Kiruna

Transcription

Kiruna

Kiruna
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Contents
Articles
Kiruna
1
Spaceport Sweden
12
Esrange
13
ESTRACK
16
Kiruna Station
18
European Space Agency
19
EISCAT
35
Institute of Space Physics (Sweden)
36
Abisko Scientific Research Station
38
Radiotjänst i Kiruna
39
Kiruna Church
40
Jukkasjärvi
41
Ice hotel
42
Aurora (astronomy)
46
Kebnekaise
61
Kungsleden
64
Nordkalottruta
67
Abisko National Park
69
Kalix River
71
Torne River
72
Nikkaluokta
76
Torneträsk
78
References
Article Sources and Contributors
80
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
82
Article Licenses
License
85
Kiruna
1
Kiruna
Kiruna - Giron
Kiruna - Giron
Coordinates: 67°51′N 020°13′E
Country
Sweden
Province
Lapland
County
Norrbotten County
Municipality
Kiruna Municipality
Charter
1948
[1]
Area
• Total
16.53 km2 (6.4 sq mi)
[1]
Population (31 December 2010)
• Total
18,148
• Density
1098/km2 (2843.8/sq mi)
Time zone
CET (UTC+1)
• Summer (DST)
CEST (UTC+2)
Website
kiruna.se
[2]
Kiruna
Kiruna (Northern Sami: Giron, Finnish: Kiiruna) is the northernmost city in Sweden, situated in the province of
Lapland. It had 18,148 inhabitants in 2010[1] and is the seat of Kiruna Municipality (pop. 23,099 in 2008[3]) in
Norrbotten County.
History
Origins
Archeological findings have shown that the region around Kiruna has
been inhabited for at least 6,000 years. Centuries before Kiruna was
founded in 1900, the presence of iron ore at Kiirunavaara and
Luossavaara had been known by the local Sami population. In 1696,
Samuel Mört, a bookkeeper of the Kengis works, wrote on the
presence of iron in the two hills. Anders Hacksell mapped the area in
1736 and named the mountains Fredriks berg (Kiirunavaara) and
Berget Ulrika Eleonora (Luossavaara), after king Fredrik I and his
wife Ulrika Eleonora. Despite the findings of large amounts of ore, no
Kiruna city hall in summer
mining was initiated because of the remote location and the harsh
climate. Some ore was extracted in the 19th century by extracting it in
summer and transporting it in winter, using sleds drawn by reindeer and horses. However, the costs were high and
the quality of the phosphorous ore poor, until, in 1878, the Gilchrist-Thomas process, invented by Sidney Gilchrist
Thomas and Percy Gilchrist, allowed for the separation of phosphor from the ore.[4][5]
In 1884, a concession for a railway from Luleå to Narvik was granted to The Northern of Europe Railway Company.
The provisional railway between Luleå and Malmberget was finished in 1888 and the first train left Malmberget in
March. Around the same time, the English company went bankrupt and had to sell the line to the Swedish state for 8
million Swedish crowns, around half the amount initially invested. After a significant rebuild, the railway to
Gällivare could be used again and iron ore was extracted at Malmberget by Aktiebolaget Gellivare Malmfält
(AGM).[5][6]
At the initiative of Robert Schoug, the Luossavaara-Kiirunavaara Aktiebolag (LKAB) was founded in 1890. In 1893,
Gustaf Broms became CEO of both LKAB and AGM. LKAB pressed for continuing Malmbanan via Luossavaara
and Kiirunavaara to the ice-free coast of Norway. The continuation of the railway line to Narvik was controversial,
because opponents feared the influence of Russia (then controlling Finland and already connected to Sweden at
Haparanda–Tornio) on an international railway line. The decision to build was finally taken in 1898. The railway
came to Kiruna 15 October 1899 and the Swedish and Norwegian sections were joined 15 November 1902. For
LKAB, this had been so expensive that they could barely avoid bankruptcy in 1901, just after the ore mining at
Kiirunavaara had started. King Oscar II only opened the railway line 14 July 1903, preferring summer over winter to
travel north.[5][6][7]
The architects Per Olof Hallman and Gustaf Wickman were appointed to design the city, to be built at Haukivaara,
near both iron ore mines, with then revolutionary consideration of geographical and climatological circumstances;
being built on a hill, winter temperatures are much milder than in other towns, and due to the street plan and the
positioning, wind is limited. On 27 April 1900, Hallmans plan was officially accepted.
Gustaf Broms proposed to name the settlements Kiruna, a short and practical name that could also be pronounced by
Swedish speaking inhabitants. LKAB appointed Hjalmar Lundbohm, who had finished neither highschool nor his
geology studies, as local manager in Kiruna.[8][9][10]
2
Kiruna
Early history
Before the design for the settlement had been accepted,
houses were built in a disorganized manner with illegal
slums similar to those in the other mining town,
Malmberget, 80 kilometres (50 mi) south of Kiruna.
Also, provisional buildings served as a church, a
school, a hospital, a hotel and a police station.
However, official residences were built at a high pace,
and when the king opened the railway in 1903, all
illegal residences and most other provisional buildings
had been demolished and replaced. The very first
building, B:1, is preserved and can be seen at Hjalmar
Population development in Kiruna town
Lundbohmsgården. In 1899, 18 people were registered
as living in soon-to-be Kiruna. This increased to 222 in
1900, 7,438 in 1910 and 12,884 in 1930. The residences did not fully keep up with this rapid growth; by 1910 there
were 1,877 official rooms and some unrecognised residences, which meant that an average of three to four people
lived in a single room; this density decreased steadily during the decades to follow. Kiruna became a
municipalsamhälle (a community within a municipality) in 1908. This caused unhappiness in local organisations,
such as Luossavaara-Kiirunavaara Arbeteraförening, that had hoped for a status as köping, which would have kept
more of the mining income inside the locality. In return, the mining company LKAB paid for a hospital, fire station,
sewage, roads, a church (opened 1912) and the priests home.[4][6][8]
In April 1907, a tram began operation in Kiruna, the northernmost in
the world. This meant miners would no longer have to walk several
kilometers through the sub-arctic cold, nor would they need to climb a
hundred meters up the mining hill. The network consisted of three
lines: bergbanan (mountain line), stadsspårvägen (city tram) and
gruvspårvägen (mine tram). The mountain line closed in 1955 after a
road up the mine had been built 1949. The city line had a total length
of 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) at longest and was unique due to the 1-meter
The church in Kiruna
gauge, double windows and heated wagons. It closed in 1958 after
gradually being replaced by buses. Between 1941 and 1964, a tram was
used inside the mine, with wagons bought from closed down tramlines from all over Sweden.[7]
The economy for iron ore was good in the early 20th century. Before the start of the work, Hjalmar Lundbohm had
been worried about whether the Kiruna winter would allow for working outside at all, but despite early research into
underground mining, mountaintop removal mining was the primary method in the early years. Mechanisation was
attempted early using steam powered excavators, but the cold climate led to considerable difficulties and only when
electrical machinery became available in the 1910s, significant mechanisation was achieved. The peak of
Kiirunavaara, Statsrådet, was 247.7 metres (813 ft) above Luossajärvi until it was spectacularly blown off in
1910.[5][6]
A general strike hit Sweden in 1909 and Kiruna was no exception. Hoping for a better future, thousands of people
left Kiruna, including a group of 500 inhabitants emigrating to Brazil. Most of them returned, disappointed that life
in Latin America was not what they had hoped it to be, Hjalmar Lundbohm personally lent money for the trip home
to some of the emigrants.[5][6]
During World War I, iron ore production dropped to the lowest level in LKAB's history, and when exports increased
again, a successful three-month strike in 1920 meant a 20% increase in salaries for the miners. Production dropped to
3
Kiruna
a minimum in 1922 and a three-day workweek was introduced, but during the fabulous twenties it increased to a
record nine million tonnes in 1927.[6]
In 1921, mining started at the other of the two ore hills in Kiruna, Luossavaara. However, the total amount of ore that
could be mined in open pit mining here was small compared to Kiirunavaara, and LKAB preferred to concentrate
resources in one place. Nevertheless, mining here continued until 1974 and later it became a research mine.[5][6]
During the first decades of Kiruna's existence, no road connected it to the outside world. The only connection was by
railway or, as in the time before the railway, by boat (in summer) via the Torne and Kalix rivers to Jukkasjärvi and
Håmojåkk and then proceed by foot. A road from Kiruna was built to Tuolluvaara in 1901, Poikkijärvi in 1909,
Alttajärvi in 1913 and connected to Svappavaara in 1926, from where roads already connected via Vittangi to Pajala
and via Lappesuando to Gällivare and further south.[7]
The Great Depression led to a 70% drop in ore production, a drop that would turn into a dramatic increase on the eve
of World War II.[6]
Although some tourists already came to the area in the 19th century, the completion of the railway line truly made
tourism possible. Tourists came for the rivers and the mountains, but also geologists and entire classes of students
came to see the mine. Additionally, a yearly winter sports festival was started, which attracted people from a wide
area. The Sami population was already a tourist attraction in the early days of Kiruna's existence.[11]
World War II
The municipality of Kiruna shares borders with Norway and Finland, and Kiruna is located relatively close to both
countries. This led to many soldiers being transported to the area whenever mobilisation was requested; first in
September 1939 after the German invasion of Poland, then in November 1939 after the Russian invasion of Finland,
but in both cases the Swedish soldiers did not engage in any fighting. In March 1940, Churchill requested permission
to transport soldiers from Narvik in Norway to Finland via Kiruna and Haparanda in Operation Catherine. Out of
fear that the presence of British soldiers near the Kiruna ore mine would provoke a German attack on Sweden, the
request was denied.[12]
After the German invasion of Norway, at least ten soldiers were stationed along every bridge along Malmbanan,
preparing for the possibility to blow up the bridges should the German army invade Sweden. Additionally, foreigners
were banned from visiting Kiruna or the iron ore line, and only the Sami, military personnel, locals and people
working for the government were permitted to travel between Kiruna and Riksgränsen.[12]
After the battle at Bjørnfjell, 15 April 1940, wounded and fallen Norwegian soldiers were transported to Kiruna.[12]
Despite the conditions for Swedish neutrality, rail cars with food, skis and helmets were transported from Kiruna to
the Norwegian soldiers in Bjørnfjell.[12]
Swedish iron ore from Kiruna was of major importance to the German war machine. A group of people working at
LKAB organised in the Wollweberliga, planning to sabotage transports to Germany. In late November 1941, Edvard
Nyberg, Ernst Wollweber and others produced a mine to be attached to the ore cars. Nyberg was caught, was fired
from LKAB and spent 3½ years in prison. Upon his release, he founded Nybergs Mekaniska Verkstad which is still
one of Kirunas biggest companies [13].[12][14]
Germany requested from Sweden use of the railway network to transport military equipment, but the Swedish
government agreed only to transitering av human karaktär, men ej underhåll till stridande trupp (transit of
humanitarian character, but no maintenance of fighting soldiers). Germany argued that, now that Norway was
occupied, the German soldiers there were no longer fighting, and thus transported a large amount of military
equipment, ammunition and, secretly, troops from south to north Norway, via Malmbanan and Kiruna. Troops were
often transported in transports declared as material transports. Despite being strictly against the rules, there was
considerable interaction between the German soldiers and the Swedish locals, including trading and football
matches.[12]
4
Kiruna
5
During the war, up to 2000 refugees from 20 different countries were kept in Kiruna. Also German prisoners of war,
for example from crashed airplanes, were kept in Kiruna before being transported south. However, small-scale
sabotage, such as sand in the engines, was also common and loose weapons often ended up at the bottom of the
Luossajärvi lake, next to the railway stop.[12]
North of Torneträsk, at Kaivare, a radio base Kari was built in secrecy and used by the Norwegian resistance. It was
also used for the smuggling of arms to Norway and refugees from Norway.[12][15]
Post-war
In 1948, Kiruna gained city rights and
started to receive large amounts of money
from the mine. The city centre was
renovated starting it 1953; most buildings
built before 1920 were demolished and
replaced, and many of the current buildings
were built in the following period. The town
grew and new neighborhoods were built, as
well as new apartment buildings and villas
in existing neighborhoods. The area
currently known as Lombolo was built in the
1960s.[8]
Kiruna centrum
After World War II, the economy of Kiruna started to diversify. Initially, the mechanisation of the mining industry
led to more mechanical workshops developing machinery for the mine, still dependent on the mining, but individual
companies with spinoffs that could be sold to other areas than the Kiruna mine alone. In the 1950s, a fund,
Norrlandsfonden was estabilshed, in which profits from LKAB would be invested in order to diversify the local
economy. The municipality started to lend money to starting companies against very beneficial rates, a scheme that
lasted until 1959 because the banks, that insisted this was false competition, had established more relaxed rules for
lending out money. The industrial area east of the city was built in the 1950s to separate industry from
neighborhoods.[16]
On 10 November 1960, Kiruna Airport opened to separate civilian air traffic from the military airplanes that had
landed at Kalixfors airport and at Luossajärvi since World War I. A road to Nikkaluokta was opened in 1971 and to
Riksgränsen and Narvik in 1984. The latter had been debated heavily, for alternative plans existed to build the road
to Norway on the northern side of Torneträsk, via Laimo, Kattuvuoma, Salmi to Innset and Bardu in Norway. This
road was never built, but a 25 km long track between Laimo and Salmi was built at the initiatives of the locals and
finished in 1962; however, this track, called Talmavägen, is not connected to any other road.[7]
Increased communications were also beneficial for tourism. Swedish Railways had already run special trains before
World War II, but started a special Dollar train in the summer months between Gothenborg and Kiruna, connecting
to cruise ships from the United States. The canoe club Kiruna Långfärdspaddlare was founded in 1972 and rafting
for tourists restarted after it had been discontinued for 20 years due to the drowning of Valfrid Johansson. Until the
1980s, tourism had been mainly a summer business, but touristic exploitation of dog sledging was started in 1983 in
Jukkasjärvi. In 1990, the first Icehotel was built in Jukkasjärvi and advertised as the worlds largest igloo. It had been
built using techniques from the building of Malmbanan 90 years before, and was also inspired by the Snow Festival,
that had started in 1986 to celebrate the Swedish Viking satellite. Since 1998, a special tourist area exists in the mine
and since 1999, tourists can visit the various areas of research going on in Kiruna.[11]
In 1957, the Kiruna Geophysical Observatory (KGO) (now the Swedish Institute of Space Physics) was founded and
established by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Esrange Space Centre is established in 1966. Here, rocket
Kiruna
operations and ground-based observations are carried out since 1966, balloon operations since 1974, satellite
operations since 1978 and testing operations since 2000 (with the Swedish Defence Material Administration). ESA
also operates a satellite station near at Salmajärvi, near Esrange, since 1989. In 1987, Umeå University started a
space engineering program in Kiruna, and GIS education was started by Luleå University of Technology in 1991. In
1993, The Umeå space engineers moved to the same building housing IRF and a year later another Luleå University
programme, civil engineering with specialisation in space technology, started at the same location. Since 2006, the
Erasmus Mundus Master Course in Space Science and Technology has started with at least one semester spent at
LTU. In 2007, education along IRV was split and only the Department of Space Science, belonging to Luleå
University of Technology, remained, while the Umeå University programme in Space Engineering quit.[17][18][19]
The Kiruna Icehotel has been built in Jukkasjärvi each winter since
1990 and has become a major tourist attraction.[20]
Until the 1970s, Kiruna's population steadily increased as the iron ore
economy was thriving. 1973 was a record year for the iron ore
company LKAB, mining 24 million ton ore from Kiruna and nearby
Svappavaara. However, a steel crisis led to a dramatic decrease in the
iron ore economy, and LKAB had losses in 1977 for the first time in
decades. Additionally, increasing transport capacity meant increasing
The ice hotel in Jukkasjärvi
competition from Africa, South America and Australia, where mining
is mostly done in the open and thus cheaper. In ten years the number of
employees decreased from 8,000 to 4,000 and the population of Kiruna began to drop. The mines at Svappavaara,
Tuolluvaara and Luossavaara closed and only Kirunavaara remained. The local job office was jocularly called
Resebyrån (the travel agency) because the only message to unemployed youths was: move. Since then, the
population has gone steadily downhill, but has stabilised in recent years due to the diversification of the
economy.[21][22]
Since 1985, the snow festival has been organised each winter, including various activities such as an ice sculpture
contest. In 2000, when the city was 100 years old, the Kiruna festival was first organised and has since been
[23][24]
organised every year in summer.
Geography
Kiruna is located in the north of Sweden, 145 kilometres (90 mi) north of the Arctic circle. The city centre is built on
the Haukavaara hill at an altitude of 530m, high above the Torne river to the north and the Kalix river to the south.
Other parts of the town are Lombolo and Tuolluvaara. Near Kiruna are the mountains Kiirunavaara and Luossavaara.
Kiirunavaara is an iron ore mine that is the town's primary economic resource. Luossavaara is a former mine and
now used as a skiing slope.
The city is built near the lake Luossajärvi with outflow to the Luossajoki that flows in the Torne river at Laxforsen.
The area around Kiruna is very sparsely populated. The northwest, west and southwest of Kiruna are dominated by
the Scandinavian mountains, visible from the city centre. Swedens highest mountain, Kebnekaise, is 75 kilometres
(47 mi) from the city centre and can be seen from it as well. To the west is Nikkaluokta and to the northwest are
Abisko, Björkliden, Riksgränsen and the Norwegian town of Narvik, 180 kilometres (110 mi) via the road. 12
kilometres (7 mi) north of Kiruna is Kurravaara, on the edge of the Torne River. The land north of Kurravaara is
roadless, uninhabited land, partly barren and partly birch forest, up to the Norwegian and Finnish borders at
Treriksröset. The lower-lying east is dominated by boreal forest, stretching hundreds (if not thousands) of kilometers
into Finland and Russia. Around 15 km east of Kiruna is a group of villages at the Torne River, most notably
Jukkasjärvi, where an ice hotel is built in winter, attracting tourists from all over the world. The twin cities Gällivare
and Malmberget are some 120 km south of Kiruna.
6
Kiruna
7
Kiruna became a Swedish city on January 1, 1948, and was at one time listed as the largest city in the world by
area,[25] even if most of its territory of course was non-urban. After the Swedish municipality reform in the 1970s,
the term "city" has been legally discontinued. Today only the built-up area is considered a de facto city.
Climate
Being located 145 kilometres north of the Arctic Circle, Kiruna has a Sub-Arctic climate with short, cool summers
and long, cold winters, although the city itself can be considerably milder than the surrounding forest. Snowcover
generally lasts from mid-October to mid-May, but snowfall can occur year-round. The sun doesn't set between May
30 and July 15, and perpetual daylight lasts from early May to early August. The period that the sun doesn't rise lasts
from early December to early January, the exact boundaries depending on local topography. In this time of the year,
a few hours of twilight are the only daylight available.
During the midnight sun period, temperatures can rise as high as 25 degrees Celsius (77 F).
Climate data for Kiruna
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Average high °C
(°F)
−11.1
(12.0)
−8.9
(16.0)
−4.8
(23.4)
−0.9
(30.4)
8.1
(46.6)
14.8
(58.6)
17.9
(64.2)
14.8
(58.6)
9.7
(49.5)
−2.1
(28.2)
−6.7
(19.9)
−8.9
(16.0)
1.8
(35.2)
Daily mean °C
(°F)
−13.9
(7.0)
−12.4
(9.7)
−8.7
(16.3)
−3.2
(26.2)
3.4
(38.1)
9.6
(49.3)
12.0
(53.6)
9.8
(49.6)
4.6
(40.3)
−1.4
(29.5)
−8.1
(17.4)
−11.9
(10.6)
−1.7
(28.9)
Average low °C
(°F)
−21.9
−20.1
−18.4
−9.3
(15.3)
−1.9
(28.6)
5.1
(41.2)
7.0
(44.6)
5.4
(41.7)
0.5
(32.9)
−10.8
(12.6)
−13.4
(7.9)
−19.9
−8.1
(17.4)
Precipitation
mm (inches)
30.1
(1.185)
25.4
(1)
26.2
26.9
33.6
48.5
86.1
73.6
49.3
47.0
41.5
34.0
522.1
(1.031) (1.059) (1.323) (1.909) (3.39) (2.898) (1.941) (1.85) (1.634) (1.339) (20.555)
Avg.
precipitation
days
17
14
14
13
12
13
Source: SMHI
16
17
15
16
16
17
192
[26][27][28]
Communications
Kiruna is located at the E10 road, connecting Luleå with Norway and
passing close by Gällivare (south of Kiruna) and Narvik (on the
Norwegian coast). A short road connects to Kurravaara at the Torne
river and ends there. Another road connects Kiruna with Nikkaluokta
close to Kebnekaise and is used by tourists to get to the mountains. It
also passes by or nearby several villages in the Kalix river valley.
Buses connect Kiruna with major towns in Norrbotten province and
villages nearby and in the wider region. The railway connects Luleå
with Gällivare, Kiruna and Narvik. Although built to serve the mine,
View from just outside Kiruna, with European
Swedish Rail runs daily passenger traffic on the line: a night train from
route E10 left to Luleå and right to Narvik,
Norway (and to Kiruna's railway station)
Narvik to Stockholm, a day train from Narvik to Luleå (connecting
with a second night train to Stockholm and Göteborg), and trains to
Luleå and Narvik that start and finish in Kiruna. The latter is known as Karven and popular for day trips to the
mountains near Abisko, Björkliden and Riksgränsen, particularly in winter. Additional long-distance trains are run
by Connex in summer.
Kiruna
8
Kiruna Airport is located southeast of the city, 8 km by road. A few flights per day connect Kiruna with Stockholm,
either directly or via Luleå or Umeå. During tourist season, buses connect Kiruna Airport to the city center.
Economy
Mine
Iron ore extraction is a key industry of the area, and the town is very
dependent on the mining company LKAB. During World War II, large
quantities of iron were transported from northern Sweden by rail to the
east coast, and further down to be sold to Germany. (See Swedish iron
ore during World War II).
In recent years attempts have been made to reduce the area's
dependence on mining with initiatives to promote science, R&D and
government related activities. Initiatives have included the proposed
relocation of the Swedish Space Corporation and the establishment of
Iron ore pellets from Kiruna
the Environment and Space Research Institute (Miljö- och
rymdforskningsinstitutet); the former was never executed and the latter was essentially only a temporary success.
Space research
The ESTRACK Kiruna Station of ESA, the European Space Agency, is located in the municipality. So is Esrange,
the European Space and Sounding Rocket Range, as well as an EISCAT station and EISCAT scientific
headquarters.[29]
Also in Kiruna are the Institute of Space Physics[30] and the Department of Space Science belonging to Luleå
University of Technology.[31]
In 2007, the Swedish government announced that Kiruna would be the host of Spaceport Sweden, signing an
agreement with Virgin Galactic.[32][33]
Tourism
Tourism is an important source of income for Kiruna and the
surrounding region with around 300,000 tourist-nights per year
(1998).[11] Throughout the year, fishing and hunting are popular
activities by both locals and tourists. Visits can be done to the mine,
the church and different research agencies, such as Abisko Scientific
Research Station the Institute of Space Physics or Esrange. Tourists
can experience the sami culture, particularly in combination with
winter activities such as dog sledding.[11][34]
In summer, many come to the mountains to hike up to Kebnekaise, to
Dog sledding is a popular activity in the
countryside surrounding Kiruna.
walk on trails such as Kungsleden and Nordkalottruta, or to hike in the
national parks such as Abisko National Park. The location north of the
arctic circle attracts tourists for experiencing the midnight sun. Tourists also come for the lakes and rivers of
Lapland. There exists rafting on the Kalix and Torne rivers, canoeing in the Vistas valley near Nikkaluokta, and boat
trips on lakes such as Torneträsk. Caving can be done near Björkliden. Each year in summer, the Kiruna festival is
organised, a music festival in the midnight sun.[11][34][35]
Kiruna
In winter, the Icehotel attracts tourists from all over the world. The northern location makes it a good place to
observe the northern lights, and snow cover generally lasts from October to May. The long and certain snow cover
makes it a good place for skiing (cross-country and alpine), dog sledding or driving a snowmobile. Ice climbing can
be done in the mountains and sometimes one can go ice skating on lakes or rivers. Each year in winter, the Snow
festival is organised, including scooter jumping, reindeer racing, an ice sculpture contest, and more.[11][34][36]
Testing
• Car testing
• North European Aerospace Test range (NEAT)
Sports
• Kiruna FF is a Swedish football club located in Kiruna. The club currently competes in Division 3 Norra
Norrland, the fifth tier of the Swedish football league system.
Moving the town
In 2004, it was decided that the present centre of the municipality (N67°49'48'', E20°25'48'') would have to be
relocated to counter mining related subsidence. The relocation would be made gradually over the coming decade. On
January 8, 2007, a new location was proposed. Kiruna would gradually move northwest to the foot of the
Luossavaara mountain, by the lake of Luossajärvi.[37]
The first actual work on moving the town was done in November 2007, when work on the new main sewage pipe
started.[38] In the same week, first sketches for the layout of the new part of the town became available.[39] The
sketches include a travel centre, the new locations for the city hall and the church, an artificial lake and an extension
of the Luossavaara hill into the city.[40] The location of the new section of the E10 is still uncertain, as is the location
of the railway and the railway station. A more official sketch was published early in spring 2008, which was then
discussed with various interest groups before a further version is to be produced.
Most of the buildings in Kiruna will simply be torn down and rebuilt at the target site. However, the Kiruna city hall,
the most architecturally significant building in Kiruna, will be cut into four parts, each of which will be transported
whole to the target site and reassembled there. The move will require an extremely flat and level road tens of metres
wide and will be extremely slow.
In June 2010, the municipal council decided that the town would be moved eastwards, in the direction of
Tuolluvaara, instead of the proposed northwestern location.Dagens Nyheter. 2010. Archived from the original [41] on
July 21, 2010. http://www.dn.se/nyheter/sverige/framtida-placeringen-av-kiruna-klar-1.1125639
Sights
In the village of Jukkasjärvi there is an Ice hotel which is reconstructed every year.
The church in Kiruna from 1912 is also notable, one of Sweden's largest wooden buildings. The church exterior is
built in an Neo Gothic style, while the altar is in Art Nouveau. It has separately been voted Sweden's best looking
church and the foremost Swedish pre-1950 construction.
Notable residents
• Börje Salming, NHL ice hockey defenseman
9
Kiruna
10
Twin cities
•
•
Narvik, Norway
Archangelsk, Russia
References
[1] "Tätorternas landareal, folkmängd och invånare per km2 2005 och 2010" (http:/ / www. scb. se/ Statistik/ MI/ MI0810/ 2010A01/
Tatorternami0810tab1_4. xls) (in Swedish). Statistics Sweden. 14 December 2011. Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 64arqC15e) from
the original on 10 January 2012. . Retrieved 10 January 2012.
[2] http:/ / kiruna. se/
[3] "Folkmängd i riket, län och kommuner 31 December 2008 och befolkningsförändringar 2008" (http:/ / www. scb. se/ Statistik/ BE/ BE0101/
2008A01/ Be0101tab3beforandr08_ny. xls) (in Swedish) (xls). Statistics Sweden. 2009-02-14. . Retrieved 2009-03-08.
[4] "Historia – Kiruna kommun" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080625030922/ http:/ / www. kommun. kiruna. se/ Om-kommunen/
Allmant-om-kommunen/ Historia/ ) (in Swedish). Archived from the original (http:/ / www. kommun. kiruna. se/ Om-kommunen/
Allmant-om-kommunen/ Historia/ ) on June 25, 2008. . Retrieved 2009-02-09.
[5] "Press room/History/1696–[email protected]" (http:/ / lkab. com/ ?openform& id=77DE). . Retrieved 2009-02-09.
[6] Barck, Åke (27 April 2000). "Gruvstaden – Gruvorna" (in Swedish). Kiruna 100-årsboken. Kiruna: Kiruna kommun. pp. 60–74.
ISBN 9163093715.
[7] Theander, Agge; Elis Aidenpää, Rolf Bergström (27 April 2000). "Komunikationer – Från hästskuts till e-post" (in Swedish). Kiruna
100-årsboken. Kiruna: Kiruna kommun. pp. 132–147. ISBN 9163093715.
[8] Persson, Curt; Jan-Erik Johansson (27 April 2000). "Kiruna – Från ödemark till stad" (in Swedish). Kiruna 100-årsboken. Kiruna: Kiruna
kommun. pp. 27–43. ISBN 9163093715.
[9] Persson, Curt (27 April 2000). "Kiruna – Hjalmar Lundbohm" (in Swedish). Kiruna 100-årsboken. Kiruna: Kiruna kommun. pp. 50–57.
ISBN 9163093715.
[10] "Kiruna – technical visits" (http:/ / www. wintercities. kiruna. se/ nytt/ technicaltours. htm). . Retrieved 2009-02-09.
[11] Barck, Åke (27 April 2000). "Näringsliv och forskning – Turismen" (in Swedish). Kiruna 100-årsboken. Kiruna: Kiruna kommun.
pp. 60–74. ISBN 9163093715.
[12] Theander, Agge; Thomas Roth (27 April 2000). "I skuggan av krigen" (in Swedish). Kiruna 100-årsboken. Kiruna: Kiruna kommun.
pp. 234–250. ISBN 9163093715.
[13] http:/ / www. nybergsmek. se/
[14] Sternlund, Hans. "De fick prestigefyllt pris" (http:/ / www. nsd. se/ nyheter/ artikel. aspx?ArticleId=4386753) (in Swedish). Norrländska
Socialdemokraterna. . Retrieved 22 February 2009.
[15] Anders Svensson (11 juli 2008). "Sverige, USA, FRA och signalspaning" (http:/ / www. internationalen. se/ print. php?news. 3067) (in
Swedish). Internationalen. . Retrieved 22 february 2009.
[16] Kjell Nilsson (27 April 2000). "Näringsliv och forskning – Från AK till IT" (in Swedish). Kiruna 100-årsboken. Kiruna: Kiruna kommun.
p. 86–90. ISBN 9163093715.
[17] "Overview – Swedish Institute of Space Physics" (http:/ / www. irf. se/ Overview/ ?dbfile=About_Kiruna& dbsec=Administration&
chosen=overview). . Retrieved 2009-02-09.
[18] "Esrange space centre – history" (http:/ / www. ssc. se/ ?id=5998). . Retrieved 2009-02-09.
[19] Agge Theander (27 April 2000). "Näringsliv och forskning – Rymd, miljö och gruva" (in Swedish). Kiruna 100-årsboken. Kiruna: Kiruna
kommun. p. 116–129. ISBN 9163093715.
[20] "ICEHOTEL" (http:/ / www. icehotel. com/ ). . Retrieved 2009-02-09.
[21] Petra Sternlund (01 2009). "En annan tid ett annat KIRUNA" (in Swedish). I love Kiruna: 94–97.
[22] Sternlund, Hans (19 May 2008). "Ny gruvepok invigs" (http:/ / www. nsd. se/ / NYHETER/ ARTIKEL. ASPX?ArticleID=3753244) (in
Swedish). Svappavaara: Norrländska Socialdemokratern. . Retrieved 9 February 2009.
[23] "Historik Snöfestivalen 2009" (http:/ / www. snofestivalen. se/ om-festivalen/ historik/ ) (in Swedish). . Retrieved 2009-02-09.
[24] "Kirunafestivalen" (http:/ / www. kirunafestivalen. com/ in-english). . Retrieved 2009-02-09.
[25] "Historien om världens största stad" (http:/ / www. nsd. se/ nyheter/ artikel. aspx?ArticleID=3597686) (in Swedish). Norrländska
Socialdemokraten. . Retrieved 2008-11-30.
[26] "Nederbörd, normalvärden 1961-90" (http:/ / www. smhi. se/ cmp/ jsp/ polopoly. jsp?d=8046& a=22371& l=sv) (in Swedish). SMHI. .
Retrieved 2009-05-28.
[27] "Dataserier med normalvärden för perioden 1961-1990" (http:/ / www. smhi. se/ cmp/ jsp/ polopoly. jsp?d=10971& l=sv) (in Swedish).
SMHI. . Retrieved 2009-05-28.
[28] "Klimatkartor" (http:/ / www. smhi. se/ cmp/ jsp/ polopoly. jsp?d=7554& l=sv) (in Swedish). SMHI. . Retrieved 2009-05-28.
[29] "What is EISCAT?" (http:/ / e7. eiscat. se/ about/ whatiseiscat). . Retrieved 2009-02-03.
[30] "IRF Kiruna" (http:/ / www. irf. se/ Offices/ Kiruna/ ?chosen=office_kiruna). . Retrieved 2009-02-03.
[31] "Welcome to the Department of Space Science" (http:/ / www. ltu. se/ irv?l=en). . Retrieved 2009-02-03.
[32] www.spaceportsweden.com (http:/ / www. spaceportsweden. com)
Kiruna
11
[33] Spaceport Sweden open for business (http:/ / www. ssc. se/ ?id=6476)
[34] "Kiruna Lappland" (http:/ / www. lappland. se). . Retrieved 2009-03-08.
[35] "Kirunafestivalen" (http:/ / www. kirunafestivalen. com/ ) (in Swedish). . Retrieved 2009-03-08.
[36] "Snöfestivalen" (http:/ / www. snofestivalen. se/ ) (in Swedish). . Retrieved 2009-03-08.
[37] TT (2007-01-08). "Klart med Kirunas flytt" (http:/ / www. dn. se/ DNet/ jsp/ polopoly. jsp?d=147& a=603612& previousRenderType=6) (in
Swedish). Dagens Nyheter. . Retrieved 2007-01-08.
[38] Jessica Rosengren (2007-11-23). "Kirunaflytten är igång" (http:/ / www. nsd. se/ artikel. aspx?artid=76497& cat=1& pageIndex=0&
arkiv=False) (in Swedish). Norrländska Socialdemokraten,. . Retrieved 2007-11-25.
[39] Jessica Rosengren (2007-11-23). "Nu finns det skiss över nya Kiruna" (http:/ / www. nsd. se/ artikel. aspx?artid=76499& cat=1&
pageIndex=0& arkiv=False) (in Swedish). Norrländska Socialdemokraten. . Retrieved 2007-11-25.
[40] Skissförslag nov.-07 (http:/ / www. kommun. kiruna. se/ upload/ 603/ PP-SKISS FÃR NV_071115_vriden_105. pdf)
[41] http:/ / www. dn. se
External links
• Kiruna (http://www.kiruna.se) – Official website
• Mitt Kiruna (http://www.mittkiruna.se) – Kiruna city guide with local news, weather forecast, cinemas,
TV-guide and current events.
• BBC – Sweden to save sinking town (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3694204.stm)
• Satellite picture by Google Maps (http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=67.848816,20.236130&spn=0.125191,0.
468361&t=k&hl=en)
• Det nya Kiruna (http://www.kommun.kiruna.se/web2/ny_web/Nya Kiruna web/index.html) – (Swedish)
• (English) Trip to Kiruna (http://www.ludovic-roguet.com/english/travelogues/europe/sweden/
lapland-kiruna-sightseeing-church.html)
Kiruna is one of 133 places with the historical city status in Sweden.
Spaceport Sweden
12
Spaceport Sweden
Spaceport Sweden is a company that plans to make Kiruna the primary
European Spaceport for personal suborbital spaceflight and space
tourism. It's a co-operation between the Swedish Space Corporation, the
Icehotel in Jukkasjärvi, LFV Group and Kiruna’s business-development
company Progressum.[1]
The official inauguration of the company was made on 26 January 2007,
and the company started off by signing an agreement with Virgin
Galactic. The agreement stated that the two would be working together
towards an operational agreement whereby Spaceport Sweden would be
the first spaceport outside the United States which Virgin Galactic can
use for flight campaigns. On 3 April 2008, a press conference was held in
Kiruna, and a number of astronauts in training were presented to the
press, but details of an agreement, if any, were not released.[2]
Notes
[1] "Spaceport Sweden - FAQ" (http:/ / www. ssc. se/ ?id=9784). . Retrieved 2009-02-03.
[2] "Spaceport Sweden and Virgin Galactic" (http:/ / www. virgingalactic. com/ htmlsite/
news. php) (Press release). virgingalactic.com. 2008-04-03. . Retrieved 2008-06-26.
External links
• Official website (http://www.spaceportsweden.com)
• Swedish Space Corporation (http://www.ssc.se/)
Kiruna in Sweden
• SPACE.com: Virgin Galactic Strikes Deal with Swedish Government
(http://space.com/news/070128_sweden_virgin.html) Peter B. de Selding 28 January 2007 08:49 am ET
Esrange
13
Esrange
Esrange Space Center (short form Esrange) is a rocket range and
research centre located outside the town of Kiruna in northern Sweden.
It is a base for scientific research with high altitude balloons,
investigation of the aurora borealis, sounding rocket launches, and
satellite tracking, among other things. Located 200 km north of the
Arctic Circle and surrounded by a vast wilderness, its geographic
location is ideal for many of these purposes. Richard Branson of Virgin
Galactic has looked into the option of using this site for launching
space tourism, starting in 2011. The local hotel Aurora has been used
by tourists since December 2007,[1] who want to spend time at the only
rocket base allowing tourists to sleep in the hotels, which are normally
meant for scientists and engineers.
The BLAST payload and high altitude balloon
shortly before launch.
Esrange was built in 1964 by ESRO, the European Space Research
Organisation, which later became European Space Agency by merging
with ELDO, the European Launcher Development Organisation. In
1972, ownership was transferred to the newly started Swedish Space
Corporation.
In 2007, it was proposed that Spaceport Sweden be co-located with
Esrange at Kiruna.
History
In 1964 ESRANGE was established as an ESRO sounding rocket
launching range located in Kiruna (Sweden). This location was chosen
because it was generally agreed that it was important to carry out a
sounding rocket programme in the auroral zone, and for this reason it
Skylark rocket launch at Esrange on May 2, 2005.
was essential that ESRO equip itself with a suitable range in the
northern latitudes. Access to Kiruna was good by air, road and rail, and the launching range was relatively close to
the town of Kiruna. Finally and perhaps decisively, ESRANGE could be located near Kiruna Geophysical
Observatory (subsequently renamed to Swedish Institute of Space Physics). In 1972 ownership and operations of the
range was transferred to the Swedish Space Corporation.
Name
The name of the facility was originally ESRANGE, which was an abbreviation for ESRO Sounding Rocket
Launching Range.
When Swedish Space Corporation took over the range, Esrange (with capital 'E' only) became a name only.
Esrange Space Center is the name that is currently used for the facility.
Rocket activities
There had been Swedish rocket activities previously, mainly at Kronogård (18 launches in the period 1961-1964).
However, the rocket activity in Sweden did not gain thrust until after ESRO established Esrange in 1964.
Esrange
14
During the period 1966-1972 ESRO launched more than 150 rockets from Esrange. Most of these were Centaure,
Nike Apache, and Skua rockets reaching 100–220 km altitude. They supported many branches of European research,
but the emphasis was on atmospheric and ionospheric research.
In 1972 the management of Esrange was transferred to
the Swedish Space Corporation (SSC). Gradually the
smaller rockets were complemented by larger rockets
reaching higher altitudes, achieving weightlessness for
a few minutes when the rocket is above the parts of the
atmosphere giving an appreciable friction. Three main
programmes, Texus, Maser, and Maxus currently
dominate the rocket activities at Esrange and support
microgravity research for ESA and DLR:
A vast uninhabited area north of the range is used as an area where
the sounding rockets can land. Spread throughout this area are small
shelters, like the one shown in this picture. When a launch campaign
is planned, people are asked to visit such shelters and listen to the
radio. This shelter is at Vassejávri, around 10 km west of Järämä
(Sweden).
Interior of such a shelter
Programme
Rocket motor
Peak altitude Payload mass Microgravity time
Period
Launches
Customers
Texus
Skylark 7, VSB-30
250–300 km
330–400 kg
6 minutes
1977-
48
DLR and ESA
Maser
Black Brant, Skylark 7, VSB-30 250–300 km
330–400 kg
6 minutes
1987-
11
ESA
Maxus
Castor 4B
700–720 km
800 kg
12–13 minutes
1991-
7
ESA and DLR
Mini-Texus
Nike Orion
120–150 km
160–200 kg
3–4 minutes
1993–1998 6
DLR and ESA
More than 400 rockets have been launched from Esrange since 1966. For information on individual rockets, see the
Esrange rocket launch list.
Esrange has four launch pads:
• Aries launcher
• Centaure launcher
• MRL Launcher (used for the Black Brant)
Esrange
• Skylark launch tower (used for the Maxus and Skylark)
Balloon activities
Since 1974, more than 500 high-altitude balloons have been launched from Esrange for research purposes. The
launch pad can handle balloons with volumes exceeding 1 million cubic meters.
Satellite services
The arctic latitude of Esrange makes it very suitable for communication with satellites in polar orbits. Satellite
services began in 1978.
Satellite control services
A number of telecommunication satellites have been controlled through Esrange:
•
•
•
•
•
Tele-X (1989–1998)
Sirius-1 (1995–2003)
Sirius-2 (1997–2009)
Sirius-3 (1998-)
Sirius-4 (2008-)
Most research satellites of the Swedish space programme have received control commands through Esrange:
•
•
•
•
Viking (1986–1987)
Freja (1992–1996)
Astrid-1 (1995)
Odin (2001-)
The exception was controlled from SSC's laboratories in Solna outside Stockholm:
• Astrid-2 (1998–1999)
Ground station services
Data have been received at Esrange from more than 50 satellites, including SPOT 1-5, Landsat 2-7, ERS 1-2 and
Envisat.
External links
• Esrange [2] - Official site
• List of stratospheric balloons launched from Esrange [3]
• Swedish Space Corporation [4] - Official site
15
Esrange
16
Sources
• The History of Sounding Rockets and Their Contribution to European Space Research, Günther Seibert, ESA
HSR-38, November 2006, ISBN 92-9092-550-7.
References
[1] Article in Swedish "Start för rymdturism vid Esrange" (http:/ / www. nsd. se/ nyheter/ artikel. aspx?articleid=3594132), NSD web version,
2007-12-11
[2] http:/ / www. ssc. se/ default. asp?groupid=200451411504851
[3] http:/ / stratocat. com. ar/ bases/ 37e. htm
[4] http:/ / www. ssc. se
ESTRACK
The European Space Operations Centre (ESOC) operates a
number of ground-based space-tracking stations for the European
Space Agency (ESA) known as the European Space Tracking
(ESTRACK) network. The stations support various ESA
spacecraft and facilitate communications between ground
operators and scientific probes such as XMM-Newton and Mars
Express. Other similar networks include the Deep Space Network
of the United States NASA, the Indian Deep Space Network, the
Chinese Deep Space Network, and the Soviet Deep Space
Network.
General information
ESTRACK consists of nine ESA-owned stations and four stations
run cooperatively with other organisations. The stations are:
ESA stations
ESTRACK station in Redu, Belgium
• New Norcia Station (Australia)
• Perth Station (Australia)
• Redu Station (Belgium)
• Kourou Station (French Guayana)
• Cebreros Station (Spain)
• Maspalomas Station (Gran Canaria, Spain)
• Villafranca Station (Spain)
• Kiruna Station (Sweden)
• Santa Maria (Azores, Portugal)
• Malargüe Station, currently under construction in Argentina.
ESTRACK
Cooperative stations
• Malindi (Kenya)
• Santiago (Chile)
• Svalbard (Norway)
Antennas
Each ESTRACK station is different, supporting multiple missions, some sharing one or more of the same missions.
The ESTRACK network consists of at least:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Two 35-metre diameter antennas (New Norcia and Cebreros), with a third (Malargüe) under construction.
Seven 15-metre antennas
One 13-metre antenna
One 12-metre antenna
One 5.5-metre antenna
Six GPS-TDAF antennas
There are also at least eleven more smaller antennas with sizes of 9.3 to 2.5-metres. The antennas are remotely
operated from the ESTRACK Control Centre (ECC) located at ESOC.
On 17 January 2008, the 5.5-metre station on Monte das Flores (Hill of Flowers), Santa Maria (Azores) became the
newest station to join the ESTRACK system.[1] The station can be used to track Ariane launches and will also be
capable of tracking Vega and Soyuz, soon to be operated from ESA's Spaceport at Kourou, French Guiana.
The construction of a third 35-metre antenna is underway at a location 30km south of the town of Malargüe in the
Mendoza province of Argentina. Located approximately 120 degrees from the existing pair of 35-metre antennas, it
will provide continuous 360 degree sky coverage for deep space missions once operational in mid-2012.[2]
References
[1] ESA - ESA Spacecraft Operations - Boosting capability: Santa Maria station to join ESTRACK (http:/ / www. esa. int/ SPECIALS/
Operations/ SEMJCF2MDAF_0. html)
[2] "ESA to build its third deep space ground station in Argentina" (http:/ / www. esa. int/ esaCP/ SEM6Y71P0WF_index_0. html). ESA. .
External links
• ESA Operations website (http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Operations/index.html)
• ESA webpage on ESTRACK, including links to all stations (http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Operations/
SEM8YCSMTWE_0.html)
17
Kiruna Station
Kiruna Station
Kiruna Station is an ESTRACK radio antenna station for communication with spacecraft operated by the Swedish
Space Corporation. It is located 38 km east of Kiruna, Sweden. The site hosts one 15 metre- and one
13-metre-diameter antenna, each with S- and X-band reception and S-band transmission. It also hosts a
GPS-Tracking and Data Facility (TDF) antenna.
It is mainly used for the ERS-2, Envisat, and ASTRO-F missions.
External links
• ESA webpage on ESTRACK, including links to all stations [1]
• ESA/ESTRACK Kiruna station page [2]
References
[1] http:/ / www. esa. int/ SPECIALS/ Operations/ SEM8YCSMTWE_0. html
[2] http:/ / www. esa. int/ SPECIALS/ Operations/ SEMERDSMTWE_0. html
18
19
Owner
Established
1975
Headquarters
Paris
Primary spaceport
Guiana Space Centre
Administrator
Jean-Jacques Dordain
Budget
[1]
€3.99 billion / £3.51 billion / $5.65 billion US dollars (2011)
Official language(s) English, French and German[2]
Website
www.esa.int
[3]
The European Space Agency (ESA), established in 1975, is an intergovernmental organisation dedicated to the
exploration of space, currently with 19 member states. Headquartered in Paris, ESA has a staff of more than 2,000
with an annual budget of about €3.99 billion / $5.65 billion US dollars (2011).[1]
ESA's space flight program includes human spaceflight, mainly through the participation in the International Space
Station program, the launch and operations of unmanned exploration missions to other planets and the Moon, Earth
observation, science, telecommunication as well as maintaining a major spaceport, the Guiana Space Centre at
Kourou, French Guiana, and designing launch vehicles. The main European launch vehicle Ariane 5 is operated
through Arianespace with ESA sharing in the costs of launching and further developing this launch vehicle.
ESA science missions are based at ESTEC in Noordwijk, Netherlands, Earth Observation missions at ESRIN in
Frascati, Italy, ESA Mission Control (ESOC) is in Darmstadt, Germany, the European Astronaut Centre (EAC) that
trains astronauts for future missions is situated in Cologne, Germany, and the European Space Astronomy Centre is
located in Villanueva de la Cañada, Spain.
History
Foundation
After World War II, many European scientists left Western Europe
in order to work in the United States. Although the 1950s boom
made it possible for Western European countries to invest in
research and specifically in space related activities, Western
European scientists realised solely national projects would not be
able to compete with the two main superpowers. In 1958, only
months after the Sputnik shock, Edoardo Amaldi and Pierre
Auger, two prominent members of the western European scientific
community at that time, met to discuss the foundation of a
common western European space agency. The meeting was
attended by scientific representatives from eight countries,
including Harrie Massey (UK).
ESTEC buildings in Noordwijk, Netherlands. ESTEC
was the main technical centre of ESRO and remains so
for the successor organization, ESA
The Western European nations decided to have two different agencies, one concerned with developing a launch
system ELDO (European Launch Development Organization) and the precursor of the European Space Agency,
ESRO (European Space Research Organization). The latter was established on 20 March 1964 by an agreement
signed on 14 June 1962. From 1968 to 1972, ESRO carried out numerous successful projects. Seven research
satellites were brought into orbit, all by US launch systems. Ariane did not exist at that time.
ESA in its current form was founded in 1975, when ESRO was merged with ELDO. ESA had 10 founding members:
Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United
Kingdom.[4] ESA launched its first major scientific mission in 1975, Cos-B, a space probe monitoring gamma-ray
emissions in the universe first worked on by ESRO.
End of space race
Beginning in the 1970s, when the space race between the US and
the Soviet Union had cooled down and space budgets were cut
dramatically in both countries, ESA established itself as a
frontrunner in space exploration. ESA joined NASA in the IUE,
the world's first high-orbit telescope, which was launched in 1978
and operated very successfully for 18 years. A number of
successful Earth-orbit projects followed, and in 1986 ESA began
Giotto, its first deep-space mission, to study the Comets Halley
and Grigg-Skjellerup. Hipparcos, a star-mapping mission, was
launched in 1989 and in the 1990s SOHO, Ulysses and the Hubble
Space Telescope were all jointly carried out with NASA. Recent
scientific missions in cooperation with NASA include the
Cassini–Huygens space probe, to which ESA contributed by
building the Titan landing module Huygens.
As the successor of ELDO, ESA has also constructed rockets for
unmanned scientific and commercial payloads. Ariane 1, launched
in 1979, brought mostly commercial payloads into orbit from 1984
onward. The next two developments of the Ariane rocket were
Mock-up of the Ariane 1
intermediate stages in the development of a more advanced launch
system, the Ariane 4, which operated between 1988 and 2003 and
established ESA as the world leader in commercial space launches in the 1990s. Although the succeeding Ariane 5
experienced a failure on its first flight, it has since firmly established itself within the heavily competitive
commercial space launch market with 56 successful launches as of September 2011. The successor launch vehicle of
Ariane 5, the Ariane 6 is already in the definition stage and is envisioned to enter service in the 2020s.
The beginning of the new millennium saw ESA become, along with agencies like NASA, JAXA, ISRO and
Roscosmos, one of the major participants in scientific space research. While ESA had relied on cooperation with
NASA in previous decades, especially the 1990s, changed circumstances (such as tough legal restrictions on
information sharing by the United States military) led to decisions to rely more on itself and on cooperation with
Russia. A recent press issue thus stated:[5]
Russia is ESA's first partner in its efforts to ensure long-term access to space. There is a framework agreement
between ESA and the government of the Russian Federation on cooperation and partnership in the exploration
and use of outer space for peaceful purposes, and cooperation is already under way in two different areas of
launcher activity that will bring benefits to both partners.
20
Most notable for its new self-confidence are ESA's own recent successful missions SMART-1, a probe testing
cutting-edge new space propulsion technology, the Mars Express and Venus Express missions as well as the
development of the Ariane 5 rocket and its role in the ISS partnership. ESA maintains its scientific and research
projects mainly for astronomy-space missions such as Corot, launched on 27 December 2006, a milestone in the
search for extrasolar planets.
Mission statement
Since the Cold War ended with the fall of the Soviet Union's "iron curtain", space agencies around the world had to
refocus and revise their visions and goals. In an interview with JAXA, the Japanese national space agency,
Jean-Jacques Dordain ESA's Director General (since 2003) outlined briefly the European Space Agency's mission:[6]
Today space activities are pursued for the benefit of citizens, and citizens are asking for a better quality of life
on earth. They want greater security and economic wealth, but they also want to pursue their dreams, to
increase their knowledge, and they want younger people to be attracted to the pursuit of science and
technology.
I think that space can do all of this: it can produce a higher quality of life, better security, more economic
wealth, and also fulfil our citizens' dreams and thirst for knowledge, and attract the young generation. This is
the reason space exploration is an integral part of overall space activities. It has always been so, and it will be
even more important in the future.
Article II, Purpose, Convention of establishment of a European Space Agency, SP-1271(E) from 2003 also defines
ESA's mission statement:[7]
ESA's purpose shall be to provide for, and to promote, for exclusively peaceful purposes, cooperation among
European States in space research and technology and their space applications, with a view to their being used
for scientific purposes and for operational space applications systems:
• by elaborating and implementing a long-term European space policy, by recommending space objectives to the
Member States, and by concerting the policies of the Member States with respect to other national and
international organisations and institutions;
• by elaborating and implementing activities and programmes in the space field;
• by coordinating the European space programme and national programmes, and by integrating the latter
progressively and as completely as possible into the European space programme, in particular as regards the
development of applications satellites;
• by elaborating and implementing the industrial policy appropriate to its programme and by recommending a
coherent industrial policy to the Member States.
21
22
Member countries and budget
Membership and contribution to ESA
ESA is an intergovernmental organisation of
19 member states [8] Member states
participate to varying degrees in the
mandatory (25% of total expenditures in
2008) and optional space programmes (75%
of total expenditures in 2008).[9] The 2008
budget amounted to €3.0 billion the 2009
budget to €3.6 billion.[10] The total budget
in 2010 amounted to about €3.7 billion and
in 2011 it is €3.99 billion.
The following table gives an overview of all
member states and adjunct members and
their contributions to ESA in 2011:[11]
ESA member countries ECS states signed Cooperation Agreement
ESA member countries ESA associate members ECS states signed Cooperation
Agreement
Member state
ESA membership National Program
Contr. Contr.
(%)
(mill. €)
30 October 1980
CNES
751.4
18.8%
30 October 1980
DLR
713.8
17.9%
30 October 1980
ASI
380.0
9.5%
United Kingdom
30 October 1980
UKSA
265.3
6.6%
[12]
30 October 1980
CDTI
201.9
5.1%
30 October 1980
BELSPO
164.8
4.1%
[12]
France
[12]
Germany
[12]
Italy
[12]
Spain
[12]
Belgium
23
30 October 1980
NSO
84.2
2.1%
30 October 1980
SSO
96.2
2.4%
30 October 1980
SNSB
59.9
1.5%
30 October 1980
DTU Space
31.2
0.8%
10 December 1980 EI
15.6
0.4%
[14]
30 December 1986 NSC
63.2
1.6%
[14]
30 December 1986 FFG
54.0
1.3%
[14]
1 January 1995
20.1
0.5%
14 November 2000 FCT
15.8
0.4%
9 March 2005
ISARS
14.9
0.4%
30 June 2005
Luxinnovation
11.5
0.3%
CSO
10.4
0.3%
20.5
0.5%
2975.0
74.5%
777.9
19.5%
7.9
0.2%
233.0
5.8%
[12]
Netherlands
[12]
Switzerland
[12]
Sweden
[12]
Denmark
[12][13]
Ireland
Norway
Austria
Finland
[14]
Portugal
[14]
Greece
[14]
Luxembourg
TEKES
[14]
Czech Republic
ROSA
[14]
Romania
Associate Members
[15]
[16] CSA
Canada
1 January 1979
Total Members and Associates
[18]
28 May 2004
ESP
ECS states
various
various
Other income
—
—
[17]
European Union
Total ESA
3993.8 100.0%
[1] de Selding, Peter (21 January 2011). "ESA Budget Rises to $4B as 14 Nations Boost Contributions" (http:/ / www. spacenews. com/ civil/
110121-esa-budget-rises. html). Spaceflight Now. .
[2] "Convention for the establishment of a European Space Agency" (http:/ / esamultimedia. esa. int/ docs/ SP1271En_final. pdf) (PDF). ESA.
2003. . Retrieved 2008-12-29.
[3] http:/ / www. esa. int/
[4] "ESA turns 30! A successful track record for Europe in space" (http:/ / www. esa. int/ esaCP/ Pr_27_2005_p_EN. html) (Press release).
European Space Agency. 31 May 2005. .
[5] "Launchers Home: International cooperation" (http:/ / www. esa. int/ SPECIALS/ Launchers_Home/ SEMCDI1PGQD_0. html). European
Space Agency. .
[6] "Launching a New Era with JAXA: Interview with Jean-Jacques Dordain" (http:/ / www. jaxa. jp/ news_topics/ interview/ vol4/ index_e.
html). JAXA. 31 October 2003. .
[7] "ESA's Purpose" (http:/ / www. esa. int/ SPECIALS/ About_ESA/ SEMSN26LARE_0. html). European Space Agency. 14 June 2007. .
[8] "About ESA - Romania accedes to ESA Convention" (http:/ / www. esa. int/ esaMI/ About_ESA/ SEMF0P6SXIG_0. html). ESA. . Retrieved
14 January 2012.
[9] "ESA programmes with Czech participation" (http:/ / www. czechspace. cz/ cs/ system/ files/ AO6052-ws00pe. pdf) (PDF). Czech Space
Office. 2009. .
[10] esa.int – ESA budget for 2009 (http:/ / esamultimedia. esa. int/ docs/ corporate/ ESA_2009_Budgetsweb. pdf)
[11] esa.int – ESA budget for 2011 (http:/ / download. esa. int/ docs/ DG/ ESA_2011_Budget_040111_rev2. ppt)
[12] Founding members drafted the ESA charter which entered into force on 30 October 1980. ESA Convention (http:/ / www. esa. int/ esapub/
sp/ sp1300/ sp1300EN1. pdf) (6th ed.). European Space Agency. September 2005. ISBN 92-9092-397-0. .
[13] Ireland is considered an initial signatory, but since it was a member of neither ESRO nor ELDO (the precursor organizations to ESA) the
Convention entered into force when the last of the other 10 founders ratified it.
[14] Acceded members became ESA member states upon signing an accession agreement.Poncelet, Jean-Pol; Fonseca-Colomb, Anabela; Grilli,
Guilio (November 2004). "Enlarging ESA? After the Accession of Luxembourg and Greece" (http:/ / www. esa. int/ esapub/ bulletin/
bulletin120/ bul120g_poncelet. pdf) (PDF). ESA Bulletin (120): 48–53. .
[15] Canada is an associated member of ESA.Dotto, Lydia (May 2002) (PDF). Canada and The European Space Agency: Three Decades of
Cooperation (http:/ / www. esa. int/ esapub/ hsr/ HSR_25. pdf). European Space Agency. .
[16] Leclerc, G.; Lessard, S. (November 1998). "Canada and ESA: 20 Years of Cooperation" (http:/ / www. esa. int/ esapub/ bulletin/ bullet96/
LECLERC. pdf) (PDF). ESA Bulletin (96). ISBN 92-9092-533-7. .
[17] Framework Agreement establishing the legal basis for cooperation between ESA and the European Union came into force in May 2004.
[18] "Framework Agreement between the European Community and the European Space Agency" (http:/ / www. consilium. europa. eu/ App/
accords/ Default. aspx?command=details& id=297& lang=EN& aid=2003099& doclang=EN). Consilium.europa.eu. . Retrieved 2011-08-29.
Associate members
Currently the only associated member of ESA is Canada.[] Previously associated members were Austria, Norway and
Finland, all of which later joined ESA as full members.
Canada
Since 1 January 1979, Canada has had the special status of a Cooperating State within ESA. By virtue of this accord,
the Canadian Space Agency takes part in ESA's deliberative bodies and decision-making and also in ESA's
programmes and activities. Canadian firms can bid for and receive contracts to work on programmes. The accord has
a provision ensuring a fair industrial return to Canada.[1]
Budget appropriation and allocation
ESA budget chart by programme for 2011[11]
Earth Observation: 843.9 M€ (21.1%)
Navigation: 665.7 M€ (16.7%)
Launchers: 612.5 M€ (15.3%)
Science: 464.8 M€ (11.6%)
Human Spaceflight: 410.9 M€ (10.3%)
Telecommunications: 341.3 M€ (8.5%)
Basic Activities: 216.7 M€ (5.4%)
General Budget: 179.9 M€ (4.5%)
Robotic Exploration: 129.4 M€ (3.2%)
Other (3.4%)
The budget of ESA was €2.977 billion in 2005, €2.904 billion in 2006 and grew to €3.018 billion in 2008 and
€3.600 billion in 2009.[2][3] Every 3–4 years, ESA member states agree on a budget plan for several years at an ESA
member states conference. This plan can be amended in future years, however provides the major guideline for ESA
for several years. The last major conference was held at the end of 2008, setting the budget for the years to 2012.
The 2011 funding allocations for major areas of ESA activity are shown on the pie-chart on the right. The section
called 'Other' includes Technology Development, Space Situational Awareness and spending related to European
Cooperating States.[2]
Countries typically have their own space programmes that differ in how they operate organisationally and financially
with ESA. For example, the French space agency CNES has a budget double the amount it contributes to ESA.
Several space-related projects are joint projects between national space agencies and ESA (e.g. COROT). Also, ESA
is not the only European space organisation (for example European Union Satellite Centre).
24
25
Enlargement
After the decision of the ESA Council of 21/22 March 2001, the procedure for accession of the European states was
detailed as described here.[4] Nations who want to become a full member of ESA do so in 3 stages. First a
Cooperation Agreement is signed between the country and ESA. In this stage, the country has very limited financial
responsibilities. If a country wants to cooperate more fully with ESA, it signs a European Cooperating State (ECS)
Agreement. The ECS Agreement makes companies based in the country eligible for participation in ESA
procurements. The country can also participate in all ESA programmes, except for the Basic Technology Research
Programme. While the financial contribution of the country concerned increases, it is still much lower than that of a
full member state. The agreement is normally followed by a Plan For European Cooperating State (or PECS
Charter). This is a 5-year programme of basic research and development activities aimed at improving the nation's
space industry capacity. At the end of the 5-year period, the country can either begin negotiations to become a full
member state or an associated state or sign a new PECS Charter.[5] ESA is likely to expand quite rapidly in the
coming years. Many countries, most of which joined the EU in both 2004 and 2007, have started to cooperate with
ESA on various levels:
Applicant state Cooperation Agreement
[6][7]
Hungary
April 1991
Poland
28 January 1994
Turkey
15 July 2004
Estonia
26 June 2007
Ukraine
25 January 2008
Slovenia
28 May 2008
Latvia
23 July 2009
Cyprus
27 August 2009
Slovakia
28 April 2010
Lithuania
7 October 2010
Israel
30 January 2011
Malta
December 2011
[7]
ECS Agreement
[8]
PECS Charter(s)
[9]
[11]
1st: 5 November 2003
2012
[10]
2nd: 26 September 2008
7 April 2003
[12]
[13]
27 April 2007
[22]
[23]
[24]
[25]
[27][28]
[29]
HSO
(2012 or 2013)
TÜBİTAK
[17]
through MoEC
10 November 2009
[18]
[19]
National Program
[14] CBK-PAN
28 April 2008
[15]
[16]
ESA Convention
SSAU
[20]
22 January 2010
[21]
30 November 2010
through MoHEST
through MoES
through MoCW
through MoE
[26]
through MoE
ISA
[30]
through MCfST.
Romania signed the ESA Convention on 20 January 2011 and became the 19th member of ESA when it deposited its
instrument of ratification with the government of France in December 2011.[31] [29]
Possible future cooperation
The political perspective of the European Union (EU) is to make ESA an agency of the EU by 2014.[32]
So far the only EU member state that has not signed an ESA Cooperation Agreement is Bulgaria. It has, however,
already announced its intention to join ESA.
•
Bulgaria on 9 April 2009 announced their intention to participate in the activities of ESA [33] through
IKI-BAN.[34]
26
Launch vehicle fleet
ESA has made great progress towards its goal of having a complete fleet of launch vehicles in service, competing in
all sectors of the launch market. ESA's fleet will soon consist of three major rocket designs, Ariane 5, Soyuz-2 and
Vega. Rocket launches are carried out by Arianespace, which has 23 shareholders representing the industry that
manufactures the Ariane 5 as well as CNES, at the spaceport in French Guiana. Because many communication
satellites have equatorial orbits, launches from French Guiana are able to take larger payloads into space than from
more northerly spaceports. In addition, equatorial launches give spacecraft an extra 'push' of nearly 500 m/s due to
the higher rotation velocity of someone standing on the equator than near the Earth's axis where rotation velocity
approaches nil.
Ariane 5
The Ariane 5 rocket is the primary launcher of ESA. Its maximum estimated
payload is 6-10 tons to GTO and up to 21 tons to LEO. The launch craft has been
in service since 1997 and replaced Ariane 4. The Ariane rocket exists in several
specifications, the heaviest being Ariane 5 ECA, which failed during its first test
flight in 2002, but has since made twenty-two consecutive successful flights.
ESA's Ariane 1, 2, 3 and 4 launchers (the latter of which was ESA's long-time
workhorse) have been retired.
Soyuz
Soyuz-2 (also called the Soyuz-ST or Soyuz-STK) is a Russian medium payload
launcher (ca. 3 metric tons to GTO) which was brought into ESA service in
An Ariane 5
October 2011.[35][36] ESA entered into a €340 million joint venture with the
Russian Federal Space Agency over the use of the Soyuz launcher.[5] Under the
agreement, the Russian agency manufactures Soyuz rocket parts for ESA, which are then shipped to French Guiana
for assembly.
ESA benefits because it gains a medium payload launcher, complementing its fleet while saving on development
costs. In addition, the Soyuz rocket—which has been the Russian's space launch workhorse for some 40 years—is
proven technology with a very good safety record. Russia benefits in that it gets access to the Kourou launch site.
Launching from Kourou rather than Baikonur will allow the Russians to almost double the Soyuz payload (3.0
tonnes vs. 1.7 tonnes to GTO), because of Kourou's closer proximity to the equator. Both agencies benefit from the
long term strategic cooperation, which is also intended to enable future joint technology developments.
The maiden launch from Kourou was on October 21, 2011, for two European space navigation satellites.[37] Three
hours and 49 minutes after blast-off, the ESA announced that the two Galileo IOV-1 & IOV-2 satellites had
successfully reached their final orbit 23,222 kilometres above Earth, and that their launch had been a complete
success. The second Soyuz launch from French Guiana on the 16th of December 2011 was also a success.
27
Vega
Vega is ESA's small payload (ca. 1.5 metric tons to 700 km orbit) launcher.[38] The leading ESA member state for
the Vega Programme is Italy, contributing 65% of the costs. Vega itself has been designed to be a body launcher with
three solid propulsion stages and an additional liquid propulsion upper module to place the cargo into the exact orbit
intended. For a small-cargo rocket it is remarkable that Vega will be able to place multiple payloads into orbit.
Vega's first and main stage (P80) is a direct modification of the Ariane 5 EAP (solid boosters) developed by CNES,
the French space agency.[39] The maiden launch is planned for 9 February 2012.[40]
Human space flight
History
At the time ESA was formed, its main goals did not encompass human
space flight, rather it considered itself to be primarily a scientific
research organisation for unmanned space exploration in contrast to its
American and Soviet counterparts. It is therefore not surprising that the
first non-Soviet European in space was not an ESA astronaut on a
European space craft: It was Czechoslovak Vladimír Remek who in
1978 became the first non-Soviet European in space (the first European
in space being Yuri Gagarin of the Soviet Union) — on a Soviet Soyuz
spacecraft, followed by the Pole Mirosław Hermaszewski and East
German Sigmund Jähn in the same year. This Soviet cooperation
programme, known as Intercosmos, primarily involved the
participation of Eastern bloc countries, however in 1982, Jean-Loup
Chrétien became the first western European on a flight to the Soviet
Salyut 7 space station.
Because Chrétien did not officially fly into space as an ESA astronaut,
but rather as a member of the French CNES astronaut corps, the
Ulf Merbold became the first ESA astronaut to
fly into space.
German Ulf Merbold is considered the first ESA astronaut to fly into
space. He participated in the STS-9 Space Shuttle mission that included the first use of the European built Spacelab
in 1983. STS-9 marked the beginning of an extensive ESA/NASA joint partnership that included dozens of space
flights of ESA astronauts in the following years. Some of this missions with Spacelab were fully funded and
organizationally and scientifically controlled by ESA (like separate two by Germany and one by Japan) with
European astronauts as masters not a guests on a board. Beside paying for Spacelab flights and seats on the shuttles,
ESA continued its human space flight cooperation with the Soviet Union and later Russia, including numerous visits
to Mir.
During the latter half of the 1980s, European human space flights changed from being the exception to routine and
therefore, in 1990, the European Astronaut Centre in Cologne, Germany was established. It selects and trains
prospective astronauts and is responsible for the coordination with international partners especially with regards to
the International Space Station. As of 2006, the ESA astronaut corps officially included 12 members, including
nationals from all the large Western European countries except the United Kingdom.
In the summer of 2008 ESA started to recruit new astronauts so that final selection would be due spring 2009.
Almost 10,000 people registered as astronaut candidates till the registration ended in June 2008. 8,413 fulfilled the
initial application criteria. Of the applicants 918 were chosen to take part in the first stage of psychological testing
which narrowed down the field to 192. After two stage psychological tests and medical evaluation in early 2009 as
well as formal interviews, six new members of the European Astronaut Corps were selected: five men and one
28
woman.[41]
Astronaut Corps
The astronauts of the European Space Agency are:
[42]
•
Jean-François Clervoy
•
Samantha Cristoforetti
•
Frank De Winne
•
Pedro Duque
•
Reinhold Ewald
•
Léopold Eyharts
•
Alexander Gerst
•
Umberto Guidoni
[44]
[43]
[43]
Christer Fuglesang
•
André Kuipers
•
Thomas Pesquet
•
Thomas Reiter
Andreas Mogensen
[43]
Paolo Nespoli
•
Hans Schlegel
•
Gerhard Thiele
•
Michel Tognini
•
Roberto Vittori
•
[45]
Claude Nicollier
[44]
Luca Parmitano
[44]
Timothy Peake
•
Philippe Perrin
[42]
•
[44]
[45][43]
[44]
•
•
[42][43]
[43]
•
•
[43]
[44]
[42][43]
[43]
[45]
[45][42]
[43]
[45][43]
[1] "ESA and Canada renew cooperation agreement, building on long-term partnership" (http:/ / www. esa. int/ esaCP/ Pr_39_2000_p_EN. html)
(Press release). European Space Agency. 21 June 2000. .
[2] "ESA budget for 2009" (http:/ / esamultimedia. esa. int/ docs/ corporate/ ESA_2009_Budgetsweb. pdf) (PDF). European Space Agency.
January 2009. .
[3] "ESA and the EU" (http:/ / www. esa. int/ esaCP/ SEMFEPYV1SD_index_0. html). European Space Agency. 9 October 2008. .
[4] Zufferey, Bernard (22 November 2006). "The Plan for European Co-operating States (PECS): Towards an enlarged ESA Partnership" (http:/ /
pecs. esa. int/ system/ files/ PECSPresentation2006. pdf) (PDF). European Space Agency. .
[5] "PECS: General Overview" (http:/ / pecs. esa. int/ node/ 24). European Space Agency. .
[6] "Hungary and ESA sign PECS Agreement for another five years" (http:/ / pecs. esa. int/ node/ 104). European Space Agency. 11 November
2008. .
[7] "ESA/Poland cooperation agreement" (http:/ / www. esa. int/ esaCP/ Pr_4_1994_p_EN. html) (Press release). European Space Agency. 28
January 1994. .
[8] "Agreements 2003" (http:/ / www. esa. int/ esapub/ annuals/ annual03/ ar3_agree_signed. pdf) (PDF). ESA Annual Report 2003. European
Space Agency. pp. 112–113. .
[9] "Hungary and the Czech Republic sign ECS agreements with ESA" (http:/ / www. esa. int/ esaCP/ SEMLTLUZJND_index_0. html).
European Space Agency. 4 December 2003. . Retrieved 2008-07-17.
[10] "Hungary and ESA sign PECS Agreement for another five years" (http:/ / pecs. esa. int/ node/ 104). European Space Agency. 11 November
2008. . Retrieved 2008-11-20.
[11] Kosmonauta.net – Űrbázis Etyeken – a határ a csillagos ég (http:/ / index. hu/ tudomany/ 2011/ 09/ 08/ urversenyben_vagyunk/ )
[12] "Poland becomes the fourth ESA European Cooperating State" (http:/ / www. esa. int/ esaMI/ About_ESA/ SEMVKSU681F_0. html).
[13] "Poland and ESA sign the Plan for European Cooperating State" (http:/ / pecs. esa. int/ node/ 99). European Space Agency. 5 May 2008. .
[14] Kosmonauta.net – KBKiS PAN o decyzji premiera w sprawie przystąpienia do ESA (PAN KBKiS Prime Minister's decision on accession to
ESA) (http:/ / www. kosmonauta. net/ index. php/ Przyszlosc/ Polska/ 2011-06-18-esa. html)
[15] "ESA signs Cooperation Agreement with Turkey" (http:/ / www. esa. int/ esaCP/ SEMOCD0XDYD_index_0. html). European Space
Agency. 6 September 2004. .
[16] "Estonia signs Cooperation Agreement with ESA" (http:/ / www. esa. int/ esaCP/ SEMMA09OY2F_Benefits_2. html). European Space
Agency. 26 June 2007. . Retrieved 2008-07-17.
[17] "Estonia becomes fifth ESA European Cooperating State" (http:/ / www. esa. int/ esaCP/ SEMW8W3VU1G_index_0. html). European
Space Agency. 12 November 2009. . Retrieved 2009-11-14.
[18] "A cooperation agreement between the Government of Ukraine and the European Space Agency was signed in Paris" (http:/ / www. nkau.
gov. ua/ nsau/ newsnsau. nsf/ HronolE/ 54F1C600559E994CC22573DB00489EE7?OpenDocument& Lang=E). State Space Agency of
Ukraine. . Retrieved 2008-01-25.
[19] "Slovenian Government and ESA Sign Cooperation Agreement" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080608123103/ http:/ / www. ukom.
gov. si/ eng/ slovenia/ publications/ slovenia-news/ 6537/ 6554/ ). Slovenian Government Communication Office. 28 May 2008. Archived
from the original (http:/ / www. ukom. gov. si/ eng/ slovenia/ publications/ slovenia-news/ 6537/ 6554/ ) on 8 June 2008. .
[20] "Slovenia becomes sixth ESA European Cooperating State" (http:/ / www. esa. int/ SPECIALS/ About_ESA/ SEM2BMRJR4G_0. html).
ESA. 25 January 2010. . Retrieved 2010-01-25.
[21] "European Space Agency selects and confirms ten Slovenian proposals" (http:/ / www. mvzt. gov. si/ nc/ en/ splosno/ cns/ news/ article/ 94/
6845/ 049772920e/ ). Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology of Slovenia. 3 December 2010. . Retrieved 6 December 2010.
[22] "Līgums ar Kosmosa aģentūru liks tiekties pēc augstākiem rezultātiem" (http:/ / www. diena. lv/ lat/ politics/ hot/
parakstis-ligumu-par-sadarbibu-kosmosa-joma) (in Latvian). Diena.lv. 23 July 2009. . Retrieved 2009-07-24.
[23] "Cyprus signs space agreement" (http:/ / www. famagusta-gazette. com/ default. asp?sdetail=9458). Famagusta Gazette Online. 28 August
2009. . Retrieved 2009-08-30.
[24] "Slovak Republic signs Cooperation Agreement" (http:/ / www. esa. int/ SPECIALS/ About_ESA/ SEMYC1KPO8G_0. html). ESA. 4 May
2010. .
[25] Danuta Pavilenene (October 07, 2010). "Lithuania signs agreement with European Space Agency" (http:/ / www. baltic-course. com/ eng/
Technology/ ?doc=32461). The Baltic Course. .
[26] Previously participation was announced by the Lithuanian Ministry of Education and Science. Lietuva stoja į Europos kosmoso agentūrą
(Lithuanian) (http:/ / www. ve. lt/ ?rub=1065924810& data=2008-07-17& id=1216294527)
[27] "Israel signs Cooperation Agreement" (http:/ / www. esa. int/ esaCP/ SEMKE3Y1LJG_index_0. html). ESA.int. 31 January 2011. .
[28] "Statement by Ambassador David Walzer" (http:/ / www. israel-un. org/ statements-at-the-united-nations/ general-assembly/
168-fourth-committee-international-cooperation-in-the-peaceful-uses-of-outer-space-agenda-item-30). israel-un.org. 22 October 2009. .
[29] "ESA Web-TV: ESA Director General meets the press in Paris - English (between 15 and 20 min in)" (http:/ / multimedia. esa. int/ Web-TV/
ESA-Web-TV-ESA-Director-General-meets-the-press-in-Paris-English). ESA online videos. esa. . Retrieved 9 January 2012.
[30] "Malta exploring ways of collaborating with European Space Agency" (http:/ / www. earsc. eu/ news/
malta-exploring-ways-of-collaborating-with-european-space-agency). EARSC. 20 June 2009. .
[31] esa.int – Romania accedes to ESA Convention (http:/ / www. esa. int/ SPECIALS/ About_ESA/ SEMF0P6SXIG_0. html)
[32] "ESA BR-268" (http:/ / www. esa. int/ esapub/ br/ br268/ br268. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2011-08-29.
[33] "Bulgaria Slated to Join European Space Community" (http:/ / www. novinite. com/ view_news. php?id=102652). Novinite. April 9, 2009. .
[34] Bulgarian Academy of Sciences – Space Research Institute (page 18) (http:/ / www. space. bas. bg/ Eng/ docs/ Otchet_IKI_2004_2008. pdf)
[35] "Russian rockets shipped for French Guiana launch" (http:/ / www. google. com/ hostednews/ afp/ article/
ALeqM5gVS89qN2Zk3D6jSMbJfn5Bc3SA4w). AFP. Google. 7 November 2009. .
[36] "Russia ships Soyuz carrier rockets to Kourou spaceport" (http:/ / en. rian. ru/ science/ 20091107/ 156748574. html). RIA Novosti. 7
November 2009. .
[37] "Soyuz rocket launches European navigation satellites into orbit" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ science/ 2011/ oct/ 21/
soyuz-rocket-launches-navigation-satellites). The Guardian. 21 October 2011. .
[38] de Selding, Peter B. (15 January 2010). "Italian Space Agency Expects Budget To Remain Flat for 2010" (http:/ / www. spacenews. com/
civil/ 100115-asi-expects-budget-remain-flat-2010. html). Space News. .
[39] "Vega: a small launcher for Europe" (http:/ / esamultimedia. esa. int/ docs/ VEGAbrochure. pdf) (PDF). ESA today (European Space
Agency): 14–15. May/June 2003. .
[40] http:/ / www. esa. int/ SPECIALS/ Launchers_Home/ SEMNAB2PGQD_0. html
[41] "Closing in on new astronauts" (http:/ / www. esa. int/ esaHS/ SEMZQPQ4KKF_index_0. html). European Space Agency. 24 September
2008. .
[42] have visited Mir
[43] have visited the International Space Station
[44] 2009 selection
[45] retired now
Manned launch vehicles
In the 1980s France pressed for an independent European manned launch vehicle. Around 1978 it was decided to
pursue a reusable spacecraft model and starting in November 1987 a project to create a mini-shuttle by the name of
Hermes was introduced. The craft itself was modelled comparable to the first proposals of the Space Shuttle and
consisted of a small reusable spaceship that would carry 3 to 5 astronauts and 3 to 4 metric tons of payload for
scientific experiments. With a total maximum weight of 21 metric tons it would have been launched on the Ariane 5
rocket, which was being developed at that time. It was planned solely for use in Low-Earth orbit space flights. The
planning and pre-development phase concluded in 1991; however, the production phase was never fully
implemented because at that time the political landscape had changed significantly. With the fall of the Soviet Union
ESA looked forward to cooperation with Russia to build a next-generation human space vehicle. Thus the Hermes
program was cancelled in 1995 after about 3 billion dollars had been spent. The Columbus space station program had
a similar fate.
29
30
In the 21st century ESA started new programs in order to create its own manned spacecraft, most notable among its
various projects and proposals is Hopper, whose prototype by EADS, called Phoenix, has already been tested. While
projects such as Hopper are neither concrete nor to be realised within the next decade, other possibilities for human
spaceflight in cooperation with the Russian Space Agency have emerged. Following talks with the Russian Space
Agency in 2004 and June 2005,[1] a cooperation between ESA and the Russian Space Agency was announced to
jointly work on the Russian-designed Kliper, a reusable spacecraft that would be available for space travel beyond
LEO (e.g. the moon or even Mars). It was speculated that Europe would finance part of it. However, a €50 million
participation study for Kliper, which was expected to be approved in December 2005, was finally not approved by
the ESA member states. The Russian state tender for the Kliper project was subsequently cancelled in the summer of
2006.
In June 2006 ESA member states granted 15 million to the Crew Space Transportation System (CSTS) study, a
two-year study to design a spacecraft capable of going beyond Low-Earth orbit based on the current Soyuz design.
This project is pursued with Roskosmos instead of the previously cancelled Kliper proposal. A decision on the actual
implementation and construction of the CSTS spacecraft is contemplated for 2008, with the major design decisions
being made before the summer of 2007. In mid-2009 EADS Astrium was awarded a €21 million study into
designing a manned variation of the European ATV vehicle which is believed to now be the basis of the Advanced
Crew Transportation System design.[2]
Cooperation with other countries and organisations
ESA has signed cooperation agreements with the following states that currently neither plan to integrate as tightly
with ESA institutions as Canada, nor envision future membership of ESA: Argentina,[3] Brazil,[4] China,[5] India[6]
(for the Chandrayan mission), and Russia.[8]
Additionally, ESA has joint projects with the European Union, NASA of the United States and is participating in the
International Space Station together with the United States (NASA), Russia and Japan (JAXA).
European Union
ESA is not an agency or body of the European Union (EU), and
has non-EU countries Switzerland and Norway as members. There
are however ties between the two, with various agreements in
place and being worked on, to define the legal status of ESA with
regard to the EU.[3]
There are common goals between ESA and the EU, and ESA has
an EU liaison office in Brussels. On certain projects, the EU and
ESA cooperate, such as the upcoming Galileo satellite navigation
system. Space policy has since December 2009 been an area for
voting in the European Council. Under the European Space Policy
of 2007, the EU, ESA and its Member States committed
themselves to increasing coordination of their activities and
programmes and to organising their respective roles relating to
space.[7]
ESA and EU member countries ESA-only
members EU-only members
Former Italian astronaut Umberto Guidoni, during his tenure as a Member of the European Parliament from 2004 to
2009, stressed the importance of the European Union as a driving force for space exploration, "since other players
are coming up such as India and China it is becoming ever more important that Europeans can have an independent
access to space. We have to invest more into space research and technology in order to have an industry capable of
competing with other international players."[8]
An independent report on the future of ESA, requested by its director-general, recommends further integration of
ESA into the structures of the EU. Space policy would be decided by the European Council and ESA would be the
de facto space agency of the European Union, not excluding the possibility of making it a formal EU agency. This
would also help with co-operation between space policy and environmental or security policy, Galileo itself has a
security dimension.[9]
The first EU-ESA International Conference on Human Space Exploration took place in Prague on 22 and 23 October
2009.[10] A road map which would lead to a common vision and strategic planning in the area of space exploration
was discussed. Ministers from all 29 EU and ESA members as well as members of parliament were in attendance.[11]
If a roadmap is accepted at the November 2010 Brussels conference as planned, it is estimated that an additional €3
billion annually would be made available for European space exploration activities by the European Commission.[12]
The political perspective of the European Union (EU) is to make ESA an agency of the EU by 2014,[32] although this
date may not be met.
National space organisations of member countries
• The Centre National d'Études Spatiales (CNES) (National Centre for Space Study) is the French government
space agency (administratively, a "public establishment of industrial and commercial character"). Its headquarters
are in central Paris. CNES is the main participant on the Ariane project. Indeed CNES designed and tested all
Ariane family rockets (mainly from its centre in Évry near Paris)
• The UK Space Agency is a partnership of the UK government departments which are active in space. Through the
UK Space Agency, the partners provide delegates to represent the UK on the various ESA governing bodies. Each
partner funds its own programme.
• The Italian Space Agency (Agenzia Spaziale Italiana or ASI) was founded in 1988 to promote, coordinate and
conduct space activities in Italy. Operating under the Ministry of the Universities and of Scientific and
Technological Research, the agency cooperates with numerous entities active in space technology and with the
president of the Council of Ministers. Internationally, the ASI provides Italy's delegation to the Council of the
European Space Agency and to its subordinate bodies.
• The German Aerospace Center (DLR) (German: Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e. V.) is the national
research centre for aviation and space flight of the Federal Republic of Germany and of other member states in
the Helmholtz Association. Its extensive research and development projects are included in national and
international cooperative programmes. In addition to its research projects, the centre is the assigned space agency
of Germany bestowing headquarters of German space flight activities and its associates.
• The Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial (INTA) (National Institute for Aerospace Technique) is a Public
Research Organization specialized in aerospace research and technology development in Spain. Between other
functions, it serves as a platform for space research and acts as a significant testing facility for the aeronautic and
space sector in the country.
NASA
ESA has a long history of collaboration with NASA. Since ESA's astronaut corps was formed, the Space Shuttle has
been the primary launch vehicle used by ESA's astronauts to get into space through partnership programs with
NASA. In the 1980s and 1990s, the Spacelab program was an ESA-NASA joint research program that had ESA
develop and manufacture orbital labs for the Space Shuttle for several flights on which ESA participate with
astronauts in experiments.
In robotic science mission and exploration missions, NASA has been ESA's main partner. Cassini–Huygens was a
joint NASA-ESA mission, the Infrared Space Observatory, INTEGRAL, SOHO, and others. Also, the Hubble space
telescope is a joint project of NASA and ESA. Future unmanned projects that are in development right now and are
ESA-NASA joint projects include the James Webb Space Telescope or the Laser Interferometer Space Antenna.
31
NASA and ESA will also likely join together for a Mars Sample Return Mission.
Cooperation with other space agencies
Since China has started to invest more money into space activities, the Chinese Space Agency has sought
international partnerships. ESA is, beside the Russian Space Agency, one of its most important partners. Recently
the two space agencies cooperated in the development of the Double Star Mission.[13]
ESA entered into a major joint venture with Russia in the form of the CSTS, the preparation of French Guyana
spaceport for launches of Soyuz rockets and other projects. With India ESA agreed to send instruments into space
aboard the ISRO's Chandrayaan-1 in 2008.[14] ESA is also cooperating with Japan, the most notable current project
in collaboration with JAXA is the BepiColombo mission to Mercury.
Speaking to reporters at an air show near Moscow in August 2011, ESA head Jean-Jacques Dordain said ESA and
Russia's Roskosmos space agency would "carry out the first flight to Mars together."[15]
International Space Station
With regard to the International Space Station (ISS) ESA is not
represented by all of its member states:[16] 10 of the 18 ESA member
countries currently participate in the project.[17] ESA is taking part in
the construction and operation of the ISS with contributions such as
Columbus, a science laboratory module that was brought into orbit by
NASA's STS-122 Space Shuttle mission and the Cupola observatory
module that was completed in July 2005 by Alenia Spazio for ESA.
The current estimates for the ISS are approaching €100 billion in total
(development, construction and 10 years of maintaining the station) of
ISS module Columbus at Kennedy Space Center
which ESA has committed to paying €8 billion.[18] About 90% of the
costs of ESA's ISS share will be contributed by Germany (41%),
France (28%) and Italy (20%). German ESA astronaut Thomas Reiter was the first long-term ISS crew member.
As of 2008, the spacecraft establishing supply links to the ISS are the Progress, Soyuz and Space Shuttle. ESA has
developed the Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) for ISS resupply. Each ATV has a cargo capacity of 7667
kilograms (16900 lb).[19] The first ATV, Jules Verne, was launched on 9 March 2008 and on 3 April 2008
successfully docked with the ISS. This manoeuvre, considered a major technical feat, involved using automated
systems to allow the ATV to track the ISS, moving at 27,000 km/h, and attach itself with an accuracy of 2 cm. No
other spacefaring nations or space agency currently possess this level of autonomy in rendezvous and docking
activities, considered key to future space exploration. With the Space Shuttle reaching its retirement age in 2010,
until NASA has a replacement for it such as COTS the ATV together with Progress, Soyuz and the Japanese
transporter HTV will be the only links between Earth and the ISS.
European Life and Physical Sciences research onboard the International Space Station (ISS) is mainly based on the
ELIPS programme that was initiated in 2001.
32
Miscellaneous
Languages
According to Annex 1, Resolution No. 8 of the Convention for the establishment of a European Space Agency,[20]
English, French and German may be used in all meetings of the Agency, with interpretation provided into these three
languages. All official documents are available in English and French with all documents concerning the ESA
Council being available in German as well.
Facilities
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Headquarters of ESA, Paris, France
European Space Operations Centre (ESOC), Darmstadt, Germany
Centre Spatial Guyanais, Kourou, French Guiana
European Space Research and Technology Centre (ESTEC), Noordwijk, The Netherlands
ESA Centre for Earth Observation (ESRIN), Frascati, Italy
European Astronaut Centre (EAC), Cologne, Germany
European Space Astronomy Centre (ESAC), Madrid, Spain[21]
ESTRACK European Space Tracking Network
European Robotics and Climate Change Centre, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, United Kingdom[22]
Notes
[1] McKie, Robin (22 May 2005). "Europe to hitch space ride on Russia's rocket" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ space/ article/
0,14493,1489679,00. html). The Observer. .
[2] Coppinger, Rob. "EADS Astrium wins €21 million reentry vehicle study" (http:/ / www. flightglobal. com/ blogs/ hyperbola/ 2009/ 07/
picture-eads-astrium-wins-21-m. html). Flightglobal.com. . Retrieved 2011-08-29.
[3] "ESA and Argentina sign extension of Cooperation Agreement" (http:/ / www. esa. int/ SPECIALS/ Industry/ SEMYD01YUFF_0. html).
[4] "ESA on the world stage – international agreements with Brazil, Poland and India" (http:/ / www. esa. int/ esaCP/ ESAA3JUTYWC_index_0.
html). European Space Agency. 1 February 2002. .
[5] "Closer relations between ESA and China" (http:/ / www. esa. int/ esaCP/ SEMJL5ULWFE_Benefits_0. html). European Space Agency. 21
November 2005. .
[6] "Agreement signed for European instruments on Chandrayaan-1" (http:/ / www. esa. int/ SPECIALS/ SMART-1/ SEMZDU5DIAE_0. html).
European Space Agency. 1 July 2005. .
[7] Millett, Lucy (29 August 2009). "Opening up the gate to space" (http:/ / www. cyprus-mail. com/ news/ main. php?id=47524& archive=1).
Cyprus Mail. . Retrieved 30 August 2009.
[8] "Former astronaut MEP backs Europe's stellar ambitions" (http:/ / www. europarl. europa. eu/ news/ public/ story_page/
057-42862-322-11-47-909-20081120STO42665-2008-17-11-2008/ default_en. htm). European Parliament. 28 November 2008. . Retrieved 28
November 2008.
[9] Bildt, Carl; Peyrelevade, Jean; Späth, Lothar. "Towards a Space Agency for the European Union" (http:/ / esamultimedia. esa. int/ docs/
annex2_wisemen. pdf) (PDF). .
[10] Coppinger, Rob (14 October 2009). "2010 to see European Union human spaceflight decision" (http:/ / www. flightglobal. com/ articles/
2009/ 10/ 14/ 333427/ 2010-to-see-european-union-human-spaceflight-decision. html). Flightglobal.com. . Retrieved 18 October 2009.
[11] "Space exploration: European Ministers in Prague prepare a roadmap towards a common vision" (http:/ / www. esa. int/ esaCP/
SEMIE2YRA0G_index_0. html). European Space Agency. 14 October 2009. . Retrieved 18 October 2009.
[12] Coppinger, Rob (3 November 2009). "European Union plans €3 billion a year human exploration roadmap" (http:/ / www. flightglobal.
com/ articles/ 2009/ 11/ 03/ 334293/ european-union-plans-3-billion-a-year-human-exploration. html). Flightglobal.com. . Retrieved 4
November 2009.
[13] An interview with David Southwood, ESA Science Director (http:/ / www. space. co. uk/ DataBank/ VideoGallery/ VideoPlayer/ tabid/ 384/
VideoId/ 22/ An-Interview-With-David-Southwood-ESA-Science-Director. aspx) (Video). Space.co.uk. 29 March 2008. .
[14] "David Southwood at the 2008 UK Space Conference" (http:/ / www. space. co. uk/ DataBank/ Transcripts/ 20080329DavidSouthwood/
tabid/ 441/ Default. aspx). Space.co.uk. 29 March 2008. .
[15] "Russian, European space agencies to team up for Mars mission | RIA Novosti" (http:/ / en. rian. ru/ science/ 20110817/ 165853325. html).
En.rian.ru. 2011-08-17. . Retrieved 2011-08-29.
33
[16] "International Space Station: European Participating States" (http:/ / www. esa. int/ esaHS/ partstates. html). European Space Agency. 2009.
. Retrieved 17 January 2009.
[17] Ten of Europe's member states are participating: Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden and
Switzerland. Austria, Finland, and Ireland chose not to participate, because of lack of interest or concerns about the expense of the project.
The United Kingdom withdrew from the preliminary agreement because of concerns about the expense of the project. Portugal, Greece,
Luxembourg and the Czech Republic joined ESA after the agreement had been signed.
[18] "International Space Station: How much does it cost?" (http:/ / www. esa. int/ esaHS/ ESAQHA0VMOC_iss_0. html). European Space
Agency. 9 August 2005. .
[19] "Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) Utilisation Relevant Data Rev. 1.2" (http:/ / esamultimedia. esa. int/ docs/ ATV/
FS003_12_ATV_updated_launch_2008. pdf) (PDF). ESA ERASMUS User Centre. .
[20] "Annex 1 Resolution 8" (http:/ / esamultimedia. esa. int/ docs/ SP1271En_final. pdf) (PDF). Convention for the establishment of a European
Space Agency (5th ed.). European Space Agency. March 2003. p. 116. ISBN 92-9092-965-0. .
[21] "Contact ESAC" (http:/ / www. esa. int/ SPECIALS/ ESAC/ SEM0EOTLWFE_0. html). European Space Agency. 14 October 2009. .
[22] "European Space Agency touches down in UK as part of ambitious vision to strengthen Britain's space economy" (http:/ / www. bnsc. gov.
uk/ News and Events/ Press Notices/ 10413. aspx) (Press release). British National Space Centre. 22 July 2009. . Retrieved 6 June 2009.
References
Further reading
• ESA Bulletin (http://www.esa.int/esaMI/ESA_Publications/) ( archive (http://www.esa.int/esapub/pi/
bulletinPI.htm)) is a quarterly magazine about the work of ESA that can be subscribed (http://www.esa.int/
esaMI/ESA_Publications/SEMR9YZ990E_0.html) free of charge.
• Bonnet, Roger; Manno, Vittorio (1994). International Cooperation in Space: The Example of the European Space
Agency (Frontiers of Space). Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-45835-4.
• Johnson, Nicholas (1993). Space technologies and space science activities of member states of the European
Space Agency. OCLC 29768749 .
• Peeters, Walter (2000). Space Marketing: A European Perspective (Space Technology Library). ISBN
0-7923-6744-8.
• Zabusky, Stacia (1995 and 2001). Launching Europe: An Ethnography of European Cooperation in Space
Science. ISBN B00005OBX2.
• Harvey, Brian (2003). Europe's Space Programme: To Ariane and Beyond. ISBN 1-85233-722-2.
External links
• Official website (http://www.esa.int)
• A European strategy for space (http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/space/index_en.htm) – Europa
34
EISCAT
35
EISCAT
EISCAT is an acronym for the European Incoherent
Scatter Scientific Association. It operates three
incoherent scatter radar systems, at 224 MHz, 931 MHz
in Northern Scandinavia and one at 500 MHz on
Svalbard, used to study the interaction between the Sun
and the Earth as revealed by disturbances in the
ionosphere and magnetosphere. At the Ramfjordmoen
facility (near Tromsø, Norway) it also operates an
ionospheric heater facility, similar to HAARP.
Additional receiver stations are located in Sodankylä,
Finland, and Kiruna, Sweden. The EISCAT
Headquarters are also located in Kiruna.
EISCAT Svalbard Radar
EISCAT is funded and operated by research institutes
and research councils of Norway, Sweden, Finland,
Japan, China, the United Kingdom, France and
Germany.
In 2008, Doritos embarked upon an "out-of-this-world"
advertising campaign, literally beaming a 30sec ad for
Doritos brand tortilla chips into a solar system 42 light
years away. This project is in collaboration with
EISCAT Space Centre in Svalbard. The "You Make It,
We'll Play It" contest chose the winning advertisement
that was transmitted on June 12, 2008. The ad was
beamed towards a distant star, within the Ursa Major
constellation, that is orbited by planets which may
harbor life.[1]
EISCAT Kiruna Radar (diameter 32m)
History
In 1973 the EISCAT proposal - which was originally planned for France, Germany and the three Nordic countries
seemed moribund. Then Welsh physicist, Granville Beynon became involved and by 1975 the agreement was
signed, with the UK as a member. The proposal for UK membership had originally been turned down by the
appropriate SRC committee. Beynon, however, persuaded the Board to reverse the decision of the committee and as
a result of his efforts hundreds of European scientists have had the opportunity to use the world's most advanced
ionospheric radar.[2]
EISCAT
36
References
[1] Highfield, Roger (7 March 2008). "UK astronomers to broadcast adverts to aliens" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ science/ science-news/
3335306/ UK-astronomers-to-broadcast-adverts-to-aliens. html). The Daily Telegraph. . Retrieved 28 January 2011.
[2] Williams, Phil (April 1996). "Sir Granville Beynon" (http:/ / www. mist. ac. uk/ beynon. html). . Retrieved 28 January 2011.
External links
• Publication List (http://www.eiscat.se/groups/Documentation/Publications/)
• About EISCAT (http://www.eiscat.se/about)
• University Courses on Svalbard (UNIS) (http://www.unis.no/)
The Swedish Institute of Space
Physics or Institutet för rymdfysik
("IRF") is a Swedish government
agency. The institute's primary task is
to carry out basic research, education
and associated observatory activities in
space physics, space technology and
atmospheric physics.
Foundation
The IRF was founded in 1957 and the
first
Kiruna-designed
satellite
experiment was launched in 1968. The
institute has about one hundred
employees and has its head office in
Kiruna. Other offices are situated in
Entrance
Umeå, Uppsala and Lund.
IRF, originally the Kiruna Geophysical Observatory, began as a department within the Royal Swedish Academy
of Sciences. It has been a public research institute since 1973, under the auspices of the Swedish Ministry of
Education and Culture.
Satellite experiments
IRF participates in several international
satellite projects. At present, data from
satellite instruments are being analysed to
help
us
better
comprehend
the
plasma-physical processes in the solar wind
and around comets and planets. For
example, the Swedish Viking and Freja
satellites, with equipment from IRF on
board, have greatly increased our knowledge
of the auroral processes in the Earth’s
magnetosphere, as have the micro-satellites
Astrid 1 and 2, launched in 1995 and 1998.
IRF's own nano-satellite Munin (at 6 kg (13
lb) the smallest-ever research satellite) was
Department of Space Science (LTU) and
launched in 2000. An IRF-built instrument
Swedish Institute of Space Physics
on board the Indian satellite Chandrayaan-1
(launched 2008) collected data from the
moon and new techniques for making particle measurements in space were tested on the Swedish satellite mission
Prisma (launched 2010). IRF has instruments on board the following on-going satellite projects:
• Cassini (launched 1997), a combined NASA/ESA (European Space Agency) mission to Saturn and its moon
Titan,
• Cluster (2000) is an ESA project with 4 satellites in formation to study the Earth's magnetosphere,
• Mars Express (2003) is an ESA mission to study Mars
• Rosetta (2004) is one of ESA's cornerstone projects, and is on its way to a comet,
• Venus Express (2005) is an ESA satellite to study Venus.
Continuous measurements
Continuous measurements of the following are made at IRF
•
•
•
•
the magnetic field of the Earth
aurora
cosmic radio noise
ionospheric parameters
Ground-based auroral research
Experiments are conducted with research radars, such as those of the European Incoherent Scatter Scientific
Association (EISCAT) with transmitters in Tromsø and on Svalbard. These are used for example to study the
processes which cause the aurora. The three-dimensional structure of the aurora is studied with ALIS (Auroral Large
Imaging System), a multi-station imaging system which uses tomographic reconstruction techniques, artificial
intelligence and advanced IT.
37
Atmospheric research
Atmospheric research at IRF focuses on studies of
•
•
•
•
ozone in the stratosphere
strato- and mesospheric clouds
strato- and mesospheric winds
coupling between different atmospheric layers (e.g. transport between troposphere and stratosphere) - propagation
of mechanical waves
Radar, optical methods, sounding rockets and balloons are used for atmospheric studies. Continuous measurements
are made of:
• atmospheric trace gases (including ozone)
• atmospheric winds
• infrasonic waves.
External links
• Swedish Institute of Space Physics [1] - Official site
References
[1] http:/ / www. irf. se/
The Abisko Scientific Research Station (ANS) is a field research station owned by the Royal Swedish Academy of
Sciences but managed by the Swedish Polar Research Secretariat. Situated on the south shore of Lake Torneträsk, it
lies at the edge of the Abisko National Park and is used by researchers from many countries. The varied geological,
topographical and climatic conditions of the area allow it to be inhabited by a range of flora and fauna. These
features which have caused the area to be given National Park status also make it an important place for scientific
research, particularly of alpine and subalpine ecosystems.
The Station
The first proper field station to be established in the area dates back to 1903, however the official station has only
been affiliated with the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences since 1935. Since December 2010 the station is
managed by the Swedish Polar Research Secretariat.
The research station today consists of laboratories and general workrooms containing a variety of scientific
equipment, and also of various 'outposts' where research is carried out in situ. It is used for research, teaching and
meetings, and has a large collection of scientific books and papers available on site.
38
39
Current Research
Though many research projects are carried out at the station regarding
geography and biology in general, particular emphasis is placed on
meteorology and plant ecology. Many of these projects overlap as the
station hosts research into climate change in the region and the
resulting changes to plant communities.
External links
• http://www.polar.se/en/abisko
PMMA chambers used to measure methane and
CO2 emissions in Storflaket peat bog near
Abisko.
Radiotjänst i Kiruna
Radiotjänst i Kiruna AB (literally, "Radio Service in Kiruna") is Sweden's TV licensing body. It is a private
corporation, formed in 1988 and based in Kiruna. The company is a subsidiary of the three Swedish public service
broadcasters Sveriges Television, Sveriges Radio and Sveriges Utbildningsradio. Under Swedish law everyone who
owns a television set is required to pay the licence fee, currently 2032 kronor (€ 210) per year (2008). The fee is
collected by Radiotjänst but administered by Swedish government office Swedish National Debt Office
(“Riksgäldskontoret”) by means of a special account, the so-called “rundradiokontot”.[1][2]
This tax applies to any household with a TV even if the TV is only used to view DVDs or for use with video games
or computers. Even if a household has no way to receive a TV signal, but still contains a TV no matter how big or
small the TV may be, that household is still required to pay the tax.
The current regulation for TV tax in Sweden was written in 1989 and is long overdue for a review/rewrite in 2013 as
the current regulation in effect does not match up well with the technology advances of the last two decades.
Radiotjänst employs around 100 people, most of whom are located in Kiruna. Others are licensing inspectors
stationed around the country. An additional 100 inspectors are employed on freelance basis.[1]
References
[1] Radiotjänst website (http:/ / www. radiotjanst. se/ Other languages/ OTH_INFO. htm) (English)
[2] Computer owners 'have to pay TV tax' (http:/ / www. thelocal. se/ article. php?ID=4324& date=20060713), The Local, July 13, 2006
(English)
External links
• Radiotjänst website (http://www.radiotjanst.se/) (Swedish)
• Radiotjänst website in English (http://www.radiotjanst.se/en/) (English)
Kiruna Church
40
Kiruna Church
Kiruna Church
Kiruna Church in August 2010
67°51′7.2″N 20°13′58.7″E
Location
Kiruna
Country
Sweden
Denomination
Church of Sweden
History
Consecrated
8 December 1912
Administration
Diocese
Diocese of Luleå
Kiruna Church (Swedish: Kiruna kyrka) is a church in Kiruna, Sweden. In 2001, the church was voted the most
[1][2]
beautiful public building in Sweden by the Swedish people.
History
The church was built between 1909–1912 and consecrated by Bishop Olof Bergqvist on 8 December 1912. Since
1913, the church is included in the Jukkasjärvi parish in the diocese of Luleå.[3] Gustaf Wickman was the church's
architect and the famous altarpiece is a work of Prince Eugen, Duke of Närke.[2][3]
References
[1] "Kiruna in Brief" (http:/ / www. kommun. kiruna.
se/ Om-kommunen/ English/
Kiruna---Filled-With-Contrast/ Kiruna-in-Brief/ ).
Kiruna Municipality. Archived (http:/ / www.
webcitation. org/ 5ywurtfIf) from the original on 25
May 2011. . Retrieved 25 May 2011.
[2] "Summer 2011" (http:/ / www. kirunalapland. se/
Global/ Broschyrer/ Sommar 2011/ Reseguiden
Sommar 2011 eng. pdf). Kiruna Lappland
Ekonomisk Förening. p. 2. Archived (http:/ / www.
webcitation. org/ 5zaWQq43h) from the original on
20 June 2011. . Retrieved 20 June 2011.
Interior of the church.
5ywuCTDej) from the original on 25 May 2011. . Retrieved 25 May 2011.
[3] "Kiruna Kyrka" (http:/ / www. kirunalapland. se/
se/ Se--gora/ Natur--Kultur/ Kiruna-Kyrka/ ) (in
Swedish). Kiruna Lappland Ekonomisk Förening.
Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/
Kiruna Church
41
External links
• Jukkasjärvi Församling (http://www.jukkasjarviforsamling.se/) (Swedish)
Jukkasjärvi
Jukkasjärvi, Sweden
Jukkasjärvi ice hotel interior
Jukkasjärvi, Sweden
Coordinates: 67°51′N 20°37′E
Country
Sweden
Province
Lapland
County
Norrbotten County
Municipality
Kiruna Municipality
[1]
Area
• Total
1.44 km2 (0.6 sq mi)
[1]
Population (31 December 2010)
• Total
548
• Density
379/km2 (981.6/sq mi)
Time zone
CET (UTC+1)
Jukkasjärvi
42
• Summer (DST)
CEST (UTC+2)
Jukkasjärvi Swedish pronunciation: [jʊkɑsjɛrvi] is a locality situated in
Kiruna Municipality, Norrbotten County, Sweden with 548 inhabitants
in 2010.[1] It is situated at 321 meters elevation.
The name is of Northern Sami origin, where Čohkkirasjávri means
lake of assembly, as the area by the lake by which the village was
founded was a Sami marketplace. The village got its first
Finnish-speaking resident settlers in the 17th century, who changed the
name into the more Finnish-sounding Jukkasjärvi, thereby removing its
meaning, although järvi (jávri in Sami) still means lake in Finnish.
This was also the name used by Swedish officials.
The wooden church in Jukkasjärvi.
The village is a popular tourist accommodation during the winter months and is best known for its ice hotel. The
wooden church is the oldest building in the village (built around 1607/1608) and is well known for its wooden
carved altar piece triptych.
References
2
[1] "Tätorternas landareal, folkmängd och invånare per km 2005 och 2010" (http:/ / www. scb. se/ Statistik/ MI/ MI0810/ 2010A01/
Tatorternami0810tab1_4. xls) (in Swedish). Statistics Sweden. 14 December 2011. Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 64arqC15e) from
the original on 10 January 2012. . Retrieved 10 January 2012.
Ice hotel
An ice hotel is a temporary hotel made up
of snow, sculpted blocks of ice, and, in
some cases, some steel framing. They are
promoted by their sponsors and have special
features for travelers who are interested in
novelties and unusual environments, and
thus are in the class of destination hotels.
Their lobbies are often filled with ice
sculptures, and food and beverages are
specially chosen for the circumstances.
All of the ice hotels are reconstructed every
year, and are dependent upon constant
sub-freezing
temperatures
during
Absolut Icebar in Jukkasjärvi, Sweden (December, 2005)
construction and operation. The walls,
fixtures, and fittings are made entirely of ice or compacted snow, and are held together using a substance known as
snice, which takes the place of mortar in a traditional brick-built hotel.
Ice hotel
43
Sweden
Existing each year between December and April, the Icehotel in the
village of Jukkasjärvi, about 17 km from Kiruna, Sweden was the
world's first ice hotel. In 1989, Japanese ice artists visited the area and
created an exhibition of ice art. In spring 1990, French artist Jannot
Derid held an exhibition in a cylinder-shaped igloo in the area. One
night there were no rooms available in the town, so some of the visitors
asked for permission to spend the night in the exhibition hall. They
slept in sleeping bags on top of reindeer skin – the first guests of the
"hotel."
Jukkasjärvi Icehotel interior
The entire hotel is made out of snow and ice blocks taken from the
Torne River – even the glasses in the bar are made of ice. Each spring, around March, Icehotel harvests tons of ice
from the frozen Torne River and stores it in a nearby production hall with room for over 10,000 tons of ice and
30,000 tons of snow. The ice is used for creating Icebar designs and ice glasses, for ice sculpting classes, events and
product launches all over the world while the snow is used for building a strong structure for the building. About
1,000 tons of what is left is used in the construction of the next Ice Hotel.
Canada
The Hôtel de Glace (Ice Hotel) first opened in January 2001. It was originally located on the shores of
Lac-Saint-Joseph, Quebec, 30 minutes north of Quebec City, but has since moved closer to the city, 10 minutes away
from Old Town Quebec.[1] It operates from the first week in January to the last week in March.[2] It was the first in
the world to make a bed and everything else out of ice.
Norway
Kirkenes Snow Hotel
Kirkenes Snow Hotel is situated in the easternmost town of Norway, close to the Norwegian-Russian border. The
hotel had its first season during winter 2006/2007, the hotel had 20 rooms and the largest snow dome in Norway (8
metres high and 12 metres in diameter). All the rooms were individually decorated by the ice artists from Finland
and Japan. The west Snow Hall was decorated by a local sculptor Arild Wara. A night in the snow hotel is combined
with a special dinner prepared on an open fire, the visitors can also get a sauna before or after staying at the hotel.
There is also a reindeer park and a husky farm in the hotel area.
Ice Lodge
The Ice Lodge is one of the largest in Norway and part of the Bjorligard Hotel. It has a longer season than most ice
hotels because of its altitude (1,250 meters above sea level).
Sorrisniva Igloo Hotel, Alta
Sorrisniva Igloo Hotel, Alta has been rebuilt yearly since 2000. It is Europe’s northernmost ice hotel, as it is located
in the Finnmark region and is approximately 250 km from North Cape. The 2000 square meter hotel has 30 rooms,
including 2 suites and it is decorated with numerous ice sculptures and ice furnishings, including lighting systems
which enhance the different types of crystalline formations. Besides the bedrooms the hotel also contains an ice
chapel, ice gallery and ice bar where drinks are served in glasses made of ice. The Sorrisniva Igloo Hotel in Alta has
a changing theme every year. In 2004, it was a Viking theme, in 2005, Norwegian fairytales, and in 2006, the theme
was wild animals of the region. The guests use sleeping bags that sit on top of reindeer hides.
Ice hotel
44
Romania
In 2006, the first ice hotel in Eastern Europe was built in Romania,
deep in the Făgăraş Mountains, at an altitude of 2034 m. Due to its
altitude and remote location the Ice Hotel is only accessible via cable
car in the winter.
Ice Church in Romania, 2011
This picturesque setting is next to Bâlea Lake, where each year local
craftsmen wait for the lake to freeze, before using the ice to build the
small 14 room Ice Hotel and its adjacent Ice Church. Local artists
imitate sculptures by Romanian modernist sculptor, Constantin
Brâncuşi. Typically the hotel is completed in December and is open
until it melts in late April or early May.
Bedding, furs, specialist sleeping bags are all provided, with bathroom facilities nearby. There are also two chalets
within walking distance, which also provide accommodation. Activities such as skiing, sledging or perhaps a ride on
a snow bike are on offer. For those who are more organised and adventurous you can even arrange heliskiing.
The Bâlea Lake Ice Hotel is Romanian owned, but has a relationship with a travel company Untravelled Paths
Limited, based in the United Kingdom.
Finland
Lainio Snow Village of Levi
Snow Village is located in Western part of Finnish Lapland, in close proximity of Ylläs and Levi ski-resorts and
easily reachable from the international airport of Kittilä. [3]
The annual construction of the Snow Village begins when the temperature drops to about −10 °C (14 °F) which is
usually at the end of October or the beginning of November. Approximately 1500 tonnes (1650 US tons) of snow
and 300 tonnes (330 US tons) of crystal clear, natural ice are used for the construction. The constructors, specialized
in using snow and ice as building material, are constantly developing new tools and instruments for snow
construction and exploring innovative ways of taking this artform into new levels.
Snow Village is built entirely of snow and ice covering approximately an area of 20000 square metres ( sq ft).
During the winter season, about 3000 square metres (32000 sq ft) of covered indoor spaces are built as a
combination of different snow and ice structures. The architectural design and the themes of interior decoration vary
from year to year. Visitors can find in there for example the biggest ice dome of Europe and an à la carte restaurant
with ice carved tables and bar, in addition to snow galleries full of beautifully illuminated ice art.
At Snow Village the visitors can also spend a night in a room made of snow and ice. Because of the good insulating
qualities of snow, the indoor temperature of Snow Village remains always between -2 and -5 °C (28 and 23 °F),
regardless of the outdoor temperature. There are approximately 30 rooms, all made of ice and snow. Individually
decorated suites with different themes are also available.
Ice hotel
SnowHotel of Kemi
The SnowCastle thet is built every year in Kemi, Finland has also a snowhotel. [4]
Arctic Snowhotel of Sinettä
For the winter season 2010-2011 the Snow Village was created for the 10th time. It has approximately 30 rooms. [5]
References
[1] http:/ / www. icehotel-canada. com/ indexm. php
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
"Hôtel de Glace" (http:/ / www. hoteldeglace-canada. com/ hotel. php?action=faq). Hôtel de Glace. . Retrieved 2010-03-16.
Snow Village (http:/ / www. snowvillage. fi/ )
SnowHotel of Kemi, Finland (http:/ / www. snowcastle. net/ en/ snowhotel/ )
Arctic Snowhotel of Sinettä (http:/ / www. arcticsnowhotel. fi/ index. php?name=Content& nodeIDX=115)
External links
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
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•
http://www.vimeo.com/9787980/Ice Carosello
http://www.iceculture.com/Ice Hotel Design and Build Company, Ontario, Canada
Icehotel in Jukkasjärvi (http://www.icehotel.com/), Kiruna, Sweden
Ice hotels in Scandinavia (http://goscandinavia.about.com/od/scandinaviahotels/ss/icehotels.htm)
Snow Hotel (http://www.kirkenessnowhotel.com/), Kirkenes, Norway
Ice Lodge, Bjorli (http://www.ice-lodge.co.uk/default.aspx), within the Dovre-Sunndalsfjella National Park,
Norway
Ice Hotel, Quebec (http://www.icehotel-canada.com/en/index.en.php), Canada
Virtual tour: Ice Hotel, Quebec (http://photojpl.com/ice-hotel-virtual-tour/-/kcnemgvX9m/), Canada
Kemi SnowCastle (http://www.snowcastle.net/web/viewer.php?id=21), Lapland, Finland
Lainio Snow Village (http://www.snowvillage.fi), Lapland, Finland
Hotel & Igloo Village Kakslauttanen (http://www.kakslauttanen.fi), Lapland, Finland
Hotel of Ice Balea Lac (http://www.hotelofice.ro), Transylvania, Romania
Moore, Robbie. "Designing An Icehotel" (http://www.specifier.com.au/currentissue/view/detailed/c/
AbovetheCircle:DesigningAnIcehotel/id/27097). Specifier Magazine, Issue 78, 2007.
Igloo Village (http://www.news-world.us/pics/2011/09/21/igloo-village-finland/), Saariselkä, Finland
45
Aurora (astronomy)
Aurora (astronomy)
An aurora (plural: auroras or aurorae) is a
natural light display in the sky particularly
in the high latitude (Arctic and Antarctic)
regions, caused by the collision of energetic
charged particles with atoms in the high
altitude atmosphere (thermosphere). The
charged particles originate in the
magnetosphere and solar wind and, on
Earth, are directed by the Earth's magnetic
field into the atmosphere. Aurora is
classified as diffuse or discrete aurora. Most
aurorae occur in a band known as the
auroral zone[1][2] which is typically 3° to 6°
in latitudinal extent and at all local times or
Aurora australis 1994 from Bluff, New Zealand
longitudes. The auroral zone is typically 10°
to 20° from the magnetic pole defined by the axis of the Earth's magnetic dipole. During a geomagnetic storm, the
auroral zone will expand to lower latitudes. The diffuse aurora is a featureless glow in the sky which may not be
visible to the naked eye even on a dark night and defines the extent of the auroral zone. The discrete aurora are
sharply defined features within the diffuse aurora which vary in brightness from just barely visible to the naked eye
to bright enough to read a newspaper at night. Discrete aurorae are usually observed only in the night sky because
they are not as bright as the sunlit sky. Aurorae occur occasionally poleward of the auroral zone as diffuse patches[3]
or arcs (polar cap arcs[4]) which are generally invisible to the naked eye.
In northern latitudes, the effect is known as the aurora borealis (or the northern lights), named after the Roman
goddess of dawn, Aurora, and the Greek name for the north wind, Boreas, by Pierre Gassendi in 1621.[5] Auroras
seen near the magnetic pole may be high overhead, but from farther away, they illuminate the northern horizon as a
greenish glow or sometimes a faint red, as if the Sun were rising from an unusual direction. Discrete aurorae often
display magnetic field lines or curtain-like structures, and can change within seconds or glow unchanging for hours,
most often in fluorescent green. The aurora borealis most often occurs near the equinoxes. The northern lights have
had a number of names throughout history. The Cree call this phenomenon the "Dance of the Spirits". In Europe, in
the Middle Ages, the auroras were commonly believed a sign from God (see Wilfried Schröder, Das Phänomen des
Polarlichts, Darmstadt 1984).
Its southern counterpart, the aurora australis (or the southern lights), has almost identical features to the aurora
borealis and changes simultaneously with changes in the northern auroral zone [6] and is visible from high southern
latitudes in Antarctica, South America, New Zealand and Australia.
Aurorae occur on other planets. Similar to the Earth's aurora, they are visible close to the planet's magnetic poles.
Modern style guides recommend that the names of meteorological phenomena, such as aurora borealis, be
uncapitalized.[7]
46
Aurora (astronomy)
The aurora borealis shines above
Bear Lake, Alaska.
47
Red and green aurora in
Fairbanks, Alaska.
Northern lights with very rare
blue light over Moskosel,
Lapland in Sweden.
Northern lights over
Malmesjaur, Moskosel, Lapland,
Sweden.
Aurora australis in Antarctica.
View of the aurora australis from
the International Space Station.
False color DMSP
image looking down
from 850 km altitude
showing discrete
aurora (yellow) north
of Scandinavia.
Clouds and fog are
blue.
Red color is caused by nitrogen
being bombarded with radiation
from a solar flare.
Video of the Aurora Australis taken by the crew of Expedition 28 on board the International Space Station. This sequence of shots was taken
September 17, 2011 from 17:22:27 to 17:45:12 GMT, on an ascending pass from south of Madagascar to just north of Australia over the Indian
Ocean.
Aurora (astronomy)
September 7, 2011 from 17:38:03 to 17:49:15 GMT, from the French Southern and Antarctic Lands in the South Indian Ocean to southern
Australia.
September 11, 2011 from 13:45:06 to 14:01:51 GMT, from a descending pass near eastern Australia, rounding about to an ascending pass to the
east of New Zealand.
Auroral mechanism
Auroras are result from emissions of photons in the Earth's upper atmosphere, above 80 km (50 mi), from ionized
nitrogen atoms regaining an electron, and oxygen and nitrogen atoms returning from an excited state to ground state.
They are ionized or excited by the collision of solar wind and magnetospheric particles being funneled down and
accelerated along the Earth's magnetic field lines; excitation energy is lost by the emission of a photon of light, or by
collision with another atom or molecule:
oxygen emissions
Green or brownish-red, depending on the amount of energy absorbed.
nitrogen emissions
Blue or red. Blue if the atom regains an electron after it has been ionized. Red if returning to ground state from
an excited state.
Oxygen is unusual in terms of its return to ground state: it can take three quarters of a second to emit green light and
up to two minutes to emit red. Collisions with other atoms or molecules will absorb the excitation energy and
prevent emission. Because the very top of the atmosphere has a higher percentage of oxygen and is sparsely
distributed such collisions are rare enough to allow time for oxygen to emit red. Collisions become more frequent
48
Aurora (astronomy)
49
progressing down into the atmosphere, so that red emissions do not have time to happen, and eventually even green
light emissions are prevented.
This is why there is a colour differential with altitude; at high altitude oxygen red dominates, then oxygen green and
nitrogen blue/red, then finally nitrogen blue/red when collisions prevent oxygen from emitting anything. Green is the
most common of all auroras. Behind it is pink, a mixture of light green and red, followed by pure red, yellow (a
mixture of red and green), and lastly pure blue.
Auroras are associated with the solar wind, a flow of ions continuously flowing outward from the Sun. The Earth's
magnetic field traps these particles, many of which travel toward the poles where they are accelerated toward Earth.
Collisions between these ions and atmospheric atoms and molecules cause energy releases in the form of auroras
appearing in large circles around the poles. Auroras are more frequent and brighter during the intense phase of the
solar cycle when coronal mass ejections increase the intensity of the solar wind.[8]
A predominantly red aurora australis
Forms and magnetism
Typically the aurora appears either as a diffuse glow or as "curtains"
that approximately extend in the east-west direction. At some times,
they form "quiet arcs"; at others ("active aurora"), they evolve and
change constantly. Each curtain consists of many parallel rays, each
lined up with the local direction of the magnetic field lines, suggesting
that auroras are shaped by Earth's magnetic field. Indeed, satellites
show electrons to be guided by magnetic field lines, spiraling around
them while moving towards Earth.
The similarity to curtains is often enhanced by folds called "striations".
When the field line guiding a bright auroral patch leads to a point
directly above the observer, the aurora may appear as a "corona" of
diverging rays, an effect of perspective.
Aurora timelapse video
Although it was first mentioned by Ancient Greek explorer/geographer
Pytheas, Hiorter and Celsius first described in 1741 evidence for
magnetic control, namely, large magnetic fluctuations occurred
whenever the aurora was observed overhead. This indicates (it was
later realized) that large electric currents were associated with the
aurora, flowing in the region where auroral light originated. Kristian
Northern lights over Calgary
Birkeland (1908)[9] deduced that the currents flowed in the east-west
directions along the auroral arc, and such currents, flowing from the
dayside towards (approximately) midnight were later named "auroral electrojets" (see also Birkeland currents).
On 26 February 2008, THEMIS probes were able to determine, for the first time, the triggering event for the onset of
[10]
Two of the five probes, positioned approximately one third the distance to the moon,
magnetospheric substorms.
measured events suggesting a magnetic reconnection event 96 seconds prior to auroral intensification.[11] Dr.
Vassilis Angelopoulos of the University of California, Los Angeles, the principal investigator for the THEMIS
Aurora (astronomy)
50
mission, claimed, "Our data show clearly and for the first time that magnetic reconnection is the trigger."[12]
Still more evidence for a magnetic connection are the statistics of auroral observations. Elias Loomis (1860) and
later in more detail Hermann Fritz (1881)[13] and S. Tromholt (1882)[14] established that the aurora appeared mainly
in the "auroral zone", a ring-shaped region with a radius of approximately 2500 km around Earth's magnetic pole. It
was hardly ever seen near the geographic pole, which is about 2000 km away from the magnetic pole. The
instantaneous distribution of auroras ("auroral oval"[1][2]) is slightly different, centered about 3–5 degrees nightward
of the magnetic pole, so that auroral arcs reach furthest towards the equator about an hour before midnight. The
aurora can be seen best at this time, called magnetic midnight, which occurs when an observer, the magnetic pole in
question and the Sun are in alignment
Solar wind and the magnetosphere
The Earth is constantly immersed in the solar wind, a rarefied flow of
hot plasma (gas of free electrons and positive ions) emitted by the Sun
in all directions, a result of the two-million-degree heat of the Sun's
outermost layer, the corona. The solar wind usually reaches Earth with
a velocity around 400 km/s, density around 5 ions/cm3 and magnetic
field intensity around 2–5 nT (nanoteslas; Earth's surface field is
typically 30,000–50,000 nT). These are typical values. During
magnetic storms, in particular, flows can be several times faster; the
interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) may also be much stronger.
The IMF originates on the Sun, related to the field of sunspots, and its
field lines (lines of force) are dragged out by the solar wind. That alone
Schematic of Earth's magnetosphere
would tend to line them up in the Sun-Earth direction, but the rotation of the Sun skews them (at Earth) by about 45
degrees, so that field lines passing Earth may actually start near the western edge ("limb") of the visible Sun.[15]
Earth's magnetosphere is formed by the impact of the solar wind on the Earth's magnetic field. It forms an obstacle to
the solar wind, diverting it, at an average distance of about 70,000 km (11 Earth radii or Re),[16] forming a bow
shock 12,000 km to 15,000 km (1.9 to 2.4 Re) further upstream. The width of the magnetosphere abreast of Earth, is
typically 190,000 km (30 Re), and on the night side a long "magnetotail" of stretched field lines extends to great
distances (> 200 Re).
The magnetosphere is full of trapped plasma as the solar wind passes the Earth. The flow of plasma into the
magnetosphere increases with increases in solar wind density and speed, with increase in the southward component
of the IMF and with increases in turbulence in the solar wind flow.[17] The flow pattern of magnetospheric plasma is
from the magnetotail toward the Earth, around the Earth and back into the solar wind through the magnetopause on
the day-side. In addition to moving perpendicular to the Earth's magnetic field, some magnetospheric plasma travel
down along the Earth's magnetic field lines and lose energy to the atmosphere in the auroral zones. Magnetospheric
electrons which are accelerated downward by field-aligned electric fields are responsible for the bright aurora
features. The un-accelerated electrons and ions are responsible for the dim glow of the diffuse aurora.
Aurora (astronomy)
51
Frequency of occurrence
North America
Eurasia
Auroras are occasionally seen in temperate latitudes, when a magnetic storm temporarily grows the auroral oval.
Large magnetic storms are most common during the peak of the eleven-year sunspot cycle or during the three years
after that peak.[18][19] However, within the auroral zone the likelihood of an aurora occurring depends mostly on the
slant of interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) lines (the slant is known as Bz), being greater with southward slants.
Geomagnetic storms that ignite auroras actually happen more often during the months around the equinoxes. It is not
well understood why geomagnetic storms are tied to Earth's seasons while polar activity is not. But it is known that
during spring and autumn, the interplanetary magnetic field and that of Earth link up. At the magnetopause, Earth's
magnetic field points north. When Bz becomes large and negative (i.e., the IMF tilts south), it can partially cancel
Earth's magnetic field at the point of contact. South-pointing Bz's open a door through which energy from the solar
wind can reach Earth's inner magnetosphere.
The peaking of Bz during this time is a result of geometry. The IMF comes from the Sun and is carried outward with
the solar wind. The rotation of the Sun causes the IMF to have a spiral shape called the Parker spiral. The southward
(and northward) excursions of Bz are greatest during April and October, when Earth's magnetic dipole axis is most
closely aligned with the Parker spiral.
However, Bz is not the only influence on geomagnetic activity. The Sun's rotation axis is tilted 8 degrees with respect
to the plane of Earth's orbit. The solar wind blows more rapidly from the Sun's poles than from its equator, thus the
average speed of particles buffeting Earth's magnetosphere waxes and wanes every six months. The solar wind speed
is greatest – by about 50 km/s, on average – around 5 September and 5 March when Earth lies at its highest
heliographic latitude.
Still, neither Bz nor the solar wind can fully explain the seasonal behavior of geomagnetic storms. Those factors
together contribute only about one-third of the observed semiannual variations.
Aurora (astronomy)
Auroral events of historical significance
The auroras that resulted from the "great geomagnetic storm" on both 28 August and 2 September 1859 are thought
the most spectacular in recent recorded history. Balfour Stewart, in a paper[20][21] to the Royal Society on 21
November 1861, described both auroral events as documented by a self-recording magnetograph at the Kew
Observatory and established the connection between the 2 September 1859 auroral storm and the
Carrington-Hodgson flare event when he observed that "it is not impossible to suppose that in this case our luminary
was taken in the act." The second auroral event, which occurred on 2 September 1859 as a result of the exceptionally
intense Carrington-Hodgson white light solar flare on 1 September 1859 produced auroras so widespread and
extraordinarily brilliant that they were seen and reported in published scientific measurements, ships' logs and
newspapers throughout the United States, Europe, Japan and Australia. It was reported by the New York
Times[22][23][24] that in Boston on Friday 2 September 1859 the aurora was "so brilliant that at about one o'clock
ordinary print could be read by the light".[23][25][26] One o'clock Boston time on Friday 2 September, would have
been 6:00 GMT and the self-recording magnetograph at the Kew Observatory was recording the geomagnetic storm,
which was then one hour old, at its full intensity. Between 1859 and 1862, Elias Loomis published a series of nine
papers on the Great Auroral Exhibition of 1859 in the American Journal of Science where he collected world wide
reports of the auroral event. The aurora is thought to have been produced by one of the most intense coronal mass
ejections in history, very near the maximum intensity that the Sun is thought to be capable of producing. It is also
notable for the fact that it is the first time where the phenomena of auroral activity and electricity were
unambiguously linked. This insight was made possible not only due to scientific magnetometer measurements of the
era but also as a result of a significant portion of the 125000 miles ( km) of telegraph lines then in service being
significantly disrupted for many hours throughout the storm. Some telegraph lines however seem to have been of the
appropriate length and orientation to produce a sufficient geomagnetically induced current from the electromagnetic
field to allow for continued communication with the telegraph operators' power supplies switched off. The following
conversation occurred between two operators of the American Telegraph Line between Boston and Portland, Maine,
on the night of 2 September 1859 and reported in the Boston Traveler:
Boston operator (to Portland operator): "Please cut off your battery [power source] entirely for fifteen
minutes."
Portland operator: "Will do so. It is now disconnected."
Boston: "Mine is disconnected, and we are working with the auroral current. How do you receive my
writing?"
Portland: "Better than with our batteries on. – Current comes and goes gradually."
Boston: "My current is very strong at times, and we can work better without the batteries, as the aurora seems
to neutralize and augment our batteries alternately, making current too strong at times for our relay magnets.
Suppose we work without batteries while we are affected by this trouble."
Portland: "Very well. Shall I go ahead with business?"
Boston: "Yes. Go ahead."
The conversation was carried on for around two hours using no battery power at all and working solely with the
current induced by the aurora, and it was said that this was the first time on record that more than a word or two was
transmitted in such manner.[25] Such events led to the general conclusion that
The effect of the Aurora on the electric telegraph is generally to increase or diminish the electric current
generated in working the wires. Sometimes it entirely neutralizes them, so that, in effect, no fluid is
discoverable in them . The aurora borealis seems to be composed of a mass of electric matter, resembling in
every respect, that generated by the electric galvanic battery. The currents from it change coming on the wires,
and then disappear: the mass of the aurora rolls from the horizon to the zenith.[27]
52
Aurora (astronomy)
53
Origin
The ultimate energy source of the aurora is the solar wind flowing past
the Earth. The magnetosphere and solar wind consist of plasma
(ionized gas), which conducts electricity. It is well known (since
Michael Faraday's [1791 – 1867] work around 1830) that when an
electrical conductor is placed within a magnetic field while relative
motion occurs in a direction that the conductor cuts across (or is cut
by), rather than along, the lines of the magnetic field, an electric
current is said to be induced into that conductor and electrons will flow
within it. The amount of current flow is dependent upon a) the rate of
relative motion, b) the strength of the magnetic field, c) the number of
conductors ganged together and d) the distance between the conductor
and the magnetic field, while the direction of flow is dependent upon
the direction of relative motion. Dynamos make use of this basic
process ("the dynamo effect"), any and all conductors, solid or
otherwise are so affected including plasmas or other fluids.
Aurora australis (11 September 2005) as captured
by NASA's IMAGE satellite, digitally overlaid
onto The Blue Marble composite image. An
animation created using the same satellite data is
also available.
In particular the solar wind and the magnetosphere are two electrically
conducting fluids with such relative motion and should be able (in principle) to generate electric currents by
"dynamo action", in the process also extracting energy from the flow of the solar wind. The process is hampered by
the fact that plasmas conduct easily along magnetic field lines, but not so easily perpendicular to them. So it is
important that a temporary magnetic connection be established between the field lines of the solar wind and those of
the magnetosphere, by a process known as magnetic reconnection. It happens most easily with a southward slant of
interplanetary field lines, because then field lines north of Earth approximately match the direction of field lines near
the north magnetic pole (namely, into Earth), and similarly near the south magnetic pole. Indeed, active auroras (and
related "substorms") are much more likely at such times. Electric currents originating in such way apparently give
auroral electrons their energy. The magnetospheric plasma has an abundance of electrons: some are magnetically
trapped, some reside in the magnetotail, and some exist in the upward extension of the ionosphere, which may
extend (with diminishing density) some 25,000 km around Earth.
Bright auroras are generally associated with Birkeland currents (Schield et al., 1969;[28] Zmuda and Armstrong,
1973[29]) which flow down into the ionosphere on one side of the pole and out on the other. In between, some of the
current connects directly through the ionospheric E layer (125 km); the rest ("region 2") detours, leaving again
through field lines closer to the equator and closing through the "partial ring current" carried by magnetically trapped
plasma. The ionosphere is an ohmic conductor, so such currents require a driving voltage, which some dynamo
mechanism can supply. Electric field probes in orbit above the polar cap suggest voltages of the order of 40,000
volts, rising up to more than 200,000 volts during intense magnetic storms.
Ionospheric resistance has a complex nature, and leads to a secondary Hall current flow. By a strange twist of
physics, the magnetic disturbance on the ground due to the main current almost cancels out, so most of the observed
effect of auroras is due to a secondary current, the auroral electrojet. An auroral electrojet index (measured in
nanotesla) is regularly derived from ground data and serves as a general measure of auroral activity.
However, ohmic resistance is not the only obstacle to current flow in this circuit. The convergence of magnetic field
lines near Earth creates a "mirror effect" that turns back most of the down-flowing electrons (where currents flow
upwards), inhibiting current-carrying capacity. To overcome this, part of the available voltage appears along the field
line ("parallel to the field"), helping electrons overcome that obstacle by widening the bundle of trajectories reaching
Earth; a similar "parallel potential" is used in "tandem mirror" plasma containment devices. A feature of such voltage
is that it is concentrated near Earth (potential proportional to field intensity; Persson, 1963[30]), and indeed, as
Aurora (astronomy)
54
deduced by Evans (1974) and confirmed by satellites, most auroral acceleration occurs below 10,000 km. Another
indicator of parallel electric fields along field lines are beams of upwards flowing O+ ions observed on auroral field
lines.
Some O+ ions ("conics") also seem accelerated in different ways by
plasma processes associated with the aurora. These ions are accelerated
by plasma waves, in directions mainly perpendicular to the field lines.
They therefore start at their own "mirror points" and can travel only
upwards. As they do so, the "mirror effect" transforms their directions
of motion, from perpendicular to the line to lying on a cone around it,
which gradually narrows down.
ISS Expedition 6 team. Lake Manicouagan is
visible to the bottom left.
In addition, the aurora and associated currents produce a strong radio
emission around 150 kHz known as auroral kilometric radiation (AKR,
discovered in 1972). Ionospheric absorption makes AKR observable
from space only.
These "parallel potentials" accelerate electrons to auroral energies and seem to be a major source of aurora. Other
mechanisms have also been proposed, in particular, Alfvén waves, wave modes involving the magnetic field first
noted by Hannes Alfvén (1942), which have been observed in the lab and in space. The question is however whether
these waves might just be a different way of looking at the above process, because this approach does not point out a
different energy source, and many plasma bulk phenomena can also be described in terms of Alfvén waves. Other
processes are also involved in the aurora, and much remains to be learned. Auroral electrons created by large
geomagnetic storms often seem to have energies below 1 keV, and are stopped higher up, near 200 km. Such low
energies excite mainly the red line of oxygen, so that often such auroras are red. On the other hand, positive ions also
reach the ionosphere at such time, with energies of 20–30 keV, suggesting they might be an "overflow" along
magnetic field lines of the copious "ring current" ions accelerated at such times, by processes different from the ones
described above.
Sources and types
Understanding is very incomplete. There are three possible main sources:
1. Dynamo action with the solar wind flowing past Earth, possibly producing quiet auroral arcs ("directly driven"
process). The circuit of the accelerating currents and their connection to the solar wind are uncertain.
2. Dynamo action involving plasma squeezed towards Earth by sudden convulsions of the magnetotail ("magnetic
substorms"). Substorms tend to occur after prolonged spells (hours) during which the interplanetary magnetic
field has an appreciable southward component, leading to a high rate of interconnection between its field lines and
those of Earth. As a result the solar wind moves magnetic flux (tubes of magnetic field lines, moving together
with their resident plasma) from the day side of Earth to the magnetotail, widening the obstacle it presents to the
solar wind flow and causing it to be squeezed harder. Ultimately the tail plasma is torn ("magnetic reconnection");
some blobs ("plasmoids") are squeezed tailwards and are carried away with the solar wind; others are squeezed
towards Earth where their motion feeds large outbursts of aurora, mainly around midnight ("unloading process").
Geomagnetic storms have similar effects, but with greater vigor. The big difference is the addition of many
particles to the plasma trapped around Earth, enhancing the "ring current" it carries. The resulting modification of
Earth's field makes auroras visible at middle latitudes, on field lines much closer to the equator.
3. Satellite images of the aurora from above show a "ring of fire" along the auroral oval (see above), often widest at
midnight. That is the "diffuse aurora", not distinct enough to be seen by the eye. It does not seem to be associated
with acceleration by electric currents (although currents and their arcs may be embedded in it) but to be due to
electrons leaking out of the magnetotail.
Aurora (astronomy)
55
Any magnetic trapping is leaky—there always exists a bundle of directions ("loss cone") around the guiding
magnetic field lines where particles are not trapped but escape. In the radiation belts of Earth, once particles on such
trajectories are gone, new ones only replace them very slowly, leaving such directions nearly "empty". In the
magnetotail, however, particle trajectories seem to be constantly reshuffled, probably when the particles cross the
very weak field near the equator. As a result, the flow of electrons in all directions is nearly the same ("isotropic"),
and that assures a steady supply of leaking electrons.
The energization of such electrons comes from magnetotail processes. The leakage of negative electrons does not
leave the tail positively charged, because each leaked electron lost to the atmosphere is quickly replaced by a low
energy electron drawn upwards from the ionosphere. Such replacement of "hot" electrons by "cold" ones is in
complete accord with the 2nd law of thermodynamics.
Other types of auroras have been observed from space, e.g. "poleward arcs" stretching sunward across the polar cap,
the related "theta aurora", and "dayside arcs" near noon. These are relatively infrequent and poorly understood. There
are other interesting effects such as flickering aurora, "black aurora" and subvisual red arcs. In addition to all these, a
weak glow (often deep red) has been observed around the two polar cusps, the "funnels" of field lines separating the
ones that close on the day side of Earth from lines swept into the tail. The cusps allow a small amount of solar wind
to reach the top of the atmosphere, producing an auroral glow.
Aurora during a geomagnetic storm that was most likely
caused by a coronal mass ejection from the Sun on 24 May
2010. Taken from the ISS.
Diffuse aurora observed by DE-1
satellite from low Earth orbit.
On other planets
Both Jupiter and Saturn have magnetic fields much stronger than
Earth's (Jupiter's equatorial field strength is 4.3 gauss, compared to 0.3
gauss for Earth), and both have large radiation belts. Auroras have
been observed on both, most clearly with the Hubble Space Telescope.
Uranus and Neptune have also been observed to have auroras.[31]
The auroras on the gas giants seem, like Earth's, to be powered by the
solar wind. In addition, however, Jupiter's moons, especially Io, are
Jupiter aurora. The bright spot at far left is the
powerful sources of auroras on Jupiter. These arise from electric
end of field line to Io; spots at bottom lead to
Ganymede and Europa.
currents along field lines ("field aligned currents"), generated by a
dynamo mechanism due to the relative motion between the rotating
planet and the moving moon. Io, which has active volcanism and an ionosphere, is a particularly strong source, and
its currents also generate radio emissions, studied since 1955. Auroras have also been
Aurora (astronomy)
observed on Io, Europa, and Ganymede themselves, e.g., using the
Hubble Space Telescope. These Auroras have also been observed on
Venus and Mars. Because Venus has no intrinsic (planetary) magnetic
field, Venusian auroras appear as bright and diffuse patches of varying
shape and intensity, sometimes distributed across the full planetary
disc. Venusian auroras are produced by the impact of electrons
originating from the solar wind and precipitating in the night-side
atmosphere. An aurora was also detected on Mars, on 14 August 2004,
by the SPICAM instrument aboard Mars Express. The aurora was
An aurora high above the northern part of Saturn.
located at Terra Cimmeria, in the region of 177° East, 52° South. The
Image taken by the Cassini spacecraft. A movie
showing images from 81 hours of observations of
total size of the emission region was about 30 km across, and possibly
Saturn's aurora is also available.
about 8 km high. By analyzing a map of crustal magnetic anomalies
compiled with data from Mars Global Surveyor, scientists observed
that the region of the emissions corresponded to an area where the strongest magnetic field is localized. This
correlation indicates that the origin of the light emission was a flux of electrons moving along the crust magnetic
lines and exciting the upper atmosphere of Mars.[31][32]
History of aurora theories
In the past theories have been proposed to explain the phenomenon. These theories are now obsolete.
• Seneca speaks diffusely on auroras in the first book of his Naturales Quaestiones, drawing mainly from Aristotle;
he classifies them ("putei" or wells when they are circular and "rim a large hole in the sky", "pithaei" when they
look like casks, "chasmata" from the same root of the English chasm, "pogoniae" when they are bearded,
"cyparissae" when they look like cypresses), describes their manifold colors and asks himself whether they are
•
•
•
•
•
above or below the clouds. He recalls that under Tiberius, an aurora formed above Ostia, so intense and so red
that a cohort of the army, stationed nearby for fireman duty, galloped to the city.
Benjamin Franklin theorized that the "mystery of the Northern Lights" was caused by a concentration of electrical
charges in the polar regions intensified by the snow and other moisture.[33]
Auroral electrons come from beams emitted by the Sun. This was claimed around 1900 by Kristian Birkeland,
whose experiments in a vacuum chamber with electron beams and magnetized spheres (miniature models of Earth
or "terrellas") showed that such electrons would be guided towards the polar regions. Problems with this model
included absence of aurora at the poles themselves, self-dispersal of such beams by their negative charge, and
more recently, lack of any observational evidence in space.
The aurora is the overflow of the radiation belt ("leaky bucket theory"). This was first disproved around 1962 by
James Van Allen and co-workers, who showed that the high rate of energy dissipation by the aurora would
quickly drain the radiation belt. Soon afterward, it became clear that most of the energy in trapped particles
resided in positive ions, while auroral particles were almost always electrons, of relatively low energy.
The aurora is produced by solar wind particles guided by Earth's field lines to the top of the atmosphere. This
holds true for the cusp aurora, but outside the cusp, the solar wind has no direct access. In addition, the main
energy in the solar wind resides in positive ions; electrons only have about 0.5 eV (electron volt), and while in the
cusp this may be raised to 50–100 eV, that still falls short of auroral energies.
After the Battle of Fredericksburg the lights could be seen from the battlefield that night. The Confederate army
took it as a sign that God was on their side during the battle. It was very rare that one could see the Lights in
Virginia.
56
Aurora (astronomy)
57
Images
Images of auroras are significantly more common today due to the rise
of use of digital cameras that have high enough sensitivities.[34] Film
and digital exposure to auroral displays is fraught with difficulties,
particularly if faithfulness of reproduction is an objective. Due to the
different spectral energy present, and changing dynamically throughout
the exposure, the results are somewhat unpredictable. Different layers
of the film emulsion respond differently to lower light levels, and
choice of film can be very important. Longer exposures aggregate the
rapidly changing energy and often blanket the dynamic attribute of a
display. Higher sensitivity creates issues with graininess.
25-second exposure of the aurora australis from
Amundsen-Scott S.P.S.
David Malin pioneered multiple exposure using multiple filters for astronomical photography, recombining the
images in the laboratory to recreate the visual display more accurately.[35] For scientific research, proxies are often
used, such as ultra-violet, and re-coloured to simulate the appearance to humans. Predictive techniques are also used,
to indicate the extent of the display, a highly useful tool for aurora hunters.[36] Terrestrial features often find their
way into aurora images, making them more accessible and more likely to be published by the major websites.[37] It is
possible to take excellent images with standard film (using ISO ratings between 100 and 400) and a single-lens
reflex camera with full aperture, a fast lens (f1.4 50 mm, for example), and exposures between 10 and 30 seconds,
depending on the aurora's display strength.[38]
Early work on the imaging of the auroras was done in 1949 by the University of Saskatchewan using the SCR-270
radar.
In traditional and popular culture
In Bulfinch's Mythology from 1855 by Thomas Bulfinch there is the
claim that in Norse mythology:
The Valkyrior are warlike virgins, mounted upon horses and
armed with helmets and spears. /.../ When they ride forth on their
errand, their armour sheds a strange flickering light, which
flashes up over the northern skies, making what men call the
"aurora borealis", or "Northern Lights".[39]
Red and green Auroras, Norway. Photo by Frank
Olsen
While a striking notion, there is not a vast body of evidence in the Old Norse literature supporting this assertion.
Although auroral activity is common over Scandinavia and Iceland today, it is possible that the Magnetic North Pole
was considerably further away from this region during the centuries before the documentation of Norse mythology,
thus explaining the lack of references.[40]
The first Old Norse account of norðrljós is found in the Norwegian chronicle Konungs Skuggsjá from AD 1230. The
chronicler has heard about this phenomenon from compatriots returning from Greenland, and he gives three possible
explanations: that the ocean was surrounded by vast fires, that the sun flares could reach around the world to its night
side, or that glaciers could store energy so that they eventually became fluorescent.[41]
In ancient Roman mythology, Aurora is the goddess of the dawn, renewing herself every morning to fly across the
sky, announcing the arrival of the sun. The persona of Aurora the goddess has been incorporated in the writings of
Shakespeare, Lord Tennyson and Thoreau.
Aurora (astronomy)
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[15] Alaska.edu (http:/ / gse. gi. alaska. edu/ recent/ javascript_movie. html), Solar wind forecast from a University of Alaska website
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36-year long OMNI dataset". Geophys. Res. Lett. 27 (17): 2797–2800. Bibcode 2000GeoRL..27.2797P. doi:10.1029/2000GL000064.
[20] Balfour Stewart (1860–1862). "On the Great Magnetic Disturbance of 28 August to 7 September 1859, as Recorded by Photography at the
Kew Observatory". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 11: 407–410. doi:10.1098/rspl.1860.0086. JSTOR 111936.
[21] Balfour Stewart (1861). "On the Great Magnetic Disturbance Which Extended from 28 August to 7 September 1859, as Recorded by
Photography at the Kew Observatory". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 151: 423–430. doi:10.1098/rstl.1861.0023.
JSTOR 108745.
[22] The Aurora Borealis; The Brilliant Display on Sunday Night. Phenomena Connected with the Event. Mr. Meriam's Observations on the
Aurora—E. M. Picks Up a Piece of the Auroral Light. The Aurora as Seen Elsewhere—Remarkable Electrical Effects (http:/ / query. nytimes.
com/ gst/ abstract. html?res=9506E5DC1230EE34BC4850DFBE668382649FDE& scp=3& sq=Aurora& st=p) New York Times, 30 August
1859, Tuesday; Page 1, 3087 words
[23] Auroa Australis; Magnificent Display on Friday Morning Mr. Merlam's Opinions on the Bareul Light—One of his Friends Finds a Place of
the Aurora on his Lion-corp. The Aurural Display in Boston. (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ abstract.
html?res=9F05E6DB1638E033A25750C0A96F9C946892D7CF& scp=2& sq=Aurora& st=p) New York Times, 3 September 1859, Saturday;
Page 4, 1150 words
[24] Auroral Phenomena; Remarkable Effect of the Aurora Upon the Telegraph Wires (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ abstract.
html?res=9A05EEDB113CEF34BC4D53DFBF668382649FDE& scp=1& sq=Aurora& st=p) New York Times, 5 September 1859, Monday;
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[25] Green, J; Boardsen, S; Odenwald, S; Humble, J; Pazamickas, K (2006). "Eyewitness reports of the great auroral storm of 1859". Advances in
Space Research 38 (2): 145–154. Bibcode 2006AdSpR..38..145G. doi:10.1016/j.asr.2005.12.021.
[26] Ryerson, et al. The Late Aurora Borealis and the Telegraph (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=xesBAAAAYAAJ& pg=RA1-PA132&
lpg=RA1-PA132), The Journal of Education for Upper Canada; 1859, p. 132
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[27] The British Colonist, Vol. 2 No. 56, 19 October 1859, page 1, accessed online at BritishColonist.ca (http:/ / britishcolonist. ca/ display.
php?issue=18591019& pages=001,& terms=aurora), on 19 February 2009.
[28] Schield, M. A.; Freeman, J. W.; Dessler, A. J. (1969). "A Source for Field-Aligned Currents at Auroral Latitudes". Journal of Geophysical
Research 74: 247–256. Bibcode 1969JGR....74..247S. doi:10.1029/JA074i001p00247.
[29] Armstrong, J. C.; Zmuda, A. J. (1973). "Triaxial magnetic measurements of field-aligned currents at 800 kilometers in the auroral region:
Initial results". Journal of Geophysical Research 78 (28): 6802–6807. Bibcode 1973JGR....78.6802A. doi:10.1029/JA078i028p06802.
[30] Persson, Hans (1963). "Electric field along a magnetic line of force in a low-density plasma". Physics of Fluids 6 (12): 1756–1759.
Bibcode 1963PhFl....6.1756P. doi:10.1063/1.1711018.
[31] "ESA Portal – Mars Express discovers aurorae on Mars" (http:/ / www. esa. int/ esaCP/ SEMLQ71DU8E_index_0. html). Esa.int. 11
August 2004. . Retrieved 5 August 2010.
[32] "Mars Express Finds Auroras on Mars" (http:/ / www. universetoday. com/ am/ publish/ mars_express_aurorae. html?1722006). Universe
Today. February 18, 2006. . Retrieved 5 August 2010.
[33] "Scientist and Inventor: Benjamin Franklin: In His Own Words... (AmericanTreasures of the Library of Congress)" (http:/ / www. loc. gov/
exhibits/ treasures/ franklin-scientist. html). Loc.gov. 2010-08-16. . Retrieved 2011-07-26.
[34] "News and information about meteor showers, solar flares, auroras, and near-Earth asteroids" (http:/ / www. spaceweather. com/ ).
SpaceWeather.com. . Retrieved 5 August 2010.
[35] "Astronomical photographs from David Malin Images" (http:/ / www. davidmalin. com/ index. html). www.davidmalin.com. . Retrieved 3
August 2010.
[36] "NOAA POES Auroral Activity" (http:/ / www. swpc. noaa. gov/ pmap/ index. html). www.swpc.noaa.gov. . Retrieved 3 August 2010.
[37] "SpaceWeather.com" (http:/ / www. spaceweather. com/ ). SpaceWeather.com. . Retrieved 2011-07-26.
[38] Aurora image (http:/ / www. spaceweather. com/ aurora/ images/ 24nov01/ Moss1. jpg) (JPG)
[39] "Bullfinch's Mythology" (http:/ / www. mythome. org/ bxxxviii. html). Mythome.org. 10 February 1996. . Retrieved 5 August 2010.
[40] "The Aurora Borealis and the Vikings" (http:/ / www. vikinganswerlady. com/ njordrljos. htm). Vikinganswerlady.com. . Retrieved 5
August 2010.
[41] "Norrsken history" (http:/ / www. irf. se/ norrsken/ Norrsken_history. html). Irf.se. 2003-11-12. . Retrieved 2011-07-26.
• "Secrets of the Polar Aurora" (http://www.phy6.org/Education/aurora.htm)
• "Exploration of the Earth's magnetosphere" (http://www.phy6.org/Education/Intro.html) – overview of the
magnetosphere, including auroras; and including extensive bibliographies of scientific articles
• Eather, Robert H. (1980). Majestic Lights: The Aurora in Science, History, and The Arts. Washington, DC:
American Geophysical Union. ISBN 0-87590-215-4. (323 pages)
• Syun-Ichi Akasofu (April 2002). "Secrets of the Aurora Borealis". Alaska Geographic Series (Graphic Arts
Center Publishing Company) 29 (1).
• Savage, Candace Sherk (1994 / 2001). Aurora: The Mysterious Northern Lights. San Francisco: Sierra Club
Books / Firefly Books. ISBN 0-87156-419-X. (144 pages)
• Hultqvist, Bengt (2007). "The Aurora". In Kamide, Y.; Chian, A. Handbook of the Solar-Terrestrial Environment.
Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. pp. 331–354. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-46315-3_13.
ISBN 978-3-540-46314-6.
• Sandholt, Even; Carlson, Herbert C.; and Egeland, Alv (2002). "Optical Aurora". Dayside and Polar Cap Aurora.
Netherlands: Springer Netherlands. pp. 33–51. doi:10.1007/0-306-47969-9_3. ISBN 978-0-306-47969-4.
• Phillips, Tony (21 October 2001). "'tis the Season for Auroras" (http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2001/
ast26oct_1.htm). NASA. Retrieved 15 May 2006.
External links
•
•
•
•
Aurora – FAQ (http://odin.gi.alaska.edu/FAQ/).
Aurora – Forecasting (http://www.gi.alaska.edu/AuroraForecast/).
Aurora Borealis – Predicting (http://www.aurorahunter.com/aurora-prediction.php).
Solar Terrestrial Data (http://www.hamqsl.com/solar1.html#converters) – Online Converter – Northern Lights
Latitude.
• NASA – Carrington Super Flare (http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2008/06may_carringtonflare.htm?).
• Multimedia:
59
Aurora (astronomy)
• Popular video of Aurora Borealis (http://nrk.no/nyheter/distrikt/troms_og_finnmark/1.7467857) - Taken
in Norway in 2011.
• Aurora Photo Gallery (http://www.aurora-northern-lights.com) - Views taken 2009–2011.
• Aurora Photo Gallery (http://www.redbubble.com/people/roamer/works/
7976909-red-auroras-and-the-tree-iiAuroras) - View from Tromsø, Norway. October 2011.
• Aurora Photo Gallery (http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap120103.html) - "Full-Sky Aurora" over Eastern
Norway. December 2011.
• Videos and Photos – Auroras at Night (http://www.twanight.org/newTWAN/gallery.
asp?Gallery=Aurora&page=1).
• Video (04:49) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lT3J6a9p_o8) – Aurora Borealis – How The Northern
Lights Are Created.
• Video (47:40) (http://www.nfb.ca/film/northern_lights) – Northern Lights – Documentary.
• Video (01:42) (http://www.vimeo.com/27315234) – Northern Lights – Story of Geomagnetc Storm
(Terschelling Island – 6/7 April 2000).
• Video (01:56) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lc3FxNXjBs0) (Time-Lapse) - Auroras - Ground-Level
View from Finnish Lapland 2011.
• Video (02:43) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mb87D5PAMuY) (Time-Lapse) - Auroras Ground-Level View from Tromsø, Norway. 24 November 2010.
• Video (00:27) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l6ahFFFQBZY) (Time-Lapse) – Earth and Auroras –
Viewed from The International Space Station.
60
Kebnekaise
61
Kebnekaise
See Kebnekajse for the Swedish band.
Kebnekaise
Kebnekaise, view from Tuolpagorni
Elevation
2106 m (6909 ft)
[1]
Prominence
1750 m (5741 ft)
[2]
Listing
Country high point
Ultra
Location
Kebnekaise
Sweden
Range
Scandinavian Mountains
Coordinates
67°53′00″N 18°33′00″E
Climbing
First ascent
1883 by Charles Rabot
Easiest route
rock/ice walk
Kebnekaise (from Sami Giebmegáisi or Giebnegáisi, "Cauldron Crest") is the highest mountain in Sweden and
Sápmi. The Kebnekaise massif, which is part of the Scandinavian Mountains, has two peaks, of which the southern,
glaciated one is highest at unknown operator: u',' metres () above sea level at the latest time of measurement. The
north top (2,097 m) is free of ice. Kebnekaise lies in Lapland, about 150 kilometres (ca. 90 miles) north of the Arctic
Circle and west of Kiruna near the popular Kungsleden hiking trail between Abisko and Nikkaluokta.
The glacier has shrunk, therefore the summit is not as high as earlier. The top is traditionally said to be 2,111 m, and
higher in the oldest measurement, i.e. 2,117 m. If the melting continues at the same rate, the south peak will sink
below the north peak (which is the highest fixed point in Sweden) within a few years' time.[3][4]
A mountain lodge, Kebnekaise mountain lodge (Kebnekaise fjällstation), is located at the foot of Kebnekaise, ca.
19 km, 6–7 hrs from Nikkaluokta. It is the starting point for an ascent via the western route (västra leden, ca. 13 km,
Kebnekaise
62
4–6 hrs to the summit) or the eastern route (östra leden, ca. 10 km, 3–5 hrs to the summit). The western route leads
over scree slopes and the intermediate top Vierranvárri to the glaciated summit. Most of this route to the top is pure
hiking, but there is a short exposed part that could possibly count as scrambling. The eastern route, however, leads
over glaciers and rocks (UIAA grade I-II) and is equipped with fixed, steel cables similar to a via ferrata.
Strolling reindeer in the Kebnekaise Valley,
August 2007
There is also a third, less popular route only marked with cairns Dürlings route, which branches off Kungsleden from a few kilometers
north of Singi, goes about two kilometers into the southern side of
Singivagge, and then turns north into the valley between Kuopertjåkka
and the unnamed peak west of Vierranvárri. One should keep on the
eastern side of the stream running down this valley until the route
merges with Västra leden. Some people, such as those with acrophobia
or wanting to summit with heavy backpacks may see benefits with this
route as not really a single point is exposed - however, passing through
very rough scree and rock terrain is required especially in the slopes
leading up to the valley between Vierránvarri and Kebnekaise
(Kaffedalen).
In mainland Europe, there are no higher mountains further north (there is, however, a higher point at Beerenberg on
the island of Jan Mayen). It is said that an area (of both Sweden and Norway) corresponding to 9% of Sweden's
surface area can be seen from the summit, which approximates to more than 40,000 km² – almost the size of the
Netherlands.
Panoramic view from the top, June 2007
References
[1] "Statistisk årsbok 2011" (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5zxLyViMj) (in Swedish). Statistics Sweden. p. 10. Archived from the original
(http:/ / www. scb. se/ statistik/ _publikationer/ OV0904_2011A01_BR_02_A01BR1101. pdf) on 5 July 2011. . Retrieved 10 July 2011.
[2] Mountains I have climbed and remember (http:/ / www. ii. uib. no/ ~petter/ mountains. html)
[3] Toppskifte på Kebnekaise - sr.se (http:/ / www. sr. se/ cgi-bin/ ekot/ artikel. asp?artikel=1422159)
[4] http:/ / www. fjallklubben. org/ fjallet/ artiklar/ 4-04art2. htm Kebnekaises sydtopp – högst i Sverige?
External links
• Photo gallery on Marco Klüber Photography (http://www.m-klueber.de/Foto/Lappland/Lappland.htm)
• Article about the varying elevation of the South Peak (Swedish) (http://www.fjallklubben.org/fjallet/artiklar/
4-04art2.htm)
• Ski touring reports from Swedish mountains, including Kebnekaise (English) (http://xray.bmc.uu.se/markh/
skiing/mountain_index.html)
Kebnekaise
View of Laddtjovagge valley, showing Sinngitjokka, Tuolpagorni, Vierramvare and the
foot of Kebnekaise (to the right).
63
Kungsleden
64
Kungsleden
Kungsleden
The Kungsleden trail above the Teusa lake
[1]
Length
440 kilometres (270 mi) approximately
Location
Northern Sweden
Trailheads
Abisko/Hemavan
Use
Hiking
Highest point
1150 m (3773 ft) (Tjäkta Pass)
Lowest point
305 m (1001 ft) (Kvikkjokk)
Trail difficulty Moderate
Season
Summer to early Fall
Months
June to September
Sights
Mt Kebnekaise, Lapporten, Abisko, Sarek National Park
Kungsleden ("The King's Trail") is a hiking trail in northern Sweden, approximately 440-kilometre (270 mi) long,
between Abisko in the north and Hemavan in the south.[1] It passes through one of Europe's largest remaining
wilderness areas.
The trail
Kungsleden was created by Svenska Turistföreningen (STF) at the end of the 19th century, in order to allow more
people to experience the beauty of Lapland. It runs for about 440 kilometres (270 mi) between Abisko in the north
and Hemavan in the south. It is well equipped and maintained by STF, having for instance large parts where one
walks on two parallel planks to avoid muddy ground. Since it's so well maintained and rather flat, the trail is not
considered as very difficult, but some wilderness experience and regular caution are required.
The trail is separated in four portions which each represent approximately one week of hiking. The most practiced
part is by far the northernmost, between Abisko and Kebnekaise. The season usually runs between mid-June and the
end of September, but the weather can be very treacherous, including late or early snow.
Kungsleden
65
Huts
Huts have been constructed along the trail, separated by a distance that a walker could expect to cover during the
day, about 9-22 kilometres (6-14 mi). The huts are primarily operated by STF. For a small fee, it is possible to pitch
a tent outside and use the facilities. Some unguarded shelters can also be found between these huts. Supplies can be
bought in some of them (Alesjaure and Kebnekaise Fjällstation for example).
The huts along Kungsleden are:
•
Abisko
•
Teusajaure
•
Ammarnäs
•
Abiskojaure •
Vakkotavare •
Aigert
•
Alesjaure
•
Saltoluokta
•
Serve
•
Tjäktja
•
Sitojaure
•
Tärnasjö
•
Sälka
•
Aktse
•
Syter
•
Singi
•
Pårte
•
Viterskalet
•
Kaitumjaure •
Kvikkjokk
•
Hemavan
It must be noted that there are no huts between Kvikkjokk and Ammarnäs. This leaves a distance of about 130
kilometres (81 mi) with no huts.
Sights
Highlights along the way, sometimes a
small detour is needed, are:
• Abisko: Great hostel/mountain station,
botanical multitude during summer, great
back-country skiing during winter. From
here, it's possible to get to Nikkaluokta
via dog-sledging tours during the winter.
• Kebnekaise: Sweden's highest mountain,
2111 metres (6926 ft), and centre of
Swedish alpinism. The lodge
(Kebnekaise Fjällstation) offers very
complete services.
• Sarek National Park: part of Lappland
world heritage. No roads, tracks or
The trail seen from its highest point, Tjäkta pass
bridges makes this a place only for the experienced hiker
• Kvikkjokk: Old mountain farming village and nice hostel
• Hemavan and Tärnaby: Small towns/villages with nice hiking in the summer, and excellent back-country skiing in
the winter. Native village of alpine skier Ingemar Stenmark.
Kungsleden
Getting there
You can go to Abisko by direct train from Göteborg, Stockholm or Narvik. Abisko could also be reached by bus
either from Kiruna or from Narvik. Which in turn could both be reached by regular airtrafic. You can go to Hemavan
by bus from Umeå or Mo i Rana. There are also regular flights between Hemavan and Stockholm.
A few places along the trail could be reached by road or public transportation (a few more could also be reached by
boat).
• Nikkaluokta, about 33 kilometres (21 mi) of the trail and 20 kilometres (12 mi) from Kebnekaise could be
reached by bus or car from Kiruna.
• Suorva and Kebnats could be reached by bus or car from Gällivare.
• Kvikkjokk could be reached by bus or car from Jokkmokk.
• Jäckvik (Jäkkvik) could be reached by bus or car from Umeå, Arvidsjaur or Fauske.
• Adolfström could be reached by bus or car from Arjeplog.
• Ammarnäs could be reached by bus or car from Sorsele.
During the summer Jokkmokk, Arvidsjaur and Sorsele are reachable by train.
References
[1] "Kungsleden" (http:/ / www. ne. se/ kungsleden) (in Swedish). Nationalencyklopedin. . Retrieved 1 August 2010.
External links
• Swedish Tourist Association (STF) (http://www.svenskaturistforeningen.se)
• Information from STF about Kungsleden (http://www.svenskaturistforeningen.se/en/Discover-Sweden/
Facilities-and-activities/Lappland/kingstrail/)
• A PDF brochure about Kungsleden (http://www.abisko.nu/sommar/ladda_hem/pdf/
Kungsleden_folder_2010_ENG.pdf)
• Information about the Kungsleden trail (http://www.trekkingvisions.com/content/view/35/30/)
• Information from traildino.com (http://www.traildino.com/trace/continents-Europe/countries-Sweden/
trails-Kungsleden)
66
Nordkalottruta
67
Nordkalottruta
Nordkalottruta
Nordkalottruta goes via Meekonjärvi lake and huts in Finland.
[1]
Length
800 km
Location
Norway, Finland, Sweden
Trailheads
Kautokeino/Sulitjelma/Kvikkjokk
Use
Hiking
Nordkalottruta or Arctic Trail (Finnish: Kalottireitti, Swedish: Nordkalottleden) is a marked hiking trail in the
Arctic region of Nordic countries. It has a total length of 800 km and lies along the border of Norway, Sweden and
Finland. It begins at Kautokeino (located in Finnmark, Northern Norway) and of the 800 km, 380 km of the trail lies
in Norway, 350 km in Sweden and 70 km in Finland. The trail crosses international borders 15 times and ends in the
south in Sulitjelma (Norway) or alternately Kvikkjokk (Sweden).
The trail was originally planned in 1977. The trail passes through Øvre Dividal National Park, Reisa National Park,
Abisko National Park and Padjelanta National Park as well as the Sulitjelmafjellet and Narvikfjell regions.
Points along the trail
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Kautokeino (Norway)
Pihtsusköngäs (Finland) - a waterfall
Kilpisjärvi (Finland) - a village
Malla Strict Nature Reserve (Finland)
Innset (Norway)
Abisko (Sweden)
Skjomdalen (Norway)
Nikkaluokta (Sweden)
Ritsem (Sweden)
Sulitjelma (Norway)
Kvikkjokk (Sweden)
Nordkalottruta
References
[1] "Nordkalottleden" (http:/ / www. ne. se/ nordkalottleden) (in Swedish). Nationalencyklopedin. . Retrieved 1 August 2010. (subscription
required)
External links
• Description of the trail (Swedish) (http://www.karesuando.se/kdo/nordkalottleden.htm)
• Nordkalottleden Trail in Finland (http://www.luontoon.fi/page.asp?Section=8300)
68
69
IUCN Category II (National Park)
Location
Norrbotten County, Sweden
Nearest city
Kiruna
Coordinates
68°19′N 18°41′E
Area
77 km2 (30 sq mi)
Established
1909
[1]
[1]
Governing body Naturvårdsverket
Abisko National Park is a National Park in Sweden.
Geographically, Abisko is situated in the Swedish province of Lapland near the
Norwegian border (distance approx. 37 railway km), and belongs to Kiruna
Municipality, Sweden's northernmost and largest municipality. It starts from the
shores of Torne träsk, one of Sweden's largest lakes where the village of Abisko
is located, and extends some 15 kilometres to the south-west. It is situated about
195 kilometers north of the Arctic circle. The total area is 77 km².
The park was established in 1909, the same year Sweden's first laws on nature
conservation were created.
The intentions of the Abisko National Park was to "preserve an area with
northern Nordic fell nature in its original condition and as a reminiscence for
scientific research". The region has proved to be of much scientific interest, as
is evidenced by the Abisko Scientific Research Station which exists to study the
area. Furthermore, the national park was intended to be a prominent tourism
attraction.
Abisko is also home to the Abisko Scientific Research Station, first established
in 1903 near the Abisko village and incorporated with the Royal Swedish
Abisko is labelled as 2.
Academy of Sciences in 1935. It is used primarily for environmental, biological,
and geological research and contains several on-site laboratories as well as off-site field research stations.
Tourism
The 425 kilometer-long Kungsleden hiking trail, which follows the Scandinavian mountain range, starts (or ends) at
the Abisko Turiststation (consisting of a railway station of the same name and the Abisko Youth Hostel) (approx.
4 km west of the village itself) and follows through the national park. The Nordkalottruta uses trails of the park as
part of its longer passage. The Abisko Turiststation, run by the Svenska Turistföreningen (STF), houses many
visitors to the park and provides lodging, food, and other amenities, and is one of many similar facilities located
periodically along the Kungsleden trail. The national park is known for its Cross-country skiing opportunities,
snowshoeing, and other winter sports (Mount Nuolja and nearby Björkliden provides Backcountry skiing and
freeriding opportunities). As its location is 195 km north of the Arctic Circle, summer hikers enjoy the midnight sun,
while winter visitors may find the light pollution-free location ideal for viewing the aurora borealis.
70
Transportation
Daily passenger electric trains run by SJ AB connect Stockholm with the Norwegian city of Narvik, stopping at both
the Abisko village (the name of that railway station is Abisko Östra [east]) and the Abisko Turiststation. Additional
regional trains provide links within the Kiruna-Narvik stretch. Abisko is also reachable by car via the highway E10
which links Kiruna and Narvik since early 1980s. Other local forms of local transportation include hiking and
dog-sledding in winter. A chair-lift provides access to the summit of nearby Mt. Nuolja.
Fauna
There are many species of birds in the park.
Of the mammals, smaller ones like the marten, stoat, squirrel, the fell lemming and similar are common parts of the
fauna. Of larger animals, the Moose and reindeer are common, and moose droppings and tracks are found; however,
wolverines, arctic foxes, lynx and bears are only seen sporadically.
Abisko National Park in a winter
blanket of snow.
Abiskojåkka
Aurora near Abisko
View from Björkliden with
Lapporten in the background
Picture of Nuolja
References
[1] "Abisko National Park" (http:/ / www. naturvardsverket. se/ en/ In-English/ Menu/ Enjoying-nature/
National-parks-and-other-places-worth-visiting/ National-Parks-in-Sweden/ Abisko-National-Park/ ). Naturvårdsverket. . Retrieved
2009-02-27.
External links
• Abisko National Park (http://www.naturvardsverket.se/en/In-English/Menu/Enjoying-nature/
National-parks-and-other-places-worth-visiting/National-Parks-in-Sweden/Abisko-National-Park/) from the
Swedish Environmental Protection Agency
• Abisko, official site (http://www.abisko.nu) In Swedish, English, Japanese
• Abisko Fauna (http://www.fjallen.nu/parker/abisko_flora.htm) at the official mountain page of Norrbotten
County, www.fjallen.nu
• Abisko Scientific Research Station (http://www.ans.kiruna.se/)
• Photos of Abisko National Park (http://dheera.net/photos/thumb.php?q=europe2006/abisko)
• Photo Hiking Guide of Abisko National Park (http://www.nordpaul.de/abisk-en.html)
Kalix River
71
Kalix River
Kalix River (kölisälva, Kalix älv)
River
Country
Sweden
County
Norrbotten
Mouth
Gulf of Bothnia
- location
Kalix
- elevation
0 m (0 ft)
- coordinates
65°50′N 23°11′E
Length
Basin
450 km (280 mi)
[1]
18130.1 km2 (7000 sq mi)
[2]
Discharge
- average
290 m3/s (10241 cu ft/s)
[1]
The Kalix River (in Kalix language: kölisälva, Swedish: proper Kalix älv or in everyday language Kalixälven,
Northern Sami: Gáláseatnu, In Meänkieli the lower part of the river is called Kaihnuunväylä, while the upper part is
called Kaalasväylä) is one of the four major rivers of Norrland, northern Sweden, that are untouched by water power
constructions. It is 461 kilometres long, flowing up to the Kebnekaise mountain range in Kiruna Municipality. In the
southeast it flows through Lappland; and to the south through Norrbotten County, discharging in the Gulf of Bothnia
south-east of Kalix.
The Kalix River is the third river by length in Norrbotten, with the
Torne River being 522 km and the Lule River being only slightly
longer at 460.81 km
Major contributaries are Tvärån, Ängesån and Tärendö River,
which is a bifurcation river taking water from Torne River.
Its largest waterfall is Jokkfall, in Jokkmokk Municipality.
References
Frozen Kalix river at Kalixforsbron, March 2008
[1] "Kalixälven" (http:/ / www. ne. se/ kalixälven) (in Swedish).
Nationalencyklopedin. . Retrieved 14 July 2010. (subscription required)
[2] "Län och huvudavrinningsområden i Sverige" (http:/ / www. smhi. se/ sgn0102/ n0205/ lan_haro_huvud. pdf) (in Swedish). SMHI. .
Retrieved 14 July 2010.
Torne River
72
Torne River
Torne River
Tornionjoki, Torne älv, Torneälven,
Duortneseatnu, Tornionväylä
River
Torne River at Tornio
Countries
Source
Sweden, Finland, Norway
Torne träsk
- location
Kiruna Municipality, Norrbotten, Sweden
- elevation
341 m (1119 ft)
- coordinates 68°22′N 019°06′E
Mouth
Gulf of Bothnia
- location
Tornio/Haparanda, Finland/Sweden
- elevation
0 m (0 ft)
- coordinates 65°50′N 024°09′E
Length
Basin
510 km (317 mi)
[1]
40157.1 km2 (15505 sq mi)
[2]
Discharge
- average
370 m3/s (13066 cu ft/s)
[1]
Location of Torne River
The Torne River (Finnish: Tornionjoki, Swedish: Torne älv, Torneälven, Northern Sami: Duortneseatnu, Meänkieli:
Tornionväylä), is a river in northern Sweden and Finland. Approximately half of the river's length is a part of the
Torne River
border between these two countries. It rises at Lake Torne (Swedish: Torneträsk) near the border with Norway and
flows generally southeast for a distance of 522 kilometres (324 mi) into the Gulf of Bothnia. It is the largest river in
Norrbotten both by length and by watershed area.
Geography
The Torne rivershed has a total area of 37300 square kilometres (14400 sq mi) or 40147.1 square kilometres
(15500.9 sq mi) (see sidebar). Of this, 25392.2 km2 (9804.0 sq mi)[3] or 25393.1 km2 (9804.3 sq mi)[4] is in Sweden,
10400 km2 (4000 sq mi)[5] or 14266.3 km2 (5508.2 sq mi)[4] is in Finland and 1500 km2 (580 sq mi)[5] or 497.7 km2
(192.2 sq mi)[4] is in Norway.
Lake Torne
The source of the Torne River is generally considered to be Lake Torne (Swedish: Torneträsk) near the border with
Norway. Lake Torne is fed by Njuoraätno and Kåppasjåkka in the west, Gurttejohka, Snurrijåkka, Bessešjohka,
Bággesgorsajohka, Davip Duoptejohka, Lulip Duoptejohka, Sarvájohka and others in the north, and Rákkasjohka,
Gohpasjohka, Abiskojåkka, Miellejohka, Bessešjohka, Golkkokjohka, Nivsakkjohka and others in the south.[6]
Above Torne lake, the watershed of the Torne includes the villages Riksgränsen, Katterjåkk, Vassijaure, Låktatjåkka,
Kopperåsen and Tornehamn. On the south shore of Torne lake are Björkliden, Abisko, Stordalen, Kaisepakte.
Stenbacken and Torneträsk. On the north shore are the Sami villages Laimoluokta and Kattuvuoma.[6]
Upper river
Beyond the lake, the Torne rivers flows unhindered by any concentrations of human inhabitants until the village of
Kurravaara, around 12 kilometres (7 mi) northeast of Kiruna. The river splits in two parts that only join at
Kurravaara,[7] the part between the river is Alajávri nature reserve (Alajávri naturreservat). Between the lake and
Kurravaara, the streams Čearrojogaš and Rávdojohka join on the right side, and shortly befare Kurravaara, the
134.69-kilometre (83.69 mi) long Rautas River flows into the Torne. On the left side, the streams Gukkajohka,
Reaskkajohka and Dápmokjohka join. In the area between the two streams, the Beallejohka joins the right arm from
the left.[7]
After Kurravaara, the river proceeds Laxforsen, where it is joined from the right by the Luossajoki. Here is the first
bridge over the river for the road leading from the E10 to Laxforsen, Luossajärvi and Esrange.[8] The river continues
to Jukkasjärvi, where the Ice hotel is built in winter from the river ice.
To the bifurcation
Beyond Paksuniemi, the river is joined by the Pounujoki from the right. At Vittangi, the 125.7-kilometre (78.1 mi)
long Vittangi river,[9] which passes by Esrange, joins from the left.[8] Here is the second river-crossing bridge, used
by the E45 to Karesuando. The river then proceeds to Kuoksu, where it is crossed by the road to Lainio and
Oksajärvi, and to Juopakosku, where the Junojoki joins from the left. At Junosuando, the Torne river loses 56% of its
water to the Tärendö River in one of the four bifurcations in the watershed area.[4] Here is also a bridge for the road
to Kangos and Parkolombolo,[8] this the fourth bridge over the river.
Shortly after Junosuando, the Piipionjoki joins from the left and at Palokorva, the 259.74-kilometre (161.39 mi)
long[9] Lainio River joins from the left. In the Lainio River watershed are two more, smaller bifurcations: the lakes
Goldajávri, Råstojaure flow toward contributaries of the Laino river as well as to the Norwegian streams
Signaldalselva and Råstaelva respectively.
73
Torne River
74
Down to Pajala
Between Junosuando and Pajala, the Käymäjoki joins from the left and the Liviöjoki and the Mertajoki join from the
right. The village Anttis is located on the left bank of the river, with Swedish road Riksväg 395
(Svappavaraa–Pajala) on the right bank; the fifth bridge connects Anttis to the main road.[8] Shortly after Pajala, the
Torne river joins with the 379.88-kilometre (236.05 mi) long Muonio River,[9] the biggest contributary of the Torne
river. Near Pajala are two more bridges going north.[8] North of this point, the Muonio river forms the border with
Finland. From this point, the border with Finland is formed by the Torne river.
Lower river
Torne river and Torne valley near Övertorneå as seen from the Finnish side. The bridge can be seen to the left.
From here the river flows south along the Finno-Swedish border. This part is known as Torne Valley and is a popular
tourist destination. Slightly south of Pajala is a border-crossing bridge for a road leading to Kolari, the eighth bridge
over the main river from the source. The river proceeds to the village Kassa.[10] At the village of Pello, which lies on
both sides of the river, is a bridge between the two parts. The river continues south to Svanstein, crosses the arctic
circle at Juoksengi and proceeds to Niskanpää and Kuivakangas. In Övertorneå (Finnish: Ylitornio) there is another
bridge, the final road bridge before the sea. Here, the 127.43-kilometre (79.18 mi) long Tengeliön River joins from
the (Finnish) left side . The river continues to Hedenäset and Risudden.
At Karungi, the Liakanjoki departs from the Torne river and flows to the Gulf of Bothnia independently in Finland.
From Karungi south, there are railways on both sides of the valley. At Kukkola is Kukkolaforsen, a rapids which is
also a tourist attraction. Before finally arriving at the twin city of Haparanda/Tornio, it passes by the villages
Vojakkala and Mattila.
Torne River
75
In the twin city of Haparanda/Tornio are four more bridges: one for
cyclists and pedestrians, one for local traffic, one for the E4 and the
southernmost, last and 14th bridge over the Tornio river is a dual gauge
railway bridge connecting the Swedish and Finnish railway systems.
History
In the Treaty of Fredrikshamn in 1809, when Sweden lost the areas
which constitute present-day Finland to Imperial Russia, the river was
together with the Muonio River and Könkämä River chosen as border
between Sweden and the new Russian Grand Duchy of Finland, thus
splitting the provinces of Lappland and Västerbotten.
Haparanda–Tornio dual gauge railway bridge, the
only fixed railway connection between Sweden
and Finland.
According to the treaty, the border shall follow the deepest part of the river. Near Haparanda/Tornio the border was
fixed in the treaty, partly on land, so the city of Tornio would belong to Russia. Once every 25 years, a commission
of Swedish and Finnish representatives shall review this border. This means that the border can move, such as in
2006 when such a border change was undertaken.
Culture
Towns on the Torne River often have both Swedish and Finnish names, like Haparanda (from Finnish Haaparanta,
"Aspen Shore") and Tornio (from Swedish Torneå).
Historically, the language used on both sides of the river was Finnish. In the late 19th century, schools were opened
in both countries. Then there was a decision to make the Swedish part of area Swedish speaking by teaching the
school children only written Swedish and allowing only Swedish to be spoken during lessons, sometimes also during
breaks. As an effect, during the second half of the 20th century, Swedish was the dominant language on the Swedish
side. The Finnish spoken in informal conversation is similar on both sides of the river, although some newer words
differ. To support the traditional language on the Swedish side a new written language has been devised, Meänkieli.
On the Finnish side only Finnish is used in written communication. These two languages differ considerably in
spelling.
References
[1] "Torne älv" (http:/ / www. ne. se/ torne-älv) (in Swedish). Nationalencyklopedin. . Retrieved 14 July 2010. (subscription required)
[2] "Län och huvudavrinningsområden i Sverige" (http:/ / www. smhi. se/ sgn0102/ n0205/ lan_haro_huvud. pdf) (in Swedish). SMHI. .
Retrieved 14 July 2010.
[3] Norrbottens län (http:/ / www. smhi. se/ sgn0102/ n0205/ lan_haro_norrbotten. pdf)
[4] Huvudavrinningsområden på gränsen mellan Sverige, Norge och Finland (http:/ / www. smhi. se/ sgn0102/ n0205/ lan_haro_huvud. pdf)
[5] International river basins of the world (http:/ / www. transboundarywaters. orst. edu/ publications/ register/ tables/ IRB_europe. html)
[6] Lantmäteriets fjällkarta BD6 Abisko-Kebnekaise-Narvik
[7] Lantmäteriets fjällkarta BD4 Kiruna
[8] Lantmäteriets Översiktkarta 1 Kiruna
[9] Vattendragsregistret (http:/ / www. smhi. se/ sgn0102/ n0204/ vdragreg. pdf)
[10] Swedish article sv:Torneälven
Nikkaluokta
76
Nikkaluokta
Nikkaluokta
Nikkaluokta parking and hotel.
Nikkaluokta
Coordinates: 67°51′4″N 19°01′30″E
Country
Sweden
Municipality
Gällivare Municipality
County
Norrbotten County
Province
Lappland
Time zone
CET (UTC+1)
• Summer (DST)
CEST (UTC+2)
Nikkaluokta is a Swedish Sami village in Norrbotten County. The village belongs to Gällivare Municipality,
bordering Kiruna Municipality, the closest urban area some 60 kilometers away. In its vicinity lie two other Sami
villages, Laevas and Girjas, who still herd semi-domesticated reindeer in the region.
Nikkaluokta has a mountain lodge, complete with a small grocery store and restaurant, a chapel, and, during the
summer months, a commercial helicopter base. It is a popular starting point for several hiking and skiing trails in the
Kebnekaise area, including the notable Kungsleden. On foot, it takes around five hours to travel the 19 kilometer
distance between the two mountain lodges in Nikkaluokta and Kebnekaise.
Nikkaluokta is sited in the center of three valleys, where the tarmac road from Kiruna Municipality ends. To travel
farther, you have to use trails and mountain paths of varying size and condition. Nikkaluokta Bay in Lake
Ladtjojaure is also the starting point for the water route into scenic Vistas Valley.
Nikkaluokta
77
The chapel
The tarmac road leading into Nikkaluokta
The same road in winter
Torneträsk
78
Torneträsk
Torneträsk
Duortnosjávri
Torneträsk seen from the north
Location
Kiruna Municipality, Norrbotten County
Coordinates
68°22′N 019°06′E
Primary outflows Torne River
Basin countries
Sweden
Max. length
70 km (43 mi)
Max. width
11 km (6.8 mi)
Surface area
332 km2 (128 sq mi)
Average depth
51 m (167 ft)
Max. depth
168 m (551 ft)
Water volume
17.1 m3 (0.0139 acre·ft)
Surface elevation 341 m (1119 ft)
References
[1]
Torneträsk or Torne träsk (Saami: Duortnosjávri, Finnish/Meänkieli: Tornio or Torniojärvi) is a lake in Kiruna
Municipality, Lapland, Norrbotten County in Sweden, in the Scandinavian mountain range. Träsk is the local word
for lake (in Standard Swedish it means "swamp"). It is the seventh largest lake in Sweden, with a total area of 330
square kilometres (130 sq mi) and a length of 70 kilometres (43 mi). The lake drains to the south-east through Torne
älv. South-west of the lake lies the Abisko National Park and the UNESCO World Heritage Site Laponian area.
Torneträsk originated from the remnant of a glacier, which has given the lake its depth of 168 metres (551 ft),
making it the second deepest lake in Sweden. It is usually ice-covered from December through June, with variations
dependent on temperature variations.
Torneträsk
79
References
[1] "Sjöar och vattendrag" (http:/ / www. vattenmyndigheterna. se/ vattenmyndigheten/
amnen/ Bottenviken/ Om+ distriktet/ Sjoar_och_vattendrag. htm) (in Swedish).
Vattenmyndigheten Bottenviken. . Retrieved 2008-09-13.
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