “new technologies” the easier
is for them to understand and be aware of the benefits that may arise from their
use and, therefore, offer less resistance to the process of change. When human
resources have an important role in the process of change they must have the
required competences or training to be able to deal with the new reality. If that
is not the case, a process usually i) faces a great resistance to change within the
organizations,
and
ii)
might
not
have
the
required
competences
for
its
implementation.
2.1.3 The Context
As already stressed, the context for which the process is designed and where is
being implemented greatly influences the barriers that the process is going to
face as well as the strength of their effects.
The framework for the assessment of barriers and the analysis carried out
attempt to capture the main barriers to the development and/or realisation of
the process of using ITS to improve the collection of data for the purpose of
European transport modelling. The particulars for each specific project will be
different, especially because the process under analysis involves different
countries with different objectives and attitudes regarding the European vision,
and a diversity of social, political, economical and cultural framework.
2.2
Barrier to the exploitation of data collected by deployed
ITS
Sound transport research and policy making depend upon the availability and
accessibility of appropriate, high quality and up to date information (Wigan et
al., 2003). Deployed ITS constitute a promising solution to fill the current data
gaps and solve data problems encountered in developing transport data sets for
European transport models.
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51
Figure 16
Requirements for an effective exploitation of deployed ITS
However, the implementation and realization (operational stage) of the process
of exploiting data collected by deployed ITS applications for the purpose of
European transport modelling is not clear-cut, facing some important barriers. As
depicted below, the identified barriers can be classified as legal & regulatory,
organizational, technical and economic & financial
Figure 17
Main barriers to the effective exploitation of deployed ITS
The identified barriers essentially influence the (see the table presented below):
•
data availability: barriers that prevent the collection or storage of the
relevant data;
•
data accessibility: even when data is available it might not be accessible for
the purpose of European transport modelling as a consequence of existing
barriers to access and use of collected data;
•
data quality: some barriers may impair data quality or, in other words, the
reliability, completeness, consistency and accuracy of the obtained data as
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well as the adequacy of data to the requirements for its effective exploitation
for the purpose of European transport modelling.
Table 2
Relationship between the identified main barriers and requirements
to the effective exploitation of deployed ITS
2.2.1 Barriers in the legal & regulatory field
The main barriers in the legal and regulatory field that the effective exploitation
of data for the purpose of European transport modelling faces are described
below.
Lack of a regulatory framework to oblige member states to report the
required data according to pre-defined requirements
(e.g.
European
reference network model, data structure): This can be considered the main
barrier due to the fact that the other barriers are relatively dependent on this
one and, therefore, they could be overcome or at least addressed if the EU
member states would be obliged by the European Union to submit the required
data. However, overcoming this barrier is not an easy task given that member
states might hinder the approval of such a regulatory framework as a result of
the barriers to its implementation they expect to face at the national level. The
lack of a regulatory framework at a European level leads to several problems.
The first is that the required data might not be collected because the entities
that could gather it have no incentives to do it. The second problem is related to
difficulties to access the collected data which can result from unawareness that
the required data is available or from the barriers that influence the data
accessibility (see below). The third important problem is the poor quality of data
and particularly the integration and comparison of data arriving from different
sources, with different structures and level of detail (see for example the Annex
3 - Electronic reporting in inland waterways transport and potential use for data
collection and the Annex 2 – Assessment of barriers to the exploitation of the ITS
data for European air transport modelling purposes, both in the annexes to the
report).
Ownership: The privatisation of transport bodies is imposing some changes in
data collection processes. While in the past, data was collected, owned and used
mostly by public entities through a much centralised process, currently data
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53
collection processes have been increasingly privatised and decentralised. The
lack of clear contract clauses to set the data ownership to public entities (e.g.
regulator) or to oblige private entities to share data with public entities together
with the increasing awareness of the value of “reducing access to data for
competitive reasons” and of using the collected data to provide value-added
services, have led to problems in accessing collected data for public purposes,
which is definitely a barrier to the effective exploitation of data for European
transport modelling.
Privacy Issues: Privacy concerns abound in the deployment of ITS. While most
of them have been addressed by the ITS professional, the two main groups that
are potentially affected by privacy issues in ITS (the general public and
commercial freight carriers and shippers) may not perceive or trust that their
privacy is guaranteed.
In fact ITS allow the collection and storage of large amounts of data including
potentially sensitive information about specific individuals and businesses,
raising concerns about possible uses of this information (data creep and
secondary use of data), such as law enforcement and litigation. The public
usually fears that details about their lives are record and used for purposes that
will harm their privacy. Moreover, some individuals are conceptually against
what they consider a “big brother” society where their movements are being
watched and traced. Freight carriers and shippers are mostly concerned about
the disclosing of core business information (e.g. travel routes and cargo) for
competitive reasons.
For these reasons, ITS implementers usually have to balance privacy protections
with potential benefits that could be derived from the data. To allay concerns
about the collection of information, ITS implementers may decide to: not collect
what can be considered sensitive information, reduce the duration of storage or
not allow third parties to access the data.
Therefore, measures pertaining the overcoming of barriers related to privacy
concerns may lead to a situation where deployed ITS are not used to collect,
store and disclose relevant information for European transport modelling when
they could effectively be used for that.
One example of how privacy issues may hinder the effective exploitation of
collected data is detailed in the Annex 3 – Electronic reporting in inland
waterways transport and potential use for data collection. In this case, data
about traffics is aggregated to ensure the privacy of companies. Another
example of this barrier is identified in the Case Study – Assessment of barriers to
the exploitation of the ITS data for European air transport modelling purposes
(see annexes).
Secondary use of information: ITS can be used for several purposes, some of
which might raise questions concerned to privacy issues. As mentioned, one way
of system managers to safeguard private information is to ensure the general
public and freight carriers and shippers that data will only be used for a specific
goal and that secondary use of data (i.e. the use of data for a different purpose
or goal) is forbidden or that they have the possibility to opt-out. These measures
can be considered a barrier to the full exploitation of the data collected by
deployed ITS for the purpose of European transport modelling.
The Annex 3 – Electronic reporting in inland waterways transport and potential
use for data collection identifies this as a barrier to access all data reported
electronically by European waterways authorities.
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2.2.2 Barriers in the organizational field
The organizational barriers are often the hardest to overcome. For the purpose of
European transport modelling the main organizational barriers are two – the
fragmentation and the lack of collaboration between organizations. A description
of each barrier is provided below.
Fragmentation: Data holdings are frequently fragmented, both physically and
institutionally
(within
and
between
organizations),
which
is
mostly
a
consequence of: the recent trend towards the privatisation and decentralisation
of transport bodies; of incomplete contracts regarding data reporting obligations
to the regulator or a centralised agency; of limited resources to store the large
amount of data that current ITS can collect and of legal requirements that
impose that certain type of data cannot be store in the same database and/or
managed by the same entity. This fragmentation leads to both institutional and
operational difficulties in accessing and fully exploiting existing data.
The Annex 3 – Electronic reporting in inland waterways transport and potential
use for data collection (see annexes) identifies this as a problem and proposes
actions to overcome it. This barrier is also identified in the Annex 2 –
Assessment of barriers to the exploitation of the ITS data for European air
transport modelling purposes (see annexes).
Lack of collaboration between entities: The effective exploitation of the
potentialities of deployed ITS demands a supportive organizational structure and,
therefore, the horizontal (agencies are independent from one another and have
relatively the same level of influence, such as the national organizations
responsible for each transport mode), vertical (agencies at different government
levels, such as local, regional, national and European) and public-private
collaboration and cooperation (or even integration) are of crucial importance to
the European transport modelling purpose. However, the collaboration and
cooperation between entities (from different countries and within the same
country) is sometimes difficult for the most varied reasons ranging from
institutional culture to competition, and the frequent lack of institutional
arrangements to promote collaboration and cooperation between the several
involved entities does not facilitate it either. Consequently, accessing data is
generally limited and an extremely resource consuming activity, and the
integration of data is often very complicated (if not impossible) especially when
it refers to cross geographical borders trips or trips that involve several modes.
2.2.3 Barriers in the technical field
For the reasons presented below, the lack of data standards and the poor
integration and interoperability of ITS are important technical barriers to the
effective exploitation of data for the purpose of European transport modelling.
Lack of data standards: Data standards are established conventions and
documented agreements on definitions, representations, formats and structure of
all
data
layers
and
elements,
which
ensure
correctness,
consistency,
completeness and comparability across different data sources. Data standards
are fundamental to the seamless share of data efficiently and accurately since
they help data users to understand, interpret, and use data appropriately. The
lack
of
appropriate
data
standards
hinders
the
process
of
establishing
relationships between the various data sources, especially when proper data
documentation is frequently not available. Moreover, without appropriate data
standards the obtained data may not be complete or reliable (given that, for
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55
example, having model outputs embedded in ‘data’ is not unusual), which leads
to poor data quality and usability. The lack of common standards both at
national and EU level is especially relevant in the context of European transport
modelling, given that poses serious barriers to the integration of data arriving
from several sources, including different organizations within the same country
(fragmentation) and from all countries.
Integration
information
and
Interoperability:
systems
to
work
Interoperability
together
within
and
is
the
across
capability
of
organizational
boundaries, which includes the ability of systems to communicate efficiently and
effectively. Integration is the arrangement of information systems so that related
parts are brought together into a single system. The lack of interoperability and
integration between currently deployed ITS is definitely a barrier to European
transport modelling since it hinders the collection of data and the quality of
available data related to cross geographical borders trips, to trips that involve
several modes and to trips that involve different operators within the same
mode.
2.2.4 Economic & Finance
The lack of financial resources and of incentives is the main barrier to be
considered in the Economic and Finance field.
Lack of resources and incentives: The lack of financial resources within
organizations, in particular for having skilled human resources and enough
storage and processing capacity, may lead to their inability on the one hand to
collect, store and process all the relevant data to the European transport
modelling purpose, and on the other hand to properly respond to data requests.
The lack of private financial and economic incentives for allocating resources on
collecting, making data accessible and improving data quality for the purpose of
European transport modelling also delays and hinders the full exploitation of
deployed ITS for that purpose.
2.3
Barriers to ITS deployment for planning purposes
Recently, ITS have been implemented for the most diverse reasons, such as toll
collection,
congestion
management,
law
enforcement.
Nevertheless,
ITS
deployment faces important barriers which slow down or even hinder the wider
adoption of ITS. The aim of this section is to assess the main barriers to ITS
deployment for planning purposes, which are drawn from the performed case
studies
and
relevant
literature.
Once
again,
these
barriers
are
classified
according to the field they belong to (see figure presented below).
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Figure 18
Main barriers to ITS deployment
2.3.1 Legal and Regulatory
The main legal and regulatory barriers to the implementation and deployment of
ITS are presented below.
Intellectual
property:
Intellectual
property
(IP)
refers
to
inventions,
copyrights, trade secrets, and data that is patentable or considered proprietary
technology (Lin, 2003). IP rights and their proper assignment are an issue when
implementing ITS and present a continual challenge to ITS project. There are
two main reasons for IP to constitute a barrier to ITS deployment both
associated to the participation of the private sector on ITS projects. The first is
related to the unwillingness of private companies to bid on contracts that require
public sector licensing and/or public disclosure as a consequence of as a result of
their interesting in retaining IP rights in order to make profits and gain
competitive advantage. The second is related to private companies’ unwillingness
to share of proprietary information preventing the adoption of commons
standards which poses barriers to the widespread of some ITS, including built in
vehicle ITS.
Privacy
Issues:
Privacy
issues
are
one
of
the
main
barriers
to
the
implementation and deployment of ITS, and are directly associated to the
purpose underlying the ITS project and to the specific characteristics of the ITS
to be implemented.
The purpose underlying the ITS deployment defines which data is going to be
collected, how data is going to be used and if the collected data is going to be
linked to other data. If the purpose requires the collection of disaggregated
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57
sensitive information (non-anonymous) about users, vehicles or cargo then
privacy concerns are more likely to arise. Similarly, privacy issues are greater if,
for example, the defined data uses require storing data for long periods or entail
data mining or risk profiling. Finally, linking the collected data with data stores in
other databases is also likely to encounter great resistance from the privacy
advocates. For example, ITS deployment for the purpose of automated law
enforcement usually faces important barriers related to privacy concerns since it
requires the release of identifying driver information to law enforcement either
through using ITS to identify the driver or by linking the data collected about the
vehicle to its owner through the use of other databases. Another example of a
purpose that usually raises privacy concerns is the use of ITS for electronic road
charging schemes or toll collection, given that it requires to indentify and link
vehicles to bank accounts.
Even if the purpose does not raise many privacy concerns, if the ITS application
enables (a) tracing or identifying a specific vehicle or occupant and/or (b) to
collect and store proprietary information about a vehicle or individual, then it is
likely privacy concerns to arise. According to Briggs, V. et al (2000) the following
ITS application meet or potentially meet at least one of the mentioned criteria:
cellular phone geolocation (see the Annex 6 – Floating car data and Cellular
Systems” in annex), vehicle probe applications, automatic vehicle identification
(AVI), video license plate reading, global positioning systems (GPS). The
deployment of ITS that do not meet none of the mentioned criteria are likely to
raise few, if any, privacy issues. However, as Briggs, V. et al (2000) emphasise
privacy issues may still arise even if the ITS does not the identification of a
vehicle or individual but enables the creation of a record that may be accessed
later for potentially controversial purposes, as for example on-board safety data
systems. These issues have been addressed in the Case Study F – Multi criteria
analysis” (see annexes).
For these reasons, the implementation and deployment of ITS can be severely
hindered by the lack of a proper legal framework for ITS deployment that
addresses and minimizes privacy issues by defining clear rules for the collection,
dissemination,
and
protection
of
the
information
gathered
through
ITS
technologies.
Procurement: The lack of flexibility and strictness of the traditional approach to
procurement together with the aversion of the public sector to take risks can
impede the progress of ITS deployment. This is especially relevant when the
contract refers to rapidly evolving technologies and systems and when the
requirements for projects often cannot be completely specified at an early stage
of the project. Among others, these factors hinder the bidding process since
potential bidders cannot make accurate prediction regarding costs and product
quality to submit bids.
Liability: Liability can be a major barrier to ITS deployment, particularly for ITS
applications that require in-vehicle devices since drivers can allege that those
devices distracted them, leading to an incident. Moreover, liability problems can
arise as a result of the failure of a technology or the provision of inaccurate
information. Given the serious its financial implication, liability issues can
significantly delay or prevent the deployment of certain ITS.
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2.3.2 Organizational
The main organizational barriers to the implementation and deployment of ITS
are the following ones.
Lack of a supportive organizational structure: The establishment of a
supportive organizational structure to deploy ITS is a challenge to its success,
especially because ITS program must not be imprisoned by jurisdictional
boundaries and its deployment calls for an interregional approach.
Deploying ITS requires strong working multi-organizational relationships in three
dimensions - horizontally, vertically, and between the public and private sectors.
Differing agendas between public sector agencies and between the public and
private
sectors
may
prevent
the
effective
and
efficient
coordination
and
cooperation between the myriad of organizations (including agencies at a single
organizational level and agencies at different government levels and private
agencies) that are or should be involved in deploying ITS1.
Historically, different governmental agencies usually do not interact closely and
communication between them is often limited. This can be a barrier to the
deployment of ITS since both horizontal and vertical integration are important
for coordinate ITS deployment, especially when it requires the involvement of
organizations from more than one country/region. Although there is a potential
for integration from the local to international levels2, achieving the desired level
of integration is not a simple task, in particular because the nature of ITS
suggests a central command over facilities and services which might be viewed
by agencies as a threaten to their institutional autonomy and importance. The
establishment of public-private partnerships is also very important for the
success
of
ITS
deployment
for
several
reasons,
ranging
from
technical
requirements to finance restrictions. However, setting up an arrangement that
satisfies both sides (public and private) may prove to be difficult. The failure of
involving the private sector can be a barrier to the deployment of ITS.
The Annex 5 – Study of barriers to road transport ITS” (see annexes) identifies
this as a potential barrier to the implementation of the “Kilometerprijs” project in
The Netherlands.
Lack European and national ITS architectures: European and national ITS
architectures can guide ITS implementation and deployment by defining the set
of services to be implemented, how these services should work together, and
how data is shared. Importantly, they should also include not only the
relationships between the organizations that are expected to play a role in the
process with a focus on the ones responsible for data collection and sharing. The
lack of such ITS architectures can delay or even prevent the process of
implementing and exploiting ITS.
Organizational readiness: According to Professor Joseph Sussman at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (in Lin, 2003) organizational readiness for
ITS requires an intermodal, integrated, and customer-centered approach to ITS
deployment. Problems in this area may be manifested in several ways and can be
crucial barriers to the successful implementation and exploitation of ITS. First,
agencies may not be able to train, acquire and retain talented employees with
1
2
Within the scope of an ITS project, there are typically elements relating to the environment,
land use planning, traffic, transportation, and law enforcement departments, etc.
One example of international cooperation is the High-Level Group on Road Transport
Telematics, consisting of representatives from each country in the European Union.
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59
the technical skills not only in communications and information systems but also
in the traditional infrastructure maintenance. Secondly, frequently the culture
and organizational structure of agencies may be somehow inflexible and
employees may resist to changes by not accepting new technologies or by
developing new ways of doing business. Finally, installing new technologies may
raise labour issues because of expected or effective effects to employees, such
as the reduction the number of employees and changes in workloads and in the
way jobs are performed (see the Portuguese example in the Case Study D –
Study of barriers to road transport ITS in annex).
2.3.3 Technical
The Annex 7 – Multi criteria analysis (see annexes) identifies several technical
aspects that can be relevant when choosing the ITS to be deployed, including the
system accuracy, the amount of information that the technology allows to
collect, spatial coverage of the technology, time to deployment, how easy is to
implement, ability to adapt and scalability. One of the identified ITS aspects –
How well does the technology cooperate with other relevant methods - is
effectively one of the main barriers to the ITS implementation and deployment,
as detailed next.
Standards and Interoperability: Developments in ITS have been very rapid
and
usually
technology
driven,
frequently
evolving
ahead
of
standards.
Nevertheless, a lack of common standards and system interoperability may act
as barrier to the ITS deployment for two main reasons. Firstly, it may hinder the
use of such systems by private, commercial and public sector entities because it
implies spending more time and resources to adapt to all the different deployed
ITS, such as learning to use several new systems and using different in-vehicle
equipment to interact with charging or vehicle location systems in different
areas. Secondly, without common standards and system interoperability the
deployment of ITS is more risky (because their investment may become easily
obsolete) and less interesting (less demand for the reasons just presented) to
the private sector, which implies less private investment in ITS.
2.3.4 Economic & Finance
The main barrier to the implementation and deployment of ITS in the Economic
and Finance field is described below.
Poor business cases and models: ITS deployment may serve different
purposes. The cost effectiveness of ITS projects is clearly dependent on the
products and services that the ITS will offer. While there are no clear evidences
that
ITS
deployment
for
long-term
planning
purposes
is
cost-effective,
benefit/cost ratios for ITS are typically very favourable when complementary
uses for ITS are considered, such real-time traffic management, travellers and
freight information, incident and hazard response and law enforcement. Costeffectiveness shows that society is expected to experience net benefits with the
project and, therefore, that the project is interesting from the perspective of the
public sector. However, some of the benefits are usually not possible to capture
in the form of money, such as cleaner air, fewer vehicle accidents, and increased
road efficiency. For this reason, cost-effective projects do not necessarily pay
themselves. The transportation agencies and the public sector in general must
address funding issues and carefully design the business model to involve private
companies in the implementation and deployment of ITS, adopting a long-term
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perspective. The business model must ensure that both parties benefit from the
partnership
and
should
define
and
clarify
the
role
of
each
one
in
the
maintenance, repair and upgrading of the system, establish a revenue sharing
arrangement, and address issues such as the reliability and ownership of the
system, use of data, and liability in the event of failure. Poor business cases and
models may not only hinder the participation of the private sector but also
compromise the potential benefits of the deployment because of lack of funds for
proper maintenance and repair of ITS systems (ITS projects have less up-front
costs – typically around 2-3% of the cost of the entire project – and more in the
out years). As the Annex 7 – Multi criteria analysis (see annexes) this aspects
should be taken into account when selecting the specific ITS to be deployed.
As an example, this barrier is identified in the Annex 6 – Floating car data and
cellular systems” (see annexes) as a potential problem to the deployment of
floating car data and cellular Systems.
2.3.5 Education
The lack of awareness and perception of ITS is the main barrier to the
implementation an deployment of ITS in the educational field.
Awareness and perception of ITS: The implementation and deployment of ITS
is very much dependent on the ability of public authorities to understand the
transportation needs in their area and be aware of how ITS can help to improve
the transportation system. If policymakers and public authorities are not familiar
with the ITS concept and with the potential benefits of these systems, they will
not be able to consider or encourage the implementation and deployment of ITS
products and services. This is a relevant barrier to the widespread acceptance of
ITS since the public sector is a key player in promoting ITS projects, for example
by providing funding or by garnering public awareness and support to ITS
through education initiatives or public marketing campaigns.
2.3.6 Subjective
The main subjective barriers to ITS implementation and deployment are
described below.
Unclear benefits: Barriers to the implementation and deployment of ITS may
arise when the main stakeholders of the project are not sufficiently informed
about the aims of the project, its costs and expected benefits for the society and
for themselves and are not called to express their opinions and concerns to have
an active participation on the decisions taking during all the stages of the
project. Additionally, stakeholders that expect to experience costs (monetary or
non-monetary) may raise barriers if measures to compensate them are not
defined. This problem was identified as a potential barrier to the London and
Stockholm project of using ITS for the purpose of congestion charging schemes
in the Annex 5 – Study of barriers to road transport ITS in annex.
When the project requires public funding, some barriers may arise because
public opinion in general, or some interest groups in particular, might not see
the project as a priority or the best way to use tax payers money. Once again,
the Annex 5 – Study of barriers to road transport ITS (see annexes) identifies
this issue as a barrier to the attempt to impose a mandatory electronic vehicle
registration ship in Portugal.
Function creep and privacy issues: Public opinion may still have privacy
concerns and raise barriers to ITS deployment even when a proper legal
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61
framework for ITS deployment that ensures the data privacy is on force and the
ITS will not be used to collect, store or use sensitive information. This
phenomenon is related to the concerns that the project can be a mean to pave
the way for using the deployed ITS for other purposes (function creep) different
from the ones announced and that in the future the legal framework may be
changed to allow the collection of additional information. For example, in London
the cameras initially deployed for the purpose of congestion charging, in 2007
became also a mean to gather information for security purposes (see Annex 5–
Study of barriers to road transport ITS” in annex).
2.4
Conclusions
Sound transport research and policy making depend upon the availability and
accessibility of appropriate, high quality and up to date information (Wigan et
al., 2003). ITS constitute a promising solution to fill the current data gaps and
solve data problems encountered in developing transport data sets for European
transport models.
This report presents the results of task 2 of the WP2 of the ETIS plus project.
The main objective of this task is to contribute for the achievement of the main
objectives
of
the
WP2,
by
assessing
the
main
barriers
to
the
effective
exploitation of ITS data for the European transport modelling purposes. The
assessment of barriers was based in a proposed framework that takes into
account the systemic nature of the process of development of barriers and its
core dimensions. The identification of the main barriers was based on literature
review, case studies and expert opinion.
For the purpose of the present report, a 'barrier' is defined as something that
delays or hinders the development and/or realisation of the process of using
Intelligent Transport Systems to improve the collection of data for the purpose of
European transport modelling. In this context, a ‘barrier’ hinders either the
effective
exploitation
of
data
collected
by
already
deployed
ITS
or
the
implementation and deployment of ITS for data collection purposes. A barrier is
not merely a problem; it is an obstacle to the development and/or realization of
process that may lead to its premature ending.
Recently, ITS have been implemented for the most diverse reasons, such as toll
collection, congestion management, law enforcement. Nevertheless, the effective
exploitation of data from deployed ITS and the ITS implementation and
deployment, face important barriers which may slow down or even hinder the
European transport modelling.
The effective exploitation of data from deployed ITS faces the following main
barriers:
•
•
62
Legal & Regulatory
o
Obligation to report
o
Ownership
o
Privacy issues
o
Secondary use
Organizational
o
Fragmentation
o
Cooperation and coordination between agencies
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•
•
Technical
o
Lack of data standards
o
Integration and interoperability
Economic & Finance
o
Lack of resources and incentives
The main barriers to the ITS implementation and deployment are the following:
•
•
•
•
Legal & Regulatory
o
Intellectual Property
o
Privacy Issues
o
Procurement
o
Liability
Organizational
o
Supportive organizational structure
o
European & national architectures
o
Organizational readiness
Technical
o
Standards & interoperability
•
Economic & Finance
o
Poor business models and cases
Educational
o
•
Awareness and perception of ITS
Subjective
o
Unclear benefits
o
Function creep and privacy issues
The first step to overcome the barriers to a process is to identify them and
understand them. This is what was done in the present report. In the task 3 of
WP2 the possible solutions, strategies and business models to overcome the
described barriers will be analysed and deployed, taking into account different
time horizons for their possible implementation.
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63
3
Appraisal
of
possible
solutions
and
strategies to fully exploit ITS data for
European modelling purposes
This report presents the results of task 3 of the WP2 of the ETIS plus project.
The main objective of this task is to appraise possible solutions and strategies to
fully exploit ITS data for European transport modelling purposes.
The first contribution (carried out by ISIS) stresses the potential relevance for
transport modelling arising from Floating Car Data (FCD) applications, with
particular reference to the telematic fleets, originally developed for business
applications within the insurance system, according to which the insurer installs
an OBU consisting of a GPS receiver, and a GPRS transmitter to the insured car,
in change of discount fees. The OBU detects speed, guiding styles and represents
a key instrument to avoid frauds, but, can also provide the key data for:
•
evaluating and projecting traffic correlations (origin-destination matrices)
from current and historical traffic flows.
•
calculating the current traffic condition on the basis of O/D-matrices as well
as statistical analysis of traffic data surveyed online.
The second contribution (by IWW) examines how the exploitation of ITS data
could be optimised for the purposes of the (road) network model development,
focusing on vehicle tracing techniques using GPS.
An overview of possible potential ITS applications for the air sector data has
been provided in the third contribution (Mkmetric). The contribution stresses the
potential benefits from the automatic raw data collected in airports during check
in procedures (all data potentially useful for tracking O/D destination). Other
potential applications arise from the use of navigation data for supply modelling
and air transport indicators.
A focus on the use of GPS data and Bluetooth technologies has been provided by
TNO in the fourth contribution. The contribution starts with a brief description of
these two ITS applications. Then an overview of running or planned projects is
given of ITS applications in the Netherlands that will or might results in the
availability of useful additional transport data which is missing in the currently
available transport statistics. TNO also made an investigation of the feasibility to
collect data from the ITS applications in these projects. Finally an overview is
given of the main problems identified for the use of the data collected in the ITS
applications for general use in transport modelling in projects like ETISplus.
A focus on definitions, stakeholders and user groups and type of data sources,
has been provided by TML with reference to floating car data/ cellular systems.
An overview of potential implementation strategies in the context of transport
modelling has been also provided.
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65
3.1
The potential of Floating Car Data (FCD) applications
3.1.1 Introduction
The review of the promising ITS applications for data collection carried out in the
task 2.1 has stressed among the others the potential role of the Floating Car
Data (FCD) applications. This family of applications belongs to the Advanced
Traveller Information Systems (ATIS), providing drivers with real-time travel and
traffic information, such as transit routes and schedules; navigation directions;
and information about delays due to congestion, accidents, weather conditions,
or road repair work. In the most effective type of applications, the ATIS
information systems are able to inform drivers in real-time of their precise
location, inform them of current traffic or road conditions on their and
surrounding roadways, allowing them with optimal route selection and navigation
instructions, ideally making this information available on multiple platforms, both
in-vehicle and out.
As shown in the table below, the Advanced Traveller Information Systems
(ATIS), the first family in the overall context of the ITS taxonomy, includes the
following main applications:
•
Real Time Traffic Information Provision
•
Route Guidance/Navigation Systems
•
Parking Information
•
Roadside Weather Information Systems
Source: Ezell, S (2010)
Real Time Traffic Information Provision
Real-time traffic information provision system and its services were launched in
metropolitan areas and main networks. This service-area is rapidly expanding
across countries in several industrialized countries. The following picture related
to an application implemented in Japan (Oki, 2003) shows effectively the
manifolds applications and services provided under this type of application.
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It has been shown (U.S. Department of Transportation, 2008) that the evaluation
of traveller information services are well received by those that use them.
Benefits are found in the form of improved on-time reliability, better trip
planning, and reduced early and late arrivals. Drivers who use route specific
travel time information instead of area-wide traffic advisories can improve ontime performance by 5 to 13 percent. It has been stressed that although the
overall number of people who use traveller information on a daily basis
represents a relatively small portion of travellers in a region, demand can be
extremely high during periods of severe weather, emergencies, or special events.
In fact, traveller information systems during these periods have recorded
extremely
high
usage.
Summing
up,
traveller
information
systems
have
demonstrated the ability to improve mobility for travellers using them. The
systems can also enhance network traffic distribution, modestly improving
effective capacity and reducing fuel consumption and related emissions.
Route Guidance/Navigation Systems
Route guidance applications are used in many contexts:
•
in transit and commercial fleets that track vehicles and dispatch drivers using
wireless
location
technologies
such
as
beacons,
microwave
signals
or
satellites;
•
on talking buses and trains that announce destinations automatically;
•
in platform and station signs that give riders real-time information; and in
train dispatch and control systems.
In particular, however, one of the widespread and popular applications is route
guidance that communicate information about a route to the driver of a vehicle,
usually through an on-board device.
It is comprised of: a digital map database; a system that synthesizes signals or
sensor data to locate the vehicle on a map; a route planning function that
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67
designs a path before or during a trip, according to pre-selected criteria or
preferences; a route guidance function, which directs the driver along the
planned route; a device or devices that serve as an interface between the human
user and the system; and a one- or two-way wireless communication system.
Systems can use either static or dynamic databases. In static systems, the
information is usually pre-loaded on a high-capacity storage device, such as a
CD-ROM or DVD, that can be accessed by the driver. In dynamic systems,
information is conveyed over a continuous, two-way communications link to an
on-board device that recommends to the driver a "best" route, according to preselected criteria.
Route guidance can be either pre-trip, usually in the form of a printout or map,
or en-route. En-route guidance requires substantial computational power, along
with a navigable map database, a positioning system and location and route
planning capabilities. A real-time route guidance system must continually update
the vehicle's position, its speed, direction and location as compared to the map
of the route network in the immediate vicinity. It also must continually calculate
and communicate the procedures the driver must make to follow the planned
route.
If a route guidance system uses dynamic information—not just data from a
library that is stored on-board—it needs to communicate with outside information
sources such as a traffic information center, a concierge desk (in the case of a
Mayday
system),
roadside
beacons
or
even
other
vehicles.
These
communications systems, which are wireless, are usually either ground-based or
satellite-based.
The ground-based systems are:
•
paging and other personal communications services, private mobile radio
systems
(such
communications,
as
those
used
to
dispatch
fleets),
and
cellular
radio data networks (RDNs), which use unassigned radio
frequencies to broadcast data,
broadcast subcarriers, which use space left
over on an allocated frequency and are received by special equipment
(commonly used for subscription services such as background music, weather
and soundtracks),
•
radio data systems (RDS), which broadcast data on an inaudible subcarrier
which can be picked up by low-cost receivers (common in Europe),
•
the radio broadcast data system (RBDS), a U.S. variant on RDS, that includes
RDS and extends it, which is proving popular in Europe and Japan,
•
short-range
beacons
for
vehicle-to-roadside
communication
in
which
microwave or infrared beacons transmit short bursts of data at high speeds
over short distances, typically from roadside furniture and signs; they can be
location beacons, which transmit their own location and identifying number;
information beacons, which also relay current traffic information that they
receive via cable; and communications beacons, which can collect data from
the vehicle as well.
Satellite-based systems have earth stations for transmitting or receiving signals.
Geosychronous (GEO) satellites, remain over the same spot at very high
altitudes (more than 22,000 nautical miles), which requires their earth stations
to have large antennas. Low-earth-orbit (LEO) satellites orbit in circular or
elliptical patterns at altitudes that rarely are greater than 1,000 nautical miles
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and require much smaller antennas. GEO satellites are the most widely used, but
LEOs may gain in popularity as technology is developed to more fully exploit
their advantages.
Parking information
Advanced
parking
systems
(APS)
integrate
one
or
more
electronic
and
construction tools in order to best utilize a parking structure or parking lot.
The most common advanced parking systems assist drivers in finding parking
facilities with available space. They do this by obtaining information about
available parking spaces, processing it, and presenting it to drivers. Information
may be presented via static or changeable message signs, phone, the Internet,
or in-vehicle navigation systems.
The first systems were implemented in European cities in the late 1970's. Among
European and Asian cities with these systems are Frankfurt am Main and Koeln,
Germany; Bristol, UK; Ghent, Belgium; and Yokahama and Toyota, Japan. In the
US, systems have been implemented in St. Paul, Minnesota, Pittsburgh, and
Baltimore.
Like toll roads, some parking facilities are introducing electronic payment. It
works in the same way as electronic toll collection; drivers have a transponder in
their car that is read as they enter and leave the parking facility. This reduces
queues at the entrance and exit to the facility and reduces money handling
costs. The wireless transmission of parking fees sent via mobile phones is also
becoming an alternative to cash payments at meters.
Advanced Parking Meters can provide real-time information regarding whether
the parking place is occupied and if the meter has expired or not. This
information is transmitted by wireless modem to a server where parking
enforcement staff can see which spaces contain vehicles with parking violations.
These meters can also verify parking permits for special classes of vehicles, such
as disabled people or adjacent residents. Such meters can reduce violations and
increase revenues. A cost benefit assessment by the Research and Innovative
Technology Administration (RITA) U.S. Department of Transportation (US DOT)
Roadside weather information systems
Bad weather causes delays as traffic slows in response to decreased visibility,
loss of traction and reduced vehicle manoeuvrability. It also imposes costs on
regional economies, in terms of commerce lost due to difficult-to-navigate roads
and the operating and materials costs of preventing or removing ice and snow
buildup.
Intelligent technologies are used:
•
for snow and ice removal, including monitoring pavement surfaces for snow
and ice to assure efficient and timely treatment with the most appropriate
materials and aiding snow and ice removal equipment operators through
automated or assistive technologies
•
to process weather detection information to guide maintenance decisions
•
to manage traveler information systems to warn road users during extreme
weather conditions and to direct traffic control systems to smooth traffic
flow.
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69
3.1.2 Relevance for transport modelling
Floating
Car
Data
(FCD)
applications
may
provide
a
new
source
for
a
comprehensive and continuous monitoring of travel behaviour and supply quality.
Data from real time information services, mobile phones and extended map may
succeed to identify mobile and immobile vehicles, to recognize the mode of
transport, and to reconstruct at least the core elements of the routes from origin
to destination. In principle, it could be possible:
•
to gain a better understanding of route choice in the context of the current
traffic situation,
•
to continuously observe travel times in the network as one major indicator
for service quality,
•
to generate more reliable trip tables by mode, type of day, and time of day,
•
to evaluate the impacts of specific traffic control measures on the traffic flow.
Travel time measurements from Floating Car Data on the level of road links could
provide a better source for calibrating network models with time dependent
values for speed of links and intersection delays. Floating vehicle data may
become an accessible source for such measurements also in urban networks and
at regional level, usually the weaker chain of transport modelling.
3.2
Emerging business models
3.2.1 The traditional business models
The
traditional
business model
in the
traveller
information business
was
characterized as follows: there was a distinct emphasis on urban area, regional
traveller information services; in fact, these were the areas that were likely to
have data available from the public sector, as well as a target market of
commuters that would find value in accurate, timely, and relevant information
about road and travel conditions.
The following table describes roles and responsibilities for various partners under
the different partnering arrangements:
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Source: US Department of Transportation (2007)
It can be observed that the public sector support was essential to successful
traveller information service implementation, to the extent that sustaining
traveller information systems needed a significant involvement from the public
sector in data collection as well as fusion.
Furthermore, business models that relied on the private sector generating
revenue to offset public costs or sustain operations of a regional traveller
information service had not proved to be successful.
Ina general way customer willingness to pay for traveller information was not yet
proven.
At that time the challenge was that there were limited case studies and material
available. Regional traveller information programs and systems were just
emerging, as were the various partnerships among the public and the private
sector.
In general, the private sector involvement in market undertakings was also
somewhat emerging, relied on a ‘traditional’ relationship with the public sector,
i.e. the public sector
technology,
resources
collecting data and the private sector having the
and
interest
in
performing
the
data
fusion
and
dissemination functions.
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71
3.2.2 The new business models
The turning point in traveller information business model is the technological
development, allowing technology and applications emerging at a fast pace, and
with them increasing the number of ‘potentials’ new entrants.
The private sector can now rely on a level of enhanced information, detail, ability
to customize or personalize information as well as delivery methods (such as via
cell phone) as a means of providing a value-added service for which subscribers
would be willing to pay.
Furthermore, the Internet provided the technology and platform to allow public
and private sectors to be more innovative with the types of information they
could provide – map visuals, camera views, integrating multiple data sources,
and the ability to select Point A and Point B segments allow users to select
specific information they wanted to receive, even via the public-sector operated
Web sites.
The following trends favouring private business models can be observed:
Sensor data collection
The most important limitation with traffic sensors, generally installed by the
public sector, is their cost. They are in general expensive to install and
expensive to maintain. However, there is a trend toward non-intrusive sensors,
such as radar and acoustic sensors, always collecting the same type of data:
speed, volume and occupancy, but at lower costs. In some cases, they can use
solar
power
and
wireless
communications
to
reduce
infrastructure
costs.
However, the main barrier is institutional: in fact, a significant challenge in the
infrastructure-based private sector data collection arena is working through the
necessary permitting processes to be able to install infrastructure in the public
sector right-of-way. While a contract may be negotiated for the data exchange,
the permitting processes are often cumbersome and time consuming.
Probe Vehicle Data Collection
The sensors data collection, independently from the technological development,
has an intrinsic limitation: there is a limit to how many miles of coverage over
which sensors can be deployed and maintained. In addition, point sensors lack of
accuracy in measuring traffic conditions on arterial streets with traffic signals.
These limitations are leading both the public and private sectors toward non
infrastructure-
based
probe
data
collection.
A
proliferation
of
wireless
communications and wireless is enabling mobile devices in using this data to
track vehicles. Depending on the market penetration, a sample of the available
data could depict traffic speeds over a broad area, including freeways and
arterials.
The trend toward the use of probe vehicle data collection by the private sector is
also being driven by the development of telematic industry and the demands of
auto companies, as shown in the next chapter. Given the extraordinary market
penetration of cellular phones, if even a small percentage of cellular phones in
moving vehicles could be tracked, this could be a rich source of traffic data. As a
result, there has been a growing amount of efforts given to this potential data
source.
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However, the application of cell phone tracking is not exempted by limitations:
Cellular bandwidth is very expensive and carriers go to great lengths to conserve
it by minimizing the amount of time two cell towers communicate with the same
phone. As a result, the location of a phone can rarely be determined by
triangulation. Furthermore, in rural areas where towers are sparse, a phone is
under the coverage area of the same tower for a long time, making the specific
location of that vehicle difficult to pinpoint. Furthermore, institutionally, wireless
carriers are extremely hesitant to share information on their subscribers that
could compromise trust with their customers.
Summing up, some of the factors that have influenced the emerging private
business models in the market for navigation systems with real-time traffic are:
•
Quality of devices have improved while hardware costs have come down;
•
Costs of GPS has decreased while quality has increased significantly;
•
Wireless coverage has improved;
•
Map data has improved.
3.3
A real world application: the Telematics fleet
An example of real world application concerning FCD is the so called telematics
fleet, implemented in Italy by OCTOTelematics 1 (www.octotelematics.com), a
private company that is among the European leaders for development and
deployment
of
Telematics
for
Insurance
application,
with
approximately
1,000,000 On Board Units (OBU) installed on private vehicles at 2010.
Other than performing the “conventional” telematic functions as antitheft
satellite tracking and fleet management, the OCTOTelematics is providing
services to 32 insurance companies in Europe, through the installation of on
board units able to collect statistics on driver behavior, mileage, accident
detection and reconstruction, traffic detection and estimation, road user charging
data and remote automotive diagnostics. The application of board unites also
plays an important role supporting road safety and reducing the number of
accidents in compliance with European eCall regulation.
The OBU consists of a GPS receiver, a GPRS transmitter, a 3-axis accelerometer
sensor, a battery pack, a mass memory, processor and RAM. The OBU has a
dimension of 13.5 x 8.5 x 3 cm. The OBU stores GPS measurements (position,
heading, speed, quality) and periodically transmits (on request or automatically)
the recent accumulated measurements to the central data system. Transmission
occurs every 100 Km Traveled or every 12 minutes when the equipped car is
running along predefined motorways or crossing city centres.
It should be considered that at present OCTOTelematics has about 1.000.000 on
board units, mostly installed in Italian private cars, with an average increase of
about 30.000 units per month. This could provide interesting information, as far
as traffic flows are concerned.
In fact, one the most promising applications arising from the OBU is the Large
Scale Floating Car System: the Central Data System tracks the received data
1
The information contained in this chapter are based on C. de fabritiis, R.Ragone, G.Valenti
(2008)
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73
along the travelled routes by matching the related trajectories data to the
road/street network in order to estimate link travel speeds.
Currently, through WEB pages data are presented in 6 speed categories
(http://traffico.octotelematics.it/index.html), updated every 3 minutes, 24 hours
a day, 7 days a week, showing the circulating number of vehicle with OBU
installations and the corresponding estimates of average speed.
An example, shown in the next figure, is derived from the Rome Ring Road
(GRA), which has 33 numbered entry / exit junctions (starting from “Aurelia”
junction and proceeding in the clockwise direction) and represents the major city
traffic artery distributing traffic on radial routes and handling circumferential
traffic in the city. Traffic on the GRA is significant for most of the day and
frequent delays and traffic-jams are experienced, due to accidents or queue
spillbacks from the exit ramps or the adjacent radial arterial streets leading into
the city centre. In an average working day, it has been estimated that about
15.000 floating cars pass through the GRA. The average distances travelled by a
floating car on the GRA is about 10 km. During the peak period, an average of
more than 2000 floating cars per hour travel on the GRA. The next figure shows
the number of vehicles (floating cars equipped with the OBU) crossing the
infrastructure and the simulated real time traffic conditions (average speed) by
segments.
From the point of view of the relationships with transport models, among the
most useful information that FCD technique provide is the capability to determine
Origin-Destination traffic flow patterns. An example of the potential relevance of
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these applications for transport modelling purposes comes from the VISUM
transport model.
The VISUM transport model, developed by PTV (DE), integrates all relevant
modes of transportation (i.e., car, car passenger, truck, bus, train, pedestrians
and bicyclists) into one consistent network model. The transport model provides
a variety of assignment procedures and 4-stage modelling components which
include trip-end based as well as activity based approaches.
Recently, the VISUM transport model has integrated detector data, floating car
data (FCD) and incident reports. The data have been maintained in the software
and used for area wide calculations of current traffic conditions and forecasts. In
particular, the following improvements and utilities have been made possible
using FCD floating car data:
•
Method for evaluating and projecting traffic correlations (origin-destination
matrices) from current and historical traffic flows.
•
Propagation methods for calculating the current traffic condition on the basis
of O/D-matrices as well as statistical analysis of traffic data surveyed online.
•
Statistical and dynamic assignment methods based on O/D-matrices (e.g.
hourly calculation).
The stakeholders involved in the OCTOTelematics business model are the
following:
•
Public agencies operating traffic management centres and complex traffic
control systems
•
Metropolitan planning organizations, aiming at implementing and monitoring
mobility policies towards the development of sustainable transport policies,
reducing congestion and environmental costs
3.4
Conclusions
The information resulting from probe vehicles and telematics fleet was found to
be accurate and reliable. As stressed in Leduc (2008), even if there is still a lack
of independent evaluations regarding the quality of data, it can be said that the
growing real world business applications and technological developments allow to
answer positively to the questions usually raised about FCD applications: "How
good the quality of the traffic data is? To which extent city areas with small
roads can be covered? To which extent irrelevant data can be filtered out?
Floating Car Data (FCD) as well as Floating Phone Data (FPD) from mobile
phones
may provide
a
new
source
for
a
comprehensive and
continuous
monitoring of travel behaviour and supply quality. Examples of integration
between transport models and FCD applications, e.g. the PTV VISUM transport
model and the OCTOTelematics telematics fleet, have shown that it is possible to
reconstruct the core elements of the routes from origin to destination. In
particular, it has been proved to get:
•
a better understanding of route choice in the context of the current traffic
situation,
•
an accurate estimate of travel times in the network as one major indicator
for service quality,
•
more reliable trip tables by mode, type of day, and time of day,
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75
•
an evaluation of the impacts assessment of specific traffic control measures
on the traffic flows
Furthermore, travel time measurements from Floating Car Data at the level of
road links could also provide a better source for calibrating network models with
time dependent values for speed of links and intersection delays.
The steps to make the best advantage from the potential benefits of FCD in
transport modelling, i.e.
•
to reduce manual data entry and the potential of errors and inconsistencies
through the inclusion of real-time traffic data into the planning process,
•
to validate modelling outcomes in terms of transport flows and O/D flows,
could be the following:
1.
Identification of data processing and data needed. To identify the data
needed from FCD applications, providing an overview of the data
processing
steps
modelling,
including
used
to
prepare
the
pre-processing,
data
data
needed
quality
for
transport
checking,
and
aggregation to a common data standard, and finally the mobility and
reliability analysis.
2.
Involvement of data provider. In order to overcome the growing
presence
of
private
data
providers
which
may
arise
barriers
of
accessibility to FCD data, is necessary to design win-win strategies with
private
data
providers,
e.g.
data
acquisition,
providing
access
to
transport data, identifying potential customers for data providers, etc.
In the light of this strategy, the Pilot study and the WP4 carried out in ETIS-PUS
will play a crucial role. In fact, once the potential ITS applications have been
identified, as the FCD applications, the ETIS Pilot study and the WP4 will show
examples of how new type of data, e.g. data stored on On-Board Unite, can be
stored and integrated in the ETIS-BASE transport information tool.
3.5
Possible solutions for exploitation of ITS data for the
development of (road) network models
The current chapter examines how the exploitation of ITS data could be
optimised for the purposes of the (road) network model development. In the
framework of ETISplus, the development of network models also embraces traffic
assignment.
The application potential is elaborated with regard to following two data
collection methods:
1 Traffic data collection methods;
2 Vehicle tracing techniques.
3.5.1 Traffic data collection methods
The importance of traffic count data for calibration and validation purposes has
already been discussed in the Task 2.1. Traffic data collection methods allows for
surveying the number of vehicles, differentiated
•
by types of vehicles,
•
and the point of time.
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Current situation and challenges
With respect to data availability for modelling purposes, the situation in Europe
reveals a differentiated picture: Whereas some European countries provide traffic
count data with further information on the geographical position of counting
stations (e.g. with an underlying road map), other countries only offer an annual
report. The latter one makes it hardly possible to refer all traffic volumes data to
their correspondent link in the network which is used for modelling.
The only institution providing traffic count data at pan-European level is the
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UN/ECE) that publishes
consolidated traffic count data every five years. This data can be used directly as
input for modelling, because the traffic count data are referred to links in a
network. However, the UN/ECE networks differ from those network models
applied for transport demand modelling on behalf of the European Commission,
particularly TRANS-TOOLS (see Figure 19). The maps, which show the TRANSTOOLS and the UN/ECE road networks, illustrate that there is not a clear
geographical correspondence of both networks. In some cases, it is not possible
to allocate (a) certain link(s) of the UN/ECE road network model to certain
link(s) of the TRANS-TOOLS network model in an unambiguous way (see map on
the right hand side of Figure 19).
Further limitations of the UN/ECE traffic count data are as follows:
•
yearly averaged AADT, without any differentiation by passenger and freight
vehicles;
•
data gaps for specific countries;
•
coverage of the trunk networks only;
•
provision of traffic count data with a considerable time lag of around four
years.
Figure 19
Comparison of networks – modelling network versus UN/ECE network
National authorities usually provide more detailed traffic count information e.g.
differentiation by average traffic/ peak load or differentiation by vehicle type.
However, survey techniques and aggregation level are not comparable across all
European countries (see 3). Therefore, raw data has to be consolidated manually
before it can be applied to modelling purposes.
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77
Table 3
Examples of characteristics of delivery of traffic count data by
national authorities
Country
Sources
Data
available/
comments
Austria
Asfinag I
AADT by vehicle type (at
www.asfinag.de
least car/ lorry); only in
German language 1
Estonia
Germany
Estonian Road Administration
AADT
published
www.mnt.ee
annual report
Federal Highway Research Institute
AADT by vehicle type (at
www.bast.de
least
car/
within
lorry)
for
major and minor roads;
several aggregations e.g.
for working days or for
Sunday/ public holidays;
interactive
map
historical
data;
German language
The UK
and
and
only
in
2
Traffic 4
by
Department for Transport
AADF 3
www.dft.gov.uk/matrix
vehicle type (11 types)
Transport Scotland
for
www.transportscotland.gov.uk/road/traffic-
roads;
count
and
major
and
interactive
historical
hourly
and
traffic
variation
minor
map
data;
seasonally
only
offered by some regional
authorities
Roadmap for consolidation an efficient exploitation of traffic count data
As
mentioned
above,
differences
in
national
survey
methodologies
and
differences in level of detail of national statistics are a challenge for data
consolidation. The conventional procedure, i.e. the manual implementation of
traffic count data from UN/ECE or national sources to the modelling networks, is
a very time consuming and laborious task.
In order to allow a more efficient approach to exploit traffic count data for
modelling purposes at European level following procedure could be implemented:
the central point is a European reference transport model, such as the ETISplus
network model, which is also applied for the European reference transport model
1
2
3
4
www.asfinag.at/weitere-services/dauerzaehlstellen
www.bast.de/cln_005/nn_39112/DE/Aufgaben/abteilung-v/referat-v2/verkehrszaehlung/
zaehl__node.html
Annual Average Traffic Flow
Traffic in vehicle kilometres, as derived measure – AATF × length of network road link
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TRANS-TOOLS. The EU member states could be obliged by the European Union to
submit their national traffic count data on the basis of the European reference
network model and according to a clearly pre-defined data structure. Thus, all
countries are obligated to deliver data at the same level of detail, such that data
comparability can be guaranteed.
A minimum data request embraces traffic count volumes
•
differentiated by types of vehicle (passenger cars, busses, heavy good
vehicles),
•
and differentiated by time.
Once, all counting stations ‘connected’ to correspondent link of ETISplus network
model, the submitted traffic count data can be stored in the associated database.
If the system has been installed successfully, monthly update processes might
happen totally unsupervised – for instance, via Internet –, as most surveying
techniques are computer-based. The interface used for updating processes can
also be applied to make traffic count data available for transport models such as
TRANS-TOOLS.
Such
consolidated,
accurate
and
highly
differentiated
data
provision would considerably simplify calibration of any European assignment
model and will substantially improve model accuracy.
In order to improve human readability, an interactive map accessible via web
browser could be installed to enable a visualisation of the traffic count data in a
user-friendly way.
Figure 20 illustrates the way how an automated collection and consolidation of
traffic count data for the purposes of European transport modelling could be
organised.
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79
Figure 20
Roadmap for data consolidated processing of traffic count data
In addition, also operating companies of toll collect systems could be enforced to
integrate their surveyed traffic volumes in this information system.
Vehicle tracing techniques
As discussed earlier, exploiting data surveyed by vehicle tracing techniques may
allow for estimation of the model parameters of the generalised transport cost
function (GTC) underlying the assignment routine in a more accurate manner. As
far as data availability and data concept allows, the parameters can be estimated
specifically for individual demand segments and trip purposes. GTC function for
road assignment contains model parameters like:
•
travel time,
•
fuel costs,
•
maintenance costs,
•
toll costs.
Current situation and challenges
By conventional household survey techniques a logbook is used in which
participants meticulously record all information for each of their trip according to
•
origin and destination, trip length and trip time,
•
trip purpose and mode.
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Furthermore, socio-demographic characteristics such as car availability, household
size/ income or spatial location of residence may be raised within a travel survey.
Most national travel surveys do not provide information on the route choice of
road travellers. Thus, it is hardly possible to understand decision-making of road
users
in
terms
of
route
choice,
and,
therefore,
model
parameters
of
correspondent generalised transport cost (GTC) functions cannot be estimated
accurately.
Vehicle tracing techniques provide additional information on the route choice.
Having information on origin, destination and route choice allows the estimation
of GTC functions in a more sophisticated way, which could considerably improve
the current situation.
3.5.2 Roadmap to exploit vehicle tracing techniques
The most promising vehicle-tracing technique is using GPS, since satellite
systems are becoming increasingly widespread in cars anyway. In recent years,
the distribution of small GPS tracing systems which are mostly used for outdoor
activities like hiking or cycling has increased, too. GPS systems show the current
position defined by the geographical coordinates. The geographical coordinates
can be recorded in a specific time interval such as every five seconds. By
applying the sequence of coordinates to a road map afterwards, the routing of
the whole trip can be traced back. In a second step real routing has to be
allocated to ETISplus network model.
Finally, GPS tracing data are linked to the road network, which is applied for
modelling. By comparing modelled and observed routing the weighting factors for
the components of GTC function can be adjusted. As far as sample size allows,
the weighting factors applied by individuals’ route choice can be estimated per
trips and user characteristics such as trip purpose, socio-economic cluster of the
traveller, or point of time.
Moreover, the velocity distribution, which can be derived from GPS tracks easily,
allows conclusions on capacity utilisation rate and could be used as an additional
measure to identify infrastructure bottlenecks.
The proposed concept is illustrated by 21.
Figure 21
Accessing GPS tracing data
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81
In order to collect the GPS tracing data, participants of mobility surveys could be
equipped with GPS applications, which significantly enrich the information
gathered by logbooks.
Clearly, such approach has to be assessed from the viewpoint of data privacy
protection. Doubtless, full benefits of vehicle tracing techniques can only be
obtained, if raw data is not made anonymous completely, such that all
information on origin, destination and routing becomes available to the modeller.
For instance, a possible trade-off could be to cut off the beginning and end of
every trip to ensure privacy.
3.6
Possible solutions and strategies to fully exploit ITS data
for European air transport modelling
For air transport information on passenger flows between airports is available
from / to all airports within EU25, including flights connecting them with airports
outside this area, according to the reporting guidelines of EUROSTAT, which are
compulsory for all airports in the EU member states. As these information
consists only in the number of passengers (or the air cargo volume in tonnes
respectively) using the flights between a distinct pair of airports, there is neither
information available on passengers who change planes at airports (or
transhipment of air cargo) nor concerning their true origin and destination on
base of regions within the NUTS-nomenclature.
So one potential field for a case study to overcome this lack of information
(irrespective that data on passenger flows in air transport are already much
better than for all other modes) could focus on the usage of mobile telephones
as sensor to determine the location of a passenger and allowing to investigate
true OD-information, including the feeder modes rail or road. The only difference
to use that technology when dealing with air transport instead of surface
transport is, that one has to work on an international (or even worldwide)
coverage, as the majority of air travel is international.
However often there are administrative barriers and legal obstacles so that new
solutions
are
not
possible
to
be
executed
with
a
reasonable
effort.
In
consequence to face the target of timely availability of supply and demand data
for the EU model TRANSTOOL as well as having relevant information at hand to
produce up to date transport indicators we decided to suggest three different
case studies based on the unique principle in commercial air transport, which
distinguishes air transport from all other modes as all transport activities are
well observed without ‘any major’ exception. While one case study focuses on
passenger
demand,
the
second
deals
with
the
supply
side
i.e.
aircraft
movements. Finally the third one combines information available for demand and
supply from one source. All case studies base on an already available pool of
data allowing with the help of complex ITS routines to build automatically IPR
free ready to use data sets for modelling.
It has been pointed out that in air transport there are already plenty of
information collected and available in electronic way which could be used for
transport modelling. The largest barrier is the missing access to the data as the
existing regulations do not include some of the sources and do not make use of
an automatic ITS data collection allowing for more precision, up to date figures
and economic data collection respectively handling. Here we show some options
for the future data collection which might find their way to implementation.
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3.6.1 Automatic raw data collection at airports for demand
modelling
All air passengers have to check in at an airport and have to provide information
on their full path of travel, covered by their ticket, including intermediate
airports and the specific flight(s) they use. So the airport of origin of an air
travel collects all these information for multiple purposes of his own business
(e.g. passenger charges, capacity allocation, security). Furthermore also the
airport of destination has to be informed about the flight arriving. The
information exchanged due to technical reasons are already treated electronically
so that these information can be used further on for modelling purposes when
cleared by the individual characteristics.
A case study could elaborate which of the available passenger and cargo data
can be used without violating security and data safety rights and how they can
be incorporated into the data generation process to enhance modelling of longdistance (air) transport flows in improved quality. To provide insight we suggest
to line up with a software provider already engaged into this type of business at
airport level. Several airports are already using a distinct commercial software to
collect, aggregate and analyze such data concerning passengers. The second
question to be elaborated concerns the simple use of the technique to apply it
Europe wide. Finally the benefits for modelling and the computation of indicators
as well as the costs and efforts (for the data provider and the EU) have to be
worked out.
As there are as well legal issues concerned which most likely will not be solved
within the time frame of the project the case study might end up without a real
test case implementation so that just on a voluntary base an airport would make
accessible the data he collects with the system as an example respectively proofof-concept.
Concrete example:
As outlined before we are interested to identify the real origin and destination of
the traveller for the modeller. Despite some trips in the business aviation sector
with quite small own, chartered or shared aircrafts all other commercial flights
take
place
such
that
passengers
boarding
and
embarking
is
monitored
electronically. The volume of passengers and aircrafts handled usually just does
not allow to handle all information by hand and as the aviation business is
mostly an international one standards must be introduced allowing a smooth
operation at each end. Furthermore the airports / institutions need a system,
which is able to gather real reliable detailed flight event data from airlines for
each movement in order to improve the marketing research, the billing
(passenger fees, landing charges) and the operational controlling for the
platform’s major participants of government, airport, handling agent and at least
airline. The collected and validated information is available within 24h to 48h for
all flights of an airport. So the information is already used widely but not for the
purpose of European transport modelling.
Therefore the airports collect a lot of data which are just used for the operation
at the own airport but they exchange information as well like the passenger
transfer manifest (PTM). To handle such data there are IT systems in place
collecting and consolidating data in real time like the one called FLIRT provided
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by Fiplan GmbH, whereto we refer in the following as best practice example. The
FLIRT-System is already successfully in place at German (FRA, MUC, HAM, STR
a.o.), European (BRU, CPH, LUX, ZRH) and airports outside Europe (Middle East
and South East Asia) as well as airlines and Ministries respectively national
statistical offices are using detached applications for data handling and air
transport monitoring or analyses. As depicted by the references the system is
scalable to handle airports with a number of movements from 30.000 up to
500.000 and for passengers from 250.000 to 50.000.000. Interesting as well is
the flexibility of the system to cope with local circumstances or national
regulations so that it is adjustable for different data elements, features,
processes and plausibility checks. Important to note is that the system is in
operation for more than 15 years and therefore already proofed successfully the
implementation of such procedures to handle large electronic data collection and
consolidation automatically based on the existing data pool at airports. Under
technical perspective local server solutions or the accessibility via Internet
Browser
are
feasible.
There
are
no
restriction
concerning
interfaces
and
transportation mode of data and the data storage just depends on the size of
available disk space.
As minimum information the FLIRT System covers for each flight event the real:
•
load information per stop (volume of passengers per class and age category,
cargo, mail, baggage)
•
transfer information on passengers with a connection airport from an origin
airport to a destination airport (volume of transfer passengers, connecting
stops)
HEL
TXL
CDG
FRAVIE
Distribution on Passenger
Streams embarked in
AUH to FRA
•
AUH
transfer information on passengers, which embarked in an airport and having
a connection at post departure routing stops to a destination (volume of
transfer passengers, connecting stops)
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FRA
Distribution on Passenger
Streams embarked
in FRA to AUH
AUH
PEW
DEL
KHI
BKK
The implementation of the ITS takes place in such a way that later on
enhancements of data elements have no impact on the implemented data
collection process. As well it is ensured by the introduced process that the
completeness is given and the data are timely validated available. In fact there
is no risk to disturb existing procedures or to violate data handling processes.
The implementation of the system itself will take approximately four months.
Now the FLIRT system would not necessarily be installed at each European
airport, one can as well centralise the data collection easily. Assuming the
regulation 437/2003 would be extended such that the airports have to provide
automatically a copy of the e.g. PTM to an electronic address of the EC at the
time the airports exchange information (comparable to a copy of an email sent to
the EC), then one can collect the information at one server which can store and
consolidate the information with the help of a small computer cluster attached.
To cover the inbound traffic to Europe and passengers from small airports also
the incoming messages should be monitored at the large airports. The costs of
the data submission would be negligible for the airports and the data collection
process could even be streamlined and the EC could reduce the existing data
collection process at the airports to a minimum. For the EC costs to purchase
FLIRT and to run different server would emerge but in return the data quality
would increase, timely delivery is ensured and up to date figures are available
allowing:
•
comprehensive analysis of the common database for the development of the
European airport system,
•
in depth market view,
•
benchmark airports,
•
data resource for horizontal air service agreements, ‘open sky’, monitoring
and reporting,
•
timely intervention on air service breaches, like exceeding seat offer or
frequency,
•
monitoring gentle usage of resources,
•
easy reformatting of data for dissemination purposes (ICAO, nat. authorities
or ACI),
•
and other issues ....
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The case study outlined would focus on the passenger side as on the cargo side
there are additional barriers to be circumvented and another source ‘the custom’
should be added to cover as well access to the large logistic centres of the
express services (e.g. FedEx, TNT, DHL) and the information attached to the
cargo by integrators and trucked air cargo can be considered as well.
Finally it has to be mentioned that the data collected do not contain information
about the region the traveller is starting or ending the trip
3.6.2 Usability of air navigation data for supply modelling and
air transport indicators
All aircraft movements of commercial air transport nowadays have to be declared
before a flight takes place. This applies to all kind of scheduled flights as well as
for charter-, taxi-, positioning flights etc. These data are all collected and
monitored at EUROCONTROL with the flight schedule planned as well as with
actual timings for each and every flight including the explicit routing a flight has
taken.
Based on the ‘Memorandum concerning a framework for cooperation between the
EUROCONTROL and the EC; 22.09.2003’ a case study could elaborate what kind
of information is available in detail without violating data ownership and data
safety issues but pointing out legal and administrative barriers. Furthermore it
has to be investigated which parts of the data set can be used to feed the
European passenger and freight transport model. While one aspect would be the
supply side another aspect would be in the field of data supply for calculating
environmental impacts of air transport. As single activities such as a certain
flight is monitored in a detailed way as well indicators to the service quality and
even safety can be produced. Finally the data can be used to build semi
automatically an air network using ITS in an intelligent way.
3.6.3 Intelligent use of Eurostat data and heuristics for an
automatic update of the air transport network
As already mentioned above all commercial movements of passengers as well as
of aircraft are observed according to regulation 437/2003. Beside the number of
passengers and freight carried, there is also the number of flights, the number of
seats offered and the type of aircraft reported. Furthermore from 2007 onwards
national authorities have to observe the development of costs in air transport by
providing an air transport cost index according to regulation 1158/2005. This
means the first steps necessary, i.e. collecting necessary base data, to build an
air transport network for strategic policy purposes covering EU25 have already
been undertaken.
The starting point of the case study would be the statistics and the cost index
available at Eurostat. Based on rules and heuristics the data would be assembled
such that an air transport network, containing all necessary core information
like, time, costs (index), frequency, etc. which is needed for a transport model
with European focus evokes.
The rules and heuristics need to be developed and the network would lack
services which are not reported due to national data privacy issues. As well the
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very small services from small airports with reporting exceptions would not be
present. But the majority of services and the backbone network would be
available automatically and timely repeatable in line with the available statistics.
Furthermore the sources would be IPR-free without any legal, safety and royalty
barriers and are fully under control of EUROSTAT or DG TREN / DG MOVE
respectively the dedicated observatory. Therefore we suggest to undertake the
attempt to provide an air transport network which can be enriched in addition by
some base information like geographic position of airports
3.7
Investigation of ITS applications that could be used for
transport data collection
3.7.1 Introduction
In many cases transportation data sources contain gaps, errors and inaccuracies.
These can occur due to problems with data collection, unavailability of data,
registration problems, confidentiality of data, etc. In order to still use this data
these ‘data-problems’ are solved using different techniques for data estimations.
Using statistical methods and modelling techniques data are corrected or
created. In case no real data is available, the statistical methods and modelling
techniques are the best way to “guestimate” the missing data.
However, it would be better to collect the right data with the right level of detail
in the right format and use these results to improve the quality of available
transport data. In the scope of this project methods are investigated to collect
additional transport data. It concerns the use of ITS applications to collect
transport data (as a main result or as a side product). A previous report
generated in this project “Task 2.1 Identification of ITS and their usability to
solve current data problems” has shown two methods which are of particular
interest:
•
The use of GPS data;
•
The use of Bluetooth data.
This document starts with a brief description of these two ITS applications. Then
an overview of running or planned projects is given of ITS applications in the
Netherlands that will or might results in the availability of useful additional
transport data which is missing in the currently available transport statistics.
TNO made an investigation of the feasibility to collect data from the ITS
applications in these projects. Finally an overview is given of the main problems
identified for the use of the data collected in the ITS applications for general use
in transport modelling in projects like ETISplus.
3.7.2 ITS applications investigated for collection of transport
data
As described before, two ITS applications have been investigated: GPS and
Bluetooth.
GPS data
The notion GPS data refers to data collected by on board unit
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87
(OBU) using GPS technology. This enables tracking of vehicles as often as the
GPS signal is measured and recorded by the OBU. Using a track-and-trace
system (OBU’s linked via a central system) is common practice in commercial
operation of transportation which would imply a large number of possible data
sources.
Bluetooth data
As bluetooth communication technology is often used in cars and trucks as
communication between cell-phones (or other mobile devices) and car kits, cars
and trucks can be recorded along the side of the road with the use of antennas.
Each bluetooth signal is unique, making detection and tracking of single cars and
trucks possible. This offers a wide range of data collection possibilities at specific
points. Combining data from these specific points will give information on the
movements of vehicles and the routes in the network they have chosen. It is
estimated that 40-48% of drivers – especially for private cars, not so much for
trucks
–
use
bluetooth
communication
which
implies
that
a
fairly
good
measurement of traffic flows can be obtained. Combining these techniques with
measurements along the road such as measurements of the weight of cars and
trucks would generate good data. Also note that measuring bluetooth activity
does not harm privacy as it measures a broadcasted signal.
3.7.3 Running and planned projects with ITS applications that
might deliver transport data
A number of running and planned projects where ITS applications are used have
been investigated. In this investigation projects have been selected that can
potentially deliver useful results for ETISplus based on ITS applications. The
purpose of this investigation is to analyze what kind of data is collected within
these projects, to check how feasible it is to collect data from these projects for
use in other projects and to list the problems concerning data quality,
completeness, level of detail and availability.
TNO has made this inventory for projects running or planned in the Netherlands.
ThinObu - TNO
In this project a selected group of drivers was equipped with a ThinObu, which
essentially was a small GPS tracker. With this ThinObu, all the movements of
these vehicles have been tracked in such a way that their entire routes are
logged and can be analysed.
This enables a number of possibilities for using the data such as route choice
calibration. As the origin and destination of a route are known the routing of the
truck can be investigated and used to calibrate/validate route choice models as
the data delivers a direct match between OD-pairs and selected routes. In this
project the technical aspects of the ThinObu technique were of main interest and
as such the data set is not very large, 70 trucks have been tracked. Because of
the limited number of vehicles equipped with the ThinObu, the dataset cannot be
used to calibrate a model. However, it does show which data can be derived from
such an ITS application. If the scale of this project would be enlarged, it would
be possible to use the collected data to fill data gaps and to calibrate and
validate route choice models.
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In this application, all details about the origin, destination and actual route
chosen
are
stored.
Relevant
information
in
transport
models
such
as
characteristics of vehicles, commodities of the goods for freight or motives for
passenger transport are not stored in the data. Therefore, it might be difficult to
link the GPS data stored in this ITS application with this kind of data in already
available transport statistics.
Sensor city Assen - TNO
Early 2010, the prestigious research project Sensor City Assen started. In this
project a consortium under chairmanship of TNO conducts research on an
intelligent traffic system based on sensor technology. This system must provide
motorists on the road with all relevant information for their trip. With this
information they can reach their destination as efficiently as possible, but it also
saves the environment.
The name says it all: Sensor City Assen is a project in which the city of Assen
and the province of Drenthe set up a vast measurement network around town.
With two hundred measuring points Assen will become a testing ground for
various practical applications of complex sensor systems. In numerous consortia
over twenty companies and organizations carry out research projects in three
fields: noise, (living) climate and mobility. A consortium under chairmanship of
TNO conducts research on an intelligent traffic system that monitors traffic flow
with sensor technology and makes accurate traffic predictions thanks to smart
algorithms. The goal is to provide motorists pro-actively with travel information,
for example about the fastest route to their destination and about parking
possibilities. The system must even offer motorists the opportunity to make a
reservation for a parking lot or a public transportation ticket when they are still
fifteen minutes away from Assen.
Insight into traffic streams
With this intelligent traffic system the city wants to lead travellers to their
destination in Assen as efficiently as possible and save the environment. Better
traffic
light
management
should
also
contribute
to
that.
By
combining
information from traffic loops in the road surface, camera's beside the road,
navigation systems in cars and cell phones, the system gets a clear insight into
traffic flow. With this information the system can adjust traffic light function
exactly to the expected traffic supply. It can also inform motorists about
expected travel time and if necessary about faster alternative routes. With this
TNO and its research partners expect the traffic flow to improve by 25 percent
and the traffic emissions to decrease with 20 percent. Furthermore, the
researchers look at the traffic management around large-scale events, like the
TT Assen. They intend to provide the large amounts of visitors, coming from all
over the country and even from across the border, with individual advice on
routes, parking and public transportation when they leave home for Assen. This
advice can be adjusted during the trip.
International novelty
Lots of research is necessary to enable this. For the upcoming three years the
organizations involved have formulated three focal points in their research
activities. Firstly, to generate reliable 'floating car data' from the measurement
network, cell phones and in-car devices. Secondly, travel time predictions based
on floating car data joined with complex traffic models. And thirdly technology
for future information and payment services to public transportation users as
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89
well as transporters, based on improved arrival time expectations and personal
travel profiles.
Testing of ITS applications
In this project several methods for data collections will be tested such as
ThinOBU (GPS), Bluetooth and cameras to collect data on origins, destinations
and routes for passenger and freight transport. Main goal in this project is to test
the application of this data in improved travel time predictions and improving
traffic management measures (anticipate instead of react).
This project is potentially very relevant for testing the collection of transport
data within the ETISplus project. However, the project just started and it will run
for three years. Therefore, first results are not available right away.
Carrier Web - TNO
The main goal of the Carrier Web project is to add functionality to the onboard
unit such that it influences the behaviour of the driver and decreases fuel
consumption. In this project it is not intended to collect data for use in transport
modelling. However, the project does create a link between TNO and a
manufacturer of OBUs. Carrier Web is one of the top five manufactures of OBUs
in Europe. In this position Carrier Web stores large quantities of data on
transportation
which can potentially be used for ETISPLUS. This data will give
information on OD pairs and route choice. These results can be used to check
route choice algorithms, but as it is a significant large sample it can probably
also be used to calibrate transportation flows.
Also
in
this
project,
relevant
information
in
transport
models
such
as
characteristics of vehicles, commodities of the goods for freight or motives for
passenger transport are not stored in the data. It should be investigated whether
it is possible to get an idea about the commodities for freight based on the type
of company and whether it is allowed – given confidentiality of data – to make
such a link.
RITS – De Rijke transport/ORTEC/TNO
Most transportation planning software use fixed travel times to plan a route.
These fixed travel times are often daily averages. A problem with these daily
averages is that congestion, other delays and assumptions on maximum driving
speeds are not taken into account in the prediction of actual travel times.
Together with ORTEC TNO is developing a method that makes it possible to use
live travel times within the transportation planning tools. On the basis of more
accurate predicted travel times the calculated routes are adjusted and a better
and more realistic planning is constructed. Within the scope of this project it has
been discussed with ORTEC (company developing and selling transport planning
tools) to use the data recorded in these transportation planning systems of
transport companies and logistic service providers for use in other project such
as the ETISplus project. First discussions with ORTEC on this possibility were not
positive due to confidentiality restrictions on the use of the data.
TransMission
TransMission is the largest cooperation of independent transport and distribution
companies in the Netherlands and Belgium. With 1100 employees and 460
lorries, seventeen partners collectively handle a total of 12,000 shipments every
day. The TransMission partners barcode all of the shipments for tracking and
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tracing purposes. This method is unique for a cooperation within the Netherlands
and Belgium. Employees track the shipments using the TMS reporting system.
Customers receive detailed information on the status, or can even view this data
themselves using the special TransmIT application. This tracking and tracing
system offers potentially a possibility to analyse origins, destinations and routes
of a very large number of shipments. With TransMission it has been discussed
whether it is possible to use this data for other projects such as the ETISplus
project. So far, the request is too general according to TransMission. Once more
specific questions concerning data requests are defined, this can be discussed
with TransMission.
National Data Warehouse
The National Data Warehouse for Traffic Information (NDW) is a joint project in
the Netherlands which records data on the traffic situation in the Netherlands. It
records the actual traffic situations on highway level, city roads and main roads
of cities that are involved in the project. The project was started in 2009 and the
databank is continuously updated till 2012. The main goal of this project is to
supply other parties with accurate data on the current traffic situation. The NDW
has very high standards for quality of data and can deliver per minute
information on intensities (number of vehicles), recorded travel times (seconds),
estimated travel time (seconds), point speeds (km/h) and truck categories
(meter). Potentially this can be used for the ETISplus project.
3.7.4 Identified problems concerning the use of data collected
with ITS applications
During the investigation of projects that might deliver useful results from ITS
applications for the ETISplus project, several potential problems which hinder the
data availability have been identified. The main problems are:
•
Confidentiality of data:
When the data of transportation can be linked back to a company, sensitive
information on their business is potentially exposed, e.g. customer locations or
delivery frequencies. As a consequence of this, many data is available from ITS
applications, but because of confidentiality reasons it is not allowed to use them
for any other purpose. Companies are very aware of the potential risks
associated with disclosing their transportation data and as such this problem
must be treated with the upmost of care.
A solution for this problem could be that a trusted party receives the data and
only delivers aggregate results for other purposes that cannot be traced back to
specific companies.
•
Data logging:
Many companies can potentially supply the data required. A problem is that
companies do not store all the data, especially they don’t keep data that is not
important for their primary processes. Many companies outsource the tracking
and tracing to companies which then often don’t provide the actual data but only
business reports. Thus data acquirement can be hard.
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91
•
Operational systems:
When data is logged it is often logged within the system that has to perform
operational. Therefore extracting data from these systems must not hinder the
actual process it is handling.
•
Completeness of the data:
There are opportunities to collect data from specific single companies or even
from IT companies that collect data from a large number of transport operators
and logistics service providers. However, the data will not be complete. Even if
data can be collected through ITS applications from a large number of companies
or on a large number of locations, the result will stay a selection of total
transport. Before using this kind of data, it has to be checked whether the data
is complete enough in order to fill data gaps in existing available transport data
sources.
•
Level of detail of the data:
The data provided by the above mentioned techniques are mostly very detailed
for specific purposes, i.e. Bluetooth applications are very detailed on a specific
lane, GPS data on route choice. They are not very detailed in a broader sense as
they most often do not log type of goods, the total number of cars on a lane etc.
Before using this kind of data, it has to be checked whether the data is detailed
enough in order to fill data gaps in existing available transport data sources.
Solutions have to be found to deal with these problems in order to make it
possible to use data collected by ITS applications for general use in transport
modelling in projects like ETISplus.
3.8
Floating Car Data/ Cellular Systems
3.8.1 User Groups
Definitions
Information needs to be delivered to a wide range of user groups. For the
purpose of this analysis the following user groups and the corresponding
definitions will be used:
Infrastructure Owners and Managers:
Those who provide infrastructure require information in order to monitor the
performance of the infrastructure provided, to plan new infrastructure and to
schedule maintenance. The information needed for this will generally be based
on off-line historic data.
Depth and subtlety of understanding is increasingly
necessary to support sophisticated evaluation processes. These may include
origin and destination data, and behavioural understandings may be derived and
delivered using new technologies related to people, systems or vehicles.
Infrastructure is expensive to provide and credible information is needed to
convince public and/or private decision makers of the viability of economic or
financial options. Those who manage infrastructure generally require more
detailed information to measure performance and to make off-line and on-line
decisions for future operations. Information may be stored to monitor trends or
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be used for ex-post analyses to understand the outcomes of situations and what,
if any, mitigating measures should be adopted in similar circumstances in the
future. Information may be used for on-line management, such as providing bus
priority in an urban traffic control system or to initiate speed controls on a
motorway,
and
may
involve
control
algorithms
or
modelling
processes.
Information may be general in nature such as traffic flow or passenger counts, or
it may involve the specific identification of people, vehicles or goods for
charging, security or enforcement purposes. Information may be an essential
requirement for financial viability as, for example, third party payments may
depend on the numbers of end users. However, in a managed system data will
always be sought against specifications, as information collection and delivery
will always be a cost which must be measured against benefits. The integration
of information between system operators is generally market driven, particularly
where the systems relate solely to the provision of traveller information and are
not part of a transport service itself. Technology is at the heart of timely delivery
of information for management and between service providers.
Public Transport Users:
Individuals who, as end users, make travel decisions for themselves, friends,
family and colleagues using public transport. They may have a wide range of
special requirements, and information sought or given may be general in nature
or bespoke and tailored to their specific needs. The information may be limited
by, for example, mode, timeliness, accuracy or relevance. It may be available as
general information to be searched through, or travel solutions may be
presented. Travel and transport decisions to meet specific requirements will be
made on a wide range of factors which will include time, cost, convenience and
reliability, and will be driven by individual choices and preferences.
Car Drivers:
Individuals who choose to drive have been identified as a separate user group
because the information collection and delivery processes have been very
different from those of other modes. Also, for other than very short trips, the car
is the dominant mode of transport. Often groups, such as families, will travel
together on a car trip and, whilst all passengers may have an influence on the
decisions, for the purpose of this paper we refer to the driver as the end user for
car trip.
Public Transport Service Providers:
Public transport service providers need information to manage their services
efficiently with either on-line or off-line decision processes, and to determine
changing services and payment processes. As individuals only use public
transport services because of their knowledge of the services on offer, the
delivery of such knowledge is a key aspect of service provision.
Freight/ Goods Services Providers:
Decisions on the movement of freight or goods will be made by individuals, albeit
in the context of company policies. Cost, timeliness, reliability and security of
delivery are key factors. The emphasis will depend on the goods being moved
and condition monitoring. The characteristics of the information needed and its
delivery for management may vary with the ownership of the service.
A range of other groups are interested in the provision and delivery of
information.
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Such groups include vehicle manufacturers, internet service
93
providers,
location
and
communication
service
industries
and
those
manufacturing information collection or delivery equipment such as roadside
detectors or display boards. These groups service the information industry and
deliver the technology push which influences the quality and delivery of the
information itself.
3.8.2 Overview
The ITS applications that are evolving to meet user needs cover a broad range of
information and telecommunications technologies to detect people, drivers,
vehicles,
goods,
traffic
and
environmental
conditions,
and
communicate
information to a variety of user groups. User needs are complex, vary between
users and are influenced by factors such as levels of system development and
deployment
and
social
and
economic
trends.
A
simple
overview
of
the
relationships between applications and information services is given in the
following table, with additional discussion for user groups in the following
sectors.
User groups
User applications
Infrastructure
owners
and
managers
Types
of
Information
information
sources
Network monitoring
Network state
Point detection by
Performance
estimation, e.g.
sensors to identify
monitoring
flows, capacity,
vehicle type,
New infrastructure
delays, accidents,
pedestrians.
planning
congestion,
Specific
Maintenance
environment,
identification, e.g.
planning
vehicles,
train, buses.
Vehicle tracing
passengers, goods.
Section speed
Emergency
Control strategies
characteristics
response
Probe vehicle data
Enforcement
Integration of CCTV
Control
Manual information
Forecasting
External sources,
Safety monitoring
e.g. weather forecast
Environment
monitoring
Public
Pre-trip decisions
Static data, e.g.
Public transport
transport
Within-trip
timetables
service suppliers
users
confirmation and
Dynamic data, e.g.
Public and private
recovery
display screens,
traveller information
PDAs.
service suppliers,
Time, cost,
e.g. Transport
location
director
Route optimisation
Route and journey
Highway/road
Destination findings
time estimations
authority data
Route following
Dynamic rerouting
Traffic information
Dynamic route
Related
suppliers, e.g.
guidance
information, e.g.
TrafficMaster, ITIS
Car drivers
94
parking, garages
Motoring organisation
Road
Media
characteristics,
Other people
e.g. speed limit
Traveller information
Multimodal links
suppliers
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Public
Fleet monitoring
Vehicle location
Vehicle sensors
transport
Relevant network
Capacity/control
Roadside/trackside
service
condition monitoring
conditions
sensors
providers
Setting provision
Passenger demand
Operating staff
(on-line/off-line)
Planning service
Incident recovery
Freight/goods
Fleet/cargo
Vehicle/cargo
Vehicle sensors
service
monitoring
location
Container sensors
providers
Network route
Demand
Warehouse/delivery
planning
characteristics
data
Service demand
Storage options
Infrastructure and
Efficient delivery
Network conditions
information service
Incident recovery
managers
Staff
3.8.3 Details
Infrastructure owners and managers
The provision of new transport infrastructure for any mode or modal interchange
is expensive and may be subject to constraints such as those imposed by
planning processes. Therefore, increasing the efficiency of management of
existing infrastructure is important and requires the delivery of information for
effective control and management decisions. In some transport systems, such as
rail, elements of the system are largely under the control of the infrastructure
manager, whereas for others, such as the road network, the actions of users are
largely outside the control of the infrastructure manager. In recent years,
transport management schemes have been developed for cities and regions to
increase transport efficiency, reduce congestion and improve performance of
road transport. However, the real-time implementation of many of these plans is
hampered
monitoring
by
of
infrastructure
lack
of
appropriate
the
transport
management
information.
system
and
is
mangers
a
Real-time
fundamental
should
expect
and
long-term
requirement
for
coherent
and
comprehensive information.
Public transport users
Traffic and traveller information services have been one of the fastest and most
visible areas of growth in transport telematics in recent years. For travellers, an
ITS system should deliver information in a straightforward and clear way which
reflects the needs of the individual. In additional to the more traditional ways of
obtaining travel information, there is a proliferation of Internet websites offering
support for journey planning, including services such as routing, ticketing and
traffic or travel news. At present, some information provision is expensive,
inaccurate, unreliable, has limited functionality, a lack of integration and is
intrusive. Policy makers often see the provision of traveller information as a way
to influence transport mode choice in order to encourage the use of public
transport and reduce car journeys, but travellers are more likely to have
information about satisfaction of time, cost, reliability, convenience, security and
comfort. While cost and travel time can be quantified, this is less true for
reliability, convenience, security and comfort, although reliability is increasingly
seen to be a key factor. User perceptions of service do not always reflect the
performance of the service itself. For example, surveys on several real-time
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passenger information systems found that travellers have perceived a service to
improve in terms of reliability after the delivery of on-line traveller information.
Many studies have been undertaken to understand what traveller information
should be delivered. Traveller needs are not uniform and vary with individual and
service characteristics as well as by journey purpose and type. For example, the
expectation of an international business traveller will be very different to that of
a local commuter, and individuals with different lifestyles, income or expenditure
will have different priorities and expectations. Issues of social inclusion are of
increasing importance, and the needs of an aging population increasingly require
additional information which relates to a range of disabilities.
In general, traveller information should:
•
•
Be accurate and reliable to give travellers full confidence in its use;
Cover multimodal options, so that travellers are fully aware of public
transport and non-road mode;
•
Provide updates on delays, service disruptions, etc., to give ‘early warning’ to
travellers of potential problems and facilitate any necessary change of plan;
•
Deliver the information effectively to make messages easier to understand
and available via multiple channels.
Car Drivers
The fundamental characteristics described above also apply to car drivers.
However, as a driver, information needs to be delivered in a way which does not
cause additional risk during the driving process. More accurate routing should
result in less route mileage. Also, dynamic information systems can warn of
problems ahead and hence reduce exposure to accident risk.
Public Transport Service Providers
Public transport service providers need information to monitor the position and
status of their vehicles to improve efficiency of management. Such management
decisions may be on-line or off-line and will relate to network conditions and
characteristics of passenger demand. Longer term decisions to plan services for
normal or event situations will also be needed.
Freight/ Goods Service Providers
It is evident that a large information market exists for business applications (the
management of the ‘mobile’ workforce). The range of information needed
included:
•
location reference
•
status of vehicles and cargo
•
network status
•
cost, road charging and payment
•
market and customer needs
Communication technologies, especially the Internet, have enabled data sharing
between operators and fleets, operators of different modes and in different
regions. Data sharing covers a wide range from real-time monitoring of cargos to
seamless e-ticketing and payments. Issues of security and privacy are critical.
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3.8.4 Data Sources
Types of Information
Information may be considered to relate either to static situations such as fixed
timetables which change infrequently, or to dynamic conditions where changes
occur in response to prevailing circumstances. For example, dynamic information
can enable real-time decisions to be made by system managers, the systems
themselves, or by end users to optimise system operations and/or personal
decisions. Whilst the boundaries between static and dynamic information may
often be blurred, the following gives an indication of the ranges of information
which may be available.
Static Information:
•
maps and geographical information
•
navigational instructions
•
route of public transport and logistics
•
historical travel times by location, time of day, day of the week and season
•
planned events, construction and maintenance activities
•
tolls and payment options;
•
transport timetables and fares;
•
intermodal connections;
•
transport
vehicle/system
characteristics
such
as
comfort,
convenience,
accessibility and reliability
•
vehicle regulations.
Dynamic Information:
•
network conditions, including congestion and incident information;
•
weather information, including road surface condition and visibility;
•
real-time journey time to a destination;
•
real-time location of transport vehicles;
•
alternative routes, modes or timing recommendations ;
•
whether public transport and freight vehicles are on schedule;
•
the availability of spaces at warehouses, parks and garages;
•
the identification of the next stop on a train or bus;
•
the location or arrival time of the next train or bus.
State-of-the-Art
The importance of information for an efficient and well run transport network has
been identified for many years. Information and communication technologies in a
variety of forms have been a central concern in much of the debate over
solutions to transport problem. Technological advances in sensors, image
processing, acoustics and navigation have been applied to collect ever more
detailed, accurate and comprehensive traffic and transport data.
Advanced computer and communication technologies have been developed in
parallel
to
maximise
the
use
and
benefits
of
the
information
collected.
Governmental and commercial private investments have been made to develop
information systems and services which operate for public and private users at
individual, company, local, regional and national/trans-national levels.
These services have produced significant social and economic impacts in terms of
safety, environment and quality of life. The U.S. FHWA Freeway Management and
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97
time traffic conditions are all benefits that do not require a benefit/cost ratio to
be understood”.
Public agencies or transport operators monitor the network for which they are
responsible. Network monitoring is not an end in itself, but usually supports
management and control services, user information in its broadest sense, and
provides off-line data for statistical and planning purposes.
In some cases, data from public agencies and local authorities are often shared
with other operators and service providers. Single service providers collect data
for their own interest or for selling the information.
There are two main forms:
1 Transport service operators: logistics companies, public transport providers,
airlines, ports and railway owners. They collect data for business applications,
for example workforce management, fleet route planning and public transport
scheduling. Some of the data is used to provide information services to meet
customers’
needs,
e.g.
real-time
passenger
information.
Otherwise,
information is often considered to be company confidential.
2 Information providers, e.g. TrafficMaster and ITIS Holdings in the UK. They
generate data content and sell the information to customers such as individual
travellers, public agencies and fleet managers. The information normally
addresses specific market segments or personalised requirements.
Technologies
Both public and private data providers claim their respective data collection/
monitoring technologies are mature and sufficiently accurate for the specified
tasks. In most cases, several technologies are capable of providing these data,
with specific implications for accuracy, costs, scalability or multi-functionality.
Some techniques are well established in practice, some are more like pilot
applications, and many are expected to be improved in cost and quality. Rapid
advances in technologies and computing power have left a wide mixture of
monitoring
devices,
communication
lines
and
hardware
platforms
on
the
networks and in the monitoring centres.
Public agencies and local authorities have invested considerable funds in the
implementation of fixed, roadside monitoring equipment, mostly inductive loops.
Loops have been used successfully for many years and the increasing cost of
loop detectors, both the direct cost of installation and indirect cost of traffic
delay
during
installation
and
maintenance,
has
caused
a
shift
toward
alternatives. More recently, microwave overhead radar and infrared detectors
have become more common, although a wide range of other detectors such as
acoustic detectors are available .
In recent years, video technology has become increasingly popular because of
advances in technology which have improved performance and reduced costs.
Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) cameras are commonly used for visual incident
detection and traffic quality assessment by traffic control staff or using
automatic image processing software. Video image detection systems can use
imaging processing to collect, analyse vehicle length and classifications, speed,
lane occupancy, headways and volume. These data can be used for congestion
monitoring and automatic incident detection.
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Inductive loop detectors will remain the main source of road traffic information
for some time into the future. They are a proven technology which can provide
accurate information on a range traffic measures. However, installations requires
lane or road closure and in some situation, radar or ultrasonic detectors are
more appropriate and will continue to be used although their performance varies
more with environmental factors. Increasingly, the low cost of video technology
with improving video image detector systems, which can have the added value of
visual interpretation of a situation by control room staff, will become more
common.
Other sensor systems, particularly those measuring air quality by sampling at
roadside locations, are being used increasingly to provide information to address
local air quality issues. Other sources of data such as information from police,
motoring organisations, motorists themselves or others such as event organisers
will remain valuable. In particular, police reports and their forecasts of when
accidents will be cleared will remain critical to effective online control decisions
when an incident occurs on the road network.
The main growing source of road traffic information is that derived from vehicles,
whether externally using ANPR or from the movement profile of individual
vehicles, i.e. as probe vehicles. It is very likely that there will be a rapid increase
in the number of vehicles which are fitted with location and communication
devices. This will be driven by a mixture of navigation, emergency call, road user
charging, insurance, intelligent speed adaptation, and other related applications,
and sufficient probe vehicles will provide comprehensive understandings of
network conditions.
Schemes of road user charging according to distance travelled have been
proposed for years. Systems have been developed and used for heavy goods
vehicles in Switzerland and Germany. These are dependent on autonomous
vehicle location (normally obtained via GNSS), in-vehicle trip logging, and
communication with a service centre which calculates the fee and does the
billing. One technological shortcoming of such a charging scheme is the lack of
precision and robustness of satellite positioning in some circumstances, e.g.
some urban areas.
Galileo will shortly offer significant increase in performance and integrity over
GPS. This will increase confidence in the charging mechanism. Such charging
schemes with proper software and privacy protection policies will enable full
coverage of the road network with probe vehicles and cost-effective monitoring
of all vehicles on the road. Via the vehicle management systems, data may also
include information on factors such as rain, road surface, skidding resistance,
adherence to speed limits, and engine performance.
As probe vehicle information is generated by the individual vehicles, there are
issues of access, costs of collection and transmission, and reliability which need
to be addressed to ensure a future database for network management and
control. This will include issues of security and privacy which may encourage
network managers to continue to search for cheaper, more accurate non-vehicle
based information.
An area which is receiving more interest and research is that of data fusion,
where new software can be used to provide better understandings from a range
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99
of data sources than could be obtained from the data sources separately. Other
areas of recent research relate to grid systems of sensors which can be
intergraded to form a comprehensive picture of movement within the grid. This
may or may not include nanotechnologies. Many of the on-line control functions
such as UTC or ramp metering rely on algorithms based on point measurement.
These will need to be radically altered to benefit from the increasing richness of
information available.
Road traffic accidents remain a problem and it is likely that new vehicle
technologies of driver support and control will change accident patterns. This will
also provide new data to enable casualties and remedial measures to be better
identified. Vehicle-based collision warning and collision avoidance systems may
not
be
adequate
in
the
foreseeable
future.
For
freight
operations
the
development of radio frequency identification (RFID) systems for goods and
vehicles and the associated management processes are likely to become more
universal and provide significant benefits in efficiency.
3.9
Discussion and Analysis
Potential implementation strategies in the context of floating car data/ cellular
systems might include the following:
•
Agree on European rules for access to public data in affordable manner
•
Specify quality level recommendations aiming at optimal data quality
•
Explore, develop and demonstrate new and innovative business models
•
Support the key activities defined in EU ITS Action Plan and eSafety Forum
•
Carry out systematic evaluation and assessment studies
•
Maintain and develop benefit and cost databases of ITS applications
•
Utilise the code of practice approach to solve the liability issues
•
Always define solutions to privacy and security issues at the beginning
•
Mandate interoperable interfaces in Europe and globally to give room for
economic of scale
•
Make further analysis on user behaviour, interest, needs and requirements
•
Devote adequate and detailed efforts on user tests and stakeholder analysis
•
Devote sufficient efforts to user awareness and customer oriented thinking
when defining the service concept and business model
•
Introduce a recommendation on European Minimal Data Sets
•
Solve the problems of data integration and harmonisation to be able to use
effectively versatile and gross-border data
•
Speed up efforts to find new and innovative ways of data collection (V2I, I2I,
etc.)
•
Develop effective and innovative methods and models to be used in
information formulation
•
Open the European markets for effective business development by removing
the barriers of re-use and financing of data especially weather related data
•
Devote additional resources on innovative business model development
solving the problems of cooperation, financing, revenue sharing, user interest
and stakeholder cooperation
•
Enhance support to public sector commitment by making recommendations
on viable models of cooperation and procurement
Example for standardisation in the context of floating car data/ cellular systems:
100
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ISO TC204 Working Group 16 addresses ITS Communications. Sub-workinggroup 16.3 is developing a standard for Probe Data Communications. As probe
vehicle systems have to collect probe data from various vehicles of different
vehicle manufacturers, the standardization of probe data is essential. In order to
standardise probe data, in the situation stated above, TC204 sees it as necessary
to share a common framework for probe data definition. The purpose of this
project is to give the reference architecture for probe vehicle systems and probe
data, the basic data framework for defining probe data elements and probe data
messages, and concrete definition of core data elements, additional data
elements, and messages of probe data.
The project aims to standardise the following:
•
the reference architecture for probe vehicle systems and probe data
•
the basic data framework for defining probe data elements/ messages
•
the definition of core data elements
•
the definition of an initial set of additional data elements
•
the definition of an initial set of probe data messages
The work allows developers and operators of probe vehicle systems to specify
probe data, develop probe vehicle systems and collect probe data. Probe data
may be collected from various vehicles of different vehicle manufactures. The
standard
gives
the
common
framework
of
handling
probe
data
elements/messages and concrete definition of major probe data elements that
help collecting probe data.
The standard provides a common framework for defining probe data elements
and messages to facilitate description of the specification and the design of
probe vehicle systems. The standard provides concrete definition of major probe
data elements including core data elements. It is not intended to be an
exhaustive listing of probe data elements. This means each probe vehicle system
may require other probe data elements than core data elements and basic data
elements. Data elements defined in this standard do not contain information that
identifies the driver or vehicle.
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101
4
Design of Pilot experiments of new ITSbased data collection methods
This chapter outlines methods and results of the Pilot experiments exploiting ITS
data, to be further developed in the ETIS Work Package 4, in the light of the
results of the following ETISplus project tasks:
•
identified the ITS applications and their usability to solve current data
problems (developed in the chapter 1)
•
assessed barriers to the exploitation of ITS data for European transport
modelling purposes (developed in the chapter 2)
•
suggested possible solutions and strategies to fully exploit ITS data for
European modelling purposes (developed in the chapter 3)
Five Pilot studies have been planned at this purpose. These are covering the
following areas:
1
Gathering of origin to destination transport data by GPS
2
Tracking and tracing of goods transports by using fleet management systems
3
Data from electronic travel card
4
Data on transport behaviour based on existing surveys
5
Data
on
road
travel
movements
based
on
odometer
readings
at
roadworthiness tests
4.1
Pilot 1:
by GPS
Today
one
of
Gathering of origin to destination transport data
the
main
criticisms
of
tracking
experiments
is
their
comprehensiveness and quantitativeness and the fact that the experiments often
are unable to address the needs of the end users. It is therefore a task to
develop a generic way of ensuring that collected data can be utilized by
geographers, urban planners and social scientists in their work and studies. In
our case via integration into the ETIS database.
In cooperation with ITS platform Northern Jutland in Denmark, ETISplus Work
Package 4 will participate in an experiment where 500 GPS devices are installed
in cars of private households and/or in trucks of selected transport companies.
The data will be stored at a device in the car, which will be able to encompass
several applications, from which information’s can be sent to the driver of the
vehicle or retrieved for other purposes e.g. transport data analysis. One of the
applications will thus make it possible to store origin and destination data for the
vehicle at NUTS2, NUTS 3 or at lower levels like NUTS4 or NUTS 5, dependent on
the purpose of the following data analysis. The pilot study will as a new thing,
give data access to local transport data, which at present stage are missing in
the ETIS database.
The methods to collect data for the ETIS database and how these data
afterwards are transformed into a format with a spatial reference, so they can be
projected in TRANSTOOLS, is one of the key research questions of this pilot
study. Many interesting tracking experiments are now underway, and there is a
need for a way to ensure that such data are continuously incorporated in the
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103
ETIS database, whereby the database automatically are updated with the latest
transport data. Where possible the collected data should fill the data gaps of the
ETIS database, as identified in WP2. This study will look into and describe
possible ways of doing this update of the ETIS database, and at the same time
ensuring that the data is uploaded with a special reference. An illustration of how
the platform works is given in the Figure 22 below.
Figure 22
Structure of the ITS platform. Illustration based on (ITS Platform
Northern Jutland, 2010)
The purpose of the data collection is not to see specific individual behaviour on a
micro level, but rather to show traffic flows on an inter-regional or intermunicipal level where it would be possible, e.g. to obtain information on the
vehicle used, bottlenecks on the roads and simultaneously establish an overall
OD matrixes showing transport flows. A specific task is therefore to tailor-make
the application so the information is not misused.
The Danish Region - Northern Jutland along with several partners under the ITS
platform Northern Jutland will participate in the pilot project. NTU will also
coordinate with TNO on the experiences from the Netherlands.
4.2
Pilot 2: Tracking and tracing of goods transports by using
fleet management systems
In cooperation with partners of ITS platform Northern Jutland another pilot study
is planned to be undertaken under Work Package 4. In a similar way to the first
study, (see figure 1) this second study will store data on goods transport flows.
The main difference is that data will be stored through an extra application for a
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fleet management system. A user’s access to the modelling features can be
strictly controlled, ensuring that only some information’s are able to be managed
or modified.
As the freight transport companies using the fleet management system are very
cautious in handing out transport data, this pilot study will mainly focus on a
description
of
the
possibilities
for
retrieving
transport
data
useful
for
TRANSTOOLS when using this fleet management system. As in the pilot study
above, the purpose is not to follow transport behaviour of a specific vehicle, but
rather to give an overview of overall transport patterns, modes of transport, type
of goods, travel time, bottlenecks and more – all data which can be retrieved
from the fleet management system.
The Danish company Gatehouse along with one or two international oriented
transport companies will participate in the pilot project. An overview of the
generic track based system, on which the activities are planned to be based, is
shown on Figure 23.
Figure 23
Overall structure of the Track based system (ghTrack TM Platform,
2010)
The track model is equipped with a powerful integration mechanism (adapter),
which makes it possible to perform tracking of components, which are part of a
larger application context, thus ensuring maximum operability for the system. By
using this platform adaption to new tracking technologies and to changes in
business logic, can be easily incorporated in the already established platform.
Finally an introduction to other examples of fleet management systems from
other EU countries will be given under this pilot study number 2.
4.3
Pilot 3: Data from electronic travel card
As part of the reviewed TEN-T network policy, ITS services are planned to play a
more important role. Increased focus will be given to travel and traffic
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105
information; traffic management and efficiency-related measures; hereunder
applications interconnecting the different modes and ensuring connection to
public transport systems and related transport services are in focus.
Figure 24
Illustration of travel card equipment at a train station
Data from an electronic travel card
system can provide a very accurate
picture of traffic flows and travel
patterns. This will enable bus and
train companies to better address
peak periods or decreases in traffic
and will allow an insight into how bus
and
train
modal
shift
customers
makes
the
between
busses
and
trains on their journey from A to B
via C.
Contact has been established to the
Danish Travel Card Agency, which
will
assist
NTU
when
making
an
overview of how data collected from
electronic travel cards, possibly can
supplement and complement data in
the ETIS database. Furthermore the
travel card will allow the transport
planner to get an overview of needed
improvements for frequency of the
busses
and
trains,
improve
the
opportunity to better plan for modal shifts between two transport modes and
give insight into the need for accessibility improvements as well as a number of
other factors.
Experiences with data collection from electronic travel cards in other European
countries will be analyzed, among other the nationwide travel card system in the
Netherlands. When following peoples transport behavior the EU objectives in the
field of privacy and security of data, collected as part of the travel card
applications, need to be followed strictly.
4.4
Pilot 4: Data on transport behaviour based on existing
surveys
Many EU countries collect ongoing data about people's travel behavior through
so-called transport surveys. These studies are often based on traditional
interviews, but in some countries these supplemented with questionnaires on the
Internet, as respondent themselves fills in. The results of the studies are found
in databases, which in varying degrees are available to stakeholders with special
needs within the area. - In some cases just for transportation researchers. In
this pilot project we will examine how the data from the national transport
surveys can supplement existing data in ETISplus databases.
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First we will examine data shortcomings in ETISplus and how transport surveys
can be expected to overcome these. The examination will be based on interviews
with researchers at DTU / Transport who has worked with ETIS through
TRANSTOOLS and with data from the transport surveys.
Based on the national transportation surveys from 17 European countries, we will
undertake a comparative analysis with a focus on data demanded in ETISplus.
The analysis will focus on:
•
which body is responsible for data collection
•
collection procedures
•
who is included in the study
•
what data are collected
Other objectives are how the collected data can be accessed and the conditions
that are doing so. Results of inspections are documented in a series of tables
comparing transport habit data from different countries.
As a pilot, a number of national transport surveys are selected for further
analysis. The analysis will focus on
•
How data is structured in tables and databases
•
Whether the data are compatible across national borders
The results of the study will be partly to describe the common basic features
which are present in all transport studies and also make recommendations on
how a common standard of minimum requirement for this kind of analysis can
look like.
4.5
Pilot 5: Data on road travel movements based on odometer
readings at roadworthiness tests
Under EU Directive 96/96, periodical roadworthiness tests are mandatory in all
Member States. This has been in force since 1998 for personal cars. In some
countries an odometer reading is part of the test, and the readings are often
kept in a database for various statistical purposes. These are the key data for
the calculations of yearly average distance per vehicle and yearly amount of
traffic.
The total volume of traffic generated by national road vehicles can be calculated
from odometer readings taken at roadworthiness tests. The basic calculations are
very simple: the average distance travelled by the vehicles inspected is
determined and then multiplied by the number of road vehicles.
The main features of the calculations are as follows:
For each vehicle the kilometers driven in a specific period are calculated and this
figure is then converted into kilometers driven per day. If possible, the period
between two tests is used; otherwise the age of the vehicle is used. The average
kilometers per day for all vehicles in question are calculated, and this figure is
multiplied by the number of registered vehicles of the same type. This gives the
daily traffic volume (vehicle-kilometers per day) which is easily converted to
yearly traffic volume.
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107
Since official vehicle data are essential for the calculations it is possible to break
the data down by vehicle characteristics to a very detailed level (type of vehicle,
vintage, gross vehicle weight and type of fuel and use of vehicle). Furthermore,
if all vehicle-kilometers are included in the calculations, a high level of accuracy
can be anticipated. But results from odometer readings give no geographical
information. Hence, it is not possible to attribute the kilometers driven to specific
roads, regions or even countries.
There are two essential data sources for calculating the total vehicle-kilometers
from odometer readings:
•
regular odometer readings from roadworthiness tests
•
the number of vehicles in the fleet at a given time
Calculations can be based on odometer readings from the total vehicle fleet or
from a sample.
Data collected by this method can be used to calibrate/validate figures for
external effects concerning emissions level and energy consumption from road
transport.
Danish Road Directorate will participate in a pilot project concerning calculation
yearly average distance per vehicle and yearly amount of traffic based on
odometer readings.
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5
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Annex 1: Data collection technologies
Ludec (2008) describes the following technologies:
Pneumatic road tubes
Rubber tubes are placed across the road lanes to detect vehicles from pressure
changes that are produced when a vehicle tire passes over the tube. The pulse of
air that is created is recorded and processed by a counter located on the side of
the road. The main drawback of this technology is that it has limited lane
coverage and its efficiency is subject to weather, temperature and traffic
conditions. This system may also not be efficient in measuring low speed flows.
Piezoelectric sensors
The sensors are placed in a groove along roadway surface of the lane(s)
monitored. The principle is to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Indeed, mechanical deformation of the piezoelectric material modifies the
surface charge density of the material so that a potential difference appears
between the electrodes. The amplitude and frequency of the signal is directly
proportional to the degree of deformation. This system can be used to measure
weight and speed.
Magnetic loops
It is the most conventional technology used to collect traffic data. The loops are
embedded in roadways in a square formation that generates a magnetic field.
The information is then transmitted to a counting device placed on the side of
the road. This has a generally short life expectancy because it can be damaged
by heavy vehicles, but is not affected by bad weather conditions. This technology
has been widely deployed in Europe (and elsewhere) over the last decades.
However, the implementation and maintenance costs can be expensive.
Manual counts
It is the most traditional method. In this case trained observers gather traffic
data that cannot be efficiently obtained through automated counts e.g. vehicle
occupancy rate, pedestrians and vehicle classifications. The most common
equipments used are tally sheet, mechanical count boards and electronic count
board systems.
Passive and active infra-red
The presence, speed and type of vehicles are detected based on the infrared
energy
radiating
from
the
detection
area.
The
main
drawbacks
are
the
performance during bad weather, and limited lane coverage.
Passive magnetic
Magnetic sensors are fixed under or on top of the roadbed. They count the
number of vehicles, their type and speed. However, in operating conditions the
sensors have difficulty differentiating between closely spaced vehicles.
Microwave radar
This technology can detect moving vehicles and speed (Doppler radar). It records
count data, speed and simple vehicle classification and is not affected by weather
conditions.
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113
Ultrasonic and passive acoustic
these devices emit sound waves to detect vehicles by measuring the time for the
signal to return to the device. The ultrasonic sensors are placed over the lane
and can be affected by temperature or bad weather. The passive acoustic devices
are placed alongside the road and can collect vehicle counts, speed and
classification data. They can also be affected by bad weather conditions (e.g. low
temperatures, snow).
Video image detection
video cameras record vehicle numbers, type and speed by means of different
video techniques e.g. trip line and tracking. The system can be sensitive to
meteorological conditions.
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Annex
2: Assessment of barriers to the
exploitation of ITS data for European
air transport modelling purposes
Introduction
In the following we identify potential sources and point out barriers concerning
air transport.
For the aviation sector we already have a quite different situation to the surface
modes as nearly all aircraft movements are monitored by the air navigation
entities and the passenger movements by the airports. Due to the international
focus of air transport also procedures, formats and data interfaces are already
well defined and harmonised so that organisational and technical barriers do
mostly not exist.
In general air transport is intermodal and not limited to trips between airports
but trips between regions, e.g. door-to-door. Therefore all the data collection
procedures, techniques and methods which concern the travellers by surface
modes are of general applicability. But with respect of the air transport nature
the techniques should consider cross border applicability. To cover a door-todoor trip the travellers’ complete path must be monitored which could include a
whole set of mobile phone providers and just a national solution is not sufficient.
Demand passenger side
Demand data inclusive transfer information:
Usually the path information (from airport to airport via airports) of a traveller is
available at the airports during the check-in (using different tickets is an
exempt). In case luggage has to be transported this information is as well
available on the baggage tack. Finally a part of this information is exchanged
between the airports by the passenger transfer manifest (PTM), usually done by
SITA messages. All this information are documented electronically.
Although these information are collected locally, e.g. used for operation or the
book keeping, just the flight segment information are provided with often large
delay to Eurostat in aggregated figures. A reasonable IT solution would be the
centralised documentation at a server (redirect a copy of the SITA messages),
where up to date figure can be generated and extracted automatically. This way
of data collection would reduce costs and increase quality and actuality.
Travel behaviour:
To investigate the travellers behaviour access to surveys are a necessity. Civil
aviation authorities, airports and airlines spend already a significant amount of
money in the execution of passenger surveys. In addition the (bigger) airports
more and more apply automatic plaid identification systems at their parking lots
allowing to get information about their catchment area. At least the surveys
partially financed by tax payers’ money, so called companies with public
ownership, should make the raw data publicly accessible for modelling purposes
and for other investigations like trip purpose and other traveller characteristics.
A catalogue of available executed surveys should be made available by the
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115
European Commission. Obviously passenger surveys can hardly be based on an
automatic ITS application.
Travel costs:
Due to the liberalisation and deregulation in the aviation sector and the
increasing use of new technologies like internet sales, integrators etc. the
information about fares diminished nearly completely. A first step to overcome
the information gap was the introduction of the air transport cost index
according to regulation 1158/2005. But the collection of data is not validated on
European scale thus the EC could follow the example in the US where of every
flight a 10% sample of travellers’ tickets is withdrawn for investigation purposes.
As the ticket and traveller data are already stored electronically these samples
qualify perfectly for an ITS application. Just the transfer format has to be agreed
on for the anonymous data, whereby the latter is the only legal obstacle which
could be identified.
Data privacy:
Unfortunately the fragmented data privacy regulations prevent a common
treatment of the data and the EC regulation 437/2003 does not incorporate this
procedure. The data privacy protects not the individual traveller but the airlines’
and airports’ business. Data transparency would increase the competitiveness.
Demand air cargo side
Similar than in passenger transport on the cargo side tons transported on flight
segments are reported. But the major differences are:
•
The true origin and destination of the cargo transported is neither known by
airports nor by airlines. Only the custom and the shipping company have
insight in the details.
•
The same holds for the more details about the shipment. Here the shippers’
documents state as well value, weight and cubic volume.
•
To investigate the routing the shipment takes the information is with the
shipping company. The availability of this information is already given in
electronic format to the customer as one can trace the way.
•
An
unobserved
issue
concerns
the
trucking
of
‘air’
cargo.
Here
the
information is only with the shipping company.
Given the data availability to the custom an IT solution could derive aggregated
true OD and path information including commodity, value, weight and cubic
volume. The path information is just available in fragmented manner and not
applicable for an ITS.
Concerning air cargo the cost issue is as well a very sensitive one where a 10%
sample stating costs, commodity, value, weight and cubic volume for an OD
would be very beneficial allowing insights one can not achieve by the existing
statistics and cost index.
In respect to the operational side of air cargo transport where pure air cargo
flights are minor the majority of cargo transported is belly transport.
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Supply passenger and air cargo side
The supply side can be monitored by the schedule information. Scheduled flights
can be extracted from commercial data sources like OAG, HAFAS. DG MOVE owns
a
database
called
ICARE
which
contains
all
air
schedules
since
1989.
Unfortunately these databases do not cover all flights, e.g. charter flights. But
there is a single data source where all flights are monitored electronically. The
air navigation service, EUROCONTROL, stores all necessary flight information in
Europe. The information can be bounced and with intelligent systems the
necessary schedule information for modelling purposes can be extracted such as
time, aircraft, airline, flight number. In addition this information would allow
investigating delays, actual versus planned departure / arrival time. Furthermore
the emissions can be calculated exactly following the physical flight paths. To
access these data one can quote the ‘Memorandum concerning a framework for
cooperation between the EUROCONTROL and the EC; 22.09.2003’. A successful
test bed was already executed, leaving apart the physical flight path information,
in the EC project APRON. The legal barrier stated by EUROCONTROL concerning
the data ownership, which is with the airlines, can easily be adjusted by a
change of the air navigation regulation. The airlines contacted during the APRON
project had no obstacles that their data can be used as anyhow they disseminate
this information for advertising purposes.
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117
Annex
3:
Electronic
reporting
in
inland
waterways transport and potential
use for data collection
Context and objectives
The present report is executed in the scope of the work package 2 of the ETIS+
study. The purpose of Work package 2 is to investigate on data collection
methods that make use of Information Technology Systems (ITS). This case
study will focus on the collection of freight data for inland navigation.
In the framework of the RIS directive 2005/44/EC of the European Community
which covers the IRIS1 projects, a lot of countries are implementing and testing
the electronic reporting infrastructure and processes.
The River Information Services (RIS) concept aims at the implementation of
information services in order to support the planning and management of traffic
and transport operations on inland waterways network.
As European community website explains: The Directive aims at a Europe-wide
framework for the implementation of the RIS concept in order to ensure
compatibility and interoperability between current and new RIS systems at
European level and to achieve effective interaction between different information
services on waterways.
The Directive applies to all waterways of class IV or higher across the European
Union. The River Information Services comprises services such as:
•
traffic information services: these consist of tactical traffic information
(display of the vessel characteristics and movements on a limited part of the
waterway) and strategic traffic information (display of vessels and their
characteristics over a larger geographical area, including forecasts and
analyses of future traffic situations);
•
information for transport management: this information includes estimated
times of arrival (ETAs) provided by boat masters and fleet managers based
on fairway information making it possible to plan resources for port and
terminal processes. The information on cargo and fleet management basically
comprises two types of information: information on the vessels and the fleet
and detailed information on the cargo transported;
•
statistics and customs services: the RIS will improve and facilitate the
collection of inland waterway statistical data in the Member States.
A leaflet (2008) edited by the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine
(CCNR) summarizes the status, standards and procedures that have been
1
IRIS Europe 1 is a TEN-T co-financed project for the improvement and pilot implementation of
River Information Services (RIS) in 8 countries (AT, BE, BG, FR, HU, NL, RO, SK). IRIS Europe II
continues – from January 2009 until December 2011 – the expansion and enhancement of RIS
within an extended geographical and functional scope. IRIS Europe II will contribute to establish
safe, secure and efficient transport on the European waterway network bringing advantages to
governmental users as well as users in the logistics sector
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119
implemented and the status for every country involved in the inland navigation
transport.
The RIS Directive includes four major topics that European state members have
to implement for waterways:
•
Electronic reporting which implies the dematerialization of manual paper
procedure for freight transportation;
•
ECDIS1 cards, to help for navigation;
•
•
Geo-localization of ships with AIS technology ;
Information system/procedure to communicate to the ships on navigation
problems, navigation status.
In this case study, we will investigate on the implementation of the electronic
reporting that has been implemented by European State members in the scope of
the RIS directive.
The objectives of the electronic reporting case study are multiple: we will
describe the electronic reporting that has been put in place by several state
members, we will analyze the quality of the information and finally we will
evaluate the feasibility to access and centralize the freight data collected.
Furthermore the objective is to identify whether traffic information that could be
centralized through electronic reporting within databases could be used to feed
the Transtools 2 model.
Reporting procedure
Objective of electronic reporting
The electronic reporting is an ITS process. It includes three main objectives: it
enables the inland navigation authority to manage more efficiently the toll the
transporters have to be charged with; it allows all the actors of inland navigation
to know in real time where a certain convoy is located; it provides European,
national and local authorities with statistics on freight traffic. The CCNR
explained the electronic reporting goals as:
•
to facilitate electronic data interchange (EDI) between partners in inland
navigation as well as partners in the multi-modal transport chain involving
inland navigation,
•
to avoid the reporting of the same information related to a certain ship
several times to different authorities and/or commercial parties,
•
to provide rules and standards for the interchange of electronic messages
between partners in the field of inland navigation. Public authorities and
other parties concerned (ship owners, shippers, terminals, ports) shall
exchange data in conformity with these standards and rules.
The electronic procedures were implemented in every European state having
waterways network, either by regional governments (Belgium) or by national
governments (France, Netherlands …).
1
Electronic Charts Display Information System is a system that is able to display electronic chart
information with automatic position updates that has built in redundancy. ECDIS is a complex
system for shiphandling assisting the mariner in all aspects of navigation.
2
Transtools is a network model developed by cooperation projects initiated by European
Commission, the Institute for Prospective Technological Studies (IPTS) and DG TREN
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Electronic procedure
The transport notification message is used to inform the competent authorities of
the intention to make a particular trip with a specific given ship. The transport
notification can either originate from the skipper of the ship or from the shipper
of the cargo on behalf of the skipper. Transport notifications shall be sent before
the start of a voyage respectively before entering the jurisdictional area of a
competent authority and subsequently after every significant change of the
shipping data, e.g. number of crew on board or number of barges in the convoy.
The electronic reporting procedure to notify freight transportation in the
waterways managed by public authorities is processed either with a dedicated
application 1 or via internet2. Reporting includes information on:
•
Freight weight
•
Freight type/classification (i.e. nature of the goods)
•
Freight hazard
•
•
Freight origin
Freight destination
•
Freight transit
Transport notification message exchanges shall be sent asynchronous but within
short time.
Every authority shall accept messages delivered as secure E-mail (electronic
mail) in accordance to the message specification preferably as attachment to the
E-mail but where required the structured message can also be directly in the text
of the message. The mailbox itself shall be reachable directly by public telephone
(PSTN) and indirectly through the Internet.
E R I NO T 3 s t a n d a r d s pe c i fi c a t i o n
The
standard
for
electronic
reporting
in
Inland
Navigation
is
based
on
internationally accepted trade and transport standards and recommendations. It
complements these for inland navigation. The standard reflects the experiences
that have been gained in European research and development projects and in the
applications of reporting systems in different countries.
The purpose of this Standard for Electronic Reporting in Inland Navigation is to
facilitate electronic data interchange (EDI) between partners in inland navigation
as well as partners in multi-modal transport with involvement of inland
navigation.
The standard describes the messages, data items, codes and references to be
used in electronic reporting for the different services and functions of River
Information Services (RIS).
In
2010,
ERINOT
message
specification
has
been
validated
by
all
regional/national inland navigation authorities. Standards specification policy has
been published in all European state members.
1
2
3
IT Application like « BICS » in Holland
Internet website :like ERINET in Holland, Belgium, France, …
Electronic reporting international notification
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121
Message format ERINOT includes all relevant freight information for electronic
reporting:
•
Freight weight
•
Freight type/classification
•
Freight hazard
•
Freight origin
•
Freight destination
•
Freight transit
As Erinot message standards enable all traffic data to be consistent and
harmonized, we can remark that it is relevant to feed the Transtools model with
data collected with electronic reporting.
We will check in this case study if information is accessible and aggregated in the
same way as input data needed for the Transtools model.
Implementation examples
France
Contact person: Jean-Rémi Garenaux
Mail: [email protected]
Tel: +33 3 21 63 29 63
Reporting procedure
Voies Navigables de France1 (VNF) is in charge of the the management of the
French inland waterways. At the present time, the procedure to notify every
inland navigation transport requires paper processes.
To exploit French waterways, skippers have to transmit a transport notification
at the first lock that they come across. This notification includes all transport
information on the freight itinerary. They process the same way at every lock
they
come
across.
Once
skippers
give
the
lock
manager
the
transport
notification, the lock manager sends it by mail post to the VNF administration
centre in order to capture the notification electronically. This process includes a
major inconvenient: the delay between paper notification and the electronic
input in the central database leads to a non accurate and delayed ship tracking.
The
electronic
procedure
implemented
in
France
matches
the
procedure
explained in point 2.2. Skippers have to declare their freight by electronic report
both via internet and via IT application. Erinot message is sent trough internet or
IT application to the VNF freight database 2 platform. Every time skippers come
across a lock, the lock manager check the boat information on the VNF “Cahier
de l’éclusier” application3 which is connected to the freight database platform. As
soon as the information is validated, the lock manager updates on the IT
application the time of passage of the specific ship. Electronic reporting enables
waterways actors to know the position of the ship and institutional actors to
gather traffic information. In France, it is already forecast that this simple
electronic procedure will more and more replace the fastidious paper procedure.
1
2
3
VNF: Manager of the French waterways networks
Building of the central platform has been tendered
« Cahier de l’éclusier » refers to the book of the lockkeeper
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Implementation of the first scope of electronic procedure is planned for end of
2010.
Implementation scope
The first perimeter of implementation targeted by VNF concerns the ports of Le
Havre, of Rouen, of Dunkirk, and the Wallonia region in Belgium. The principle is
that an electronic reporting is mandatory if one origin or destination of an inland
navigation transport is located in one of these areas. The transporters, CEMEX
(aggregates) and CFT (containers), are also involved in the first phase of the
implementation. Ships were equipped in order to process the new electronic
reporting.
The second perimeter of implementation will try to emphasize on every crossborders areas and on other main actors of inland freight transport: Germany
(Moselle), the CNR transporter (Compagnie de Navigation Rhénane), the PAP
(Port Autonome de Paris) and the Flemish region in Belgium.
In order to manage all transnational traffics, the IT platform of VNF must have
the capacity to be linked with the IT platform of other countries. This is one of
the tasks to be achieved for the second perimeter implementation.
Since the Netherlands use a similar system for their reporting electronic as well,
there will be in a long term prospect a standardized process including France,
Belgium, the Netherlands and Germany.
IT systems
The “Cahier de l’éclusier” is an information processing system developed by VNF.
It is used by the lockkeepers directly to manage the follow up of the boats
passing through the locks and indirectly to define the toll charges and to
maintain a statistical database of the traffics.
The transporters can declare each one of their transport in a Web application
(ERI).
An invitation to tender was launched at the end of 2009 for the building of the
French data warehouse. It will centralize all information related to the river
freight transport.
Statistics
Only loaded vessels have to record/report their freight. Statistics refer to the
freight data but not to the movement reference.
Gross statistics are based on the Erinot standard specifications.
Data access
A
convention
was
established
and
signed
concerning
the
exchange
data
maintained within the central data warehouse. It explains what are the data that
will be collected, how they will be used and for which purposes. It was the
subject of a declaration at the CNIL1.
1
National commission on information and liberty
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123
In the document, it is specified that the data transmission can be carried out to
improve the traffic but that it is a service provided by VNF which would be
consequently invoiced.
B e l g i u m – W a l l o o n Re g i o n
Contact person : Pascal Moens
Mail : [email protected]
Tel : +32 4 220 87 50
Data and access contact person : Gianni Ferrara
Tel : +32 81 77 30 20
SPF économie: Steven Debaere
Tel : +32 2 277 95 88
Reporting procedure
In Belgium, the reporting is slightly different from France. Skippers do not have
to do a paper nor an electronic report to announce their convoy. The usual
procedure consists in a declaration by Mariphone or by oral declaration at the
lock offices. The lock manager captures the freight declaration directly in the
electronic system called “GINA”. Gina is the central database. It is now the third
version of the database. Erinot standard specifications are used for this data
reporting.
The
information
is
stored
in
a
data
warehouse
in
a
central
administrative office. The ship freight information windows that are configured in
the Gina application are represented here after.
Format of the freight declaration message is also formatted following the Erinot
standard. Information has the same specification as in France. Data information
should be identical.
Contrary to France, the electronic reporting procedure is not done in order to
collect navigation charges because transport navigation is exonerated of charges.
In fact, transport reporting is done for other goals: it is done in order to be
compliant
with
the
RIS
policies
especially
for
communication
between
countries/region for cross border traffics, it is done for statistical purposes, and
it is also done for navigation rights recording.
Reporting is leading more and more towards a full electronic process. A new
procedure is in development. It will consist in a pre-declaration of the freight
transport by the skippers or the freight manager. Pre-declaration can be made
through Html format. Consequently, reporting won’t be uniquely authority to
authority oriented, but also transporter to authority.
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Gina application windows
Information on freight is keyed in this window of Gina application.
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125
Information on the origin, destination and itinerary of the transport is keyed in
this window.
Statistics
All traffics are captured in the database: inbound traffics and cross border
traffics.
Quality of information stored in the data warehouse is very good but some
operational error in data key in process can occur. Since Erinot specifications
have been implemented the errors have decreased. Gross data are stored in the
data warehouse. Data are not aggregated at that stage.
Belgium as all other European state members has to report on inland traffics to
Eurostat. It is the SPF Economie1 that is in charge of the communication process
in Belgium. Wallonia inland waterways authorities provide all gross data with the
Erinot format to SPF Economie.
Subsequently, SPF Economie aggregates the
data in order to be compliant with the standards required by Eurostat. The
Eurostat standards is described in the annexes. Their goal is to ensure privacy
1
Federal Department for Economy
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for all private firms because the traffics can give a very good picture of their
activity and profitability.
However, in our contacts with SPF Economie, they have explained that gross
data could be sent to public authorities if data on firm names and addresses are
erased from the statistics.
Statistics are also published on the Wallonia inland waterways website:
http://voieshydrauliques.wallonie.be/opencms/opencms/fr/nav/navstat/index.html
Data access
Data are sent to INS or to other inland navigation authorities by secured mail
messages besides for France. Messages in between Wallonia region and INS,
Police department, Flemish region (Wenz and Scheepvaart authorities) or
Nederland (Rijkswaterstaat) are done through Xml messages. France authorities
are not as easily attainable because they have developed a web service which is
more difficult to be linked with.
Centralization
European centralization is not planned at the present time. A European work
group is working on the accessibility of traffic information. In fact there is a lot
of constraints concerning private life protection
Netherlands
Contact person : Jos van Splunder
Tel : +31 10 402 68 21
Reporting procedure
The ERI standard and the BICS software have generally been implemented by
parts of the Dutch inland river fleet. The reporting software and the possibilities
for commercial links are commonly used and both are fulfilling a real need of
both the involved authorities and the commercial users. Through a project called
“Paperless Sailing” between Antwerp and Rotterdam the possibilities of electronic
reporting have been further extended.
IVS90 is the Dutch IT application process for navigation reporting on the main
waterways
of
Rijkswaterstaat.
the
The
Nederlands.
IT
It
application
is
developed
system
can
and
maintained
receive
travel
by
and
the
cargo
information from BICS and Erinet.
Data access
Through the privacy rules of the traffic registration system IVS90, all data
provided by the ships are duly protected against any unauthorized usage,
sharing or publication. Any operational data provided will only be kept for the
limited period of 7 days.
Scope of Electronic reporting implementation
The electronic reporting procedure is implemented in a transnational scope. In
cross-border transport, the reporting information shall be transmitted to the
competent authorities of the neighboring jurisdictional area and any such
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127
transmission shall be completed before arrival of the vessels at the border:
Directive 2005/44/EC article 4.3 c1. The competent authorities shall be able, as
far as ship reporting is required by national or international regulations, to
receive electronic ship reports of the required data from ships.
Besides France, Wallonia and Nederland implementation phases that have been
presented here above, many other European state members are also in an ongoing execution process.
Here is an overview of the 2008 implementation status for several countries
described in the leaflet on electronic reporting edited by CCNR.
Austria
Reporting to the competent authority for traffic management is obligatory for the
transport of dangerous goods according to the Austrian inland navigation act
following the ADN agreement 2 of the UN ECE. Other reporting duties comprise
cargo and trip reports to the Austrian statistics office for vessels in transit.
Reports can be provided in written form, by FAX or by e-mail following standard
forms.
Electronic reporting in Inland Navigation according to the Directive 2005/44/EC
of the European Parliament and of the Council of 7 September 2005 on
harmonized
river
information
services
(RIS)
on
inland
waterways
in
the
Community is under implementation and testing. A fully operational electronic
reporting infrastructure as part
of
the
Austrian
DoRIS3 and standardized
electronic reports (e.g. provided by BICS) are in implementation.
Belgium – Flemish Region
Electronic reporting is fully operational between Flemish Waterway Authorities.
Authority-to-authority
reporting
around
the
Scheldt
estuary
is
also
fully
operational including Antwerp and Ghent sea ports and the Netherlands.
Exchange between Flemish systems and GINA (i.e. the Walloon Region system)
is also partly operational. Exchange with the French system is still in pilot phase
due to communications problems (as for Wallonia).
System will include mailbox for direct ship-to-authority reporting identification.
Croatia
Electronic
reporting
system
in
accordance
with
standard
is
also
in
implementation. Users will access ERI system through web application. Support
for BICS application will be added afterwards.
Germany
Since the mid-1990’s in Germany the “Reporting and Information System Inland
Navigation” (MIB) has been used on the Rhine river. With MIB transport data of
1
2
3
Leaflet on electronic reporting (CCNR)
European Agreement concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Inland
Waterways
Working together with Austria’s Supreme Shipping Authority, via donau came up with a
concept, realized by an Austrian system supplier. via donau has been coordinating the
implementation of DoRIS and acting as the RIS operator in Austria since the operational start of
the system in the 1st quarter of 2006. All of DoRIS’ key system components and services are
based on the standards of the European Union, the UN/ECE and the two river commissions, the
Danube Commission and the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine. This makes
DoRIS the world’s first comprehensive RIS installation compliant with European initiatives.
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vessels, required according to § 12.01 Rhine Police Regulation to notify the
authorities, are collected in order to pass them on in the case of an accident to
the rescue services and the institutions responsible for calamity abatement.
Vessels are able to provide their messages either via radio, fax, telephone or
electronic messaging. For electronic messaging the BICS software, provided by
the Netherlands free of charge, can be used.
A new MIB version has been installed to support all mandatory data fields of the
standard ERINOT 1.2.
Hungary
Hungary is also taking part in the “IRIS Europe” project that includes the
definition, elaboration and testing of electronic reporting infrastructure and
processes according to the Directive 2005/44/EC on RIS. This infrastructure is
under development and testing.
Romania
A RIS system on the Romanian Danube stretch called RoRIS, fully in line with the
RIS Directive and standards, is operational. Vessels sailing into or out of
Romanian ports have to report and get permission from a Captaincy of the
Romanian Naval Authority. These reports, currently on paper, are used to create
electronic voyages in the RoRIS system. The system also allows for receiving
electronic reports from BICS software, which are automatically converted in
electronic voyages.
Slovakia
The electronic reporting infrastructure is developed in the frame of the pilot RIS
implementation project called IRIS Europe as a part of the complex system for
the RIS data exchange. Within the year 2008 the tests are executed, including
the interconnection tests with other national / regional electronic reporting
installations.
The implemented system complies with the agreed technical concept for the
international RIS data exchange, and the electronic reporting infrastructure itself
makes use of standardized ERI messages and standardized reference tables.
The data exchange infrastructure consists of following main modules: web based
input form for entering electronic reports (in the first stage for the standardized
ERINOT message), module for processing standardized messages from the
electronic reporting software BICS with the mail server functionality and the
gateway for data exchange with other RIS centres and users.
Switzerland
Switzerland is connected to the German MIB system and co-operates closely with
competent German authorities regarding the adaptation of MIB to the ERI
standard. A new MIB version has been installed to support all mandatory data
fields of the standard ERINOT 1.2. The Swiss authorities can receive ERI
messages and pass them on to the other involved authorities.
Czech Republic
At present in the context of the application of electronic reporting the current
standard is not used. It is planned to introduce the current standard in the
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129
context of the next project for RIS implementation. This should be completely at
the end of 2011. The RIS index for the Czech Republic is available at present by
downloading from www.lavdis.cz.
Barriers and facilitators
Barriers
Data Aggregation
Reporting on inland waterways traffic already exists to a certain extent. All
European state members have to report on fluvial traffics following European
regulation 1 published on Official Journal of the European Union. Though these
statistics are aggregated to some extent and, as a consequence, disable to
produce analysis that requests detailed information.
The aggregation purpose is to ensure privacy of companies because the traffics
can give a very good picture of their activity and profitability.
Data access
The public authorities take measures to ensure the confidentiality, integrity and
security of information sent to them. They can use such information only for the
purposes of the intended services, for example calamity abatement, border
control, customs.
Access to all data reported electronically by European waterways authorities is
restricted. National and regional authorities either keep it confidential in
commercial purposes or share/sell it.
Following Belgian National Institute of Statistics, it seems that the gross data
could be sent to public authorities such as Eurostat, if the information on firm
names and addresses are erased from the statistics. In this case, if the lower
level of detail can be accessible, it would be possible to collect it and make it
available for the Transtools model. There are two ways to collect gross data: via
a new procedure with the specific objective to feed the Transtools model or via
the existing procedure (Eurostat regulation). The second process would have
several advantages: data collection already exists, authority and contacts and
operational processes are already in place.
If a further analysis that would evaluate the possibility for European study to
access to the whole non-aggregated information is implemented, it should
anyway assess the privacy policy which acts as a barrier on the traffic data
exploitation.
Eurostat explains that a European regulation2 permits researchers to have access
not only to macro-data but also to micro-data. Unfortunately micro-data are not
1
2
COMMISSION REGULATION (EC) No 425/2007 of 19 April 2007 implementing Regulation (EC)
No 1365/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council on statistics of goods transport by
inland
COMMISSION REGULATION (EC) No 831/2002 of 17 May 2002 implementing Council Regulation
(EC) No 322/97 on Community Statistics, concerning access to confidential data for scientific
purposes
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available
for
inland
waterways
traffics
because
they
are
aggregated
in
regional/national authorities before being sent to Eurostat.
Facilitators
Eurostat contact: Yves Mahieu
Tel : +352 4301 33098
Standardization
Standardization of data format compilation is one of the most important steps of
the European reporting process that has been implemented for inland waterways.
Its goal is to have a comparable and sharable data for all European state
members.
Some IT applications that are implemented in European states are linkable.
Moreover, some of them as BICS or ERINET-like systems can be used in several
countries.
Centralization
At the present time, since a momentum has taken place in standardization and
uniformization of inland waterways traffic reporting, a real opportunity can be
identified to centralize traffic information in one single European database.
Furthermore, this database could feed the Transtools model.
For
instance,
some
studies/pilot
could
perform
a
more
detailed
analysis
concerning the implementation of European RIS reporting centralization and in
this way, could analyze in a deeper approach whether a central database with
detailed information on inland waterways is achievable.
Following the Eurostat input, two main actions have to be taken in order to
implement centralized detailed database that would be accessible for European
researchers.
•
The first action is the modification of the European regulation: “COMMISSION
REGULATION (EC) No 425/2007 of 19 April 2007 implementing Regulation
(EC) No 1365/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council on
statistics of goods transport by inland” in order for Eurostat to collect non
aggregated data (micro-data). This action would consist in 3 specific steps:
Bring all European state members to an agreement to collect more detailed
data; Propose the change in the regulation to the commission; and Propose
to the European council the change in the regulation. According to Eurostat
department, it should take 1 year for the first step and 3 years for the
second and third steps.
•
The
second
action
is
the
modification
of
the
European
regulation:
“COMMISSION REGULATION (EC) No 831/2002 of 17 May 2002 implementing
Council Regulation (EC) No 322/97 on Community Statistics, concerning
access to confidential data for scientific purposes”. This action would consist
firstly in modifying the regulation 831/2002 in order to take into account the
first action (modification of regulation 425/2007) and secondly in formerly
identifying the Transtools researchers that will have access to these data.
An experience sharing with the RIS European project manager and the Eurostat
waterways manager could be forecasted in this manner.
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131
Institutional environment
Institutional environment represented by European directives and regulations,
shows a real move towards access to traffic data, in particular:
•
COMMISSION REGULATION (EC) No 831/2002 of 17 May 2002 implementing
Council Regulation (EC) No 322/97 on Community Statistics, concerning
access to confidential data for scientific purposes,
•
COMMISSION REGULATION (EC) No 425/2007 of 19 April 2007 implementing
Regulation (EC) No 1365/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council
on statistics of goods transport by inland,
•
RIS directive 2005/44/EC of the European Community.
It acts as a facilitator for the traffic data collection.
However, the modification of the regulation concerning a more detailed data
collection is a very long procedure. In this case it will also act as a barrier.
Conclusions
The electronic reporting could be a real opportunity to feed the Transtools model
with
European
inland waterways data.
A
lot
of
progresses,
implemented
processes and advantages go in that direction:
•
Information is standardized,
•
Procedure has been implemented or will be implemented in short term period
in all European state members that have waterways networks,
•
Macro-data is already reported to Eurostat and micro-data could be reported
as well if the European regulation is adapted,
•
Another European regulation enables some researchers to have access to
Eurostat micro-data. This regulation should be adapted to take include the
inland waterways micro-data and to include the name of the researchers
involved in Transtools.
If barriers such are micro-data reporting and data access, are removed, this case
study could be further analysed in Work package 5, Work package 7 and Work
package 8. Indeed, the quality and the level of detail of data appear sufficient to
be studied in the scope of the model database design and construction. In WP5,
WP7 and WP8, we could look further in the compatibility of data between Erinot
standards and Transtools standards, and analyse concretely how to proceed to
build the database.
The main barrier that remains and that is foreseen is the delay that represents
the modification of the two European regulations.
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Annex 4: Rail freight modelling
The general context
New technologies open new perspectives in the domain of freight modelling and
in particular rail freight modelling.
However, in the same time, former information collected concerning rail freight
traffic from national company are not available anymore because of commercial
confidentiality.
This means that the context of rail network opening to new entrants influences
also the possibility to collect information. For example, station to station traffic,
is not anymore available in many European countries because of commercial
confidentiality and the collection of data relative to activity of new entrants are
definitively difficult to achieve in good condition with more rapid changes
intervene in the market situation.
This means that the next context of availability of information:
•
With on one side the new opportunities to collect new types of information
concerning in particular circulation of trains due to implementation of new
technologies (and in particular geo localization),
•
And on the other side, the disparities of former information relative to O/D
flows, point to point.
Necessitate evolution in modelling tools for rail freight.
From this point of view, the opening of the rail market, with increasing
commercial confidentiality isn’t necessarily a “negative” evolution since new
competition
framework
also
means
new
regulations
which
guarantees
transparency for adequate supply and demand.
One of the best examples for this last point is the availability of slots which must
be published by infrastructure manager in Rail Net Europe database; this
database, constituted through informatics exchanges between infrastructure
managers, becomes on the best sources to estimate available capacity of rail
links.
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133
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In the domain of rail freight (as well as in rail passenger) the question of
capacity cannot be indeed treated in the same way than for road with flow /
speed curves.
134
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For road transport the speed reduces when the level of traffic approaches the
maximum capacity of the link.
For rail, this is not the same: the speed has no reason to decrease as long as
slots are available.
Other examples of this type can be given of access to new types of information
to estimate rail speed using database of slots or database from monitoring the
rail traffic used by rail managers companies.
These rail manager companies are new type of stakeholders increasing their role
with the opening of the rail market in Europe based the “separation” principle
between rail operators and infrastructures managers.
For modelling, this introduces definitively a new intermediate step with a new
market, the market of “slots” between infrastructure managers and rail operators
in addition to the “service market” between rail operators and final users.
This new market produces new types of information for definition and simulation
of a global freight model.
At the level of services, provides the context is also changing with new demand
requirements relative to tracking and tracing freight along the routes, and
diversification of type of rail services in relation to development of intermodal
services.
The rail service cannot be considered anymore as a unique service, different
operating systems provide different types of services.
There are direct trains, wagon load trains, combined transport trains and rolling
road (or rolling motorways): performances of the services can only be assessed
as regards specific requirement of the demand relative to, speed, cost, terminal
organization of transport, size of the shipment which differ from a market
segment to on other (THINK-UP, FP4 and IQ, FP4). An “average” rail service with
average “cost”, “speed” cannot reflect properly adequation between supply and
demand and consequently conditions of competition between modes.
Concretely, this will imply that new database of rail services must be introduced
in the description of rail supply, point to point:
•
in order to have a more relevant description of services available; this is
usually done by rail operators in services database open to public,
•
in order to assess competition between rail and road and to simulate the
contribution of different modes in door to door transport (co-modality) chain.
To conclude this first paragraph, it is important to stress that application of new
technologies concentrated:
•
on access to new information relative to rail supply, from definition of slots
along a route, to the type of rail operation,
•
on more precise description of train circulation on the network.
Will also imply adaptation in the modelling approaches and that the consistency
with the next context, new type of information available and modelling is really
at the centre of the problematic of task 2.2.
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135
The next paragraph will detail the main lines of this adaptation.
The global GIS framework
The GIS framework is a tool which has also made big progresses in the recent
years using new technologies for collecting information about circulation, choice
of route and land use.
At a first level, the network description is nowadays more and more frequently
implemented in GIS framework, which allows improving the interface between
transport and environmental impact.
For a modelling transport point of view this means that “zone to zone” traffic
estimation can be distributed between points of a zone, these points are in
particular transshipment terminal, logistic zones and ports. Because of the
increasing
importance
of
terminal
transport
in
the
door
to
door
chain
performances, all these important nodes of the network cannot be concentrated
anymore at the “barycenter” of the zone.
In doing so two major advantages appear in the transport modelling process:
•
The possibility to provide as output information about local impact of
transport on environment,
•
But also the opportunity to match network description with GPS information
relative to the use of the rail network,
•
And also to include in the transport system description, “point to point” rail
services competing with road.
In the transport system analysis, to which modelling process must be consistent
with, different stages or “layers” must be distinguished.
(a) The infrastructure layers made of links and nodes.
This infrastructure layer is “intermodal” and geocoded. Attributes of links and
nodes are :
•
the physical descriptions (number of tracks, gauge, slopes) and eventually
context (population living nearby, sensitive areas),
•
the speed of trains which can be obtained from observed speed (THOR
database in France), or with estimated speed (though time schedule for
freight in Germany, or RNE database at European level),
•
with distinction, for speed, between type of trains which corresponds to
different services offered.
(b)
The operating layer which refer indeed to the type of trains
operations
For combined transport the operating layer must include terminal transport
description from point of origin or destination to transshipment terminal; same
type of information is considered for maritime transport of container from or to
ports.
For wagon load transport, it’s necessary to describe the “transport plan” with:
•
identification of route through marshalling yards,
•
information upon frequency of services between marshalling yard,
•
description of zones for consolidation and distribution of wagons.
For direct trains, an assumption must be made upon the existence of private
sidings at origin or destination.
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At this stage, it is important to go back to precise identification of entry and exit
points in the network, road and rail network.
The traffic of a given zone will be distributed within this zone, across such entry
and exit points.
Several options are available using:
•
either direct geocoded database of entry points for rail networks (private
sidings, freight stations, terminals),
•
or
information
relative
to
industrial
and
commercial
zones
which
are
privileged points of generation of traffic (emission and reception for freight).
•
In this case, the CORRINE LAND USE database might be very useful which
details many types of zones, including commercial and industrial zones.
•
In France, there is a geocoded database called SITADEL which traces back
information relative to stocking areas over more than 15 years, including size
and year of construction. This information can be very useful to locate points
of emission or reception for freight,
•
and finally, just main location of populations using database of the number of
inhabitants in towns.
In a specific work conducted at NESTEAR a correlation has been made between
distributions within zones,
•
according to CORINNE LAND COVER information about commercial and
industrial surfaces,
•
and according to distribution of population using population database.
The correlation appeared rather satisfactory for distribution of freight within
zones, to point of entries and exit of the networks, consequently the modelling
exercise become a point to point simulation modelling.
(c)
the service layer
Information about service layer can also be substantially improved with the use
of service database.
So far, these services database are mainly diffused through websites of
operating companies and in particular of combined transport operators.
Attempts to consolidate such information are rare, although they have been
made in several EU projects. The most relevant one from this point of view are
•
SPIN project,
•
CESAR project concerning transalpine services with detailed information and
time schedules,
•
NEW
OPERA
information
project
form
for
port
dedicated
and
freight
combined
networks
transport
with
operators,
collection
which
of
were
members of the consortium.
One major difficulty in such attempt is to properly include “relays” of services in
rail “hubs”. Such “relays” increase significantly the number of services provided
“point to point” without increasing necessarily the circulation of trains.
Therefore, a proper analysis of such services database must be associated to
structural analysis of the transport plan of combined transport trains.
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137
With this constitution of such GIS framework including geocoded description of
network, and operating scheme of rail it is then possible to benefit completely
form available information about geo localization of mobile in the modelling
process.
Geo localization of mobiles
The mobiles are in our case the rail rolling stock, made of locomotives and
wagons. But the same approaches could be used for truck with the information
provided by road companies.
In the case of rail, things are somehow different
•
because of the existence of infrastructure managers which are in charge of
providing the product “slot” to service providers,
•
because of more important operating constraints in the case of the rail than
in road operations: for security reasons management of traffic is more
centralized, and slots must be predetermined in advance, in most cases, in
order to have a better use of rail infrastructure, when use of motorways is
much more flexible.
The geo localization of mobile is then very important for assignment of traffic in
network.
The modelling process is traditionally divided in four steps, TRANSTOOL is
structured along such a scheme.
These four steps are:
•
generation of traffic,
•
distribution of traffic,
•
modal split,
•
network assessment.
Most of the changes in the functioning of the rail systems have occurred at the
level of modal split and network assignment because:
•
diversification of type of services with in particular development of different
types
of
intermodal
transport
including
all
modes
rail,
road,
inland
waterways, maritime transport with different type of techniques (different
types of units, swap bodies, maritime containers, semi-trailers with different
transshipment techniques).
Each of these new services might compete between each other creating an
equivalent number “of modes”: the multiplication of available solutions makes it
very difficult to build an adapted modal split model.
This is why the idea to privilege the assignment in an intermodal network, where
choice of route includes possible combination of modes become a very
interesting approach in the modelling process: the contribution of modes (comodality) is then the consequences of the choice of an “optimal” route with
intermodal network:
•
more
competition
between
routes
across
Europe
with
for
example
competition between alpine corridors,
•
increasing importance of terminal transport, including what is called the “last
mile”.
The consequence for modelling:
•
138
either that modal split and assignment must be achieved in only one step,
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November 26, 2010
•
or that two separate steps are maintained considering that but for intermodal
solution a feedback must be made between the steps of traffic assignment
and modal split modules.
Such remarks can constitute a basis for improvement of TRANSTOOLS
•
concerning intermodal component which needs to be deepened,
•
or even, concerning integrating a new type of operating system such as
“longer” or heavier trains, and introduce a completely different approach of
infrastructure needs.
In any case, the improvement of the network assignment step:
•
is possible using new types of information available concerning services and
network performances (though “slots” analysis for example),
•
is relevant with the evolution of the transport system, and the increasing role
played by infrastructure manager which must be integrated in the decision
making process,
•
can benefit fully from existence of new sources of information which are
georeferenced, relation to infrastructure, operations, services but also elative
to routes of “mobile”.
This last type of information, available through ITS technology will improve
considerably one of the most critical steps of transport policy and modelling ie
the “use of network”.
For this 2.3. contribution two examples can be mentioned
•
a first one which should have important potential for modelling improvement
but not have been really exploited: the utilization of data from GPS of
locomotives,
•
a second one which is already in operation for follow-up sensitive products
(perishable or dangerous product): this is again the utilization of GOP
introduced in trucks, transport units or wagon.
In the project CORRECT (Franco-German research program) a GPS has been
introduced in several wagons (with authorization of shipping companies) for a
follow-up which lasted several months.
In doing so, length of time spent in the different components of the transport
chain could be assessed, with in particular distinction of time spend in
marshalling yards.
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139
Annex 5: Study of Barriers to road transport ITS
The examples presented below result from the collection of information on
technologies that are being implemented regarding road traffic, or have been
already implemented in several countries. The main objective of this task is to
develop
the
case
study
focusing
on
the
principal
barriers
to
the
implementation/development of those technologies (ITS).
Through the following examples, it is intended to generically characterize some
measures for the implementation of ITS and, where possible, identify the
barriers that are directly related to the collection of traffic information.
Many of the barriers are directly dependent on the purpose for which it is
intended the ITS. For example, the implementation of tolls raises ever more
protests from users of road infrastructure than the general collection of traffic
data for statistical purposes or for planning and management of infrastructure.
However, new technologies allow the tracing of the vehicle, and technologies
such as Automatic Number Plate Recognition (ANPR) raise privacy issues that are
barriers to the collection of traffic information.
Case studies will focus on non-technical barriers, i.e. not directly linked to data
and technical issues (technical barriers cut across all sites and will be analyzed in
a
separate
chapter).
These
institutional/organizational
are
barriers
environment,
such
as
financial,
political
legal
environment,
and
regulatory
framework.
United Kingdom
Automatic Number Plate Recognition
These devices help to monitor the average travel time on the English roads, with
over 1000 ANPR cameras at 480 key locations across England1. After the vehicle
passes the cameras, the vehicles registration number is recorded and then
transformed into an electronic tag. Through the registration of these labels, it is
possible to determine the travel time, and it also allows calculating the levels of
congestion. This registration system is designed so that it is impossible to
identify individual vehicles or their owners. All information is deleted after few
hours. Due to these privacy concerns, the information collected cannot be used
for any other purpose.
The cameras are painted bright green and are usually mounted on bridges or on
poles beside the road. These cameras use infrared lighting technology, that can
operate at night or when weather conditions are severe.
This system has the support of 250 operational partners to help co-coordinate
traffic information nationwide, including the Regional Centres for control of the
roads’ operators, police, local authorities and major traffic generators such as
ports, airports, entertainment, football clubs and shopping centres.
London Congestion Charging
Since February 2003 motorists driving into central London on a weekday
between 7am and 6.30pm have been charged.
If the payment is made on the
day of the travel, then the charge is £8, and in case the road user decides to pay
1
http://www.highways.gov.uk/knowledge/15228.aspx
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141
on the following day then the charge rises to £101. Fleet vehicles have discount,
and there are also some annual and monthly charge discounts. Motorists are
made aware of the charged zone by roadside signs and painted symbols on all
access points.
There are some vehicle categories that are exempt from charge: taxis, London
licensed private hire vehicles, hybrid engine cars, motorcycles, pedal cycles and
buses. Certain categories of vehicle users can register for discounts (residents,
disabled persons drivers of certain alternative fuelled vehicles2).
The scheme is enforced using a network of Automatic Number Plate Recognition
Cameras (ANPR) within the zone. The data from the cameras is processed using
optical character recognition (OCR) software to translate the images into a
database of recognised vehicle number plates.
According to the Transport for London, the main objective of this charging
scheme is to reduce congestion, improve vehicle speeds, increase bus patronage,
improve journey time reliability, make the distribution of goods more reliable,
sustainable and efficient; and provide Transport for London with an income to be
invested in transport, such as improving bus services.
Several trials had to be made in order to ensure that the system is robust and
reliable. The first trials sought to prove to the various stakeholders that the
implementation of these technologies can efficiently serve the purpose of
congestion
charging.
The
Transport
for
London
has
demonstrated
which
technologies are worth further investigating, and four different groups of
technologies were trialled:
•
Cameras and automatic number plate recognition (ANPR) technology - The
main problems of this technology were related to the fact that the digital
images can be easily manipulated, and therefore could not be used as
evidence in case of infraction; the digital image can produce high volumes of
information, being necessary to find viable alternatives to store and transmit
data. The testing period was also used to evaluate the trade-off between the
processing of the information through the image capture equipment and the
transmission of such data to another location.
•
Dedicated Short Range Communications (DSRC) - This technology has been
discarded because it was considered too intrusive, and environmentally not
acceptable within a London setting.
•
Satellite navigation (Global Positioning System - GPS) technology – The trial
period revealed that, in some streets, the number of satellites visible wasn’t
sufficient for the accuracy requested, as well as other technical issues.
•
Digital mobile phone technologies (GSM – Global System for Mobile) - As in
satellite technology, the level of accuracy was considered inadequate for the
congestion charging scheme.
Therefore, the London Charging Zone uses ANPR in the infrastructure and the
only on-vehicle element is the license plate, as it has proved to be the one that
could more easily be implemented given the time and scale. However, it has
some implementation barriers and operating issues, such as:
•
Political Environment - In 2007 Police was given real time access to
London's congestion charge cameras - allowing them to track all vehicles
entering and leaving the zone. The fact that the infrastructure of cameras
1
Transport for London (http://www.tfl.gov.uk)
Electrically propelled vehicles, certain alternative fuel vehicles meeting strict emissions
standards, e.g. gas, electric and fuel cell vehicles
2
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built to help manage congestion in London was going to be used for another
purpose (in this case to surveillance by the police), might lead to some
accusations regarding to function creep (e.g. technology is introduced to a
determined function and is later used for an entirely different purpose)1. This
might also raise some issues about privacy concerns.
•
Legal and Regulatory Framework - The digital images can be easily
manipulated, and therefore could not be used as evidence in case of
infraction. Also evasion appears to be more plentiful with this technology, by
the use of false number plates.
•
Financial Barriers - The automated system is supported by staff that
manually enters details for vehicles where the OCR software cannot interpret
the number plate automatically, which requires a relatively high human
intervention rate and therefore increases the level of operating costs.
•
User concerns - One of the major barriers associated with user concerns
would be resistance to change, especially when the aim is to charge for the
road service. A survey was conducted before and after the introduction of
this measure (December 2002 to October 2003)2, to gather input from users
about whether or not the measure has been effective as a way to reduce
congestion and improve traffic. According to this survey, before charging, the
percentage of people opposing the implementation of the measure was
significantly higher than after charging (before charging, almost 40% of
respondents
were
opposed
to
congestion
charging
scheme,
and
after
charging decreased to less than 30%).
•
In the London charging scheme, users have several methods they can use to
pay for entering the zone, including the internet, retail outlets and SMS text
messaging. However, there is no facility to pre-pay before the journey. By
introducing a degree of flexibility in the payment it would aid the travelling
public and, at the same time, help to reduce the scheme’s operating costs.
Sweden
Project for SRA in Skåne Region (Southern Sweden)
Cellint is the company responsible for providing real-time road traffic information
for the Swedish Road Administration since July 2007 through Info24, its Swedish
integration partner (www.info24.se). Through its webpage it is possible to
purchase information such as floating car data, which can be used for various
traffic related assessments and calculations, such as determining the traffic flows
on specific roads over a period of time or the current situation on real-time.
This project was requested by the Swedish Road Administration (www.vv.se) to
deliver road traffic data in the region of Skåne, both on highways and arterials,
including city streets in Malmö and Lund. Following the successful delivery, the
Swedish Road Administration decided to extend the term of this project and to
expand significantly Cellint’s scope by 60%, to most of the main roadways in
that area. This significant expansion covers both rural and urban roadways, city
streets and intersections, by connecting to cellular networks switching centres,
and incorporating anonymous signalling data. The data collected provides an
1
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/6902543.stm (7/06/2010)
http://www.dft.gov.uk/itstoolkit/CaseStudies/london-congestion-charging.htm
Congestion Charging Central London - Impacts Monitoring Sixth Annual Report and Congestion
Charging Central London - Impacts Monitoring Second Annual Report) (8/06/2010)
2
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143
historical database of speed and volume estimations, continuous over weeks,
months and years, as well as origin destination statistics.1
According to Cellints’ webpage, this is the first cellular-based traffic monitoring
project in Europe to be positively evaluated and thus expanded by a European
government agency, based on its successful results.
Sweden: The Stockholm Congestion Tax System
In 2003 the Swedish Parliament decided to do a full scale experiment on a Road
Toll System for the Stockholm City area, with the aim of reducing the volume of
vehicles and thus reducing travel times and improving the environment. This
system applies different charges within the congestion charging zone depending
on the hour of the day, and encourages the use of green vehicles by making
them exempt from the tax payment on the first years of the implementation
scheme.
On the 17th of September 2006 a referendum on Road Tolls was held in the
Stockholm area, and on the 1st of August 2007 the Road Toll system was
permanently put into operation.
In order to induce the public acceptability, the government decided to re-label
the initially named Stockholm congestion charges to Environmental Charges, so
that it could emphasise the benefits related to the reduction of environmental
impacts
such
as
noise
and
CO2
emissions,
and
therefore
increase
the
acceptability of the charging system.
The congestion charging system uses laser detectors that sense when a vehicle
is passing through a control point. The laser then triggers cameras that take
photographs of the vehicle's number plates, first from the front and then from
the rear. The camera crops the image so that only the number plate and the area
nearest to the plate are shown, and then the vehicle's registration number is
identified in the camera using OCR technology (Optical Character Recognition)2.
1.
2.
3.
The vehicle passes a laser detector (B) which triggers cameras (D) and (A). An
antenna for identification using transponders (no longer used) (C).
A camera takes a photograph of the vehicle's front number plate (D).
A camera takes a photograph of the vehicle's rear number plate (A).
The control points are well signalised with different signs displaying the tariffs
and the current amount of the congestion tax. During weekends, holidays,
1
2
http://www.cellint.com/traffic_data/sweden.html (8/06/2010)
http://www.transportstyrelsen.se/ (8/06/2010)
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November 26, 2010
evenings and at night, no congestion tax is charged, so these signs display the
web address of the Swedish Transport Agency.
The following vehicles are exempt from charge:
•
To and from the Lidingöislands (“Lidingo rule”) - No congestion tax is
charged for vehicles that pass two different control points within 30 minutes,
one of which must be a control point at Gasverksvägen, Lidingövägen or
Norra Hamnvägen.
•
Emergency vehicles
•
Vehicles with disability permits
•
Foreign cars
•
Diplomat-registered vehicles
•
Military vehicles
•
Buses over 14 tons
•
Taxis
•
Motorcycles
•
Green vehicles (cars that are completely or partly on electricity or a gas
other
than
liquefied
petroleum
gas
(LPG),
or
on
a
fuel
blend
that
predominantly comprises alcohol) - The rules regarding the exemption for
green cars included in the Congestion Tax Act (2004:629) ceased to apply on
the 1 st of January 2009 instead of 1st of August 2012, as initially planned.
However, this exemption will continue to apply up until 1st of August 2012 for
vehicles that were exempt from tax obligations prior to 1st of January 2009
and that prior to this were also entered in the Swedish Road Traffic Registry.
For this reason, existing green cars are not affected by this amendment.
The information is registered at control points (date, time, control point,
registration number and amount) and the tax decisions made are stored until the
tax has been paid and the processing of the matter is completed.
According to the Government, although the vehicle's tax decision is a public
document, the information about which control point the vehicle has passed and
the time of the passage is classified. Classified information is only issued to the
owner of the vehicle and may, following a special request, be sent by post to the
population register address of the vehicle’s owner.1
A month after the control point passage, a bill is sent to the vehicle owner, and
the owner has one month to pay the tax, otherwise a fee is charged. The bill can
be delivered in three different ways: by default delivery by mail to the vehicle
owner's registered address; electronic delivery to the vehicle owner's Internet
bank; direct debit arrangement called Autogiro, that allows the tax to be
automatically deducted from the vehicle owner's bank account when the bill is
due.
The toll system experiment was put into operation on the 3rd of January 2006
and finished on the 31st of July 2006, and during the summer of the same year,
an evaluation report was published.
During the test phase, transponders were used in order to strengthen the
authentication when automatic payment was used as an extra precaution. It was
also used for exempt vehicles such as the ones from Lidingo’s residents.
However, in the current system the technology in the camera is reliable enough
so the transponder is no longer needed. The trial period was important, so that
the users could perceive the immediate impacts to the environment and
1
http://transportstyrelsen.se/en/road/Congestion-tax/Congestion-tax-in-stockholm/How-docontrol-points-work/(7/06/2010)
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145
congestion resulting from this charging system, and also to break the resistance
from the public that thought the system wouldn’t be effective.
However, the charging scheme went through a complicated political and
regulatory/legal process, with a referendum initially forced by the political
opponents. After the trial period, a referendum on the implementation of
congestion charges, in the City of Stockholm and in 14 other municipalities in the
county of Stockholm, was held in conjunction with the general elections on the
17 th September 2006. In the City of Stockholm, the overall result was in favour
for the road congestion charging system, but only for a small advantage (51% in
favour versus 46% against). The results from the referendums taken in the other
municipalities showed that a majority of these inhabitants were against (60% of
the non blank voters were against the deployment of the congestion charging
system). 1
Consequently, the government had to surpass the user concerns in order to
implement this system. There were complaints from citizens and council
members regarding the validity and legality of the decision, and also complaints
by some of the bidders in the acquisition process that felt that the process was
not conducted in a proper way and contributed to the delay of the system
deployment.
Considering privacy concerns, the only purpose of the collected information is
no other than tax decisions. However, the information collected can be handed
out to the police on suspicion of a criminal action. Once this information might
be used for law enforcement, some privacy concerns are raised. Also because the
payment bill is sent directly to the vehicle owner (the payment isn’t made
anonymously like in the London Congestion Charging system), personal traffic
data is collected and therefore also brings up issues related to privacy and the
legacy of this system.
Germany
ANPR for Law Enforcement
In several German states the police laws have been amended in order to allow
automatic car number plate scanning. One main purpose of Automatic Number
Plate Recognition (ANPR) is to detect stolen cars, to protect car owners property
rights in case one’s car got stolen and to enable an investigation of the theft.
Furthermore, ANPR is used to detect cars without permit to operate, in case the
car tax or insurance rates were not paid. CCTV systems collect the number plate
data and match it to a reference database of stolen cars or cars sought for
another reason, for example because an arrest warrant was issued against the
owner of the car.
The data collected includes the number plate information, place of data
collection, time of collection, and direction of travel, and in case the matching
process turns out negative, the data is immediately deleted. However, this
technology allows identifying the vehicle but not the driver. The owner of the
vehicle is always associated with the crime, and can promote the theft of license
1
http://www.stockholmsforsoket.se/ (7/06/2010)
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plates for persons who wish to commit crimes, and therefore there are some
legal and regulatory framework issues that have to be carefully considered.
Heavy Vehicles Toll Collection in Germany
In order to implement the toll collection in Germany, the Toll Collect (legal
name; Toll Collect GmbH) consortium was funded in March 2002. It is a joint
venture
of Deutsche Telekom
(45%), Daimler, and Cofiroute
(Compagnie
Financière et Industrielle des Autoroutes, 10%).
Germany has introduced a distance-based toll for all trucks of twelve tonnes
gross vehicle weight and above, in order to redistribute these costs to all users.
As a service provider, acting on behalf of the Federal Republic of Germany, Toll
Collect has set up a toll system that is capable of calculating and collecting road
use charges based on the distance travelled. Due to several technical problems
regarding the complexity of the toll collection systems, the operation of Toll
Collect started on the 1st January 2005 in a reduced set-up, 16 months later than
scheduled, and became fully operational on the 1st of January 2006.
The technology used for the charging of heavy vehicles is summarized in the
following figure:
Source: http://www.roadtraffic-technology.com/projects/lkw-maut/lkw-maut4.html
After registering, there are two ways to log-on the truck vehicles:
1 The automatic log-on – uses a combination of mobile telecommunications
technology (GSM) and GPS, the satellite-based Global Positioning System, and
requires the installation of an On-Board Unit (OBU). With the aid of GPS
satellite
signals
and
other
positioning
sensors,
the
OBU
automatically
determines how many kilometres have already been driven on the toll route,
calculates the toll based on the vehicle and toll rate information that has been
entered, and transmits this information to the Toll Collect computer centre for
further processing.
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147
2 The manual log-on – is most directed for truck drivers and transport
companies that rarely use German motorways. With this alternative, the
driver can use one of the 3,500 toll station terminals or over the internet to
confirm the route and select the desired payment method. At the end of this
procedure, the driver receives a log-on receipt upon payment, which should
be kept in the vehicle. The receipt contains vehicle information, the selected
route, length of the route, amount of the toll and period of validity.
In addition to the toll checker gantries that are strategically located throughout
the country, the Toll Enforcement also relies on mobile patrols, consisting of a
fleet of 300 vehicles with 540 officers of the Federal Office of Freight (BAG) that
are equipped with DSRC (Dedicated Short Range Communications) to check if the
drivers have paid the toll or have the OBU installed. However, this toll collection
data cannot be used for law enforcement purposes.
Netherlands
Kilometerprijs
In the second half of 2009, the Ministry of Transport, Public Works & Water
Management has drafted a law for the introduction of the kilometre price. This
law, the Road Pricing Act, was sent to the Lower House of Parliament for
discussion in November. This legislative proposal includes the proposed base
tariffs and how the introduction, organisation, payment and enforcement will be
regulated.
According
to
the
web
page
of
the
Dutch
Government
(http://www.verkeerenwaterstaat.nl/), the deployment of the Kilometre pricing
will proceed as described in this chapter. Every vehicle will have a registration
unit that tracks the number of kilometres driven and the rate per kilometre. This
on-board unit will be available with a number of additional options (such as a
navigation system) or in a standard model. The data will be aggregated into the
on-board unit by the service provider before the information is sent to the
collection office. By this method it is expected to assure that privacy is
protected.
According to the governments’ webpage, there will be several certified providers
of on-board units. In the future, there will be more providers offering equipment
with
various
additional
services,
such
as
navigation
or
a
comprehensive
kilometre registration system for tax purposes (for people driving lease cars).
The kilometre charging will use the GSM technology: the on-board unit will
register the kilometres driven, and at what rate (base tariff or rush hour
surcharge). The on-board unit sends information, via the provider, to the
collection office (the Central Judicial Collection Agency), which will draft and
send monthly invoices. There will be some check gates which will take a photo
that will be checked for anything unusual. If it confirms that everything is ok,
then the photo is immediately deleted.
In order to avoid fraud, the on-board unit will include a ‘Trusted Element’ (TE),
which is a chip analogous to the SIM card in a mobile telephone. This chip
provides the security for the data sent. In addition, the Radiocommunications
Agency (Agentschap Telecom) regulates signal quality and the production,
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trafficking and sale of equipment that can disrupt the signals. Finally, roadside
equipment scanning for fraud will be in place.
The taxes will be phased-out, and the replacement of the vehicle taxes for the
kilometre price will be gradually replaced, in order to avoid a sharp drop in
prices of vehicles, as well as its’ loss of market value. The phase-out of the
vehicle purchase tax began in 2008, by being phased out in increments of 5%
per year.
The deployment of this system is projected to take place in phases, with
successive groups of approximately 100,000 motorists selected randomly, based
on the first two characters of the car's registration plate. For technical and
organizational reasons, mass introduction of the system in all cars would be
impossible, as it would require installing the equipment in around 8,000,000
cars.
Prior
to
the
deployment
of
this
system,
several
trial
projects
will
be
implemented. First, there will be a battery of technical tests to verify that all
components, including the enforcement portals and administrative systems,
function properly. This testing programme is expected to conclude with a largescale operational test in 2012, involving 60,000 cars.
If the tests showed satisfactory results, the first group to switch to the kilometre
price system will be the heavy goods vehicles. It is expected to take five years to
switch all cars to the Kilometre price. After a vehicle owner starts paying the
kilometre price, it has no longer to pay the vehicle tax. For those who have not
yet switched) and the kilometre price (for those who have) will continue to
increase slightly, while the vehicle purchase tax will get lower. The kilometre
price system is expected to be fully implemented in 2018.
Ahead of the implementation of the kilometre price, the most significant traffic
bottleneck areas are already being dealt within mobility projects in six urban
regions: Amsterdam, Haaglanden, Utrecht, Rotterdam, Brabant and ArnhemNijmegen. The mobility projects are intended to:
•
deal with traffic jams in the short term (decrease number of car kilometres in
rush hours by a minimum of 5%).
•
make
motorists
and
employers
more
aware
of
possible
options
(telecommuting, public transport, earlier/later working hours).
•
assess motorist behaviour.
•
provide operational experience with new ITS technologies (including satellite
technology).
•
give the commercial sector the opportunity to gain experience with the
system.
Provinces, municipalities, over 150 major employers, trade unions and employer
organizations are collaborating to organize and carry out the mobility projects.
The arrangements that these organizations have made (for example, on flexible
working hours) are set out by region in an agreement.
The Ministry of Transport, Public Works & Water Management financially supports
mobility projects and ensures that the results are measured and evaluated. All
this data is placed in a database, accessible to all parties, to allow them to learn
from the available information. There are several ongoing projects:
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Metropolitan region Amsterdam: paid driving trial - This trial was set up for
10,000 volunteers and is being conducted in phases. Participants pay for every
kilometre driven (in the country) on weekdays, in a GPS-based system, and
receive a monthly amount for this. In addition, the major roads to and from
Amsterdam are subject to a rush hour surcharge.
Urban region Arnhem-Nijmegen: Smart Prices - In order to reduce the rushhour traffic congestion at
the Waalbrug
outside
of
Nijmegen
during
the
reconstruction of the N325/Prins Mauritssingel over 6,600 volunteers registered
to avoid morning and evening rush hour. They are paid a fixed (fictive) amount
to pay in case they decide to drive into the city during the morning or evening
rush hour (deduction from balance).
Urban region Eindhoven-'s Hertogenbosch - In the urban region Eindhoven's Hertogenbosch, a pilot is being conducted involving a maximum of 3,000
volunteers who pay if they drive during rush hours, and are paid if they avoid
the rush hour. This project uses GPS technology. An additional project is being
started in which participants receive travel and traffic advisories to enable them
to choose the route with the least delay.
Haaglanden - The Haaglanden region is starting a project for ‘Price incentives
by companies for accessibility in Haaglanden.’ The goal of this project is to have
a real and lasting effect on the behaviour of employers and employees to
improve accessibility in the Haaglanden region. Companies are offered price
incentives to encourage their employees to leave the car at home during rush
hour (whether that means telecommuting, travelling by bicycle, travelling
outside of rush hour or travelling by public transport).
Rotterdam - Rotterdam has two trial projects in the works. The goal of the first
project on the A15 (term: 2 years) is to decrease rush hour traffic by 530
vehicles. Participants receive a monthly compensation, the amount of which is
reduced whenever the participants drive on the A15 during the morning or
evening rush hour. The project is linked to the maintenance works on the A15,
and is intended to improve traffic flow. In the second trial project, transporters
and providers jointly investigate the options to build in a travel time function in
existing planning systems. This type of function can help logistic planners to
allow trucks to avoid traffic jams, and so to drive more efficiently.
Utrecht - Three pilot projects are being set up in Utrecht. The first focuses on
avoiding rush hour on several access roads to Utrecht, using two different
technologies: the ANPR technology and a GPS-based system.
Other - In Noord-Brabant, the first ‘experimental in-car projects’, on which the
national and regional governments agreed in 2007, have started. In these
projects, companies are testing aspects such as new technologies for traffic jamavoiding and kilometre-registering applications. The results of the projects are
being included in the monitoring reports for the mobility projects. There have
also been other projects focusing on improving accessibility during rush hour,
both in public transportation and on the road.
The following points summarize the main barriers and stakeholders concerns
about the system feasibility:
Privacy concerns have been raised about the kilometre price system. According
to the Dutch government, the only information sent to the collection office is the
number of kilometres driven and corresponding rate (it doesn’t allow to collect
traffic data). So nobody can see where one has been, unless one explicitly gives
his permission. Additionally, the on-board units are manufactured and installed
by companies that must meet strict privacy requirements.
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Organisational and Institutional barriers – There is a great number of
entities involved: social organizations, political groups, service providers. A great
effort has to be done in order to hear and take into account the views of all
stakeholders, otherwise the implementation of the system will fail. The creation
of
the
Road
Pricing
Act
involved
extensive
consultations
with
social
organizations, looking forward to give response to users concerns and build
consensus among the other stakeholders. However, this measure takes time and
money. There is also the need for intensive consultation with regional authorities
to identify and secure agreement on the highly-congested areas for the
deployment of additional congestion charges.
Political environment – Along the implementation period (which is expected to
take five years) there will be at least one government election. An eventual
political
fragmentation
would
definitely
be
an
important
barrier
to
the
deployment of the system, since some parties with relevant number of seats in
the parliament are against the implementation of this road charging system.
Financial barrier - pilot tests have been made to ensure that the system is
robust and reliable, which implies high costs, these costs can not be charged to
users (must be the government to bear). The financial return can have a much
more extended period. To facilitate the accession by the users, the price charged
for the service has to be lower in the initial phase, and then gradually increased
(the price per kilometer will increase 5% per year). It has also been argued that
operational costs will be much higher than expected, reaching almost 20% of
revenues.
Portugal
Motorways electronic toll collection (Via Verde)
The Portuguese motorways have currently a toll system, called the Via Verde,
which uses Dedicated Short-Range Communications (DSRC) technologies. Via
Verde was founded in the year 2000, and has since then been the company
behind the service of electronic toll collection. Currently you can also pay
through this service parking, fuel, and it is also used to control access to
restricted urban areas (historic urban centres). Payment is made via radio link
between the on-board unit (placed in the interior side of the vehicle’s windshield)
and equipment installed on the road.
This system is for now an optional way to pay for the road service in the toll
charged Portuguese motorways, and therefore the membership from users
raised, as it was gradually gaining acceptance, proving to be reliable and more
convenient than the manual system, by avoiding waiting times at toll stations.
However the generalization of the Via Verde equipment came only after some
years of its implementation. The following figure shows the evolution of the
number of operating devices (or clients) since it started until the year 2008.
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151
Source: http://www.viaverde.pt/ViaVerde/vPT/A_Via_Verde/Empresa/Indicadores/
It is currently in discussion the deployment of mandatory electronic vehicle
identification for all vehicles traveling on Portuguese roads, which will be based
on the following:
•
The device will be read by antennae that can be installed in fixed or mobile
gateways and mobile devices to be used by the police;
•
The electronic registration device should be similar to that which is currently
used in Via Verde, based on a detection technology for microwave (DSRC);
•
The information is collected and processed by the appropriate authority
through a back-office service to be developed for this purpose. In the
operators’ case, additional data will only have information about the type of
vehicle in question and never information about the owner or its user.
The technology used is therefore projected to be similar to the one used by Via
Verde, and so it is expected to take advantage of the wide dissemination of the
Via Verde equipments, by allowing them to be used in this new system.
The decision to implement this system elapsed after the publication of Law No.
60/2008 of September 16 th , which authorizes the Portuguese government to
legislate for the mandatory installation of an electronic registration device in all
motor vehicles, and by approval of a law on 12 th May 2009. In this law it is
written that the electronic identification or detection of vehicles using the
electronic
registration
device
is
intended
for
electronic
toll
collection
in
accordance with the European Electronic Toll Service.
The deadline to purchase these devices will only be initiated after publication of
a regulatory ordinance which will establish the technical specifications of this
device. Only after the publication of this ordinance, which has no date set yet,
there will be conditions for its manufacture and subsequent distribution.
After the publication of this ordinance, it will begin a period of six months in
which motorists can have free access to the electronic number plate device. If
such a regulatory ordinance is published in June, the Portuguese car owners will
have until December this year to get free new equipment. Therefore, only after
2010 will be compulsory to buy the 'chip', whose prices haven’t also been yet
established.
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According to this Law, the equipment identification or electronic detection of
vehicles through the electronic registration, are endowed with a purely local
scope and cannot, in any case, allow the general location and standing of
vehicles throughout the electronic reading of the electronic registration device of
vehicles in circulation. There is no change with regard to access to information
owners and users of vehicles for purposes of supplementary supervision, which
will be made such as in the previous legislation, or through interfaces with the
system of registration of existing property.
Shortly after the launch of these measures by the Portuguese government,
several groups protested against the introduction of the system. A group of
people put an online petition (http://www.ipetitions.com/petition/siev/) against
the introduction of compulsory subscription of the electronic information system
of vehicles (SIEVE), gathering until today around 4200 signatures. This petition
presents the following counter arguments:
•
high operating costs and a unnecessary waste of taxpayers' money;
•
the real needs of implementation of this system are fragile and questionable;
•
the possibility that this technology could eventually be used for mandatory
electronic collection is not legitimate, and it should be kept the current
system (Via Verde) which has an optional subscription. The obligation to
subscribe to this system and the possibility of this being used either for taxes
or toll charging raises questions about individual liberty and eventual
increase in tolls and fees associated with the road service.
Also in October 2009 the workers of motorways protested in defense of the
preservation of jobs and rights acquired by the workers of motorways, namely
the toll areas workers.
Source: http://www.cesp.pt/default.aspx?aba=3&cat=33&doc=209&mid=5
They claim that the recent changes in the law doesn’t caution the defense of jobs
and rights acquired by workers of motorways and might even endanger the
survival of some companies, such as Via Verde. The motorway workers also call
into question the system itself, saying that it doesn’t guarantee the integrity and
confidentiality of data from existing customers of the Via Verde and that this
control system of passages which will be managed by the SIEVE (System
Electronic Vehicle Identification) is based on a type of video surveillance that
raises issues concerning the privacy of users. Recently, the Government decided
to introduce tolls in motorways that are now free of charge, by using the
electronic vehicle identification system, with equipments that are similar to Via
Verde and will be mandatory for all vehicles after 1st July 2010. These
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153
equipments were strongly contested by the opposition, who voted down in
Parliament the diploma that would enable this charging scheme, saying that “the
Government wants the drivers to walk with the Government in the backseat of
their cars”.
Italy
According to the National Association for Telematics for Transport and Safety
(http://www.ttsitalia.it/), Italy is one of the European Countries with highest
traffic levels, having up to 975.992 million passengers/Km per year, and more
than 90% chooses road transport. Forecasts show that transport demand will
increase in the next years and the risk is that transport costs will become
unsustainable. Therefore, it is crucial to promote the development and diffusion
of ITS on a National level. In 2001, the former Italian Ministry of Infrastructure
and Transport promoted a strategic Framework Architecture providing the
guidelines to make the different ITS applications integrated and interoperable.
This system is called ARTIST (ARchitettura Telematica Italiana per il Sistema dei
Trasporti) and has as a main purpose to define:
•
the necessary services for users;
•
the functional, logical and physical relationships among systems;
•
information flows.
The organisational links among the Public and Private Institutions involved in the
development and management of this system allows to identify the relevant
stakeholders and also the strategies to be adopted in the whole process of data
collection, processing and management, which are fundamental for ITS. This
project aims to identify and take advantage of the most recent ITS technologies,
such as services provided by Satellite, using Galileo.
The motorway network in Italy is equipped with advanced systems for detecting
data flows, including video-cameras, inductive loops and ultrasounds and
microwave based systems, in order to provide real-time information as well as
enable an active traffic management. Traffic Control Centres are connected
among them and with the CCISS, the National Information and Road Safety
Coordination Centre, through the protocol Datex. One of the key aspects of the
Italian motorway network is the diffusion of toll payment systems, like the
Telepass, which is operating in Italian motorways since 1990, which have already
distributed more than 5 million OBU (on-board units). The Telepass system
provides several services dedicated to different types of users (families,
companies and traders, etc), and the main purpose is to reduce the waiting
times of vehicles’ users and consequently motor emissions, in order to reduce
the environmental impacts.
In Italy, the company OCTO Telematics makes available on-line real-time speed
and number of vehicles on the Italian motorways network ("autostrade") as well
as in the areas of major cities, by using Floating Car Data. Highway traffic data
are transmitted through satellite meters that receive information from hundred
of thousands of anonymous customers equipped with GPS. The dataset may
afterwards be used by navigation systems (TomTom and Garmin in Italy) and
contribute to the route planning optimisation.
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References
•
Custers, Bart; van der Wees, Leo; (2009) FIDIS - Future of Identity in the
Information
Society
-
D11.9:
Study
on
Traffic
Monitoring;
European
Information Society (EIS).
•
Gillian, William; RFID and Electronic Vehicle Identification in Road Transport;
(2006) Report on the Seminar organised be the IET Automotive & Road
Transport Systems Network; Newcastle.
•
(2008) Dutch RUC – on the way at last?; ITSS April 2008.
•
(2008) TTS Italia Handbook 2008; Telematica per iTrasporti e la Sicurezza.
•
Nissan, Albania, Bang, Karl L.; (2006); Evaluation of Impacts Of The
Motorway Control System (Mcs) In Stockholm; Department of Transport and
Economics Royal Institute of Technology (KTH); Association for European
Transport and contributors.
•
Hugosson, Muriel Beser; et all; (2006) Facts and results from the Stockholm
Trials; Stockholmsforsoket.
•
Dubbert, Jörg; Stenberg, Urban; (2007) Approaches to Floating Car Data
Collection in the VIKING Area – Analysis and Comparison.
•
Eliasson, Jonas; Jonsson, Lina; (2009) The unexpected “yes!”: explanatory
factors behind the positive attitudes to congestion charges in stockholm;
2009 European Transport Conference, Leiden, Netherlands.
•
Beser Hugosson, Muriel; Eliasson, Jonas; (2006) The Stockholm Congestion
Charging System – An Overview of the Effects After Six Months; Association
for European Transport and contributors.
•
Kearns, Steve; (2006) Congestion Charging Technology Trials in London;
Transport for London; Association for European Transport and contributors.
•
Firth, Dan; (2005) Congestion Charging Technology Trials, Stage 1 Results;
Transport for London; Association for European Transport and contributors.
•
(2008) Central London Congestion Charging Impacts monitoring, Sixth
Annual Report; Mayor of London, Transport for London.
•
(2005) London Congestion Charging Technology Trials - Stage 1 Report;
Transport for London.
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Annex 6: Floating Car Data and Cellular Systems
Introduction and Background
Levels of traffic congestion, environmental pollution and safety are becoming
increasingly unacceptable on roads in many regions in the Europe and worldwide. At the same time, our societies cannot function without adequate provision
of transport to serve both the needs and the desires of individuals and essential
business purposes. The introduction of new infrastructure is important but it is
very clear that the construction of new roads will result in the generation of
additional traffic and, of themselves, they will not necessarily lead to sustainable
future transport situations.
Thus, the general thrust of transport policy in the EU and other countries is to
build essential highway capacity only, and to better manage available capacity
for all modes so as to meet increasingly wide ranging policy objectives as
effectively as possible. These policy objectives relate to curbing congestion,
improving safety, addressing local and global environmental concerns and
meeting broader social needs of access and mobility. Developing ways to reduce
reliance on private cars is a key issue, whilst maintaining mobility and enhancing
accessibility.
The rapid development of new technologies in areas of location, communications,
sensors and control are providing and will continue to provide ways to better
achieve current policy objectives and to enable the evolution of new policies
which reflect changing social, economic and environmental circumstances. The
application of Information Technologies (IT) can revolutionise the way that
people
and
goods
move
by
reducing
travel
times,
operating
costs
and
environmental impacts, and by improving accessibility.
Fundamentally, the transport is market driven, and individual travellers and
those who move goods or parcels make decisions that best meet their own
particular requirements, which may include time, cost, security, or reliability
factors. Those who provide or operate transport infrastructure or offer transport
services make decisions which best meet their financial, social, environmental,
safety or economic objectives. All such decisions are based on information and
where this is incomplete, incorrect, misunderstood or partially or wholly ignored,
the transport outcomes may be far from optimal for the users, or for society as a
whole.
Also, as transport networks and systems become more congested, accurate,
timely, and relevant information and its effective and coherent delivery is
becoming increasingly important to enable individuals to make more informed
decisions.
In
addition,
the
delivery
of
accurate
information
will
expose
shortcomings in the underlying transport systems and services and this should,
in turn, drive up their quality through exposure to a more knowledgeable
market. Overall, Intelligent Transport System (ITS) technologies are essential to
the delivery of the information necessary for a successful and sustainable
transport future.
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Trends and Outlook
The demand for the delivery of accurate, timely and relevant information will
increase. This demand will be driven by the needs of all user groups, for the
ranges of current and future objectives to be met more effectively and for new
objectives to be set. The public, and perhaps private, objectives will incorporate
greater emphasis on sustainability. However, whatever the directions towards
which society moves in the future, the delivery of traffic and transport
information will be critical. It may just be used differently to meet alternative
user priorities. However, there is likely to be change in the funding arrangements
and data collection processes depending on the extent to which future transport
provision will be user driven or society driven.
Advances in the field of information services have been substantial. Systems
have been produced, prototypes demonstrated, and a variety of services
delivered. However, an open overall framework has not been achieved. Most of
the prototypes have been implemented directly by transport operators to support
and market their respective operations. This has limited the penetration rate of
interoperable multimodal personal and goods transport services.
Research and development of technologies and a policy for information collection
and dissemination is not currently part of the forthcoming GALILEO programme.
Based on GALILEO, many location and navigation systems are expected to
perform better and be less expensive than those based on GPS, resulting in
increased market penetration. Research on the market, public acceptance and
corresponding government policies towards Galileo-based systems should be
further focussed. The emerging position and mobile communication technologies
will also provide valuable information sources.
How to use the new data sources and integrate them with existing transport
controls system and information services should be addressed. Application of
these technologies may significantly change individual life styles and the society.
Understanding of such changes and the potential risks associated with of
behavioural changes and privacy protection is needed and should be considered
in the systems. Development of future information may focus on sustainability
issues. Information systems which have potential benefits to safety (e.g. Mayday
system) and to the environment should have priority to be encouraged.
Transport services specific to the elderly and disabled must be provided in order
to maintain mobility over a longer lifespan.
Most transport operators (public transport, road, concessionaires, etc) deliver
information on their services through various media, and Internet-based services
are dominant. Transport and travel information services are moving to a
“business” market. Travel and traffic information is increasingly more integrated
into business applications, such as fleet and freight management and workforce
management.
This
offers
marketing
opportunities
for
operators
in
the
information market to sell their components (aggregated contents, specific
services, applications, application interfaces) to the specific clients. The market
is maturing and is moving from a “technology push” to being led by the
requirements of users and companies.
More complex requirements are emerging and the requirement of “integrated
services” is important. That the supply side of the market is restructuring
(companies are disappearing or changing roles, new ventures are being created)
could also be used to support this trend. In terms of technology, the changes are
toward more “interoperable applications”. The number of in-vehicle navigation
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systems will continue increasing, and more personal navigation devices will
continue to appear, able to interact with the user conducting a journey and
provide updated support. Low cost wireless connection will be a fundamental
component of such devices. In order to serve as a basis for reliable and
integrated
travel
information
services,
“telematic
platforms”
will
have
an
important role to play in future. This would be in the interest both of the final
users and of the transport operators.
The users will have easier access to multi-modal and multi-network information.
The operators will be able to share data through the platform, increase the
visibility of the services, and co-operate better with each other. The level and
extent of the development of systems and related services varies substantially
across Europe and this is constraining the application of telematics to trip
requirements.
Existing data exchange systems will move forward to support the location
reference
services.
Standard
frameworks
and
information
unification
are
therefore needed to enable travellers having the same level of service while
travelling across borders. This is particularly important since information is more
valuable in an unfamiliar environment.
Traffic
information
systems
are
evolving
from
just
road
information
to
multimodal information. Data collected via in-vehicle navigation systems, i.e.
probe vehicles, will increase its importance in traffic information provision. Data
fusion and information integration will be a challenge to existing traffic control
systems. The fused data is expected to enhance the flexibility and efficiency of
transport management and operations. Algorithms for incident management and
control strategies using the new data sources should be developed to maximise
the use of such new information.
Probe vehicle technology is likely to provide a substantial contribution to network
state
estimation,
communication
in
devices
which
most
installed
vehicles
for
a
wide
are
fitted
range
of
with
location
applications.
and
Such
applications are likely to include road user charging. There is a lack of regulation
on competition which could delay the adoption of personal travel services. This
would leave the user with a limited transport choice and the tendency to opt for
the easy option, the private car. Recent experience indicates that a boost for
information services could come from opening the market to a variety of
operators.
An information service market could be developed in the following stages:
Firstly, transport operators should collect, structure and deliver their own
information, as part of their normal operation. In a second stage, as discussed in
the previous section, public administrations should foster the creation of
“telematic platforms” capable of giving unique access to users for all transport
data relative to specific territory. A third stage would be the development of
Value Added Service Providers (VASPs) which can access specific needs of
particular market segments.
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159
Case Studies
In the following 3 case studies will be carried out as part of the analysis of
floating car data and cellular systems: the systems and applications provided by
TOMTOM, ITIS, and PTV.
TOMTOM
TomTom has developed High Definition (HD) Traffic. HD Traffic is a revolutionary
service that uses anonymous data on the direction and speed mobile phones are
traveling in cars. This data is made available thanks to a cooperation with
Vodafone.
This works due to the fact that every active mobile phone transmits a signal to
the mobile network from which it is possible to discern its location. Whenever a
mobile phone is in motion at a certain speed and in a certain direction, reliable
and useful traffic information becomes available. TomTom can access this
anonymous data from millions of Vodafone customers, giving an accurate view of
the traffic situation throughout the road network.
This data is compared and merged with information from traffic authorities, road
operators, and commercial third parties. A dedicated TomTom traffic centre and
operations facility allows TomTom to monitor the quality of the service.
The
quality and accuracy of HD Traffic information is therefore very high.
Thanks to the built-in SIM cards of the TomTom HD Traffic Receiver and the ONE
XL HDT, drivers are constantly connected to the HD Traffic service. Both
products include access to the HD Traffic service for a defined period, after which
a yearly subscription can be purchased. The HD Traffic Receiver and the ONE XL
HDT ensure an easy out-of-the-box experience
with
no hidden
costs
or
complicated wireless internet connections.
HD Traffic covers all ‘A’ roads and secondary roads.
In the Netherlands that’s
22,000 kilometers of roads, ten times more than any other traffic information
service. The data is processed and delivered faster than any other service. And
as data comes from the actual speed of vehicles on the road network rather than
lengths of traffic jams, the driver gets an accurate and up-to-date ETA that is
constantly updated in line with the current traffic situation.
The
result
of
this
solution
is
an
easy
to
use
and
highly
detailed
and
comprehensive traffic information service. Drivers using other services frequently
receive out-of-date traffic incident reports and when choosing an alternative
route risk getting stuck in traffic on secondary roads that aren’t covered by their
service. Only with HD Traffic are drivers empowered to always make the right
decision when it comes to selecting an alternative route. HD Traffic will initially
be launched in the Netherlands. The service will then be extended to the UK, and
later to more countries.
ITIS
TrafficScience is the software platform that ITIS has developed over several
years to support diverse applications which ITIS and our partners develop. These
applications deliver information through a variety of media (web, mobile phone
voice messages, short message text, e-mail, radio, digital, phone) to enable
users to get information about their journeys which is timely and accurate.
TrafficScience produces reliable, high-quality real-time and historical traffic
information, suitable for a range of applications and users. The patented FVD
technology gives us a distinct advantage in providing detailed information that
covers wide geographic territories - often nationally - at a lower cost than was
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previously possible. To our partners, our software platform is the basis for their
applications, generating new and increased revenue streams.
Data about the movement of mobile phones and vehicles is sourced from cellular
networks, vehicle fleets, fixed sensor networks and government agencies. ITIS
pioneered the use of Floating Vehicle Data (FVD) from cellular networks, and it is
key to us being able to offer traffic information with the greatest geographic
coverage.
The complex analysis performed within TrafficScience results in comprehensive
high-quality information about traffic flows - both real-time and historical.
Accurate prediction of traffic flows is vital in providing information that users
trust.
We work with public and commercial organisations to provide data to them in
precisely the way they need to be able to further increase the value of the data
in the applications those organisations build and use to deliver enhanced services
to their customers. We work with partners to help them develop applications that
use TrafficScience information, and in some cases develop applications directly
for end customers.
TrafficScience uses ITIS’ patented Floating Vehicle Data (FVD) technology, which
collects anonymous location data from devices travelling within mobile phone
networks and GPS enabled fleets. This data can be collected over a wide area –
typically nationally - and allows road network operators to monitor real time
traffic information over far greater geographic areas and monitor much smaller
classes of road than can be done with fixed-sensor systems.
While FVD technology is accurate enough to be used by itself, TrafficScience can
combine FVD data from other sources such as traditional fixed sensor equipment
and journalistic information from eye witness reports. This rich data set can be
analysed to produce traffic information of great precision and accuracy.
ITIS’ FVD data collection does not require any fixed roadside equipment and as a
result, the cost to install and maintain TrafficScience is significantly reduced vs.
fixed equipment. The timeliness and quality of traffic information for road users
and road network operators is significantly improved.
PTV
PTV can use so-called floating car data (FCD) to calculate up-to-date traffic data.
Vehicles that serve as mobile data collection devices provide information about
the current traffic situation. Anonymised data is transmitted via mobile phone
networks to the FCD control centre. The FCD data record contains the current
geographic coordinates and information on the precise time. As a result, all
driving
conditions
can
be
modelled,
even
queues
of
standing
traffic
on
motorways or at traffic lights, for example. The data is geocoded on a map based
on the communication between the vehicles and the FCD control centre. The FCD
control centre notifies all FCD participants of alternative routes as soon as an
incident occurs.
PTV's TrafficPlatform not only uses stationary measurement data that is collected
by means of conventional detectors, but also mobile measurement data that is
included in numerous advanced traffic management systems. FCD helps planners
to significantly improve the accuracy of analysis and forecast methods. The FCD
harmoniser
embedded
in
PTV's
traffic
platform
ensures
that
the
traffic
management system can immediately use the data generated by each vehicle. In
addition to data collection and import of position reports, it is possible to model
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161
road network data. Traffic-related information can thus be calculated and then
be aggregated.
The PTV TrafficPlatform is based on a modular architecture and provides
intelligent methods for traffic analyses and forecasts. It therefore builds the
basis for a wide range of applications in the field of advanced, integrated and
effective
traffic
and
transportation
management.
The
platform
excels
at
accurately and dynamically modelling current and expected traffic conditions
based on real-time data. Traffic reporters at traffic management centres can now
access all static and dynamic traffic data and reports in real-time. The
information can be edited, supplemented, displayed and analysed on maps. The
PTV TrafficPlatform helps traffic planners to both manage and intelligently
combine the data sets.
The PTV TrafficPlatform allows traffic management centres to access information
about the current traffic conditions on motorways and in cities. Additionally, it is
possible to create short-term, medium- and long-term traffic forecasts. In order
to receive valuable information about the current traffic condition it is essential
to combine the data collected from different sources. This includes, for example,
detector data, traffic count data, information about events, traffic data provided
by mobile phone users and floating car data (FCD) as well as messages sent
from onboard or mobile devices.
Universal PTV technology and open interfaces: PTV's new software solution
merges data from different sources. It helps the user to deal with overlapping
data and conflicting data and supports all standard data formats. The intelligent
platform also supplements PTV Vision, the software suite for transportation
planning and traffic engineering. Existing dynamic data can be used for
calibrating a static traffic model. The PTV TrafficPlatform is based on universal
PTV
technology,
homogeneous
data and
data
structure
as
well
as
open
interfaces.
OPTIS
OPTIS stands for Optimized Traffic In Sweden.
The project was initiated to
develop a successful and cost effective method of collecting data on traffic in
order to create good traveler information. The OPTIS project is part of the so
called ”Green Car”, which is a joint venture project between the state and the
car manufacturers, concerning the development of vehicles with improved
environmental
qualities
(including
reductions
in
emissions
resulting
from
improved traffic information and reduced travel times).
The parties signing the agreement were SAAB Automobiles, Scania Commercial
Vehicles, Volvo Truck Corporation and Volvo Cars.
During a period of six years
starting in 2000, a total of 1.8 billion SEK (~$228M) has been spent in this
program, of which the state contribution is 0.5 billion (~$63M). OPTIS is a joint
venture between SAAB Automobiles, Scania Commercial Vehicles, Volvo Cars,
Volvo Truck Corporation, and The Swedish National Road Administration.
Peek
Traffic and Telia participated in some of the subprojects.
The field trial took place in April through September of the year 2002 – a total of
six months. This proved the feasibility of the technical solution.
The relatively
small number of vehicles participating still provided valuable information on the
conditions of the Gothenburg road network, where other data sources were
lacking.
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The objectives of the OPTIS project were to build a server solution for FCD –
Floating Car Data and verify it by simulations, perform a field trial and a
reference implementation in Gothenburg to verify the simulations and establish
an action program for further application.
Based on the project report, the OPTIS project hypothesis can be condensed into
the following four statements:
"Infrastructure in the vehicles”
Within a few years a large number of vehicles will be potential probes. Newly
manufactured cars will have the required IT platform already assembled from the
factory. This platform also has other fields for application than traffic reporting,
such as vehicle service, navigation, e-mail and internet/intranet.
”Free-floating FCD-probes provide totally covering measures”
OPTIS should show that it is possible to obtain a quality picture of the traffic
status in a metropolis with wide geographical coverage, given a reasonable
number of free floating probe vehicles.
”FCD is a cost effective means to collect traffic data”
OPTIS should show that FCD is a cost effective alternative to stationary sensors,
and that FCD make it economically possible to collect data in more situations and
locations than with other methods. An assumption was that GPRS could be used
for communication.
"FCD provide a picture of the traffic status that is commercially attractive to
Service Providers”
The project report notes that simplicity is a fundamental concept of the OPTIS
project that applies to probe and server.
The probe is to collect and wirelessly
transmit positions to the server.
Architectural features include:
•
No advanced calculations to be executed in the probe
•
No digital map in the vehicle
•
Geographically independent probe
•
No need to update map information
•
No advanced algorithms
The OPTIS software should be small enough to fit in existing systems, which
facilitate the use of available infrastructure of the vehicle and reduce costs.
Simplicity in the probe at the expense of more intense communication between
probe and server (compared to a more advanced probe calculating travel times
directly). The server receives position reports from all vehicles and processes
them accordingly. Travel times are calculated at link level for each probe by
determining a position in the road network and identifying when a vehicle passes
the beginning and end of a link. The difference in the two times is the measured
travel time for the link.
The probe concept within OPTIS is independent of positioning and wireless
transmission of data. In the field trial GPS was chosen to determine position and
GSM/SMS was used for transmission to the server.
This choice was made as:
GPS is very precise (with an accuracy of approximately 10 metres) with
worldwide coverage. GSM/SMS is a system with good coverage of the studied
area. It is simple and well-tried, although the cost for transmission is relatively
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163
high. Volvo Cars market a product – Volvo OnCall – which contains these two
components in a hardware designed for vehicle use.
The OPTIS probe concept was realized by modifying the OnCall unit to collect and
transmit positions to the server. The probe already performed the functions of
GPS-positioning and communication via SMS.
The OnCall hardware was not
modified. The OPTIS field trial comprised 223 probe equipped vehicles in the city
of Gothenburg.
Criteria for selecting these probes were to receive the largest
possible number of vehicle kilometres per day and probe in a geographically
limited area. In addition, the OPTIS map was restricted to include arterials and
secondary road network, and hence only vehicles frequently using this road were
qualified.
OPTIS evaluations indicate that:
•
High quality travel information can be produced using the OPTIS concept.
•
Alternative routes at major incidents can save as much as 25 minutes for
those involved.
•
Major investments in OPTIS can reduce emissions if reliable information on
alternative travel routes can be spread to the road users.
However, more
developed environmental strategies are required to achieve desired effects.
•
The illustrated actual travel time and travel speed produced by OPTIS
facilitate more accurate traffic messages from the traffic radio and provide
TIC with a better overall picture of the current traffic situation.
Discussion and analysis
Potential deployment barriers in the context of floating car data/ cellular systems
might include the following:
•
Poor prerequisites for services, inferior access to data, inferior quality of data
•
Poor business models and business cases delivering services not meeting
properly with user needs
•
Fragmented governmental policies resulting fragmented service markets
unable to foster sustainable development
•
Problems with privacy, liability issues and trust of services
•
Lack of interoperable interfaces e.g. between nomadic/ aftermarket devices
and vehicles; between vehicles and infrastructure
Relevant issues for future standardisation can therefore include:
•
friction data detection and processing,
•
data models for traffic and road weather data,
•
floating-car data, etc.
Creation of new standards can only follow the innovation process; however
standards should be investigated at an early state. ITS system architecture
related matters should identify where the application is planned to be adopted
(e.g. Pan-European/National). When making incremental improvements system
architecture might not be relevant.
The OPTIS project report recommends the following within the field of FCD:
•
A large scale demonstration project should be executed using FCD in
Gothenburg and Stockholm.
The Swedish National Road Administration
defined as final user (i.e., owner and administrator of the road network) is
proposed to be in charge as project manager and financing.
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should be performed in close cooperation with the car manufacturers,
telecom industry and the municipalities concerned.
•
The main task of the Swedish National Road Administration is to specify the
need of traffic data in terms of contents, geographical coverage, interface to
existing technical platforms in Traffic Management Centres and to develop
required server unit and algorithms
•
The main task of the car industry is to specify the market need (SW/HW
platforms for FCD in the vehicle) and to influence the development of a
European standard for FCD via the organizations of ACEA and EUCAR.
•
The task of the telecom industry should be to facilitate suitable infrastructure
for communication between vehicle and server unit and provide for an
interface in the vehicles and VTC/TIC.
•
Vehicles equipped with FCD should be able to operate with no interference in
both Gothenburg and Stockholm. In other words, full compatibility is
required.
•
The server unit that is developed (client in Gothenburg and Stockholm)
should be open to other contracted users for further developing and
demonstrating of ITS applications.
European actors should be invited and
allowed to test their own applications in need of traffic data (i.e., FCD)
•
With the aim of influencing European standards, the large scale field trial
with FCD in Sweden (two test sites in Gothenburg and Stockholm) ought to
be marketed in Europe at full strength.
•
A total of 3% of all vehicles in Gothenburg and Stockholm should be
equipped with FCD technique; the cost is estimated to about 30 - 35 million
SEK (equipment in vehicle, server unit and project management included).
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165
Annex 7: Multi criteria analysis
Introduction
This paper addresses the WP2 “Innovative data collection concepts; use of ITS”
of the ETIS PLUS project. The objectives of this WP are:
•
to solve some of the most relevant problems of the databases of freight and
passenger transport information currently in use in the European network
models (namely TRANSTOOLS and the follow-up projects TEN-CONNECT and
WORLDNET);
•
to supply new sources of data useful to improve indicators of transport
quality, safety, environmental and socio-economic impacts.
More specifically, this paper summarises the conclusions of task 2.2, the second
one of the four tasks in which the WP2 is structured. Namely:
Task 1: The identification of ITS applications and their usability to solve current
data problems
Task 2: The assessment of barriers to the exploitation of ITS data for European
transport modelling purposes
Task 3: Appraisal of possible solutions and strategies to fully exploit ITS data for
European modelling purposes.
Task 4: Design of pilot experiments of new ITS-based data collection methods.
The main focus of the task is to create a first selection of promising ITS
applications that could address the current data limitations as identified in task
2.1.
The paper is structured as follows:
•
•
•
Description of assessment methodology (Multi criteria analysis)
o
Short introduction on the ITS applications
o
Introduction to the criteria based on the aspects identified in 2.1
Results of methodology
o
Plain analysis
o
Selection of pilot technology
Conclusions & recommendations
Methodology
To realise the selection of the most promising ITS applications a multi criteria
analysis (MCA) has been performed. The goal of the MCA is to allow all relevant
criteria to be taken into account and realise most promising applications from
different stakeholder perspectives.
The starting point of the MCA was the work performed in task 2.1 - identification
of ITS applications. The ten applications that are used in the MCA are (for
completeness sake) shortly described below. The criteria for the analysis are
derived from the 7 key data areas that have been discussed in task 2.1. These
themes are shortly repeated in table 1.
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Table 4
1
Major data areas from task 2.1
Socio Economic Data
Household
data,
vehicle
stocks,
GDP,
Value
Added.
Mainly on NUTS2 level.
2
Freight Demand
A base matrix with Freight Transport Chain Data
on NUTS2 level. From this base matrix a number
of matrices are available on a more aggregate
level that are less complex (without transport
chain data).
3
Passenger Demand
Origin-destination database, at NUTS2 level, for
road, rail and air.
4
Network Data
Four network databases, for road, rail, airports,
and inland waterways.
5
Freight Services and Costs
O/D database of transport costs, distances and
journey times, for road, rail and sea networks.
On NUTS2 level.
6
7
Passenger
Services
and
O/D database of passenger transport costs and
Costs
journey times for road, rail, and air.
External Effects
Emissions (also included in Network Links), and
Airport emissions.
Based on these 7 categories a total of 43 criteria were designed at first to be
able to perform a multi criteria analysis on the mentioned ITS Technologies,
described in paragraph 2.2.
The process of the MCA is to match the criteria with the ITS technologies in a
matrix, for every criterion the score of the specific technology is recorded. In the
current situation the scoring was kept rather simple, just using numbers of 1 - 5,
with 1 being the lowest score and 5 the highest. The next step is the weighing of
the criteria where criteria which are more important than others are given higher
weights, resulting in a stronger effect of the score for this specific criterion. The
total for all criteria are summed up creating a ranking of the ITS technologies.
The technology with the highest score is overall speaking the most promising
application.
Validation of results
Methodologically speaking more robust results could be obtained if another
person performed this analysis independently. Furthermore policy makes could,
based on their specific questions and needs, vary the weights of the MCA. This
could also influence the results. For now the weights are put down as 1, so all
equally strong and the results for the criteria are given by the average of a
couple of TNO persons.
ITS technologies
Sensor networks
Road sensors are considered a common technology. A new development in this
field is wireless sensor networks in the asphalt.
Cameras and ANPR
Cameras are used to register the vehicles. With Automatic Number Plate
Recognition (ANPR) software the number plates are extracted from the video
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images, making it possible to identify unique vehicles at one location or at
multiple locations to determine a vehicle trajectory.
A new development is the use of video cameras to detect vehicles at one point,
over a short section (using a single camera) or over a longer section (using a
series of cameras).
Satellite for snapshot of traffic
TNO and DLR have executed a field test in 2009 to investigate the options of
using satellites combined with radar technology to detect traffic. DLR has access
to the TerraSar X satellite that, using synthetic radar technology, can create a
three-dimensional image of the observed earth surface. Moving objects can be
identified by applying this technology and it is possible to determine the position
and speed of the vehicles.
OBU and DSRC
Beacon transponder systems are characterized by their On-Board-Unit (OBU) and
type of communication. Radio Frequency IDentification (RFID) is a combination
of measurement and data communication. Other types of data communication
are radio waves, infrared, and Dedicated Short Range Communications (DSRC).
Mobile device with Bluetooth
With the use of sensitive antennas it is possible to detect a Bluetooth signal. As
each Bluetooth signal is unique, it offers options to detect individual road users.
As the signal is not linked to the individual who owns the device with the
Bluetooth signal, it does not invade privacy.
Automatic Vehicle Location (AVL)
This system relies on transponders that are attached to roadside signposts and a
receiver on the vehicle to determine when the vehicle passes a checkpoint.
Advanced Vehicle Identification (AVI)
Probe vehicles are sampled at fixed location by means of electronic transponders
(tags) as the vehicle pass the sensors. Each reader senses probe vehicles as
they pass a reader station and transmits the time and location of the probes to a
central controller. As the probe vehicles pass through successive tag readers,
software calculates average travel times and speeds for a roadway segment.
•
Satellite positioning with GPRS/UMTS/Wimax/LTE
Satellite positioning by using a Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) for
determining the location is often applied. This is commonly referred to as
GPS. GPS devices are widespread in navigation systems, taxi fleets, freight
transport fleets and as security device in passenger cars.
•
Cellular positioning of mobile devicesand GPRS/UMTS/Wimax/LTE
Cellular positioning is based on triangulation, time advance, time of arrival
and angle of arrival, which uses the signals of three antennas. The mobile
device is used as sensor to determine the location. The main distinction is
between mobile phones in active or idle modes.
GPS Travel Diary
Based on the old-fashioned collection data through travel diaries an additional
aspect can be added, the use of GPS. This would create some small advantages
for the actual data collection.
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Criteria that are used in the analysis
For the Technologies a list of overall criteria has been made. Based on the
information coming from the seven themes for data collection a total of 6
categories has been identified. Every criterion has been given a description of
how the criterion should be interpreted. These descriptions are given below per
category.
Accuracy has been given a specific category since the information to be collected
from the Technology needs to be an improvement to existing knowledge and
needs to be one step forward. Accuracy has been subdivided into 5 criteria which
all perform a specific role in the data collection process.
Accuracy
Location accuracy
Description
How good is the method at identifying at which locations a
vehicle drove?
Longitudinal accuracy
Lateral accuracy
Distance accuracy
Route accuracy
OD accuracy
Target accuracy
How exactly can the distance a vehicle has moved be
measured/ computed?
How exactly can the route of vehicle has moved be measured/
computed?
How exactly can the origin and destination of vehicle and or
passenger/load be measured/ computed?
Are all of the, and only the, intended vehicles (or
passengers/loads) measured?
The second category is the collection of additional information about the vehicle,
route or modality. Information in this category is mainly supporting the
statistical analysis to be performed on the acquired data and there is a strong
relation with the socio-economic data. This information category also consists of
5 criteria, knowingly:
Information
Insight in
characteristics of
load/ passenger
Description
It the method capable of collecting data on the characteristics
of load/ passenger (type of goods, travel motive, preferences)?
Vehicle
How well can the technology differentiate between different
differentiation
types of vehicles, such as, weight class, emission class, etc.?
Insight in activity
pattern/ supply
chain
It the method capable of collecting data on the activity
pattern/ supply chain over a period of time?
Time
How exactly can the time when a vehicle has used the
differentiation
infrastructure be recorded?
Multimodal
application
Is the method applicable for several modes of transport?
The third category is dealing with the actual deployment of the technologies. It is
the goal to find the most promising technology including being realistic about the
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actual deployment of such a technology, since a pilot project is also foreseen in
the course of the project. The deployment category discusses besides the cost
aspect the ease of implementation and related time scale. The cost aspect can be
divided into another 5 sub-criteria.
Deployment
Description
Technology costs
Roadside
infrastructure costs
Vehicle
infrastructure costs
Operational costs
Depreciation costs
What are the costs for government, road users, and other
actors?
What are the costs for roadside infrastructure?
What are the costs for vehicle infrastructure?
What are the operational costs of the technology in terms of
exploitation and maintenance?
What are the depreciation costs (related to the lifespan of the
technology)?
What are the additional costs for other actors that support/
Transaction costs
enable the data collection (for example the effort of road users
to complete a travel diary)?
Spatial coverage of
the technology
In which areas has the technology coverage?
How large is the need for introducing and installing new
New equipment
(nonstandard) technology?
Time to deployment
Ease of
How long time does it take to develop and deploy the
technology?
How much effort does it take to implement the technology?
implementation
To what extent could the technology be adapted to changing
Ability to adapt
requirements and can it be migrated with other technologies?
How well does the technology handle large increases in the
Scalability
number of users, the road network, etc.?
How easy is it to use the technology (e.g., in terms of the
User friendliness
manual procedures necessary, the installation and detection of
errors)?
From a policy perspective the possibility for competition is an important issue. In
this retrospect two criteria have been identified which create the possibility for
analyzing the potential of fostering competition of the various technologies.
Competition
Description
Fostering
To what extent does the technology offer incentives for a
competition
multitude of technology/ service providers?
Support for
How easy is it to add new services (to the basic measurement
additional services
or communication functionality)?
The
category
technology
deals
with
the
technological
aspects
which
are
important when looking at the different technologies. The issues vary from
operation aspects such as maintenance to the effort for updating and ease of
implementation.
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171
Technology
Integration with
other methods
Interoperability
Ease of data fusion
Description
How well does the technology cooperate with other relevant
methods?
How well can de gathered data through this technology be
fused with other data sources?
Technological lock-
How well does the technology avoid technological lock-in with
in: communication
respect to communication technology?
Technological lock-
How well does the technology avoid technological lock-in with
in: positioning
respect to positioning equipment?
Update effort
Availability
Maintainability
System complexity
How much effort is needed when new road sections are
introduced, equipment update is needed etc.?
How robust and reliable is the technology (for instance, is their
a single point of failure)?
How easy is it to maintain the technology?
How complex is the system, e.g., in terms of number of and
complexity of the equipment needed?
Proven technology
Has the technology proven itself elsewhere?
Communication
How much communication is needed, e.g., between vehicles,
need
roadside units and central servers?
The last category of criteria is about risks for the actual deployment of the
specific technology. Here aspects like protection for privacy or integrity are
discussed, but also the risk of information theft and vandalism is taken into
account here.
Risks
Description
Visual intrusion
Does the technology result in visual intrusion?
Risk of
destructiveness
Risk of information
theft
Is the technology robust against destructiveness?
How easy is it to steal information from the system?
How well does the system protect reliable information (physical
Integrity protection
security of equipment, security of data communication and
data access security)?
Privacy protection
How well does the system protect user sensitive information?
Results and analysis
In this chapter the results for the multi-criteria-analysis is presented. In the first
paragraph the simple results including the ranking is presented. This is based on
the totals from the categories and the grand-total score for the different
technologies. Furthermore the paragraph discusses the interesting scorings for
the different criteria. The second paragraph discusses the selection of one
technology for the pilot project.
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Results of categories
In the following tables
the scores of the 10 technologies are shown for the 6
categories of criteria. Table x gives for overview purposes the total ranking for
the 10 technologies. As mentioned in the introduction the maximum score per
criterion was 5, the minimum score was 1. For a number of technologies a
criterion was not relevant or not applicable, this indicates why for some
technologies the scoring are lower than expected.
Table 5
Scoring of the technologies for the 6 categories
Category
Sensor
networks
Accuracy
Cameras and
ANPR
7
Video based
monitoring
14
Satellite
snapshot
traffic
OBU and
DSRC
9
18
13
Information
5
12
13
7
15
Deployment
17
26
23
19
27
Competition
2
3
3
3
6
17
26
18
15
29
9
7
7
8
7
Technology
Risks
Category
Mobile and
Bluetooth
AVL (receiver
road side)
AVI
Satellite
AVI
Cellular
GPS travel
diaries
Accuracy
11
18
23
24
20
Information
11
15
19
20
23
Deployment
28
25
35
36
23
Competition
4
4
9
9
6
23
29
31
30
5
8
7
8
7
0
Technology
Risks
For the category accuracy there are two technologies that score significantly
better compared to the other technologies. The AVI (based either on Satellite or
Cellular networks) both are expected to be very accurate.
For the information category the GPS Travel Diary scores the highest in
comparison to the other technologies. Specifically low are the sensor network or
video based monitoring which are unable to collect the additional information
needed for further analysis once the data has been collected. The deployment
category shows a number of technologies which look promising:
•
AVI (both satellite and cellular)
•
Mobile & Bluetooth
•
OBU & DSRC
•
Cameras and ANPR
•
AVL (roadside receiver)
For almost all technologies described here technology has already been proven
(or is being proven at this very moment). Furthermore the technologies focusing
on already existing mobile devices are scoring good on the costs aspects, this is
an explanation for the ranking in this category.
In the competition category three technologies score better compared to the
other technologies, the AVI systems as well as the OBU are easily implemented
with different service providers. The other technologies, for example the cameras
are less competitive oriented. Only the providers of the equipment foster
competition, there are no actual services connected for which competition can be
envisioned.
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November 26, 2010
173
In the technology category the technologies scoring the best are technologies
which are easy to implement or are not expected to have major problems on
interoperability or availability. The technologies which are based on proven
technology are Cameras, OBU and AVL.
For risks criteria the scores are divided equally over the different technologies, in
other words it is expected that all technologies will have to deal with a number
of risks, it being visual intrusion or risk for destructiveness.
The total scores of all these categories are presented in table 2, with the ranking
of the technologies based on their scores for the criteria.
As can also be seen the scoring of the GPS diary is rather low compared to the
other technologies for specific categories. This is due to the fact that this
technology creates a need for a lot of interaction with the actual user of this
technology and therefore makes it difficult to score this technology on a number
of criteria.
Table 6
Total scoring creates the following ranking of Technologies
Technology
Score
AVI Cellular
126
AVI Satellite
125
OBU and DSRC
100
AVL (receiver road side)
98
Cameras and ANPR
88
Mobile and Bluetooth
85
77
GPS travel diaries
74
Satellite snapshot traffic
61
Sensor networks
57
This
table
provides
the
first
basis
for
the
selection
of
most
promising
technologies for a potential pilot project. Interesting is the fact that the top
three consists of technologies which are based on an on-board unit of some sort.
The communication with the surrounding environment apparently is not a critical
issue. Furthermore the expectations are that OBUs are creating less barriers for
deployment and will deliver the best results for the goal of the project,
knowingly creating statistical data to be used in transportation modelling.
Selection for a pilot project
Another goal besides the actual ranking of the technologies is the selection of a
specific technology for a pilot project. With respect to this aspect, one specific
criterion for the pilot project is necessary to mention here: Proven technology.
The scoring is given below:
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Table 7
Scoring for criterion proven technology
Technology
Scoring for proven technology
Sensor networks
1
Cameras and ANPR
5
3
Satellite snapshot traffic
1
OBU and DSRC
5
Mobile and Bluetooth
3
AVL (receiver road side)
5
AVI Satellite
4
AVI Cellular
2
GPS travel diaries
As can “be seen 3 technologies appear to be based on proven technology. If the
results of the pilot project are to be actually used within further analysis this
criterion is definitely necessary to take this into account together with the overall
scoring of the criteria.
Methodological recommendations
As explained above, this analysis is based on the input from independent
stakeholder. For validation purposes the excel table with the different scoring of
the criteria could be filled again by another independent stakeholder. The scores
of the two (or preferably more participants) could than be compared and would
create a more sound result in terms of validation.
One of the advantages of performing a MCA is the possibility to vary the weights
of the different criteria. In other words what is the effect if a specific stakeholder
with a specific interest, e.g. competition would increase the weights of these
criteria. How will the ranking of the technologies be affected. This advantage
could be furthermore used to identify the different ranking for different
stakeholders
allowing
to
identify
possible
similarities
or
differences
and
possibilities for cooperation.
The last methodological recommendation is the need of information to be able to
properly score the criteria for the different technologies. During the process of
scoring the criteria for a number of criteria the absence of information caused
the scoring to be kept empty. The criteria for which this goes are:
Operational costs
Depreciation costs
What are the operational costs of the technology in
terms of exploitation and maintenance?
What are the depreciation costs (related to the lifespan
of the technology)?
What are the additional costs for other actors that
Transaction costs
support/ enable the data collection (for example the
effort of road users to complete a travel diary)?
Risk of information theft
How easy is it to steal information from the system?
How well does the system protect reliable information
Integrity protection
(physical security of equipment, security of data
communication and data access security)?
Privacy protection
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November 26, 2010
How well does the system protect user sensitive
information?
175
For these criteria more information is needed in order to be able to perform the
MCA in a proper manner.
Conclusions
The analysis as discussed above has delivered a first ranking of the technologies.
This ranking allows for a first selection of these technologies for a potential pilot
project. The ranking reveals a main interest in On Board Unit (OBU) oriented
technologies.
The selection of the pilot project technology is not easy - based on proven
technology could prove to be best for the following steps in the project
Methodological recommendations
The scoring of the criteria should be performed by another independent person
for validation reasons. Furthermore a sensitivity analysis should be performed by
varying
the
weights.
This
variation
in
weights
could
also
assist
specific
stakeholders with a specific focus to see the effect on the ranking if their focus
was to prevail. The last recommendation focuses on the need for information for
a number of criteria in order to be able to properly score these criteria for the
identified technologies.
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Annex 8: Data Collection Techniques
Most
ITS
are
developed
for
operation
and
planning
of
traffic
and
road
infrastructure, considering in particular security, charging and control traffic in
real time. However, the major campaigns to collect traffic information are still
performed with the most common methodologies, using equipment installed on
its own infrastructure (piezometers and inductive loops with associated data
collection devices), equipment for automatic counting of vehicles and manual
counts. This is the case for example of England and Germany, where the traffic
census is made based on these technologies.
Therefore, for the sole purpose of gathering information for statistical purposes
or road planning (not considering the dynamic management of demand),
common methodologies are used, like the ones described above.
The major innovations are thus associated to the processing of information,
rather than to the collection methodologies. Since it is not possible to obtain
traffic information for all sections of the road network on a national scale, some
countries have simulation models to estimate traffic across all the sections of
their road networks. These models can also be linked to a National Transport
Model, which aggregates other information such as the road infrastructure
characteristics and socio-economic data.
The following paragraphs describe some examples of national transport models,
which may or may not have models for traffic simulation.
Germany
The BISStra is a geographic information system, built on standard commercial
software, developed to enable coordinated use of data for planning activities,
management and R&D (research and development). The BISStra supports the
Federal Ministry of Transport, Building and Urban Affairs and the Federal
Highway Research Institute (BASt) in carrying out its various administrative
functions and R&D. This system allows to store inventory data about national
highways, bridges and tunnels, including age, loads exerted by traffic on roads
and structures and number of people injured or killed in accidents.
This system essentially consists of a central system with thirteen specialized
cells, which are integrated into the global system in stages. All fields related to
the national road network are integrated in one application. This application
provides results in the form of statistics and reports that can be viewed
geographically (against a map background) or in graphs.
The core system saves all alphanumeric and geometric data on the national road
network and can be used to geographically display the layout and geometry of
motorways. The planning and development of main roads network is supported in
two fields: the field of traffic information that provides data accumulated from
the automatic counting stations and manual counts, and another consisting of a
cell of data used to manage information stored centrally by BASt, relating to the
physical conditions of the roads. The Annual Intervention Program on future
extensions of interstate road network is one component of the National Highway
Traffic.
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177
The data in the cells of BISStra are compiled with the help of all the information
on the TEN-T (Trans European Transport Networks) to prepare periodic reports of
this network. Finally, there is a field to the annual review of the network of
interstate highways. The options analysis and evaluation provided by this system
makes it possible to obtain information relevant to ongoing support for research
on transport projects.
Road traffic simulation system in the Nordrhein-Westfalen region
The traffic simulation model currently implemented in the region NordrheinWestfalen (North Germany) presents a picture of the current traffic situation in
each section of the highways network, with a total length of 2250km, and
presents traffic forecasts for the following 30 or 60 minutes, making also
predictions of travel times for the following seven days.
The traffic behavior is simulated based on a detailed representation of the road
characteristics, and on real traffic data (2500 points with automatically detected
real-time information ) measured on motorways is then reproduced in the model.
Traffic data includes vehicle speed and average traffic speed.
Source: http://www.autobahn.nrw.de/
France
The traffic modelling is carried in France by TransCAD ® which is a module of
transportation modelling that works on a Geographic Information System. The
system has several features that allow doing analysis and diagnostics on the
performance of the national road network and multimodal traffic modelling.
Outputs from the TransCAD Model
Source: http://www.modelisationdestransports.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/
This
tool
is
displayed
on
the
Calipers’
website:
www.caliper.com/TCTravelDemand.htm. This software is currently used to assess
the volumes of heavy traffic passing through France, representing rail services,
carrying out accessibility studies and evaluating new road projects with SETRA
modules implemented in the interface.
This simulation system can also produce management scenarios resulting from
changes in supply and demand for road transport in different scopes and in
different time horizons. This makes it possible to define reference scenarios for
socio-economic assessments and studies of economic profitability for specific
projects.
United Kingdom
UK doesn’t have a road traffic simulation model. There is however a model for
calculating the capacity of roads and transportation costs (Road Capacity and
Costs Model - Forge) which is part of a National Transport Model that is used to
evaluate the impact level of the road system policies and to demonstrate its
results among road users.
The model works on representative samples of the road network in 20 subregions, 10 types of area and up to seven road types, for 19 time periods and
flow direction. The results for each sample (which has good coverage of main
roads, but only a small number of secondary roads) are then extrapolated to the
entire road network.
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The Inputs to the road model and to costs assessment models are traffic growth
(based on the growth of travel by passenger cars) and vehicle.mile growth in
other categories of vehicles (heavy goods vehicles, buses, light goods vehicles).
This traffic growth is applied on the traffic levels of the base year to determine
future demand.
The National Transport Model (NTM) has been developed over several years, and
has been used by the Department for Transport to estimate road demand
forecasting with horizons up to 10 years, but also for the preparation of the
annual road traffic forecast, definition of policies and strategic analysis of
alternatives, especially in England and Wales. During 2006 and 2007, a number
of improvements and upgrades were made to further develop its functionality.
Austria
The ASFINAG - Autobahnen-und-Schnellstraßen Finanzierungs-AG is a company
owned solely by the Federal Government (Roads Department), and is responsible
for the construction, maintenance, operation and financing of motorways and
"express roads". The funding, construction and maintenance of highways of
national importance are also under the responsibility of ASFINAG.
This company has currently implemented a traffic modelling system, covering the
entire Austrian territory and its borders. There are at least two systems at
national level: one under the ASFINAG responsibility and another which belongs
to ÖBB (national railway authority). Besides these, there are several systems in
the regional administration, including the management system of traffic counts
of the German company PTV, which is used by the federal state of Tyrol
(www.tirol.gv.at/vde).
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ETISplus D2 Annex report ITS pilot definition on usability for

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