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Enlightenment
The Philosophers
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Contents
Articles
John Locke
1
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
12
Voltaire
37
Montesquieu
53
Francis Bacon
59
References
Article Sources and Contributors
76
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
80
Article Licenses
License
81
John Locke
1
John Locke
John Locke
Born
29 August 1632
Wrington, Somerset, England
Died
28 October 1704 (aged 72)
Essex, England
Nationality
English
Era
17th-century philosophy
(Modern philosophy)
Region
Western Philosophy
School
British Empiricism, Social Contract, Natural Law
Main interests Metaphysics, epistemology, political philosophy, philosophy of mind, education, economics
Notable ideas
Tabula rasa, "government with the consent of the governed", state of nature; rights of life, liberty and property
Signature
John Locke FRS (pron.: /ˈlɒk/; 29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704), widely known as the Father of Classical
Liberalism,[1][2][3] was an English philosopher and physician regarded as one of the most influential of
Enlightenment thinkers. Considered one of the first of the British empiricists, following the tradition of Francis
Bacon, he is equally important to social contract theory. His work had a great impact upon the development of
epistemology and political philosophy. His writings influenced Voltaire and Rousseau, many Scottish Enlightenment
thinkers, as well as the American revolutionaries. His contributions to classical republicanism and liberal theory are
reflected in the United States Declaration of Independence.[4]
Locke's theory of mind is often cited as the origin of modern conceptions of identity and the self, figuring
prominently in the work of later philosophers such as Hume, Rousseau and Kant. Locke was the first to define the
self through a continuity of consciousness. He postulated that the mind was a blank slate or tabula rasa. Contrary to
pre-existing Cartesian philosophy, he maintained that we are born without innate ideas, and that knowledge is
instead determined only by experience derived from sense perception.[5]
John Locke
2
Biography
Locke's father, also called John, was a country lawyer and clerk to the Justices of the Peace in Chew Magna,[6] who
had served as a captain of cavalry for the Parliamentarian forces during the early part of the English Civil War. His
mother was Agnes Keene. Both parents were Puritans. Locke was born on 29 August 1632, in a small thatched
cottage by the church in Wrington, Somerset, about twelve miles from Bristol. He was baptised the same day. Soon
after Locke's birth, the family moved to the market town of Pensford, about seven miles south of Bristol, where
Locke grew up in a rural Tudor house in Belluton.
In 1647, Locke was sent to the prestigious Westminster School in London under the sponsorship of Alexander
Popham, a member of Parliament and his father's former commander. After completing his studies there, he was
admitted to Christ Church, Oxford. The dean of the college at the time was John Owen, vice-chancellor of the
university. Although a capable student, Locke was irritated by the undergraduate curriculum of the time. He found
the works of modern philosophers, such as René Descartes, more interesting than the classical material taught at the
university. Through his friend Richard Lower, whom he knew from the Westminster School, Locke was introduced
to medicine and the experimental philosophy being pursued at other universities and in the Royal Society, of which
he eventually became a member.
Locke was awarded a bachelor's degree in 1656 and a master's degree in 1658. He obtained a bachelor of medicine in
1674, having studied medicine extensively during his time at Oxford and worked with such noted scientists and
thinkers as Robert Boyle, Thomas Willis, Robert Hooke and Richard Lower. In 1666, he met Lord Anthony Ashley
Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, who had come to Oxford seeking treatment for a liver infection. Cooper was
impressed with Locke and persuaded him to become part of his retinue.
Locke had been looking for a career and in 1667 moved into Shaftesbury's home at Exeter House in London, to serve
as Lord Ashley's personal physician. In London, Locke resumed his medical studies under the tutelage of Thomas
Sydenham. Sydenham had a major effect on Locke's natural philosophical thinking – an effect that would become
evident in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding.
Locke's medical knowledge was put to the test when Shaftesbury's liver infection became life-threatening. Locke
coordinated the advice of several physicians and was probably instrumental in persuading Shaftesbury to undergo an
operation (then life-threatening itself) to remove the cyst. Shaftesbury survived and prospered, crediting Locke with
saving his life.
It was in Shaftesbury's household, during 1671, that the meeting took place, described in the Epistle to the reader of
the Essay, which was the genesis of what would later become the Essay. Two extant Drafts still survive from this
period. It was also during this time that Locke served as Secretary of the Board of Trade and Plantations and
Secretary to the Lords Proprietor of Carolina, helping to shape his ideas on international trade and economics.
John Locke
Shaftesbury, as a founder of the Whig movement, exerted great influence on
Locke's political ideas. Locke became involved in politics when Shaftesbury
became Lord Chancellor in 1672. Following Shaftesbury's fall from favour in
1675, Locke spent some time travelling across France as tutor and medical
attendant to Caleb Banks.[7] He returned to England in 1679 when Shaftesbury's
political fortunes took a brief positive turn. Around this time, most likely at
Shaftesbury's prompting, Locke composed the bulk of the Two Treatises of
Government. While it was once thought that Locke wrote the Treatises to defend
the Glorious Revolution of 1688, recent scholarship has shown that the work was
composed well before this date,[8] and it is now viewed as a more general
argument against absolute monarchy (particularly as espoused by Robert Filmer
and Thomas Hobbes) and for individual consent as the basis of political
John Locke
legitimacy. Though Locke was associated with the influential Whigs, his ideas about natural rights and government
are today considered quite revolutionary for that period in English history.
Locke fled to the Netherlands in 1683, under strong suspicion of involvement in the Rye House Plot, although there
is little evidence to suggest that he was directly involved in the scheme. In the Netherlands, Locke had time to return
to his writing, spending a great deal of time re-working the Essay and composing the Letter on Toleration. Locke did
not return home until after the Glorious Revolution. Locke accompanied William of Orange's wife back to England
in 1688. The bulk of Locke's publishing took place upon his return from exile – his aforementioned Essay
Concerning Human Understanding, the Two Treatises of Civil Government and A Letter Concerning Toleration all
appearing in quick succession.
Locke's close friend Lady Masham invited him to join her at the Mashams' country house in Essex. Although his
time there was marked by variable health from asthma attacks, he nevertheless became an intellectual hero of the
Whigs. During this period he discussed matters with such figures as John Dryden and Isaac Newton.
He died on 28 October 1704, and is buried in the churchyard of the village of High Laver,[9] east of Harlow in Essex,
where he had lived in the household of Sir Francis Masham since 1691. Locke never married nor had children.
Events that happened during Locke's lifetime include the English Restoration, the Great Plague of London and the
Great Fire of London. He did not quite see the Act of Union of 1707, though the thrones of England and Scotland
were held in personal union throughout his lifetime. Constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy were in
their infancy during Locke's time.
Influence
Locke exercised a profound influence on political philosophy, in particular on modern liberalism. Michael Zuckert
has argued that Locke launched liberalism by tempering Hobbesian absolutism and clearly separating the realms of
Church and State. He had a strong influence on Voltaire who called him "le sage Locke". His arguments concerning
liberty and the social contract later influenced the written works of Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, Thomas
Jefferson, and other Founding Fathers of the United States. In fact, one passage from the Second Treatise is
reproduced verbatim in the Declaration of Independence, the reference to a "long train of abuses." Such was Locke's
influence that Thomas Jefferson wrote: "Bacon, Locke and Newton ... I consider them as the three greatest men that
have ever lived, without any exception, and as having laid the foundation of those superstructures which have been
raised in the Physical and Moral sciences".[10][11][12] Today, most contemporary libertarians claim Locke as an
influence.
But Locke's influence may have been even more profound in the realm of epistemology. Locke redefined
subjectivity, or self, and intellectual historians such as Charles Taylor and Jerrold Seigel argue that Locke's An Essay
Concerning Human Understanding (1690) marks the beginning of the modern Western conception of the self.[13]
Theories of religious tolerance
Locke, writing his Letters Concerning Toleration (1689–92) in the aftermath of the European wars of religion,
formulated a classic reasoning for religious tolerance. Three arguments are central: (1) Earthly judges, the state in
particular, and human beings generally, cannot dependably evaluate the truth-claims of competing religious
standpoints; (2) Even if they could, enforcing a single "true religion" would not have the desired effect, because
belief cannot be compelled by violence; (3) Coercing religious uniformity would lead to more social disorder than
allowing diversity.[14]
With regard to his position on religious tolerance, Locke was influenced by Baptist theologians like John Smyth and
Thomas Helwys, who had published tracts demanding freedom of conscience in the early seventeenth
century.[15][16][17] Baptist theologian Roger Williams founded the colony Rhode Island in 1636, where he combined
a democratic constitution with unlimited religious freedom. His tract The Bloody Tenent of Persecution for Cause of
3
John Locke
Conscience (1644), which was widely read in the mother country, was a passionate plea for absolute religious
freedom and the total separation of church and state.[18] Freedom of conscience had had high priority on the
theological, philosophical and political agenda, since Martin Luther refused to recant his beliefs before the Diet of
the Holy Roman Empire at Worms in 1521, unless he would be proved false by the Bible.[19] Locke was part of this
Protestant tradition. He was also influenced by the liberal ideas of Presbyterian politician and famous poet John
Milton, who was a staunch advocate of freedom in all its forms.[20] As assistant to Oliver Cromwell, Milton took part
in drafting a constitution of the Independents (1647) that strongly stressed the equality of all humans as a
consequence of democratic tendencies.[21]
Constitution of Carolina
Appraisals of Locke have often been tied to appraisals of liberalism in general, and also to appraisals of the United
States. Detractors note that (in 1671) he was a major investor in the English slave-trade through the Royal African
Company, as well as through his participation in drafting the Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina while
Shaftesbury's secretary, which established a feudal aristocracy and gave a master absolute power over his slaves. For
example, Martin Cohen notes that as a secretary to the Council of Trade and Plantations (1673–4) and a member of
the Board of Trade (1696–1700) Locke was, in fact, "one of just half a dozen men who created and supervised both
the colonies and their iniquitous systems of servitude".[22] Some see his statements on unenclosed property as having
been intended to justify the displacement of the Native Americans.[23][24] Because of his opposition to aristocracy
and slavery in his major writings, he is accused of hypocrisy and racism, or of caring only for the liberty of English
capitalists.[25]
Theory of value and property
Locke uses the word property in both broad and narrow senses. In a broad sense, it covers a wide range of human
interests and aspirations; more narrowly, it refers to material goods. He argues that property is a natural right and it is
derived from labour.
In Chapter V of his Second Treatise, Locke argues that the individual ownership of goods and property is justified by
the labour exerted to produce those goods or utilise property to produce goods beneficial to human society.[26]
Locke stated his belief, in his Second Treatise, that nature on its own provides little of value to society; he provides
the implication that the labour expended in the creation of goods gives them their value. This is used as supporting
evidence for the interpretation of Locke's labour theory of property as a labour theory of value, in his implication that
goods produced by nature are of little value, unless combined with labour in their production and that labour is what
gives goods their value.[26]
Locke believed that ownership of property is created by the application of labour. In addition, he believed property
precedes government and government cannot "dispose of the estates of the subjects arbitrarily." Karl Marx later
critiqued Locke's theory of property in his own social theory.
Political theory
Locke's political theory was founded on social contract theory. Unlike Thomas Hobbes, Locke believed that human
nature is characterised by reason and tolerance. Like Hobbes, Locke believed that human nature allowed men to be
selfish. This is apparent with the introduction of currency. In a natural state all people were equal and independent,
and everyone had a natural right to defend his “Life, health, Liberty, or Possessions".[27] Most scholars trace the
phrase, "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness," in the American Declaration of Independence to Locke's theory
of rights,[28] though other origins have been suggested.[29]
Like Hobbes, Locke assumed that the sole right to defend in the state of nature was not enough, so people
established a civil society to resolve conflicts in a civil way with help from government in a state of society.
However, Locke never refers to Hobbes by name and may instead have been responding to other writers of the
4
John Locke
day.[30] Locke also advocated governmental separation of powers and believed that revolution is not only a right but
an obligation in some circumstances. These ideas would come to have profound influence on the Declaration of
Independence and the Constitution of the United States.
Limits to accumulation
Labour creates property, but it also does contain limits to its accumulation: man’s capacity to produce and man’s
capacity to consume. According to Locke, unused property is waste and an offence against nature.[31] However, with
the introduction of “durable” goods, men could exchange their excessive perishable goods for goods that would last
longer and thus not offend the natural law. The introduction of money marks the culmination of this process. Money
makes possible the unlimited accumulation of property without causing waste through spoilage.[32] He also includes
gold or silver as money because they may be “hoarded up without injury to anyone,”[33] since they do not spoil or
decay in the hands of the possessor. The introduction of money eliminates the limits of accumulation. Locke stresses
that inequality has come about by tacit agreement on the use of money, not by the social contract establishing civil
society or the law of land regulating property. Locke is aware of a problem posed by unlimited accumulation but
does not consider it his task. He just implies that government would function to moderate the conflict between the
unlimited accumulation of property and a more nearly equal distribution of wealth and does not say which principles
that government should apply to solve this problem. However, not all elements of his thought form a consistent
whole. For example, labour theory of value of the Two Treatises of Government stands side by side with the
demand-and-supply theory developed in a letter he wrote titled Some Considerations on the Consequences of the
Lowering of Interest and the Raising of the Value of Money. Moreover, Locke anchors property in labour but in the
end upholds the unlimited accumulation of wealth.[34]
On price theory
Locke’s general theory of value and price is a supply and demand theory, which was set out in a letter to a Member
of Parliament in 1691, titled Some Considerations on the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising
of the Value of Money.[35] Supply is quantity and demand is rent. “The price of any commodity rises or falls by the
proportion of the number of buyer and sellers.” and “that which regulates the price... [of goods] is nothing else but
their quantity in proportion to their rent.” The quantity theory of money forms a special case of this general theory.
His idea is based on “money answers all things” (Ecclesiastes) or “rent of money is always sufficient, or more than
enough,” and “varies very little...” Regardless of whether the demand for money is unlimited or constant, Locke
concludes that as far as money is concerned, the demand is exclusively regulated by its quantity. He also investigates
the determinants of demand and supply. For supply, goods in general are considered valuable because they can be
exchanged, consumed and they must be scarce. For demand, goods are in demand because they yield a flow of
income. Locke develops an early theory of capitalisation, such as land, which has value because “by its constant
production of saleable commodities it brings in a certain yearly income.” Demand for money is almost the same as
demand for goods or land; it depends on whether money is wanted as medium of exchange or as loanable funds. For
medium of exchange “money is capable by exchange to procure us the necessaries or conveniences of life.” For
loanable funds, “it comes to be of the same nature with land by yielding a certain yearly income ... or interest.”
5
John Locke
Monetary thoughts
Locke distinguishes two functions of money, as a "counter" to measure value, and as a "pledge" to lay claim to
goods. He believes that silver and gold, as opposed to paper money, are the appropriate currency for international
transactions. Silver and gold, he says, are treated to have equal value by all of humanity and can thus be treated as a
pledge by anyone, while the value of paper money is only valid under the government which issues it.
Locke argues that a country should seek a favourable balance of trade, lest it fall behind other countries and suffer a
loss in its trade. Since the world money stock grows constantly, a country must constantly seek to enlarge its own
stock. Locke develops his theory of foreign exchanges, in addition to commodity movements, there are also
movements in country stock of money, and movements of capital determine exchange rates. The latter is less
significant and less volatile than commodity movements. As for a country’s money stock, if it is large relative to that
of other countries, it will cause the country’s exchange to rise above par, as an export balance would do.
He also prepares estimates of the cash requirements for different economic groups (landholders, labourers and
brokers). In each group the cash requirements are closely related to the length of the pay period. He argues the
brokers – middlemen – whose activities enlarge the monetary circuit and whose profits eat into the earnings of
labourers and landholders, had a negative influence on both one's personal and the public economy that they
supposedly contributed to.
The self
Locke defines the self as "that conscious thinking thing, (whatever substance, made up of whether spiritual, or
material, simple, or compounded, it matters not) which is sensible, or conscious of pleasure and pain, capable of
happiness or misery, and so is concerned for itself, as far as that consciousness extends".[36] He does not, however,
ignore "substance", writing that "the body too goes to the making the man."[37] The Lockean self is therefore a
self-aware and self-reflective consciousness that is fixed in a body.
In his Essay, Locke explains the gradual unfolding of this conscious mind. Arguing against both the Augustinian
view of man as originally sinful and the Cartesian position, which holds that man innately knows basic logical
propositions, Locke posits an "empty" mind, a tabula rasa, which is shaped by experience; sensations and reflections
being the two sources of all our ideas.[38]
Locke's Some Thoughts Concerning Education is an outline on how to educate this mind: he expresses the belief that
education maketh the man, or, more fundamentally, that the mind is an "empty cabinet", with the statement, "I think
I may say that of all the men we meet with, nine parts of ten are what they are, good or evil, useful or not, by their
education."[39]
Locke also wrote that "the little and almost insensible impressions on our tender infancies have very important and
lasting consequences."[40] He argued that the "associations of ideas" that one makes when young are more important
than those made later because they are the foundation of the self: they are, put differently, what first mark the tabula
rasa. In his Essay, in which is introduced both of these concepts, Locke warns against, for example, letting "a foolish
maid" convince a child that "goblins and sprites" are associated with the night for "darkness shall ever afterwards
bring with it those frightful ideas, and they shall be so joined, that he can no more bear the one than the other."[41]
"Associationism", as this theory would come to be called, exerted a powerful influence over eighteenth-century
thought, particularly educational theory, as nearly every educational writer warned parents not to allow their children
to develop negative associations. It also led to the development of psychology and other new disciplines with David
Hartley's attempt to discover a biological mechanism for associationism in his Observations on Man (1749).
6
John Locke
Religious beliefs
Some scholars have seen Locke's political convictions as deriving from his religious beliefs.[42][43][44] Locke's
religious trajectory began in Calvinist trinitarianism, but by the time of the Reflections (1695) Locke was advocating
not just Socinian views on tolerance but also Socinian Christology; with veiled denial of the pre-existence of
Christ.[45] However Wainwright (Oxford, 1987) notes that in the posthumously published Paraphrase (1707)
Locke's interpretation of one verse, Ephesians 1:10, is markedly different from that of Socinians like Biddle, and
may indicate that near the end of his life Locke returned nearer to an Arian position.[46]
Locke was at times not sure about the subject of original sin. So he was accused of Socianism, Arianism, or
Deism.[47] But he did not deny the reality of evil. Man was capable of waging unjust wars and committing crimes.
Criminals had to be punished, even with the death penalty.[48] With regard to the Bible Locke was very conservative.
He retained the doctrine of the verbal inspiration of the Scriptures.[49] The miracles were proofs of the divine nature
of the biblical message. Locke was convinced that the entire content of the Bible was in agreement with human
reason (The reasonableness of Christianity, 1695).[50][51] Although Locke was an advocate of tolerance, he urged the
authorities not to tolerate atheism, because the denial of God's existence would undermine the social order and lead
to chaos.[52] That excluded all atheistic varieties of philosophy and all attempts to deduce ethics and natural law from
purely secular premises, for example, man's "autonomy or dignity or human flourishing".[53] In Locke's opinion the
cosmological argument was valid and proved God's existence. His political thought was based on "a particular set of
Protestant Christian assumptions."[53][54] Locke's concept of man started with the belief in creation. We have been
"sent into the World by [God's] order, and about his business, [we] are his Property, whose Workmanship [we] are,
made to last during his, not one anothers Pleasure."[55] Like the two other very influential natural-law philosophers,
Hugo Grotius and Samuel Pufendorf, Locke equated natural law with the biblical revelation, since in their view both
had originated in God and could therefore not contradict each other.[56][57] "As a philosopher, Locke was intensely
interested in Christian doctrine, and in the Reasonableness he insisted that most men could not hope to understand
the detailed requirements of the law of nature without the assistance of the teachings and example of Jesus."[58]
Locke derived the fundamental concepts of his political theory from biblical texts, in particular from Genesis 1 and 2
(creation), the Decalogue (Exodus 20), the Golden Rule (Matthew 7:12 [59]), the teachings of Jesus (e.g. his doctrine
of charity, Matthew 19:19 [59]), and the letters of (Paul).[60] The Decalogue (Ten Commandments) puts a person's
life, his or her honourable reputation (i.e. honour and dignity), and property under God's protection. Freedom is
another major theme in the Old Testament. For instance, God's actions in liberating the Israelites from Egyptian
slavery in the Decalogue's prologue (Exodus 20:2 [59]) were the precondition for the following commandments.
Moreover, Locke derived basic human Equality, including the equality of the sexes ("Adam and Eve") from Genesis
1:26-28 [59], the starting point of the theological doctrine of Imago Dei.[61] To Locke, one of the consequences of the
principle of equality was that all humans were equally free and therefore governments needed the consent of the
governed.[62] Only when Locke had derived the fundamental aspects of his concept of man and ethics from the
biblical texts - life, equality, private property, etc. -, did he examine as a philosopher which consequences they had in
the abovementioned way. Following Locke, the American Declaration of Independence founded human rights on the
biblical belief in creation: "All men are created equal, (...) they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable
rights, (...) life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." Locke's doctrine that governments need the consent of the
governed is also central to the Declaration of Independence..
7
John Locke
List of major works
• (1689) A Letter Concerning Toleration
•
•
•
•
• (1690) A Second Letter Concerning Toleration
• (1692) A Third Letter for Toleration
(1689) Two Treatises of Government
(1690) An Essay Concerning Human Understanding
(1693) Some Thoughts Concerning Education
(1695) The Reasonableness of Christianity, as Delivered in the Scriptures
• (1695) A Vindication of the Reasonableness of Christianity
Major unpublished or posthumous manuscripts
• (1660) First Tract of Government (or the English Tract)
• (c.1662) Second Tract of Government (or the Latin Tract)
• (1664) Questions Concerning the Law of Nature (definitive Latin text, with facing accurate English trans. in
Robert Horwitz et al., eds., John Locke, Questions Concerning the Law of Nature, Ithaca: Cornell University
Press, 1990).
• (1667) Essay Concerning Toleration
• (1706) Of the Conduct of the Understanding
• (1707) A paraphrase and notes on the Epistles of St. Paul to the Galatians, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Romans,
Ephesians
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
Locke, John. A Letter Concerning Toleration Routledge, New York, 1991. p. 5 (Introduction)
Delaney, Tim. The march of unreason: science, democracy, and the new fundamentalism Oxford University Press, New York, 2005. p. 18
Godwin, Kenneth et al. School choice tradeoffs: liberty, equity, and diversity University of Texas Press, Austin, 2002. p. 12
Becker, Carl Lotus. The Declaration of Independence: A Study in the History of Political Ideas Harcourt, Brace, 1922. p. 27
Baird, Forrest E.; Walter Kaufmann (2008). From Plato to Derrida. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. pp. 527–529.
ISBN 0-13-158591-6.
[6] Broad, C.D. (2000). Ethics And the History of Philosophy. UK: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-22530-2.
[7] Basil Duke Henning ''The House of Commons, 1660–1690, Volume 1'' (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=HW1_upECKUwC&
pg=PA590& lpg=PA590& dq="Caleb+ Banks"+ Aylesford& source=bl& ots=MrFiH8wo58& sig=BSwNCUPELs2IqH8aXK6QiDan7zA&
hl=en& ei=0D3gTMmkMdeqhAeFkNnCDQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CBkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&
q="Caleb Banks" Aylesford& f=false). Books.google.com. . Retrieved 28 August 2012.
[8] Peter Laslett, "Two Treatises of Government and the Revolution of 1688," section III of Laslett's editorial "Introduction" to John Locke, Two
Treatises of Government, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988.
[9] Britannica Online, s.v. John Locke
[10] "The Three Greatest Men" (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ exhibits/ treasures/ trm033. html). . Retrieved 13 June 2009. "Jefferson identified Bacon,
Locke, and Newton as "the three greatest men that have ever lived, without any exception". Their works in the physical and moral sciences
were instrumental in Jefferson's education and world view."
[11] "The Letters of Thomas Jefferson: 1743–1826 Bacon, Locke, and Newton" (http:/ / www. let. rug. nl/ usa/ P/ tj3/ writings/ brf/ jefl74. htm). .
Retrieved 13 June 2009. "Bacon, Locke and Newton, whose pictures I will trouble you to have copied for me: and as I consider them as the
three greatest men that have ever lived, without any exception, and as having laid the foundation of those superstructures which have been
raised in the Physical & Moral sciences."
[12] "Jefferson called Bacon, Newton, and Locke, who had so indelibly shaped his ideas, "my trinity of the three greatest men the world had ever
produced"" (http:/ / explorer. monticello. org/ text/ index. php?id=82& type=4). Explorer.monticello.org. . Retrieved 28 August 2012.
[13] Seigel, Jerrold. The Idea of the Self: Thought and Experience in Western Europe since the Seventeenth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press (2005) and Charles Taylor, Sources of the Self: The Making of Modern Identity. Cambridge: Harvard University Press (1989).
[14] McGrath, Alistair. 1998. Historical Theology, An Introduction to the History of Christian Thought. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. p.214-5.
[15] Karl Heussi, Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte, 11. Auflage (1956), Tübingen (Germany), S. 398
[16] Clifton E. Olmstead (1960), History of Religion in the United States, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., p. 18
[17] H. Stahl, Baptisten, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band I (1957), col. 863
[18] Clifton E.Olmstead, History of Religion in the United States, pp. 102-105
8
John Locke
[19] Clifton E. Olmstead, History of Religion in the United States, p. 5
[20] Heinrich Bornkamm, Toleranz. In der Geschichte des Christentums, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band VI
(1962), col. 942
[21] W. Wertenbruch, Menschenrechte, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band IV (1960), Tübingen (Germany), col.
869
[22] Martin Cohen, Philosophical Tales (Blackwell, 2008), 101.
[23] James Tully, An Approach to Political Philosophy: Locke in Contexts (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007).
[24] Farr, J. (1986). "I. 'So Vile and Miserable an Estate': The Problem of Slavery in Locke's Political Thought". Political Theory 14 (2): 263–89.
doi:10.1177/0090591786014002005. JSTOR 191463.
[25] Farr, J. (2008). "Locke, Natural Law, and New World Slavery". Political Theory 36 (4): 495–522. doi:10.1177/0090591708317899.
[26] Vaughn, Karen (1978). "John Locke and the Labor Theory of Value" (https:/ / mises. org/ journals/ jls/ 2_4/ 2_4_3. pdf). Journal of
Libertarian Studies 2 (4): 311–326. . Retrieved 13 August 2011.
[27] Locke, John (1690). [[Second Treatise of Government (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ files/ 7370/ 7370-h/ 7370-h. htm)] (10th edition)].
Project Gutenberg. . Retrieved 25 March 2012.
[28] Zuckert, Michael (1996). The Natural Rights Republic. Notre Dame University Press. pp. 73–85.
[29] Wills, Garry (2002). Inventing America: Jefferson's Declaration of Independence. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.
[30] Skinner, Quentin Visions of Politics. Cambridge.
[31] Locke, John (2009). Two Treatises on Government: A Translation Into Modern English (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/
books?id=S3eB0IgzJjoC& pg=PA81& lpg=PA81& dq=John+ Locke+ unused+ property+ waste+ offence+ against+ nature& source=bl&
ots=W8lZU26AMR& sig=NWdG1m9YODIVfTm1857aa2Rbuzc& hl=en& ei=IadfTsLcM4G68gObiOnGAw& sa=X& oi=book_result&
ct=result& resnum=10& sqi=2& ved=0CGgQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage& q=unused property& f=false). Industrial Systems Research. p. 81.
ISBN 978-0-906321-47-8. .
[32] "John Locke: �Inequality is inevitable and necessary" (http:/ / www0. hku. hk/ philodep/ courses/ ac/ Phil1003-2008/ Locke2. ppt)
(PowerPoint). Department of Philosophy The University of Hong Kong. . Retrieved 1 September 2011.
[33] "John Locke, Second Treatise, §§ 25--51, 123--26" (http:/ / press-pubs. uchicago. edu/ founders/ documents/ v1ch16s3. html). The Founders
Constitution. . Retrieved 1 September 2011.
[34] "John Locke on Property" (http:/ / www. cooperativeindividualism. org/ cobb-cliff-and-fred-foldvary_john-locke-on-property-1999. html).
The School of Cooperative Individualism. . Retrieved 14 October 2012.
[35] John Locke (1691) Some Considerations on the consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising of the Value of Money (http:/ /
www. marxists. org/ reference/ subject/ economics/ locke/ contents. htm)
[36] Locke, John. An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Ed. Roger Woolhouse. New York: Penguin Books (1997), p. 307.
[37] Locke, Essay, p. 306.
[38] The American International Encyclopedia, J.J. Little Company, New York 1954, Volume 9.
[39] Locke, John. Some Thoughts Concerning Education and Of the Conduct of the Understanding. Eds. Ruth W. Grant and Nathan Tarcov.
Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Co., Inc. (1996), p. 10.
[40] Locke, Some Thoughts, 10.
[41] Locke, Essay, 357.
[42] Greg Forster John Locke's politics of moral consensus 2005
[43] Kim Ian Parker The biblical politics of John Locke 2004 Canadian Corporation for Studies in Religion
[44] John Locke: writings on religion ed. Victor Nuovo, Oxford 2002
[45] John Marshall John Locke: resistance, religion and responsibility Cambridge 1994. extensive discussion p.426
[46] John Locke, ed. Arthur William Wainwright A paraphrase and notes on the Epistles of St. Paul to the Galatians, 1 and 2 Corinthians,
Romans, Ephesians, Oxford 1987 p806
[47] Jeremy Waldron (2002), God, Locke, and Equality: Christian Foundations in Locke's Political Thought, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge (UK), ISBN 978-0-521-89057-1, pp. 27, 223
[48] Jeremy Waldron, God, Locke, and Equality, p. 145
[49] Karl Heussi, Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte, 11. Auflage (1956), Tübingen (Germany), Seite 398
[50] D. Henrich, Locke, John. In Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band IV (1960), Spalte 426
[51] Karl Heussi, Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte, S. 398
[52] Jeremy Waldron, God, Locke, and Equality, pp. 217 ff
[54] The Two Treatises of Government are "saturated with Christian assumptions." John Dunn (1969), The Political Thought of John Locke: A
Historical Account of the Argument of the 'Two Treatises of Government', Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (UK), p. 99
[55] Quoted in Jeremy Waldron, God, Locke, and Equality, p. 142
[56] M. Elze, Grotius, Hugo. In Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band II (1958), col. 1885-1886
[57] H. Hohlwein, Pufendorf, Samuel Freiherr von. In Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band V (1961), col. 721
[59] http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=
[60] Jeremy Waldron, God, Locke, and Equality, pp. 22-43, 45-46, 101, 153-158, 195, 197
9
John Locke
[61] Jeremy Waldron, God, Locke, and Equality, pp. 21-43
Further reading
• Ashcraft, Richard, 1986. Revolutionary Politics & Locke's Two Treatises of Government. Princeton: Princeton
University Press. (Discusses the relationship between Locke's philosophy and his political activities.)
• Ayers, Michael., 1991. Locke. Epistemology & Ontology Routledge (The standard work on Locke's Essay
Concerning Human Understanding.)
• Bailyn, Bernard, 1992 (1967). The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution. Harvard Uni. Press.
(Discusses the influence of Locke and other thinkers upon the American Revolution and on subsequent American
political thought.)
• Cohen, Gerald, 1995. 'Marx and Locke on Land and Labour', in his Self-Ownership, Freedom and Equality,
Oxford University Press.
• Cox, Richard, Locke on War and Peace, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1960. (A discussion of Locke's theory
of international relations.)
• Chappell, Vere, ed., 1994. The Cambridge Companion to Locke. Cambridge U.P. excerpt and text search (http://
www.amazon.com/Cambridge-Companion-Locke-Companions-Philosophy/dp/0521387728/)
• Dunn, John, 1984. Locke. Oxford Uni. Press. (A succinct introduction.)
• —, 1969. The Political Thought of John Locke: An Historical Account of the Argument of the "Two Treatises of
Government". Cambridge Uni. Press. (Introduced the interpretation which emphasises the theological element in
Locke's political thought.)
• Hudson, Nicholas, "John Locke and the Tradition of Nominalism," in: Nominalism and Literary Discourse, ed.
Hugo Keiper, Christoph Bode, and Richard Utz (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1997), pp. 283–99.
• Macpherson. C. B. The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism: Hobbes to Locke (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1962). (Establishes the deep affinity from Hobbes to Harrington, the Levellers, and Locke
through to nineteenth-century utilitarianism).
• Moseley, Alexander (2007). John Locke: Continuum Library of Educational Thought. Continuum.
ISBN 0-8264-8405-0.
• Pangle, Thomas, The Spirit of Modern Republicanism: The Moral Vision of the American Founders and the
Philosophy of Locke (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988; paperback ed., 1990), 334 pages. (Challenges
Dunn's, Tully's, Yolton's, and other conventional readings.)
• Robinson, Dave; Judy Groves (2003). Introducing Political Philosophy. Icon Books. ISBN 1-84046-450-X.
• Rousseau, George S. (2004). Nervous Acts: Essays on Literature, Culture and Sensibility. Palgrave Macmillan.
ISBN 1-4039-3453-3.
• Strauss, Leo. Natural Right and History, chap. 5B (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953). (Argues from a
non-Marxist point of view for a deep affinity between Hobbes and Locke.)
• Strauss, Leo (1958). "Critical Note: Locke's Doctrine of Natural Law". The American Political Science Review 52
(2): 490–501. doi:10.2307/1952329. JSTOR 1952329. (A critique of W. von Leyden's edition of Locke's
unpublished writings on natural law.)
• Tully, James, 1980. A Discourse on Property : John Locke and his Adversaries. Cambridge Uni. Press
• Waldron, Jeremy, 2002. God, Locke and Equality. Cambridge Uni. Press.
• Yolton, J. W., ed., 1969. John Locke: Problems and Perspectives. Cambridge Uni. Press.
• Zuckert, Michael, Launching Liberalism: On Lockean Political Philosophy. Lawrence, KS: University Press of
Kansas.
• Locke Studies, appearing annually, publishes scholarly work on John Locke.
10
John Locke
External links
Works
• John Locke eText Archive (http://john-locke.com/)
• Works by John Locke (http://www.gutenberg.org/author/John+Locke+(1632–1704)) at Project Gutenberg
• Links to online books by John Locke (http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/
search?amode=start&author=Locke, John)
• The Works of John Locke
• 1823 Edition, 10 Volumes on PDF files, and additional resources (http://socserv2.mcmaster.ca/~econ/
ugcm/3ll3/locke/index.html)
• 1824 Edition, 9 volumes in multiple formats (http://oll.libertyfund.org/index.php?option=com_staticxt&
staticfile=show.php?person=131&Itemid=28)
• John Locke Manuscripts (http://www.libraries.psu.edu/tas/locke/mss/index.html)
• Updated versions of Essay Concerning Human Understanding, Second Treatise of Government, and Letter on
Toleration (http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/), edited by Jonathan Bennett
• Locke, Two Treatises of Government, ed. Thomas Hollis (A. Millar et al., 1764); see original text in The Online
Library of Liberty (http://oll.libertyfund.org/index.php?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.
php?title=222&Itemid=99999999)
• Works by or about John Locke (http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n79-90225) in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
Resources
• John Locke (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/locke) entry by William Uzgalis in the Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy, 2007-05-05
• Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Locke (http://mind.ucsd.edu/syllabi/99_00/Empiricism/
Readings/Encyc_Phil/Locke.html)
• John Locke Bibliography (http://www.libraries.psu.edu/tas/locke/index.html)
• John Locke’s Theory of Knowledge (http://thegreatdebate.org.uk/LockeEpistem.html) by Caspar Hewett
• The Digital Locke Project (http://www.digitallockeproject.nl/)
• Portraits of Locke (http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/person.asp?LinkID=mp02773)
• A complex and positive answer to question Was Locke a Liberal? (http://www.independent.org/pdf/tir/
tir_01_4_huyler.pdf) – by Jerome Huyler
• Timeline of the Life and Work of John Locke at The Online Library of Liberty (http://oll.libertyfund.org/
index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1181&Itemid=273)
• Locke on Property: A Bibliographical Essay by Karen Vaughn, The Online Library of Liberty (http://oll.
libertyfund.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=166&Itemid=259)
11
12
Rousseau in 1753, by Maurice Quentin de La Tour
Born
28 June 1712
Geneva, Republic of Geneva
Died
2 July 1778 (aged 66)
Ermenonville, Kingdom of France
Era
(Modern philosophy)
Region
Western Philosophy
School
Social contract theory
Romanticism
Main interests Political philosophy, music, education, literature, autobiography
Notable ideas
General will, amour-propre, moral simplicity of humanity, child-centered learning, civil religion, popular sovereignty, positive
liberty
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (French: [ʒɑ̃ʒak ʁuso]; 28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778) was a Genevan philosopher, writer, and
composer of 18th-century Romanticism of French expression. His political philosophy influenced the French
Revolution as well as the overall development of modern political, sociological, and educational thought.
Rousseau's novel Émile: or, On Education is a treatise on the education of the whole person for citizenship. His
sentimental novel Julie, or the New Heloise was of importance to the development of pre-romanticism[1] and
romanticism in fiction.[2] Rousseau's autobiographical writings—his Confessions, which initiated the modern
autobiography, and his Reveries of a Solitary Walker—exemplified the late 18th-century movement known as the
Age of Sensibility, and featured an increased focus on subjectivity and introspection that later characterized modern
writing. His Discourse on the Origin of Inequality and his On the Social Contract are cornerstones in modern
political and social thought.
Rousseau was a successful composer of music, who wrote seven operas as well as music in other forms, and made
contributions to music as a theorist. During the period of the French Revolution, Rousseau was the most popular of
the philosophes among members of the Jacobin Club. Rousseau, a Freemason,[3] was interred as a national hero in
the Panthéon in Paris, in 1794, 16 years after his death.
Biography
Youth
Rousseau was born in Geneva, which was at the time a city-state and a Protestant associate of the Swiss
Confederacy. Since 1536, Geneva had been a Huguenot republic and the seat of Calvinism. Five generations before
Rousseau his ancestor Didier, a bookseller who may have published Protestant tracts, had escaped persecution from
French Catholics by fleeing to Geneva in 1549 where he became a wine merchant.[4]
Rousseau was proud that his family, of the moyen order (or middle-class), had voting rights in the city. Throughout
his life, he generally signed his books "Jean Jacques Rousseau, Citizen of Geneva".[5]
Geneva, in theory, was governed democratically by its male voting "citizens". The citizens were a minority of the
population when compared to the immigrants referred to as "inhabitants" whose descendants were called "natives"
and continued to lack suffrage. In fact, rather than be run by vote of the "citizens" the city was ruled by a small
number of wealthy families that made up the "Council of Two Hundred", these delegated their power to a
twenty-five member executive group from among them called the "Little Council".
There was much political debate within Geneva, extending down to the tradespeople. Much discussion was over the
idea of the sovereignty of the people, which the ruling class oligarchy was making a mockery of. In 1707, a
democratic reformer named Pierre Fatio protested at this situation, saying "A sovereign that never performs an act of
sovereignty is an imaginary being."[4] He was shot by order of the Little Council. Jean-Jacques Rousseau's father
Isaac was not in the city at this time, but Jean-Jacques's grandfather supported Fatio and was penalized for it.[5]
The trade of watchmaking had become a family tradition by the time of
Rousseau's father, Isaac Rousseau. Isaac followed his grandfather,
father and brothers into the business, except for a short stint teaching
dance as a dance master.[4] Isaac notwithstanding his artisan status, was
well educated and a lover of music. "A Genevan watchmaker,"
Rousseau wrote, "is a man who can be introduced anywhere; a Parisian
watchmaker is only fit to talk about watches."[6] In 1699 Isaac ran into
political difficulty by entering a quarrel with visiting English officers
who in response drew their swords and threatened him. After local
officials stepped in it was Isaac who was punished, as Geneva was
concerned with maintaining its ties to foreign powers.[4]
Rousseau's mother, Suzanne Bernard Rousseau, was from an
upper-class family who was raised by her uncle Samuel Bernard a
Calvinist preacher. He cared for Suzanne after her father Jacques
(whom had run into trouble with the legal/religious authorities for
fornication and having a mistress) died in his early thirties.[4] In 1695
The house where Rousseau was born at number
40, place du Bourg-de-Four.
Suzanne had to answer charges that she had attended a street theater
disguised as a peasant woman so she could gaze upon M. Vincent
Sarrasin whom she fancied despite his continuing marriage. After a hearing she was ordered by the Consistory to
never interact with him again.[4] She married Rousseau's father at the age of 31. Isaac's sister had married Suzanne's
brother eight years earlier, after she had become pregnant and they had been chastised by the Consistory (the child
died at birth). Later the young Rousseau was told a romantic fairy-tale about the situation by the adults in his family
- a tale where young love was denied by a disapproving patriarch but that prevailed by sibling loyalty that, in the
story, resulted in love conquering all and two marriages uniting the families on the same day. Rousseau never learnt
the truth.[4]
13
14
Rousseau was born on June 28, 1712 and he would later relate "I was born almost dying, they had little hope of
saving me."[4] He was baptized on July 4, 1712 in the great cathedral.[4] His mother died of puerperal fever nine days
after his birth, which he later described as "the first of my misfortunes."[4]
He and his older brother François were brought up by their father and a paternal aunt, also named Suzanne. When
Rousseau was five his father sold the house that the family had received from his mother's relatives, and while the
idea was that his sons would inherit the principal when grown up and he would live off the interest in the meantime in the end the father took most of the substantial proceeds.[4] With the selling of the house the Rousseau family
moved out of the upper-class neighborhood and moved into an apartment house in a neighborhood of craftsmen silversmiths, engravers, and other watchmakers.[4] Growing up around craftsmen Rousseau would later contrast them
favorably to those who produced more aesthetic works, writing "those important persons who are called artists rather
than artisans, work solely for the idle and rich, and put an arbitrary price on their baubles."[4] Rousseau was also
exposed to class politics in this environment as the artisans often agitated in a campaign of resistance against the
privileged class running Geneva.[4]
Rousseau had no recollection of learning to read, but he remembered how when he was 5 or 6 his father encouraged
his love of reading:
Every night, after supper, we read some part of a small collection of romances [i.e., adventure stories], which had been my mother's. My
father's design was only to improve me in reading, and he thought these entertaining works were calculated to give me a fondness for it; but
we soon found ourselves so interested in the adventures they contained, that we alternately read whole nights together and could not bear to
give over until at the conclusion of a volume. Sometimes, in the morning, on hearing the swallows at our window, my father, quite ashamed of
this weakness, would cry, "Come, come, let us go to bed; I am more a child than thou art."
“
”
— Confessions, Book 1
Rousseau's reading of escapist stories (such as L'Astrée by Honoré d'Urfé) had an effect on him, he later wrote that
they "gave me bizarre and romantic notions of human life, which experience and reflection have never been able to
cure me of."[4] After they had finished reading the novels they began to read a collection of ancient and modern
classics left by his mother's uncle. Of these his favorite was Plutarch's Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans, which
he would read to his father while he made watches. Rousseau saw Plutarch's work as another kind of novel - the
noble actions of heroes and he would act out the deeds of the characters he was reading about.[4]
A big impression was made on Rousseau by witnessing the local townsfolk participate in militias. Throughout his
life he would recall one scene where after the volunteer militia had finished its maneuvers they began to dance
around a fountain and most of the people from neighboring buildings came out to join them, including him and his
father. Rousseau would always see militias as the embodiment of popular spirit in opposition to the armies of the
rulers whom he saw as disgraceful mercenaries.[4]
When Rousseau was 10, his father, an avid hunter, got into a legal quarrel with a wealthy landowner on whose lands
he had been caught trespassing. To avoid certain defeat in the courts, he moved away to Nyon in the territory of
Bern, taking Rousseau's aunt Suzanne with him. He remarried, and from that point Jean-Jacques saw little of him.[7]
Jean-Jacques was left with his maternal uncle, who packed him, along with his own son, Abraham Bernard, away to
board for two years with a Calvinist minister in a hamlet outside Geneva. Here the boys picked up the elements of
mathematics and drawing. Rousseau, who was always deeply moved by religious services, for a time even dreamed
of becoming a Protestant minister.
Virtually all our information about Rousseau's youth
has come from his posthumously published
Confessions, in which the chronology is somewhat
confused, though recent scholars have combed the
archives for confirming evidence to fill in the blanks.
At age 13, Rousseau was apprenticed first to a notary
and then to an engraver who beat him. At 15, he ran
away from Geneva (on 14 March 1728) after returning
to the city and finding the city gates locked due to the
curfew.
Les Charmettes: where Rousseau lived with Mme de Warens in
In adjoining Savoy he took shelter with a Roman
1735-6, now a museum dedicated to Rousseau.
Catholic
priest,
who
introduced
him
to
Françoise-Louise de Warens, age 29. She was a
noblewoman of Protestant background who was separated from her husband. As professional lay proselytizer, she
was paid by the King of Piedmont to help bring Protestants to Catholicism. They sent the boy to Turin, the capital of
Savoy (which included Piedmont, in what is now Italy), to complete his conversion. This resulted in his having to
give up his Genevan citizenship, although he would later revert to Calvinism in order to regain it.
In converting to Catholicism, both De Warens and Rousseau were likely reacting to Calvinism's insistence on the
total depravity of man. Leo Damrosch writes, "an eighteenth-century Genevan liturgy still required believers to
declare ‘that we are miserable sinners, born in corruption, inclined to evil, incapable by ourselves of doing good'."[8]
De Warens, a deist by inclination, was attracted to Catholicism's doctrine of forgiveness of sins.
Adulthood
Finding himself on his own, since his father and uncle had more or less disowned him, the teenage Rousseau
supported himself for a time as a servant, secretary, and tutor, wandering in Italy (Piedmont and Savoy) and France.
During this time, he lived on and off with De Warens, whom he idolized and called his "maman". Flattered by his
devotion, De Warens tried to get him started in a profession, and arranged formal music lessons for him. At one
point, he briefly attended a seminary with the idea of becoming a priest.
When Rousseau reached 20, De Warens took him as her lover, while intimate also with the steward of her house.
The sexual aspect of their relationship (in fact a ménage à trois) confused Rousseau and made him uncomfortable,
but he always considered De Warens the greatest love of his life. A rather profligate spender, she had a large library
and loved to entertain and listen to music. She and her circle, comprising educated members of the Catholic clergy,
introduced Rousseau to the world of letters and ideas.
Rousseau had been an indifferent student, but during his 20s, which were marked by long bouts of hypochondria, he
applied himself in earnest to the study of philosophy, mathematics, and music. At 25, he came into a small
inheritance from his mother and used a portion of it to repay De Warens for her financial support of him. At 27, he
took a job as a tutor in Lyon.
In 1742, Rousseau moved to Paris in order to present the Académie des Sciences with a new system of numbered
musical notation he believed would make his fortune. His system, intended to be compatible with typography, is
based on a single line, displaying numbers representing intervals between notes and dots and commas indicating
rhythmic values. Believing the system was impractical, the Academy rejected it, though they praised his mastery of
the subject, and urged him to try again.
15
From 1743 to 1744, Rousseau had an honorable but
ill-paying post as a secretary to the Comte de Montaigue,
the French ambassador to Venice. This awoke in him a
lifelong love for Italian music, particularly opera:
I had brought with me from Paris the
prejudice of that city against Italian music;
but I had also received from nature a
sensibility and niceness of distinction which
prejudice cannot withstand. I soon
contracted that passion for Italian music
with which it inspires all those who are
capable of feeling its excellence. In listening
to barcaroles, I found I had not yet known
what singing was... —Confessions
Rousseau's employer routinely received his stipend as
much as a year late and paid his staff irregularly.[9] After
11 months, Rousseau quit, taking from the experience a
profound distrust of government bureaucracy.
Return to Paris
Returning to Paris, the penniless Rousseau befriended
and became the lover of Thérèse Levasseur, a seamstress
Palazzo belonging to Tommaso Querini at 968 Cannaregio Venice
who was the sole support of her mother and numerous
that served as the French Embassy during Rousseau's period as
Secretary to the Ambassador
ne'er-do-well siblings. At first, they did not live together,
though later Rousseau took Thérèse and her mother in to
live with him as his servants, and himself assumed the burden of supporting her large family. According to his
Confessions, before she moved in with him, Thérèse bore him a son and as many as four other children (there is no
independent verification for this number[10]).
Rousseau wrote that he persuaded Thérèse to give each of the newborns up to a foundling hospital, for the sake of
her "honor". "Her mother, who feared the inconvenience of a brat, came to my aid, and she [Thérèse] allowed herself
to be overcome" (Confessions). In his letter to Madame de Francueil in 1751, he first pretended that he wasn't rich
enough to raise his children but in book IX of the confessions, he gave the true reasons of his choice : " I trembled at
the thought of intrusting them to a family ill brought up, to be still worse educated. The risk of the education of the
foundling hospital was much less."
Ten years later, Rousseau made inquiries about the fate of his son, but no record could be found. When Rousseau
subsequently became celebrated as a theorist of education and child-rearing, his abandonment of his children was
used by his critics, including Voltaire and Edmund Burke, as the basis for ad hominem attacks. In an irony of fate,
Rousseau's later injunction to women to breastfeed their own babies (as had previously been recommended by the
French natural scientist Buffon), probably saved the lives of thousands of infants.
While in Paris, Rousseau became a close friend of French philosopher Diderot and, beginning with some articles on
music in 1749,[11] contributed numerous articles to Diderot and D'Alembert's great Encyclopédie, the most famous
of which was an article on political economy written in 1755.
Rousseau's ideas were the result of an almost obsessive dialogue with writers of the past, filtered in many cases
through conversations with Diderot. His genius lay in his strikingly original way of putting things rather than in the
originality, per se, of his thinking. In 1749, Rousseau was paying daily visits to Diderot, who had been thrown into
16
the fortress of Vincennes under a lettre de cachet for opinions in his "Lettre sur les aveugles," that hinted at
materialism, a belief in atoms, and natural selection.
Rousseau had read about an essay competition sponsored by the Académie de Dijon to be published in the Mercure
de France on the theme of whether the development of the arts and sciences had been morally beneficial. He wrote
that while walking to Vincennes (about three miles from Paris), he had a revelation that the arts and sciences were
responsible for the moral degeneration of mankind, who were basically good by nature. According to Diderot,
writing much later, Rousseau had originally intended to answer this in the conventional way, but his discussions with
Diderot convinced him to propose the paradoxical negative answer that catapulted him into the public eye.
Rousseau's 1750 "Discourse on the Arts and Sciences" was awarded the first prize and gained him significant fame.
Rousseau continued his interest in music. He wrote both the words and music of his opera Le Devin du Village (The
Village Soothsayer), which was performed for King Louis XV in 1752. The king was so pleased by the work that he
offered Rousseau a lifelong pension. To the exasperation of his friends, Rousseau turned down the great honor,
bringing him notoriety as "the man who had refused a king's pension." He also turned down several other
advantageous offers, sometimes with a brusqueness bordering on truculence that gave offense and caused him
problems. The same year, the visit of a troupe of Italian musicians to Paris, and their performance of Giovanni
Battista Pergolesi's La Serva Padrona, prompted the Querelle des Bouffons, which pitted protagonists of French
music against supporters of the Italian style. Rousseau as noted above, was an enthusiastic supporter of the Italians
against Jean-Philippe Rameau and others, making an important contribution with his Letter on French Music.
Return to Geneva (1754)
On returning to Geneva in 1754, Rousseau reconverted to Calvinism and regained his official Genevan citizenship.
In 1755, Rousseau completed his second major work, the Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among
Men (the Discourse on Inequality), which elaborated on the arguments of the Discourse on the Arts and Sciences.
He also pursued an unconsummated romantic attachment with the 25-year-old Sophie d'Houdetot, which partly
inspired his epistolary novel, Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse (also based on memories of his idyllic youthful
relationship with Mme de Warens). Sophie was the cousin and houseguest of Rousseau's patroness and landlady
Madame d'Epinay, whom he treated rather highhandedly. He resented being at Mme d'Epinay's beck and call and
detested the insincere conversation and shallow atheism of the Encyclopedistes whom he met at her table. Wounded
feelings gave rise to a bitter three-way quarrel between Rousseau and Madame d'Epinay; her lover, the philologist
Grimm; and their mutual friend, Diderot, who took their side against Rousseau. Diderot later described Rousseau as
being, "false, vain as Satan, ungrateful, cruel, hypocritical, and wicked ... He sucked ideas from me, used them
himself, and then affected to despise me".[12]
17
Rousseau's break with the Encyclopedistes coincided with the
composition of his three major works, in all of which he emphasized
his fervent belief in a spiritual origin of man's soul and the universe, in
contradistinction to the materialism of Diderot, La Mettrie, and
d'Holbach. During this period Rousseau enjoyed the support and
patronage of the Duc de Luxembourg, and the Prince de Conti, two of
the richest and most powerful nobles in France. These men truly liked
Rousseau and enjoyed his ability to converse on any subject, but they
also used him as a way of getting back at Louis XV and the political
faction surrounding his mistress, Mme de Pompadour. Even with them,
however, Rousseau went too far, courting rejection when he criticized
the practice of tax farming, in which some of them engaged.[13]
Rousseau's 800-page novel of sentiment, Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse,
The mestizo Pierre Alexandre du Peyrou, rich
inhabitant of Neufchâtel, plantation owner,
was published in 1761 to immense success. The book's rhapsodic
writer, friend and publisher of some of
descriptions of the natural beauty of the Swiss countryside struck a
Rousseau's oeuvre. His mansion was Le Palais du
chord in the public and may have helped spark the subsequent
Peyrou.
nineteenth century craze for Alpine scenery. In 1762, Rousseau
published Du Contrat Social, Principes du droit politique (in English,
literally Of the Social Contract, Principles of Political Right) in April. Even his friend Antoine-Jacques Roustan felt
impelled to write a polite rebuttal of the chapter on Civil Religion in the Social Contract, which implied that the
concept of a Christian Republic was paradoxical since Christianity taught submission rather than participation in
public affairs. Rousseau even helped Roustan find a publisher for the rebuttal.[14]
Rousseau published Emile: or, On Education in May. The final section of Émile, "The Profession of Faith of a
Savoyard Vicar," was intended to be a defense of religious belief. Rousseau's choice of a Catholic vicar of humble
peasant background (plausibly based on a kindly prelate he had met as a teenager) as a spokesman for the defense of
religion was in itself a daring innovation for the time. The vicar's creed was that of Socinianism (or Unitarianism as
it is called today). Because it rejected original sin and divine Revelation, both Protestant and Catholic authorities
took offense.[15]
18
Moreover, Rousseau advocated the opinion that, insofar
as they lead people to virtue, all religions are equally
worthy, and that people should therefore conform to the
religion in which they have been brought up. This
religious indifferentism caused Rousseau and his books
to be banned from France and Geneva. He was
condemned from the pulpit by the Archbishop of Paris,
his books were burned, and warrants were issued for
his arrest.[15] Former friends such as Jacob Vernes of
Geneva could not accept his views, and wrote violent
rebuttals.[16]
Rousseau is forced to flee
A sympathetic observer, British philosopher David
Hume, "professed no surprise when he learned that
Rousseau's books were banned in Geneva and
elsewhere." Rousseau, he wrote, "has not had the
precaution to throw any veil over his sentiments; and,
A 1766 portrait of Rousseau by Allan Ramsay.
as he scorns to dissemble his contempt for established
opinions, he could not wonder that all the zealots were
in arms against him. The liberty of the press is not so secured in any country ... as not to render such an open attack
on popular prejudice somewhat dangerous.'"[17]
Rousseau, who thought he had been defending religion, was crushed. Forced to flee arrest, he made his way, with the
help of the Duc of Luxembourg and Prince de Conti, to Neuchâtel, a Canton of the Swiss Confederation that was a
protectorate of the Prussian crown. His powerful protectors discreetly assisted him in his flight, and they helped to
get his banned books (published in Holland by Marc-Michel Rey) distributed in France disguised as other works,
using false covers and title pages. In the town of Môtiers, he sought and found protection under Lord Keith, who was
the local representative of the free-thinking Frederick the Great of Prussia. While in Môtiers, Rousseau wrote the
Constitutional Project for Corsica (Projet de Constitution pour la Corse, 1765).
In Britain (1765)
After his house in Môtiers was stoned on the night of 6 September 1765, Rousseau took refuge in Great Britain with
Hume, who found lodgings for him at a friend's country estate in Wootton in Staffordshire. Neither Thérèse nor
Rousseau was able to learn English or make friends. Isolated, Rousseau, never very emotionally stable, suffered a
serious decline in his mental health and began to experience paranoid fantasies about plots against him involving
Hume and others. “He is plainly mad, after having long been maddish”, Hume wrote to a friend.[18] Rousseau's letter
to Hume, in which he articulates the perceived misconduct, sparked an exchange which was published in Paris and
received with great interest at the time.
19
20
France (1767)
Although officially barred from entering France before 1770, Rousseau returned
in 1767 under a false name. In 1768 he went through a marriage of sorts to
Thérèse (marriages between Catholics and Protestants were illegal), whom he
had always hitherto referred to as his "housekeeper". Though she was illiterate,
she had become a remarkably good cook, a hobby her husband shared.
In 1770 they were allowed to return to Paris. As a condition of his return he was
not allowed to publish any books, but after completing his Confessions,
Rousseau began private readings in 1771. At the request of Madame d'Epinay,
who was anxious to protect her privacy, however, the police ordered him to stop,
and the Confessions was only partially published in 1782, four years after his
death. All his subsequent works were to appear posthumously.
The tomb of Rousseau in the crypt of
the Panthéon, Paris
In 1772, Rousseau was invited to present recommendations for a new
constitution for the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, resulting in the Considerations on the Government of Poland,
which was to be his last major political work. In 1776, he completed Dialogues: Rousseau Judge of Jean-Jacques
and began work on the Reveries of the Solitary Walker. In order to support himself, he returned to copying music,
spending his leisure time in the study of botany.
Final years
Although a celebrity, Rousseau's mental health did not permit him to enjoy his fame. His final years were largely
spent in deliberate withdrawal. However, he did respond favorably to an approach from the composer Gluck, whom
he met in 1774. Gluck admired Rousseau as "a pioneer of the expressive natural style" in music.[19] One of
Rousseau's last pieces of writing was a critical yet enthusiastic analysis of Gluck's opera Alceste. While taking a
morning walk on the estate of the marquis René Louis de Girardin at Ermenonville (28 miles northeast of Paris),
Rousseau suffered a hemorrhage and died, aged 66.
Rousseau was initially buried at Ermenonville on the Ile des Peupliers, which became a place of pilgrimage for his
many admirers. Sixteen years after his death, his remains were moved to the Panthéon in Paris in 1794, where they
are located directly across from those of his contemporary, Voltaire. His tomb, in the shape of a rustic temple, on
which, in bas relief an arm reaches out, bearing the torch of liberty, evokes Rousseau's deep love of nature and of
classical antiquity.
In 1834, the Genevan government somewhat reluctantly erected a statue in his honor on the tiny Île Rousseau in
Lake Geneva. Today he is proudly claimed as their most celebrated native son. In 2002, the Espace Rousseau [20]
was established at 40 Grand-Rue, Geneva, Rousseau's birthplace.
21
Philosophy
Theory of Natural Human
The statue of Rousseau on the Île Rousseau, Geneva.
The first man who, having fenced in a piece of land, said "This is mine," and found people naïve enough to believe him, that man was the true
founder of civil society. From how many crimes, wars, and murders, from how many horrors and misfortunes might not any one have saved
mankind, by pulling up the stakes, or filling up the ditch, and crying to his fellows: Beware of listening to this impostor; you are undone if you
once forget that the fruits of the earth belong to us all, and the earth itself to nobody.
“
”
— Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Discourse on Inequality, 1754
In common with other philosophers of the day, Rousseau looked to a hypothetical State of Nature as a normative
guide.
Rousseau criticized Hobbes for asserting that since man in the "state of nature . . . has no idea of goodness he must
be naturally wicked; that he is vicious because he does not know virtue". On the contrary, Rousseau holds that
"uncorrupted morals" prevail in the "state of nature" and he especially praised the admirable moderation of the
Caribbeans in expressing the sexual urge[21] despite the fact that they live in a hot climate, which "always seems to
inflame the passions".[22]
Rousseau asserted that the stage of human development associated with what he called "savages" was the best and
most optimal in human development, between the less-than optimal extreme of brute animals on the one hand and
the extreme of decadent civilization on the other. "...nothing is so gentle as man in his primitive state, when placed
by nature at an equal distance from the stupidity of brutes and the fatal enlightenment of civil man."[23] Referring to
the stage of human development which Rousseau associates with savages, Rousseau writes:
"Hence although men had become less forebearing, and although natural pity had already undergone
some alteration, this period of the development of human faculties, maintaining a middle position
between the indolence of our primitive state and the petulant activity of our egocentrism, must have
been the happiest and most durable epoch. The more one reflects on it, the more one finds that this state
was the least subject to upheavals and the best for man, and that he must have left it only by virtue of
some fatal chance happening that, for the common good, ought never to have happened. The example of
savages, almost all of whom have been found in this state, seems to confirm that the human race had
been made to remain in it always; that this state is the veritable youth of the world; and that all the
subsequent progress has been in appearance so many steps toward the perfection of the individual, and
in fact toward the decay of the species."[24]
Stages of human development
Rousseau believed that the savage stage was not the first stage of human development, but the third stage. Rousseau
held that this third savage stage of human societal development was an optimum, between the extreme of the state of
brute animals and animal-like "ape-men" on the one hand, and the extreme of decadent civilized life on the other.
This has led some critics to attribute to Rousseau the invention of the idea of the noble savage,[25] which Arthur
Lovejoy conclusively showed misrepresents Rousseau's thought.[26]
The expression, "the noble savage" was first used in 1672 by British poet John Dryden in his play The Conquest of
Granada.[27] Rousseau wrote that morality was not a societal construct, but rather "natural" in the sense of "innate,"
an outgrowth from man's instinctive disinclination to witness suffering, from which arise the emotions of
compassion or empathy. These were sentiments shared with animals, and whose existence even Hobbes
acknowledged.[28]
Contrary to what his many detractors
have claimed, Rousseau never suggests
that humans in the state of nature act
morally; in fact, terms such as "justice"
or "wickedness" are inapplicable to
prepolitical society as Rousseau
understands it. Morality proper, i.e.,
self-restraint, can only develop through
careful education in a civil state.
Humans "in a state of Nature" may act
with all of the ferocity of an animal.
They are good only in a negative
sense, insofar as they are self-sufficient
and thus not subject to the vices of
political society.
In fact, Rousseau's natural man is
Frontispiece and title page of an edition of Rousseau's Discourse on Inequality (1754),
virtually identical to a solitary
published in 1755 in Holland.
chimpanzee or other ape, such as the
orangutan as described by Buffon; and the "natural" goodness of humanity is thus the goodness of an animal, which
is neither good nor bad. Rousseau, a deteriorationist, proposed that, except perhaps for brief moments of balance, at
or near its inception, when a relative equality among men prevailed, human civilization has always been artificial,
creating inequality, envy, and unnatural desires.
In Rousseau's philosophy, society's negative influence on men centers on its transformation of amour de soi, a
positive self-love, into amour-propre, or pride. Amour de soi represents the instinctive human desire for
self-preservation, combined with the human power of reason. In contrast, amour-propre is artificial and encourages
man to compare himself to others, thus creating unwarranted fear and allowing men to take pleasure in the pain or
weakness of others. Rousseau was not the first to make this distinction. It had been invoked by Vauvenargues,
22
among others.
In Discourse on the Arts and Sciences Rousseau argues that the arts and sciences have not been beneficial to
humankind, because they arose not from authentic human needs but rather as a result of pride and vanity. Moreover,
the opportunities they create for idleness and luxury have contributed to the corruption of man. He proposed that the
progress of knowledge had made governments more powerful and had crushed individual liberty; and he concluded
that material progress had actually undermined the possibility of true friendship by replacing it with jealousy, fear,
and suspicion.
In contrast to the optimistic view of other Enlightenment figures, for Rousseau, progress has been inimical to the
well-being of humanity, that is, unless it can be counteracted by the cultivation of civic morality and duty.
Only in civil society, can man be ennobled—through the use of reason:
The passage from the state of nature to the civil state produces a very remarkable change in man, by
substituting justice for instinct in his conduct, and giving his actions the morality they had formerly
lacked. Then only, when the voice of duty takes the place of physical impulses and right of appetite,
does man, who so far had considered only himself, find that he is forced to act on different principles,
and to consult his reason before listening to his inclinations. Although, in this state, he deprives himself
of some advantages which he got from nature, he gains in return others so great, his faculties are so
stimulated and developed, his ideas so extended, his feelings so ennobled, and his whole soul so
uplifted, that, did not the abuses of this new condition often degrade him below that which he left, he
would be bound to bless continually the happy moment which took him from it for ever, and, instead of
a stupid and unimaginative animal, made him an intelligent being and a man.[29]
Society corrupts men only insofar as the Social Contract has not de facto succeeded, as we see in contemporary
society as described in the Discourse on Inequality (1754).
In this essay, which elaborates on the ideas introduced in the Discourse on the Arts and Sciences, Rousseau traces
man's social evolution from a primitive state of nature to modern society. The earliest solitary humans possessed a
basic drive for self-preservation and a natural disposition to compassion or pity. They differed from animals,
however, in their capacity for free will and their potential perfectibility. As they began to live in groups and form
clans they also began to experience family love, which Rousseau saw as the source of the greatest happiness known
to humanity.
As long as differences in wealth and status among families were minimal, the first coming together in groups was
accompanied by a fleeting golden age of human flourishing. The development of agriculture, metallurgy, private
property, and the division of labour and resulting dependency on one another, however, led to economic inequality
and conflict. As population pressures forced them to associate more and more closely, they underwent a
psychological transformation: They began to see themselves through the eyes of others and came to value the good
opinion of others as essential to their self esteem.
Rousseau posits that the original, deeply flawed Social Contract (i.e., that of Hobbes), which led to the modern state,
was made at the suggestion of the rich and powerful, who tricked the general population into surrendering their
liberties to them and instituted inequality as a fundamental feature of human society. Rousseau's own conception of
the Social Contract can be understood as an alternative to this fraudulent form of association.
At the end of the Discourse on Inequality, Rousseau explains how the desire to have value in the eyes of others
comes to undermine personal integrity and authenticity in a society marked by interdependence, and hierarchy. In the
last chapter of the Social Contract, Rousseau would ask "What is to be done?" He answers that now all men can do
is to cultivate virtue in themselves and submit to their lawful rulers. To his readers, however, the inescapable
conclusion was that a new and more equitable Social Contract was needed.
Like other Enlightenment philosophers, Rousseau was critical of the Atlantic slave trade.[30]
23
24
Political theory
Perhaps Rousseau's most important work is The Social
Contract, which outlines the basis for a legitimate
political order within a framework of classical
republicanism. Published in 1762, it became one of the
most influential works of political philosophy in the
Western tradition. It developed some of the ideas
mentioned in an earlier work, the article Economie
Politique (Discourse on Political Economy), featured in
Diderot's Encyclopédie. The treatise begins with the
dramatic opening lines, "Man is born free, and
everywhere he is in chains. Those who think
themselves the masters of others are indeed greater slaves than they."
Île Rousseau, Geneva.
Rousseau claimed that the state of nature was a primitive condition without law or morality, which human beings left
for the benefits and necessity of cooperation. As society developed, division of labor and private property required
the human race to adopt institutions of law. In the degenerate phase of society, man is prone to be in frequent
competition with his fellow men while also becoming increasingly dependent on them. This double pressure
threatens both his survival and his freedom.
According to Rousseau, by joining together into civil society through the social contract and abandoning their claims
of natural right, individuals can both preserve themselves and remain free. This is because submission to the
authority of the general will of the people as a whole guarantees individuals against being subordinated to the wills
of others and also ensures that they obey themselves because they are, collectively, the authors of the law.
Although Rousseau argues that sovereignty (or the power to make the laws) should be in the hands of the people, he
also makes a sharp distinction between the sovereign and the government. The government is composed of
magistrates, charged with implementing and enforcing the general will. The "sovereign" is the rule of law, ideally
decided on by direct democracy in an assembly. Rousseau was opposed to the idea that the people should exercise
sovereignty via a representative assembly (Book III, Chapter XV). The kind of republican government of which
Rousseau approved was that of the city state, of which Geneva was a model, or would have been, if renewed on
Rousseau's principles. France could not meet Rousseau's criterion of an ideal state because it was too big. Much
subsequent controversy about Rousseau's work has hinged on disagreements concerning his claims that citizens
constrained to obey the general will are thereby rendered free:
The notion of the general will is wholly central to Rousseau's theory of political legitimacy. ... It is,
however, an unfortunately obscure and controversial notion. Some commentators see it as no more than
the dictatorship of the proletariat or the tyranny of the urban poor (such as may perhaps be seen in the
French Revolution). Such was not Rousseau's meaning. This is clear from the Discourse on Political
Economy, where Rousseau emphasizes that the general will exists to protect individuals against the
mass, not to require them to be sacrificed to it. He is, of course, sharply aware that men have selfish and
sectional interests which will lead them to try to oppress others. It is for this reason that loyalty to the
good of all alike must be a supreme (although not exclusive) commitment by everyone, not only if a
truly general will is to be heeded but also if it is to be formulated successfully in the first place".[31]
25
Education and child rearing
‘The noblest work in education is to make a reasoning man, and we expect to train a young child by making him reason! This is beginning at
the end; this is making an instrument of a result. If children understood how to reason they would not need to be educated.” –Rousseau, Emile.
“
”
Rousseau’s philosophy of education is not concerned with particular techniques of imparting information and
concepts, but rather with developing the pupil’s character and moral sense, so that he may learn to practice
self-mastery and remain virtuous even in the unnatural and imperfect society in which he will have to live. The
hypothetical boy, Émile, is to be raised in the countryside, which, Rousseau believes, is a more natural and healthy
environment than the city, under the guardianship of a tutor who will guide him through various learning experiences
arranged by the tutor. Today we would call this the disciplinary method of "natural consequences" since, like modern
psychologists, Rousseau felt that children learn right and wrong through experiencing the consequences of their acts
rather than through physical punishment. The tutor will make sure that no harm results to Émile through his learning
experiences.
Rousseau was one of the first to advocate developmentally appropriate education; and his description of the stages of
child development mirrors his conception of the evolution of culture. He divides childhood into stages: the first is to
the age of about 12, when children are guided by their emotions and impulses. During the second stage, from 12 to
about 16, reason starts to develop; and finally the third stage, from the age of 16 onwards, when the child develops
into an adult. Rousseau recommends that the young adult learn a manual skill such as carpentry, which requires
creativity and thought, will keep him out of trouble, and will supply a fallback means of making a living in the event
of a change of fortune. (The most illustrious aristocratic youth to have been educated this way may have been Louis
XVI, whose parents had him learn the skill of locksmithing.[32]) The sixteen-year-old is also ready to have a
companion of the opposite sex.
Although his ideas foreshadowed modern ones in many ways, in one way they do not: Rousseau was a believer in
the moral superiority of the patriarchal family on the antique Roman model. Sophie, the young woman Émile is
destined to marry, as a representative of ideal womanhood, is educated to be governed by her husband while Émile,
as representative of the ideal man, is educated to be self-governing. This is not an accidental feature of Rousseau's
educational and political philosophy; it is essential to his account of the distinction between private, personal
relations and the public world of political relations. The private sphere as Rousseau imagines it depends on the
subordination of women, in order for both it and the public political sphere (upon which it depends) to function as
Rousseau imagines it could and should. Rousseau anticipated the modern idea of the bourgeois nuclear family, with
the mother at home taking responsibility for the household and for childcare and early education.
Feminists, beginning in the late 18th century with Mary Wollstonecraft in 1792[33] have criticized Rousseau for his
confinement of women to the domestic sphere—unless women were domesticated and constrained by modesty and
shame, he feared[34] "men would be tyrannized by women... For, given the ease with which women arouse men's
senses... men would finally be their victims...."[35] His contemporaries saw it differently because Rousseau thought
that mothers should breastfeed their children.[36] Marmontel wrote that his wife thought, "One must forgive
something," she said, "in one who has taught us to be mothers."[37]
Rousseau's detractors have blamed him for everything they do not like in what they call modern "child-centered"
education. John Darling's 1994 book Child-Centered Education and its Critics argues that the history of modern
educational theory is a series of footnotes to Rousseau, a development he regards as bad. Good or bad, the theories of
educators such as Rousseau's near contemporaries Pestalozzi, Mme de Genlis, and later, Maria Montessori, and John
Dewey, which have directly influenced modern educational practices do have significant points in common with
those of Rousseau.
26
Religion
Having converted to Roman Catholicism early in life and returned to the austere Calvinism of his native Geneva as
part of his period of moral reform, Rousseau maintained a profession of that religious philosophy and of John Calvin
as a modern lawgiver throughout the remainder of his life.[38] His views on religion presented in his works of
philosophy, however, may strike some as discordant with the doctrines of both Catholicism and Calvinism.
At the time, however, Rousseau's strong endorsement of religious toleration, as expounded by the Savoyard vicar in
Émile, was interpreted as advocating indifferentism, a heresy, and led to the condemnation of the book in both
Calvinist Geneva and Catholic Paris. His assertion in the Social Contract that true followers of Jesus would not make
good citizens may have been another reason for Rousseau's condemnation in Geneva.
Unlike many of the more radical Enlightenment philosophers, Rousseau affirmed the necessity of religion. But he
repudiated the doctrine of original sin, which plays so large a part in Calvinism (in Émile, Rousseau writes "there is
no original perversity in the human heart").[39]
In the 18th century, many deists viewed God merely as an abstract and impersonal creator of the universe, which
they likened to a giant machine. Rousseau's deism differed from the usual kind in its intense emotionality. He saw
the presence of God in his creation, including mankind, which, apart from the harmful influence of society, is good,
because God is good. Rousseau's attribution of a spiritual value to the beauty of nature anticipates the attitudes of
19th-century Romanticism towards nature and religion.
Rousseau was upset that his deistic views were so forcefully condemned, while those of the more atheistic
philosophes were ignored. He defended himself against critics of his religious views in his "Letter to Christophe de
Beaumont, the Archbishop of Paris in which he insists that freedom of discussion in religious matters is essentially
more religious than the attempt to impose belief by force."[40]
Legacy
Rousseau's idea of the volonté générale ("general will")
was not original with him but rather belonged to a
well-established technical vocabulary of juridical and
theological writings in use at the time. The phrase was
used by Diderot and also by Montesquieu (and by his
teacher, the Oratorian friar Nicolas Malebranche). It
served to designate the common interest embodied in
legal tradition, as distinct from and transcending
people's private and particular interests at any particular
time.
The concept was also an important aspect of the more
radical 17th-century republican tradition of Spinoza,
from whom Rousseau differed in important respects,
but not in his insistence on the importance of equality.
This emphasis on equality is Rousseau's most important
and consequential legacy, causing him to be both
reviled and applauded:
A plaque commemorating the bicentenary of Rousseau's birth. Issued
by the city of Geneva on 28 June 1912. The legend at the bottom
says "Jean-Jacques, aime ton pays" ("love your country"), and shows
Rousseau's father gesturing towards the window. The scene is drawn
from a footnote to the Letter to d'Alembert where Rousseau recalls
witnessing the popular celebrations following the exercises of the St
Gervais regiment.
While Rousseau's notion of the progressive
moral degeneration of mankind from the moment civil society established itself diverges markedly from
Spinoza's claim that human nature is always and everywhere the same ... for both philosophers the
pristine equality of the state of nature is our ultimate goal and criterion ... in shaping the "common
good", volonté générale, or Spinoza's mens una, which alone can ensure stability and political salvation.
Without the supreme criterion of equality, the general will would indeed be meaningless. ... When in the
depths of the French Revolution the Jacobin clubs all over France regularly deployed Rousseau when
demanding radical reforms. and especially anything—such as land redistribution—designed to enhance
equality, they were at the same time, albeit unconsciously, invoking a radical tradition which reached
back to the late seventeenth century.[41]
French Revolution
The cult that grew up around Rousseau after his death, and particularly the radicalized versions of Rousseau's ideas
that were adopted by Robespierre and Saint-Just during the Reign of Terror, caused him to become identified with
the most extreme aspects of the French Revolution.[42] Among other things, the ship of the line Jean-Jacques
Rousseau (launched in 1795) was named after the philosopher. The revolutionaries were also inspired by Rousseau
to introduce Deism as the new official civil religion of France, scandalizing traditionalists:
Ceremonial and symbolic occurrences of the more radical phases of the Revolution invoked Rousseau and his
core ideas.
Thus the ceremony held at the site of the demolished Bastille, organized by the foremost artistic director of the
Revolution, Jacques-Louis David, in August 1793 to mark the inauguration of the new republican constitution,
an event coming shortly after the final abolition of all forms of feudal privilege, featured a cantata based on
Rousseau's democratic pantheistic deism as expounded in the celebrated "Profession de foi d'un vicaire
savoyard" in Book Four of Émile.[43]
Opponents of the Revolution and defenders of religion, most influentially the Irish essayist Edmund Burke, therefore
placed the blame for the excesses of the French Revolution directly on the revolutionaries' misplaced (as he
considered it) adulation of Rousseau. Burke's "Letter to a Member of the National Assembly", published in February
1791, was a diatribe against Rousseau, whom he considered the paramount influence on the French Revolution (his
ad hominem attack did not really engage with Rousseau's political writings). Burke maintained that the excesses of
the Revolution were not accidents but were designed from the beginning and were rooted in Rousseau's personal
vanity, arrogance, and other moral failings. He recalled Rousseau's visit to Britain in 1766, saying: "I had good
opportunities of knowing his proceedings almost from day to day and he left no doubt in my mind that he entertained
no principle either to influence his heart or to guide his understanding, but vanity". Conceding his gift of eloquence,
Burke deplored Rousseau's lack of the good taste and finer feelings that would have been imparted by the education
of a gentleman:
Taste and elegance ... are of no mean importance in the regulation of life. A moral taste ... infinitely
abates the evils of vice. Rousseau, a writer of great force and vivacity, is totally destitute of taste in any
sense of the word. Your masters [i.e., the leaders of the Revolution], who are his scholars, conceive that
all refinement has an aristocratic character. The last age had exhausted all its powers in giving a grace
and nobleness to our mutual appetites, and in raising them into a higher class and order than seemed
justly to belong to them. Through Rousseau, your masters are resolved to destroy these aristocratic
prejudices.[44]
The American founders rarely cited Rousseau, but came independently to their Republicanism and enthusiastic
admiration for the austere virtues described by Livy and in Plutarch's portrayals of the great men of ancient Sparta
and the classical republicanism of early Rome, as did many, if not most other enlightenment figures.[45] Rousseau’s
praise of Switzerland and Corsica’s economies of isolated and self-sufficient independent homesteads, and his
endorsement of a well-regulated citizen militia, such as Switzerland’s, recall the ideals of Jeffersonian democracy. To
Rousseau we owe the invention of the concept of a "civil religion", one of whose key tenets is religious toleration.
Yet despite their mutual insistence on the self-evidence that "all men are created equal", their insistence that the
citizens of a republic be educated at public expense, and the evident parallel between the concepts of the "general
27
28
welfare" and Rousseau's "general will", some scholars maintain there is little to suggest that Rousseau had that much
effect on Thomas Jefferson and other founding fathers.[46] They argue that the American constitution owes as much
or more to the English Liberal philosopher John Locke's emphasis on the rights of property and to Montesquieu's
theories of the separation of powers.[47]
Rousseau's writings had an indirect influence on American literature through the writings of Wordsworth and Kant,
whose works were important to the New England Transcendentalist Ralph Waldo Emerson, as well as on such
Unitarians as theologian William Ellery Channing. American novelist James Fennimore Cooper's Last of the
Mohicans and other novels reflect republican and egalitarian ideals present alike in Rousseau, Thomas Paine, and
also in English Romantic primitivism.[48] Another American admirer was lexicographer Noah Webster.[49] The
Paraguayan dictator José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia sought to found a society based on the principles set forth in
Rousseau's Social Contract.[50]
"In truth," wrote Kingsley Martin, "Rousseau was a genius whose real influence cannot be traced with precision
because it pervaded all the thought that followed him." He goes on:
Men will always be sharply divided about Rousseau: for he released imagination as well as
sentimentalism;; he increased men’s desire for justice as well as confusing their minds , and he gave the
poor hope even though the rich could make use of his arguments. In one direction at least Rousseau’s
influence was a steady one: he discredited force as a basis for the State, convinced men that authority
was legitimate only when founded in rational consent and that no arguments from passing expediency
could justify a government in disregarding individual freedom or in failing to promote social
equality.[51]
Criticisms of Rousseau
The first to criticize Rousseau were his fellow
Philosophes, above all, Voltaire. According to Jacques
Barzun:
Voltaire, who had felt annoyed by the first
essay [On the Arts and Sciences], was
outraged by the second, [Discourse on the
Origin of Inequality Among Men],
declaring that Rousseau wanted us to “walk
on all fours” like animals and behave like
savages, believing them creatures of
perfection. From these interpretations,
plausible but inexact, spring the clichés
Noble Savage and Back to Nature.[52]
Barzun states that, contrary to myth, Rousseau was no
primitivist; for him:
The model man is the independent farmer,
free of superiors and self-governing. This
was cause enough for the philosophes'
hatred of their former friend. Rousseau’s
unforgivable crime was his rejection of the
graces and luxuries of civilized existence.
A portrait of Rousseau in later life.
Voltaire had sung “The superfluous, that most necessary thing." For the high bourgeois standard of
living Rousseau would substitute the middling peasant’s. It was the country versus the city—an
exasperating idea for them, as was the amazing fact that every new work of Rousseau’s was a huge
success, whether the subject was politics, theater, education, religion, or a novel about love.[53]
Following the French Revolution, other commentators fingered a potential danger of Rousseau’s project of realizing
an “antique” conception of virtue amongst the citizenry in a modern world (e.g. through education, physical exercise,
a citizen militia, public holidays, and the like). Taken too far, as under the Jacobins, such social engineering could
result in tyranny.
As early as 1819, in his famous speech “On Ancient and Modern Liberty,” the political philosopher Benjamin
Constant, a proponent of constitutional monarchy and representative democracy, criticized Rousseau, or rather his
more radical followers (specifically the Abbé de Mably), for allegedly believing that "everything should give way to
collective will, and that all restrictions on individual rights would be amply compensated by participation in social
power.”
Common also were attacks by defenders of social hierarchy on Rousseau's "romantic" belief in equality. In 1860,
shortly after the Sepoy Rebellion in India, two British white supremacists, John Crawfurd and James Hunt, mounted
a defense of British imperialism based on “scientific racism".[54] Crawfurd, in alliance with Hunt, took over the
presidency of the British Anthropological Society, which had been founded with the mission to defend indigenous
peoples against slavery and colonial exploitation. Invoking "science" and "realism", the two men derided their
"philanthropic" predecessors for believing in human equality and for not recognizing that mankind was divided into
superior and inferior races. Crawfurd, who opposed Darwinian evolution, "denied any unity to mankind, insisting on
immutable, hereditary, and timeless differences in racial character, principal amongst which was the 'very great'
difference in 'intellectual capacity.'" For Crawfurd, the races had been created separately and were different species.
Since Crawfurd was Scottish, he thought the Scottish "race" superior and all others inferior; whilst Hunt, on the other
hand, believed in the supremacy of the Anglo-Saxon "race". Crawfurd and Hunt routinely accused those who
disagreed with them of believing in "Rousseau’s Noble Savage". (The pair ultimately quarreled because Hunt
believed in slavery and Crawfurd did not). "As Ter Ellingson demonstrates, Crawfurd was responsible for
re-introducing the Pre-Rousseauian concept of 'the Noble Savage' to modern anthropology, attributing it wrongly and
quite deliberately to Rousseau.”[55]
In 1919 Irving Babbitt, founder of a movement called the "New Humanism", wrote a critique of what he called
"sentimental humanitarianism", for which he blamed Rousseau.[56] Babbitt's depiction of Rousseau was countered in
a celebrated and much reprinted essay by A. O. Lovejoy in 1923.[57] In France, fascist theorist and anti-Semite
Charles Maurras, founder of Action Française, “had no compunctions in laying the blame for both Romantisme et
Révolution firmly on Rousseau in 1922."[58]
During the Cold War, Karl Popper criticized Rousseau for his association with nationalism and its attendant abuses.
This came to be known among scholars as the "totalitarian thesis". An example is J. L. Talmon's, The Origins of
Totalitarian Democracy (1952).[59] Political scientist J. S. Maloy states that “the twentieth century added Nazism and
Stalinism to Jacobinism on the list of horrors for which Rousseau could be blamed. ... Rousseau was considered to
have advocated just the sort of invasive tampering with human nature which the totalitarian regimes of mid-century
had tried to instantiate." But Maloy adds that "The totalitarian thesis in Rousseau studies has, by now, been
discredited as an attribution of real historical influence.”[60]
Arthur Melzer, however, while conceding that Rousseau would not have approved of modern nationalism, observes
that his theories do contain the "seeds of nationalism", insofar as they set forth the "politics of identification", which
are rooted in sympathetic emotion. Melzer also believes that in admitting that people's talents are unequal, Rousseau
therefore tacitly condones the tyranny of the few over the many.[61] For Stephen T. Engel, on the other hand,
Rousseau's nationalism anticipated modern theories of "imagined communities" that transcend social and religious
divisions within states.[62]
On similar grounds, one of Rousseau's strongest critics during the second half of the 20th century was political
philosopher Hannah Arendt. Using Rousseau's thought as an example, Arendt identified the notion of sovereignty
29
with that of the general will. According to her, it was this desire to establish a single, unified will based on the
stifling of opinion in favor of public passion that contributed to the excesses of the French Revolution.[63]
Major works
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Dissertation sur la musique moderne, 1736
Discourse on the Arts and Sciences (Discours sur les sciences et les arts), 1750
Narcissus, or The Self-Admirer: A Comedy, 1752
Le Devin du Village: an opera, 1752, score [64] PDF (21.7 MB)
Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men (Discours sur l'origine et les fondements de
l'inégalité parmi les hommes), 1754
Discourse on Political Economy, 1755
Letter to M. D'Alembert on Spectacles, 1758 (Lettre à d'Alembert sur les spectacles)
Julie, or the New Heloise (Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse), 1761
Émile: or, on Education (Émile, ou de l'éducation), 1762
The Creed of a Savoyard Priest, 1762 (in Émile)
The Social Contract, or Principles of Political Right (Du contrat social), 1762
Four Letters to M. de Malesherbes, 1762
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Pygmalion: a Lyric Scene, 1762
Letters Written from the Mountain, 1764 (Lettres de la montagne)
Confessions of Jean-Jacques Rousseau (Les Confessions), 1770, published 1782
Constitutional Project for Corsica, 1772
Considerations on the Government of Poland, 1772
Essay on the Origin of Languages, published 1781 (Essai sur l'origine des langues)
Reveries of a Solitary Walker, incomplete, published 1782 (Rêveries du promeneur solitaire)
Dialogues: Rousseau Judge of Jean-Jacques, published 1782
Editions in English
• Basic Political Writings, trans. Donald A. Cress. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 1987.
• Collected Writings, ed. Roger Masters and Christopher Kelly, Dartmouth: University Press of New England,
1990–2010, 13 vols.
• The Confessions, trans. Angela Scholar. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.
• Emile, or On Education, trans. with an introd. by Allan Bloom, New York: Basic Books, 1979.
• "On the Origin of Language," trans. John H. Moran. In On the Origin of Language: Two Essays. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1986.
• Reveries of a Solitary Walker, trans. Peter France. London: Penguin Books, 1980.
• 'The Discourses' and Other Early Political Writings, trans. Victor Gourevitch. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1997.
• 'The Social Contract' and Other Later Political Writings, trans. Victor Gourevitch. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1997.
• 'The Social Contract, trans. Maurice Cranston. Penguin: Penguin Classics Various Editions, 1968–2007.
• The Political writings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, edited from the original MCS and authentic editions with
introduction and notes by C.E.Vaughan, Blackwell, Oxford, 1962. (In French but the introduction and notes are in
English).
30
Online texts
• A Discourse on the Moral Effects of the Arts and Sciences [65] English translation
• Confessions of Jean-Jacques Rousseau [66] English translation, as published by Project Gutenberg, 2004 [EBook
#3913]
• Considerations on the Government of Poland [67] English translation
• Constitutional Project for Corsica [68] English translation
• Discourse on Political Economy [69] English translation
• Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men [70] English translation
• The Social Contract, Or Principles of Political Right [71] English translation
• 'Elementary Letters on Botany', 1771-3 [72] PDF (4.23 MB) English translation
• Emile [73] French text and English translation (Grace G. Roosevelt's revision and correction of Barbara Foxley's
Everyman translation, at Columbia)
• Full Ebooks of Rousseau in french [74] on the website 'La philosophie'
• Mondo Politico Library's presentation of Jean-Jacques Rousseau's book, The Social Contract (G.D.H. Cole
translation; full text) [75]
• Narcissus, or The Self-Admirer: A Comedy [76] English translation
• Project Concerning New Symbols for Music [77] French text and English translation, archived from the original
[78]
on 2008-12-20
• The Creed of a Savoyard Priest [79] English translation
• Works by Jean-Jacques Rousseau [80] at Project Gutenberg
• (French) Texts of J.-J. Rousseau and biography at athena.unige.ch [81]
• (French) Full Text of J.-J. Rousseau [82]
Notes
[1] "Preromanticism Criticism" (http:/ / www. enotes. com/ literary-criticism/ preromanticism). Enotes.com. . Retrieved 23 February 2009.
[2] See also Robert Darnton, The Great Cat Massacre, chapter 6: "Readers Respond to Rousseau: The Fabrication of Romantic Sensitivity" for
some interesting examples of contemporary reactions to this novel.
[3] Leo Damrosch, Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Restless Genius (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2005) p. 492.
[4] Leo Damrosch (2005). Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Restless Genius. New York: Mariner Books.
[5] Leo Damrosch, Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Restless Genius (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2005) p. 31.
[6] "And indeed, a British visitor commented, 'Even the lower class of people [of Geneva] are exceedingly well informed, and there is perhaps no
city in Europe where learning is more universally diffused"; another at mid-century noticed that Genevan workmen were fond of reading the
works of Locke and Montesquieu." See Leo Damrosch, Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Restless Genius, p. 14.
[7] Damrosch, p. 24.
[8] Rousseau: Restless Genius, p. 121.
[9] Leo Damrosch describes the count as “a virtual parody of a parasitic aristocrat, incredibly stupid, irascible, and swollen with self importance."
He spoke no Italian, a language in which Rousseau was fluent. Although Rousseau did most of the work of the embassy, he was treated like a
valet. (See Damrosch, p. 168).
[10] Some of Rousseau's contemporaries believed the babies were not his. George Sand has written an essai, "Les Charmettes" (1865. Printed in
the same volume as "Laura" from the same year) in which she explains why Rousseau may have accused himself falsely. She quotes her
grandmother, in whose family Rousseau had been a tutor, and who stated that Rousseau could not get children.
[11] Rousseau in his musical articles in the Encyclopedie engaged in lively controversy with other musicians, e.g. with Rameau, as in his article
on Temperament, for which see Encyclopédie: Tempérament (http:/ / quod. lib. umich. edu/ cgi/ t/ text/
text-idx?c=did;cc=did;rgn=main;view=text;idno=did2222. 0000. 897) (English translation), also Temperament Ordinaire.
[12] Damrosch (2005), p. 304.
[13] Damrosch (2005), p. 357.
[14] Helena Rosenblatt (1997). Rousseau and Geneva: from the first discourse to the social contract, 1749–1762 (http:/ / books. google. ca/
books?id=0hGoNncv-CkC& pg=PA264). Cambridge University Press. pp. 264–5. ISBN 0-521-57004-2. .
[15] Rousseau's biographer Leo Damrosch, believes that the authorities chose to condemn him on religious rather than political grounds for
tactical reasons. See Damrosch Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Restless Genius (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2005).
[16] Protestantism in Geneva (http:/ / books. google. ca/ books?id=f7ECAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA165). . Blackwood's magazine, Volume 51: 165.
1842. .
31
[17] Peter Gay, The Enlightenment, The Science of Freedom, p. 72.
[18] Quoted in Damrosch, p. 432
[19] Leo Damrosch, Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Restless Genius, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2007, p.473
[20] http:/ / www. espace-rousseau. ch/ e/ jean-jacques-rousseau. asp
[21] Rousseau, Discourse on Inequality, 72–73
[22] Discourse, 78.
[23] Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (1754), Part Two, pg 64 of Jean-Jacques Rousseau: The Basic Political Writings. Hackett Publishing
Company
[24] Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (1754), Part Two, pg 65 of Jean-Jacques Rousseau: The Basic Political Writings. Hackett Publishing
Company
[25] An early recorded use in French language of a specific expression explicitly associating the words 'savage' and 'noble' is in the early 17th
century, that of Marc Lescarbot in his Histoire de la Nouvelle France (1609). In the chapter heading "Sauvages sont vrayement nobles",
Lescarbot states about those he calls savages: "...revenons à notre Nouvelle-France, ou les hommes sont plus humains et ne vivent que de ce
que Dieu a donné à l'homme, sans devorer leurs semblables. Aussi faut-il dire d'eux qu'ils sont vrayment Nobles..." pg 786 Histoire de la
Nouvelle France. Some writers still use the term "Noble Savage" in describing race relations in New France, see for example: The Libertine
Colony by Doris Garraway, There are No Slaves in France by Sue Peabody, The Avengers of the New World by Laurent Dubois, and The
French Atlantic Triangle by Christopher Miller; for information about the relationship between the French and English colonial contexts, see
Sentimental Figures of Empire by Lynn Festa.
[26] A. O. Lovejoy, "The Supposed Primitivism of Rousseau's Discourse on Inequality" in Essays in the History of Ideas (Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins Press, [1923], 1948, 1960). Mario Einaudi speaks of "Arthur Lovejoy's crucial role in dispelling the myth cultivated with such care
by many eighteenth-century philosophes, see Mario Einaudi, The Early Rousseau (Cornell University Press, 1967), n. p. 5. For a history of
how the phrase became associated with Rousseau, see Ter Ellingson's, The Myth of the Noble Savage (Berkley, CA: University of California
Press, 2001). See also below on Babbitt in article section: Legacy: Criticisms of Rousseau.
[27] Earl Miner, "The Wild Man Through the Looking Glass", in Edward Dudley and Maximillian E. Novak, editors, The Wild Man Within: An
Image in Western Thought from the Renaissance to Romanticism, University of Pittsburgh Press, 1972, p. 106 (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=27Av0zEmlqkC& pg=PA106& dq=Dryden+ first+ to+ use+ phrase+ the+ noble+ savage& hl=en& sa=X&
ei=u_22T6zLM8bw6AHd-NDRCg& ved=0CF4Q6AEwBw#v=onepage& q=Dryden first to use phrase the noble savage& f=false) and
Ellingson (2001), p. 8 and passim. In 2009, Peter Gay remarked, "As far as the noble savage is concerned, that phrase is from Dryden and does
not appear in Rousseau’s writings. In the years I taught the history of political theory at Columbia to a sizable class of undergraduates, I would
offer students a hundred dollars if they could find 'Noble Savage' anywhere in Rousseau. I never had to pay up'", Peter Gay, "Breeding is
Fundamental", Book Forum, (April/May, 2009. (http:/ / www. bookforum. com/ inprint/ 016_01/ 3519)
[28] In locating the basis of ethics in emotions rather than reason Rousseau agreed with Adam Smith's 1759 Theory of Moral Sentiments.
[29] The Social Contract, Book I Chapter 8 (http:/ / www. constitution. org/ jjr/ socon_01. htm)
[30] " The Abolition of The Slave Trade (http:/ / abolition. nypl. org/ print/ abolition/ )"
[31] Entry, "Rousseau" in the Routelege Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Edward Craig, editor, Volume Eight, p. 371
[32] Jordan, Michael. "Famous Locksmiths" (http:/ / www. americanchronicle. com/ articles/ view/ 72616). American Chronicle. . Retrieved 14
July 2010.
[33] Wollstonecraft, Mary, 1792 (2004). "V". A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (ed. Miriam Brody).. Penguin Group.
ISBN 978-0-14-144125-2.
[34] Tuana, Nancy (1993). The Less Noble Sex: Scientific, Religious and Philosophical Conceptions of Women's Nature. Indiana University
Press. pp. 161. ISBN 0-253-36098-6.
[35] Rousseau, Emile, book V, p. 359
[36] Damrosch, p. 341-42.
[37] Marmontel, Jean François (1826). Memoirs of Marmontel, written by himself: containing his literary and political life, and anecdotes of the
principal characters of the eighteenth century (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=SiQoAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA125). Whittaker via Google
Books. pp. 125–126. .
[38] Britannica.com (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 510932/ Jean-Jacques-Rousseau/ 23965/
Major-works-of-political-philosophy)
[39] il n’y a point de perversité originelle dans le cœur humain Émile, ou De l’éducation/Édition 1852/Livre II
[40] The full text of the letter is available online only in the French original: Lettre à Mgr De Beaumont Archevêque de Paris (1762) (http:/ /
alain-leger. mageos. com/ docs/ Rousseau. pdf)
[41] Jonathan I. Israel, Radical Enlightenment: Philosophy and the Making of Modernity (Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 274.
[42] Robspierre and Saint-Just's conception of L’intérêt général, or the will of the people, was derived from Rousseau's "general will", and they
considered themselves "highly principled republicans, charged with stripping away what was superfluous and corrupt, inspired above all by
Rousseau", Jonathan Israel, p. 717.
[43] Jonathan Israel, p. 717.
[44] Burke, Edmund. "A letter to a member of the National Assembly, 1791" (http:/ / ourcivilisation. com/ smartboard/ shop/ burkee/ tonatass/
index. htm). Ourcivilisation.com. . Retrieved 23 February 2009.
32
[45] In the eighteenth century, Sparta was generally identified with classical republicanism. For Rousseau and Sparta see Judith N. Shklar,
"Sparta and the Age of Gold" in Men and Citizens: A Study of Rousseau's Social Theory, p. 12. For role of Sparta during the Enlightenment
see Peter Gay's The Party of Humanity (New York: W. W. Norton, 1971), especially pp. 242–244. and The Enlightenment: An Interpretation :
the Rise of Modern Paganism (New York: W. W. Norton [1966], 1977, Chapter one.
[46] "Rousseau, whose romantic and egalitarian tenets had practically no influence on the course of Jefferson's, or indeed any American,
thought." Nathan Schachner, Thomas Jefferson: A Biography. (1957), p. 47. Jefferson never mentioned Rousseau in any of his writings, but
made frequent references to Locke. On the other hand, he did have a well-thumbed copy of Rousseau's work in his library and was known to
have been influenced by "French philosophers."
[47] A case for Rousseau as an enemy of the Enlightenment is made in Graeme Garrard, Rousseau's Counter-Enlightenment: A Republican
Critique of the Philosophes (Albany: SUNY Press, 2003).
[48] Cooper was a follower of Tom Paine, who in turn was an admirer of Rousseau. For the classical origins of American ideals of liberty, see
also "Sibi Imperiosus: Cooper's Horatian Ideal of Self-Governance in The Deerslayer"(Villa Julie College) Placed on line July 2005
external.oneonta.edu (http:/ / external. oneonta. edu/ cooper/ articles/ suny/ 2003suny-tamer. html)
[49] Mark J. Temmer, "Rousseau and Thoreau," Yale French Studies, No. 28, Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1961), pp. 112–121.
[50] War of The Triple Alliance (http:/ / warofthepacific. com/ warofthetriplealliance. htm) Retrieved 14 November 2010
[51] Kingsley Martin, French Liberal Thought in the Eighteenth Century [1962] quoted in Nicholas Dent, Rousseau in series The Routledge
Philosophers (London and New York: Routledge, 2005), p. 20.
[52] From Dawn to Decadence: 500 Years of Western Cultural Life: 1500 to the Present (Harper Collins, 2001), p. 384
[53] Jacques Barzun, From Dawn to Decadence (2001) p. 384
[54] See Ter Ellingson, The Myth of the Noble Savage, 2001.
[55] "John Crawfurd—'two separate races'" (http:/ / epress. anu. edu. au/ foreign_bodies/ mobile_devices/ ch03s02. html). Epress.anu.edu.au. .
Retrieved 23 February 2009.
[56] Rousseau and Romanticism (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1919).
[57] Lovejoy ([1923], 1948..
[58] See R. Simon Harvey, who goes on: "and mere concern for the facts has not inhibited others from doing likewise. Irving Babbitt’s Rousseau
& Romanticism still remains the only general work on this subject though printed as long ago as 1919, but it is grossly inaccurate, discursive
and biased ....”See Reappraisals of Rousseau: studies in honor of R. A. Leigh, R, Simon Harvey, Editor (Manchester University press. 1980).
[59] Talmon's thesis is rebutted by Ralph A. Leigh in “Liberté et autorité dans le Contrat Social” in Jean-Jacques Rousseau et son ouevre (Paris
1963). Another tenacious proponent of the totalitarian thesis was Lester C. Crocker, author of Rousseau’s Social Contract, An interpretive
Essay (Case Western Reserve Press, Cleveland, 1968). Two reviews of the debate are: J. W. Chapman, Rousseau: Totalitarian or Liberal?
(AMS Press New York, 1968) and Richard Fralin, Rousseau and Representation (Columbia University Press, NY, 1978).
[60] J. S. Maloy, “The Very Order of Things: Rousseau's Tutorial Republicanism,” Polity, Vol. 37 (2005).
[61] Arthur Melzer, "Rousseau, Nationalism, and the Politics of Sympathetic Identification" in Educating the Prince: Essays in Honor of Harvey
C. Mansfield, Mark Kristol and William Blitz, editors (Rowman & Littlefield, 2000). Others counter, however, that Rousseau was concerned
with the concept of equality under the law, not equality of talents.
[62] "Rousseau and Imagined Communities", The Review of Politics, Vol. 67, No. 3 (Summer, 2005), pp. 515–537.
[63] Hannah Arendt, On revolution (1990 p. 76
[64] http:/ / www. library. unt. edu/ music/ virtual/ Rousseau_Devin/ Rousseau. pdf
[65] http:/ / www. 4literature. net/ Jean_Jacques_Rousseau/ Discourse_on_the_Moral_Effects/
[66] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ etext/ 3913
[67] http:/ / www. constitution. org/ jjr/ poland. htm
[68] http:/ / www. constitution. org/ jjr/ corsica. htm
[69] http:/ / www. constitution. org/ jjr/ polecon. htm
[70] http:/ / www. constitution. org/ jjr/ ineq. htm
[71] http:/ / www. constitution. org/ jjr/ socon. htm
[72] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20091023175105/ http:/ / geocities. com/ avisolo3/ rousseaubotany. pdf
[73] http:/ / projects. ilt. columbia. edu/ pedagogies/ rousseau/
[74] http:/ / www. laphilosophie. fr/ livres-de-Rousseau-texte-integral. html
[75] http:/ / www. mondopolitico. com/ library/ thesocialcontract/ thesocialcontracttoc. htm
[76] http:/ / userwww. service. emory. edu/ ~cjcampb/ sourcedocs/ narcissus. html
[77] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20081220013534/ http:/ / www. normanschmidt. net/ ~abc/ Rousseau. htm
[78] http:/ / www. normanschmidt. net/ %7Eabc/ Rousseau. htm
[79] http:/ / www. marxists. org/ reference/ subject/ philosophy/ works/ fr/ rousseau. htm
[80] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ author/ Jean-Jacques_Rousseau
[81] http:/ / athena. unige. ch/ athena/ rousseau/ rousseau. html
[82] http:/ / www. rousseauonline. ch
33
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• Roger Masters (ed.), 1978. On the Social Contract, with the Geneva Manuscript and Political Economy by
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, translated by Judith R Masters. New York: St Martin’s Press (ISBN 0-312-69446-6).
• McCarthy, Vincent A. (2009). "Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Presence and Absence" in Kierkegaard and the
Renaissance and Modern Traditions (ed. Jon Stewart.) Farnham: Ashgate Publishing. (ISBN
978-0-7546-6818-3).
• Melzer, Arthur (1990). The Natural Goodness of Man: On the System of Rousseau's Thought. Chicago: University
of Chicago Press.
• Pateman, Carole (1979). The Problem of Political Obligation: A Critical Analysis of Liberal Theory. Chichester:
John Wiley & Sons.
• Riley, Patrick (1970). “A Possible Explanation of the General Will”. American Political Science Review 64:88
• Riley, Patrick (1978). "General Will Before Rousseau". Political Theory, vol. 6, No. 4: 485–516.
• Riley, Patrick (ed.) (2001). The Cambridge Companion to Rousseau. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Robinson, Dave & Groves, Judy (2003). Introducing Political Philosophy. Icon Books. ISBN 1-84046-450-X.
• Scott, John, T., editor (2006). Jean Jacques Rousseau, Volume 3: Critical Assessments of Leading Political
Philosophers. New York: Routledge.
• Simpson, Matthew (2006). Rousseau's Theory of Freedom. London: Continuum Books.
• Simpson, Matthew (2007). Rousseau: Guide for the Perplexed. London: Continuum Books.
• Starobinski, Jean (1988). Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Transparency and Obstruction. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
• Strauss, Leo (1953). Natural Right and History. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, chap. 6A.
• Strauss, Leo (1947). "On the Intention of Rousseau," Social Research 14: 455–87.
• Strong, Tracy B. (2002). Jean Jacques Rousseau and the Politics of the Ordinary. Lanham, MD: Rowman and
Littlefield.
• Talmon, Jacob R. (1952). The Origins of Totalitarian Democracy. New York: W. W. Norton.
• Virioli, Maurizio ([1988] 2003). Jean-Jacques Rousseau and the 'Well-Ordered Society'. Hanson, Derek,
translator. Cambridge University Press, 2003 ISBN 0-521-53138-1, ISBN 978-0-521-53138-2
• Williams, David Lay (2007). Rousseau’s Platonic Enlightenment. Pennsylvania State University Press.
• Wokler, Robert. (1995). Rousseau. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Wokler, Robert. (2012) Rousseau, the Age of Enlightenment, and Their Legacies ed. by Bryan Garsten;
introduction by Christopher Brooke
• Wraight, Christopher D. (2008), Rousseau's The Social Contract: A Reader's Guide. London: Continuum Books.
External links
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/510932) at Encyclopædia Britannica
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau (http://www.iep.utm.edu/rousseau) entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Jean Jacques Rousseau (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rousseau) entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy
• Rousseau Association/Association Rousseau (http://www.rousseauassociation.org/), a bilingual association
(English) (French) devoted to the study of Rousseau's life and works
• Encyclopædia Britannica (http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9109503/Jean-Jacques-Rousseau) entry of
the Internet version
• Philosophy Bites Audio Lecture, Professor Melissa Lane, Princeton University (http://philosophybites.com/
2008/07/melissa-lane-on.html)
35
• Science Live Audio Lecture, Professor Timothy O'Hogan, Oxford University (http://www.sciencelive.org/
component/option,com_mediadb/task,play/
idstr,Open-feeds_aa311_political_philosophy_aa311philosophy04_mp3/vv,-1/Itemid,26)
• Free scores by Jean-Jacques Rousseau at the International Music Score Library Project
• A version of The Social Contract, slightly modified for easier reading (http://www.earlymoderntexts.com)
36
Voltaire
37
Voltaire
Voltaire
Voltaire at 24, by Catherine Lusurier after Nicolas de Largillière's painting
Born
François-Marie Arouet
21 November 1694
Paris, France
Died
30 May 1778 (aged 83)
Paris, France
Pen name
Voltaire
Occupation
Writer, philosopher, playwright
Nationality
French
François-Marie Arouet (French: [fʁɑ̃.swa ma.ʁi aʁ.wɛ]; 21 November 1694 – 30 May 1778), known by his nom de
plume Voltaire (pronounced: [vɔl.tɛːʁ]), was a French Enlightenment writer, historian and philosopher famous for his
wit, his attacks on the established Catholic Church, and his advocacy of freedom of religion, freedom of expression,
and separation of church and state. Voltaire was a versatile writer, producing works in almost every literary form,
including plays, poems, novels, essays, and historical and scientific works. He wrote more than 20,000 letters and
more than 2,000 books and pamphlets. He was an outspoken advocate, despite strict censorship laws with harsh
penalties for those who broke them. As a satirical polemicist, he frequently made use of his works to criticize
intolerance, religious dogma, and the French institutions of his day.
Biography
François-Marie Arouet was born in Paris, the youngest of the five children[1] (only three of whom survived) of
François Arouet (1650 – 1 January 1722), a lawyer who was a minor treasury official, and his wife, Marie
Marguerite d'Aumart (ca. 1660 – 13 July 1701), from a noble family of the province of Poitou. Some speculation
surrounds his date of birth, which Voltaire always claimed to be 20 February 1694. Voltaire was educated by the
Jesuits at the Collège Louis-le-Grand (1704–1711), where he learned Latin and Greek; later in life he became fluent
in Italian, Spanish and English.[2]
By the time he left school, Voltaire had decided he wanted to be a writer, against the wishes of his father, who
wanted him to become a lawyer. Voltaire, pretending to work in Paris as an assistant to a notary, spent much of his
time writing poetry. When his father found out, he sent Voltaire to study law, this time in Caen, Normandy.
Nevertheless, he continued to write, producing essays and historical studies. Voltaire's wit made him popular among
some of the aristocratic families with whom he mixed. His father then obtained a job for him as a secretary to the
French ambassador in the Netherlands, where Voltaire fell in love with a French Protestant refugee named Catherine
Olympe Dunoyer. Their scandalous elopement was foiled by Voltaire's father and he was forced to return to
France.[3]
Most of Voltaire's early life revolved around Paris. From early on, Voltaire had trouble with the authorities for even
mild critiques of the government and religious intolerance. These activities were to result in numerous
imprisonments and exiles. One satirical verse about the Régent led to his imprisonment in the Bastille for eleven
months.[4] While there, he wrote his debut play, Œdipe. Its success established his reputation.
Voltaire
The name "Voltaire"
The name "Voltaire", which the author adopted in 1718, is an anagram of "AROVET LI," the Latinized spelling of his
surname, Arouet, and the initial letters of "le jeune" ("the young").[5] The name also echoes in reverse order the
syllables of the name of a family château in the Poitou region: "Airvault". The adoption of the name "Voltaire"
following his incarceration at the Bastille is seen by many to mark Voltaire's formal separation from his family and
his past.
Richard Holmes[6] supports this derivation of the name, but adds that a writer such as Voltaire would have intended
it to also convey its connotations of speed and daring. These come from associations with words such as "voltige"
(acrobatics on a trapeze or horse), "volte-face" (a spinning about to face one's enemies), and "volatile" (originally,
any winged creature). "Arouet" was not a noble name fit for his growing reputation, especially given that name's
resonance with "à rouer" ("to be broken on the wheel" - a form of torture then still prevalent) and "roué" (a
"débauché").
In a letter to Jean-Baptiste Rousseau in March 1719, Voltaire concludes by asking that, if Rousseau wishes to send
him a return letter, he do so by addressing it to Monsieur de Voltaire. A post-scriptum explains: "J'ai été si
malheureux sous le nom d'Arouet que j'en ai pris un autre surtout pour n'être plus confondu avec le poète Roi",
which translates as, "I was so unhappy under the name d'Arouet that I took another, primarily so that I would cease
to be confused with the poet Roi."[7] This probably refers to Adenes le Roi, and the 'oi' diphthong was then
pronounced as modern French pronounces 'ai', so the similarity to 'Arouet' is clear, and thus, it could well have been
part of his rationale. Indeed, Voltaire is additionally known to have used at least 178 separate pen names during his
lifetime.[8]
Great Britain
In 1726, Voltaire responded to an insult from the young French nobleman Chevalier de Rohan, whose servants beat
him a few days later. Since Voltaire was seeking compensation, and was even willing to fight in a duel, the
aristocratic Rohan family obtained a royal lettre de cachet, an often arbitrary penal decree signed by the French King
(Louis XV, in the time of Voltaire) that was often bought by members of the wealthy nobility to dispose of
undesirables. This warrant caused Voltaire to be imprisoned in the Bastille without a trial and without an opportunity
to defend himself.[9] Fearing an indefinite prison sentence, Voltaire suggested that he be exiled to England as an
alternative punishment, which the French authorities accepted.[10] This incident marked the beginning of Voltaire's
attempts to reform the French judicial system.
From 1726 to 1728 he lodged in Maiden Lane, Covent Garden, now commemorated by a plaque at 10 Maiden
Lane.[11] Voltaire's exile in Great Britain lasted nearly three years, and his experiences there greatly influenced his
thinking. He was intrigued by Britain's constitutional monarchy in contrast to the French absolute monarchy, and by
the country's greater support of the freedoms of speech and religion. He was also influenced by several neoclassical
writers of the age, and developed an interest in earlier English literature, especially the works of Shakespeare, still
relatively unknown in continental Europe. Despite pointing out his deviations from neoclassical standards, Voltaire
saw Shakespeare as an example that French writers might emulate, since French drama, despite being more polished,
lacked on-stage action. Later, however, as Shakespeare's influence began growing in France, Voltaire tried to set a
contrary example with his own plays, decrying what he considered Shakespeare's barbarities.
After almost three years in exile, Voltaire returned to Paris and published his views on British attitudes toward
government, literature, and religion in a collection of essays in letter form entitled Letters Concerning the English
Nation (London, 1733). In 1734, they were published in French as Lettres philosophiques in Rouen. A revised
edition appeared in English in 1778 as Lettres philosophiques sur les Anglais (Philosophical Letters on the English).
Most modern English editions are based on the one from 1734 and typically use the title Philosophical Letters, a
direct translation of that version's title.[12]
38
Voltaire
Because Voltaire regarded the British constitutional monarchy as more developed and more respectful of human
rights (particularly religious tolerance) than its French counterpart, the French publication of Letters caused
controversy; the book was burnt and Voltaire was forced again to flee.
Château de Cirey
Voltaire's next destination was the Château de Cirey, on the
borders of Champagne and Lorraine. The building was renovated
with his money, and here he began a relationship with the
Marquise du Châtelet, Gabrielle Émilie le Tonnelier de Breteuil
(famous in her own right as Émilie du Châtelet). Cirey was owned
by the Marquise's husband, Marquis Florent-Claude du Chatelet,
who sometimes visited his wife and her lover at the chateau. The
relationship, which lasted for fifteen years, had a significant
intellectual element. Voltaire and the Marquise collected over
21,000 books, an enormous number for the time. Together, they
studied these books and performed experiments in the "natural
sciences" in his laboratory. Voltaire's experiments included an
attempt to determine the elements of fire.
Having learned from his previous brushes with the authorities,
Voltaire began his habit of keeping out of personal harm's way,
and denying any awkward responsibility. He continued to write
plays, such as Mérope (or La Mérope française) and began his
long research into science and history. Again, a main source of
inspiration for Voltaire were the years of his British exile, during
In the frontispiece to her translation of Newton, Émilie
which he had been strongly influenced by the works of Sir Isaac
du Châtelet appears as Voltaire's muse, reflecting
Newton. Voltaire strongly believed in Newton's theories,
Newton's heavenly insights down to Voltaire.
especially concerning optics (Newton’s discovery that white light
is composed of all the colours in the spectrum led to many experiments at Cirey), and gravity (Voltaire is the source
of the famous story of Newton and the apple falling from the tree, which he had learned from Newton's niece in
London and first mentioned in his "Essai sur la poésie épique", or "Essay on Epic Poetry").
Although both Voltaire and the Marquise were curious about the philosophies of Gottfried Leibniz, a contemporary
and rival of Newton, they remained essentially "Newtonians", despite the Marquise's adoption of certain aspects of
Leibniz's arguments against Newton. She translated Newton's Latin Principia in full, adjusting a few errors along the
way, and hers remained the definitive French translation well into the 20th century. Voltaire's book Eléments de la
philosophie de Newton (Elements of Newton's Philosophy), which was probably co-written with the Marquise, made
Newton accessible to a far greater public. It is often considered the work that finally brought about general
acceptance of Newton's optical and gravitational theories.
Voltaire and the Marquise also studied history—particularly those persons who had contributed to civilization.
Voltaire's second essay in English had been "Essay upon the Civil Wars in France". It was followed by La Henriade,
an epic poem on the French King Henri IV, glorifying his attempt to end the Catholic-Protestant massacres with the
Edict of Nantes, and by a historical novel on King Charles XII of Sweden. These, along with his Letters on the
English mark the beginning of Voltaire's open criticism of intolerance and established religions. Voltaire and the
Marquise also explored philosophy, particularly metaphysics, the branch of philosophy that deals with being and
with what lies beyond the material realm such as whether or not there is a God or souls, etc. Voltaire and the
Marquise analyzed the Bible, trying to discover its validity for their time. Voltaire's critical views on religion are
reflected in his belief in separation of church and state and religious freedom, ideas that he had formed after his stay
39
Voltaire
40
in England.
Though deeply committed to the Marquise, Voltaire by 1744 found life at the château confining. On a visit to Paris
that year, he found a new love–his niece. At first, his attraction to Marie Louise Mignot was clearly sexual, as
evidenced by his letters to her (only discovered in 1937).[13] Much later, they lived together, perhaps platonically,
and remained together until Voltaire's death. Meanwhile, the Marquise also took a lover, the Marquis de
Saint-Lambert.[14]
Sanssouci
After the death of the Marquise in childbirth in September 1749,
Voltaire briefly returned to Paris and in 1750 moved to Potsdam to join
Frederick the Great, a close friend and admirer.[15] The king had
repeatedly invited him to his palace, and now gave him a salary of
20,000 francs a year. Though life went well at first—in 1752 he wrote
Micromégas, perhaps the first piece of science fiction involving
ambassadors from another planet witnessing the follies of
humankind—his relationship with Frederick the Great began to
deteriorate and he encountered other difficulties. An argument with
Maupertuis, the president of the Berlin Academy of Science, provoked
Voltaire's "Diatribe du docteur Akakia" ("Diatribe of Doctor Akakia"),
which satirized some of Maupertuis' theories and his abuse of power in
his persecutions of a mutual acquaintance, Samuel Koënig. This
greatly angered Frederick, who had all copies of the document burned
and Voltaire arrested at an inn where he was staying along his journey
home.
Die Tafelrunde by Adolph von Menzel. Guests of
Frederick the Great, in Marble Hall at Sanssouci,
include members of the Prussian Academy of
Sciences and Voltaire (seated, third from left).
Geneva and Ferney
Voltaire headed toward Paris, but Louis XV banned him from the city,
so instead he turned to Geneva, near which he bought a large estate
(Les Délices). Though he was received openly at first, the law in
Geneva, which banned theatrical performances, and the publication of
The Maid of Orleans against his will made him move at the end of
1758 across the French border to Ferney, where he had bought an even
larger estate, and led to Voltaire's writing of Candide, ou l'Optimisme
(Candide, or Optimism) in 1759. This satire on Leibniz's philosophy of
optimistic determinism remains the work for which Voltaire is perhaps
Voltaire's château, Ferney, France
best known. He would stay in Ferney for most of the remaining 20
years of his life, frequently entertaining distinguished guests, such as
James Boswell, Adam Smith, Giacomo Casanova, and Edward Gibbon.[16] In 1764, he published one of his
best-known philosophical works, the Dictionnaire Philosophique, a series of articles mainly on Christian history and
dogmas, a few of which were originally written in Berlin.[9]
From 1762, he began to champion unjustly persecuted people, the case of Jean Calas being the most celebrated. This
Huguenot merchant had been tortured to death in 1763, supposedly because he had murdered his son for wanting to
convert to Catholicism. His possessions were confiscated and his remaining children were taken from his widow and
Voltaire
41
were forced to become members of a monastery. Voltaire, seeing this as a clear case of religious persecution,
managed to overturn the conviction in 1765.[9]
Death and burial
In February 1778, Voltaire returned for the first time in 20 years to
Paris, among other reasons to see the opening of his latest tragedy,
Irene. The five-day journey was too much for the 83-year-old, and he
believed he was about to die on 28 February, writing "I die adoring
God, loving my friends, not hating my enemies, and detesting
superstition." However, he recovered, and in March saw a performance
of Irene, where he was treated by the audience as a returning hero.[9]
Paris house where Voltaire died
He soon became ill again and died on 30 May 1778. The accounts of
his deathbed have been numerous and varying, and it has not been
possible to establish the details of what precisely occurred. His
enemies related that he repented and accepted the last rites given by a
Catholic priest, or that he died under great torment, while his adherents
told how he was defiant to his last breath.[17] According to one story,
his last words were, "Now is not the time for making new enemies." It
was his response to a priest at the side of his deathbed, asking Voltaire
to renounce Satan.[18]
Because of his well-known criticism of the Church, which he had
refused to retract before his death, Voltaire was denied a Christian
burial, but friends managed to bury his body secretly at the Abbey of
Scellières in Champagne before this prohibition had been announced.
His heart and brain were embalmed separately.
On 11 July 1791, the National Assembly of France, which regarded
him as a forerunner of the French Revolution, had his remains brought
back to Paris to enshrine him in the Panthéon. It is estimated that a
Voltaire's tomb in Paris' Pantheon
million people attended the procession, which stretched throughout
Paris. There was an elaborate ceremony, complete with an orchestra,
and the music included a piece that André Grétry had composed specially for the event, which included a part for the
"tuba curva" (an instrument that originated in Roman times as the cornu but had recently been revived under a new
name[19]).
A widely repeated story, that the remains of Voltaire were stolen by religious fanatics in 1814 or 1821 during the
Pantheon restoration and thrown into a garbage heap, is false. Such rumours resulted in the coffin being opened in
1897, which confirmed that his remains were still present.[20]
Writings
History
Voltaire had an enormous influence on the development of historiography through his demonstration of fresh new
ways to look at the past. His best-known histories are The Age of Louis XIV (1751), and "Essay on the Customs and
the Spirit of the Nations" (1756). He broke from the tradition of narrating diplomatic and military events, and
emphasized customs, social history and achievements in the arts and sciences. The "Essay on Customs" traced the
progress of world civilization in a universal context, thereby rejecting both nationalism and the traditional Christian
Voltaire
42
frame of reference. Influenced by Bossuet's Discourse on the Universal History (1682), he was the first scholar to
make a serious attempt to write the history of the world, eliminating theological frameworks, and emphasizing
economics, culture and political history. He treated Europe as a whole, rather than a collection of nations. He was the
first to emphasize the debt of medieval culture to Arab civilization, but otherwise was weak on the Middle Ages.
Although he repeatedly warned against political bias on the part of the historian, he did not miss many opportunities
to expose the intolerance and frauds of the church over the ages. Voltaire advised scholars that anything
contradicting the normal course of nature was not to be believed. Although he found evil in the historical record, he
fervently believed reason and educating the illiterate masses would lead to progress.
Voltaire explains his view of historiography in his article on "History" in Diderot's Encyclopédie:
"One demands of modern historians more details, better ascertained facts, precise dates, more attention to
customs, laws, mores, commerce, finance, agriculture, population."
Voltaire's histories imposed the values of the Enlightenment on the past, but he helped free historiography from
antiquarianism, Eurocentrism, religious intolerance and a concentration on great men, diplomacy, and warfare.[21][22]
Yale professor Peter Gay says Voltaire wrote "very good history," citing his "scrupulous concern for truths," "careful
sifting of evidence," "intelligent selection of what is important," "keen sense of drama," and "grasp of the fact that a
whole civilization is a unit of study."[23]
Poetry
From an early age, Voltaire displayed a talent for writing verse and his first published work was poetry. He wrote
two book-long epic poems, including the first ever written in French, the Henriade, and later, The Maid of Orleans,
besides many other smaller pieces.
The Henriade was written in imitation of Virgil, using the Alexandrine couplet reformed and rendered monotonous
for modern readers but it was a huge success in the 18th and early 19th century, with sixty-five editions and
translations into several languages. The epic poem transformed French King Henry IV into a national hero for his
attempts at instituting tolerance with his Edict of Nantes. La Pucelle [The Virgin], on the other hand, is a burlesque
on the legend of Joan of Arc. Voltaire's minor poems are generally considered superior to either of these two works.
Prose
Many of Voltaire's prose works and romances, usually composed as
pamphlets, were written as polemics. Candide attacks the passivity
inspired by Leibniz's philosophy of optimism; L'Homme aux quarante
ecus (The Man of Forty Pieces of Silver), certain social and political
ways of the time; Zadig and others, the received forms of moral and
metaphysical orthodoxy; and some were written to deride the Bible. In
these works, Voltaire's ironic style, free of exaggeration, is apparent,
particularly the restraint and simplicity of the verbal treatment.
Candide in particular is the best example of his style. Voltaire also has,
in common with Jonathan Swift, the distinction of paving the way for
science fiction's philosophical irony, particularly in his Micromégas
and the vignette Plato's Dream (1756).
Frontispiece and first page of chapter one of an
early English translation by T. Smollett et al. of
Voltaire's Candide, printed by J. Newbery, 1762
Voltaire
43
In general criticism and miscellaneous writing, Voltaire's writing was
comparable to his other works. Almost all of his more substantive
works, whether in verse or prose, are preceded by prefaces of one sort
or another, which are models of his caustic yet conversational tone. In
a vast variety of nondescript pamphlets and writings, he displays his
skills at journalism. In pure literary criticism his principal work is the
Commentaire sur Corneille, although he wrote many more similar
works – sometimes (as in his Life and Notices of Molière)
independently and sometimes as part of his Siècles.
Voltaire's works, especially his private letters, frequently contain the
word "l'infâme" and the expression "écrasez l'infâme", or "crush the
infamous". The phrase refers to abuses of the people by royalty and the
clergy that Voltaire saw around him, and the superstition and intolerance that the clergy bred within the people.[24]
He had felt these effects in his own exiles, the burnings of his books and those of many others, and in the hideous
sufferings of Calas and La Barre. He stated in one of his most famous quotes that "Superstition sets the whole world
in flames; philosophy quenches them."
Voltaire at Frederick the Great's Sanssouci.
Engraving by Pierre Charles Baquoy.
The most oft-cited Voltaire quotation is apocryphal. He is incorrectly credited with writing, “I disapprove of what
you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.” These were not his words, but rather those of Evelyn
Beatrice Hall, written under the pseudonym S. G. Tallentyre in her 1906 biographical book The Friends of Voltaire.
Hall intended to summarize in her own words Voltaire's attitude towards Claude Adrien Helvétius and his
controversial book De l'esprit, but her first-person expression was mistaken for an actual quotation from Voltaire.
Her interpretation does capture the spirit of Voltaire's attitude towards Helvetius; it had been said Hall's summary
was inspired by a quotation found in a 1770 Voltaire letter to an Abbot le Roche, in which he was reported to have
said, “I detest what you write, but I would give my life to make it possible for you to continue to write.”[25]
Nevertheless, scholars believe there must have again been misinterpretation, as the letter does not seem to contain
any such quote.[26]
Voltaire's first major philosophical work in his battle against "l'infâme" was the Traité sur la tolérance ("Treatise on
Tolerance"), exposing the Calas affair, along with the tolerance exercised by other faiths and in other eras (for
example, by the Jews, the Romans, the Greeks and the Chinese). Then, in his Dictionnaire philosophique, containing
such articles as "Abraham", "Genesis", "Church Council", he wrote about what he perceived as the human origins of
dogmas and beliefs, as well as inhuman behavior of religious and political institutions in shedding blood over the
quarrels of competing sects.
Amongst other targets, Voltaire criticized France's colonial policy in North America, dismissing the vast territory of
New France as "a few acres of snow" ("quelques arpents de neige").
Voltaire
44
Letters
Voltaire also engaged in an enormous amount of private correspondence during his life, totaling over 20,000 letters.
Theodore Besterman's collected edition of these letters, completed only in 1964, fills 102 volumes.[27] One historian
called the letters "a feast not only of wit and eloquence but of warm friendship, humane feeling, and incisive
thought."[28]
Philosophy
Religion
Voltaire did not believe that any single religious text or tradition of revelation
was needed to believe in God. Voltaire's focus was rather on the idea of universal
laws, demonstrable, and in the main, still waiting to be discovered in the physical
world as well as those of the moral world, underlying every religious system,
along with respect for nature reflecting the contemporary pantheism.
Like other key thinkers during the European Enlightenment, Voltaire considered
himself a deist, expressing the idea: "What is faith? Is it to believe that which is
evident? No. It is perfectly evident to my mind that there exists a necessary,
eternal, supreme, and intelligent being. This is no matter of faith, but of
reason."[29][30]
As for religious texts, Voltaire's opinion of the Bible was mixed. Although
influenced by Socinian works such as the Bibliotheca Fratrum Polonorum,
Voltaire's skeptical attitude to the Bible separated him from Unitarian
theologians like Fausto Sozzini or even Biblical-political writers like John
Locke.[31]
This did not hinder his religious practice, though it did win for him a bad
reputation in certain religious circles. The deeply Catholic Wolfgang Amadeus
Mozart wrote to his father the year of Voltaire's death, saying, "The
arch-scoundrel Voltaire has finally kicked the bucket...".[32]
Voltaire at 70. Engraving from 1843
edition of his Philosophical
Dictionary.
Evolving views of Islam and its prophet, Muhammad, can be found in Voltaire's
writings. In a 1740 letter to Frederick II of Prussia, Voltaire ascribes to
Muhammad a brutality that "is assuredly nothing any man can excuse" and suggests that his following stemmed from
superstition and lack of enlightenment.[33] In a 1745 letter recommending his play Fanaticism, or Mahomet to Pope
Benedict XIV, Voltaire described the founder of Islam as "the founder of a false and barbarous sect" and "a false
prophet."[34]
In the Scottish Enlightenment the Scots began developing a uniquely practical branch of humanism to the extent that
Voltaire said "We look to Scotland for all our ideas of civilisation".[35][36]
In a letter to Frederick II, King of Prussia, dated 5 January 1767 he wrote about Catholic Christianity of the time:
“
La nôtre [religion] est sans contredit la plus ridicule, la plus absurde, et la plus sanguinaire qui ait jamais infecté le
[37]
monde.
(Ours [religion] is without a doubt the most ridiculous, the most absurd, and the most blood-thirsty ever to infect the world.)
”
Voltaire
Religious tolerance
In a 1763 essay, Voltaire supported the toleration of other religions and ethnicities: "It does not require great art, or
magnificently trained eloquence, to prove that Christians should tolerate each other. I, however, am going further: I
say that we should regard all men as our brothers. What? The Turk my brother? The Chinaman my brother? The
Jew? The Siam? Yes, without doubt; are we not all children of the same father and creatures of the same God?"[38]
Race and slavery
Voltaire rejected the Christian Adam and Eve story and was a polygenist who speculated that each race had separate
origins.[39] Like other philosophes, such as Buffon, he divided humanity into varieties or races and attempted to
explain the differences between these races. He wondered if blacks fully shared in the common humanity or
intelligence of whites due to their participation in the slave trade.[40][41]
His most famous remark on slavery is found in "Candide", where the hero is horrified to learn 'at what price we eat
sugar in Europe'. Elsewhere, he wrote caustically about "whites and Christians [who] proceed to purchase negroes
cheaply, in order to sell them dear in America".[42][43]
Anti-semitism
According to the rabbi Joseph Telushkin, the most significant of Enlightenment hostility against Judaism was found
in Voltaire,[44] although claims to the contrary have been made that his remarks were, in fact, anti-Biblical, not
anti-semitic.[45] Thirty of the 118 articles in his Dictionnaire Philosophique dealt with Jews and described them in
consistently negative ways,[46] although this analysis overlooks the fact that he had already defended the Jews as
more tolerant than the Christians in his Traité sur la tolérance the previous year and issued "Le Sermon du rabbin
Akib", a text attacking anti-semitism, three years before that.
Peter Gay, a contemporary authority on the Enlightenment,[44] also points to Voltaire's remarks in the Traité sur la
tolérance and surmises that "Voltaire struck at the Jews to strike at Christianity". Whatever anti-semitism Voltaire
may have felt, Gay suggests, derived from negative personal experience. [47] However, Bertram Schwarzbach's far
more detailed studies of Voltaire's dealings with Jewish people throughout his life concluded that he was
anti-biblical, not anti-semitic. His remarks on the Jews and their "superstitions" were essentially no different from his
remarks on Christians. [48] Telushkin states that Voltaire did not limit his attack on aspects of Judaism that
Christianity used as a foundation, repeatedly making it clear that he despised Jews.[44] Arthur Hertzberg claims that
Gay's second suggestion is also untenable, as Voltaire himself denied its validity when he remarked that he had
"forgotten about much larger bankruptcies through Christians".[49]
45
Voltaire
Freemasonry
Voltaire was initiated into Freemasonry the month before his death. On 4 April 1778 Voltaire accompanied his close
friend Benjamin Franklin into Loge des Neuf Soeurs in Paris, France and became an Entered Apprentice
Freemason.[50][51][52]
Legacy
Voltaire perceived the French bourgeoisie to be too small and
ineffective, the aristocracy to be parasitic and corrupt, the commoners
as ignorant and superstitious, and the Church as a static and oppressive
force useful only on occasion as a counterbalance to the rapacity of
kings, although all too often, even more rapacious itself. Voltaire
distrusted democracy, which he saw as propagating the idiocy of the
masses.[53] Voltaire long thought only an enlightened monarch could
bring about change, given the social structures of the time and the
extremely high rates of illiteracy, and that it was in the king's rational
interest to improve the education and welfare of his subjects. But his
disappointments and disillusions with Frederick the Great changed his
philosophy somewhat, and soon gave birth to one of his most enduring
works, his novella, Candide, ou l'Optimisme (Candide, or Optimism,
1759), which ends with a new conclusion: "It is up to us to cultivate
our garden". His most polemical and ferocious attacks on intolerance
and religious persecutions indeed began to appear a few years later.
Candide was also burned and Voltaire jokingly claimed the actual
author was a certain "Demad" in a letter, where he reaffirmed the main
polemical stances of the text.[54]
Voltaire is also known for many memorable aphorisms, such as: "Si
Voltaire, by Jean-Antoine Houdon, 1778.
National Gallery of Art
Dieu n'existait pas, il faudrait l'inventer" ("If God did not exist, it
would be necessary to invent him"), contained in a verse epistle from
1768, addressed to the anonymous author of a controversial work, "The Three Impostors". But far from being the
cynical remark it is often taken for, it was meant as a retort to the atheistic clique of d'Holbach, Grimm, and
others.[55] Voltaire is remembered and honored in France as a courageous polemicist who indefatigably fought for
civil rights—the right to a fair trial and freedom of religion—and who denounced the hypocrisies and injustices of
the Ancien Régime. The Ancien Régime involved an unfair balance of power and taxes between the First Estate (the
clergy), the Second Estate (the nobles), and the Third Estate (the commoners and middle class, who were burdened
with most of the taxes).
Voltaire has had his detractors among his later colleagues. The Scottish Victorian writer Thomas Carlyle argued that,
while Voltaire was unsurpassed in literary form, not even the most elaborate of his works were of much value for
matter and that he never uttered an original idea of his own. Nietzsche, however, called Carlyle a muddlehead who
had not even understood the Enlightenment values he thought he was promoting.
He often used China, Siam and Japan as examples of brilliant non-European civilizations and harshly criticized
slavery.[56] He particularly had admiration for the ethics and government as exemplified by Confucius.[57]
The town of Ferney, where Voltaire lived out the last 20 years of his life, is now named Ferney-Voltaire in honor of
its most famous resident. His château is a museum.
Voltaire's library is preserved intact in the National Library of Russia at Saint Petersburg, Russia.
46
Voltaire
In Zurich 1916, the theater and performance group who would become the early avant-garde movement Dada named
their theater The Cabaret Voltaire. A late-20th-century industrial music group then named themselves after the
theater.
Astronomers have bestowed his name to the Voltaire crater on Deimos and the asteroid 5676 Voltaire.[58]
Voltaire was also known to have been an advocate for coffee, as he was purported to have drunk it at least 30 times
per day. It has been suggested that high amounts of caffeine acted as a mental stimulant to his creativity.[59]
His great grand-niece was the mother of Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, a famous philosopher and Jesuit priest.[60][61]
Works
Philosophical works
• Letters concerning the English nation (London, 1733) (French version entitled Lettres philosophiques sur les
Anglais, Rouen, 1734), revised as Letters on the English (circa 1778)
• Le Mondain (1736)
• Sept Discours en Vers sur l'Homme (1738)
• Zadig (1747)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Micromégas (1752)
Candide (1759)
Traité sur la tolérance (1763)
Ce qui plaît aux dames (1764)
Dictionnaire philosophique (1764)
L'Ingénu (1767)
La Princesse de Babylone (1768)
Plays
Voltaire wrote between fifty and sixty plays, including a few unfinished ones. Among them are these:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Œdipe (1718)
Mariamne (1724)
Zaïre (1732)
Eriphile (1732)
Irène
Socrates
Mahomet
Mérope
Nanine
L'Orphelin de la Chine (1755)[57][62]
47
Voltaire
Historical
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
History of Charles XII, King of Sweden (1731)
The Age of Louis XIV (1751)
The Age of Louis XV (1746–1752)
Annals of the Empire – Charlemagne, A.D. 742 – Henry VII 1313, Vol. I (1754)
Annals of the Empire – Louis of Bavaria, 1315 to Ferdinand II 1631 Vol. II (1754)
Essay on the Manners of Nations (or 'Universal History') (1756)
History of the Russian Empire Under Peter the Great (Vol. I 1759; Vol. II 1763)
History of the Parliament of Paris (1769)[63]
References
[1] Wright, p 505 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=wXc6AAAAMAAJ& printsec=titlepage& source=gbs_summary_r&
cad=0#PPA505,M1).
[2] Liukkonen, Petri. "Voltaire (1694–1778) – pseudonym of François-Marie Arouet" (http:/ / www. kirjasto. sci. fi/ voltaire. htm). . Retrieved
24 July 2009.
[3] Davidson, Ian. Voltaire: A Life, p.7-9, Profile Books, London: 2010
[4] Fitzpatrick, Martin (2000). "Toleration and the Enlightenment Movement" in Grell/Porter, Toleration in Enlightenment Europe, p. 64,
footnote 91, Cambridge University Press
[5] Christopher Thacker (1971). Voltaire (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=D5s9AAAAIAAJ). Taylor & Francis. p. 3 (http:/ / books. google.
com. ph/ books?id=D5s9AAAAIAAJ& pg=PA3). ISBN 978-0-7100-7020-3. .
[6] Holmes, Richard (2000). Sidetracks: explorations of a romantic biographer. HarperCollins. pp. 345–366. and "Voltaire's Grin" in New York
Review of Books, 30 November 1995, pp. 49–55
[7] http:/ / www. e-enlightenment. com/ item/ voltfrVF0850079_1key001cor – "Voltaire to Jean Baptiste Rousseau, c. 1 March 1719". Electronic
Enlightenment. Ed. Robert McNamee et al. Vers. 2.1. University of Oxford. 2010. Web. 20 Jun. 2010. .
[8] – "The appendixes offer even more: a listing of Voltaire's and Daniel Defoe's numerous pseudonyms (178 and 198, respectively)..." (http:/ /
www. amazon. com/ dp/ 078640423X)
[9] "The Life of Voltaire" (http:/ / thegreatdebate. org. uk/ Voltaire. html). Thegreatdebate.org.uk. . Retrieved 3 August 2009.
[10] "Voltaire in England" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ culture/ books/ bookreviews/ 7567947/ Voltaire-in-England. html)
[11] City of Westminster green plaques http:/ / www. westminster. gov. uk/ services/ leisureandculture/ greenplaques/
[12] A note on the text: it has long been believed that Voltaire wrote Letters (1733) in English - a theory based mostly on the work of Harcourt
Brown - however, recent studies indicate that they were in fact written in French and then translated, probably by John Lockman.
[13] Davidson, Ian (2006-01). Ian Davidson, Voltaire in Exile, Grove Press 2006 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=99Rnph1FGxcC& pg=PA6&
lpg=PA6& dq="mme+ denis"+ + Voltaire). ISBN 978-0-8021-4236-8. . See also Will and Ariel Durant, The Age of Voltaire, Simon &
Schuster (196 ) page 392 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?ie=ISO-8859-1& output=html& id=v6oYAAAAYAAJ& dq="mio+ cazzo+
mio+ cuore"& q="mio+ cazzo+ mio+ cuore"+ )
[14] Davidson, ibid, (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=99Rnph1FGxcC& pg=PA7& lpg=PA6& dq="mme+ denis"+ + Voltaire). Google Books.
2006-01. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-8021-4236-8. . Retrieved 3 August 2009.
[15] According to poet Richard Armour, Voltaire's friendship with Frederick existed because "Frederick considered Voltaire to be immensely
clever and so did Voltaire."
[16] The Scottish diarist Boswell recorded their conversations in 1764, which are published in Boswell and the Grand Tour.
[17] Peter Gay, The Enlightenment - An Interpretation, Volume 2: The Science of Freedom, Wildwood House, London, 1973, p. 88-89.
[18] Bulston, Michael E (2007). Teach What You Believe (http:/ / books. google. com. au/ books?id=Qq4eY3IrT1kC& pg=PA105& dq=voltaire+
last+ words+ making+ enemies& hl=en& sa=X& ei=IONKT62DJKfkmAXp4fWGDg& ved=0CDsQ6AEwAjgK#v=onepage& q=voltaire last
words making enemies& f=false). Paulist Press. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-8091-4481-5. .
[19] Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 5th ed, 1954; "Cornu" article
[20] "Voltaire and Rousseau, Their Tombs in the Pantheon Opened and Their Bones Exposed" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ mem/ archive-free/
pdf?res=9F02E3DD1638E433A2575BC0A9679C94699ED7CF), New York Times, 8 January 1898
[21] Paul Sakmann, "The Problems of Historical Method and of Philosophy of History in Voltaire", History and Theory, Dec 1971, Vol. 11#4 pp
24–59
[22] Peter Gay, Voltaire's Politics (2nd ed. 1988)
[23] Peter Gay, "Carl Becker's Heavenly City," Political Science Quarterly (1957) 72:182-99
[24] Palmer, R.R.; Colton, Joel (1950). A History of the Modern World. McGraw-Hill, Inc.. ISBN 0-07-040826-2.
[25] Boller, Jr., Paul F.; George, John (1989). They Never Said It: A Book of Fake Quotes, Misquotes, and Misleading Attributions. New York:
Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505541-1.
48
Voltaire
[26] Charles Wirz, archivist at The Voltaire Institute and Museum in Geneva, recalled in 1994, that Hall, placed wrongly, between speech marks
this quotation in two works devoted to Voltaire, recognising expressly the quotation in question was not one, in a letter of 9 May 1939, which
was published in 1943 in volume LVIII under the title "Voltaire never said it" (pp.534–5) of the review "Modern language notes", Johns
Hopkins Press, 1943, Baltimore. An extract from the letter: 'The phrase "I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right
to say it" which you have found in my book "Voltaire in His Letters" is my own expression and should not have been put in inverted commas.
Please accept my apologies for having, quite unintentionally, misled you into thinking I was quoting a sentence used by Voltaire (or anyone
else but myself).' "The words "my own" were underlined personally by Hall in her letter. To believe certain commentators – Norbert
Guterman, A Book of French Quotations, 1963 – Hall was referencing back to a Voltaire letter of 6 February 1770 to an abbot le Riche where
Voltaire said "Reverend, I hate what you write, but I will give my life so that you can continue to write." The problem is that, if you consult
the letter itself, the sentence there does not appear, nor even the idea: A M LE RICHE A AMIENS. 6 February. You left, Sir, des Welches for
des Welches. You will find everywhere barbarians obstinate. The number of wise will always be small. It is true...it has increased; but it is
nothing in comparison with the stupid ones; and, by misfortune, one says that God is always for the big battalions. It is necessary that the
decent people stick together and stay under cover. There are no means that their small troop could tackle the party of the fanatics in open
country. I was very sick, I was near death every winter; this is the reason, Sir, why I have answered you so late. I am not less touched by it
than your memory. Continue to me your friendship; it comforts me my evils and stupidities of the human genre. Receive my assurances, etc.
Voltaire, however, did not hesitate to wish censure against slander and personal libels. Here is what he writes in his “Atheism” article in the
Dictionnaire philosophique: Aristophanes (this man that the commentators admire because he was Greek, not thinking that Socrates was
Greek also), Aristophanes was the first who accustomed the Athenians to consider Socrates an atheist. ... The tanners, the shoemakers and the
dressmakers of Athens applauded a joke in which one represented Socrates raised in the air in a basket, announcing there was God, and
praising himself to have stolen a coat by teaching philosophy. A whole people, whose bad government authorized such infamous licences,
deserved well what it got, to become the slave of the Romans, and today of the Turks.
[27] Brumfitt, J. H. (1965). "The Present State of Voltaire Studies" (http:/ / fmls. oxfordjournals. org/ cgi/ pdf_extract/ I/ 3/ 230). Forum for
Modern Language Studies (Court of the University of St Andrews) I (3): 230. doi:10.1093/fmls/I.3.230. . Retrieved 28 February 2012.
[28] Will and Ariel Durant, Rousseau and Revolution (1967), page 138 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=OperFVu5MykC& q="feast+ not+
only+ of+ wit+ and+ eloquence"& dq="feast+ not+ only+ of+ wit+ and+ eloquence"& ie=ISO-8859-1& output=html)
[29] "Voltaire" (http:/ / deism. com/ voltaire. htm). Deism.com. 25 June 2009. . Retrieved 3 August 2009.
[30] Voltaire. W. Dugdale, A Philosophical Dictionary ver 2, 1843, Page 473 sec 1. Retrieved 31 October 2007.
[31] R. E. Florida Voltaire and the Socinians 1974 "Voltaire from his very first writings on the subject of religion showed a libertine scorn of
scripture, which he never lost. This set him apart from Socinianism even though he admired the simplicity of Socinian theology as well as
their...".
[32] Keffe, Simon P. (2003). The Cambridge Companion to Mozart. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-00192-7.
[33] "But that a camel-merchant should stir up insurrection in his village; that in league with some miserable followers he persuades them that he
talks with the angel Gabriel; that he boasts of having been carried to heaven, where he received in part this unintelligible book, each page of
which makes common sense shudder; that, to pay homage to this book, he delivers his country to iron and flame; that he cuts the throats of
fathers and kidnaps daughters; that he gives to the defeated the choice of his religion or death: this is assuredly nothing any man can excuse, at
least if he was not born a Turk, or if superstition has not extinguished all natural light in him." - Referring to Muhammad, in a letter to
Frederick II of Prussia (December 1740), published in Oeuvres complètes de Voltaire, Vol. 7 (1869), edited by Georges Avenel, p. 105
[34] Voltaire, Letter to Benedict XIV written in Paris on 17 August 1745: Your holiness will pardon the liberty taken by one of the lowest of the
faithful, though a zealous admirer of virtue, of submitting to the head of the true religion this performance, written in opposition to the founder
of a false and barbarous sect. To whom could I with more propriety inscribe a satire on the cruelty and errors of a false prophet, than to the
vicar and representative of a God of truth and mercy? Your holiness will therefore give me leave to lay at your feet both the piece and the
author of it, and humbly to request your protection of the one, and your benediction upon the other; in hopes of which, with the profoundest
reverence, I kiss your sacred feet.
[35] José Manuel Barroso (28 November 2006). "The Scottish enlightenment and the challenges for Europe in the 21st century; climate change
and energy" (http:/ / europa. eu/ rapid/ pressReleasesAction. do?reference=SPEECH/ 06/ 756& format=HTML& aged=1& language=EN&
guiLanguage=en). Enlightenment Lecture Series, Edinburgh University. . "I will try to show why Voltaire was right when he said: 'Nous nous
tournons vers l’Écosse pour trouver toutes nos idées sur la civilisation' [we look to Scotland for all our ideas on civilisation]."
[36] "Visiting The Royal Society of Edinburgh..." (http:/ / www. royalsoced. org. uk/ international/ potocnik. htm). The Scotsman. Saturday 4
June 2005. . "Scotland has a proud heritage of science, research, invention and innovation, and can lay claim to some of the greatest minds and
greatest discoveries since Voltaire wrote those words 250 years ago."
[37] , Oeuvres complètes de Voltaire, Volume 7, Page 184 (http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=z9MWAAAAQAAJ& pg=PA184&
dq=#v=onepage& q& f=false)
[38] Voltaire A Treatise on Toleration (1763) http:/ / www. wsu. edu:8080/ ~wldciv/ world_civ_reader/ world_civ_reader_2/ voltaire. html
[39] Louis Sala-Molins, Dark side of the light: slavery and the French Enlightenment (2006) p 102
[40] Jean de Viguerie, "Les 'Lumieres' et les peuples," Revue Historique, July 1993, Vol. 290 Issue 1, pp 161–189
[41] Cohen, William B., The French encounter with Africans: white response to Blacks, 1530–1880 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press,
2003) ISBN 0-253-21650-8 p. 86
[42] Davis, David Brion, The problem of slavery in Western culture (New York: Oxford University Press 1988) ISBN 0-19-505639-6 p. 392
49
Voltaire
[43] A letter attributed to Voltaire, praising the slave trade, has been challenged as a possible forgery. <Edward Derbyshire Seeber, Anti-slavery
opinion in France during the second half of the eighteenth century (New York: Lenox Hill Publishers 1971) p. 65
[44] Prager, D; Telushkin, J. Why the Jews?: The Reason for Antisemitism. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1983. page 128-9.
[45] Voltaire, François-Marie. Essai sur les Moeurs. See also: Voltaire, François-Marie. Dictionnaire Philosophique.
[46] Poliakov, L. The History of Anti-Semitism: From Voltaire to Wagner. Routledge & Kegan Paul, Ltd., 1975 (translated). page 88-89.
[47] Gay, P. The Party of Humanity: Essays in the French Enlightenment. Alfred Knopf, 1964. pages 103–105.
[48] (Schwarzbach, Bertram), "Voltaire et les juifs: bilan et plaidoyer", Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century (SVEC) 358, Oxford
[49] Hertzberg, A. The French Enlightenment and the Jews. Columbia University, 1968. page 284.
[50] "Benjamin Franklin...urged Voltaire to become a freemason; and Voltaire agreed, perhaps only to please Franklin.Ridley, Jasper (2002). The
Freemasons: A History of the World's Most Powerful Secret Society (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=ISMObxdcmfsC& pg=RA4-PA112&
dq=freemason+ voltaire). pp. 114. ISBN 978-1-55970-654-4. .
[51] "I did not know that: Mason Facts" (http:/ / www. americanmason. com/ didntARC. ihtml). .
[52] "Voltaire on British Columbia Grand Lodge Site" (http:/ / freemasonry. bcy. ca/ biography/ voltaire/ voltaire. html). .
[53] "Democracy" (http:/ / history. hanover. edu/ texts/ voltaire/ voldemoc. html). The Philosophical Dictionary. Knopf. 1924. . Retrieved 1 July
2008.
[54] "Letter on the subject of Candide, to the Journal encyclopédique July 15, 1759" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20061013194545/ http:/ /
humanities. uchicago. edu/ homes/ VSA/ Candide/ Candide. letter. html). University of Chicago. Archived from the original (http:/ /
humanities. uchicago. edu/ homes/ VSA/ Candide/ Candide. letter. html) on 13 October 2006. . Retrieved 7 January 2008.
[55] Gay, Peter Voltaire's Politics: The Poet as Realist (New Haven:Yale University 1988) p. 265: " "If the heavens, despoiled of his august
stamp could ever cease to manifest him, if God didn't exist, it would be necessary to invent him. Let the wise proclaim him, and kings fear
him."
[56] Voltaire, François-Marie. Candide (chapter 19).
[57] Liu, Wu-Chi (1953). "The Original Orphan of China". Comparative Literature 5 (3): 206–207. JSTOR 1768912.
[58] Schmadel, Lutz D.; International Astronomical Union (2003). Dictionary of minor planet names (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=KWrB1jPCa8AC& pg=PA481). Springer. p. 481. ISBN 978-3-540-00238-3. . Retrieved 9 September 2011.
[59] Washingtonmonthly.com (http:/ / www. washingtonmonthly. com/ features/ 2005/ 0506. koerner. html)
[60] Cowell, Siôn (2001). The Teilhard Lexicon: Understanding the language, terminology, and vision of the writings of Pierre Teilhard de
Chardin (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=xormixizYc0C& pg=PR6). Brighton: Sussex Academic Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-902210-37-7.
. Retrieved 30 November 2011.
[61] Kurian, George Thomas (2010). The Encyclopedia of Christian Literature (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=dk4G-52QT-8C&
pg=PA591). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. p. 591. ISBN 978-0-8108-6987-5. . Retrieved 30 November 2011.
[62] This is an adaptation of the famous Chinese play The Orphan of Zhao, based on historical events in the Spring and Autumn period.
[63] (http:/ / www. voltaire-integral. com/ Html/ 00Table/ 15Parlem. htm)
Note 45: Bertram Schwarzbach, "Voltaire et les juifs: bilan et plaidoyer", Studies on Voltaire and the eighteenth
century (SVEC) 358, Oxford.
Further reading
• App, Urs. The Birth of Orientalism. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010 (hardcover, ISBN
978-0-8122-4261-4); contains a 60-page chapter (pp. 15–76) on Voltaire as a pioneer of Indomania and his use of
fake Indian texts in anti-Christian propaganda.
• Besterman, Theodore, Voltaire, (1969).
• Brumfitt, J. H. Voltaire: Historian (1958) online edition (http://www.questia.com/read/
14509369?title=Voltaire: Historian)
• Davidson, Ian, Voltaire. A Life, London, Profile Books, 2010. ISBN 978184668261
• Durant, Will, The Story of Civilization. Vol. IX: The Age of Voltaire. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1965.
• Gay, Peter, Voltaire's Politics, The Poet as Realist, Yale University, 1988.
• Hadidi, Djavâd, Voltaire et l'Islam, Publications Orientalistes de France, 1974.
• Knapp, Betina L. Voltaire Revisited (2000) 228pp
• Mason, Haydn, Voltaire, A Biography
• Muller, Jerry Z., 2002. The Mind and the Market: Capitalism in Western Thought. Anchor Books.
• Pearson, Roger, 2005. Voltaire Almighty: a life in pursuit of freedom. Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1-58234-630-4.
447pp
50
Voltaire
• Quinones, Ricardo J. Erasmus and Voltaire: Why They Still Matter (University of Toronto Press; 2010) 240
pages; Draws parallels between the two thinkers as voices of moderation with relevance today.
• Schwarzbach, Bertram Eugene, Voltaire's Old Testament Criticism, Librairie Droz, Geneva, 1971.
• Torrey, Norman L., The Spirit of Voltaire, Columbia University Press, 1938.
• Vernon, Thomas S. (1989). "Chapter V: Voltaire" (http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/voltvern.htm). Great
Infidels. M & M Pr. ISBN 0-943099-05-6.
• Wade, Ira O. (1967). Studies on Voltaire. New York: Russell & Russell.
• Wright, Charles Henry Conrad, A History of French Literature, Oxford University Press, 1912.
• "The Cambridge Companion to Voltaire", ed by Nicholas Cronk, 2009.
In French
• Pomeau, René La Religion de Voltaire, Librairie Nizet, Paris, 1974.
• Valérie Crugten-André, La vie de Voltaire (http://www.memo.fr/dossier.asp?ID=629)
Primary sources
• Morley, J., The Works of Voltaire, A Contemporary Version, (21 vol 1901), online edition (http://app.
libraryofliberty.org/?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php?person=3804&Itemid=28)
External links
• Encyclopédie (http://humanities.uchicago.edu/homes/VSA/visitors.html), ARTFL Project, University of
Chicago
• PRÉSENTATION DES OEUVRES COMPLÈTES DE VOLTAIRE EN CD-ROM (http://perso.orange.fr/
dboudin/VOLTAIRE/Catcd1b.htm), Voltaire: Édition Electronique
• Château de Cirey – Residence of Voltaire (http://www.visitvoltaire.com/v_desfontaines.htm),
visitvoltaire.com
• Gabrielle Émilie Le Tonnelier de Breteuil Marquise du Châtelet (http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/
history/Biographies/Chatelet.html), School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland
• Hewett, Caspar J. M. (August 2006). "The Great Debate: Life of Voltaire." (http://thegreatdebate.org.uk/
Voltaire.html). Retrieved 2 November 2008.
• The Société Voltaire (http://societe-voltaire.org/)
• An analysis of Voltaire's texts (in the "textes" topic) (http://www.bacdefrancais.net/) (French)
• Complete french ebooks of Voltaire (http://www.livres-et-ebooks.fr/auteur/Voltaire-738/) (French)
• Biography and quotes of Voltaire (http://atheisme.free.fr/Biographies/Voltaire_e.htm)
• Full Ebooks of Voltaire in French (http://www.laphilosophie.fr/livres-de-Voltaire-texte-integral.html) on the
website "La philosophie"
• Institut et Musée Voltaire, Geneva, Switzerland (http://www.ville-ge.ch/imv/)
• (French) Works by Voltaire edited at athena.unige.ch (http://athena.unige.ch/athena/voltaire/voltaire.html)
• Internet Encyclopaedia of Philosophy on Voltaire (http://www.iep.utm.edu/d/deismfre.htm)
• Monsieur de Voltaire (http://www.monsieurdevoltaire.com/) Correspondence in French
• The Life of Voltaire (http://thegreatdebate.org.uk/Voltaire.html) Essay by Caspar J M Hewett
• VisitVoltaire.com site with images (http://www.visitvoltaire.com/)
• Voltaire Foundation, Oxford, United Kingdom (http://www.voltaire.ox.ac.uk/)
• Voltaire on the 10 French Franc banknote. (http://www-personal.umich.edu/~jbourj/money3.htm)
• Voltaire's Candide and Leibniz (http://www.harrymaugans.com/2006/03/30/voltaires-candide/)
• Voltaire's works (http://www.intratext.com/Catalogo/Autori/AUT396.HTM): works: text, concordances and
frequency list
51
Voltaire
• Voltaire's writings from Philosophical Dictionary (http://history.hanover.edu/texts/voltaire/volindex.html).
Selected and Translated by H.I. Woolf, 1924
• Worldly and Personal Influences on Voltaire’s Writing (http://www.harrymaugans.com/2006/04/18/
worldly-and-personal-influences-on-voltaireâs-writing/)
• Works by Voltaire (http://www.gutenberg.org/author/Voltaire) at Project Gutenberg
• Free eBooks by Voltaire (http://manybooks.net/authors/voltaire.html) at Manybooks (http://manybooks.net/
) [English and French]
• Works by or about Voltaire (http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n80-126267) in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
• Works by Voltaire (http://librivox.org/newcatalog/search.php?title=&author=Voltaire&action=Search) in
free audio format from LibriVox
• Voltaire's works (http://voltaire.letteraturaoperaomnia.org/index.html) and chronology
• About Voltaire in "Lucidcafé" (http://www.lucidcafe.com/library/95nov/voltaire.html)
• Online Library of Liberty – The Works of Voltaire (1901) (http://oll.libertyfund.org/index.
php?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php&person=3804). Some volumes, including mostly the
unabridged Dictionnaire philosophique, translated by William F. Fleming
52
Montesquieu
53
Montesquieu
Montesquieu
A painting of Montesquieu
Born
18 January 1689
Château de la Brède, La Brède, Aquitaine, France
Died
10 February 1755 (aged 66)
Paris, France
Era
Region
Western Philosophy
School
Enlightenment
Main interests Political Philosophy
Notable ideas
Separation of state powers: executive, legislative, judicial; classification of systems of government based on their principles
Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu (/ˈmɒntɪskjuː/; French: [mɔ̃tɛskjø]; 18 January
1689 – February 1755), generally referred to as simply Montesquieu, was a French social commentator and political
thinker who lived during the Age of Enlightenment. He is famous for his articulation of the theory of separation of
powers, which is taken for granted in modern discussions of government and implemented in many constitutions
throughout the world. He was largely responsible for the popularization of the terms feudalism and Byzantine
Empire.
Montesquieu
54
Biography
Château de la Brède
He was born at the Château de la Brède in the southwest of France. His
father, Jacques de Secondat, was a soldier with a long noble ancestry.
His mother, Marie Françoise de Pesnel, who died when Charles de
Secondat was seven, was a female inheritor of a large monetary
inheritance who brought the title of barony of La Brède to the Secondat
family. After having studied at the Catholic College of Juilly,
Charles-Louis de Secondat married. His wife, Jeanne de Lartigue, a
Protestant, brought him a substantial dowry when he was 26. The next
year, he inherited a fortune upon the death of his uncle, as well as the
title Baron de Montesquieu and Président à Mortier in the Parliament
of Bordeaux.
Montesquieu's early life occurred at a time of significant governmental change. England had declared itself a
constitutional monarchy in the wake of its Glorious Revolution (1688–89), and had joined with Scotland in the
Union of 1707 to form the Kingdom of Great Britain. In France the long-reigning Louis XIV died in 1715 and was
succeeded by the five-year-old Louis XV. These national transformations impacted Montesquieu greatly; he would
later refer to them repeatedly in his work.
He achieved literary success with the publication of his Lettres persanes (Persian Letters, 1721), a satire based on
the imaginary correspondence of a Persian visitor to Paris, pointing out the absurdities of contemporary society. He
next published Considérations sur les causes de la grandeur des Romains et de leur décadence (Considerations on
the Causes of the Grandeur and Decadence of the Romans, 1734), considered by some scholars a transition from The
Persian Letters to his master work. De l'Esprit des Lois (The Spirit of the Laws) was originally published
anonymously in 1748 and quickly rose to a position of enormous influence. In France, it met with an unfriendly
reception from both supporters and opponents of the regime. The Catholic Church banned l'Esprit – along with
many of Montesquieu's other works – in 1751 and included it on the Index of Prohibited Books. It received the
highest praise from the rest of Europe, especially Britain.
Montesquieu was also highly regarded in the British colonies in North America as a champion of British liberty
(though not of American independence). Political scientist Donald Lutz found that Montesquieu was the most
frequently quoted authority on government and politics in colonial pre-revolutionary British America, cited more by
the American founders than any source except for the Bible.[1] Following the American revolution, Montesquieu's
work remained a powerful influence on many of the American founders, most notably James Madison of Virginia,
the "Father of the Constitution". Montesquieu's philosophy that "government should be set up so that no man need be
afraid of another[2]" reminded Madison and others that a free and stable foundation for their new national
government required a clearly defined and balanced separation of powers.
Besides composing additional works on society and politics, Montesquieu traveled for a number of years through
Europe including Austria and Hungary, spending a year in Italy and 18 months in England before resettling in
France. He was troubled by poor eyesight, and was completely blind by the time he died from a high fever in 1755.
He was buried in the Église Saint-Sulpice, Paris.
Montesquieu
55
Philosophy of history
Montesquieu's philosophy of history minimized the role of individual persons and events. He expounded the view in
Considérations sur les causes de la grandeur des Romains et de leur décadence that each historical event was driven
by a principal movement:
It is not chance that rules the world. Ask the Romans, who had a continuous sequence of successes when
they were guided by a certain plan, and an uninterrupted sequence of reverses when they followed
another. There are general causes, moral and physical, which act in every monarchy, elevating it,
maintaining it, or hurling it to the ground. All accidents are controlled by these causes. And if the chance
of one battle—that is, a particular cause—has brought a state to ruin, some general cause made it
necessary for that state to perish from a single battle. In a word, the main trend draws with it all
particular accidents.[3]
In discussing the transition from the Republic to the Empire, he suggested that if Caesar and Pompey had not worked
to usurp the government of the Republic, other men would have risen in their place. The cause was not the ambition
of Caesar or Pompey, but the ambition of man.
Political views
Montesquieu is credited amongst the precursors of anthropology,
including Herodotus and Tacitus, to be among the first to extend
comparative methods of classification to the political forms in human
societies. Indeed, the French political anthropologist Georges
Balandier considered Montesquieu to be "the initiator of a scientific
enterprise that for a time performed the role of cultural and social
anthropology".[4] According to social anthropologist D.F. Pocock,
Montesquieu's 'On the Spirit of Laws' "is the first consistent attempt to
survey the varieties of human society, to classify and compare them
and, within society, to study the inter-functioning of institutions".[5]
Montesquieu's political anthropology gave rise to his theories on
government.
Montesquieu's most influential work divided French society into three
classes (or trias politica, a term he coined): the monarchy, the
aristocracy, and the commons. Montesquieu saw two types of
governmental power existing: the sovereign and the administrative.
The administrative powers were the executive, the legislative, and the
Montesquieu in 1728
judicial. These should be separate from and dependent upon each other
so that the influence of any one power would not be able to exceed that of the other two, either singly or in
combination. This was a radical idea because it completely eliminated the three Estates structure of the French
Monarchy: the clergy, the aristocracy, and the people at large represented by the Estates-General, thereby erasing the
last vestige of a feudalistic structure.
Likewise, there were three main forms of government, each supported by a social "principle": monarchies (free
governments headed by a hereditary figure, e.g. king, queen, emperor), which rely on the principle of honor;
republics (free governments headed by popularly elected leaders), which rely on the principle of virtue; and
despotisms (enslaved governments headed by dictators), which rely on fear. The free governments are dependent on
fragile constitutional arrangements. Montesquieu devotes four chapters of The Spirit of the Laws to a discussion of
England, a contemporary free government, where liberty was sustained by a balance of powers. Montesquieu
worried that in France the intermediate powers (i.e., the nobility) which moderated the power of the prince were
Montesquieu
being eroded. These ideas of the control of power were often used in the thinking of Maximilien de Robespierre.
Montesquieu was somewhat ahead of his time in advocating major reform of slavery in The Spirit of the Laws. As
part of his advocacy he presented a satirical hypothetical list of arguments for slavery, which has been open to
contextomy. However, like many of his generation, Montesquieu also held a number of views that might today be
judged controversial. He firmly accepted the role of a hereditary aristocracy and the value of primogeniture, and
while he endorsed the idea that a woman could head a state, he held that she could not be effective as the head of a
family.
Meteorological climate theory
Another example of Montesquieu's anthropological thinking, outlined in The Spirit of the Laws and hinted at in
Persian Letters, is his meteorological climate theory, which holds that climate may substantially influence the nature
of man and his society. By placing an emphasis on environmental influences as a material condition of life,
Montesquieu prefigured modern anthropology's concern with the impact of material conditions, such as available
energy sources, organized production systems, and technologies, on the growth of complex socio-cultural systems.
He goes so far as to assert that certain climates are superior to others, the temperate climate of France being ideal.
His view is that people living in very warm countries are "too hot-tempered," while those in northern countries are
"icy" or "stiff." The climate of middle Europe is therefore optimal. On this point, Montesquieu may well have been
influenced by a similar pronouncement in The Histories of Herodotus, where he makes a distinction between the
'ideal' temperate climate of Greece as opposed to the overly cold climate of Scythia and the overly warm climate of
Egypt. This was a common belief at the time, and can also be found within the medical writings of Herodotus' times,
including the 'On Airs, Waters, Places' of the Hippocratic corpus. One can find a similar statement in Germania by
Tacitus, one of Montesquieu's favorite authors.
From a sociological perspective Louis Althusser, in his analysis of Montesquieu's revolution in method,[6] alluded to
the seminal character of anthropology's inclusion of material factors, such as climate, in the explanation of social
dynamics and political forms. Examples of certain climatic and geographical factors giving rise to increasingly
complex social systems include those that were conducive to the rise of agriculture and the domestication of wild
plants and animals.
Quotations
"If we only wanted to be happy, it would be easy; but we want to be happier than other people, which is almost
always difficult, since we think them happier than they are." (Auden and Kronenberger 1966)
"Success generally depends upon knowing how long it takes to succeed." (Auden and Kronenberger 1966)
List of works
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Les causes de l'écho (The Causes of an Echo)
Les glandes rénales (The Renal Glands)
La cause de la pesanteur des corps (The Cause of Gravity of Bodies)
La damnation éternelle des païens (The Eternal Damnation of the Pagans, 1711)
Système des Idées (System of Ideas, 1716)
Lettres persanes (Persian Letters, 1721)
Le Temple de Gnide (The Temple of Gnide, a novel; 1724)
Histoire véritable d'Arsace et Isménie ((The True History of) Arsace and Isménie, a novel; 1730)
• Considérations sur les causes de la grandeur des Romains et de leur décadence (Considerations on the Causes of
the Grandeur and Decadence of the Romans, 1734) at Gallica [7]
• De l'esprit des lois ((On) The Spirit of the Laws, 1748), volume 1 [8], volume 2 [9] at Gallica [10];
56
Montesquieu
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
La défense de «L'Esprit des lois» (In Defence of "The Spirit of the Laws", 1750)
Pensées suivies de Spicilège (Thoughts after Spicilège)
Essai sur le goût (1757)
Le flux et le reflux de la mer
Mémoires sur la fièvre intermittente
Mémoires sur l'écho
Les maladies des glandes rénales
La pesanteur des corps
Le mouvement relatif
Le Spicilège
Pensées
References
[1] "The Relative Influence of European Writers on Late Eighteenth-Century American Political Thought," American Political Science Review
78,1(March, 1984), 189-197.
[2] Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws, Book 11, Chapter 6, "Of the Constitution of England." (http:/ / etext. lib. virginia. edu/ etcbin/
toccer-new2?id=MonLaws. xml& images=images/ modeng& data=/ texts/ english/ modeng/ parsed& tag=public& part=137& division=div2)
Electronic Text Center, University of Virginia Library, Retrieved 1 August 2012
[3] Montesquieu (1734), Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of the Romans and their Decline (http:/ / www. constitution. org/ cm/
ccgrd_l. htm), The Free Press, , retrieved 30 November 2011 Ch. XVIII.
[4] G. Balandier, Political Anthropology, Random House, 1970, p 3.
[5] D. Pocock, Social Anthropology, Sheed and Ward, 1961, p 9.
[6] L. Althusser, Politics and History: Montesquieu, Rousseau, Marx, NLB, 1972.
[7] http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ btv1b8613371v/ f7. image. r=. langEN
[8] http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ btv1b8618461c/ f9. image. r=. langEN
[9] http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ btv1b8618462s/ f9. image. r=. langEN
[10] http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr
Auden, W.H.; Kronenberger, Louis (1966), The Viking Book of Aphorisms, New York: Viking Press
Further reading
• Pangle, Thomas, Montesquieu’s Philosophy of Liberalism (Chicago: 1989 rpt.; 1973).
• Person, James Jr., ed. “Montesquieu” (excerpts from chap. 8) in Literature Criticism from 1400 to 1800, (Gale
Publishing: 1988), vol. 7, pp. 350–52.
• Shackleton, Robert. Montesquieu; a Critical Biography. (Oxford: Clarendon Press of Oxford University Press,
1961).
• Shklar, Judith. Montesquieu (Oxford Past Masters series). (Oxford and New York, Oxford University Press,
1989).
• Schaub, Diana J. Erotic Liberalism: Women and Revolution in Montesquieu's 'Persian Letters'. (Lanham, MD:
Rowman & Littlefield, 1995).
• Spurlin, Paul M. Montesquieu in America, 1760-1801 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1941;
reprint, New York: Octagon Books, 1961).
57
Montesquieu
External links
• Free full-text works online (http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/search?author=Montesquieu&
amode=words)
• The Spirit of Laws (Volume 1) (http://archive.org/details/spirit_laws_01_1212) 1748 English audio
• Complete ebooks collection of Montesquieu (http://www.livres-et-ebooks.fr/auteur/Montesquieu-2214/) in
French.
• Montesquieu, "Notes on England" (http://ouclf.iuscomp.org/articles/montesquieu.shtml)
• Montesquieu (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10536a.htm) in The Catholic Encyclopedia.
• Montesquieu (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/montesquieu/) in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• Timeline of Montesquieu's Life (http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/philosophers/montesquieu.html)
• Château Saint Ahon (http://www.saintahon.com/GB/main.html) - Historic estate once owned by Charles de
Montesquieu
• (French) Lettres persanes at athena.unige.ch (http://athena.unige.ch/athena/montesquieu/
montesquieu_lettres_persanes.html)
58
Francis Bacon
59
Francis Bacon
Francis Bacon
Portrait of Francis Bacon, by Frans Pourbus (1617), Palace on the Water in Warsaw.
Born
22 January 1561
Strand, London, England
Died
9 April 1626 (aged 65)
Highgate, London, England
Nationality
English
Era
English Renaissance, The Scientific Revolution
Region
Western philosophy
School
Renaissance Philosophy, Empiricism
Signature
Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St. Alban,[1][2] Kt., KC (22 January 1561 – 9 April 1626) was an English philosopher,
statesman, scientist, jurist, and author. He served both as Attorney General and Lord Chancellor of England.
Although his political career ended in disgrace, he remained extremely influential through his works, especially as
philosophical advocate and practitioner of the scientific method during the scientific revolution.
Bacon has been called the creator of empiricism.[3] His works established and popularised inductive methodologies
for scientific inquiry, often called the Baconian method, or simply the scientific method. His demand for a planned
procedure of investigating all things natural marked a new turn in the rhetorical and theoretical framework for
science, much of which still surrounds conceptions of proper methodology today.
Bacon was knighted in 1603, and created both the Baron Verulam in 1618 and the Viscount St. Alban in 1621;[4] as
he died without heirs, both peerages became extinct upon his death. He famously died by contracting pneumonia
while studying the effects of freezing on the preservation of meat, bringing him into a rare historical group of
scientists who were killed by their own experiments.
Francis Bacon
60
Biography
Early life
Bacon was born on 22 January 1561 at York House near the Strand in
London, the son of Sir Nicholas Bacon by his second wife Anne
(Cooke) Bacon, the daughter of noted humanist Anthony Cooke. His
mother's sister was married to William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley,
making Burghley Francis Bacon's uncle. Biographers believe that
Bacon was educated at home in his early years owing to poor health
(which plagued him throughout his life), receiving tuition from John
Walsall, a graduate of Oxford with a strong leaning towards
Puritanism. He entered Trinity College, Cambridge, on 5 April 1573 at
the age of twelve,[5] living for three years there together with his older
brother Anthony Bacon under the personal tutelage of Dr John
Whitgift, future Archbishop of Canterbury. Bacon's education was
conducted largely in Latin and followed the medieval curriculum. He
was also educated at the University of Poitiers. It was at Cambridge
that he first met Queen Elizabeth, who was impressed by his
precocious intellect, and was accustomed to calling him "The Young
Lord Keeper".[6]
The 18-year-old Francis Bacon. Inscription
around head reads: "If one could but paint his
mind". National Portrait Gallery, London
His studies brought him to the belief that the methods and results of science as then practised were erroneous. His
reverence for Aristotle conflicted with his loathing of Aristotelian philosophy, which seemed to him barren,
disputatious, and wrong in its objectives.
On 27 June 1576, he and Anthony entered de societate magistrorum at
Gray's Inn. A few months later, Francis went abroad with Sir Amias
Paulet, the English ambassador at Paris, while Anthony continued his
studies at home. The state of government and society in France under
Henry III afforded him valuable political instruction. For the next three
years he visited Blois, Poitiers, Tours, Italy, and Spain. During his
travels, Bacon studied language, statecraft, and civil law while
performing routine diplomatic tasks. On at least one occasion he
delivered diplomatic letters to England for Walsingham, Burghley, and
Leicester, as well as for the queen.
The Italianate York Water Gate – the entry to
York House, built about 1626 after Bacon's death
The sudden death of his father in February 1579 prompted Bacon to
return to England. Sir Nicholas had laid up a considerable sum of
money to purchase an estate for his youngest son, but he died before doing so, and Francis was left with only a fifth
of that money. Having borrowed money, Bacon got into debt. To support himself, he took up his residence in law at
Gray's Inn in 1579.
Francis Bacon
Parliamentarian
Bacon had three goals: to uncover truth, to serve his country, and to serve his church. He sought to further these ends
by seeking a prestigious post. In 1580, through his uncle, Lord Burghley, he applied for a post at court which might
enable him to pursue a life of learning. His application failed. For two years he worked quietly at Gray's Inn, until he
was admitted as an outer barrister in 1582.
His parliamentary career began when he was elected MP for Bossiney,
Devon in a 1581 by-election. In 1584, he took his seat in parliament for
Melcombe in Dorset, and subsequently for Taunton (1586). At this
time, he began to write on the condition of parties in the church, as
well as on the topic of philosophical reform in the lost tract, Temporis
Partus Maximus. Yet he failed to gain a position he thought would lead
him to success. He showed signs of sympathy to Puritanism, attending
the sermons of the Puritan chaplain of Gray's Inn and accompanying
his mother to the Temple Church to hear Walter Travers. This led to
the publication of his earliest surviving tract, which criticised the
English church's suppression of the Puritan clergy. In the Parliament of
1586, he openly urged execution for Mary, Queen of Scots.
About this time, he again approached his powerful uncle for help; this
move was followed by his rapid progress at the bar. He became
Bencher in 1586, and he was elected a reader in 1587, delivering his
Francis Bacon's statue at Gray's Inn Hall
first set of lectures in Lent the following year. In 1589, he received the
valuable appointment of reversion to the Clerkship of the Star
Chamber, although he did not formally take office until 1608 – a post which was worth £16,000 a year.[7]
In 1588 he became MP for Liverpool and then for Middlesex in 1593. He later sat three times for Ipswich (1597,
1601, 1604) and once for Cambridge University (1614).[8]
He became known as a liberal-minded reformer, eager to amend and simplify the law. He opposed feudal privileges
and dictatorial powers, though a friend of the crown. He was against religious persecution. He struck at the House of
Lords in their usurpation of the Money Bills. He advocated for the union of England and Scotland, thus being one of
the influences behind the consolidation of the United Kingdom; and also advocated, later on, for the integration of
Ireland into the Union. Closer constitutional ties, he believed, would bring greater peace and strength to these
countries.[9][10]
61
Francis Bacon
62
Attorney General
Bacon soon became acquainted with Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of
Essex, Queen Elizabeth's favourite. By 1591, he acted as the earl's
confidential adviser.
In 1592, he was commissioned to write a tract in response to the Jesuit
Robert Parson's anti-government polemic, which he titled Certain
observations made upon a libel, identifying England with the ideals of
democratic Athens against the belligerence of Spain.
Bacon took his third parliamentary seat for Middlesex when in
February 1593 Elizabeth summoned Parliament to investigate a Roman
Catholic plot against her. Bacon's opposition to a bill that would levy
triple subsidies in half the usual time offended many people.
Opponents accused him of seeking popularity. For a time, the royal
court excluded him.
When the Attorney-Generalship fell vacant in 1594, Lord Essex's
Memorial to Francis Bacon, in the chapel of
influence was not enough to secure Bacon that office. Likewise, Bacon
Trinity College, Cambridge
failed to secure the lesser office of Solicitor-General in 1595.[7] To
console him for these disappointments, Essex presented him with a
property at Twickenham, which he sold subsequently for £1,800.
In 1596, Bacon became Queen's Counsel, but missed the appointment of Master of the Rolls. During the next few
years, his financial situation remained bad. His friends could find no public office for him, and a scheme for
retrieving his position by a marriage with the wealthy and young widow Lady Elizabeth Hatton failed after she broke
off their relationship upon accepting marriage to a wealthier man. In 1598 Bacon was arrested for debt. Afterwards
however, his standing in the Queen's eyes improved. Gradually, Bacon earned the standing of one of the learned
counsels, though he had no commission or warrant and received no salary. His relationship with the Queen further
improved when he severed ties with Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, a shrewd move because Essex was
executed for treason in 1601.
With others, Bacon was appointed to investigate the charges against Essex, his former friend and benefactor. A
number of Essex's followers confessed that Essex had planned a rebellion against the Queen.[11] Bacon was
subsequently a part of the legal team headed by Attorney General Sir Edward Coke at Essex's treason trial.[11] After
the execution, the Queen ordered Bacon to write the official government account of the trial, which was later
published as A DECLARATION of the Practices and Treasons attempted and committed by Robert late Earle of
Essex and his Complices, against her Majestie and her Kingdoms ... after Bacon's first draft was heavily edited by
the Queen and her ministers.[12]
According to his personal secretary and chaplain, William Rawley, as a judge Bacon was always tender-hearted,
"looking upon the examples with the eye of severity, but upon the person with the eye of pity and compassion". And
also that "he was free from malice", "no revenger of injuries", and "no defamer of any man".[13]
Francis Bacon
James I comes to the throne
The succession of James I brought Bacon into greater favour. He was knighted in 1603. In another shrewd move,
Bacon wrote his Apologie in defence of his proceedings in the case of Essex, as Essex had favoured James to
succeed to the throne.
The following year, during the course of the uneventful first parliament session, Bacon married Alice Barnham. In
June 1607 he was at last rewarded with the office of Solicitor-General.[7] The following year, he began working as
the Clerkship of the Star Chamber. In spite of a generous income, old debts still couldn't be paid. He sought further
promotion and wealth by supporting King James and his arbitrary policies.
In 1610 the fourth session of James' first parliament met. Despite Bacon's advice to him, James and the Commons
found themselves at odds over royal prerogatives and the king's embarrassing extravagance. The House was finally
dissolved in February 1611. Throughout this period Bacon managed to stay in the favour of the king while retaining
the confidence of the Commons.
In 1613, Bacon was finally appointed attorney general, after advising the king to shuffle judicial appointments. As
attorney general, Bacon successfully prosecuted Robert Carr, 1st Earl of Somerset and his wife, Frances Howard,
Countess of Somerset for murder in 1616. The so-called "Prince's Parliament" of April 1614 objected to Bacon's
presence in the seat for Cambridge and to the various royal plans which Bacon had supported. Although he was
allowed to stay, parliament passed a law that forbade the attorney-general to sit in parliament. His influence over the
king had evidently inspired resentment or apprehension in many of his peers. Bacon, however, continued to receive
the King's favour, which led to his appointment in March 1617 as the temporary Regent of England (for a period of a
month), and in 1618 as Lord Chancellor. On 12 July 1618 the king created Bacon Baron Verulam, of Verulam, in
the Peerage of England. As a new peer he then styled himself as "Francis, Lord Verulam".[7]
Bacon continued to use his influence with the king to mediate between the throne and Parliament and in this capacity
he was further elevated in the same peerage, as Viscount St Alban, on 27 January 1621.[2]
Lord Chancellor and public disgrace
Bacon's public career ended in disgrace in 1621. After he fell into debt,
a Parliamentary Committee on the administration of the law charged
him with twenty-three separate counts of corruption. To the lords, who
sent a committee to enquire whether a confession was really his, he
replied, "My lords, it is my act, my hand, and my heart; I beseech your
lordships to be merciful to a broken reed." He was sentenced to a fine
of £40,000 and committed to the Tower of London during the king's
pleasure; the imprisonment lasted only a few days and the fine was
Francis Bacon and the members of the Parliament
remitted by the king.[14] More seriously, parliament declared Bacon
in the day of his political fall
incapable of holding future office or sitting in parliament. He narrowly
escaped undergoing degradation, which would have stripped him of his
titles of nobility. Subsequently the disgraced viscount devoted himself to study and writing.
There seems little doubt that Bacon had accepted gifts from litigants, but this was an accepted custom of the time and
not necessarily evidence of deeply corrupt behaviour.[15] While acknowledging that his conduct had been lax, he
countered that he had never allowed gifts to influence his judgement and, indeed, he had on occasion given a verdict
against those who had paid him. The true reason for his acknowledgement of guilt is the subject of debate, but it may
have been prompted by his sickness, or by a view that through his fame and the greatness of his office he would be
spared harsh punishment. He may even have been blackmailed, with a threat to charge him with sodomy, into
confession.[15][16]
The British jurist Basil Montagu wrote in Bacon's defense, concerning the episode of his public disgrace:
63
Francis Bacon
64
Bacon has been accused of servility, of dissimulation, of various base motives, and their filthy brood of
base actions, all unworthy of his high birth, and incompatible with his great wisdom, and the estimation
in which he was held by the noblest spirits of the age. It is true that there were men in his own time, and
will be men in all times, who are better pleased to count spots in the sun than to rejoice in its glorious
brightness. Such men have openly libelled him, like Dewes and Weldon, whose falsehoods were
detected as soon as uttered, or have fastened upon certain ceremonious compliments and dedications, the
fashion of his day, as a sample of his servility, passing over his noble letters to the Queen, his lofty
contempt for the Lord Keeper Puckering, his open dealing with Sir Robert Cecil, and with others, who,
powerful when he was nothing, might have blighted his opening fortunes for ever, forgetting his
advocacy of the rights of the people in the face of the court, and the true and honest counsels, always
given by him, in times of great difficulty, both to Elizabeth and her successor. When was a "base
sycophant" loved and honoured by piety such as that of Herbert, Tennison, and Rawley, by noble spirits
like Hobbes, Ben Jonson, and Selden, or followed to the grave, and beyond it, with devoted affection
such as that of Sir Thomas Meautys.
[17]
Personal life
When he was 36, Bacon engaged in the courtship of Elizabeth Hatton,
a young widow of 20. Reportedly, she broke off their relationship upon
accepting marriage to a wealthier man—Edward Coke. Years later,
Bacon still wrote of his regret that the marriage to Hatton had not taken
place.[18]
At the age of forty-five, Bacon married Alice Barnham, the
fourteen-year-old daughter of a well-connected London alderman and
MP. Bacon wrote two sonnets proclaiming his love for Alice. The first
was written during his courtship and the second on his wedding day, 10
May 1606. When Bacon was appointed Lord Chancellor, "by special
Warrant of the King", Lady Bacon was given precedence over all other
Court ladies.
Reports of increasing friction in his marriage to Alice appeared, with
speculation that some of this may have been due to financial resources
not being as readily available to her as she was accustomed to having
in the past. Alice was reportedly interested in fame and fortune, and
when reserves of money were no longer available, there were
complaints about where all the money was going. Alice Chambers
Francis Bacon
Bunten wrote in her Life of Alice Barnham[19] that, upon their descent
into debt, she actually went on trips to ask for financial favours and
assistance from their circle of friends. Bacon disinherited her upon discovering her secret romantic relationship with
Sir John Underhill. He rewrote his will, which had previously been very generous to her (leaving her lands, goods,
and income), revoking it all.
Bacon's personal secretary and chaplain, William Rawley, however, wrote in his biography of Bacon that his
inter-marriage with Alice Barnham was one of "much conjugal love and respect", mentioning a robe of honour that
he gave to her, and which "she wore unto her dying day, being twenty years and more after his death".[13]
Francis Bacon
The well-connected antiquary John Aubrey noted in his Brief Lives
concerning Bacon, "He was a Pederast. His Ganimeds and Favourites
tooke Bribes",[20] biographers continue to debate about Bacon's sexual
inclinations and the precise nature of his personal relationships.[21]
Several authors[22][23] believe that despite his marriage Bacon was
primarily attracted to the same sex. Professor Forker[24] for example
has explored the "historically documentable sexual preferences" of
both King James and Bacon – and concluded they were all oriented to
"masculine love", a contemporary term that "seems to have been used
exclusively to refer to the sexual preference of men for members of
their own gender."[25] The Jacobean antiquarian, Sir Simonds D'Ewes
implied there had been a question of bringing him to trial for
buggery.[26]
This conclusion has been disputed by others,[11][27][28][29][30] who
Engraving of Alice Barnham
point to lack of consistent evidence, and consider the sources to be
more open to interpretation. In his "New Atlantis", Bacon describes his utopian island as being "the chastest nation
under heaven", in which there was no prostitution or adultery, and further saying that "as for masculine love, they
have no touch of it".[31]
Death
On 9 April 1626 Bacon died of pneumonia while at Arundel mansion at Highgate outside London. An influential
account of the circumstances of his death was given by John Aubrey's Brief Lives. Aubrey has been criticised for his
evident credulousness in this and other works; on the other hand, he knew Thomas Hobbes, Bacon's
fellow-philosopher and friend. Aubrey's vivid account, which portrays Bacon as a martyr to experimental scientific
method, had him journeying to Highgate through the snow with the King's physician when he is suddenly inspired by
the possibility of using the snow to preserve meat: "They were resolved they would try the experiment presently.
They alighted out of the coach and went into a poor woman's house at the bottom of Highgate hill, and bought a
fowl, and made the woman exenterate it".
After stuffing the fowl with snow, Bacon contracted a fatal case of pneumonia. Some people, including Aubrey,
consider these two contiguous, possibly coincidental events as related and causative of his death: "The Snow so
chilled him that he immediately fell so extremely ill, that he could not return to his Lodging ... but went to the Earle
of Arundel's house at Highgate, where they put him into ... a damp bed that had not been layn-in ... which gave him
such a cold that in 2 or 3 days as I remember Mr Hobbes told me, he died of Suffocation."
Being unwittingly on his deathbed, the philosopher wrote his last letter to his absent host and friend Lord Arundel:
65
Francis Bacon
Monument to Bacon at his burial place, St
Michael's Church in St Albans
66
My very good Lord,—I was likely to have had the fortune of
Caius Plinius the elder, who lost his life by trying an experiment
about the burning of Mount Vesuvius; for I was also desirous to
try an experiment or two touching the conservation and
induration of bodies. As for the experiment itself, it succeeded
excellently well; but in the journey between London and
Highgate, I was taken with such a fit of casting as I know not
whether it were the Stone, or some surfeit or cold, or indeed a
touch of them all three. But when I came to your Lordship's
House, I was not able to go back, and therefore was forced to
take up my lodging here, where your housekeeper is very careful
and diligent about me, which I assure myself your Lordship will
not only pardon towards him, but think the better of him for it.
For indeed your Lordship's House was happy to me, and I kiss
your noble hands for the welcome which I am sure you give me
to it. I know how unfit it is for me to write with any other hand
than mine own, but by my troth my fingers are so disjointed with
sickness that I cannot steadily hold a pen."[32]
Another account appears in a biography by William Rawley, Bacon's personal secretary and chaplain:
He died on the ninth day of April in the year 1626, in the early morning of the day then celebrated for our
Saviour's resurrection, in the sixty-sixth year of his age, at the Earl of Arundel's house in Highgate, near
London, to which place he casually repaired about a week before; God so ordaining that he should die there of
a gentle fever, accidentally accompanied with a great cold, whereby the defluxion of rheum fell so plentifully
upon his breast, that he died by suffocation.[33]
At the news of his death, over thirty great minds collected together their eulogies of him, which was then later
published in Latin.[34]
He left personal assets of about £7,000 and lands that realised £6,000 when sold.[35] His debts amounted to more
than £23,000, equivalent to more than £3m at current value.[35][36]
Philosophy and Works
Francis Bacon's Philosophy is displayed in the vast and varied writings he left, which might be divided in three great
branches:
• Scientifical works - in which his ideas for an universal reform of knowledge, scientific method and the
improvement of mankind's state are presented.
• Religious/literary works - in which he presents his moral philosophy and theological meditations.
• Juridical works - in which his reforms in Law are proposed.
Francis Bacon
Influence
Science
Bacon's ideas were influential in the 1630s and 1650s among scholars,
in particular Sir Thomas Browne, who in his encyclopedia
Pseudodoxia Epidemica (1646–1672) frequently adheres to a Baconian
approach to his scientific enquiries. During the Restoration, Bacon was
commonly invoked as a guiding spirit of the Royal Society founded
under Charles II in 1660.[37][38] In the 19th century his emphasis on
induction was revived and developed by William Whewell, among
others. He has been reputed as the "Father of Experimental
Science".[39]
Bacon is also considered to be the philosophical influence behind the
dawning of the Industrial age. In his works, Bacon called for a "spring
of a progeny of inventions, which shall overcome, to some extent, and
"Frontspiece to 'The History of Royal-Society of
subdue our needs and miseries",[40] always proposing that all scientific
London', picturing Bacon (in the right) among the
work should be done for charitable purposes, as matter of alleviating
founding influences of the Society. National
mankind's misery, and that therefore science should be practical and
Portrait Gallery, London
have as purpose the inventing of useful things for the improvement of
mankind's estate. This changed the course of science in history, from a
merely contemplative state, as it was found in ancient and medieval ages, to a practical, inventive state - that would
have eventually led to the inventions that made possible the Industrial Revolutions of the following centuries.[41]
He also wrote a long treatise on Medicine, History of Life and Death,[42] with natural and experimental observations
for the prolongation of life.
For one of his biographers, Hepworth Dixon, Bacon's influence in modern world is so great that every man who rides
in a train, sends a telegram, follows a steam plough, sits in an easy chair, crosses the channel or the Atlantic, eats a
good dinner, enjoys a beautiful garden, or undergoes a painless surgical operation, owes him something.[43]
North America
Some authors believe that Bacon's vision for a Utopian New World in North America was laid out in his novel New
Atlantis, which depicts a mythical island, Bensalem, located somewhere between Peru and Japan. In this work he
depicted a land where there would be freedom of religion - showing a Jew treated fairly and equally in an island of
Christians, but it has been debated whether this work had influenced others reforms, such as greater rights for
women, the abolition of slavery, elimination of debtors' prisons, separation of church and state, and freedom of
political expression,[44][45][46][47] although there is no hint of these reforms in The New Atlantis itself. His
propositions of legal reform (which were not established in his life time), though, are considered to have been one of
the influences behind the Napoleonic Code,[48] and therefore could show some resemblance with or influence in the
drafting of other liberal constitutions that came in the centuries after Bacon's lifetime, such as the American.
67
Francis Bacon
68
Francis Bacon played a leading role in creating the British colonies,
especially in Virginia, the Carolinas, and Newfoundland in
northeastern Canada. His government report on "The Virginia Colony"
was submitted in 1609. In 1610 Bacon and his associates received a
charter from the king to form the Tresurer and the Companye of
Adventurers and planter of the Cittye of London and Bristoll for the
Collonye or plantacon in Newfoundland[49] and sent John Guy to
found a colony there. In 1910 Newfoundland issued a postage stamp to
commemorate Bacon's role in establishing the province. The stamp
describes Bacon as, "the guiding spirit in Colonization Schemes in
1610."[] Moreover, some scholars believe he was largely responsible
for the drafting, in 1609 and 1612, of two charters of government for
the Virginia Colony.[50] Thomas Jefferson, the third President of the
United States and author of the Declaration of Independence, wrote:
"Bacon,
Locke and Newton. I consider them as the three greatest men
A Newfoundland stamp which reads "Lord Bacon
that have ever lived, without any exception, and as having laid the
- the guiding spirit in colonization scheme
foundation of those superstructures which have been raised in the
[51]
Physical and Moral sciences".
Historian and biographer William Hepworth Dixon considered that Bacon's name
could be included in the list of Founders of the United States of America.[52]
It is also believed by the Rosicrucian organization AMORC, that Bacon would have influenced a settlement of
mystics in North America, stating that his work "The New Atlantis" inspired a colony of Rosicrucians led by
Johannes Kelpius, to journey across the Atlantic Ocean in a chartered vessel called Sarah Mariah, and move on to
Pennsylvania in late 17th century. According to their claims, these rosicrucian communities "made valuable
contributions to the newly emerging American culture in the fields of printing, philosophy, the sciences and arts".[53]
Johannes Kelpius and his fellows moved to Wissahickon Creek, in Pennsylvania, and became known as "Hermits of
Mystics of the Wissahickon"[54] or simply "Monks of the Wissahickon".[55][56]
Law
Although much of his legal reform proposals were not established in
his life time, his legal legacy was considered by the magazine New
Scientist, in a publication of 1961, as having influenced the drafting of
the Code Napoleon, and the law reforms introduced by Sir Robert
Peel.[57]
The historian William Hepworth Dixon referred to the Code Napoleon
as "the sole embodiment of Bacon's thought", saying that Bacon's legal
work "has had more success abroad than it has found at home", and
that in France "it has blossomed and come into fruit".[48]
The scholar Harvey Wheeler attributed to Bacon, in his work "Francis
Bacon's Verulamium - the Common Law Template of The Modern in
English Science and Culture", the creation of these distinguishing
features of the modern common law system:
Statue of Francis Bacon in the Library of
Congress of the United States of America
• Using cases as repositories of evidence about the "unwritten law";
• Determining the relevance of precedents by exclusionary principles of evidence and logic;
• Treating opposing legal briefs as adversarial hypotheses about the application of the "unwritten law" to a new set
of facts.
Francis Bacon
As late as the 18th century some juries still declared the law rather than the fact, but already before the end of the
17th century Sir Matthew Hale explained modern common law adjudication procedure and acknowledged Bacon as
the inventor of the process of discovering unwritten laws from the evidences of their applications. The method
combined empiricism and inductivism in a new way that was to imprint its signature on many of the distinctive
features of modern English society.[58]
In brief, Bacon is considered by some jurists to be the father of modern Jurisprudence.[59]
Political scientist James McClellan [60], from the University of Virginia, considered Bacon to have had "a great
following" in the American colonies.[61]
More recent scholarship on Bacon's jurisprudence has focused on his advocating torture as a legal recourse to the
crown.[62] Bacon himself was not a stranger to the torture chamber: in his various legal capacities in both Elizabeth
I’s and James I’s reigns, Bacon was listed as a commissioner on five torture warrants. In a 1603 letter addressed to
King James I on the question of torture’s place within English law, Bacon identifies the scope of torture: a means to
further the investigation of threats to the state: “In the cases of treasons, torture is used for discovery, and not for
evidence."[63] For Bacon, torture was not a punitive measure, an intended form of state repression, but instead
offered a modus operandi for the government agent tasked with uncovering acts of treason.
Historical debates
Bacon and Shakespeare
The Baconian hypothesis of Shakespearean authorship, first proposed in the mid-19th century, contends that Sir
Francis Bacon wrote some or all the plays conventionally attributed to William Shakespeare, in opposition to the
scholarly consensus that William Shakespeare of Stratford was the author.
Occult hypotheses
Francis Bacon often gathered with the men at Gray's Inn to discuss politics and philosophy, and to try out various
theatrical scenes that he admitted writing.[64] Bacon's alleged connection to the Rosicrucians and the Freemasons has
been widely discussed by authors and scholars in many books.[65] However others, including Daphne du Maurier (in
her biography of Bacon), have argued there is no substantive evidence to support claims of involvement with the
Rosicrucians.[66] Frances Yates[67] does not make the claim that Bacon was a Rosicrucian, but presents evidence that
he was nevertheless involved in some of the more closed intellectual movements of his day. She argues that Bacon's
movement for the advancement of learning was closely connected with the German Rosicrucian movement, while
Bacon's New Atlantis portrays a land ruled by Rosicrucians. He apparently saw his own movement for the
advancement of learning to be in conformity with Rosicrucian ideals.[68]
The link between Bacon's work and the Rosicrucians ideals which
Yates allegedly found, was the conformity of the purposes expressed
by the Rosicrucian Manifestos and Bacon's plan of a "Great
Instauration",[68] for the two were calling for a reformation of both
"divine and human understanding",[69][70] as well as both had in view
the purpose of mankind's return to the "state before the Fall".[71][72]
Another major link is said to be the resemblance between Bacon's
"New Atlantis" and the German Rosicrucian Johann Valentin
An old volume of Francis Bacon and a rose
Andreae's "Description of the Republic of Christianopolis (1619)".[73]
In his book, Andreae shows an utopic island in which Christian theosophy and applied science ruled, and in which
the spiritual fulfillment and intellectual activity constituted the primary goals of each individual, the scientific
pursuits being the highest intellectual calling – linked to the achievement of spiritual perfection. Andreae's island
69
Francis Bacon
also depicts a great advancement in technology, with many industries separated in different zones which supplied the
population's needs – which shows great resemblance to Bacon's scientific methods and purposes.[41][74]
The Rosicrucian organization AMORC claims that Francis Bacon was the "Imperator" (leader) of the Rosicrucian
Order in both England and the European continent, and would have directed it during his lifetime.[53]
Francis Bacon's influence can also be seen on a variety of religious and spiritual authors, and on groups that have
utilised his writings in their own belief systems.[75][76][77][78][79]
Bibliography
A complete chronological Bibliography of Francis Bacon. (Many of Bacon's writings were only published after his
death in 1626).
•
•
•
•
•
Notes on the State of Christendom (1582)
Letter of Advice to the Queen (1585-6)
An Advertisement Touching the Controversies of the Church of England (1586-9)
Dumb show in the Gray's Inn Christmas Revels (1587-8)
Misfortunes of Arthur (1588)
• A Conference of Pleasure : In Praise of Knowledge, In Praise of Fortitude, In Praise of Love, In Praise of Truth.
(1592)
• Certain Observations made upon a Libel (1592)
• Temporis Partus Maximus ('The Greatest Birth of Time') (1593)
• A True Report of the Detestable Treason intended by Dr Roderigo Lopez (1594)
• The Device of the Indian Prince : Squire, Hermit, Soldier, Statesman. (1594)
• Gray's Inn Christmas/New Year Revels: The High and Mighty Prince Henry, Prince of Purpoole ( 1594-5) (See
Gesta Grayorum [80])
• The Honourable Order of the Knights of the Helmet (1595)(See Gesta Grayorum [80])
• The Sussex Speech (1595)
• The Philautia Device (1595)
• Maxims of the Law (1596)
• Essays (1st ed.) (1597)
• The Colours of Good and Evil (1597)
• Meditationes Sacrae (1597)
• Declaration of the Practices and Treasons attempted and Committed by the late Earl of Essex (1601)
• Valerius Terminus of the Interpretation of Nature (1603)
• A Brief Discourse touching the Happy Union of the Kingdoms of England and Scotland (1603)
• Cogitations de Natura Rerum ('Thoughts on the Nature of Things') (1604)
• Apologie concerning the late Earl of Essex (1604)
• Certain Considerations touching the better pacification and Edification of the Church of England (1604)
• The Advancement and Proficience of Learning Divine and Human (1605)
• Temporis Masculus Partus ('The Masculine Birth of Time') (1605)
• Filium Labyrinthi sive Formula Inquisitionis (1606)
• In Felicem Memoriam Elizabethae ('In Happy Memory of Queen Elizabeth') (1606)
• Cogitata et Visa de Interpetatione Naturae ('Thoughts and Conclusions on the Interpretation of Nature') (1607)
• Redargiutio Philosophiarum ('The Refutation of Philosophies') (1608)
• The Plantation of Ireland (1608-9)
• De Sapientia Veterum ('Wisdom of the Ancients') (1609)
• Descriptio Globi Intellectualis ('A Description of the Intellectual Globe') (1612)
• Thema Coeli ('Theory of the Heavens') (1612)
70
Francis Bacon
• Essays (2nd edition –38 essays) (1612)
• Marriage of the River Thames to the Rhine (masque performed by Gray's Inn and Inner Temple lawyers on the
river and in Westminster Hall in celebration of the marriage of Princess Elizabeth to Prince Frederick, Elector
Palatine) (1613)
• Charge…touching Duels (1614)
• The Masque of Flowers (performed by Gray's Inn before the King at Whitehall to honour the marriage of the Earl
of Somerset to Frances Howard, Countess of Essex) (1614)
• Instauratio Magna ('Great Instauration') (1620)
• Novum Organum Scientiarum ('New Method') (1620)
• Historia Naturalis ('Natural History') (1622)
• Introduction to six Natural Histories (1622)
• Historia Ventorum ('History of Winds') (1622)
• History of the Reign of King Henry VII (1622)
• Abcedarium Naturae (1622)
• De Augmentis Scientiarum (1623)
• Historia Vitae et Mortis ('History of Life and Death') (1623)
• Historia Densi et Rari ('History of Density and Rarity') (1623)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Historia Gravis et Levis ('History of Gravity and Levity') (1623)
History of the Sympathy and Antipathy of Things (1623)
History of Sulphur, Salt and Mercury (1623)
A Discourse of a War with Spain (1623)
An Advertisement touching an Holy War (1623)
A Digest of the Laws of England (1623)
Cogitationes de Natura Rerum ('Thoughts on the Nature of Things') (1624)
De Fluxu et Refluxu Maris ('Of the Ebb and Flow of the Sea') (1624)
Essays, or Counsels Civil and Moral (3rd/final edition – 58 essays) (1625)
Apothegms New and Old (1625)
Translation of Certain Psalms into English Verse (1625)
Revision of De Sapientia Veterum ('Wisdom of the Ancients') (1625)
Inquisitio de Magnete ('Enquiries into Magnetism') (1625)
Topica Inquisitionis de Luce et Lumine ('Topical Inquisitions into Light and Luminosity') (1625)
All the following works were published only after his death (1626):
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
New Atlantis (1627)
Sylva Sylvarum, or Natural History (1627)
Certain Miscellany Works (1629)
Use of the Law (1629)
Elements of the Common Laws (1629)
Operum Moralium et Civilium (1638)
Dialogum de Bello Sacro (1638)
Cases of Treason (1641)
Confession of Faith (1641)
Speech concerning Naturalisation (1641)
Office of Constables (1641)
Discourse concerning Church Affairs (1641)
• An Essay of a King (1642)
• The Learned Reading of Sir Francis Bacon (to Gray's Inn) (1642)
• Ordinances (1642)
71
Francis Bacon
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Relation of the Poisoning of Overbury. (1651)
Scripta in Naturali et Universali Philosophia (1653)
Scala Intellectus sive Filum Labyrinthi (1653)
Prodromi sive Anticipationes Philosophiae Secundae (1653)
Cogitationes de Natura Rerum (1653)
De Fluxu et Refluxu Maris (1653)
The Mirror of State and Eloquence (1656)
Opuscula Varia Posthuma, Philosophica, Civilia et Theologia (1658)
Letter of Advice to the Duke of Buckingham (1661)
Charge given for the Verge (1662)
Baconiana, Or Certain Genuine Remains Of Sr. Francis Bacon (1679)
Abcedarium Naturae, or a Metaphysical piece (1679)
Letters and Remains (1734)
Promus (1861)
Notes
[1] Peltonen 2007
[2] There is some confusion over the spelling of "Viscount St. Alban" Some sources such as the Dictionary of National Biography (1885) and the
Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed., 1911) spell the title with "St. Albans" others such as the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (2007)
spell it "St. Alban" (Fowler 1885, p. 346; Chisholm 1911; Peltonen 2007).
[3] http:/ / www. psychology. sbc. edu/ Empiricism. htm
[4] Contemporary spelling, used by Bacon himself in his letter of thanks to the king for his elevation. Birch, Thomas (1763). Letters, Speeches,
Charges, Advices, &c of Lord Chancellor Bacon. 6. London: Andrew Millar. pp. 271–2. OCLC 228676038.
[5] Venn, J.; Venn, J. A., eds. (1922–1958). " Bacon, Francis (http:/ / venn. lib. cam. ac. uk/ cgi-bin/ search. pl?sur=& suro=c& fir=& firo=c&
cit=& cito=c& c=all& tex=BCN573F& sye=& eye=& col=all& maxcount=50)". Alumni Cantabrigienses (10 vols) (online ed.). Cambridge
University Press.
[6] Collins, Arthur (1741). The English Baronetage: Containing a Genealogical and Historical Account of All the English Baronets, Now
Existing: Their Descents, Marriages, and Issues; Memorable Actions, Both in War, and Peace; Religious and Charitable Donations; Deaths,
Places of Burial and Monumental Inscriptions [sic]. Printed for Tho. Wotton at the Three Daggers and Queen's Head. p. 5.
[7] Peltonen 2007.
[8] "History of Parliament" (http:/ / www. historyofparliamentonline. org/ volume/ 1558-1603/ member/ bacon-francis-1561-1626). . Retrieved
2011-10-02.
[9] Spedding, James. "The letters and life of Francis Bacon" (1861).
[10] http:/ / publish. ucc. ie/ celt/ docs/ E600001-015
[11] Nieves Matthews, Francis Bacon: The History of a Character Assassination (Yale University Press, 1996)
[12] Matthews (1996: 56–57)
[13] Rawley, William (1670). The Life of the Right Honorable Francis Bacon Baron of Verulam, Viscount ST. Alban (http:/ / hiwaay. net/ ~paul/
bacon/ biographies/ rawley. html). London: Thomas Johns,, London. .
[14] Parris, Matthew; Maguire, Kevin (2004). "Francis Bacon—1621". Great Parliamentary Scandals. London: Chrysalis. pp. 8–9.
ISBN 978-1-86105-736-5.
[15] Zagorin, Perez (1999). Francis Bacon. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 22–23. ISBN 978-0-691-00966-7.
[16] Historian A. L. Rowse, quoted in Parris; Maguire (2004: 8): "a charge of sodomy was...to be brought against the sixty-year-old Lord
Chancellor".
[17] Montagu, Basil (1837). Essays and Selections. pp. 325, 326. ISBN 978-1-4368-3777-4.
[18] Alfred Dodd, Francis Bacon's Personal Life Story', Volume 2 – The Age of James, England: Rider & Co., 1949, 1986. pages 157 – 158, 425,
502 – 503, 518 – 532
[19] Alice Chambers Bunten, Life of Alice Barnham, Wife of Sir Francis Bacon, London: Oliphants Ltd. 1928.
[20] Oliver Lawson Dick, ed. Aubrey's Brief Lives. Edited from the Original Manuscripts, 1949, s.v. "Francis Bacon, Viscount of St. Albans" p.
11.
[21] See opposing opinions of: A. L. Rowse, Homosexuals in History, New York: Carroll & Garf, 1977. page 44; Jardine, Lisa; Stewart, Alan
Hostage To Fortune: The Troubled Life of Francis Bacon Hill & Wang, 1999. page 148; Nieves Mathews, Francis Bacon: The History of a
Character Assassination, Yale University Press, 1996; Ross Jackson, The Companion to Shaker of the Speare: The Francis Bacon Story,
England: Book Guild Publishing, 2005. pages 45 – 46
[22] A. L. Rowse, Homosexuals in History, New York: Carroll & Garf, 1977. page 44
[23] Jardine, Lisa; Stewart, Alan Hostage To Fortune: The Troubled Life of Francis Bacon Hill & Wang, 1999. page 148
72
Francis Bacon
[24] Charles R. Forker, Masculine Love, Renaissance Writing, and the New Invention of Homosexuality: An Addendum in the Journal of
Homosexuality (1996), Indiana University
[25] Journal of Homosexuality, Volume: 31 Issue: 3, 1996, pages 85–93, ISSN: 0091-8369
[26] Fulton Anderson, Francis Bacon:His career and his thought, Los Angeles, 1962
[27] Ross Jackson, The Companion to Shaker of the Speare: The Francis Bacon Story, England: Book Guild Publishing, 2005. pages 45 – 46
[28] Bryan Bevan, The Real Francis Bacon, England: Centaur Press, 1960
[29] Helen Veale, Son of England, India: Indo Polish Library, 1950
[30] Peter Dawkins, Dedication to the Light, England: Francis Bacon Research Trust, 1984
[31] Bacon, Francis. The New Atlantis. 1627
[32] Bacon, The Works of Francis Bacon, Lord Chancellor of England. A new Edition, ed. Basil Montagu, London: 1825–1834
[33] William Rawley (Bacon's personal secretary and chaplain) Resuscitatio, or, Bringing into Publick Light Several Pieces of the Works, Civil,
Historical, Philosophical, & Theological, Hitherto Sleeping; of the Right Honourable Francis Bacon....Together with his Lordship's Life
1657. "Francis Bacon, the glory of his age and nation, the adorner and ornament of learning, was born in York House, or York Place, in the
Strand, on the two and twentieth day of January, in the year of our Lord 1560."
[34] W.G.C. Gundry, ed. Manes Verulamani. This important volume consists of 32 eulogies originally published in Latin shortly after Bacon's
funeral in 1626. Bacon's peers refer to him as "a supreme poet" and "a concealed poet," and also link him with the theatre.
[35] Lovejoy, Benjamin (1888). Francis Bacon: A Critical Review. London: Unwin. p. 171. OCLC 79886184.
[36] Officer, Lawrence; Williamson, Samuel. "Purchasing Power of British Pounds from 1264 to Present" (http:/ / www. measuringworth. com/
ppoweruk/ ). Measuring Worth.com. . Retrieved 18 October 2009.
[37] Julian Martin, Francis Bacon: The State and the Reform of Natural Philosophy, 1992
[38] Byron Steel, Sir Francis Bacon: The First Modern Mind, Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Doran and Co., Inc., 1930
[39] Peter Urbach, Francis Bacon's Philosophy of Science, Open Court Publishing Co., 1987. A study which argues from a close consideration of
Bacon's actual words in context, that he was immensely more sophisticated and modern than is generally allowed. Bacon's reputation as a
philosopher of science has sunk since the 17th and early 18th centuries, when he was accorded the title "Father of Experimental Philosophy".
[40] Bacon, Francis. "The Great Instauration" (http:/ / en. wikisource. org/ wiki/ The_Great_Instauration). Instauratio Magna. .
[41] Farrington, Benjamin. "Francis Bacon, philosopher of industrial science" (1951). ISBN 978-0-374-92706-6
[42] Bacon, Francis (2003-06-01). History of Life and Death (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=dW5lJ9-LeBAC). ISBN 9780766162723. .
[43] Hepworth Dixon, William (1862). "The story of Lord Bacon's Life" (1862). (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=zd05AAAAcAAJ& pg=PP1&
dq=the+ story+ of+ lord+ bacon's+ life+ hepworth+ dixon). .
[44] Harvey Wheeler, Francis Bacon's Case of the Post-Nati:(1608); Foundations of Anglo-American Constitutionalism; An Application of
Critical Constitutional Theory, Ward, 1998
[45] Howard B. White, Peace Among the Willows: The Political Philosophy of Francis Bacon, The Hague Martinus Nijhoff, 1968
[46] Harvey Wheeler, Francis Bacon's "Verulamium": the Common Law Template of The Modern in English Science and Culture, 1999
[47] Frances Yates, (essay) Bacon's Magic, in Frances Yates, Ideas and Ideals in the North European Renaissance, London: Routledge & Kegan
Paul, 1984
[48] Hepworth Dixon, William (1861). Personal history of Lord Bacon: From unpublished papers (http:/ / books. google. com/
?id=CGbaQ-oqtxQC). pp. 35. .
[49] http:/ / www. heritage. nf. ca/ law/ lab4/ labvol4_1701. html
[50] http:/ / www. fbrt. org. uk/ pages/ essays/ essay-fb-life. html
[51] "Bacon, Locke and Newton, whose pictures I will trouble you to have copied for me: and as I consider them as the three greatest men that
have ever lived, without any exception, and as having laid the foundation of those superstructures which have been raised in the Physical &
Moral sciences" ( "The Letters of Thomas Jefferson: 1743–1826 Bacon, Locke, and Newton" (http:/ / www. let. rug. nl/ usa/ presidents/
thomas-jefferson/ letters-of-thomas-jefferson/ jefl74. php). . Retrieved 13 June 2009.).
[52] Hepworth Dixon, William (2003-02-01). Personal History of Lord Bacon from Unpublished Papers (http:/ / books. google. com/
?id=BE4dalMQX-cC& lpg=PA200& dq=the people of the Great Republic would give the great and august name of Bacon to one of their
splendid cities& pg=PA200#v=onepage& q& f=false). pp. 200. ISBN 9780766127982. .
[53] "The Mastery of Life" (http:/ / www. rosicrucian. org/ about/ mastery/ mastery. pdf). . Page 31
[54] Johannes Kelpius
[55] http:/ / www. southerncrossreview. org/ 25/ tyson. htm
[56] http:/ / fleurdelys4me. wordpress. com/ 2011/ 12/ 04/ hello-world/
[57] Crowther, J. G.. "Article about Francis Bacon" (http:/ / books. google. com. br/ books?id=ODBtWGjxXH8C& pg=PA146& dq=francis+
bacon+ napoleon+ code& hl=pt-BR& sa=X& ei=DY0sT9KBG4Pv0gHrpqTRCg& ved=0CEkQ6AEwBA#v=onepage& q& f=false). New
Scientist January 19, 1961. .
[58] Wheeler, Harvey. "Francis Bacon's 'Verulamium': the Common Law Template of The Modern in English Science and Culture"
[59] Kocher, Paul (1957). "Francis Bacon and the Science of Jurisprudence". Journal of the History of Ideas (Philadelphia, PA: University of
Pennsylvania Press) 8: 3–26. doi:10.2307/2707577.
[60] http:/ / oll. libertyfund. org/ index. php?option=com_staticxt& staticfile=show. php%3Fperson=3822& Itemid=27
[61] McClellan, James. "The Common Law Tradition - Liberty, Order, and Justice: An Introduction to the Constitutional Principles of American
Government (1989).
73
Francis Bacon
[62] Hanson, Elizabeth (Spring 1991). "Torture and Truth in Renaissance England.". Representations 34: 53–84.
[63] Langbein, John H. (1976). Torture and the Law of Proof. The University of Chicago Press. pp. 90.
[64] Frances Yates, Theatre of the World, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1969
[65] Bryan Bevan, The Real Francis Bacon, England: Centaur Press, 1960
[66] Daphne du Maurier, The Winding Stair, Biography of Bacon 1976.
[67] Frances Yates, The Occult Philosophy in the Elizabethan Age, pages 61–68, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979
[68] Frances Yates, The Rosicrucian Enlightenment, London and Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1972
[69] "Howbeit we know after a time there wil now be a general reformation, both of divine and humane things, according to our desire, and
the expectation of others: for it's fitting, that before the rising of the Sun, there should appear and break forth Aurora, or some clearness, or
divine light in the sky" – Fama Fraternitatis http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ sro/ rhr/ rhr06. htm
[70] Bacon, Francis. Of the Proficience and Advancement of Learning, Divine and Human
[71] "Like good and faithful guardians, we may yield up their fortune to mankind upon the emancipation and majority of their understanding,
from which must necessarily follow an improvement of their estate [...]. For man, by the fall, fell at the same time from his state of innocency
and from his dominion over creation. Both of these losses however can even in this life be in some part repaired; the former by religion and
faith, the latter by arts and sciences. – Francis Bacon, Novum Organum
[72] "We ought therefore here to observe well, and make it known unto everyone, that God hath certainly and most assuredly concluded to send
and grant to the whole world before her end ... such a truth, light, life, and glory, as the first man Adam had, which he lost in Paradise, after
which his successors were put and driven, with him, to misery. Wherefore there shall cease all servitude, falsehood, lies, and darkness, which
by little and little, with the great world's revolution, was crept into all arts, works, and governments of men, and have darkened most part of
them". – Confessio Fraternitatis
[73] Andreae 1619
[74] "Literary criticism of Johann Valentin Andreae" (http:/ / www. enotes. com/ johann-valentin-andreae-criticism/ andreae-johann-valentin). .
[75] Saint Germain Foundation. The History of the "I AM" Activity and Saint Germain Foundation. Schaumburg, Illinois: Saint Germain Press
2003
[76] Luk, A.D.K.. Law of Life – Book II. Pueblo, Colorado: A.D.K. Luk Publications 1989, pages 254–267
[77] White Paper – Wesak World Congress 2002. Acropolis Sophia Books & Works 2003.
[78] Partridge, Christopher ed. New Religions: A Guide: New Religious Movements, Sects and Alternative Spiritualities Oxford University Press,
USA 2004.
[79] Schroeder, Werner Ascended Masters and Their Retreats Ascended Master Teaching Foundation 2004, pages 250–255
[80] http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ gestgrayorum00grayuoft
References
• Andreae, Johann Valentin (1619). "Christianopolis" (http://www.archive.org/details/christianopolis00andr).
Description of the Republic of Christianopolis.
• Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Bacon, Francis". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
• Cousin, John William (1910). " Bacon, Francis, Lord Verulam, And Viscount St. Alban". A Short
Biographical Dictionary of English Literature. London: J. M. Dent & Sons. Wikisource
• Farrell, John (2006). "Chapter 6: The Science of Suspicion.". =Paranoia and Modernity: Cervantes to Rousseau.
Cornell University Press. ISBN ????.
• Farrington, Benjamin (1964). The Philosophy of Francis Bacon. University of Chicago Press. Contains English
translations of
• Temporis Partus Masculus
• Cogitata et Visa
• Redargutio Philosphiarum
• Heese, Mary (1968). "Francis Bacon's Philosophy of Science". In Vickers, Brian. Essential Articles for the Study
of Francis Bacon. Hamden, CT: Archon Books. pp. 114–139.
•
Fowler, Thomas (1885). "Bacon, Francis (1561-1626)". In Leslie Stephen. Dictionary of National Biography.
2. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 328&ndas;360.
• Peltonen, Markku (2007) [2004]. "Bacon, Francis, Viscount St Alban (1561–1626)". Oxford Dictionary of
National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/990. (subscription or UK public
library membership (http://www.oup.com/oxforddnb/info/freeodnb/libraries/) required)
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• Spedding, James; Ellis, Robert Leslie; Heath, Douglas Denon (1857–1874). The Works of Francis Bacon, Baron
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upenn.edu/webbin/metabook?id=worksfbacon). London.
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Attribution
•
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Jackson, Samuel Macauley, ed.
(1908). "Bacon, Francis". New Schaff–Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge. 2 (third ed.). London and
New York: Funk and Wagnalls.
External links
• Archival material relating to Francis Bacon (http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/nra/searches/subjectView.
asp?ID=P1110) listed at the UK National Archives
• Bacon (http://books.google.com/books?id=N0YBAAAAQAAJ&) by Thomas Fowler (1881) public domain
@GoogleBooks
• Francis Bacon (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/francis-bacon) entry by Juergen Klein in the Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy
•
•
•
•
Works by Francis Bacon (http://www.gutenberg.org/author/Francis_Bacon) at Project Gutenberg
The Francis Bacon Society (http://www.baconsocietyinc.org)
Contains the New Organon, slightly modified for easier reading (http://www.earlymoderntexts.com)
Francis Bacon of Verulam. Realistic Philosophy and its Age (http://archive.org/details/cu31924029010219)
(1857) by Kuno Fischer and John Oxenford in English
75
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