Finds from a Roman Sewer System and an Adjacent Building in

Transcription

The Archaeology of York The Small Finds
17/1
Finds from a Roman Sewer
System and an Adjacent
Building in Church Street
Arthur MacGregor
Published for the York Archaeological Trust
by the Council for British Archaeology
1976
The Archaeology of York
Volume 17: The Small Finds
General Editor P.V. Addyman
©York Archaeological Trust for Excavation and Research 1976
First published by
Council for British Archaeology
ISBN 0 900312 31 9
Digital edition produced by Lesley Collett, 2011
Volume 17 Fascicule I
Finds from a Roman Sewer System and an Adjacent
Building in Church Street
By Arthur MacGregor
Introduction
A number of finds were made during the excavation of a Roman sewer system and part
of an adjacent building complex in Church Street, York. The circumstances of excavation
and the archaeological results are fully described elsewhere (AY 3/1) while a synopsis is
included below. This report describes the small objects from the site; the ceramics which
have a bearing on the archaeological interpretation are discussed as part of the excavation
report (AY 3/1) and environmental considerations are treated in AY 14/1.
Rescue excavations on the site were carried out in the winter of 1972–73; the area in
question (Fig. 1) lies alongside Church Street, which follows the line of the intervallum
road on the south-east side of the Roman legionary fortress.The excavations were primarily
concerned with part of an extensive sewer system, whose course and constructional history
were traced. In 1974 a brief supplementary investigation took place in the sewer, to which
access had been maintained by the insertion of a manhole, the remainder of the site having
by then been sealed under a new block of shops and offices.
Sadly, time and resources were insufficient to permit extensive excavation of the surface
buildings to which the sewer related. On the evidence available, however, it may be suggested
that its primary function was to drain the various services within a bath building.
The main artery of the system was Alignment 1, part of which (1a–1c) was cut off when
a blocking wall was inserted and the flow diverted into a newly-built, or perhaps rebuilt,
channel, Alignment 2. Several smaller side passages emptied into Alignment 1, each fed by
a drain-hole in its roof; a number of ‘splash-downs’ also drained directly into Alignment 1;
no subsidiary channels were found in the excavated stretch of Alignment 2, suggesting that
its exclusive purpose may have been to carry away the overflow from the principal baths.
Periodic cleaning of the sewer may have resulted in the removal of much of the earlier
material, so that the contents are unlikely to be representative of the entire period of use.
The pottery evidence suggests a terminal date in the late 4th or early 5th century; the date
of construction is more conjectural but a Trajanic origin is suggested (AY 3/1, 23). The
datable finds all fall within this range, although demonstrably late material is not detectable.
Comparison of the findspots of conjoining potsherds (AY 3/1,38,43) has shown that
the composition of the sediment was at times so fluid that introduced material was carried
for considerable distances along the channels and frequently settled into layers already
deposited on the floor.
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2
Fig. 1
Plan of Roman sewer system and adjacent structures at Church Street,York
With the exception, therefore, of the material from Alignment 1a, which seems to have
been isolated by the late 2nd or early 3rd century (AY 3/1,23,37), little significance can be
attached to the stratigraphic position of any of the finds; nonetheless, the context of each find
is recorded in the catalogue, which is followed by a separate finds list arranged by context.
The upper levels of part of a substantial and well-preserved Roman building were
excavated alongside the sewer (AY 3/1, 17–22); finds from this building, evidently part of
a bath house, are discussed and catalogued after those from the sewer. All finds came from
the upper layers and thus represent only the later use of the building.
The finds catalogue (pp. 21–4) is arranged by material; presentation in the text follows
the same sequence where possible but objects are discussed primarily according to class
or function, irrespective of material.
Roman finds from the sewer
Gaming counters
Counters in stone, pottery and glass (Fig. 2) as well as bone (Fig. 3) form the largest
category of finds from the sewer. Both stone counters (1, 2) have been chipped from thin
slips of micaceous sandstone (cf. Wenham, 1968, 98). Several of the pottery counters
(16–26) have been similarly manufactured from body sherds; only in two cases (23, 24)
have the rough broken edges been smoothed down to give a more regular and finished
Finds from a Roman Sewer and an Adjacent Building in Church Street
3
Fig. 2 Gaming counters of stone (1), pottery (16, 28), and glass (59). Scale 1:2
Fig. 3 Gaming counters of bone. Scale 1:2
appearance. An alternative method of production is represented by 27-30, all of them made by
trimming the bases of broken colour-coated beakers. One of the glass counters (51) has been produced
in a similar way from the base of a glass beaker, while the remainder (59-61) are ‘custom-made’
from opaque black glass.
Lathe-turned discs of bone are most common and with the one exception (78) have
the obverse or upper surface dished or countersunk in the centre and the edge bevelled or
rounded to some degree; two examples (101, 102) are further embellished with concentric
rings turned on the upper surface. Most of them conform to Kenyon’s Type A (Kenyon,
1948, fig. 91), the centrally perforated 79 belonging to Type A4, while those with concentric
rings belong to Type B.
How many of the bone counters from York belong to a single set is impossible to say:
one of them (84) is numbered VI on the edge but for the others only their size gives any
indication one way or the other; interestingly enough, twelve of the 23 plain counters are
found to have diameters within ± 1 mm. of 20 mm. and thicknesses within ± 0.5 mm. of
3.5 mm., but this may imply no more than that they were of an optimum size dictated by
the shape and dimensions of the animal bones from which they were manufactured. One
counter (78) is distinguished by having a much greater diameter than the others, a convex
upper surface and a central ring-and- dot ornament.
Three counters have rudimentary graffiti scratched on them: 84 -reversed ‘R’ on base;
85 -cross on either surface (cf. Wenham, 1968, fig. 40); 86 -irregular hatching on base
(cf. Down and Rule, 1971, 83). From the range of board games favoured by the Romans
(Austin, 1935, passim), the following are most likely to be represented by these finds.
Ludus duodecim scriptorum, the ‘game of twelve points’, was apparently an early form of
The Small Finds
4
Fig.4 Hones. Scale 1:2
backgammon, played on a board with three rows of twelve stations arranged in two columns.
Frequently each position on the board was marked by a letter, the whole arrangement
forming a sentence (ibid., 31); others were marked by geometric or other devices, as on
the example from Holt, Denbighshire (Grimes, 1930, 131 and fig. 60, 8). Bell (1960, 33)
mentions that Tabula, a variant of Ludus duodecim scriptorum employing only two rows of
stations, became favoured at least in fashionable circles from the 1st century AD onwards.
One feature of both these games was that players were allowed to ‘pile’ or promote pieces
and, while this would be perfectly easy with the counter-sunk bone discs, those counters
with convex profiles would obviously be very difficult to stack and were almost certainly
used in a quite different game.
Ludus latrunculorum, the ‘soldiers’ game’, seems to be the most likely alternative, a game
somewhat akin to draughts but probably employing a rook’s move as in chess (Austin,
1935, 27). Several suitable squared ‘boards’ of stone have been found in Britain, including
examples from Richborough, Chedworth, Corbridge, and Hadrian’s Wall.l Opposing sets
of pieces were frequently made of glass of differing colours or with distinguishing marks,
as at Lullingstone, where a set of fifteen white and fifteen brown counters with decorative
marks was found on a lead coffin in the 4th-century mausoleum (Liversidge, 1968,350
and fig. 133L).
Several bone counters from the sewer have two straight edges on the base, varying
considerably in the degree of pronouncement but always running parallel to each other.
This common feature was thought at Leicester to be the result of wear from another
type of game, ‘as for tiddlywinks’ (Kenyon, 1948,266). Under the microscope, however,
many of these ‘worn’ areas are seen to retain their original surfaces intact, indicating that
the counters were in fact manufactured from long-bones in which the relative degrees of
wall curvature and thickness made it impossible to achieve a totally flat surface over the
whole disc. In other examples, where no original surface remains, the bevelled edges are
nonetheless always parallel to the grain of the bone and are simply caused by flaking of the
most vulnerable areas along the weakest structural lines. This hazard was apparently quite
evident to the counter manufacturers, who almost invariably chose the internal surface of
the bone as the obverse face, so that any damage incurred by flaking was most likely to be
on the base. There is no evidence, therefore, to maintain the suggestion that any form of
tiddlywinks featured among the games of the Romans.
Hones
Dr Neil Berridge, petrographer at the Institute of Geological Sciences, Leeds, has
examined the hones (5 and 6; Fig. 4) and contributes the following description:
5
Thin sections indicate that both fragments are fine-grained calcareous sandstones
consisting of angular quartz grains set in a coarse matrix of calcite. In addition, the
rock contains much comminuted shelly and phosphatic material and occasional
grains of glauconite and heavy accessory minerals. It is very probably a rock known
as Kentish Rag, from the Greensand of Kent.
Dr Berridge has likened the sections to one already published from York (Morey and
Dunham, 1954, 146) which was also thought to be from the Kentish Greensand; a section
from this hone was more recently examined by Ellis (1969, 174ff.) who thought the Kentish
attribution almost certainly correct but mentioned too the possibility of a derivation from
the calcareous grits of the Jurassic in east Yorkshire.
In discussing similar whetstones from Fishbourne, Peacock (in Cunliffe, 1971, 154f.)
mentions several examples probably derived from the Hythe beds, distributed as far as
York in the north and Alcester, Warwickshire, and the Barnsley Park villa near Cirencester
in the west, concluding that by the 3rd century at least the trade in Kentish hones was well
developed. Exploitation of the source for building purposes seems to have got under way at
an earlier date, however, for a sailing barge loaded with Kentish Rag was sunk at Blackfriars
in the 2nd century (Marsden, 1967, 44ff.) and buildings of the same material have been
uncovered in London, apparently dating from the mid-1st century.2 No chronological
significance can therefore be assigned to the presence of these hones in the sewer.
It may be noted that 5 is marked by grooves along either side of one edge, a feature
common on hones of this period and thought (Cantrill, 1931,97) to result from markingout the chosen slab with parallel lines before individual hones were snapped off.
Ironwork
Quantities of iron were recovered from the sewer and from the adjacent buildings, all of
it oxidized out of recognition; even with the aid of X-rays it proved impossible to identify
any of the iron objects, with the exception of a few badly corroded nails.
Coins
Mr John Casey of the Department of Archaeology, University of Durham, has identified
the coins from the sewer as follows:
Issue
Date
Conditions
69-81
Corroded
RIC 91b
218-22
SW/SW
CONCORDIA
RIC 211
218-22
SW/SW
SPES AUG/
PUBLICA
as RIC 130
270-73
Corroded
Issuer
Denomination
Type
74
Vespasian
or Titus
Dupondius
75
Elagabalus
Denarius
IOVI
CONSERVATORI
76
Julia Paula
Denarius
77
Tetricus
I or II
‘Antoninianus’
Reference
6
The Small Finds
Fig. 5 Bracelets of shale (3, 4) and glass (65). Scale 1:2
Bracelets
Simplest among the personal ornaments found in the sewer are two undecorated shale
bracelets (3 and 4; Fig. 5): these were widely distributed in Roman Britain but it seems
impossible to assign them to one phase or another within that period; nor does shale
respond to the usual analytical methods which might allow us to locate its origin with any
precision. A single fragment from a glass bracelet (65; Fig. 5) was also recovered; its subtriangular cross-section, clear green grass and spiral blue and white relief moulding are all
features characteristic of Kilbride-Jones’s Type 2 bracelets (Kilbride-Jones, 1938, 372ff.),
for which a date in the late 1st or 2nd century was suggested. (See also Stevenson, 1956,
208ff. and Cunliffe, 1971, 366f. for further discussion of the type.)
Intagli
Dr Martin Henig of the Institute of Archaeology, University of Oxford, has prepared
the following report on the intagli (Fig. 6; Pl. I); in each case the description is of the
impression rather than the gem itself.
8 Red jasper intaglio, oval with flat surface. The stone is in good condition apart from a chip
on the left side. 15 x 12 x 2.5 mm. Alignment 1.
Mars stands towards the front and faces left. He wears a plumed helmet, cuirass, and
tunic. In his right hand he holds a spear, its point towards the ground, and his left
hand rests upon an oval shield. ,
The type, possibly derived from a cult statue of Mars Ultor, dedicated at Rome in
2 BC, is very common on engraved gems and especially on intagli found on sites
associated with the army. We may note examples from Corbridge, Charterhouse on
Mendip, Saalburg, Xanten, and Rankweil in Vorarlberg.4
In its style of cutting we observe the emphasis on texture rather than on form which
is so characteristic of gems cut in the age of the Antonines. Indeed, most of the other
intagli from the sewer are similarly ‘patterned’ and may be compared with the products
of the later Aquileian officinae.5 Red jasper was employed more frequently in the 2nd
century than in earlier times by the Officina dei Diaspri Rossi at Aquileia for example.
9 Red jasper intaglio, oval with flat surface. Surface slightly worn,’ only the upper half of the
gem survives. 5 (originally c.11) x 8 x 2.5 mm. Alignment la.
Mars, nude but with a crested helmet on his head, marches towards the right. In his
right hand he holds a spear and in his left a trophy. The type may be identified with
the Mars Gradivus of Ovid’s Fasti, although in official usage the figure depicted upon
this gem will have been understood as Mars Victor.6 It is very common on intagli,
especially on gems from Roman military sites: examples may be noted from Gloucester,
Fig. 6
Intagli of jasper (8,9,14) cornelian (10, 11, 12, 15) and chalcedony (13). Scale 2:1
7
8
The Small Finds
Charterhouse on Mendip, Caerleon, Vindolanda (Chesterholm, Northumberland),
Wall (Staffordshire), Mansewold, north of the Antonine Wall in Scotland, and others
from Augst and Xanten on the continent.7 Mars Gradivus is depicted on coins, and
a bronze plaque from Burgh Castle may also be cited here.8
10 Cornelian, clouded with black inclusions, oval and slightly convex surface. The stone is in
good condition apart from superficial wear. 14 x 12 x 3 mm. Alignment 1a.
Roma seated towards the left, wearing a crested helmet, peplos, and himation. Beside
her is a cuirass and her left elbow rests on a shield. A sword is indicated on her left
side and in her right hand is a victory.
The gem depicts a pre-Hadrianic conception of the goddess, such as is shown on the
coinage of Nero. Cornelius Vermeule illustrates a similar stone in the Sir John Soane
Museum, London.9 An intaglio from Silchester also shows this early type of Roma, but
the goddess holds a patera instead of a victory.10 The style of cutting, so close to that of
the Officina delle Linee Grosse, will not support a date earlier than late Antonine times,
so presumably the gem was copied from an earlier gem or from a 1st-century coin.11
The later Hadrianic cult image is shown on gems from Colchester and Wroxeter.12
All three gems found in Britain depicting Roma came from highly Romanized sites
and the York gem serves to confirm the surmise that the personification of Rome as a
goddess was a conception which appealed to the higher echelons of society, amongst
whom we must include both legionaries and curiales.
11 Cornelian, translucent with a few black inclusions, oval and very slightly convex. The stone
is in good condition apart from superficial surface wear and a small chip on the right side.
18 x 14 x 2.25 mm. Alignment 1a.
Pantheistic Fortuna; the goddess stands towards the front and faces left. She wears a
girded peplos and a himation and holds a cornucopia in her left hand and a steeringoar with rudder in her right. Other intagli from Britain show Fortuna holding the
corn-ears of Ceres in the same hand as the steering-oar; here a single ear is depicted.13
However, this is the first gem from the Province to depict Fortuna with the plumed
helmet of Minerva on her head and the great eagle-wing of Victory sprouting from
her shoulder, although in general the type is common enough.14 Presumably the
owner of this signet wished to invoke the protective powers of all these deities of
whom Fortuna, Victory, and Minerva were especially popular amongst the members
of the Roman army.
The bold cutting and interesting use of short hatched lines again suggest a 2ndcentury dating.
12 Cornelian, somewhat clouded, oval and very slightly convex. The stone is in good condition
apart from some surface wear. 14 x 11 x 3 mm. Alignment 1 a.
Aequitas stands towards the front and faces left. She wears a girded peplos with overfold
and holds a sceptre in her left hand and a pair of scales in her right hand. Also in her
right hand she holds two ears of com, which bring Ceres once more to mind.
Again, this is the first time that the type has been found on a gem in Britain, although
examples are recorded from several sites elsewhere in the Empire, for example at
Grand, Xanten, Aquileia, and Caesarea Maritima.15 The conception is specifically
Roman and would undoubtedly have appealed to the more high-minded officers
and men serving in a legion. The type of Aequitas is, of course, well known on the
Imperial coinage.16
Although the gem is smaller than 11 (above) and the figure more truncated, it is
stylistically similar.
9
13 Milky chalcedony, oval and convex on both faces. The stone is in excellent condition apart
from slight surface wear. 13 x 11 x 3.5 mm. Alignment 1a.
A crescent moon is depicted, surrounded by six stars, one almost within the horns
of the crescent and five on the other side.
Crescents and stars are often found on intagli, although the number of the latter
varies, sometimes fewer being depicted than there are here and sometimes more.
The commonest number is seven, and it is thought that in most cases these stones
are intended to portray the constellation Septem Triones, which was used as a punning
reference by L. Lucretius Trio on coins struck in 76 BC.17
However, the type has a deeper meaning, for the stars were the abode of the dead
and hence coins showing the crescent and stars were struck for the consecration of
the dead members of the Domus Divina in the 2nd century, while in the Severan age
we find such issues proclaiming the Aeternitas of the living Augustus.18
It seems that the device had long been regarded as a symbol of the heavens, the
abode of Jupiter. Some of the shields represented on Trajan’s Column show the
thunderbolt with crescents or stars, while a gem in Berlin depicts a crescent and five
stars, a thunderbolt, and then two other stars.19 It is not at all unlikely that the choice
of chalcedony as a material was conditioned by the fact that the stone was thought
particularly appropriate for Jupiter .20
The gem probably dates from the 2nd century AD.
14 Red jasper intaglio, oval with flat surface. The stone is in good condition apart from slight
chipping. 14 x 10 x 2.25 mm. Alignment 1.
Bust of a maenad in profile towards the right; she has short hair, plaited as a diadem
around the edges, and wears a nebris (the skin of a wild animal) over her shoulders.
Behind her is a crescent moon, which probably indicates no more than the fact that
many of the Baccl1ic ceremonies took place at night.21
This is only the second portrayal of a maenad to have been found in Britain.The other,
also a red jasper, comes from the vicus at Vindolanda.22 Several parallels may, however,
be cited from published collections. Furthermore, a jasper found at Cambridge and
depicting a bust of Bacchus exhibits a similar richness in the cutting.23
Once again, the patterned style indicates a late 2nd-century dating for this piece.
15 Cornelian intaglio, colour shading from yellow through to orange, oval, slightly convex on
both surfaces. The stone is chipped on the lower edge. 16 x 11 x 4 mm. Alignment 1.
Cupid seated on a hippocamp, shown in profile to the right. Behind the creature, and
in place of its normal long fish-like tail, a dolphin is represented. The scene makes
allusion to the soul’s voyage across the sea to the islands of the blessed, a theme which
would have had great appeal to soldiers exposed to the rigours of military life. Cupid
is frequently depicted on gems riding on hippocamps or dolphins.24
The somewhat elongated shape of the gem, combined with the fairly free style of
cutting, allow us to suggest a later date for this intaglio than the other seven. An
interesting comparison may be made with a gem which also depicts a sea-beast, found
in York about 1876 on the site of the railway station25: the wing-like projection from
the creature’s back is of similar execution to Cupid’s on 15; the manes of the two
animals are very much alike and both intagli display deep, gouged cutting.
It would be rash on the basis of the similarity of two stones to claim that there was a
gem-cutting workshop in operation inYork during the 3rd century, but it is certain that
the craft was practised in Britain during the middle empire, and both the importance
of York and the eventual growth of a jet-carving industry in the vicinity are points in
its favour.26
The Small Finds
10
Fig. 7 Personal ornaments of jet (7) and glass (62, 63, 64). Scale 2:1
The discovery of Roman intagli and other jewellery in a drain inevitably brings to
mind the find from the culvert at Bath, which included a cache of 34 gemstones,
apparently never mounted. It has been argued elsewhere (Henig, 1969, 71-88) that
these represent a single offering made to Sul by a gem cutter. Unfortunately, the York
stones cannot be regarded as a closed group, nor are they likely to have been votive
in character. Presumably they represent no more than casual losses and it may be
significant that four of the gems have sustained some damage, perhaps connected
with their having become detached from the finger-rings in which they were set. In
any case, all display some surface wear.
None of the objects is at all surprising in the context of a legionary fortress, and Mars,
Roma, and the pantheistic Fortuna are especially appropriate for the soldier and his
world where, while cherishing ideals of fair play and equity in an empire ruled by the
Senate and people of Rome, he did not lose sight of his final reward among the stars,
in the islands of the blessed or some equally happy Bacchic paradise.
Other personal ornaments
A few additional trinkets were recovered, ranging from beads of fairly common types
(Fig. 7) to some quite fine gold pieces. The single jet bead (7) reflects in more angular form
the common biconical shape found, for example, at Shakenoak (Brodribb et al., 1971, fig.
26, 17) and at Icklingham, Suffolk (Liversidge, 1968, fig. 52, g); the faceted treatment may
be compared with several jet pin-heads from York (RCHMY 1, pl. 69). Icklingham also
produced hexagonal-section beads similar to 63 (Liversidge, 1968, fig. 52, d-f) and the
type is represented in the British Museum both in plasma (Marshall, 1911, no. 2730, pl.
LX) and in dark blue glass (ibid., no. 2705, pl. LVI), in both cases alternating with gold
links in necklaces of the 2nd or 3rd century. Tiny beads like 64 are occasionally found
incorporated into ear-rings rather than necklaces (ibid., nos. 2622-3, pl. LIV, and 2679,
pl. LV; Higgins, 1961, 184, pl. 54, D, H), either in a cluster or threaded on a simple hoop;
1st- or 2nd-century dates are suggested for the examples quoted.
Of the gold pieces (Fig. 8),73 is an ear-ring in which four grooved bands combine to
form a cage-like structure. Possibly it originally contained, within the cage, a bead of glass
or paste as in a pair in the British Museum from Enkomi in Cyprus (Marshall, 1911, nos.
2407-8, pl. LI), dating from the 2nd or 3rd century AD. No. 72 is a pendant in the form of
a plain cylinder with closed ends. A rather similar pendant in the British Museum (ibid., no.
2983, pl. LXIX) with a single ribbed suspension ring and decoration of soldered globules
Fig.8 11
Personal ornaments of gold. Scale 2:1
was filled with a composition of sulphur; possibly this new example from York also had
an amuletic significance but since the ends are not removable its contents, if any, cannot
be ascertained. Another comparable example with ribbed suspension rings but with an
octagonal cylinder (ibid., no. 3155, pl. LXXI) is mounted on a fine gold chain. 71 may be
compared with several vasiform pendants in the British Museum collection, for example
Marshall’s no. 3150 (ibid., pl. LXXI), which is similarly closed by a lid-like cover with
a suspension loop, the whole being held in place by the inturned rim of the pot-shaped
pendant. The necklace on which another example in the British Museum was hung (ibid.,
no. 2700, pl. LVI) is composed of alternating beads of gold and garnet. The present loosefitting nature of the ‘lid’ of the York piece suggests that it may once have been fixed with
adhesive, or perhaps the entire internal space was filled with some substance as in Marshall’s
no. 2983 (see above). No. 3150 in Marshall’s catalogue contained an inscribed sheet of
fine gold and the type as a whole may have been habitually used as lockets or amulets.
All three gold pieces from York are linked stylistically by their use of decorative ribbing
on the suspension loops and are perhaps not far removed from each other in date: on the
strength of the British Museum material a 2nd- or 3rd-century origin may be suggested.
Their occurrence here may possibly be attributed to the presence of women in the bath
house, which would imply that it did not contain the principal legionary baths. On the other
hand, since at least two of the three pieces may be regarded as amulets rather than purely
decorative jewellery, their original owners may equally well have been soldiers.
12
The Small Finds
Fig. 9 Needles and pins of bone. Scale 1:2
Bone needles
The number of needles found in the sewer (twelve) was large enough to suggest that they
were habitually used in the adjacent buildings, perhaps for carrying out running repairs to
clothing. The range of services offered at civilian bath houses was certainly extensive (see,
for example, Seneca’s description in Epistulae Morales, LVI) and mending may well have
been among these, although the scope for such enterprise would presumably have been
more limited in military establishments. On the other hand, there is some evidence that a
variety of light industrial activities were carried on in the vicinity of the sewer (see below,
p. 19) and it may be that the needles derive from this kind of work. Three basic types are
represented (Fig. 9): one with a flattened elongated head and an elongated perforation
(103,104; cr. Kenyon, 1948,266); one with a rather pointed head and with an elongated
perforation formed by two intersecting circular holes (105; ibid.); one with a pointed head
and a single circular perforation (106, 107). The variations in length and thickness, as well
as in the design of the head, presumably reflect a variety of uses on a range of fabrics of
differing degrees of fineness, but even the slinunest is very coarse by today’s standards. It
may be noted that the stitch holes in the silk fragment from the sewer (see below, p. 14)
are necessarily of quite a different order of fineness.
Bone pins
Bone pins were also well represented (Fig. 9). Simple ball-headed pins with swelling
shanks were most numerous (115-122), none of them with any decoration. A single nailheaded example was found (123) and five with pointed heads came from Alignment la,
three of them (130-132) with double lines incised around the top (cf. Frere, 1972, fig. 55,
199). Otherwise only one pin had been decorated (124), having inscribed vertical lines
around its pomegranate-shaped head, and at the upper end of its tapering shank some
13
Fig. 10 Objects of bone (141, 142, 143) and ivory (145). Scale 1:2
faint diagonal scratchings which, when freshly executed, would have helped keep the pin
from slipping out of place.
Some disagreement still centres around the function of these pins, in particular whether
they were used to fasten clothing or whether they were worn in the hair. The obvious debt
of the later series of Saxon hipped pins (which are generally accepted as dress pins) to
these Roman examples with swelling shanks, certainly seems to suggest that some were
worn in the clothing. On the other hand, at least one Roman burial is known from York in
which the corpse’s hair was found intact and secured in a bun by jet pins of similar form
(RCHMY 1, 83). If those from the sewer were used as hair-pins then their presence here
might further suggest that the baths were frequented at times by women.
With the possible exception of 124, for which no precise parallel has been noted, all the
pins are of such widespread and long-lived types that they can contribute nothing towards
establishing the chronology of the sewer.
Other items of bone and ivory
A few items (Fig. 10), all of rather doubtful purpose, fall outside the categories already
discussed.
141 and 142, although differing in detail, seem to belong to a single category of
implement and may perhaps be identified as netting tools; while they seem rather crude
in execution, the fact that several tools closely similar to 141 were found in an AngloScandinavian context at Pavement in York (YAT, Site No. 1972.21) suggests that their
casual appearance belies a well developed functional design. 143 seems to be part of a
toggle or perhaps a flush-fitting stud or plug from a piece of furniture. From Alignment
1a came a finely executed plano-convex mount numbered 145, manufactured t by turning
and polishing a rod of ivory on a lathe and dividing it up with double ridges into a series of
segments; a bone handle from Great Chesterford, thought possibly to belong to a distaff
(Liversidge, 1968, fig. 72), shows an almost identical treatment; cut-marks show that a
longitudinal slice was then cut from the rod with a saw, the intention presumably being to
incorporate it into a scheme of decorative mountings, perhaps on a box or casket. There
is, however, no sign of its ever having been attached with pegs, although conceivably it
could have been fixed with glue.
14
The Small Finds
Fig. 11 Leather boot, sole fragment. Scale 1:2
Boot sole
A fragment from a leather boot sole (146; Fig. 11) survived in the silt, rock-hard and
apparently preserved by the corrosion products from its iron nails: no structural details
may be seen.
Textile
Mr John Hedges of the Department of Archaeology, University of Southampton,
contributes the following report:
In the course of sieving a biological sample from the sewer a small fragment of textile
(147; Pl. II) came to light. Under the microscope it could be seen to be of an extremely
fine plain weave, pierced in places by stitch holes about 0.6 mm. in diameter. One
system, which we may suppose is the warp, consists of hard-spun threads with a
diameter of approxi mately 0.1 mm. Curiously both Z- and S-spun threads have been
used and there seems to be a distinct pattern: two threads spun in one direction are
followed by two spun in the other, and so on. These are well spaced across the weave
and there are some 40 per centimetre (eight were counted over 2 mm.). The weft is
unspun and the thread quite flattened, having a width of slightly less than 0.2 mm.
These are closely compacted compared to the warp and there are about 50 to the
centimetre (ten were counted over 2 mm.).
The cloth had every appearance of being silk and this was confirmed by microscopic
examination of a number of fibres as whole mounts. The fibres were slightly off-white,
fine, and uniform, with none of the internal and external features characteristic of
other animal fibres or those of vegetable origin. The light colour of the fibres, their
diameter range (6–11 µm. for 25 fibres; mode 8.5 µm.; mean 8.14 µm.), their apparent
triangular cross-section and the absence of any longitudinal striations all served to
distinguish them as filaments derived from the cultivated silk moth (Bombyx mori),
rather than any of the wild varieties (Textile Institute, 1965, 14-15;Wild, 1970, 11-12).
15
Although two moths native to Europe can produce wild silk, Bombyx mori was not
introduced into the west until the 6th century AD. The Chinese kept both the moth
(a native of the Himalayas and China) and the method of preparation of silk from
its cocoon a closely guarded secret and it is clear that any cultivated silk of this date
must ultimately be derived from China (Howitt, 1951,339).
The routes over which silk travelled from China to the west are fairly well documented
(Boulnois, 1966), but they varied with the political climate of the day and it is not
possible to postulate one for the silk in question since it lacks a precise date. It would
seem, however, that it was imported into the Empire as raw silk, since it has the spunwarp characteristic of cloths made up in the west; in fabrics of Chinese origin neither
warp nor weft would seem to have been spun (Pfister, 1937, 35 fr.).
The surviving fragments of Roman silk found in north-west Europe have been fully
discussed by Wild (1970); it is sufficient to note here that high counts, unspun weft,
and spun warp are characteristic of the group as a whole but that the combination of
spinning directions in the warp of this piece is a peculiarity, for all other warps have
been said to be solely Z-spun. Syria is known to have been involved in the weaving of
imported silks and it is an accepted generalization that Syrian products have Z-spun
warps. It is difficult to know how much the spinning of the warp of the York piece
can be taken as indicating an alternative place of origin.
Silk was a precious, much sought-after luxury among the Romans; it is not surprising,
therefore, that it has been found only rarely in archaeological contexts and that such
textiles as have survived are frequently complex and beautifully made, showing features
of the weaver’s skills which were not lavished on more mundane materials.
Glass vessels
Miss Dorothy Charlesworth of the Inspectorate of Ancient Monuments, Department
of the Environment, contributes the following report:
Bath flasks Most of these are in natural green glass. They were used to carry oils for
rubbing the body after bathing and the shape is commonly found in bronze as well
as in glass, the glass being a slightly later introduction, presumably cheaper to make.
The complete flask is bulbous or globular-bodied with a short neck and broad flat
rim. Eyelet handles fit in below the rim and carry a bronze half-loop or chain handle.
A typical example was found in an Antonine pit at Corbridge (Charlesworth, 1959,
56). Examples from Nijmegen date from the Neronian period (Isings, 1957,79) but
none was found at Camulodunum and it is not until later in the 1st century that they
are common. The type continues in production until the 3rd century when decorated
examples in colourless glass were made, as well as plain green flasks (ibid., 1957, form
61; RCHMY 1, fig. 88, HG 227).
32 Most of a flat infolded rim, small eyelet handle, spiral trail on body; green. Alignment
1. (Fig. 12)
33 Base fragment with spiral trail. Alignment 1. (Fig. 12)
34 Fragment from the side with a trail; green. Alignment 1.
35 Flat, infolded rim, two thin eyelet handles and part of the shoulder; green. Alignment
1. (Fig. 12)
36 Part of the shoulder and one eyelet handle of a flask in thicker blue-green glass.
Alignment I, (Fig, 12)
37 About half the flat infolded rim and a small piece of handle and neck; greenish,
Alignment 1a. (Fig. 12)
16
The Small Finds
Fig. 12 Glass bath flask fragments. Scale 1:2
Fig. 13 Glass flask, bottle, and beaker fragments. Scale 1:2
38 39
40
41
42 Part of the base of a handle; green. Alignment la.
Body fragment; green. Alignment la.
Body fragment; green. Alignment la.
Base, slightly concave; green. Alignment la,
Outsplayed, almost flat rim, probably from a 3rd-century bath flask; colourless, highly
iridescent. Alignment 1.
Other flasks and bottles Some of the flat fragments found are from square bottles c. AD
60–130 in date, others from small square-bodied, long-necked flasks generally known
as ‘Mercury flasks’ because many have a figure of Mercury moulded on the base.
These generally date from the 3rd century (Isings form 84) and are not commonly
found in Britain.
43 Angle fragment from a small square bottle c. AD 60-130. Alignment la. 44 Most of
the base of a thin-walled Mercury flask in blue-green glass; moulded circle and pontil
mark on base. Alignment 1. (Fig. 13)
17
45 Corner of a square-bodied vessel, probably a Mercury flask, in colourless glass;
moulded raised dot near the corner. Alignment 1.
46 Most of the base of a small thin-walled hexagonal-bodied flask. This could have a
long neck like the Mercury flask or a short neck and eyelet handles like a bottle from
Silchester in Reading Museum. Alignment 1. (Fig. 13)
47 Base fragment from a cylindrical-shaped vessel which could be a flask (Isings form
100 or 102; cr. RCHMY I, fig. 90, HG 146. 1-4) but could also be the base of a
beaker. Alignment 1 a.
48 Wall fragments from a square bottle in blue-green glass with iridescent weathering;
part of base moulding survives as line around edge. Alignment la.
49 50 51 52 Beakers and bowls None of these can be properly identified from the surviving
fragments. The rounded rim and slightly convex side are very common on small
beakers or bowls from the later 1st to the 4th century.The double-coil base ring is more
distinctive but it is known from the Hadrianic period until the mid-3rd century, for
example Isings form 85b (Charlesworth, 1971,33-7; RCHMY I, fig. 88, HG 202.6).
Rounded slightly thickened rim and side of a beaker in colourless glass. A second
fragment, although it does not join, seems certainly part of the same beaker. Iridescent
weathering. Alignment I. (Fig. 13)
Large beaker, similar to the above, with milky iridescent weathering. Alignment 1.
(Fig. 13)
Double-coil base ring in colourless glass cut down for re-use as a gaming counter.
This base could be associated with beakers having the same rim and side profile as
the two listed above. Alignment 1. (Fig. 13)
Part of the foot-ring of a goblet in colourless glass, iridescent weathering. (Isings form
86, 111 or 112). The goblet shape is never common. In blown glass it seems to be
introduced in the late 2nd century. Alignment 1. (Fig. 13)
Miscellaneous vessels
53 Mould-blown fragment with seam where the two halves of the mould joined running
horizontally across a pattern, which imitates facet-cutting. The shape of the vessel
cannot be determined. Alignment 1. (Fig. 14)
54 Rounded rim with part of a crested handle attached; colourless glass. Alignment 1.
(Fig. 14)
55 Rounded rim pinched to form a small spout, two fine trails below and indented body;
colourless glass. Indented beakers are common in the later 1st to 4th centuries, but
the small spout is an unexpected feature. Alignment 1. (Fig. 14)
56 Hollow tubular rim in green glass from a bulbous-bodied jar c. AD 70–140 (Isings
form 67b or c). Alignment la. (Fig. 14)
57 Base of a beaker, flask or jar in green glass; pushed-in hollow tubular base ring.
Alignment 1. (Fig. 14)
58 Similar to above with pontil mark. Alignment I. (Fig. 14)
Window glass Both the moulded glass of Ist- or 2nd-century date and blown cylinder
glass of the 3rd or 4th centuries are represented in quantity, considerably exceeding
the small amount of vessel glass. Discussion of the technique of manufacture may be
found in Harden, 1959,8-16; Harden, 1961,44-52; Boon, 1966,41-7. The moulded
glass is rough on one surface and smooth on the other, generally c. 3.5 mm. thick
and green in colour, although here a few colourless pieces were found. The blown
glass is generally thinner and smooth on both surfaces. Much of it is green but more
colourless glass is used.
18
The Small Finds
Fig. 14 Miscellaneous glass vessels. Scale 1:2
The significance of the Roman finds
While falling comfortably within the date-range suggested for the sewer by the pottery,
the finds are less useful in establishing the limits of the range. From the presence of several
4th-century vessels (AY 3/1,44-6) we might surmise that some of the finds also ought to
be rather late in date but there seems little or nothing which need necessarily be placed
beyond the 3rd century. Many items belong to such long-lived types, however, that they
could date from almost any phase within the period of Roman occupation and much late
material could lie concealed within these groups.
In the case of Alignment la the early isolation suggested by the pottery (AY 3/1, 456) is not detectable from the small finds. One type of bone pin, that with double grooves
around a low pointed head, and both playing pieces with concentric rings on their obverse
surfaces occurred only within this area, but beyond demonstrating that the types were in
circulation by the end of the 2nd century no significance can be attached to their exclusive
appearance here. Similar pins are recorded in 3rd-century or later layers at Fishbourne
(Cunliffe, 1971, 148) and in 4th-century contexts at Shakenoak (Brodribb et al., 1971,
110 and fig. 37), while 3rd-century counters like the York examples may be noted from
Canterbury (Frere, 1970, 112) and others from late 4th-century or later robbing layers at
Fishbourne (Cunliffe, 1971, 144).
The presence of many of the finds, including bath flasks, pins, counters and intagli, may
be readily understood in the context of the bath house which the sewer probably drained.
Some slight evidence for the presence of women has been noted which, if well founded,
would make it unlikely that the bath house in question was for legionary use, a conclusion
strengthened by its location within the fortress (but see also AY 3/1, 24, 32). Some items
are unlikely to have originated in a bath house, however, and it seems possible that at
some time the sewer may have passed through an area housing a variety of light industries,
19
Fig. 15 Objects of jet (148), bronze (149), and bone (152, 153) from the adjacent building complex. Scale 1:2
possibly somewhere upstream of the blocking wall. The notched bone implements (141,
142), antler offcut (144), and nodules of blue frit (68) may be noted, as well as a fragment
of crucible (31). Analysis by X-ray fluorescence spectrography27 revealed that the crucible
glaze was largely derived from lead, with iron occurring as a trace.
It is interesting to speculate on the significance of one further find, a small blue glass
tessera from a mosaic (66). There have been, as yet, no certain discoveries of mosaics
within the fortress, but on two occasions28 tessellated pavements have been recorded in the
Bedern area, close to the south-east fortress wall. While serving this same flank, the sewer
would presumably have been isolated from external contamination by the extent of the
defences and the intervallum road and so, unless the tessera was destined for reworking in
one of the workshops suggested above, it might be taken to hint at the presence within the
praetentura of at least one fine tessellated pavement: perhaps the bath house itself might
be the most likely candidate.
Nineteenth-century finds from the sewer
Perhaps as the result of a single event, when the roof of the main alignment was breached
(AY 3/1, 12), a quantity of late material was introduced into the sewer.
With the exception of a few pottery and glass fragments, only clay tobacco pipes were
found, all of them broadly contemporary. Many have plain bowls while others are spurred
and have moulded flutings or sprays of thistles and roses; two have representations of ships
and one shows a railway locomotive whose tall chimney, large boiler dome, and 2-2-2 wheel
arrangement combine to suggest a date of manufacture around the 1840s. One spur is
stamped with the maker’s initials ‘LF’, which have not so far been traced in the records.
It has been mentioned (AY 3/1, 5) that by 1836 the site was occupied by the Lord Nelson
tavern and presumably the large number of pipes (a minimum of 42) is attributable to its
presence directly above the sewer. Disturbance of the Roman layers at such a depth below
the early Victorian ground-surface seems to have been due to an unsuccessful attempt to
sink a well, traces of which were noted in the contractor’s trenches (AY 3/1, 12).
The Small Finds
20
Finds from the adjacent building complex
The few finds from the buildings alongside the sewer, described in AY 3/1, 17-22, are
illustrated in Fig. 15. Only the bronze spoon (149) needs any comment here: the general
type was current from the 2nd to the 4th century (Strong, 1966, 177ff.) and this particular
spoon may be compared with a more decorative example from the tomb-chamber at
Lullingstone villa, dating from a quarter-century or so on either side of AD 300.29
Two coins are identified here by Mr Casey, one (150) from the building complex and the
other (151) unstratified, having been recovered from the building contractor’s excavations:
Issuer
Denomination
150
Vespasian
or Titus
Dupondius
151
Gallienus
‘Antoninianus’
Type
DIANAE
CONS AUG
Reference
RIC 181
Issue
Date
Condition
69-81
Corroded
260-68
SW/SW
A few fragments of 1st- or 2nd-century window glass were also recovered.
Leatherwork from the surface
Among the finds picked up on the surface during building operations were quantities of
leather, including offcuts, shoe soles and fragments of two medieval scabbards with embossed
decoration, lending weight to Dr Palliser’s equation (AY 3/1, 3) of Girdlergate, Church
Street’s medieval predecessor, with at least one of York’s communities of leatherworkers.
21
Findsfrom a Roman Sewer Systemand an Adjacent Building in Church Street
Catalogue
of finds3O
Finds from the sewer
Stone
1 Gaming counter: disc chipped from a slip of
micaceous sandstone. D. 29 rom. Th. 6 rom.
Alignment I. (Fig. 2)
2 Gaming counter: disc chipped from a slip of
micaceous sandstone. D. 40 rom. Th. 6 rom.
Alignment I.
3 Shale bracelet, roughly circular in section;
broken. D. (section) 10 rom. D. (overall)
100 rom. Alignment I. (Fig. 5)
4 Shale bracelet, roughly circular in section;
broken. D. (section) 10 rom. D. (overall)
92 rom. Alignment I. (Fig. 5)
5 Hone stone, probably of Kentish Rag,
rectangular in section; broken. 34 x 24 x
IS rom. Alignment I. (Fig. 4)
6 Hone stone, probably of Kentish Rag, oval in
section; broken. 30 x 21 x 14 rom. Alignment
I. (Fig. 4)
Jet
7 Bead, square in section, the comers bevelled
to achieve a diamond faceting effect; drilled
longitudinally. L. IS mtn. Th. 6 mtn.
Gemstones
8-15 lntagli; seepp. 6-10 (Fig. 6 and Pl. n.
Ceramics
16 Gaming counter, chipped from samian body
sherd81 (Form 31); Central Gaulish, Antonine. D. 25 mm. Th. 1.5 mm. Alignment I.
(Fig. 2)
sherd (Form ?30); Central Gaulish, Antonine. D. 40 mm. Th. 8 mm. Alignment la,
sherd (Form 32, etc,); East Gaulish, late
2nd or early 3rd century. D. 35 mm. Th,
I I mm. Alignment 1/2.
sherd (Form ?33); Central Gaulish, Antonine. D. 12 mm. Th, 1 mm. Alignment la,
sherd (Form ?32, etc,); East Gaulish, late
2nd or early 3rd century. D. 35 mm. Th.
1 mm. Alignment I.
21 Gaming counter, chipped from samian
body sherd (Form 31 R); Central Gaulish,
Antonine, D. 41 mm. Th. 8 mm. Alignment I.
sherd (Form 3V with ovolo; Rheinzabern,
2nd or 3rd century. D. 30 rom. Th. 6 rom.
No context.
sherd (Form 30 or 3V; probably South
Gaulish, Flavian/Early Trajanic; the edges
ground smooth. D. 20 rom. Th. 8 rom.
Alignment 1.
24 Gaming counter, chipped from grey-ware
body sherd, the edges ground smooth;
broken. D. 32 rom. Th. 7 rom. Alignment 1.
25 Gaming counter, roughly chipped from coarse
red-ware body sherd. D. 36 rom. Th. 12rom.
Alignment 1.
26 Gaming counter, roughly chipped from
mortarium body sherd; buff fabric gritted
with brownish flints. D. 40 rom. Th. 12 rom.
Alignment 1/2.
27 Gaming counter, chipped from base of a
colour-coated beaker; pale orange/buff fabric,
slipped brown. D. 43 mm. Th. 10 rom.
Alignment 1.
colour-coated beaker; grey/buff fabric, slipped
grey. D. 36 rom. Th. 8 rom. Alignment 1.
(Fig. 2)
colour-coated beaker; pale buff fabric,
slipped brown. D. 35 rom. Th. 12 rom.
Alignment 1.
colour-coated beaker; buff fabric, slipped
orange/brown. D. 40 rom. Th. 7 rom.
No context.
31 Crucible, wheel-thrown in greyish-white
fabric; lead glaze internally; broken. D. 45
rom. Alignment la.
Glass
32-58 Glassvessels;seepp. 15-18.
59 Gaming counter, bun-shaped, of opaque
black glass. D. 20 mm. Th. 6.5 mm. Alignment I. (Fig. 2)
black glass. D. 15.5 mm. Th. 7 mm. Alignment Ia.
black glass. D. 12 mm. Th. 6.5 mm. Alignment Ia.
62 Insert of blue glass from an ornament; oval,
with slightly convex surface and angular
back. 8 x 4.5 x 2 mm. Alignment I. (Fig. 7)
63 Bead of iridescent blue glass, hexagonal in
section with fine longitUdinal perforation.
L. 13 mm. Th. 3.5 mm. Alignment I.
(Fig. 7)
22
The Small Finds
I
I
64 Bead of opalescentglass,circular in section,
with fine longitudinal perforation.L. 3 rnrn.
D. 2.5 rnrn. SidePassage
6. (Fig. 7)
65 Bracelet of green glass, sub-triangular in
section,with applied spiral cordon of blue
and white glass; broken. L. 21 rnrn. W. 13
rnrn. Alignment 1. (Fig. 5)
66 Tessera of iridescent blue glass from a
mosaic.9 x 7 x 7 rnrn. Alignment I.
67 Stirring rod of twisted greenish glass;
broken. L. 25rnrn. Th. 6 rnrn. Alignment I.
68 Blue frit nodules(three). Alignment I.
88 Gaming counter, obverse countersunk. D.
23 rnrn. Th. 4 rnrn. Alignment I.
Metalwork
69 Lead fragment in the form of a trUncated
cone; perhapsthe foot from a smaIltripod
vessel. L. 28 rnrn. D. (max.) 10.5 rnrn.
Alignment I.
70 Lead water-pipe; sealing strip along one
edge,incorporating a joint. L. 490 rnrn. D.
73 rnrn. Alignment I. (AY 3/1, fig. 20)
71 Gold pendant; hollow vase-shapedpendant
with groovedsuspension-ringon lid; ribbed
decorationon body. Ht. 15 rnrn. D. 9 rnrn.
72 Gold pendant; cylindrical pendant with
closed ends and with two lateral grooved
suspension-rings.L. 19 rnrn. D. 6 rnrn.
73 Gold ear-ring; four groovedstrips anchored
to a basering; joined at the top to form an
ovoid cageconstrUction.Ht. 24 rnrn. D. 10
rnrn. Alignment I. (Fig. 8)
C
83 Gaming counter, obverse countersunk,rim
bevelled.D. 21 rnrn. Th. 3rnrn. AlignmentI.
84 Gaming counter, obversecountersunk; reversed 'R' scratchedon base,inverted 'VI'
within single vertical lines on edge.D. 22.5
rnrn. Th. 4 rnrn. Alignment I. (Fig. 3)
85 Gaming counter,obversecountersunk;cross
scratchedon obverseand reverse.D. 22rnrn.
Th. 4 rnrn. Alignment I. (Fig. 3)
86 Gaming counter,obversecountersunk;irregular hatchingscratchedon reverse.D. 19.5
rnrn. Th. 3 rnrn. Alignment I. (Fig. 3)
87 Gaming counter, obverse countersunk.D.
19rnrn. Th. 3 rnrn. Alignment I.
.100
oms
...101
74 D.upondius of Vespaslan or Titus;
Side p'assage
3.
corroded.
..ment
19.5rnrn. Th. 3 rnrn. Alignment I.
20 rnrn. Th. 3.5 rnrn. Alignment I.
19rnrn. Th. 3 rnrn. Alignment I.
96 Gaming counter, obverse countersunk. D.
21.5rnrn. Th. 3 rnrn. Alignment I.
18rnrn. Th. 3.5 rnrn. Alignment I.
16rnrn. Th. 3.5 rnrn. Alignment I.
99 Gaming counter,obversecountersunk;broken. D. 17rnrn.Th. 4 rnrn. AlignmentI.
Gaming counter, obverse much eroded.
D. 22.5rnrn. Th. 3rnrn. AlignmentIa.
Gaming counter, obverse with turned concentric rings. D. 23 rnrn. Th. 4 rnrn. Align-
Ia. (Fig. 3)
75 Denanus of Elagabalus; sen11-worn. Side
Passag.eI..
..centric
102 Gaming counter, obverse with turned conrings. D. 18 rnrn. Th. 2 rnrn. Align-
~ent I: .,.
77 ~tommanus
103 Needle with elongated flattened head and
elongated perforation;
broken. L. 64 rnrn.
76 Denanus of Julia Paula; senu-worn.Alignof Tetncus
I or II;
corroded.
Alignment I.
ment la.
Alignment I.
104 Needle with elongated flattened head and
elongated perforation; broken. L.95 rnrn.
B
one
78 Gaming counter, obverse slightly convex,
Alignment I, (Fig. 9)
105 Needle with flattened pointed head and
elon.gatedperforationformed by two inter-
with central ring-and-dot decoration. D. 28
rnrn. Th. 3.5 rnrn. Alignment I. (Fig. 3)
79 Gaming counter, obverse countersunk, central perforation 3 rnrn. wide. D. 23 mm.
Th. 4.5 rnrn. Alignment I. (Fig. 3)
80 Gaming counter, obverse countersunk, rim
bevelled. D. 19rnrn. Th. 4 rnrn. Alignment I.
se<;tlng drilled ~oles; broken. L. 95 rnrn.
Alignment!. (FIg.. 9)
.
106 Needle. WIth pointed head ~nd circular
perforauon. L. 72 rnrn. Alignment Ia.
(FIg. 9)..
.
107 Needle WIth pointed head and circular
perforation. L. 86 rnrn. Alignment Ia.
81 Gaming counter, obversecountersunk,rim
bevelled.D. 21 rnrn. Th. 4 rnrn. Alignment I.
108 Needle, broken through perforation. L. 79
rnrn. Alignment I.
82 Gaming counter, obverse countersunk, rim
bevelled. D. 21 rnrn. Th. 4 rnrn. Alignment I.
109 Needle, broken through
60 rnrn. Alignment I.
perforation.
L.
I
Findsfrom a RomanSewerSystemand an AdjacentBuildingin ChurchStreet
56 mm. Alignment I.
52 mm. Alignment Ia.
115 mm. Alignment Ia.
perforation.
L.
perforation.
L.
perforation.
L.
113 Needle, broken through perforation. L.
105mm. Alignment Ia.
114 Needle, broken through perforation. L.
100mm. Alignment Ia.
115 Ball-headed pin with swelling shank. L.
110mm. Alignment I. (Fig. 9)
100mm. Alignment 1/2.
115mm. Alignment 2b.
119 Ball-headedpin with swellingshank; broken
at tip; recut and re-used.L. 60 mm. Align-
23
141 Implement with end notch, cut from a
bovine nasal bone and polished from use;
perhaps a netting tool. L. 64 mm. Th. 2.5
mm. Alignment I. (Fig. 10)
142 Implement with end notch, cut from a
fragment of long bone. L. 73 mm. Th.
6 mm. Alignment I. (Fig. 10)
143 ? Toggle fragment or stud; dome-shaped
head with broken shank. L. 18 mm. D.
Antler
..
144 Offcut of Red Del:;1:'
antler, Wlth Incomplete
sa,;\,-cutI mm. Wlde. 125 x 17 x 14 mm.
Alignment I.
Iv
or J'1/
ment I.
...145
120 Ball-headed p~n Wlth swelling shank; broken.
Decorative segmented mount, D-shaped
section, 64 x 10 x 4.5 mm. Alignment Ia.
L. 62 mm. Alignment I.
121 Ball-headedpin with swellingshank;broken.
122 Ball-headedpi.n with swellingshank;broken.
L. 68 mm. AlIgnment 1/2.
(Fig. 10)
Leather
123 Nail-headed pin with swelling shank; br~ken.
146 Boot sole studded with iron nails. 125 x
80 mm. Alignment I. (Fig. 11)
124 Pin with pomegranate-shapedhead and
taperingshank;incisedvertica1lineson head,
two bands ofopposeddiagona1linesat top of
L. 96
mm.slightly
Alignment
I. (Fig.
9) and
125 shank.
Pin with
plain
flattened
head
tapering shank. L. 116 mm. Alignment I.
,
T exule
147 Silk f
I .a
hi .
ragment, p 3;1nweave, Ou-w te In
colour.9 x 3 mm. SidePassage
3. (Pl. II)
(Fig. 9)
126 Pin with plain hea~ and slightly swelling
shank.L. 71 mm. Alignment I.
127 Pin with low point~d head and. tapering
shank.L. 117mm. Alignment I. (FIg. 9)
128 Pin with low pointed head and tapering
shank.L. 75 mm. Alignment Ia.
shank; broken. L. 41 mm. Alignment Ia.
shank; two incised grooves below head.
Finds
from
the
ad' acen
J
t
g comp lex
148 Jet bracelet, sub-rectangular in section;
broken. Th. 5 mm. D. (overall) 60 mm.
(Fig. 15)
buildin
149 Bronze spoon with tapering square-section
handle and fiddle-shaped bowl; broken.
L. 130mm. (Fig. 15)
L. 136 mm. Alignment Ia. (Fig. 9)
150 Dupondius of Vespasian or Titus; corroded.
151 'Antoninianus' of Gallienus; semi-worn.
L. 95 mm. Alignment Ia.
152 Bone gaming counter, obverse countersunk;
inverted 'VI' between single vertical lines on
L. 95 mm. Alignment Ia.
133 Pin, probably similar originally to 130-132;
head broken. L. 72 mm. Alignment Ia.
(Fig. 9)
134 Pin shank; broken. L. 80 mm. Alignment I.
135 Pin shank; broken. L. 50 mm. Alignment2.
138 Pin shank;broken.L. 25mm. Alignment Ia.
140 Pin shank; broken. L. 44mm. Alignment I.
edge.D. 23 mm. Th. 3 mm. (Fig. 15)
153 Bone pin with ball headand slightly swelling
shank;broken.L. 72 mm. (Fig. 15)
Unstratified surfacefind.
~
24
Pr
The Small Finds
o venances
All sewer contexts remained open from the time
of the (probably
Trajanic) date of construction
Finds were recovered from each context as
follows:
to the end of the 4th century, with the exception
of Alignment la, which appears to have been
.sealed
Alignment
c. AD
to any groups
I
1-8,14-16,20-21,23-25,
Alignment 1/2
Alignment 2
27-29,32-36, 42, 44-46,
49-55, 57-59, 62-63,
65-73, 76-99, 103-105,
108-110,115-116, 119121, 123-127, 134, 136137,139-144,146.
9-13, 17, 19, 31, 37-41,
43, 47-48, 56, 60-61,
100-102, 106-107, 111114, 128-133, 138, 145.
18,26,117,122.
135.
Alignment
2b
Side Passage I
118.
75.
Side Passage3
Side Passage6
AdjacentBuilding
74,147.
64.
148-1.73.
Alignment la
200. No close date was
of finds from the Adjacent
,
assignable
Building.
r
\
Acknowledgements
York Archaeological Trust expressesthanks to those who have co-operated in the compilation
of this report, particularly those specialists credited in the text. In addition, the contributions
of the following are gratefully acknowledged: the publication has been designed by Allan Cooper
and the line drawings prepared by Elizabeth Shurter (Fig. 1) and Sheena Howarth; the photographs reproduced in Pl. I are by Trevor Hurst and John Bailey, while those in Pl. II are by
Nick Bradford. Anne Price kindly translated the summary into French and the German translation is by Barbara Ottaway.
York Archaeological Trust and the Council for British Archaeology are grateful to the
Department of the Environment and to SessionsBook Trust for generous subventions to the
cost of this fascicule.
f
\
I
~
Findsfrom a Roman Sewer Systemand an Adjacent Building in Church Street
,
25
Summary
\
The report describes finds from the excavation of a Roman sewer system and part of an
adjacent building complex in Church Street, York. A full account of the excavations is given in
AY 3/1 and environmental considerations are treated in AY 14/1. The sewer system (Fig. 1)
was probably constructed to drain the various services of a bath house within the legionary
fortress, but circumstances did not permit the excavation of associatedstructures except on a
very limited scale. As far as could be established, the system was constructed in the Trajanic
period and remained in use until the end of the 4th century.
The objects recovered included gaming pieces of stone, pottery, and glass (Fig. 2) as well as
bone (Fig. 3). An interesting collection of jasper, cornelian, and chalcedony intagli from fingerrings was found (Fig. 6; Pl. I), all likely to be of 2nd-century date with one exception (15)
which was probably a 3rd-century product. Other personal ornaments (Figs. 7-8) included a
number of fine gold pieces, again probably of 2nd- or 3rd-century date. The presence of a large
number of bone pins (Fig. 9) is understandable in the context of the bath house which the sewer
probably drained, and among the numerous fragments of glass vessels may be distinguished
several (Fig. 12) from flasks which originally held oil for rubbing into the body after the bath.
A rare find was a small piece of silk (Pl. II) with spun warp and unspun weft, characteristics
which suggest that it was manufactured in the west from raw silk imported from China.
All these finds are now deposited in the Yorkshire Museum, York.
Resume
,
I
~
-dont
Le rapport decrit les decouvertes faites lors de l'excavation d'un systeme d'egouts romain et
d'une partie d'un ensemble de batiments adjacent, dans Church Street, York; un compte-rendu
complet des fouilles ~t donne dans A Y 3/1 et les considerations biologiques sont presentees
dans AY 14/1. 11 semble tres probable que l'egout (Fig. 1) fut construit pour drainer les!
differents services de bains a l'interieur de la forteresse, mais l'occasion ne s'est pas presentee
d'entreprendre des excavations des su"uctures associeessauf a une echelle tres limitee. Autant
que l'on puisse Ie verifier, Ie systeme fut construit a l'epoque de Trajan et fut utilise jusqu'a
la fin du quatrieme siecle.
Les objets decouverts comprennent des jetons de jeu faits de materiaux varies y compris
pierre, poterie et verre (Fig. 2) et os (Fig. 3). Une interessante collection d'intailles de bagues en
jaspe, cornaline et calcedoinea ete trouvee (Fig. 6; Pl. I), toutes datant apparemment du deuxieme
siecle sauf Ie numero 15 qui serait du troisieme siecle. Les autres ornements personnels (Figs.
7-8) comprennent de beaux objets en or, vraisemblablement du deuxieme ou troisieme siecle
egalement. La presence d'un grand nombre d'epingles d'os (Fig. 9) est comprehensible dans Ie
contexte de bains et parmi les nombreux fragments de vases en verre on peut en distinguer
plusieurs (Fig. 12) qui proviennent de gourdes qui contenaient l'huile utilisee pour frictionner
Ie corps apres Ie bain. Une decouverte exceptionnelle est celIe d'un petit morceau de soie (Pl. II)
la chaine est filee mais non la trame, caracteres qui suggerent qu'il fut manufacture a
l'Ouest a partir de soie brute importee de Chine.
Tous ces objets sont maintenant deposes au Yorkshire Museum a York.
26
TheSmallFind"
.
Zusammenfassung
Der Bericht beschreibtFunde der Ausgrabungeines romischenAbzugskanales
sowie einen
Teil eines benachbartenGebiiudesin der Church Street, York. Eine vollstiindigeVeroffentlichung wird in der A Y 3/1, biologisch-wissenschaftliche
Untersuchungsergebnisse
in AY
14/1erscheinen.Der Abzugskanal(Fig. 1)wurde wahrscheinlichgebaut,um die verschiedenen
Einrichtungen eines Badehausesinnerhalb der Festung zu entwiissern.Ausser auf einem
sehr begrenztenGebiet, war es jedoch nicht moglich, Oberfliichenuntersuchungen
zu unternehmen.Soweitman feststellenkonnte,wurde das Systemin der TrojanischenPeriode gebaut
und blieb his zum spiit-viertenJahrhundertin Gebrauch.
Zu den Funden gehorenSpielbretteraus den verschiedensten
Materialien, z. B. auch aus
Stein, sowie Ton- und Glaswaren(Fig. 2) und Knochen (Fig. 3). Es kam ausserdemeine
interessanteSammlungyon GemmenausJaspis,Karneolund Chalzedonzu Tage (Fig. 6; Pl. I)
welche wahrscheinlichaIle yon Ringen aus dem zweiten Jahrhundertstammen.Die einzige
Ausnahmeunter diesenGemmen(15) wird in das dritte Jahrhundertdatiert. Ebenfallszum
zweiten oder dritten Jahrhundert gehoreneinige schone Goldschmuckstiicke(Fig. 8). Die
zahlreichenKnochennadeln(Fig. 9) sind im Zusammenhangmit einem Badehausvollig zu
erwarten.Von verschiedenenGlasfragmentenkonnteneinigeals Behiilter identifiziert werden,
welche01 zum EinreibendesKorpers nachdemBadeenthaltenbatten(Fig. 12).Ein ungewohnlicher Fund war ein StiickchenSeide (pl. II) mit ungesponnenerKette und gesponnenem
Schuss.DieseHerstellungsmethode
liisstvermuten,dassdie Seideim Westenaus importierter
chinesischerRohseidehergestelltwordenwar.
AIle Funde werdenjetzt im YorkshireMuseum,York, aufbewahrt.
I
~
:
Abbreviations
Most abbreviarlonsusedare thoserecommendedby the Co~ncil for British Arce
the following areusedin addition. Bibliographicalbrief referencesusedin the text areexplained
in the bibliography.
AY
TheArchaeology
of York
RCHMY
RIG
l
Royal Commissionon HistoricalMonuments,volumeson York
H. Mattingly and E. A. Sydenham,TheRomanImperialGoinage(London, 1923,
etc.)
YAT
York ArchaeologicalTrust
I
~
Findsfrom a RomanSewerSystemand an AdjacentBuildingin ChurchStreet
Notes
I
the puke of Wellington's Collection in
ReadingMuseum,no. 03003; d. also Furt-
Bu.she-Fox, 1928, 13 an~ pl. XIV, fig. I
(Richborough); Trans. Bnstol Gloucestershire
Archaeol. Soc. 4S (1923) 285 (Chedworth);
Curle, 1911, fig. 50 (Corbridge); Newbold,
1913,62, Simpson, 1913,338, and Shaw,
1926, 444 (Hadrian's Wall).
wangler, 1896, no. 7999. = Zwierlein-Diehl,
1969, no. 557 and Fosslng, 1929, no. 1597,
also with seven stars.
18 On coins cf. RIC Marcus Aurelius no. 750
(posthumous denarius of Faustina the
Younger) and RIC Septimius Severns no.
2 Trans. London MiddlesexArchaeol.Soc 21
(1967)74.
.19
3 'SW' indicates a semi-worn condition,
527.
Rossi, 1971, 108; Furtwangler, 1896, no.
8002;alsocf. Fossing,1929,no. 1599.
4
suggesting a short period in circulation.
Charlesworth, 1961, 32 no. 4, pl. IX,
4
20 Sena Chiesa, 1966, 3; cf. Bushe-Fox, 1916,
30 and pl. XVIII, 27. and Discovery Excava-
(Corbridge); Lewis, 1878, pl. X, no. 4
(Charterhouse);Jacobi, 1897, 516, fig. 85,
no. 4 (Saalburg); Steiner, 1911,120and pl.
tion Scot. (CBA Group I), 1966,42 (Newstead)for chalcedoniesfrom Britain which
depict Jupiter.
XIII, nos. 19-21 (Xanten); Henkel, 1913,
no. 15°1 (Rankweil); and also cf. Walton,
1950, 192, fig. 4 (Kenchester), Sena Chiesa,
1966, 147-50 for a discussion of the type and
VermeuIe, 1966, 27. no. 13.
5
6
Sena Chiesa,
1966,
Officinae
dei Diaspri
21
6oft".; note the so-called
Rossi, dei Dioscuri
and
Oxford Classical Dictionary, 2nd edition,
1970, 636. The crescent is in a relatively
subordinate position, unlike that shown on
the head of a female deity engraved on a
plasma from the York Minster excavations.
Here
the moon-goddess
was clearly intended.
(Selene
or
Luna)
delle Linee Grosse,pIs. XCI-XCIII.
Also note
the north British workshop distinguished in
Henig, 1971, 215-3°.
22
Information from Mr Robin Birley. The head
has free tresseshanging down at the back as
well as tightly bound locks.
Ovid, Pasti III, 167f.; Fink et al., 194°, 84.;
the tyPe is also discussed in Picard, 1957. 127.
23
Zwierlien-Diehl,
1969? no. 38;
7 LeWIs, 1879, 280, no. 5 (Charterhouse);
Archae!!l.]. 2 (1845) 395 (Mansewold,
Dumfries). The other examples from Britain
are not yet published. Steiger, 1966,35, no.
13 and pl. VIII, 12 (Augst); Steiner, 1911,
141 and pl. XV, 20. See also Hulst and
Maaskant-Kleibrink, 1969, 286ft". for further
references.
no. 257; RIC Caracalla no. 306; for the plaque
from Burgh Castle s~e Morris, 1948, 116 and
pl. III.
9 Vermeule,1959,31f., 68f.,pl. I, no. 39 (gem),
1969, Berlin no. 383; Berry,
K.ibaltchitch,
1910, no. 202
(Olbla). Information on the Cambridgegem
from Mi~s J. Pullinger.
24
Sena Chiesa, 1966, no. 275f.; Scherf, 197°,
Braunschweig no. 65; Charlesworth, 1961,
34, no. 45 and pl. I~, 19 (Corbridge) for
hippocamps. Sena Chiesa, 1966, nos. 278280; Scherf, 1970, Braunschweig no. 64;
Webster, 1964, 144 and fig. 6, 7 (Waddon
25
Set in a 3rd century gold ring, now in St
John's College, York, where it was possible to
examine it through the kindness of Mr Peter
8 e.g.RICVitellius (aes)no. 10; RICVespasian
Hill) for dolphins.
Wenham.
nos. 4-12 (coins).
10 Duke of Wellington's Collection in Reading
26 For gem cutting in north Britain see Henig,
1971, 215-30. The jet industry at York has
Museum? no. 03010. Also note an onyx
from
Clrencester
where Roma holds
a
wreath (not published).
Sena Chiesa, 1966, no. 648.
VermeuIe,
1959, 72f. and pl. III,
5 (Col-
~enerally been regarded as a more or less
Isolated phenomenon,
but the techniques
employed were presumably the same or at
least similar to those of contemporary studios
engaged in the manufacture
of cameos and
chester);
(Wroxeter).
intagli
II
.12
27
Wright,
1863,
109
.Roman
and
pl.
X,
2
13 Henig, 1973, 80 and pl. XIII(a) (The Lunt,
Baginton).and Henig, 1969, 80, no. 5 (Bath).
14 Sena Chiesa, 1966, nos. 610-615; Furtwangler, 1896,no. 7331; Fossing,1929,nos.
670-675; Righetti, 1955,no. 43 and pl. VII,
22; Brandt et al., 1972,Munich no. 2615;
S~erf, 197°,Braunschweigno. 115f.
15 Bill.oret, 1968, 398f. and fig. 36 (Grand);
Steiner, ~911, no. 4of. (Colonia Traiana);
cut
on semi-precious
intagli
from
Britain
cf.
stones.
On
M.
Henig,
A Corpus of Roman engraved Gemstones
from
Bri!ish Sites, ~rit. Archaeol. Rep. 8 (1974).
This was publishedtoo late to be madeuse
of in this report.
27 The analysiswas carried out by Mr Stanley
Warren of the Department of Physics,
University of Bradford.
28 Drake, 1736,572; J. Raine'snotes for 1880,
York Public Library.
Sena Chiesa, 1966, no. 57Of. (Aquileia);
Ham.burger, 1968, no. 91 (Caesarea).Also d.
Fosslng, 1929, no. 676 and Henkel, 1913,
no. ~891 (found near Saalburg), for Aequitas
holding corn e~s.
3°
stars
stars),was
a mcolo
foundshoWIng
at Silchester
a crescent
and and
is now
seven
in
31 R.
TheHartley.
samian ware attributions are by Mr B.
16 e.g. RIC Ha~an no. 743..
17 d. Sena Chiesa, 1966,no. 1497(SIXstars),
no. 1~98(four stars),.no. 1499(probablyfive
29
Lt Col Meates, in lit. David Sherlock; Mr
Sherlock kindly provided this information.
All finds ar.: now deposited in the Yorkshire
Museum, York (Accession nos. 1972.22 and
1974.22), thanks to the kindness of Mr W.
Peckitt and the Equitable Debenture and
Assets Corporation, in whose respective
propertiesthe excavationstook place.
28
TheSmall Finds
Biblio
g ra
Austin 1935
Bell 1960
p h y
Charlesworth
R. G. Austin, 'Roman
Board Games', Grcece and
Rome 4 (1935) 24-34 and
76-82
R. C. Bell, Board and Table
B. Y. Berry, Ancient GenIS
from theCollectionofBurton
Y. Berry (Indiana, 1969)
Billoret
M.
R. Billoret,
'Circonscription de Lorraine', Gallia 26 (1968) 373-407
Boon 1957
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Boulnois
of the Ronlan Fort at Richborough, Kent. Report of the
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Society of Antiquaries of
London 23 (Oxford, 1968)
Cunliffe
1971
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1928
J.GlassStudies8(1966)41-7
L. Boulnois, The Silk Road
Down and Rule
1971
A. Down
Chichester
Drake 1736
(Chichester,1971)
F. Drake, Eboracum(London, 1736)
Antike Gemmenin Deutsc~en
S~mlungen 1 : ~taatllche
Munzsammlung Mu1!;Ch.en
3;
Gmlmen ...der
ro1mschen
Kaiserzeit (Munich, 1972)
Ellis 1969
F~rm, Near Wu~ote,Oxfordshire Part II: Sites B and H
(Oxford, 1971)
Fink et at. 1940
J. P.
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Post and its People (Glasgow, 1911)
and M.
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Excavations
1
S. E. Ellis, 'The Petrography and Provenance of
Anglo-Saxon and Medieval
English Honestones with
Notes on Some' Other
Hones', Bull. Brit. Mus.
Nat. Hist. (Mineral.) 2,
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Bushe-Fox,
T'!ird
on the Excavations
R. O. Fink, A. S. Hoey
and W. F. Snyder, 'The
Feriale Duranum'
Yale
Classical
1-222
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7' (1940)
on the Site of the Roman
T~f/)n at Wroxeter, Shropslure, 1914. Re~ort of the
Res~arch Co~ttee
.of the
SoCIety of AntIquanes of
Fossing 1929
P. Fossing, The Thorvaldsen
Museum Catalogue of the
Antique Engraved Gems and
Cameos (Copenhagen and
London, 1929)
London 3 (Oxford,
J. P. Bushe-Fox,
Frere 1970
S. S. Frere,
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at
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B. W. Cunliffe (ed.), Fifth
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Brandt et at. 1972 E. Brandt, A. Krug, W.
Gercke and E. Schmidt,
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D. Charlesworth,
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M.useen zu Berlin lJeschrezbung der Geschmttenen
Stez.ne
(Be~lin,1896)
W. F. Grimes, 'Holt, Denbighshire:TheWorksDepf>t
of the Twentieth Legion at
Castle Lyons', Y Cymmrodor 41 (1930)1-235
A. Hamburger, GenISfrom
Caesarea Maritima (Jerusalem, 1968)
Findsfrom a RomanSewerSystemand an AdjacentBuilding in ChurchStreet
Harden 1959
D. B. Harden, 'New light
on Roman and early medie-
val window glass', GlasHarden 1961
Henig 1973
Henkel 1913
Higgins 1961
Howitt 1951
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meetings of the Cambridge
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Jacobi 1897
Kenyon 1948
Kibaltchitch 1910
Kilbride-Jones
Lewis 1879
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the
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F. H. Marshall, Catalogue
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in B. Hobley, 'Excavations
at "The Lunt"
Roman
Military
Site, Baginton,
Warwickshire,
1968-71',
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(1973) 7-92
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Fingerringe der Rheinlande
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29
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30
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1965
The Small Finds
Die Gemmensammlung im
Herzog -Anton
-UlrichMuseum
Braunschweig
(Wiesbaden, 1970)
G. Sena Chiesa, Gemmedel
Museo Nazionale di Aquileia (Aquileia, 1966)
Wild 1970
berland Westmorland Anriq.
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429-506
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on the line of the Roman
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the years 1909-12', Trans.
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Antiq. Archaeol. Soc. 13
(1913) 297-397
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1969
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(Manchester,
1965)
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C. C. Vermeule, 'Greek and
Roman Gems: Recent Additions to the Collections',
Boston Museum Bull. 64
(1966) 18-35
H. Walton, 'A Collection of
Romano-British
Pottery,
Glass and Objects from
Kenchester, Herefordshire',
Trans. WoolhopeNatur. Fld.
Club 33 (1950) 185-99
G. Webster, 'Further Investigation on the Site of the
Roman Fort at Waddon
Hill, Stoke Abbott, 196062', Proc. Dorset Natur.
Hist. Archaeol. Soc. 86
(1964) 135-49
L. P; Wenham, The Rcmatw-British Cemetery at
Trentholme Drive, York
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J. P. Wild, Textile Manufacture in the Northern
Roman Provinces (Cam.bridge,
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Wright 1863
T. Wright, 'Roman Engraved Stone found on the
site of Uric onium, at Wroxe-
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Ass. 19 (1863)106-11
E. Zwierlein-Diehl, Antike
Gemmenin DeutschenSammlungen 2: Staatliche Museen
PreusS/"scher Kulturbesitz
Antikenabtel"lung
Berlin
(Munich, 1969)
Plate I Impressions from the intagli (8, 10–13, 15, 14). Scale 2:1
Plate II Silk fragment. Scale a 4.5:1; b 75:1

Finds from a Roman Sewer System and an Adjacent Building in

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