Two pioneers of modern economic thought in Japan

Transcription

Two
pioneers
in Japan
Fukuzawa
of modern
and
economic
the Ottoman
Yukichi
Ibrahim
and
thought
Empire
Ahmet
Mithat
H. OZTURK
Comparisons of Turkish and Japanese modernization
have already been
undertaken
by several scholars'.
However, there is yet space for further
comparative studies, particularly in the field of intellectual history. Such studies
are crucial for understanding
the drive to modernize in both societies.
The
modernization
reforms undertaken
by Japan and Turkey in the 19" century
aimed to parry the threat of Western imperialist ambitions.
The fact that
Ottoman and Japanese military forces were less developed than those of the
industrialized powers of Western Europe and America intensified the industrialization efforts of both countries.
The first Industrial Revolution induced the Ottomans and the Japaneselike the Russians-to
develop their economies. By the turn of the 19th century
both the Japanese and the Ottomans had realized the necessity of change, and
the focus of this change was the purely practical goal of "expelling the
barbarians".
Western scientific techniques had to be mastered so that both
countries would be strong and wealthy enough to stand up to the threat of
Western aggression.
This is why modernization
efforts in both societies first
took place in the military sphere, rather than in other sectors such as education
or everyday life. It was believed that if the two societies were to avoid the
humiliation of succumbing to Western imperialism, they had to have large guns
and large ships. With the passage of time, however, both came to realize that
full-fledged modernization required social reorganization.
The most disputed point was not whether to change or not, but rather the
direction, speed, and scope of change. What were the ultimate objectives of
change? Some important scholars in the 1 9th century began to assert that guns,
battleships,
and a new form of government
were not enough.
It was also
necessary to understand the ideas which, in the West, had led to the creation of
these technologies and institutions.
I suggest that a focus on the ideas of two
prominent leaders of modernization
in both societies, namely Ahmet Mithat
Efendi (1844-1912) and Fukuzawa Yukichi (1835-1901), sheds much light on the
227
Ibrahim
H. OZTURK
disputes
about
propose
change
to compare
well as their
When Japan
advantages
lation
enabled
the
policies.
internal
in pursuing
multiethnic
Thirdly,
Japan
peace
that
required
for incessant
Ottoman
decline.
Turkey
Meiji Japan.
and
are compared,
reforms.
Firstly,
a nation
In this
Western
the
advantages
extent
Tokugawa
figured
it is obvious
the uniformity
in contrast
autonomous
had economic
wars
state,
Secondly,
to pursue
to a certain
was
and
on modernization
system.
Japan
maturity
Turkey
article
I
civilization,
as
that Japan
had
economics.
and Ottoman
permitted
my attained
views
about
her to become
Ottomans
insularity
their
thinking
major
in Ottoman
during
of Japan's
popu-
to the heterogeneity
geographical
and
thus
and independent
as well.
of
political
development
The Japanese
econo-
the two and a half centuries
era,
whereas
the
military
centrally
among
the
factors
of
expenses
leading
to
Ahmet Mithat and Fukuzawa Yukichi
Ahmet Mithat (1844-1912)
Born as the son of a high ranking official in Istanbul, Ahmet Mithat was
educated in Niche and Baghdad. Niche was an Ottoman town in the Balkans
where nationalistic
movements originating
in the West would motivate the
population to seek national independence, and eventually trigger the outbreak of
the First World War. It was in this town that Mithat experienced complicated
and difficult lessons about politics. In Baghdad, he learnt about the orthodox
principles and educational system of Islam from the well-known scholar Sirazli
Muhammed.
Influenced by him, Mithat compared Western and Eastern civilizations with respect to their ethical orientations and their material possessions.
Because he criticised the existing political system, he was exiled to Rhodes.
Supported financially by the books he published in Istanbul, he continued to
write and disseminate his ideas. He established a private school in Rhodes,
Medrese-i Suleymaniye, where he introduced modern education. Forgiven by the
sultan, he returned to Istanbul in 1876 and was appointed director of the official
newspaper Takvim- i vekayi (Chronology of events).
In 1878, he started to
publish the Tercuman-z hakikat (Translator of the truth), which became one of
the most influential newspapers.
As one of the leading figures of the Ottoman enlightenment,
he firmly
criticized and sometimes ridiculed of the existing mentality, attitudes , and
manners of his time. He also vigorously lauded the benefits and superiority of
Western progress. In his writings, he described the conflicted character of the
Ottomans, suffering under the pressure of changes and the ethical collapse of
that time, and plagued by a sense of inferiority vis-a-vis Europeans.
His
228
Two pioneers of modern economic thought in Japan and the
Ottoman Empire : Fukuzawa Yukichi and Ahmet Mithat
"scientifi
c" novel
vations
made
objective
Acaib-i
during
Western
(A strange
mission
world,
to Europe.
his countrymen
offered
1879)
was a novelist
linguistics
with
detailed
and an intellectual
works,
to astronomy,
tried
"Western
to
introduce
written
on
history
encourage
"good"
translations
aspects
was known
to create
developed
of the
to
diverse
ontological
and
about
On the contrary.
economics,
Yukichi
The leading
in Meiji Japan
of nineteen
in the
in Japan.
meaning
these
were
that his main drive
and
needed
Eastern
ethics
had nothing
to learn
needs
about
the material
however,
as
the
prosperity
that
from
an
from the West .
if it learned from Islam,
could only survive
of Western
besides
sciences
such
1859, he switched
of human
beings.
studying
in 1860
and
grew
leading
private
universities.
when
economic,
and
then
the
in 1862.
fame
through
cultural
also
principal
that
institutions
229
at the age
language
with
after
in simple
a more
useful
embassies
founded
his writings.
of
of Commo-
acquainted
this was
University,
into
to Yokohama
shogunate
He later
Keio
he described
became
man
Born
the arrival
Moving
he accompanied
day
in which
he
physics.
present
Yukichi.
he went to Nagasaki
he discovered
Europe
into
he first achieved
in the West,
Dutch,
and
interpreter,
eventually
of Buzen,
Dutch,
as chemistry
which
and the most influential
was Fukuzawa
This was 1854, a year before
to English
As an official
knowledge
service
of learning
foreigners.
In Nagasaki,
However,
Among
on to argue,
of the eternal
in the province
hope
dore Perry
States
activities
to acquire the
translations
in order to
technique
Ottomans
Turks
governmental
family
with
Conditions
that
civilization
popularizer
intercourse
language.
.'
law,
history,
(1835-1901)
outside
a lower samurai
modernist,
He went
its understanding
his
from
knowledge
At the end of his long discourse
the Ottoman
Western
and improved
Western
Turks".3
of Europe.'
to impart
enlightenment.
"Western
to the conclusion
Through
ranging
and La Fontaine.
combining
perspective,
Fukuzawa
Western
of Dumas
by the Anatolian
he came
political,
Ahmed
of Islamic
subjects
he sought
read
as a conservative
a nation
achievements
United
main
things".
"jack-of-all-trades".
many
to medicine,
Ottomans
of the works
Mithat
and
on obser-
Mithat's
comparisons
philosophy,
and education,
and to carry on intellectual
elements
of civilization
(medeniyyet).
He made several
West,
based
civilizations.
Mithat
was
was
In this novel,
familiar
(1889) subsequently
two-hundred-odd
He
his first
was to make
Metin ve Sirzad
alem
a school
one
of the
to the
in Edo
Japan's
In 1869 he published
and
of the Occident,
clear
making
terms
plain
the
his
Ibrahim H. OZTURK
preference
lowed in
for the British parliamentary
form of government.
the next
decade
with a number
of other
books,
encouragement
language
of learning,
which
he used in his books
from
the countryside
from
the next
Due
should
room
established
was
more
greater
In this
on the
book,
daily
he informed
and
knowledge.
Fifteen
(Sixth
holding
Year
public
At the time
when
code of morals.
Japanese
modern
was confined
science
into
the country
Fukuzawa's
system
death,
they
defeat
China
men.
was born,
remarkable.
funeral
These
all available
from
the
could
biographical
forms
Western
joined
the trading
Japan
he made
a far
such
as
information
was
navy
were
the
on
growing
notes
illustrate
how
books
state
in 1905.
which
found
with
both
was
modernization.
Mithat
plays,
They
a
and distinguished
and
His funeral
their
a parliament,
equipped
writes
can hold responsible
very personal
power
mourners,
of
By the time of
Blacker
Fukuzawa
isolated
on a Confucian
and knowledge
industries,
novels,
230
entirely
at Nagasaki.
the life of the great
of writing-newspapers,
but influential
based
so well-disciplined
as 10,000
suited
was almost
a modern
we
the
to spread
him in 1873 in founding
had a brief
of Dutch
latter
better
undertook
system
station
rapidly
of
Fukuzawa
sciences
any
were medieval,
in 1885, and Russia
forerunners
book
a magazine.
Japan
of warfare
and as many
have
hardly
which
He died in 1901 from a stroke.
of 1500 students
this
as such
positivism,
feudal
to the trickle
Among
up :
West.
Western
was
leaders
[F]or
these
astonishing
changes
impersonal
forces of history
and
individual
and
to her
systems.
notions
and
sums
of the
about
there
and publishing
education,
Her army
would
Japanese
but
a hierarchical
however,
are read
time.'
intellectual
through
of compulsory
universities.
with
The
woman
comprehensive,
intellectual,
of Meiji Society)
Fukuzawa
world,
they
Blacker
and
of 19th century
lectures
from the outside
way
the
gunnery,
as a true believer
the Meirokusha
existence,
of his
life and governmental
Fukuzawa,
Western
people
when
interpreters
a pure
copies.'
an "uneducated
Carmen
so simple
foremost
than
because
words
door."
was
of the
of a popularizer
medicine,
Western
which
as one
impact
chemistry,
the paper
style,
him
the
folThe
sold over 700,000
simple
understand
through
to its literary
is said to have
was very
Fukuzawa
including
one
that
:
both
the
of certain
of
the
procession
all on foot.
most
consisted
No style
of
philosopher.'
and
and
Fukuzawa
translations
praised
the
utilized
made
merits
of
entrepreneurship
and
civilization.
private
They
schools,
countries.
and
and
thus
to discuss
Empire
and
from
life.
daily
was
the
geography
with
recent
views
into
by
establishing
practice
education
and
history
of
in their
own
several
high
at
and
about
He did not
but
preferred
Mithat
himself
try
had
not
Empire,
civilization
rate
partly
shaped
This
in an
taken
and
his
main
to the Ottoman
understanding
as to the
in the
illustrations
developments
as well
their
West
a scholar,
in his youth.
throughout
whereas
his arguments
to use
a deeper
scholarly
literacy
the
instead,
technical
Mithat
low
to prove
was
and
comprehensive,
The
of information
to Fukuzawa
Western
philosophically
superficially.
Western
Ottoman
more
and
was
knowl-
probably
close
contacts
due
that
to
the
history.
as viewed
by
Ahmet
Mithat
and
Yukichi
Just
as their
Mithat's
and
Fukuzawa
universe,
initial
goals
Fukuzawa's
in exploring
views
believed
that there
and that
civilizations
progress.
Fukuzawa
on
the
the
West
nature
overlap
exactly,
also
differed.
of civilization
were heaven-made
start
did not
laws (tennen no teisoku)
from a primitive
level and mature
Eventually
all civilizations
converge
to one and the
believed that Western civilization
was the most advanced
it conformed
Clearly,
closely
like rivers.
it was thus
while
Fukuzawa
meaningless
retaining
saw their
was not Western
rejected
on the other
hand,
He distinguished
moral
values.
Western
he argued
between
he advocated
that
Western
didn't
231
mean,
For
achieve-
of course,
rather,
that
he
ideal progress.
the universality
and
the progressive
this did not entail
were
believed
material
conventions;
the material
emulating
of nations
of civilization.
to universal
denied
universal-
at all. Fukuzawa
of ancient
contribution
vehemently
This
same form.
in his time
to Comtean
dimensions
of accepting
sharply
While
moral
the relevance
to their
sions of civilizations.
civilization,
and
to speak
Japanese
role as confined
Mithat,
owed much
in the
as they
laws.
was like a sea and the contributions
of the material
completely
of heaven-made
of civilization
In this sense, civilization
in the inseparability
civilization.
to the principles
his understanding
For him, civilization
ments,
progress
disciplined
more
that
Europe
and
Fukuzawa
him
case,
compared
Modernization
ism.
and
of private
was
lack
it seems
of the
had
because
development
philosophy,
more
manner,
to introduce
West
Ottomans
much
matters
In any
However,
of the
in the
pioneerss
knowledge.
or scholarly
edge
their
Fukuzawa
people's
intellectual
Empire.
became
were
of spreading
concern
to put
economics,
to Mithat,
tended
his way
able
taught
His analyses
Ottoman
enterprise
universities.
Compared
oriented.
Mithat
were
They
schools
individual
abandoning
of Western
moral
dimen-
elements
the spiritual
of
Ibrahim
H.
and
OZTURK
moral
daily
life,
elements
of Islamic
he
to
correlation
tried
between
eliminate
that
backwardness
Khaldun,
and
the
of the
positivism,
had
an
the
individuals,
and
In the
views
second
of
the
Fukuzawa
wars,
West,
this
second
Mithat
of volume
markets
views
outside
major
illustrate
of Europe.
Western
join the world
This
in which
the
countries,
trading
to the
internal
Comtean
the
flaws,
progress
that
This
unidirectional
that
present
but
was
could
bring
civilization
the basic
to maximize
the
was
principle
of
self-interest
of
difficult.
Yukichi
renounced
pessimistic
history
was
his optimistic
one.
composed
Like
Mithat,
of continuous
principles
on economics
period
products
worldwide
and
countries
order
the
trade
on
which
Japanese
that
large
age.
the
of a new
both
in
and overseas
But there
was
of imperialism
within
by the Ottoman
state to the
agreement
on the periphery
during
tremendously
of the industrial
given
shaped
the emergence
grew
required
expansion
concessions
as passive
were
witnessed
world
Mass production
The 1838 trade
how major
process.
of economics
to these
to
this
of the
non-humanitarian
views
order,
be open
resistance
turn
Western
argued
a radically
the
any
that
more
civilizations
based.
and value.
should
emerging
life
Western
Mithat's
economic
relative
to Ibn
implied
Western
competition
makes
half of the 19th century.
international
to
similar
contrary
vision
from
values.
reflected
and
was
He did not
a view
reverse
view
law.
provided
that
and Mithat's
Fukuzawa's
not
desired
adopted
was
concern
for the
peaks,
only
Hegelian
of his life, Fukuzawa
argue
civilization
Fukuzawa's
only
main
responsible
can
cyclical
arose
merely
and
to
that
European
this
period
came
and
was
from
a one-to-one
Europeans.
their
not
historical
they
his
adopted
reaching
to the
civilization
that
Mithat
Mithat's
of a general
West
were
was
counter
Ottoman-Islamic
materialistic
Yet
taken
wasn't
vis-a-vis
or precautions
civilizations
happiness
with
after
civilizations.'
Islamic
examples
society.
policies
ran
on
there
moral.
or conventions
that
of
it also
instance
Ottomans
enriched
no
evolution
of
simply
argued
and
of the
weakness
elements
lifespan
that
of inferiority
of civilizations,
but
evolution
feelings
Islamic
decline,
terms
material
the
who
toward
the
readers
of Ottoman
Regarding
view
his
the
traditional
Drawing
convince
his contrymen's
believe
civilization.
with
were forced
America
by central
and
of 1854
powers
to
partners.
Mithat and economics
Although he was not an economist, Mithat wrote on the subject, and tried to
put his ideas into practice.'
He held that the "principles"
232
of economics cannot be
regarded
as universal,
believed
that
mathematical
science
of
economics
models,
these
models
and that the economic
Unlike
Fukuzawa,
economics;
no
Moreover,
the
of mathematics
the
or econometric
dependent,
same.
like those
although
single
set
the principles
physical
world.
organization
particularly
eventually
to the
model
had
to be created
urged
that
this model
situation
of endless
wars
and
levels
high
strength
rather,
he blamed
policies
Ottoman
intellectuals
realities
policies.
guided
and so one couldn't
For Mithat,
count
of the empire;
process
before
policy
the small
that the political
ratification
Ottoman
open
and economic
agriculture,
[E]ven
industry.
policies
argued
economy
bir cevelan
convincingly
was
and even hometrade
factories
established
this
This was a period
with
rights.
a
by our glorious
233
on
style"
package.
economic
of a reliable
a liberal
would
existed.
Mithat
argued
became
clear after
undermined
Mithat's
politik
the
existing
criticism
(Political
of
economy,
1889).
protectionist
He states
;
industry
that one of the preconditions
to
insistence
"Frankish
Pursuing
I shall discuss
in Europe,
directly
for
of 1838, which
Ekonomi
from
needs of the country,
of the Ottomans
(Strolling
the sultan
the infrastructure
had previously
deficit
financial
derived
reform
foundations
on his books
little
for the present
established.
Mithat
the Ottoman
for their
solid
treaty
adherence
Since
argued,
a reliable
In the following,
based
model.
These
been
weakness
it enabled
such as a trade
the particular
to
led
reflected
Mithat
unsuitable
that
of the empire,
view
problems,
efforts,
that
of the Anglo-Ottoman
1880) and Avrupa'da
Ottoman
base
needs
approach
This
economic
the government
were
yet
of
to the
precisely.
he did not accuse
strennous
hadn't
was
more
of inferiority.
establishing
problems.
the workings
relativistic
the Ottomans
to develop
polices
all
be generalized
making,
of these,
to assess
on them
industrial
domestic
economic
Mithat
Most
feelings
despite
economic
left
outside
laissez-faire
from
cannot
This
economic
However
by
solve
of the 19th century.
which
were unable
industrialization
destroy
severe
intellectuals
economic
would
to the specific
projects.
economic
laws of
of Mithat's
be protectionist.
burden,
context
all be the
problems
in the last two decades
of debt
and
needn't
of an Ottoman
and confronted
countries
be derived
to policy
according
must
relative
He
complex
systems.
their
establishment
for longterm
misguided
regard
define
sciences.
involve
were no heaven-made
of physics
consequences
with
to
were
tools
cannot
is, the laws
and its economic
intellectuals
economic
and
of economics
One of the most important
Ottoman
that there
natural
may
of different
argued
of policies
That
of society
economics,
policies
Mithat
or the
that
ancestors
for the survival
policy
in
of
industry,
in the industrial
were shut down.
sector,
Now
Ibrahim
H.
OZTURK
we had to import
fez (Ottoman
All
this
everything,
style hat) which
produced
Financing
this
Eventually,
the resources
Public
of the state.
of the empire.
Aside
from its political
this policy
were
competitive
improve
money,
employed
human
channels
repercussions,
Infant
industries
Ottomans
economic
conditions,
in the domestic
industry
to work
Such inferior
do not, of course,
but
crushed
also
jobs, which
contribute
chance
short
Thus,
and horsemen
of
by the very
in the
jobs.
to the
results
lost their
lost their
as porters
threat
and economic
were
of
were also left
and
not only
and
the integration
challenge
the social
sustainable.
by controlling
financial
an explicit
of payment.
proclaimed
base to Europe,
in Istanbul.
capital,
was
receivables
with
was
that we wear.
not
together
they were compelled
of rich foreigners
was
Administration
their
(kibrit), the
balance
abroad
of the West.
longterm
and
that
devastating.
industries
their
workers
Debt
meant
this
sovereignty
from
and matches
and the shirts
trade
to collect
This
manufacturing
Unfortunately,
in
borrowing
by the foreigners
stones
our heads,
deficits
by
the Ottoman
the empire's
covers
perpetual
deficit
was controlled
to them.
even pavement
to
term,
to earn
in the service
do not require
to the productive
skilled
capacity
of
local industry.
Unfortunately,
foreign
trade
agricultural
the situation
and industry.
surplus,
in the agricultural
We have
but started
of the
recovery
forever
policies.
When
West,
in case
to import
we consider
In European
activities
there, whereas,
reasons
and became
societies.
from their
Is it an exaggeration
that
that
hundreds
millionaires,
they have
in the country.
did they?
extracted
trade
abroad,
trade
to argue
there.
to
that
they were vagabonds
such an amazing
one
came
to
in their own
amount
it in our country.
liras for every
trade
this constitutes
of foreigners
thousands
imply
and buying
but also domestic
then if the principles
234
selling
and
earned
liberal
absent
is used
wealth?
bring
ten Ottoman
It is self-evident
we are totally
under
of our national
though
They
food of the
for agricultural
to Europe
of foreign
not only foreign
They did not, or course,
countries,
however,
our
With such a primitive
commercialized
modern
opportunity
who are going
for the collapse
It is well-known
Istanbul
trade,
the
as in
to export
flour, the most basic
integration
concept
people
in our country,
is done by foreigners.
of the major
the
native
lose
of an early
foreign
textbooks,
of their
we might
is as dark
not only lost the chance
people, from Russia and other foreign
countries.
agriculture
compared
with the mechanized
and
agriculture
sector
of money
This
means
one lira they invested
of political
economy
are going
to be supported,
a perpetually
this
underdeveloped
trade,
and
Based
on this assessment
championed
unskilled
thought
in the West,
member
of this
transition
and
emerging
competing
mentality
to
society
It
is
known
in
considered
one
time
money.
money,
that
the
West
of the
List, a
protectionist
policies,
and
become
and
interna-
to the world
economic
lead to loss of employment
in
to deindustrialization."
of his readers
to a more dramatic
a short
term.
The most important
of the people
in changing
about
periods
to
the
leisure
and
people's
handicap
working,
to hard
this
work.
Europeans
of
entrepreneur-
in
reorganization
their
long
hours
ignorance
manufacturing,
towards
hard
work.
fact
that
there
is no "free
this
lack
of awareness
employment
has
contributing
directly
come
People
on the
part
to be considered
to the
national
shows
no
that
be known
marketing
the
because
a chance
are
people
should
and
favor
to make
a
to
our
are
first
earning
for either
infrastructure
not
aware
or hereafter.
who
try
in
the basis
ethical
they
world
people
we
abroad
to establish
is
earning
working.
Turkish
that
and
they
difference
product.12
235
reason,
and
in this
of lazy
this
the
there
and
for leisure
unable
work
either
work,
makes
or reorienting
shirk
lunch"
of
working
For
is
even
in production
even
by
been
thus
desire
of time
of production
loss
have
Time
and
Without
however,
we have
any
leisure.
habits
Revolution.
of production,
understanding
happy
between
working
Industrial
working.
It must,
Unfortunately,
and
to prevent
European
and
of
first
aspects
to have
loss
not
the
calculated
balance
Implicitly,
after
are
an optimum
country.
organization
crucial
it is impossible
money.
of
of industrial
difficulty
most
Unfortunately,
defeat
schools
Frederick
: the
business
between
used
major
recovery
within
According
connection
with
Mithat
policies
money.
progressed
shortest
economic
in a period
integration
and thus
was the ignorance
ship, and earning
the
economic
in the empire,
mature
can only
in the country
and psychology
Ottoman
find
Any kind of free trade
also tried to call the attention
obstacle
they
controlled
the
of history.
follow
until
this maturity
industry,
about
countries
capital,
of unemployment.10
consistent
must
industries
achieving
industries
Mithat
chronic
unity
of domestic
situation
school
that
outflow
levels
views
were
urged
political
competitive.
before
his
as the German
had
lacking
high
of the economic
countries
such
the
collapsed
with
In fact,
school,
domestic
tionally
system
capital
protectionism.
for underdeveloped
imply
agriculture,
human
suitable
shelter
would
shirking,
money
of the
Because
of
official
without
Ibrahim
H. OZTURK
Western
factured
powers
goods
were
of the West.
and military
weapons,
development,
in turn
make
and
save
Ottomans
then,
Administration?
Mithat's
Because
the
What
ports
the products
of their
own
interpretation
of the
the
source
blamed
of modern
of this
religion.
and
own
Ottoman
either
civilization
without
civilization
over
wealth
through
Prophet
Mohammed
engaged
in commerce
working
and reliance
to diagnose
the
this
that followed
earlier
it had become
sustainable
clear
unless
stemmed
victories
over
that
victory
they
That
was why Ottoman
hope
of learning
Basic pillars
Because
society
model
Mithat's
substitution
ideas
model
countries
in cultural
economic
suggested
government
would
industry
would
however,
does not imply that
be protected
simply
saving,
didn't
trading,
development
(ISI), which
apply
relies
via
subsidies
import
duties
he was advocating
236
battlefield.
with
considering
: the
to the Ottoman
the
on domestic
the
who
liberal
case.
of the West."
notion
of
market
opportuni-
protective
policies;
to
induce
investments,
and
higher
a permanent
the
for the Ottoman
and risk taking
resemble
not be
intellectuals
Empire
impossible
the use of conventional
provide
and
Ottoman
it was
of course,
to the West
one of the first
for the
heritage,
prosperity
would
in the economic
looked
history
According
material
in his time
became
of protectionism
industrialization
He typically
experiences
the consumption,
of
and fortified
the
was
encouraged
activities.
in battlefield
and officials
Mithat
even
By the late 19th century,
economic
dramatic
that
money
look at recent
and
enemies
achievements.
nothing
making
and Qur'an
economic
material
of Western
of differences
to initiate
oriented
benefits
over
intellectuals
of the empire,
the
economic
the
the West.
was
He argued
the contentment
were reinforced
of the Ottoman
needs
advocated
any
from their
By observing
specific
from
for the
against
in trade, and he himself
One must thus
that slighted
of
ap-
in promoting
there
against
Both the Prophet
on one's own income.
change
trade.
involved
role
that
inherently
and/or
a rich woman
in mentality
positive
He believed
worked
for some years.
the change
to Mithat,
which
production
married
Islam's
centuries.
in Islam or the Ottomans
or gaining
ties.
considering
the
Debt
Some
rejected
proach, and criticized
the proponents
of this antireligious
perspective
lazy superficiality
of their analysis.
They were also being cruel, turning
their
the
Public
ignorance?
explicitly
to
ignorance,
Ottoman
Ottoman
Mithat
armies
industrial
and the desire
laziness
foreigners.
to the manu-
of modern
level entrepereneurship,
by productive
true
was
contemporanies
their
were able to do so because
of high
governed
was
to open
were themselves
a result
money.
Ottomans
They
which
were being
What,
forcing
tariff
income
sectorand
rates.
This,
protectionism.
We
can
infer
could
from
cause
his writings
in terms
It is argued
adversely
of both
that
industrialists
their
dependence.
aim
industries
rejected
capital
and
choose
lower
duties
the
most
protectionism.
protectionism",
key intermediary
technology
rational
took
The future
essential
and
makes
way
costs,
which
also be very
of their
hazard-
heavy
import-
self-sufficiency
and when
In our glorious
the sayings
Like Mithat,
to our
be
and
the
rates,
services,
rest
with
the
magnified
protection
goods
for
country
would
uniform
premiums
Mithat
advocated
the domestic
seriously
and
we
and
had
assign
of imports,
that
an "optimum
industrial
base
and
believed
that
while
through
policy, this objective could
was also key to regaining
and nation
is
rate of
fostering
factories
among
past we produced
only
instead
themselves...
: "Certainly
when
of buying
our
them
We can trust
our own swords
from the holy Qur'an
domestic
be achieved in a
parity with the
will be guaranteed
in domestic
they compete
them
and
come
then,
account the country's
import dependence
in
This type of protectionism,
he believed, was
weapons
weapons.
with
not
because
protection,
dependency
clear that
to preserve
from abroad,
our
and inscribed
we (God) will offer
victory."16
economics
Fukuzawa
on books
States.
of European
in the country.
produce
United
protection
15
industrialists
based
would
, permanent
importable
higher
of our civilization
you a great
was
entry
due to higher
This
of applying
protection
and a rational regulation
short time. For him, self-sufficiency
"infidel" Western imperialists
:
Fukuzawa
the
(presumably)
would
import
one that took into
and final goods.
investment
Mithat
that
efficiency.
impossible
this idea of total
Instead
to them,
The last statement
foreign
productive
power.
because
Our
increasingly.
better
the most
distortions
protectionism,
becomes
competitive
of manufacturing.
selective
and
of the
14
firmly
deepen
aware
of heavy
to our market
affect
European
he was
allocative
in case
ous for domestic
Mithat
that
was not an economist.
he read during
Fukuzawa
his official
introduced
the
237
His knowledge
mission
basic
of economics
to the France
works
of major
and
the
Western
Ibrahim
H.
OZTURK
philosophers
major books
history,
such as Adam Smith, David
which affected Fukuzawa's
Quackenbos'
legislation,
Natural
philosophy,
J. S. Mill's Considerations
It is interesting
elements
to note
of political
Ricardo, and John
views were Peter
that
on representative
made
economy
J. Bentham's
Fukuzawa
Principle
of morals
government
made
a compulsory
Stuart Mill. Other
Parley's
Universal
and On liberty."
Francis
textbook
in
and
Wayland's
the
school
The
that
he
founded.
Since his views
ideas
about
Early
Western
on, before
Fukuzawa
spoke
optimism
pervaded
Fukuzawa
he had
very
it is useful
much
firsthand
optimistically
than in terms
world
was
He reasoned
every
enjoying
nation
is under
the beauty
praying
takes
freedom
under
After
to have
asserting
explains
and
this
had
spontaneously
the
basis
elements.
Since the laws
to this order.
ahead
pioneered
in the
of universal
also confirm
laws of economics,
the
same
in
of any
other
discovering
and
specifically
heavens,
moon,
the principle
sharing
by
the same
sentiments.
the same
ocean,
of
if there
for two men to harm
The rational
reason.
she
the
and
its principles
country.
didn't
.
even
Fukuzawa
238
possess
with
the world
to
an under-
people
...18
Fukuzawa
of a household,
glorious
the Japanese
people
and "competition"
guides
in things
countries
she associates
of economics,
the management
and
for
two, or for
principle
Externally
internally
to learn
individuals
is that :
is no reason
each other.
Both
sun,
breathing
Basic principle
of all ... because
and independence
have
illumined
is no reason
the universality
an independent
arise
on
and experimen-
there
law;
The Japanese
Restoration,
"economics"
civilization,
to harm
on natural
international
Economics
they
of numbers...
of freedom
that
progressed
the same human
another,
account
based
standing
world.
that
of the same
or ten million
no
two stages.
aspects",
mathematical
should
had
for the happiness
one man to harm
a million
into
in his
:
the same air, possessing
mutually
those
of Western
or regional
Japan
countries
to the heaven-made
laissez-faire.
...
the
European
laws
of national
are the same everywhere,
conforming
them
"enlightening
be elucidated
why
in
to separate
like other
must
The
countries
parallelling
knowledge
to the heaven-made
economics
of economics
reason
changes
of its
that economics,
belongs
rather
underwent
his ideas on economics.
Therefore,
principles,
economics
civilization,
argued
tal sciences,
world.
about
then
and how it works
Yet
know
defined
of a country,
at the
time
the meanings
describes
his
it.
and
of the
if they
wish
of the
Meiji
of the terms
country's
position
towards
modern
translator
economics
in 1859 during
Officials
They
had no knowledge
must
money
have
should
the minds
locker,
makes
mentality
... for some
coins
in Europe
value
than
We could
as an official
profiting
coins
foreign
heavily
Fukuzawa
agents
that,
another
time.
Chamber's
book
certain
official
the
interested
and wanted
when
equivalent
literally
in
I came
in Japanese,
"race-fight".
the
and
When
silver
is a terrible
the
-"That
is exactly
how
When
one
him a translation.
"competition"
I was obliged
official
239
the
When
Western
the Japanese
were
the economic
Japanese
of everyday
bureau
new ," I replied.
what all Japanese
less
system!
of the ports,
to underline
and
economic
I spoke
day,
saw
merchants
European
interactions.
of the book to a
he became
I began
there
are doing
it,
was
no
of my own,
my translation,
It is such
much
translating
for which
to use an invention
much more impressed.
Then he said suddenly,
-"Here is the word `fight' . What does it mean?
word! "
-"That is nothing
more
the tool.
bias against
opening
observation
on economics.
the
and the tool
of much
with
of
of the
gold coins."
reflects
word
day as it
in our economic
content
since
me to show
upon
was
on the
the weight
the coins
were
error
ever
treasury
light
that
to manufacture
there
in their perceptions
I was reading
high
and
striking
Such
that the weight
while
then
a terrible
His observation
differed
realized
pounds
coins
Japanese
sheds
the money
Yet both
the coins
gold
traders,
by exporting
mentions
in the
economic
Japan's
coins, I realized
therefore
What
which
I suddenly
pounds.
down
a storm.
ago."
carry
or eight
The
time.
agent.
a servant
metal-copper.
object.
years
remark
at that
on the voyage,
of coins had been placed
loose during
economic
two or three
by melting
the
countries'
interesting
orders
be necessary
amount
forty
of small coins.
the metal
profit
I compared
warriors
I was having
was only
of the same
mentality
So a huge
I paid was seven
were
or money
would
and they had broken
number
which
fire holder
coin,
along.
another
reasons
credit
as money
of a nonwestern
was in a great
those
that,
of our professional
Fukuzawa
economic
of foreign
thought
be carried
in the captain's
and
his mission
:
he appeared
an unpeaceful
and
this
is the
Ibrahim
H.
OZTURK
fundamentals
of the
world
explaining
the
content
convinced,
but
he could
the
"I
Western
understand
affairs?"
being
.
kind
open
This
means
considering
obtaining
that
and
to explain
there
rather
have
seen
such
some
in
seemed
effort
such
to be
with
in Western
phrases
or a man's
of national
deal
as being
was
collaboration.
be characterized
much
man would
premises
and
is too
in times
Japanese
societal
successful
official
his dissatisfaction
on economics,
a merchant
is to say, economics
cohesion
might
think
in a book
from
I became
The
relations.
an ordinary
That
social
conception
other'
Eventually
competition.
himself
you
he would
to each
ethical
not take
don't
generosity
to others.
term
of economic
But
I suppose
lord,
kind
style
commerce."
of the
Against
loyalty
stress,
with
helpful,
considered
as `men
to his
etc.21
economics
generous,
by
and
as an instrument
this view,
as one that understands
in
the European
economic
intercourse
as an end in itself, and not as a means.
Fukuzawa
interest
West.
and
sought
knowledge
He reasoned
regarded
trade
and
samurai
should
money.
He recounts
...
to give
in Japan
that
other
in spending
I do not
old idea
in my
principles
to engage
of the
mind,
samurai
but
that
of business,
that
trade
mentality,
as bad,
because
independence,
matters,
in the
I was
in buying
samurai
of
in the
which
a brave
and not with
:
of money
money,
mean
lack
as was it understood
with his country's
reminiscences
indifferent.
inclination
for the dramatic
activities
in his autobiography
to my
general
economics
moneymaking
only be concerned
to return
the
about
explanation
this was due to the classical
scrupulous
of
a plausible
not
art
or selling,
was
of making
informed,
but
not
I was
that
lending
our
money
or that
simply
very
I had
I had
careful
I was
indeed
knowledge
no
or borrowing.
proper
and
occupation
taste
or
Also
the
prevailed
I suppose."
Fukuzawa's characterizations
of Japanese psychology were highly derisive ;
declaring himself as a true follower of enlightened
positive philosophy, he
attacked traditional teachings and ways of thought.
He contributed much to
turning people away from old ideas. He justified economic activities directed
towards earning and accumulating money, by appealing to their importance for
the country's independence and sovereignty-the
latter being cornerstones of
samurai ideology. He presented it as a national responsibility
to engage in
business and accumulate
capital, for these were the means to strengthen
Japanese
industrial
and military
power, and increase
240
national wealth.
In other
words,
he
sought
interactional
redefine
economic
Needless
with
to
national
in
the
context
of an
world.
to say, Fukuzawa's
the Smithian
responsibility
philosophy
view
of private
of heaven-made
property
was
also consistent
laws.
[I] t (property
ownership)
is inherent
not only in man but is a characteristic
which all living things possess naturally.
Thus the bird's private ownership
of its nest is like a man's of his house.
by that of man.
of human
there
in human
concentrate
Fukuzawa
efforts
As a result,
and personal
to world
peace
brotherhood
matically
in his
Fukuzawa
began
later
the right
and
harshly
As
to pursue
activities
motivations
it, individuals
for which
they
on the basis
of labor,
laissez-faire
will
are
best
of private
in turn, will contribute
ideology
of Western
civilization
his knowledge
to criticize
acceptance
But
dependency.
the West,
of economic
about
and
liberalism,
the
changed
West
he renounced
the
political
dra-
increased,
his previous
ideal
of a com-
of nations.
Earlier,
Fukuzawa
had lauded
the notion
saw in it a vision of "teaching
each other
nor
fulfilling
the
needs
Later,
he
admitted
boastful,
each
happiness
of all...."
principles
of such
communities.
of people
that
was one of the inherent
appreciation
years.
In the case
complications.
nature."
This division
mutual
optimistic
and
of labor will emerge
capabilities.
The end of universal
from
particular
division
by increasing
Fukuzawa's
is given
from basic principles.
conditions
believed,
on the
a global
property
munity
do not stem
If everybody
their
unquestioning
are manifold
they
property,
being.
and losses all follow
there
are no reason
Holding
suited.
Gains
property
A nest is built by a bird's labor, a house
together
these
invoking
There
view
persistent
happening
other,
that
were
powerful
feelings
Fukuzawa
relations
at present
are based
we leave
mutually
praying
been
would
bias in favor
on nothing
theory
in international
241
and
relations,
which
The
but
not
bind
groups
be dispelled
a look
simply
his position
quarrels
at what
for
to think
by
:
of one's own nation.
more than
take
for the
he confessed,
clarified
for he
ashamed
mistaken.
individuals,
It was ridiculous,
principle.
When
neither
had
for
of nations,
together,
the sentiments
and
and irrational
he
relevant
to eradicate
moral
is an inherent
profit.
of the
into clans or nations.
a universal
international
and
a global
It was impossible
of a community
and learning
over
In fact
power
is actually
we are astounded
to find
Ibrahim
H.
that
OZTURK
practice
bears
us to sit back
Western
no relation
and
wait
countries
whatever
for the
have
day
with
when
already
the
war
greatly
theory.
will
Moralists
cease,
developed
but
may
tell
as I see in the
their
military
tech-
niques.24
This radical
conclude
change
that
Fukuzawa
civilizations.
abandoned
He continued
explained
on
the
basis
Fukuzawa,
hovewer,
laissez-faire
policies
imperialistic
expansion.
He
in views of universal
came
interested
his positivist
to believe
that
of universal
revised
brotherhood
his
conclude
stance
policies
of world
that
about
of the
interest.
mic policy
economic
strongly
of economics
the
appropriateness
powers
were
prescription,
one must
He didn't
as Mithat.
countries
analyzed
day Japanese
and
He pointed
carefully,
protectionism
increase
share
capital
accumulation
efforts
to establish
sidered
the first
exports
rather
prevention
states
would
defend
was
clearly
and
make
than
attempt
to create
imports.
resembles
the Industrial
Clearly,
the
self-
to justify
this
because it enabled
to protect its own
any
the country's
econolevel of
policies
of competing
with
as
other
to the Japanese.
in domestic
ultimate
an export
development
of
the seeds of the present-
The
of an "outward-oriented
their
in preparing
competition
achieve
at a time
liberalism
unfamiliar
contained
countries.
of pure
the protectionist
danger
totally
and guided
other
abroad
serious
policy
before
his stance
vis-a-vis
market
which
of mitigated
that
be
sciences.
pursuing
into consideration
however,
out the potential
in a game
strategy
take
decided
of
should
physical
like Japan
and were using
Fukuzawa
development.
European
When
Like Mithat,
evolution
other
pursuit.
In other words, Europeans
promoted
liberal ideology
them to exploit less developed
countries.
Japan thus needed
national
not lead one to
like
country
Western
imperialism,
vision
the science
elements,
in an underdeveloped
to
should
objective
surplus;
possible.
markets
was
the
to
resulting
Fukuzawa's
endless
economic
system"
may
an economic
approach
that
favored
promotion
and
import
of the
strong
nation
this
export
mercantilist
strategies
be con-
Revolution.
Conclusion
Both
country
of
in the
an
and
creation
enlightened
scientific
them
Fukuzawa
inquiry,
shared
foreigners,
and
it was
Mithat
the
of a spiritually
land
and
saw
should
enthusiasm
emphasized
essential
key
to an independent
independent
possess
national
for economic
the
to spread
same
idea
the
spirit
242
citizenry.
and
enlightened
For them
consciousness,
activities.
: to defend
In this
their
of independence,
a
respect,
countries
so that
citizens
spirit
of
both
of
against
noble
and
humble,
high
and low, clever
country
as their
model
shift
away
of civilization
civilization,
stupid
own responsibility,
The two differed,
a radical
and
in their
from
classical
based
religion,
on natural
or other
would
and would
however,
the
alike
play their
visions
values
proposed
towards
by contrast,
of the
as citizens.
Fukuzawa
tradition
laws; Mithat
the fate
parts
of the past.
Chinese
traditional
consider
a Western
did not blame
for present
his
backwardness
and
decline.
In the
initial
Fukuzawa
stages
of his intellectual
exploration
of Western
civilization,
held that :
• there
is a natural
• natural
order
in the universe
laws of science
• ethical
norms
are inherent
are also grounded
• man is the part
• an ideal social
of this order
system
in this order
in this order
and is thus
is one which
moral
completely
in character
conforms
to this cosmic
order
It must
emulate
be stressed
Westerners
that
because
closer to the ideal order
because
This ideal order
to the laws inherent
of economics,
like other
be explained
social sciences,
by the same
principles.
over the world,
the principles
the
regardless
way,
did not
imply
they were Westerners
of men.
they conformed
same
Fukuzawa
per se, but because
of nationality,
propensities
contribute
geography,
was
they
to
were
by Europeans
world.
to the physical
As human
must
his ideal
had been created
in the physical
conforms
of economic
that
The science
order
and must
are the same
all
to our happiness
and
even
historical
in
ex-
periences-that
is, culture.
Japanese people will be happier under the same sun
with all the other nations of the world, aligning themselves
with the principles
of
universal
brotherhood.
In his later
though
he retained
years,
Fukuzawa
his belief in Western
biography,
he openly
positivism,
suggestions
and misunderstanding
to his countrymen
apologized
• the logic of science
• morality
changed
(which
his optimistic
positivist
of the
West,
At the end of his
for relying
too heavily
on
the role of religion and tradition.
His final
arguably
converged
with Mithat's early ideas :
found
in modern
he had completely
enlightenment,
philosophy.
to his countrymen
civilization
ignored
life) and national spirit are also necessary
• the sources
of morality
and national
Western
views
but in tradition
243
is necessary
and dismissed
to Japan
earlier
in his
to strengthen
Japan internally
spirit are to be found not in
Ibrahim
H.
OZTURK
• Japanese
should
principles
fill their
of samurai
morality
without
create
a nation
country
tradition,
religion
because
: if Japanese
on the
fealty and chivalric
with the spirit
basis
honor
it
of loyalty
is difficult
succeed
of a "unique
as one of the
to maintain
in this project,
combination
with the material
they
will
of feudalistic
efficiency
given
by modern
technology"
Albert
Craig
summarizes
[H]is early
movement
utopian
writings were the backbone
of the civilization
of the 1870s ... During these years Fukuzawa
vision
of what
the Japanese
nation
ought
and enlightenment
possessed
a liberal,
to become
and
what
its
proper relations
with other nations in the world ought to be. But by the
beginning
of the 1880s this ideal was scrapped.
Fukuzawa
had come to see
the world
weak
their
Based
kind-that
of history
To
ravening
a proponent
Western
in the
Secondly,
state, and a champion
of the
fittest".
of Japanese
Comte's
teachings
as the final stage and ultimate
But he later determined
they
his
value
systems
West.
They
early
view
spiritual
that
that
must
also
the
also
shared
that
should
army,
For Fukuzawa,
of society;
for the sake
goal
the end
continue
then, Europe
for Mithat,
backwardness
of the
and political
modernizing
Europe
represented
power
reforms,
a means
Although
of their
states,
both
the
to work
be used,
modern
ethical
and
and protected.
institutions,
Europeans.
organiza-
Fukuzawa
according
reto the
his naive belief in universal
ideology of "strong nation
for achieving
of overcoming
aimed
and foster
the two held radically
244
must
both
barbarians."
was an instrument
Ottomans.
West,
around
that
be retained
of the
of the
of expelling
of science
idea
should
principles
of positivist
methodology,
but renounced
brotherhood.
In the end he promoted
a nationalistic
strong
to the
be modified
the
superiority
independence
Japan
journeys
the fruits
civilizations
also admired
and
intellectual
convinced
of their respective
mentality,
through
the
of the autocratic
civilization
of their
became
traditional
values
economic
and
advocate
of "survival
by the end
and Mithat
that
spiritual
with
predators
had not yet arrived.
developments
tained
were
life as a radical
is "the end of history".
conclude,
Fukuzawa
tions,
he ended
philosophy
him to accept
of human
the strong
victims.25
and colonialism,
Spencerian
persuaded
and
hapless
in which
on this experience,
imperialism
of the
as jungle
to
greater
different
the ideal order
the material
strengthen
social
outlooks
the
cohesion
by the
end of 19th century.
most powerful
political
Treaty
By the early
actors
influence
declaration
in world politics,
and
of Sevres
20th century
the
in the
of Ottoman
whereas
integrity
immediate
failure,
of its constituent
exposing
however,
that modernization
and
Ottoman
post-independence
Kemal Ataturk,
Empire
ethnic
of the
First
is a continous
modernization
efforts
among
the
lost both
its
elements.
World
it as a "semi-colonized"
discrete
that
was considered
the Ottoman
aftermath
be emphasized,
event,
Japan
War
state.
process
a
It should
rather
carried
The
was
through
war of the Turks in Anatolia under the leadership
founder of the Turkish Republic
in 1923.
than
a
to the
of Mustafa
Acknowledgements
The author
Bosphorus
would like to thank
University
constructive
professors
Departments
criticism
S. Esenbel, Z. Oni~, A. Bugra and G. Evcimen
of History
and Economics
on this article, and for encouraging
for their
the author's
useful
at the
comments
and
earlier studies on Japanese
economics and history.
NOTES
1. R. E. Ward,
Trimberger,
and
D.A.
Rustow
(eds.), Political
modernization
Revolution from above ; S. Esenbel, "The anguish
in Japan
and
Turkey ; E. K.
of civilized behavior".
2. Kemal Karpat, "The mass media," 266.
3. Mardin and Ortayh both argue that Ahmet Mithat could not decide where to stand between the
East and the West. See $. Mardin, Bediuzzaman Said Nursi olayi, 222 ; I. Ortayli, Imparatorlugun
en uzun yiizyala.
4. O. Okay, Bata medeniyeti kar.asanda Ahmet Mithat Efendi, in introductory
note; Ahmet Mithat,
Hasan Mellah.
5. Beside these books, he published several other books just after the restoration.
(1867) was a guidebook
principles
about western
of foreign exchange,
daily manners
of the Western
countries
and covered interesting
climate and geography.
people including
topics such as the
Seijo ishokuju (1867) is a book on the
clothing,
furniture,
food etc. In Kyuri zukai
(1868) he tried to explain some scientific principles by means of illustrations.
(1869) is an attempt
published
to describe the continents
Gakumon no susume where
and countries
he criticise
and composed of the nature
made
of the trends
a longer
autobiography,
critique
Sekai kunizukushi
all over the world.
the accepted
beliefs of the existing social order. Bummeiron no gairyaku
with an academic manner
Seiyo tabi annai
In 1872 he
ideas and the unquestioned
was published in 1876 and written
of civilization.
of his time in Japan.
In Jiji shogen (1881), he
And
finally,
in 1898, his
Fukuo jiden, was published.
6. C. Blacker, The Japanese enlightenment.
7. C. Blacker, introductory
note to the Autobiography
8. For a detailed, comparative
and comprehensive
245
of Fukuzawa.
analysis of Khaldun's
views on civilization
see
Ibrahim
H.
OZTURK
I. Canan, Ibn-i Haldun'a gore insan, toplum ve iktisat.
9. The majority of his ideas on economics could be found in Sevday-i say-u amel, Ekonomi politik
Para.
10. Ahmet Mithat, Ekonomi politik, 116-118.
11. M. Blaug, Economic theory in retrospect.
12. Ahmet Mithat, Avrupa'da
bir cevelan, 828.
13. For the detailed and scholarly
Osmanla iktisat dii.iincesinin
analysis of Ahmet Mithat's
cagda$la.masa ; T. cavdar,
views on economics, see A. G. Sayar,
Tiirkiye de liberalizm (1860-1990).
14. Ahmet Mithat, Ekonomi politik, 133.
15. Ibid., 131-135.
16. "Biz ne zaman Hanri Martini'yi
yuzba$inin
icad-kertesi
Miibahesesine
olan numuneyi
ula§abilirsek
passage he explains
olsun ki guvenelim.
mi yoksa $aspo'yu mu ithal edelim nokta-i nazarindan,
0 zaman
mi imal edelim, yoksa bu kol agasinin
muhafaza-i
istikbalimizden
acaba $u
kertesini
emin oluruz",
mi ?
In another
his wish for the favor of domestic production ; "Silah kendimizin silahi
Ziya-i ~emse mukabil geldigi zaman her hatt-i ~uai Du*manm gozune
beynine saplanan palalari, yataganlari
"vecahedii" yazardik" . Menfa, 60-61.
17. C. Blacker, The Japanese enlightenment,
biz yapar
ve iizerine
dahi "inna fetehna"
veyahut
of Meiji nationalism,"
99-149.
60.
18. Fukuzawa,
An outline of a theory of civilizations (1875).
19. Fukuzawa,
Autobiography,
108.
20. Ibid., 282.
21. Ibid., 190.
22. Ibid., 281.
23. Fukuzawa,
Encouragement of learning.
24. Fukuzawa,
cited in C. Blacker, The Japanese enlightenment,
25. A. M. Craig, "Fukuzawa
Yukichi : the philosophical
132.
foundations
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249

Two pioneers of modern economic thought in Japan

Transcription

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