International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their

Transcription

International Journal
on
New Trends in Education
and
Their Implications
(IJONTE)
July, 2013
Volume: 4
Issue: 3
ISSN 1309-6249
http://ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2013 Volume: 4 Issue: 3 ISSN 1309-6249
Contact Addresses
Prof. Dr. Zeki Kaya, Gazi Üniversitesi, Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Bölümü Tenik
Okullar Ankara/Türkiye
E. Mail: [email protected]
Prof. Dr. Uğur Demiray, Anadolu Üniversitesi, İletişim Bilimleri Fakültesi, Yunusemre
Kampüsü, 26470 Eskişehir/Türkiye
E. Mail: [email protected] Phone: +905422322167
Assist. Prof. Dr. Ilknur Istifci, Anadolu Üniversitesi, Yabancı Diller Yüksek Okulu, İki Eylül
Kampusü, 26470 Eskişehir/Türkiye
E. Mail: [email protected] or [email protected] Phone: +902223350580
Indexed by
Sponsors
i
Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
Editors
Prof. Dr. Zeki Kaya, Gazi University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Uğur Demiray, Anadolu University, Turkey
Associate Editor
Assist. Prof. Dr. Ilknur Istifci, Anadolu University, Turkey
Assistant Editors
Ufuk Tanyeri, Gazi University, Turkey
Nazan Dogruer, Eastern Mediterranean University,TRNC
Ramadan Eyyam, Eastern Mediterranean University , TRNC
Ipek Menevis, Eastern Mediterranean University, TRNC
Editorial Board
Prof. Dr. Abdul Hakim Juri, University of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Prof. Dr. Ahmet Mahiroğlu, Gazi University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Ahmet Pehlivan, Cyprus International University,TRNC
Prof. Dr. Alan Smith, The University of Southern Queensland, Australia
Prof. Dr. Ali H. Raddaoui, University of Sfax, Tunisia
Prof. Dr. Ali Şimşek, Anadolu University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Antoinette J. Muntjewerff, Amsterdam University, Netherlands
Prof. Dr. Augustyn Bańka, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Poland
Prof. Dr. Boriss Misnevs, Transport and Telecommunication Institute, Latvia
Prof. Dr. Charlotte Nirmalani (Lani) Gunawardena, University of New Mexico, USA
Prof. Dr. Christine Howe, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom
Prof. Dr. Cevat Celep, Kocaeli University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Cleborne D. Maddux, University of Nevada, USA
Prof. Dr. Coşkun Bayrak, Anadolu University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Danièle Moore, Simon Fraser University, Canada
Prof. Dr. Gul Nurgalieva, Joint-stock company,"National Center of Information", Kazakhstan
Prof. Dr. Emine Demiray, Anadolu University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Erol Yıldız, Alpen-Adria University, Austria
Prof. Dr. Esmahan Ağaoğlu, Anadolu University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Francis Glasgow, Guyana University, South America
Prof. Dr. Harold Bekkering, University of Nijmegen, Netherlands
Prof. Dr. H. Ferhan Odabaşı, Anadolu University, Turkey
Prof. Hayriye Koç Başara, Sakarya University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Heli Ruokamo, University of Lapland, Finland
Prof. Dr. Jim Flood, Open University, United Kingdom
Prof. Dr. Kiyoshi Nakabayashi, Kumamoto University, Japan
Prof. Dr. K. M. Gupta, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, India
Prof. Dr. Leyla Küçükahmet, Gazi University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Liliana Ezechil, University of Piteşti, Romania
Prof. Dr. Marie J. Myers, Queen's University, Canada
Prof. Dr. Mehmet Ali Kısakürek, Ankara University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Mehmet Durdu Karslı, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Mehmet Kesim, Anadolu University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Meral Aksu, Middle East Technical University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Min Jou, National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan
ii
Prof. Dr. Modafar Ati, Abu Dhabi University, United Arab Emirates
Prof. Dr. Mohamed Ziad Hamdan, Modern Education House, Syria
Prof. Dr. Müfit Kömleksiz, Cyprus International University,TRNC
Prof. Dr. Paul Kawachi, Bejing Normal University, China
Prof. Dr. Piet Kommers, University of Twente, Netherlands
Prof. Dr. Ramesh C. Sharma, Indira Gandhi National Open University, India
Prof. Dr. Richard C. Hunter, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA
Prof. Dr. Rozhan M. Idrus, School of Distance Education, University Sains, Malaysia
Prof. Dr. Santosh Panda, Indira Gandhi National Open University, India
Prof. Dr. Selahattin Gelbal, Hacettepe University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Sharif H. Guseynov, Transport and Telecommunication Institute, Latvia
Prof. Dr. Tamar Lominadze, Georgian Technical University, Georgia
Prof. Dr. Tanja Betz, Goethe University, Germany
Prof. Dr. Tayyip Duman, Gazi University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Tony Townsend, University of Glasgow, United Kingdom
Prof. Dr. Valentina Dagiene, Institute of Mathematics and Informatics, Lithuania
Prof. Dr. Xibin Han, Tsinghua University, China
Prof. Dr. Yavuz Akpınar, Bogaziçi University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Yoav Yair,The Open University of Israel, Israel
Prof. Dr. Yüksel Kavak, Hacettepe University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Zdena Lustigova, Chareles University, Czech Republic
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ahmet Ok, Middle East Technical University, Turkey
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Antonis Lionarakis, Hellenic Open University, Greece
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Carlos Machado, Vrije University, Belgium
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Danny Bernard Martin, University of Ilinois at Chicago, USA
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Demetrios G. Sampson, University of Piraeus, Greece
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gonca Telli Yamamoto, Okan University, Turkey
Assoc. Prof. Dr. I. Hakki Mirici, Akdeniz University, Turkey
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Natalija Lepkova, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Lithuania
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nedim Gürses, Anadolu University, Turkey
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nigel Bagnall, The University of Sydney, Australia
Assoc. Prof. Dr. R. E. (Bobby) Harreveld, CQ University, Australia
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Rositsa Doneva, Paisii Hilendarski University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Shivakumar Deene, Karnataka State Open University, India
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Steve Wheeler, University of Plymouth, United Kingdom
Assist. Prof. Dr. Irfan Yurdabakan, Dokuz Eykul University, Turkey
Assist. Prof. Dr. Katherine Sinitsa, International Research and Training Center, Ukrania
Assist. Prof. Dr. Roxana Criu, Cuza University, Romania
Dr. Carmencita l. Castolo, Polytechnic University, Philippines
Dr. Hisham Mobaideen, Mu'tah University, Jordan
Dr. Simon Stobart, University of Teesside, United Kingdom
iii
July 2013 Volume: 4 Issue: 3 Contents ISSN 1309-6249
CONTENTS……………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………….…….iv
From The Editors…………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………vi
ARTICLES…………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………..………………………….01
01. THE EFFECTS OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING METHODS ON STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENTS
IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY LESSONS
Ufuk ŞİMŞEK, Bayram YILAR, Birgül KÜÇÜK- TURKEY……………………………………………………………………………………01
02. A COMPARATIVE STUDY FOR TEACHING CHEMISTRY THROUGH INDUCTIVE THINKING MODEL AND
ADVANCED ORGANIZER MODEL
Bhim Chandra MONDAL – INDIA………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….10
03. EFFECT OF A COMPUTER SOFTWARE ON DISABLED SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS’ ORAL READING
FLUENCY
Malahat YOUSEFZADEH- IRAN………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……21
04. THE EFFECTS OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE THEORY BASED TEACHING ON STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT
AND RETENTION OF KNOWLEDGE (EXAMPLE OF THE ENZYMES SUBJECT)
Sibel GÜRBÜZOĞLU YALMANCI, Ali İbrahim Can GÖZÜM- TURKEY………………………………………………………………27
05. GENDER AND EXPERIENCE AS PREDICTOR OF BIOLOGY TEACHERS’ EDUCATION PROCESS
SELF-EFFICACY PERCEPTION AND PERCEPTION OF RESPONSIBILITY FROM STUDENT SUCCESS
Murat AKTAŞ, Hakan KURT, Özlem AKSU, Gülay EKİCİ- TURKEY……………………………………………………………………37
06. THE EFFECT OF GENDER AND COMPUTER USE VARIABLES ON RECOGNATION
OF GEOMETRICAL SHAPES IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN
Oğuz Serdar KESİCİOĞLU- TURKEY……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….48
07. METACOGNITIVE AWARENESS IN SCIENCE CLASSROOM OF HIGHER SECONDARY STUDENTS
G. JAYAPRABA- M. KANMANI- INDIA……………………………………………………………………………………………………………57
08. E- AND M-LEARNING: A COMPARATIVE STUDY
Santosh Kumar BEHERA- INDIA……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………65
09. ANALYSIS OF OP: 63 PIANO ETUDES BY LUIS STREABBOG WITH REGARDS TO TARGET BEHAVIOURS
Yüksel PİRGON- TURKEY………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………79
10. THE OPINIONS OF THE ACADEMICIONS REGARDING TO PIANO EDUCATION
İzzet YÜCETOKER, Özer KUTLUK…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..87
11. BIOLOGY DEPARTMENT AND SCIENCE EDUCATION STUDENTS’ ENVIRONMENTAL SENSITIVITY,
ATTITUDE AND BEHAVIOURS
Yusuf KARADEMİR, Murat BARLAS, Çiğdem Aldan KARADEMİR- TURKEY………………………………………………….102
12. PAULO FREIRE’S PERCEPTION OF DIALOGUE BASED EDUCATION
Abdullah DURAKOĞLU- TURKEY…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………112
iv
July 2013 Volume: 4 Issue: 3 Contents ISSN 1309-6249
13. A STUDY ON THE ATTITUDES OF IRANIAN CANDIDATES TOWARDS THE GENERAL IELTS TEST
Seyyed Behrooz HOSSEINI, Seyyed Ali HOSSEINI, Alireza ROUDBARI- IRAN………………………..………………………108
14. MUSEUM OF SOCIAL STUDIES IN EDUCATION STUDENTS ATTITUDES AND VIEWS
Hatice MEMİŞOĞLU, Samet KAMÇI- TURKEY………………………………………………………………………………………………121
15. GENERAL PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN GENERAL INSPECTIONS OF PRIMARY SCHOOLS ACCORDING
TO THE VIEWS OF INSPECTORS AND PRINCIPALS
Salih Paşa MEMİŞOĞLU, Zeki EKİNCİ- TURKEY…………………………………………………………………………………………...139
16. THE EFFECT OF STRESS COPING PROGRAM ON BURNOUT LEVELS OF HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS
Gülriz YEDİGÖZ SÖNMEZ- Burhan ÇAPRİ- TURKEY……………………………………………………………………………………..148
17. EXAMINATION OF LEARNING APPROACH LEVELS IN PIANO COURSES ACCORDING
TO SOME VARIABLES IN INDIVIDUAL INSTRUMENT COURSE
Mehtap AYDINER UYGUN- TURKEY…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….165
18. PROSPECTIVE ELEMENTARY TEACHERS’ MISCONCEPTIONS IN BIOLOGY LESSON:
URINARY SYSTEM SAMPLE
Murat GENÇ- TURKEY…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………178
19. AN INVESTIGATION OF GOODNESS OF MODEL DATA FIT:
EXAMPLE OF PISA 2009 MATHEMATICS SUBTEST
Gülden KAYA UYANIK, Gülşen TAŞDELEN TEKER, Neşe GÜLER –TURKEY…………………………………………………….188
20. THE IMPORTANCE OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT HAS BEEN INCREASING
IN STUDENT ACADEMIC SUCCESS, BASED ON INTERNATIONAL EXAMS
Haydar ATEŞ, Gülbanu ARTUNER – TURKEY……………………………………………………………………………………………….197
v
July 2013 Volume: 4 Issue: 3 From Editors ISSN 1309-6249
Dear IJONTE Readers,
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications- IJONTE appears on your screen now
as Volume 4, Number 3. In this issue it publishes 20 articles. And this time, 39 authors from 3 different
countries are placed. These are India, Iran and Turkey.
Our journal has been published for over four years. It has been followed by many people and a lot of articles
have been sent to be published. 182 articles have been sent to referees for forthcoming issues. They will be
published according to the order and the results. Articles are sent to referees without names and addresses of
the authors. The articles who get positive responses will be published and the authors will be informed. The
articles who are not accepted to be published will be returned to their authors.
We wish you success and easiness in your studies.
Cordially,
st
1 July, 2013
Editors
Prof. Dr. Zeki KAYA, Gazi University, Ankara, TURKEY
Prof. Dr. Ugur DEMIRAY, Anadolu University, Eskisehir, TURKEY
Assist. Prof. Dr. Ilknur ISTIFCI, Anadolu University, Eskisehir, TURKEY
vi
July 2013 Volume: 4 Issue: 3 Article: 01 ISSN 1309-6249
THE EFFECTS OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING METHODS
ON STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENTS IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY LESSONS
Assist. Prof. Dr. Ufuk ŞİMŞEK
Ataturk University
Kazim Karabekir Education Faculty
Department of Elementary Social Studies, Erzurum, TURKEY
Res. Assist. Bayram YILAR
Ataturk University
Res. Assist. Birgül KÜÇÜK
Ataturk University
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of Group Investigation (GI) and the Reading-WritingPresenting (RWP) method in cooperative learning on students’ comprehension of social psychology lesson. This
research included 107 first-grade students from two classes. For this research, each class was selected to test
one teaching method. The first class was selected as the Group Investigation Group (n=52), the second was
selected as the Reading-Writing-Presenting Group (n=55). The data was collected through the Academic
Achievement Test. The results obtained from the data show that the Reading-Writing-Presenting method has a
more positive effect on increasing students’ academic knowledge and achievements in social psychology lesson
than the Group Investigation method.
Key Words: Group investigation, Reading-writing-presenting, Social psychology.
INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, student-centered teaching model, method and technique are used. One of the models in
contemporary teaching is cooperative learning method. According to Slavin cooperative learning method is one
of the most successfully explored instructional strategy in the history of educational research (Slavin, 1996).
Cooperative learning method is effective in reducing prejudice among students and meeting the academic and
social needs of at-risk students in terms of education (Sudzina, 1993). Cooperative learning method is an
activity that increases the students' class participation, academic achievement and motivation toward learning
(Polloway, Patton & Serna, 2001.) Cooperative learning method is neither an ordinary nor a group study.
Cooperative learning method may be defined as an active education strategy with small groups in order that
the students will develop the learning of both themselves and the group members (Abrami, Poulsen, &
Chambers, 2004; Johnson, & Johnson, 1999). It contains a certain amount of togetherness of idea and goal.
During these studies, the individual indicates an effort that supports the learning of both himself and his
companions (Doymuş, Şimşek & Şimşek, 2005; Aksoy & Doymuş, 2011; Doymuş, 2007; Doymuş, Karaçöp &
Şimşek, 2010; Fer & Çırık, 2007). In cooperative learning method individuals endeavors to support both their
own learning and colleagues to learn (Doymuş, Şimşek & Şimşek, 2005; Aksoy & Doymuş, 2011; Doymuş,
2007;Doymuş, Karaçöp & Şimşek, 2010; Fer & Çırık,2007). Cooperative learning method can be defined as a
learning approach that students help learn from each other creating a small mixed groups towards a common
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purpose in an academic subject in both classroom and other environments, increased self-confidence and
communication skills of individuals, strengthened the power of problem-solving and critical thinking and
students participates actively in the process of education (Doymuş, Karaçöp & Şimşek, 2010; Avcıoğlu, 2012;
Hwang, Shadiev, Wang & Huang, 2012; Tan, Wen, Jiang, Du & Hu, 2012; Turan, 2012). The academicals
foundations of cooperative learning emerged the work of social psychologist, Morton Deutsch, who specialized
in the study of social interdependence Deutsch studied the effects of different group structures on the process
and outcomes of group efforts in a variety of social and work settings (Tanner, Chatman & Allen,2003). There
are two major theoretical perspectives related to cooperative learning-motivation and cognitive. The
motivational theories of cooperative learning emphasize the students’ incentives to do academic work, while
the cognitive theories emphasize the effects of working together. There are two cognitive theories that are
directly applied to cooperative learning, the developmental and the elaboration theories. The developmental
theories assume that interaction among students around appropriate tasks increases their mastery of critical
concepts (Damon, 1984). When students interact with other students, they have to explain and discuss each
other's perspectives, which lead to greater understanding of the material to be learned. The struggle to resolve
potential conflicts during collaborative activity results in the development of higher levels of understanding
(Bukunola & Idowu, 2012). The elaboration theory suggests that one of the most effective means of learning is
to explain the material to someone else. Cooperative learning activities enhance elaborative thinking and more
frequent giving and receiving of explanations, which has the potential to increase depth of understanding, the
quality of reasoning, and the accuracy of long term retention (Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec, 1986).
The implementation of cooperative learning method many methods are used. These methods display diversity
depending on the number of students, the social structure of the environment, the physical structure of the
class and applied to the subject of the course and course (Maloof & White, 2005; Şimşek et al., 2008).
Cooperative learning method has taken place of education activities for a long time. During this process,
researchers have developed various methods and practices (McTighe & Lyman, 1988; Jones & Steinbrink, 1991;
Almasi, 1995; Gambrell, 1996). The forefronts of these methods are Learning Together, Student Teams, Group
Investigation, Let’s Ask and Learn Together, Jigsaw, and the method. In this study, the Reading-WritingPresentation and Group Investigation methods were used.
In RWP method, students are divided into heterogeneous groups that consist of 2-6 members in class taking
into account the physical condition of the class where the course is processed, the number of students, and
students’ academic achievements (Şimşek, 2013). Reading-Writing-Presentation method consists of three
stages. In the reading stage, all groups in the class read the topic of course using different sources that each
student had brought during one lesson. In the writing stage, groups completed reading stage pass the stage of
writing removing all sources. Students in all groups make a report of what they have learned during the class
hours. Reports are evaluated by the author. As a result of evaluation the groups of low-grade return to the
stage of reading. The groups of high-grade pass the stage of presenting. In the presentation stage groups
makes presentations in the classroom about 20 minutes. After the presentation the points that wondering and
unclear the relevant subject are discussed (Okur-Akçay, 2012) Group investigation is learning strategy that
involves task specialization (Slavin, 1995). In this method, the class is divided into several groups that study in a
different phase of a general issue. Group investigation: Expanding cooperative learning. Working in small
cooperative groups, students investigate a specific topic. The study issue is then divided into working sections
among the members of the groups. Students pair up the information, arrangement, analysis, planning and
integrate the data with the students in other groups.. The information collected is then compiled into a whole
and presented to the entire class (Sharan & Sharan, 1992).
In the literature, there are hundreds of studies showing that cooperative learning method is more successful
than traditional methods in all respects (Yılmaz, 2007; Peterson &Jeffrey, 2004; Aksoy, 2006; Johnson and
Johnson, 2005; Ahmad &Mahmood, 2010). However, there are very few studies comparing cooperative
methods of their own (Aksoy &Gürbüz, 2013). The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of GI and
RWP on students’ comprehension of social psychology lessons. Specifically, the effects of these methods on the
students’ academic achievement in social psychology lessons are examined. The specific research question
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posed is: Are there any significant difference of using the Reading-Writing-Presenting method and Group
Investigation methods on student achievements in social psychology lessons?
METHOD
In analyzing the effects of two different teaching methods in different classrooms, it is more convenient to use
the quasi-experimental research design. A quasi-experimental design in which participants are not randomly
assigned to the groups, instead, there are naturally occurring groups or groups to which participants are
assigned for reasons other than randomizing the sample was used in this study. The study utilized ‘‘a pretest/posttest non-equivalent comparison group design’’ (McMillan & Schumacher 2006). Effects of group
investigation method and reading-writing-presenting method on social studies prospective teachers’ academic
achievement were sought. The participants consisted of two different classes of 107 second grade prospective
teachers’ social studies education department students who were attending social psychology course at
Atatürk University in 20012 to 2013 academic year. One of the classes was randomly assigned as group
investigation group (n= 55), and the other was randomly assigned as reading-writing-presenting (n= 52). In
order to explore the differences between the two groups in their academic achievement in that course,
Academic Achievement Test (AAT) was given to both groups as pre-tests at the beginning of the treatment.
According to the data related to AAT scores, it was found that there were no significant differences among the
participants. Both groups were applied different method to four weeks. Then posttest was performed.
Sample
This is a quasi-experimental study and designed as a Non-Equivalent Groups pre-test, post-test, and
comparison group model. The sample of this study consisted of a total of 107 (57 male and 50 famale ; 20 and
25 ages) second grade social studies prospective teachers from different groups enrolled in a social psychology
course for the 2012–2013 academic years. One of the treatment groups was the Group Investigation Group
(GIG) (n=52), the second group was the Reading-Writing-Presenting Group (RWPG) (n=55). Groups were given
prior information about the method. Before the beginning of the treatment, the author gave information about
learning objectives, the instruction process, and rules of working in a cooperative group, roles, and assessment
strategies.
Instruments
In this study, the Academic Achievement Test (AAT) was used. The AAT consists of 32 multiple-choice
questions; each question is worth two points. The reason for using a multiple-choice test as a measurement
tool is teacher candidates will take such a test to become a teacher. This test was created by the aouthor. This
test was given to students who were not involved in the study but had previously taken the course in which the
aforementioned force and motion topics had been taught. With respect to reliability, AAT was administered to
a group of 46 students who had taken the social psychology course the year before. The reliability of AAT was
found (α= 0.71). Author pointed out that the gains achieved with AAT related to the subjects of force and
motion had been high in terms of the measurement.
Procedure
The Reading-Writing-Presenting Implemented
The RWPG students were randomly divided into eleven sub-groups. These groups were contained five
students. The reading-writing-presenting method was carried out four weeks to teaching the “social
psychology”. The RWPG was employed for four weeks to teach social influence and conformity (St1), attitudes
(St2), theoretical approaches to attitude change (St3), the process of attitude change (St4), The main features
of the modified reading-writing-presenting methods are presented in three phases for each group in 1) in-class
reading, 2) in-class writing, and 3) in-class presenting.
In class reading; all groups in the classroom read the topics for 30 minute from the course books or other
resources which was included in the module for the week. In class writing; all groups wrote their understanding
about what they read for 20 minutes without accessing resources. Writing was done by group pairs. After
finishing the writing, the notes written by the groups were evaluated by the author. Groups whose evaluated
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outcomes were not good enough sent back to groups for reading stage. After the groups finished reading and
writing stages, three groups made presentations about the subject for 20 minutes. Then, after the presentation
an argument discussed in the classroom.
The Group Investigation Implemented
The GIG students were randomly divided into two parts (Part I, n=26 students; Part II, n=26 students). The
students in these parts were divided into ten sub-groups. Eight groups contained five students. Two groups
contained six students. The GIG was employed for four weeks to teach social influence and conformity (St1),
attitudes (St2), theoretical approaches to attitude change (St3), the process of attitude change (St4), The main
features of the modified GI are presented in three phases for each module (Oh & Shin, 2005). The features are:
1) in-class discussion, 2) out-of-class investigation, and In-class presentation.
In-class discussion: ‘students are organized into research groups’, ‘students get together in their groups for
discussion’, ‘each group sets an inquiry topic within a given unit and makes a plan for investigation’, ‘during the
discussion, group members use their textbooks to identify their own problems, questions, or issues and select a
topic to study’, and ‘the teacher participates in the group discussion and the teacher’s roles include
encouraging students to select authentic topics that can be addressed in multiple ways’.
In out-of-class investigation: ‘each student group carries out its investigation’, ‘the teacher helps students with
their investigations’, ‘the teacher’s roles include presenting sources of information, providing instruments for
their study, and assisting students with difficulties’, and ‘each research group prepares an in-class
presentation’.
In-class presentation: Week II: group A in part 1 was the presentation (offer) group while group A in part 2 was
the inquiry (grill) group. While group A in part 1 presented the topics of St1, group A in part 2 questioned the
group about their presentation and determined their weaknesses. Other students in the classroom also
participated in the discussion. Week III: group B in part 2 was the offer group while group B in part 1 was the
grill group. While group B in part 2 presented the topics of St2, group B in part 1 questioned the group about
their presentation and determined their weaknesses. Other students in the classroom also took part in the
discussion. The other grill and offer groups were organized in the same way as week II and week III.
FINDINGS
In order to determine the differences among the two treatment groups, an independent t-test was employed
to determine whether a statistically significant mean difference existed between the GIG and RWPG with
respect to AAT. There was no statistically significant mean difference two groups before reading-writingpresentation method and group investigation method were applied (t=1,576, p= 0,118) (table 1). The data
indicated that there was a significant difference in social psychology between GIG and RWPG after readingwriting-presentation method and group investigation method were applied (t=2,975, p=0,004) (table1).
Students in the RWPG scored significantly higher than those in the GIG after the
implementation.
Table 1: Independent t-test Analyses of Pre-and Post-Test AAT Scores
a
Tests
Groups
N
X
Post test
GIG
52
43,6
RWPG
55
47,8
Pre test
GIG
52
34,4
RWPG
55
32,2
a: maximum score =64
SD
6,643
7,885
6,505
7,181
t
2,975
p
0,004
1,576
0,118
5
As seen in Table 1, according to the scores of the AAT pre-test, there was no difference between GIG and
RWPG (t=1,576; p>.05.). This finding supports the assumption that the groups should be considered equal.
However, according to the scores of the post-test, there was a significant difference between GIG and RWPG
(t=2,975, p<.05). The results of this analysis show that reading-writing-presentation method is more successful
than group investigation method.
CONCLUSIONS
In this section are discussed taking into account the results of the Group Investigation and Reading-WritingPresentation method s of the cooperative learning model on pre-service social studies teachers’ academic
achievements of social psychology lesson. Also, the recommendations developed for applicators and
researchers included in this section.
When Table 1 is examined, there is no difference between the groups for the AAT pre-test, but according to the
scores of the post-test, there is a significant difference between GIG and RWPG. These results demonstrate
that the RWP method has a more positive effect on increasing students’ academic knowledge and
achievements in social psychology lesson than the GI method. The results of the application of this method are
consistent with the results of other studies in this area (Aksoy, Doymuş, Karaçöp, Şimşek & Koç 2008; Ainley
2006; Thurston et al., 2010).
The reason RWP method has a more positive effect than GIG method can be explained with writing stage and
the use of visuals. The main purpose of reading texts offered to students during reading is to increase the
amount of time allocated to the students to think (White & Gustone, 1989). Visually rich, prepared in
accordance with the level of student posters or reading texts, to facilitate students' understanding, in the
expression of learned information is very useful and convenient. The second stage RWP method is the writing
stage. Writing is very important for the students learned to organize better, to understand and express
(Hohenshell & Hand, 2006; Mason & Boscolo, 2000). The implementation phase of the third stage of the
method of RWP students aims to learn by doing (Goltz, Hietapelto, Reinsch & Tyrell, 2008; Thompson &
Chapman, 2004).
It is know that the achievement effects of cooperative learning more than the conventional lecture method
(Gillies, 2006; Hennessy & Evans, 2006; Johnson, Johnson & Stanne, 2000; Bukunola & Idowu, 2012; Şimşek,
2012). In this study was made the comparison of two different cooperative methods. It is important for the
literature the comparison of the methods of cooperative learning model with each other and other active
learning methods. Therefore in this study was made the comparison of two different cooperative methods. In
light of the data obtained from this study, three specific recommendations are drawn:
1.The comparison other methods of cooperative learning model should be made.
2.Similar studies can be done at all grades.
3.The methods of cooperative learning can be compared to other active methods.
5
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF AUTHORS
Ufuk ŞİMŞEK is an assistant professor at department of Primary Social Studies Education,
Kazım Karabekir Education Faculty, Ataturk University, Erzurum, Turkey. His research
interests are cooperative learning, citizenship education, active learning methods.
Assist. Prof. Dr. Ufuk ŞİMŞEK
Department of Primary Social Studies Education
Kazım Karabekir Education Faculty
Atatürk University
25240-Erzurum , TURKEY
Tel: +90 530 696 84 55
Bayram YILAR is an research assistant at department of Primary Social Studies Education,
interests are social sciences teaching, cooperative learning, teacher competencies.
Research Assistant Bayram YILAR
Atatürk University
25240-Erzurum, TURKEY
Tel: +90 536 511 55 27/ 0 442 315 52 41
Birgül KÜÇÜK is an research assistant at department of Primary Social Studies Education,
interests are cooperative learning and values education.
Research Assistant Birgül KÜÇÜK
Atatürk University
25240-Erzurum TURKEY
Tel: +90 536 511 55 27/ 0 442 315 52 41
9
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9
A COMPARATIVE STUDY FOR TEACHING CHEMISTRY THROUGH INDUCTIVE THINKING
MODEL AND ADVANCED ORGANIZER MODEL
Dr. Bhim Chandra MONDAL
Sponsored Teachers’ Training College,
West Bengal, INDIA
ABSTRACT
The objective of the study is to compare the relative effectiveness of Inductive Thinking Model (ITM) and
Advance Organizer Model (AOM) in teaching chemistry under two different boards/councils in relation to level
of cognitive achievement of the students on the criteria of immediate learning and retention. The sample
consists of 200 students from eight sections of four randomly selected schools situated at Purulia, Birbhum,
Malda and Hoogly. The (2 × 2 × 3) factorial design was used for the study. At the beginning, an entry level test
(ELT) has been administered to cheek the homogeneity of the groups and to categorize the students on the
basis of their cognitive achievement. After administering the entry level test, four treatment groups have been
formed. Gr I and Gr III have taught with AOM whereas Gr II and Gr IV taught with ITM for eight weeks. After
experimentation, common standardized CRTs (post test)viz. CRT II and CRT III has been administered to all the
sections. In order to test retention of the learnt knowledge, CRT IV, which is the combination of CRT II and CRT
III has been administered after 15 days from the date of post test. Results indicate that that both ITM and AOM
are equally effective on the criteria of immediate learning but AOM group establishes superiority than the ITM
group on retention.
Key Words: Chemistry teaching, Inductive thinking model, Advance organizer model, Cognitive achievement.
INTRODUCTION
Teaching of science is not just handing out facts and information about science. Besides motivating and
presenting things in an interesting way, the teacher must be able to create suitable learning experiences which
reflect an atmosphere for students' self exploration, problem solving, inductive reasoning, etc.(Venvile and
Dawson,2005) To achieve this, there are varieties of methods of teaching available and the teacher has to
select such method or methods, which are suitable for the given set of students in a given context (Gilbert,
2011)). Most of the experts believed that teaching learning process is the key factor for understanding the
concepts of chemistry. To adjust with the rapid explosion of knowledge of chemistry, the learners must be
prepared to process information suitably and meaningfully so that the information can be treated for a longer
time and can be used in different situations of life (Ray ,2008 ; Smith,2009). To accomplish these objectives, the
learners have to frame a concept in his cognitive domain. Transfer of learning mainly depends on concept
formation because these concepts are the key building blocks of the structure of knowledge.
Literature Review
Aziz (1990) conducted a study whose objectives was to compare the effectiveness of information processing
model in the teaching of chemistry with traditional lecture method in relation to gender. The result of the
analysis showed that the performance of the students taught through model approach was superior than the
performance of the students taught through traditional approach.
10
Jamini (1991) investigated the relative effectiveness of AOM and CAM on conceptual learning efficiency and
retention of chemistry concepts in relation to divergent thinking which indicated that although both AOM and
CAM were effective in fostering concept learning, AOM was comparatively more beneficial in concept learning
to pupil with high divergent thinking while CAM was more beneficial to pupils with low divergent thinking.
Remadevi (1998) conducted a study to find out the effectiveness of Information Processing Models (IPM) in the
teaching of chemistry in comparison with the Conventional Method (CM) at Higher Secondary Schools of Kerala
in relation intelligence and scientific attitude. The findings of the study revealed that the pupils taught through
IPM were found to have significantly higher achievement than those taught through CM with respect to
knowledge level of cognitive achievement, comprehension level of cognitive achievement and application level
of cognitive achievement at .01 level.
Sreelekha and Nayar (2004) conducted a study to compare the achievement level between traditional method
and concept attainment model in the teaching of chemistry with respect to knowledge, understanding and
application objectives. The major finding was CAM was effective in improving the overall level of achievement
in chemistry.
Domin (2008) used an advance organizer pertaining to the nature of science (NOS) aspect of the role creativity
plays in science, incorporated into a problem-based laboratory activity of an undergraduate first-year
chemistry curriculum. The results of this study indicate that the different versions of the advance organizer
differ with respect to altering students’ conceptualization of creativity: specifically, only the indefinite
explication of the intended learning outcome led to a significant change in the percentage of students holding
more informed views. This finding suggests that a relatively small change in instructional design can advance
improvement in achieving NOS learning outcomes within a large-scale content-based science course.
Khan and Saeed (2010) conducted a study to investigate the effectiveness of concept formation teaching model
over traditional method in the teaching of chemistry at IXth grade students’ achievement. The results of the
study indicated that concept formation teaching model was more effective as compared to traditional method.
Furthermore, concept formation teaching model appeared to be favorable for both boys and girls for the
understanding of Chemistry concepts.
Khan et al (2011), conducted a study to examine the effect of inquiry-based instruction as a supplementing
strategy on the academic achievement of secondary school students in the subject of chemistry. The results of
the study indicate that inquiry based instruction, as a back up strategy to support traditional teaching methods.
Improved students’ achievement in the subject of chemistry at secondary level with higher achievement gains
for the groups of high achievers.
Although a few studies have been undertaken to develop instructional materials based on different teaching
models for the teaching of science, but so far rare evidence of teaching chemistry at higher secondary level
based on ITM and AOM has been noticed. To bridge this gap an attempt has been made in the present study. It
is expected that the findings of the study would throw some ray of light to indicate the effective strategy for
teaching chemistry at higher secondary level in West Bengal.
Objectives of the study
The Objectives of the study can be stated in terms of some specific objectives, which are:
1. To find out the relative effectiveness of ITM and AOM on cognitive learning in Chemistry on the criteria of
immediate learning and retention.
2. To assess the effects of affiliating boards on cognitive learning in Chemistry on the criteria of immediate
learning and retention.
11
3.
To assess the interaction effects of Models of teaching, Levels of achievements and affiliating boards in
chemistry on the criteria of immediate learning and retention.
Hypotheses
In order to carry the study smoothly , following null hypotheses have been framed :
o
H1 : The effect of teaching through ITM and AOM do not differ significantly in teaching chemistry on the
criterion of immediate learning.
o
H2 : The effect of teaching to the students under two different boards/councils through either models do not
differ significantly on the criterion of immediate learning.
o
H3 :The effect of teaching between high, average and low achievers under two different boards/councils
through either models do not differ significantly on the criterion of immediate learning
o
H4 :There would be no significant first order interaction effects due to the variation of instructional models
and the levels of achievements of the students on the criterion of immediate learning.
o
and the affiliating boards on the criterion of immediate learning.
o
H6 :There would be no significant first order interaction effects due to the variation of levels of achievement of
students and the affiliating boards on the criterion of immediate learning.
o
H7 :There would be no significant second order interaction effects due to the variation of models of
instruction, levels of achievement of students and the affiliating boards on the criterion of immediate learning.
o
H8 : The effect of teaching through ITM and AOM do not differ significantly in teaching Chemistry on the
criterion of retention of learnt knowledge.
o
H9 : The effect of teaching to the students under two different boards/councils through either models do not
differ significantly on the criterion of retention of learnt knowledge.
o
H10 :The effect of teaching between high, average and low achievers under two different boards/councils
through either models do not differ significantly on the criterion of retention of learnt knowledge
o
and the levels of achievements of the students on the criterion of retention of learnt knowledge.
o
and the affiliating boards on the criterion of retention of learnt knowledge.
o
H13 :There would be no significant first order interaction effects due to the variation of levels of achievement
of students and the affiliating boards on the criterion of retention of learnt knowledge.
o
H14 :There would be no significant second order interaction effects due to the variation of models of
instruction, levels of achievement of students and the affiliating boards on the criterion of retention of learnt
knowledge.
METHODOLOGY
Population
The population of the study was the students, those who have taken Chemistry as an elective subject of higher
secondary schools, affiliated by the W B C H S E and C B S E in West Bengal.
Sample
Multistage sampling technique was used to select sample. Students of four higher secondary school, two each
from W B C H S E and C B S E from four districts namely, Purulia, Birbhum, Malda and Hoogly, selected
randomly who opted Chemistry as elective subjects. The sample consisted of 200 students.
Factorial design for the study
In the present study the (2 × 2 × 3) factorial design was used. This design is often used in classroom
experiments when experimental and control groups are such naturally assembled groups as intact classes,
12
which may be similar (Best, 1999). Hence, without disturbing the natural settings of the classrooms, intact class
groups were selected for the study.
Experimentation
The whole sample were divided into four treatment groups namely treatment group I to treatment group IV
with a total sample of 200. Entry level test (CRT – 1) was administered to check the homogeneity of the group
as well as to categorize the students as high, average and low achievers before giving the treatment to all the
groups. Treatment group I and III were exposed with AOM while Treatment group II and IV were exposed with
ITM. CRT – 2 and CRT – 3 were administered after the completion of treatments to measure the immediate
learning. In order to check the retention of learnt knowledge, CRT- 4 was administered after 15 days.
Analysis and interpretation
In the present study eight section of four school was used as sample. So homogeneity of the was checked
through Levene's test (Levene 1960). On the basis of scores obtained through the entry level test (CRT I)
following ANOVA (Table I) table was constructed to check the homogeneity between different groups.
The ‘F’ value thus obtained was found to be 1.58 which is not significant even at 0.05 level. It indicates that all
the groups taught through different models of teaching are homogeneous in nature.
o
Pertaining to H1
It is observed from Tables 2 that the F ratio for the main effects of model (A) is 0.63 at df 1 which is not
significant at 0.01 level on the criterion of immediate learning. It has also been found from the Tables 3 that
the values of ‘t’ between AOM and ITM is 1.00 for cognitive learning which is not significant even at 0.05 level
0
of significance. So, the null hypothesis H1 is accepted. It may, thus be interpreted that there is no significant
difference between the mean achievement scores of all levels of cognitive learning under study to the effects
of instructional models (AOM and ITM) on the criterion of immediate learning.
o
Pertaining to H2 :
F-ratio for the main effects of Boards under study (B) is 1.95 (Table 2) which is not significant at 0.01 level (p <
0.01) on cognitive learning on the criterion of immediate learning. ‘t’ value (1.78) also indicates its non
0
significant nature (Table 3). So, the null hypothesis H2 is accepted. It may, thus be interpreted that there is no
significant difference between the mean achievement scores of all levels of cognitive learning under different
boards i.e. WBCHSE and CBSE on the criterion of immediate learning.
o
Pertaining to H3 :
Table 2 indicates that the F ratio for the main effects of level of cognitive achievement (L) is 78.81 at df 2 which
is significant at 0.01 level (p < 0.01) on cognitive learning on the criterion of immediate learning. For the
present study, level of cognitive achievement is stratified into three category i.e. high achievers, average
achievers and low achievers. So further analysis was carried out using ‘t’ critical ratio . From Tables 3 it is found
that ‘t’ value between high achievers and average achievers is 6.19, between high achievers and low achievers
is 11.89 , between average achievers and low achievers is 6.58 which are significant at 0.01 level of significance.
It may, thus be interpreted that there is significant difference exist between high achievers, average achievers
and low achievers in the mean achievement scores on the criterion of immediate learning.
o
Pertaining to H4 :
From Table 2 it is observed that F-ratio for interaction between instructional models and level of cognitive
achievement is 1.11 (df 2, 188) which is lower than that of theoretical value (F = 3.09 for df 2 and 188 at
p<0.05) and consequently it is not significant even at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is
accepted. Therefore, there is no significant first order interaction effects due to the variation of instructional
models and the levels of achievement of the students on the criterion of immediate learning.
13
o
Pertaining to H5 :
Table 2 shows that F-ratio for interaction between instructional models and affiliating boards is 1.66 (df 1, 188)
which is lower than that of theoretical value and consequently it is not significant even at 0.05 level of
significance. This supports to accept null hypothesis. Therefore, there is no significant first order interaction
effects due to the variation of instructional models and the affiliating boards on the criterion of immediate
learning.
o
Pertaining to H6 :
Table 2 shows that F-ratio for interaction between level of student cognitive achievement and affiliating
boards is 0.26 (df 2,188) which is lower than that of theoretical value and consequently it is not significant
o
even at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis H6 is accepted. Therefore, there is no significant
first order interaction effects due to the variation of levels of achievement of students and the affiliating
boards on the criterion of immediate learning.
o
Pertaining to H7 :
It is found from Table 2 that the ‘F’-ratios for the second order interaction effects of A,B and L (A × B × L) are
not significant at 0.01 level (p>0.01) but significant at 0.05 level for cognitive learning on the criterion of
immediate learning. F-ratio for degree of freedom (df) 2 and 188 is 3.29 which is higher than that of theoretical
value (F = 3.09 for df 2 and 188 at p<0.05) but lower than that of F-ratio (F= 4.82 at df 2 and 188 at p<0.01) at
0
0.01 level of significance. So, the null hypothesis H7 is accepted at 0.01 level but rejected at 0.05 level.
o
Pertaining to H8 :
F ratio for the main effects of model (A) is 7.71 at df 1 and 188 which is significant at 0.01 level (p < 0.01) on
cognitive learning on the criterion of retention of learnt knowledge (Table 4) . ‘t’ critical ration between AOM
and ITM is 6.11 for cognitive learning which is also significant at 0.01 level of significance (Table 5). So, the null
0
hypothesis H8 is rejected. Hence, there is a significant difference exist between the mean achievement scores
of all levels of cognitive learning under study to the effects of instructional models (AOM and ITM) on the
criterion of retention of learnt knowledge.
o
Pertaining to H9 :
It is observed from Tables 4 that the F ratio for the main effects of boards under study (B) is 0.00 at df 1and
188 which is not significant at 0.01 level (p < 0.01) on cognitive learning on the criterion of retention of learnt
knowledge. It has also been found from the Tables 5 that the values of ‘t’ between WBCHSE and CBSE is 0.05
for cognitive learning which is also not significant even at 0.05 level. So, the null hypothesis is accepted. Thus,
there is no significant difference exist between the mean achievement scores of all levels of cognitive learning
under different boards i.e. WBCHSE and CBSE on the criterion of retention of learnt knowledge.
o
Pertaining to H10 :
It is observed from Tables 4 that the F ratio for the main effects of Level of cognitive achievement (L) is 77.41
at df 2 and 188 which is significant at 0.01 level (p < 0.01) on cognitive learning on the criterion of retention of
0
learnt knowledge. So, the null hypothesis H10 is rejected. It may, thus be interpreted that there is significant
difference exist between high achievers, average achievers and low achievers in the mean achievement scores
on the criterion of retention of learnt knowledge. It has been found from the Table 5 that the values of ‘t’
between high achievers and average achievers is 5.89, between average achievers and low achievers is 12.22
and between average achievers and low achievers is 6.48 which are significant at 0.01 level of significance.
Therefore, a significant difference exist between high achievers , average achievers and low achievers in the
mean achievement scores for retention of learnt knowledge.
14
o
Pertaining to H11 :
Table 4 shows that F-ratio for the interaction of instructional models and the levels of achievement of the
students is 0.96 at df 2 and 1888 which is lower than that of theoretical value (F = 3.09 for df 2 and 188 at
p<0.05) and consequently it is not significant even at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is
accepted. Therefore, there is no significant first order interaction effects due to the variation of instructional
models and the levels of achievement of the students on the criterion of retention of learnt knowledge.
o
Pertaining to H12 :
F-ratio for the interaction between affiliating board and instructional models is found to be 1.54 at df 1 and 188
(Table 4) which is lower than that of theoretical value and consequently it is not significant even at 0.05 level of
significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is accepted. Therefore, there is no significant first order interaction
effects due to the variation of instructional models and the affiliating boards on the criterion of retention of
learnt knowledge.
o
Pertaining to H13 :
From Table 4 it is observed that F-ratio for the interaction of level of students’ cognitive achievement and
affiliating boards is 1.65 (df 2,188) which is lower than that of theoretical value. Hence, the null hypothesis is
accepted. Therefore, there is no significant first order interaction effects due to the variation of levels of
achievement of students and the affiliating boards on the criterion of retention of learnt knowledge.
o
Pertaining to H14 :
Table 4 shows that F-ratio for the second order interaction between three variables is 2.34 at df 2 and 188
which is less than that of theoretical value. Hence, the null hypothesis is accepted Therefore, there is no
significant second order interaction effects due to the variation of levels of achievement of students and the
affiliating boards on the criterion of retention of learnt knowledge.
DISCUSSIONS
Immediate learning
Regarding the effects of model, the findings of the study revealed that in case of immediate learning the
achievement of students on total cognitive level under Advanced Organizer Model (AOM) and Inductive
Thinking Model (ITM) did not differ significantly. It can be concluded from the finding that none of the model
establishes superiority over other for teaching chemistry at the higher secondary level on the criterion of
immediate learning. The finding mostly corroborates the other finding of the studies of Chitrive (1983), Pandey
(1986), Jamini (1991), Gupta (1993), Agarwaal (2004), Sadhu and Singh (2005) and Wanjari (2005).
The reason of this finding may be due to the fact that both the AOM and ITM belong to the information
sequenced. AOM is sequenced in deductive manner, whereas ITM is inductively sequenced. Both the models
help in strengthening the cognitive structure, which lead to the cognitive development of the students.
Cognitive development takes place through the cognitive processes which refer to those process through which
knowledge is appeared and maintained. Hence, cognition is a processes acquiring information and
understanding the world. From the findings of the present study it may be inferred that students learn the
content in Chemistry and retain that in a better way through the properly sequenced information processing
models, viz., AOM & ITM. It is also noticed that to collect information and to develop the basis knowledge level
learning in both the models is found effective.
Retention of learnt knowledge
The ability to recall is a great asset in learning although remembering cannot be equated with learning. The
knowledge gained just after the exposure to the new method is no doubt important, but what is more
15
important is the amount of knowledge retained with lapse of time after the exposure. The finding of the study
highlighted that the mean achievements scores differ significantly when taught with AOM and ITM. It was
found that the rate of forgetting under Advanced Organizer Model is 6.14% which was less than the rate of
forgetting under Inductive Thinking Model (15.77%). Hence it may be concluded from the result that in case of
long - term effects the Advanced Organizer Model may be better than that of Inductive Thinking Model.
Findings of many studies, like Borine (1982), Chitrive (1983), Kaushik (1989) and Ghosh (1989) corroborate the
finding of the present study but the work of Healy (1985) does not support the finding of the present study. In
AOM students’ get opportunity to discover the concept within their own structure because of the presentation
of the organizer in advance. It help the learner in conceptualizing the facts easily resulting involvement of
student’s in the teaching – learning process. As of these factors inherent in the AOM, the students may be
enabled to retain and reproduce larger amount of information.
Affiliating boards
Affiliating Boards was taken as one of the main independent variables in this study. The finding of the present
study indicates that on the criterion of immediate learning as well as the retention of learnt knowledge the
student under both the boards i.e. CBSE and WBCHSE does not shows any effective impact on their
achievement.
Students’ achievement level
The present study also conducted with another main independent variable, i. e., students’ level of
achievement. The finding reveals that mean achievement scores of high achievers differs significantly than that
of average and low achievers on the criterion of immediate learning and retention of learnt knowledge. This
may lead to conclude that the higher mental ability of high achievers has a directed impact on the
achievement on immediate learning and retention of learnt knowledge irrespective of treatment models and
affiliating boards. The parallel studies on models on teaching by Singh (1994), Ramdevi (1998) and Khan et.al.
(2011) corroborate the finding of the present study.
On the criterion of immediate learning, the result of the study revealed that the mean achievement scores of
high achievers, average achievers and low achievers was not significant when taught through AOM and ITM.
Most of the time students remain passive recipient of the information. Apathy, non-involvement and low level
of participation may have resulted in poor achievement of low achievers. It indicates that the performance of
low achievers are independent of teaching strategies. But in case of retention of learnt knowledge mean
achievement scores of high achievers, average achievers and low achievers differs significantly. It was found
that retention capacity of high achievers, average achievers and low achievers are higher when taught with
AOM than that of ITM. Hence, it may be said that in case of retention, intelligence, which is highly correlated
with the level of achievement has a positive impact on their retention of learning. A few exceptions have been
found in the results, i. e., average achievers and low achievers under CBSE did not show any significant
difference in mean achievement scores on the criteria of retention of learnt knowledge.
First order interaction effect
In case of first order interaction effects between instructional models and affiliating Boards, it has been found
the interaction effect under both the model viz. Advanced Organizer Model and Inductive Thinking Model did
not differ significantly on the criterion of immediate learning. But in case of retention of learnt knowledge AOM
is found to be effective than that of ITM for both the affiliating boards. The content of the curriculum under
CBSE and WBCHSE is almost equivalent. That is why strategies did not affect the students’ learning process.
Second order interaction effect
Second order interaction effects among three independent variables; instructional models, students’
achievement levels and affiliating boards on students’ achievement, the findings lead to conclude that second
order interaction effects of three independent variables on two treatment groups do not differ significantly on
16
all levels of cognitive learning on the criterion immediate learning but in case of retention, significant effect
exist. The present study indicates that the combined interaction effect of three independent variables;
instructional models, students’ achievement levels and affiliating boards has no differential impact on two
treatment groups. But this does not mean that there is no effect of model, students’ achievement levels and
affiliating boards on the criteria on immediate learning. Actually, all these variables of learning have more or
less equal effect on both the treatment groups.
CONCLUSION
Effective classroom transactions are the prime area of teaching profession. A professional teacher seems to be
an effective classroom teacher too. Since the theory of teaching is yet to be developed, endeavors have been
stated to empirically verify the theoretically idea models of teaching into the classroom practices. Present
study indicates some new focus towards the application of models of teaching in teaching Chemistry under the
impacts of some variables like boards and level of students cognitive achievement. This finding may help the
practicing teachers in their real classroom situations. Of course further studies in this field may be also throw
new lights in the areas of teacher education course of our country.
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESS OF AUTHOR
Dr Bhim Chandra MONDAL , M.Sc., M. Ed, Ph.D. is now working as Assistant Professor in
Sponsored Teachers’ Training College, Purulia, WB, India since 2003. His area of interest is
Educational Technology, Educational Psychology, Career psychology etc. He has published
many articles in the Journal of National and International repute. He has written many
books at UG and PG level.
Bhim Chandra MONDAL
Sponsored Teachers’ Training College
Deshbandhu Road,
Purulia-723101,
West Bengal, INDIA
Tel : 03252222323,
Fax : 03252222323
E. Mail : [email protected]
REFERENCES
Agarwal R. R. (2004) A study of effect of teaching strategies in relation to creativity on conceptual learning of
class XI students of commerce, NCERT publication, New Delhi.
Aziz T. (1990), Comparative effectiveness of the information processing models of teaching in developing certain
concepts in chemistry at secondary stage, Ph.D. Dissertation, Jamia Millia Islamia.
Borine, R. C.(1982): The effects of advance organizers of varying length on the comprehension and retention of
seventh grade students. ,Ph. D. Dissertation, University of Wisconsin—Madison.
rd
Best, J. W. (1977): Research in education: (3 Ed.); Prentice – Hall of Indian Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
17
Chitrive, U. G. (1986): Ausubel Vs. Burner model for teaching mathematics; Himalayan Publishing House,
Bombay.
Domin (2008): Using an advance organizer to facilitate change in students’ conceptualization of the role of
creativity in science, Chemistry Education Research and Practice, Vol. 9, pp. 291-300.
Ghosh, S K (1989), Effectives of variation in advance organizers on the cognitive subsumption of life science,
Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Kalyani.
Gilbert, S.W, (2011), Models –based science teaching, NSTA Press, Virginia.
Gupta N.K., (2010) Research in teaching of science, APH Publishing Corporation, New Delhi
Healy, V.C. (1985), The effects of advance organizers and prerequisite knowledge passage on the learning and
retention of science concepts, D. Ed Dissertation, State University of New York At Albany.
Jamini, N (1991), Effects of teaching strategies on conceptual learning efficiency and retention in relation to
divergent thinking, Ph. D. Dissertation, University of Delhi.
Khan, A.S and Saeed, S (2010), Effect of teaching chemistry through concept formation teaching model on
students achievement, International Journal of Academic Research, 2 (6), 230-234.
Khan, M. S., Hussain, S., Ali, R., Majoka, M. I., Ramzan, M (2011) Effect of Inquiry method on achievement of
students in chemistry at secondary level, International Journal of Academic Research, 3 (1), 955-59.
Koushik, N K (1988), The long-term effect of advance organizers upon achievement in biology in relation to
reading ability, Intelligence and scientific attitude, Ph. D Dissertation, Devi Ahilya Vishwavidyalaya.
Levene, H. (1960). Robust tests for equality of variances. Stanford University Press. pp. 278–292.
Pandey S.N (1986), Effectiveness of advance organizer and inquiry training models for teaching social studies to
class VIII students, Ph.D. Dissertation, Banaras Hindu University.
Ray, B. (2008) Modern methods of teaching chemistry, APH publishing
Remadevi, K., (1998), Application of information processing models in teaching chemistry at the secondary and
higher secondary levels. Ph.D. Dissertation, Mahatma Gandhi University.
Sidhu, R.K. and Singh, P. (2005), Comparative study of concept attainment model, advance organiser model and
conventional method in teaching of physics in relation to intelligence and achievement motivation of class IX
students, Journal of All India Association for Educational Research, Vol. 17, pp 89-92.
Singh, S.N.(1994), Comparison of inductive thinking model with traditional method of teaching economics to
Class XI students in terms of selected cognitive variables. Ph.D. Dissertation, Devi Ahilya Vishwavidyalaya,
Smith, A. (2009), The teaching of chemistry, General Books LLC.
Sreelekha and Nayar (2004) : The effectiveness of concept attainment model in learning chemistry at secondary
level .NCERT publication New Delhi.
18
Venvile, G. and Dawson, V. (ed) (2005), The art of teaching science, Allen and Unwin.
Wanjari, S. S. (2005). Effectiveness of concept attainment model and inductive thinking model of teaching on
students achievement in science, scientific creativity and attitude towards science, Ph. D. Dissertation, Sant
Gadge Baba Amravati University.
TABLES
Table 1: ANONA for entry level test (CRT I)
Source of Variance
Between Groups
Within Groups
ns = not significant
Sum of Sq.
465.715
8087.68
df
7
192
Mean Sq.
66.53
42.12
F
ns
1.58
Table 2: Showing the Analysis of variance for cognitive learning on the criteria of immediate learning.
Source
B : Board (CBSE & WBBSE)
Sum Square
52.22
df
1
A : Models
(AOM & 16.94
1
ITM)
L : Levels ( High, Medium 4226.41
2
& Low)
B × A : Board × Method
44.39
1
B × L : Board × Levels
13.93
2
A × L : Method × Level
59.72
2
B×A×L
170.47
2
Error
5041
188
ns = not significant, ** = significant at 0.01 level i.e. p < 0.01,
* = significant at 0.05 level i.e. p < 0.05
Mean Square
52.22
F
ns
1.95
19.94
0.63
2113.21
78.81**
44.39
6.97
29.86
85.24
26.81
1.66
ns
0.26
ns
1.11
3.29*
ns
ns
Table 3: Showing ‘t’ value for main effect on the criteria of immediate learning
N
Mean
Sl No
Between
n1
n2
M1
M2
1
A1 × A2
100
100
34.39
33.80
2
B1 × B2
100
100
33.58
34.61
3
LH × LA
48
48
40.03
34.34
4
LH × LL
48
48
40.03
26.88
5
LA × LL
48
48
34.34
26.88
ns = not significant, ** = significant at 0.01 level i.e. p < 0.01
Standard deviation
σ1
σ2
6.52
7.35
7.44
6.38
3.65
5.82
3.65
6.69
5.82
6.69
df
99
99
47
47
47
‘t’ value
ns
1.00
ns
1.78
6.19**
11.89**
6.58**
19
Table 4: Showing the Analysis of variance for total cognitive learning on the criteria of retention of learnt
knowledge
Source
Sum Square
df
Mean Square
F
B : Board
WBBSE)
&
ns
0.05
1
0.05
0.00
772.24
1
772.24
27.41**
L : Levels ( High, Medium
& Low)
4346.89
2
2173.45
77.14**
B × A : Board × Method
43.25
1
43.25
1.54
46.40
26.91
66
28.17
1.65
ns
0.96
ns
2.34
M : Methods
& ITM)
(CBSE
(AOM
B × L : Board × Levels
92.80
2
A × L : Method × Levels
53.82
2
B×A×L
132
2
Error
5296.89
188
Table 5: Showing ‘t’ value for main effect on the criteria of retention of learnt knowledge
N
Mean
Standard deviation
Sl No
Between
n1
n2
M1
M2
σ1
σ2
1
A1 × A2
100
100
32.40
28.47
6.53
7.61
2
B1 × B2
100
100
30.42
30.45
7.78
6.91
3
LH × LA
48
48
36.67
30.75
4.75
5.52
4
LH × LL
48
48
36.67
23.27
4.75
7.32
5
LA × LL
48
48
30.75
23.27
5.52
7.32
ns
ns
df
99
99
47
47
47
‘t’ value
6.11**
ns
0.05
5.89**
12.22**
6.48**
20
EFFECT OF A COMPUTER SOFTWARE
ON DISABLED SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS’ ORAL READING FLUENCY
Malahat YOUSEFZADEH
Department of Teaching English as a Second Language
Ardabil Branch
Islamic Azad University, Ardabil, IRAN
ABSTRACT
This study explored how well using computer software can affect on improving English oral reading fluency for
disabled learners. It showed how a using computer can reduce the impact of disability for disabled students on
oral reading fluency. The focus of this article was specifically for software (natural reader software) applications
designed for computer-based instruction in reading for students with learning disabilities. A total of 20 females
with a mean age of 14 years old who were attending a public school in Ardabil were subjects of this study.
These students were randomly divided into two groups. Group (1) consisted of 10 disabled students with using
of the software instruction (experimental group) and Group (2): consisted of 10 disabled students without
using of the software (control group). The control group simply attended in their ordinary classroom without
using computer software and participated in instruction programs assigned by the teacher in the classroom.
The experimental group attended in the computer lab and listened to the text as it is read by natural reader.
After treatment sessions the results suggested that the natural reader software group did better than nonsoftware group in oral reading fluency.
Key Words: Disabled students, Natural reader software, Oral reading fluency.
INTRODUCTION
Manivannan (2000) said, owing to lack of knowledge, educational access and technology, disabled children
were initially treated as unwanted and segregated from other children. He believes that disabled children
should be accepted without any restrictions in all the educational programs meant for other children. Up until
now, educators and researchers have provided little attention to the disabled students’ difficulties which they
addressed in second language learning. One of the most difficult problems facing middle and secondary school
teachers today is that many students come to class without the necessary skills to read and comprehend the
written materials placed before them (Snow, 2002).
One kind of learning disabilities is reading disability, is common in Iranian students. Reading disability is a major
obstacle to learning English as a second language. Much of what happens in a second language classroom is
based on the reading. The majority of students have learning disabilities in the area of reading. Reading is
central to learning; children who do not learn to read print by the second grade are likely to struggle with
learning throughout their lives (Stanovich, 1985). Reading is the foundation of curriculum pursuits, students
unable to read with success will experience difficulty in most curriculum areas (Zoref, Glang & Hall, 1993).
Unfortunately, a trend observed in classrooms in that students with reading difficulties actually read less. They
have less instructional time and less practice time. (Allington etal.,1989;Allington etal.,1995). Experts (Goering
& Baker, 2010; Rasinski et al) claim that oral reading is an important part of skilled reading. Roundy and
Roundy (2009) posit that students who do not achieve reading fluency at a young age are at a considerable
disadvantage in all of their academic pursuits henceforth. , Allington (1983) points to the notion that oral
21
reading fluency is often neglected in instructional reading programs, causing comprehension problems and
poor overall reading development. Fluency assessment is important because it is a valid indicator of overall
reading competence (Fuchs, Fuchs, Hosp, & Jenkins, 2001).
What is reading fluency?
Lambert (2007) states , reading fluency consists of three components:
• Speed of reading
• Accuracy of reading
• Prosody (reading with expression)
Accuracy refers to the ability to correctly decode words. Rate is the time it takes to decode words, and is
typically measured by counting the number of words read correctly in one minute. Prosody is appropriate
phrasing and expression.
Possible signs of reading fluency disability
• Difficulty with phonemic awareness
• Difficulty with accurate word recognition
• Difficulty with fluent word recognition
• Difficulty with word decoding
• Difficulty with reading rate of fluency
• Difficulty with reading comprehension
So it's important to identify disabled students in reading fluency and to help them overcome the hurdles they
face. To kick these obstacles away , we should provide disabled students new methods, to deal with their
learning disabilities.
The advent of computers is one solution for providing equal educational opportunity and participation for
students with disabilities. For children with disabilities computer can effect on their learning opportunities
previously they hadn't these opportunities. The computer is a wonderful tool for students who have difficulty
in learning. Making learning easier and enjoyable for disabled students is a very important objective for
teachers. Educators have since discovered new methods of teaching students with learning disabilities. Since
the first half of the 1980's personal computers have been used to support the education of children with
profound and multiple learning disabilities in the UK. (Blenkhorn, 1996).
A number of computer software programs have been developed specifically for students with reading fluency
difficulties. There are some of the computer softwares for reading that one of them was used in this study.
(Natural Reader Software) The Natural Reader Software is a great aid for children with reading disabilities. This
software allows them to listen to pages on the internet, alleviating his struggle trying to read from a computer
screen with a magnifying glass. It is a wonderful and affordable software for disabled students. It makes
reading more fun and pleasurable. It helps students process and have a better retainment of information. The
quality of voices a viable, the ability to adjust the speed of speech is brilliant. The ability to copy text from
places online and create audio files to listen to on an MP3 player is fantastic. It is invaluable when it comes to
proofreading the students’ work. These features can enhance comprehension and attention for students with
specific learning disabilities. In natural reader programs, files are copied into the program and then are spoken
by the computer. Generally the user has options to select different voices (male and female), change the speed
the text is processed, and increase or decrease the size of the font. It is a great way to help the students
overcome those pronunciation difficulties.
RQ: What is the effect of computer software (natural reader software) on disabled students’ oral reading
fluency?
22
RH1: The application of computer software(natural reader software) will affect the disabled students’ oral
reading fluency.
In this study, the computer software was considered as the independent variable and disabled students’
reading fluency score was regarded as the dependent one.
METHOD
Participant
On the basis of school psychologists and teachers’ reports 20 disabled students were diagnosed. They were
assured of anonymity and informed that their participation was entirely voluntary. Also all of these students
were assessed by a physician for medical problems that could affect the students’ ability to learn. All reported
normal hearing and vision. A total of 20 females with a mean age of 14 years old who were attending a public
school in Ardabil were subjects of this study. The students were divided into group (1) consisted of 10 students
with using software (experimental group) and Group (2): consisted of 10 students without using of software
(control group).
Procedure
The text was selected from their textbook in guidance school for both groups. Then, the control group simply
attended in their ordinary classroom without using computer software and participated in instruction
programs assigned by the teacher in the classroom. The experimental group attended in the computer lab and
listened to the text as it is read by natural reader. The program comprised 2 weekly sessions lasting 30 minutes
for two months for both groups.Two days before launching the treatment program a pre-test was
administered. A pre-test was administered to make sure about the homogeneity of the two groups in terms of
their level of oral reading proficiency.
Using software by the experimental group’s teacher to read text
1. A new document was opened by clicking on the new icon
2. The text was copied and pasted into the reading window
3. It was clicked on the play arrow button to have the text read out loud.
4. It was clicked on the stop square to stop speech when it was needed.
5. In the reading window the words were highlighted as they were read.
This approach enabled students to hear the proper pronunciation of words they were unsure of how to
pronounce, and in a way that was easy and allowed for infinite repetition. They were able to highlight sections
of the text and repeat them over .
Experimental group read along with a software reader of the text several times. To get the most out of this
step, students subvocalized quietly as they read along to make sure they weren’t just listening to the software
reader. Students practiced reading the text several times without the reader software. Over these treatment
sessions a post test was administered to both groups.
Data analysis
To provide a statistical analysis in order to answer the research question, the collected data from posttest,
were submitted to statistical analysis. The analysis consisted of a descriptive statistics and an independent
t-test to compare the overall performances of two groups in order to see the effect of using natural reader
software for improving disabled students’ reading skill. From the scores obtained the following result was
found (table 1).
23
Table1. Means and standard deviation obtained in post-test
N
mean
Software group
Non-software group
SD
10
11.80
1.47
10
10.00
1.42
As the descriptive statistics in Table 1 indicates, software group had a higher mean and lower standard
deviation in comparison with non-software group. This implies that in this test, software group did better than
non-software group.
Figure1: Comparison of means obtained in post-test by two groups.
Figure 1 shows means for two participating groups on post-test. According to Figure 1, software group
outperformed non-software group on post-test.
In this analysis the alpha was set at .05. Since the two-tailed significance value of .006 is less than alpha = .05,
we can say there is a significant difference between the two groups.In sum, the research question was
responded positively in that software program does have a significant effect on disabled students’ reading
fluency than ordinary method of reading fluency in the classroom.
CONCLUSION
The results of this study showed disabled students who have struggled with reading fluency for so long, benefit
from reading software . Studies have found positive outcomes associated with the use of assistive technology
for students with reading deficits (Balajthy, 2004, Boyle, Rosenberg, Connelly, Washburn, Brinckerhoff, &
Banerjee, 2003). Fortunately , we as a teacher can provide to our disabled students several kinds of adaptive
24
technology program to assist learning. Students with disabilities have the right to an equal opportunity to use
technology in their education. Our schools should improve their facilities to ensure equal opportunities for all
students with disabilities. Our schools should open their doors to innovative thinking and using technology.
Richard(2006) believes that technology offers us a means by which to make the familiar unfamiliar, to reframe
and rethink our conceptions of language, communication, and society. It is through this process of analysis and
reflection that we can best decide how we can and should use technology in language learning and teaching .
The computer can help disabled students compensate for challenges in second language reading and it can
break down these students’ barriers to learning. There are a number of questions for further research : How
can we create a safe and comfortable place where these students can benefit from it? How can we guide
disabled students in this type of learning. (computer-based) learning ? How we can launch some exciting and
helpful program for students with disabilities to encourage more confidence and success in their academic,
personal, and professional endeavors?
Malahat YOUSEFZADEH graduated from Islamic Azad University of Ardabil with an M.A.
degree in teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL). Her research Interest is online
learning.
Malahat YOUSEFZADEH
Department of Teaching English as a Second Language
Ardabil Branch
Islamic Azad University, Ardabil, IRAN
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schools(pp. 19 - 41). New York Teachers College Press and Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
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Boyle,E., Rosenberg, M., Connelly, V., Washburn, S., Brinckerhoff, L., Banerjee. M (2003), Effects of audio texts
on the acquisition of secondary-level content by students with mild disabilities. Learning disability quarterly,
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Fuchs, L.S., Fuchs, D.F., Hosp, M.K., & Jenkins, J.R. (2001). Oral reading fluency as an indicator of reading
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Goering, C., & Baker, K. (2010). “Like the whole class has reading problems”: a study of oral reading fluency
activities in a high intervention setting. American Secondary Education, 39 (1), 61-77.
Lambert, M (2007). A Guide to Reading Fluency and the Assessment of Specific Learning Disabilities in the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004. Wisconsin Department of Public instruction.
Manivannan, M. (2000). Associate Publication of Asia Pacific Disability Rehabilitation Friday Meeting
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Rasinski, T.V., Padak, N.D., McKeon, C.A., Wilfong, L.G., Friedauer, J.A., & Heim, P. (2005).Is reading fluency a
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Roundy, A., Roundy, P. (2009). The effect of repeated reading on student fluency: does practice always make
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26
THE EFFECTS OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE THEORY BASED TEACHING ON STUDENTS’
ACHIEVEMENT AND RETENTION OF KNOWLEDGE (EXAMPLE OF THE ENZYMES SUBJECT)
Assist. Prof. Dr.Sibel GÜRBÜZOĞLU YALMANCI
Kafkas University, Faculty of Education
Department of Secondary Science Education
Kars,TURKEY
Ph. D. Candidate Ali İbrahim Can GÖZÜM
Department of Primary Preschool Education
Kars,TURKEY
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study is to compare theory of multiple intelligences with the traditional education method
by looking at the science teachers’ success, permanence of their information about enzyme subject. The
research is experimental and it was carried out during 2010-2011 education year of Faculty of Education of
Kafkas University, on Science Department’s third grade students. In this research two impartial groups were
formed and these two groups were used as control and experiment group. There were 30 students in control
group and 30 students in experiment group. During the application, the lessons were given traditionally in
control group, and in the experiment group; lessons were given according to multiple intelligence method. In
the research, before application, the information level of students about enzyme was measured. After
application the increase of their information was measured and four weeks later a success test was formed to
determine the permanence of information. In the research a SPSS 16.0 package program was used to analyze
the datum. To compare the students’ points from pretest and difference of arithmetic average of an unrelated
t test and experiment were used. For comparing control group’s last test and performance test ; Anova test
statistics was applied. To determine the meaningful distinction after Anova test, Benforroni test was applied.
In the research; the significance level was .05 In the pre-test results before the beginning of application nomeaningful distinction was found between experiment and control group according to t test. After the
application ; in the last test and permanence test, multiple intelligence method which was applied on
experiment group has a meaningful distinction compared to traditional education method applied on control
group.
Key Words: Multiple Intelligence Theory, Enzymes, Knowledge Retention, Biology Training.
INRODUCTION
Today, what can an individual do is more widely thought than what he does with the advances in the field of
education and psychology. Multiple intelligence theory has been proposed to consider new training methods
for his purpose. (Kirk, 2003).After reviewing traditional intelligence approach, Neuropsychology and
development expert Gardner proposed for the first time seven different universal capacity in his book ‘’ Frames
Of Mind’’ which was published in 1983 (Lash, 2004).In 1983, Gardner set forth that any individual has a variety
of intelligence degree (mathematical-logical, verbal-linguistic, musical-rhythmic, bodily-kinesthetic,
intrapersonal, social, visual-spatial and nature); and this revealed multiple intelligence theory which describes
the learning styles, interests, capabilities and tendencies of individuals. (Işık, 2007).Howard Gardner initially
prepared a list of seven types of intelligence. The first two of these are verbal- mathematical intelligence
which are very precious at school, the next three (musical-rhythmic, bodily-kinesthetic, visual-spatial) are
27
related to the artistic skills and the last two (internal, social) have been called as personal intelligence by
Gardner (Gardner, 1999 ). Finally, he added the naturalist intelligence.
Verbal-Linguistic intelligence is a kind of language capacity to achieve an aim and capability to use language
learning ability in terms of writing and speaking effectively (Gündeşli, 2006). Logical mathematical intelligence
is a capability type for making mathematical calculation, deductive and inductive reasoning, building logical
relationships, generating hypothesis, solving problem, making critical thinking and understanding numbers,
geometric shapes and abstract symbols. (Vural, 2004). Visual spatial intelligence is an ability type for spatial
representation of individual mind or shaping dreams , thinking with pictures, images, shapes and lines,
perceiving and comprehending three dimensional objects (Büyüksalan, 2003; Gardner, 2006). Musicalrhythmic intelligence is instrument playing, singing and song writing ability with the basic components of music
(melody, rhythm, tempo, freedom, harmony and music forms etc.) Recognition and use of rhythmic and tonal
concepts include sensivity capabilities toward sounds from the environment and music instrument (Büyükalan
2003; Çuhadar,2006). Bodily kinesthetic intelligence is the capacity of expressing oneself with movements,
gestures and facial expressions, using the effective coordination of brain and body , creating a product using
the whole body or a part of the whole body (Büyükalan, 2003; Gardner, 2006). Interpersonal (social)
intelligence is the capacity of understanding, distinguishing and welcoming the emotions, aspirations and
needs of surrounding people (Tan, 2008). Intrapersonal intelligence, according to Gardner, is the most
important intelligence type of daily life, which enables oneself to have knowledge and take responsibility of his
own life (Demirel, 2000). Naturalistic intelligence is the ability of recognizing and researching all living things in
nature and thinking on their creation (MEB, 2009).
Gardner mentioned two important advantages of multiple intelligence in education. They are:
It gives the opportunity to plan our education program so as to make the students desired. (For example,
musician and scientific training)
It enables us to reach more students trying to learn different disciplines and theories. Learning would be
realized much easily on condition that students are trained by using these intelligence fields (Bümen,
2004).
The two learning disciplines which multiple intelligence theory has put over the top are learning by doing and
experiencing and the discipline of organizing teaching status according to students’ capabilities (Tan, 2006).
While Gardner was submitting the features related to multiple intelligence theory and scientific evidences, he
largely relied on brain research and neuropsychology. Thus, the theory has been accepted unquestionably
great. Brain research has shown that each intelligence type takes place only in a specific part of the brain
(Selçuk, Kayılı, Okut, 2003). Multiple intelligence theory puts forward that every human being has one or more
mental space unique to himself and he learns more easily in accordance with this mental space. This theory is
considered to enable different learning environments to access information, to have an impact on endearing
the subject and to arouse interest. Multiple intelligence theory based teaching in science courses have a great
role in creating active learning environment for students. The main principle of multiple intelligence theory is
to cater to different intelligence area of each student. To ensure that students are able to create links among
the information adopted, it is required to use teaching methods and techniques toward multiple intelligence
theory.
It is required to organize learning environment in an encouraging style as students’ participation, success, and
knowledge internalizing are expected. Depending on this fact, it is quite important to apply multiple
intelligence theory in science and technology teaching (Evrekli, Aydın, Balım, 2006).
28
The greatest impact of the theory in the process of teaching is to increase the creativity of teachers in
developing teaching strategies. Because, when teachers and planners think activities for each intelligence type,
they inevitably enlarge their method and technique repertoire, reveal different and original techniques. As
different intelligence types are used in classroom activities during that process, cooperation is possible
between the teachers whose expertise areas are completely different from each other. For example, one
needs to communicate and get advice of music teacher while planning an activity related to musical
intelligence (Demirel, 2000).
Every child has strong and weak sides no matter what his intelligence area is. On condition that only one or two
of these intelligence areas are used, the students whose intelligence types don’t take place among the ones
used at school cannot be able to improve their brilliant sides, complete learning in a long period without
enjoying or never manage to learn.
Consulting the relevant literature, it is possible to come across with several research which emphasize
determining intelligence types and the impact of a subject discussed according to multiple intelligence theory
on student success, knowledge permanence and attitude (Dilek Sezer, 2008; Etli, 2007; Furnham, Sahahidi and
Baluch 2002, Güney, 2007; Gök Altun, 2006; Hoerr 1994; Ribot, 2004; Shore, 2004).
In this study, the subject of enzymes of biology course was submitted to students with teaching techniques
planned according to multiple intelligence theory, and determining the impact of this study on student success
was aimed. Depending on the purpose, answers to the following sub-problems were tried to be found.
1. Is there a meaningful difference between pretest points of experiment group to whom the subject of
enzymes was taught according to multiple intelligence theory and control group to whom the same
subject was discussed according to traditional methods?
2. Is there a meaningful difference between pretest-posttest points and permanence test points of
experiment group to whom subject of enzymes was taught according to multiple intelligence theory?
3. Is there a meaningful difference between pretest- posttest points and permanence test points of control
group to whom the subject enzymes was taught according to traditional methods?
METHOD
Research Model
In this study, nonequivalent groups pretest posttest model was used in the scope of quasi experimental
method based on neutral determination of groups so as to research the effect of multiple intelligence theory
based activities. (McMillan and Schumacher, 2006).
In nonequivalent groups pretest posttest model, there are two groups formed by neutral assigning. One of
them is referred as experimental group an the other is called as control group. In each group, pretest and
posttest measurements are performed. (Karasar, 2008).
Universe and Sample
The study was carried with 60 teacher candidates of third grade students of Science Teaching department, at
which enzymes were studied in the scope of Science Teaching as a part of curriculum. In the study, two classes
were used as control and experimental group formed by neutral assigning.
29
Data Collection Tool
Success Test
Success test was developed in the research to measure to what extent the students gained behaviors as long as
in the issue of enzymes is concerned. In the success test, 35 questions were prepared for each unit covering
any behavior aimed to be taught. The questions were examined by biology and education sciences experts. The
test was applied to 86 people who studied the subject of enzymes at university level. At the end of pilot
application, selectivity indexes of test articles, article severity degree and Croncbah Alpha reliability coefficient
were found and on this basis, the articles whose assessment were weak were taken out of the test. There are
30 questions in the end of the test. General reliability coefficient assessed for success test is α=.80.The
statement that depending on Alpha coefficient, the scale is highly reliable is used. According to Kalaycı (2008),
on condition that Alpha record is between 0.80-1.00, the scale is highly reliable. Besides, there are questions
related to five of Bloom’s cognitive scale ( knowledge, understanding, application, analysis and assessment).
Application
The application was practiced during 2010-2011 education year at the department of Science Teaching of
Kafkas University on 60 students attending third grade. During application period, the courses were discussed
with traditional method on control group while it was studied according to multiple intelligence theory on
experimental group by the researcher. Activities were organized for each intelligence area. The activities are
shown below.
Table 1: The table of activities in the issue of enzymes based on multiple intelligence theory.
Intelligence Area
Verbal Linguistic Intelligence
Logical Mathematical Intelligence
Visiual Intelligence Area
Musical Intelligence Area
Bodily- Kinesthetic Intelligence Area
Social Intelligence
Nature Intelligence
Intrapersonal Intelligence Area
Activity
Writing and reading studies, enabling students to make
comments.
Problem solving, conducting an experiment, puzzle solving.
Visual Presentations , Materials, Power Point
Making Power Point Presentation in company with Enzymes
Music.
Making animations with body.
Knowledge exchange, Cooperated workshops, Group
Discussing
Answering the question of what would happen if there were
no enzymes? Explaining where the enzymes are used.
Realizing the importance of enzymes for all living creatures
and searching for answers to the question of ‘why’ in the
experiments.
For both control and experimental group, pretest at the beginning of the unit, posttest at the end of the unit
and retention test after 4 weeks were applied. For the purpose of comparing student success points, these
tests consist of same questions.
Data Analysis
In this research, an unrelated t-test in order to compare the students' scores obtained from pre-test and
retention tests, and one-way Anova statistics in order to compare the groups within themselves and with one
another for repetitive measurements have been applied. The Tukey test has been performed so as to
determine among which groups the significant differences have been observed as a result of the Anova test.
30
FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATION
Evidence of the First Sub-Problem
The first sub-problem of the study is in the form of, "Is there any significant difference between the pre-test
score averages of experimental group in which the issue of enzymes is discussed based on the multiple
intelligence theory and of the control group in which the same issue is discussed through traditional methods?"
In order to assess this sub-problem, a t-test has been performed between the pre-test scores of the students
belong to control and experimental groups which have been applied at the beginning of the unit. Results are
shown in Table 2.
Table 2: The t-test chart of the scores obtained from achievement pre-test.
Test
Pre-test
Groups
Control
Experimental
N
30
30
Average
10.86
11.10
S
1.19
1.93
sd
58
t
.56
p
.57
As a result of the t-test, there is no significant difference between the achievement pre-test scores of the
experimental group receiving Multiple Intelligences Theory-based education and of the students of the control
group receiving a traditional education, which have been performed before the unit begins [t (58)=56, p>.05;
Levene Statistics=2.06, p=.15]. The levels of the two groups are consentaneous. This situation has facilitated
the implementation of the achievement test to both of the groups in terms of the perception of differences as
a result of the practices. It can be said that there is no disparity of success between the students of control and
experimental groups in the sense of the issue of enzymes before the implementation.
Evidence of the Second Sub-Problem
The second sub-problem of the research is, "Is there any significant difference between the mean scores of pretest, pro-test and retention test of the experimental group that discuss the issue of enzymes using the theory
of Multiple Intelligences?" The table concerning the ANOVA statistics so as to determine whether there is
significant difference between these tests is given below.
Table 3: One-way ANOVA test table for repetitive measures concerning the experimental group students' pretest, post-test and retention test scores
Source of Variance
Among subjects
Measurement
Error
Total
Total of
squares
449,789
622,156
1073,844
2145,789
sd
29
2
58
89
Average of
squares
15,510
311,078
18,515
F
P*
16,802
.000
Significant
Difference**
2-1,3-1
* Important at p <.05 level.
** Measurements in which differences have been observed as a result of Tukey test.
According to Table 3, there is a significant difference between the scores of the experimental group in pre-test
(1), pro-test (2) and retention test (3) [F (2,58)= 16.802, p<0.05]. As a result of the Tukey test, a statistically
significant difference has been observed between the pre-test - pro-test and pre-test - retention test of the
experimental group (p <0.05).
31
Table 4: The arithmetic mean and standard deviations of the experimental group students' pre-test, post-test
and retention test
Tests
N
Average
SS
Pre-test
Pro-test
Retention Test
30
30
30
11.10
16.86
16.46
1.93
4.96
4.91
In Table 4, it can be seen that the experimental group students' mean score of post-test (x = 16.86) and the
mean score of retention test (x = 16:46), are higher than the mean score of pre-test (x = 10.11). In addition, no
difference has been observed between the post-test and retention test according to the Tukey test. In this
case, when the averages are taken into consideration, the post-test scores of students have increased
compared to the pre-test scores; therefore, it can be said that the students have learned the subject of
enzymes being discussed according to the Multiple Intelligence Theory. It has been observed that the success
levels after the implementation have not changed in accordance with the scores obtained from the retention
test, so it can be said that the effect of the implementations based on Multiple Intelligence Theory continues.
Evidence of the Third Sub-Problem and Interpretation
The third sub-problem of the research is: "Is there any significant difference between the pre-test and pro-test
- retention test mean scores of the control group that discuss the issue of enzymes using the theory of Multiple
Intelligences?" The table concerning The ANOVA statistics so as to determine whether there is significant
difference between these tests is given below.
Table 5: ANOVA test chart concerning the control group students' pre-test, post-test and retention test scores
Source of Variance
Among subjects
Measurement
Error
Total
Total of
squares
254,233
56,267
288,400
598,900
sd
29
2
58
89
Average of
squares
8,767
28,133
4,972
F
5,658
P*
Significant
Difference**
2-1
.000
* Important at P <.05 level.
** Measurements in which differences have been observed as a result of Tukey test.
According to Table 5, there is a significant difference between the scores of the groups in pre-test (1), pro-test
(2) and retention test (3) [F (2,58)= 5,658, p<0.05]. As a result of the Tukey test, it has been observed that this
difference takes part between the control group students' pre-test scores and post-test scores (p <0.05).
Table 6: The arithmetic mean and standard deviations of the control group students' pre-test, post-test and
retention test
Tests
N
Average
SS
Pre-test
Pro-test
Retention Test
30
30
30
10.76
12.70
11.63
1.04
3.60
2.15
In Table 6, it can be seen that the control group students' mean score of post-test (x = 12.70) is higher than the
mean score of retention test (x = 11.63), and the mean score of pre-test (x = 10.76). In addition, no difference
has been observed between the pre-test and retention test according to the Tukey test (p>0.05). In this case,
considering the mean scores, it is observed that this difference is in favor of the pro-test. So, it can be said that
32
the students have learned the unit with a traditional method with which they are familiar. There is a significant
difference between pro-test and retention test. Considering the averages, it is again observed that this
difference is in favor of the pro-test. In this case, it can be said that the students do not remember any
information regarding the protein synthesis unit. In the face of the averages, the pro-test scores of the students
have increased compared to the pre-test; therefore, students can be said to have learned the subject of the
enzymes discussed according to the traditional approach. However, there is not any difference between the
scores of the retention test performed after the traditional approach and the scores of the pre-test performed
at the beginning; for this reason, there has been detected no retention of information about the subject of
enzymes which has been discussed according to the traditional approach.
CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION
The purpose of this study is to determine the effect of the enzymes issue discussed through the theory of
Multiple Intelligences to the success of students. For this purpose, considering the final achievement test
scores performed immediately after the subject of enzymes discussed with activities based on the traditional
approach and on the theory of Multiple Intelligences; it can be observed that the mean success scores of both
of the student groups have increased compared to the pre-test. However, it is seen that this increase has been
higher in the experimental group in which activities based on the theory of multiple intelligences have been
held. In this respect, the theory of Multiple Intelligences can be said to be effective in learning Bayrak, 2005;
Demiral, 2006; Deveci, 2008; Gökçek, 2007; Şengül, 2007; Yağcı, 2006 obtained similar results in their studies.
In the retention test conducted after 3 weeks from the date of the research, it has been determined that there
is a significant difference between the experimental group that taught according to the multiple intelligences
theory and the control group which taught according to the traditional method; and this difference has been
found to be in favor of the experimental group. The research findings demonstrate that the education based on
the theory of multiple intelligences affect the permanence of information more positively than traditional
methods of teaching. This result obtained from the retention test is in line with the studies of Altuntaş, 2007;
Etli, 2007; Öner 2005; Uçak, 2006.
In order for the multiple intelligence-based education to be more effective, education implementations based
on multiple intelligence are performed in field education courses in universities' faculties of education, and
prospective teachers can implement the multiple intelligence theory more effectively if the studies on this
theory are examined.
Teachers should have knowledge about the education based on Multiple Intelligences theory in order for them
to identify the intelligence profile of the students having difficulty in comprehending the subject and to prepare
appropriate activities for these profiles. If teachers have insufficient knowledge about the subject, they can be
informed about multiple intelligences-based instruction through in-service training.
It is thought that students can be academically more successful through education based on Multiple
Intelligences Theory in which they can be more effective, use the materials by themselves, speak and discuss
freely, learn by seeing and acting, and use their undiscovered intelligence fields. For this reason, in our era
where individual differences come into prominence, more importance should be attached to the theory of
Multiple Intelligences that can support the students' individuality, and by doing so that can make learning more
pleasant (Hasenekoğlu and Gürbüzoğlu 2009).
33
Authors Note: This study was taken from a part of a published master thesis.
th
WJEIS’s Note: This article was presented at 4 International Conference on New Trends in Education and Their
Implications - ICONTE, 25-27 April, 2013, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 3 Number
1 of IJONTE 2013 by WCEIS Scientific Committee.
Assist. Prof. Dr. Sibel GÜRBÜZOĞLU YALMANCI currently employed as an Assistant
Proffesor at Kafkas University of Education Faculty, Graduate School of Natural and
Applied Sciences Department of Biology Teaching. She received Phd degree in Graduate
School of Natural and Applied Sciences Department of Biology Teaching at Atatürk
University. She is specially interested in socio-scientific issues, Biology education,
education of university students.
Assist. Prof. Dr. Sibel GÜRBÜZOĞLU YALMANCI
Graduate School of Natural and
Applied Sciences Department of Biology Teaching.
Kars,TURKEY
E-Mail: [email protected]
Ph. D. Candidate Ali İbrahim Can GÖZÜM is currently employed as an Research Assistant
at Kafkas University, Faculty of Education, Primary Department of Preschool Education.
He is currently a Ph D student at Gazi University, Institute of Educational Sciences,
Primary Department of Preschool Education. He is specifically interested in socioscientific issues, concept teaching, conceptual change, scicence education for preschool
children.
Ph. D. Candidate Ali İbrahim Can GÖZÜM
Primary Department of Preschool Education
Kars,TURKEY
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Sistemi Başarıları Üzerine Etkisi” ,Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Balıkesir, T.C. Balıkesir Üniversitesi Fen Bilimler Enstitüsü
Ortaöğretim Fen Ve Matematik Alanlar Eğitimi Anabilim Dalı.
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Yüksek Lisans Tezi, T.C. Balıkesir Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü İlköğretim Anabilim Dalı, Balıkesir, 2006.
36
GENDER AND EXPERIENCE AS PREDICTOR OF
BIOLOGY TEACHERS’ EDUCATION PROCESS SELF-EFFICACY PERCEPTION AND
PERCEPTION OF RESPONSIBILITY FROM STUDENT SUCCESS
Dr. Murat AKTAŞ
Mehmet Tunç Science Education Institutes
Ankara, TURKEY
Assist. Prof. Dr. Hakan KURT
Necmettin Erbakan University
Ahmet Keleşoğlu Education Faculty
Department of Biology Education
Konya, TURKEY
Dr. Özlem AKSU
Kazan Mustafa Hakan Güvençer Anatolian High School
Ankara, TURKEY
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gülay EKİCİ
Gazi University,
Gazi Education Faculty
Department of Educational Sciences
Ankara, TURKEY
ABSTRACT
In this research, it is aimed to examine the relation between biology teachers’ “education process self-efficacy
perception, perception of responsibility from student success” and “gender and experience”. The research has
been prepared according to the scanning model. A total of 82 biology teachers participated in the research. In
the research, “Education Process Self-Efficacy Beliefs Scale” and “Perception of Responsibility from Student
Success Scale” are used. For the general of the scales the Cronbach Alpha Reliability Coefficients have been
found as 0.93 and 0.90. In data analysis, beside descriptive statistics, Pearson Correlation Coefficient is used in
the calculation of the relation between the variables; and linear regression analysis is performed to determine
the level of prediction of the dependent variables by the independent variables. At the end of the research, the
level of biology teachers’ education process self-efficacy perception and the level of perception of
responsibility from student success have been found as medium. On the other hand, the results of the
regression analysis have shown that both gender and experience variables positively and significantly predict
education process self-efficacy perception and perception of responsibility from student success. It has been
determined that while gender accounts for 11.4% of the total variance in education process self-efficacy
perception and 9.1% of the total variance in the perception of responsibility from student success, experience
accounts for 13.6% of the total variance in education process self-efficacy perception and 8.7% of the total
variance in the perception of responsibility from student success.
Key Words: Self-efficacy perception, self-efficacy perception of education process, the perception of
responsibility from the success of student, biology teacher, gender and experience.
INTRODUCTION
Teachers play an indispensable role in teaching-learning activities. In this vein, a great body of research is being
conducted on whether teachers' demographic characteristics affect teachers' qualifications. It can be stated
37
that of these variables, gender and experience are the most commonly investigated ones. Considering the
literature on teacher education particularly in the last 30-40 years, it is observed that the studies focus most on
teachers' qualifications and aim to determine in which variables teachers' qualities differ. Rotter's (1996)
theory of locus of control and Bandura's (1977) Social Cognitive theory are among the theories which
researchers focus on.
Developed by Rotter (1966), the concept of locus of control is individuals' expectations as to what will happen
as a result of their behavior, and the tendency to view the situation based on their abilities, characteristics,
and behaviors, or the tendency not to view the outcome due to luck, fate, destiny, or the result of any external
force (Dönmez, 1986). In this regard, according to the concept of "Taking responsibility for students' success",
which is related to the concept of locus of control and coined by Guskey (1981a), while teachers whose
perceptions of teaching efficacy are positive take responsible for students' both success and failure, teachers
with low perceptions of teaching efficacy attribute students' failure to external factors. It is possible to state
that teachers who take responsibility for their students' success in class and attribute the reasons of failure to
the problems in their own teaching-learning activities will have a high level of self-efficacy. The concept of selfefficacy, one of the most commonly investigated issues on teachers' qualifications, is closely related to the
concept of taking responsibility for students' success.
One of the most important concepts stressed in Bandura's Social Cognitive Learning Theory is the concept of
"Self-efficacy" (Bandura, 1977). The concept of self-efficacy is defined as a qualification that plays an effective
role in shaping behavior and "individuals’ perceptions of themselves in successfully completing necessary
activities by planning these activities to achieve specific performance (Bandura, 1977; Zimmerman, 1995).
There are many perceptions of self-efficacy in different fields and Teachers' self-efficacy is one of these
concepts. Teachers' self-efficacy is defined as their perception of their ability to have necessary behavior to
conduct their duty successfully (Aston, 1984; Brouwers & Tomic, 2003; Guskey & Passaro, 1994; TschannenMoran & Hoy, 2001). Self-efficacy related to teaching process can, on the other hand, be described as their
perfections of their ability to have necessary behavior in teaching-learning activities. In this regard,
preparations before class, what should be done during class and evaluation process prove to be crucial.
Positive relationships are stated to exist between teachers' high levels of self-efficacy and students' high quality
behavior (Anthony & Kritsonis, 2007; Sewell & St-George, 2000; Usher & Pajares, 2006; Wollfolk, Rosoff & Hoy,
1990). Accordingly, this process can only be realized through teachers' both high level perceptions of taking
responsibility and self-efficacy.
Although there are different studies conducted on teachers’ perceptions of taking responsibility for students'
success and self-efficacy related to teaching process, to the best knowledge of authors, there is not any study
conducted that evaluates both these affective qualifications interacting with each other and investigates them
through variables of gender and experiences that are among the demographic characteristics of Biology
teachers. Yet, perceptions of taking responsibility for students' success and self-efficacy related to teaching
process are closely related issues since, in any case, teachers with high levels of self-efficacy will also act based
on their perceptions of taking responsibility for their students' success. Teaching activities are directly related
to students' success-failure (Erdle, Murray & Rushton, 1985). Therefore, considering that teachers with high
levels of locus of self-control also have high levels of professional efficacy, that they take responsibility for
students' success, and that all these have a great effect on many issues such as teachers' in-class behavior,
planning and applying teaching, motivation, effective classroom management skills, and ensuring student
participation (Adu & Olantundun, 2007; Akiri & Ugborugbo, 2009; Guskey, 1981b; Hoy & Spero, 2005;
Woolfolk, Rosoff & Hoy, 1990), it is believed that the investigation of the relationships between these concepts
and the results obtained through the participation of Biology teachers that are one of the important science
groups of the study will contribute significantly to the literature.
38
The Aim of the Study
The current study aims to investigate the relationships between Biology teachers' perceptions of both selfefficacies related to teaching process and taking responsibility for students' success, and gender and
experiences. In this vein, the following research questions were investigated:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
What are Biology teachers' perceptions of self-efficacy related to teaching process?
What are Biology teachers' perceptions of taking responsibility for students' success?
Is there a relationship between Biology teachers' perceptions of self-efficacy and taking responsibility for
students' success considering their gender and experience?
Do Biology teachers' gender and experience predict their perceptions of self-efficacy related to teaching
process?
Do Biology teachers' gender and experience predict their perceptions of taking responsibility for students'
success?
METHODOLOGY
Descriptive survey model was used in the study. The survey model is a research approach that aims to describe,
picture, or explain any current or past situations, groups, objects and features as they are (Ekiz, 2003; Karasar,
2006).
Participants
The participants were 82 Biology teachers working in the central districts of Ankara during the second semester
of 2011-2012 academic year. These teachers volunteered to participate in the activity.
Data Collection Instrument
The Scale of Teacher Candidates' Self-Efficacy Beliefs of Teaching Process and the Scale of Teachers' Perceptions
of Responsibility for Students' Success were used as the data collection instruments. In this regards, the
properties of the scales are as follows:
The Scale of Teacher Candidates' Self-Efficacy Beliefs of Teaching Process: The scale was developed by Özdemir
(2008). The scale is composed of 3 dimensions: Planning teaching process (8 items), application (19 items) and
evaluation (13 items). The scale includes 40 items based on 5-point Likert style. The expected responses are
scaled as 1 "totally disagree", 2 "disagree", 3 "neutral", 4 "agree", and 5 "totally agree" (Özdemir, 2008). In the
current study, for the whole of the scale Cronbach Alpha Reliability Coefficient was determined as .930, for the
dimension of planning teaching process as .814, for the dimension of application as .821, and for the evaluation
as .789.
The Scale of Teachers' Beliefs of Responsibility for Students' Success: The scale adapted into Turkish by Ekici
(2012a) was originally developed by Guskey (1981a). The scale includes two sub-dimensions, namely,
responsibility for success and responsibility for failure. The scale includes 30 items. Two options are provided
as (a) and (b) related to both dimensions in each item. The total score that can be obtained from both options
in each item can be 100 at maximum. Therefore, in this context, while an option of a dimension is given 99
points, the option of the other dimension can be given 1 point at most. While Cronbach's Alpha reliability
coefficient was determined .900 for the overall scare, for the dimension of responsibility for success, it was
determined as .814 and for the dimension of responsibility for failure, as .856.
Data Analysis
In addition to the descriptive statistics used in data analysis in line with the aims of the study, Pearson
correlation coefficient was used to calculate the relationships between the variables and simple linear
regression analysis was calculated to determine the levels of independent variables at predicting depending
variables.
39
FINDINGS
In this section, the findings obtained in line with the sub-aims of the study are presented in tables.
The descriptive statistics on Biology teachers' self-efficacy related to teaching process and their perceptions of
responsibility for students' success are provided in Table 1.
Table 1: Biology Teachers' Score Distribution in Their Perceptions of Self-Efficacy Related to Teaching Process
and Their Perceptions of Responsibility for Students' Success
The dimensions of the scales
The overall consideration of the scale of self-efficacy
Planning teaching process
Applying teaching process
Evaluating teaching process
N
82
82
82
82
Mean
112.41
23.34
49.11
37.42
SD
11.13
2.85
6.45
4.36
The overall consideration of the scale of responsibility for students'
success
The perception of responsibility for students' success
The perception of responsibility for students' failure
82
52.71
6.24
82
82
46.12
44.15
9.45
7.23
As Table 1 indicates, Biology teachers' scores in perceptions of self-efficacy related to teaching process is found
to be X=112.41 in the overall consideration of the scale. This score is at a moderate level considering that the
maximum score that can be obtained on the scale is X=200.00 It is also determined that Biology teachers'
scores in perceptions of self-efficacy related to teaching process are at moderate levels in the dimensions of
the scale.
Furthermore, in Table 1, Biology teachers' scores in perceptions of responsibility for students' success is found
to be X=52.71 in the overall consideration of the scale. This score is close to 50.00, the average of the scale.
Therefore, it was determined that Biology teachers' scores in perceptions of responsibility for students' success
were close to the overall average of the scale and the scores in perceptions of responsibility for students'
failure and success were found to be at moderate levels. Furthermore, the scores in the perceptions of
responsibility for success were determined to be higher than those in the perceptions of responsibility for
failure.
The findings on the relationship between Biology teachers' perceptions of self-efficacy and taking responsibility
for students' success considering their gender and experience
Table 2: Pearson Correlation Coefficient Test Results between Biology Teachers' Perceptions of Self-efficacy
and Taking Responsibility for Students' Success Considering Their Gender and Experience
The dimensions of the scales
The overall consideration of the scale of self-efficacy related to teaching process
The dimension of planning teaching process
The dimension of applying teaching process
The dimension of evaluating teaching process
The overall consideration of the scale of responsibility for students' success
The dimension of perception of responsibility for students' success
The dimension of perception of responsibility for students' failure
* p<0.05 and **p< 0.01
Gender
*
.427
Experience
**
.718
*
.273
**
.709
*
.487
*
.516
**
.743
*
.478
**
.326
40
Correlation coefficient is calculated to find and interpret the degree of relationship between two variables. The
absolute value of correlation coefficient between 0.70-1.00 can be defined as high; between 0.70-0.30 as
medium, and between 0.30-0.00 low level relationships (Büyüköztürk, 2002).
As can be seen in Table 2, low and moderate levels of positive relationships were determined between Biology
teachers' gender and the overall consideration and the dimensions of the scale of self-efficacy perceptions
related to teaching process (r= .273 and r=.427, p< 0.05). On the other hand, moderate and high levels of
positive relationships were determined between Biology teachers' gender and the overall consideration and
the dimensions of the scale of responsibility perceptions for students' success(r= .487, r= .516 and r=.709,
p< 0.05 and p< 0.01).
A high level of positive relationship was determined between Biology teachers' experience and the overall
consideration of the scale of self-efficacy perceptions related to teaching process(r= .718, p< 0.01). On the
other hand, moderate and high levels of relationships were determined between Biology teachers' experience
and the overall consideration and the dimensions of the scale of responsibility perceptions for students'
success (r= .326, r= .478 and r=.743, p< 0.05 and p< 0.01).
The findings on Biology teachers' perceptions of self-efficacy related to teaching process as predicted by
variables of gender and experience
Table 3: The Results of Simple Linear Regression Analysis Conducted on Predicting Self-Efficacy Perceptions
Related to Teaching Process Based on Gender
Variables
Constant
Gender
2
F=1.235, p <0.01, R=.162, R = .114
B
6.752
-.365
Standard Error
2.235
.785
β
.074
t
3.325
-2.258
p
.000
.023
Considering Table 3, it is seen that of the variables in the study, gender provides a significant relationship with
the perceptions of self-efficacy related to teaching process (R=.162, p<0.01). This finding is found to indicate
those teachers' gender accounts for 11.4% of the total variance in teachers’ perceptions of self-efficacy related
to teaching process.
Table 4: The Results of Simple Linear Regression Analysis Conducted on Predicting Self-Efficacy Perceptions
Related to Teaching Process Based on Experience
Variables
Constant
Experience
2
F=2.154, p <0.01, R=.247, R = .136
B
8.541
.157
Standard Error
2.524
.324
β
-.065
t
2.245
-.452
p
.000
.001
Considering Table 4, it is seen that of the variables in the study, experience provides a significant relationship
with the perceptions of self-efficacy related to teaching process (R=.247, p<0.01). This finding is found to
indicate those teachers' experience accounts for 13.6 % of the total variance in teachers’ perceptions of selfefficacy related to teaching process.
The findings on Biology teachers' perceptions of responsibility for students' success as predicted by variables of
gender and experience
41
Table 5: The Results of Simple Linear Regression Analysis Conducted on Predicting Perceptions of Responsibility
for Students' Success Related to Teaching Process Based on Gender
Variables
Constant
Gender
2
F=3.462, p <0.01 - R=.632, R = .091
B
5.758
.658
Standard Error
2.035
.751
β
.365
t
1.524
1.004
p
.000
.007
the perceptions of responsibility for students' success (R=.632, p<0.01). This finding is found to indicate those
teachers' gender accounts for 9.1% of the total variance in teachers’ perceptions of self-efficacy related to
teaching process.
Table 6: The Results of Simple Linear Regression Analysis Conducted on Predicting Perceptions of Responsibility
for Students' Success Related to Teaching Process Based on Experience
Variables
Constant
Experience
2
F=1.254, p <0.01, R=.758, R = .087
B
7.211
.568
Standard Error
2.574
.841
β
.850
t
1.862
1.421
p
.000
.031
the perceptions of responsibility for students' success (R=.758, p<0.01). This finding is found to indicate those
teachers' experience accounts for 13.6 % of the total variance in teachers’ perceptions of self-efficacy related
to teaching process.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The current study conducted to investigate the relationships between Biology teachers' perceptions of both
self-efficacy related to teaching process and taking responsibility for students' success, and gender and
experiences provides results obtained through conducting appropriate statistical analyses in line with the subaims. In this vein, Biology teachers’ levels of perceptions of self-efficacy related to teaching process and
perceptions of responsibility for students' success were found to be moderate. Their levels of perceptions of
self-efficacy related to teaching process were found to be high in some depending on the quality of their work
(Çoklar & Odabaşı, 2009; Gökmen, Ekici, Çimen & Altunsoy, 2011; Oğuz, 2009; Özdemir, 2008). On the other
hand, considering the related literature, teacher candidates were found to take more responsibility for success
than failure (Ekici, 2012a; Ekici, 2012b; Guskey, 1987; Güvenç, 2011; Pratt, 1985; Sherman & Giles, 1981).
Moreover, according to the results obtained through the current study, Biology teachers were found to take
more responsibility for success than failure. Accordingly, this results obtained from the study prove similar to
those of the studies in the related literature. On the other hand, in other studies conducted, it is stated that the
education provided to teachers/teacher candidates are effective in their adopting positive perceptions of
taking responsibility for students' success and failure (Castellini, 1986; Guskey, 1984; Rosenshine, 1986). In this
regard, it is possible to help Biology teachers adopt more positive perceptions of taking responsibility for
students' success and failure through future in-service training.
Through another result obtained, low and moderate levels of positive relationships were determined between
Biology teachers' gender and the overall consideration and the dimensions of the scale of self-efficacy related
to teaching process. This finding can be interpreted as the indication that Biology teachers' perceptions of selfefficacy related to teaching process do not differ much based on the gender variable. Although there are
various studies conducted to determine how perceptions of self-efficacy related to teaching process based on
gender (Çoklar & Odabaşı, 2009; Özdemir, 2008), there is not any study that investigates the correlation and
that is similar to the current study.
42
One of the important results is that moderate and high levels of positive relationships were determined
between Biology teachers' gender and the overall consideration and the dimensions of the scale of
responsibility perceptions for students' success. In the related literature review, while Güvenç (2011), Guskey
(1981a) and Pratt (1985) investigate whether perceptions of responsibility for students' success differ based on
gender, there is not any study conducted to investigate the level of correlation between gender and
perceptions of responsibility for students' success and failure. Accordingly, these results will contribute
significantly to the literature.
On the other hand, while a high level of positive relationship was determined between Biology teachers'
experience and the overall consideration of the scale of perceptions of self-efficacy related to teaching process,
moderate and high levels of relationships were determined between Biology teachers' experience and the
overall consideration and the dimensions of the responsibility perceptions for students' success. Regarding the
high level of relationship between teachers' experience and students' success (Evans, 1992; Gibbons, Kimmel &
O’Shea, 1997), if it is thought that experienced teachers will take more responsibility for students' success and
failure, the results obtained from this study prove similar to those in the related literature.
The results of the regression analyses put forward that the variables of both gender and experience predict
positively and significantly the perceptions of self-efficacy related to teaching process and the perceptions of
responsibility for students' success. While it was determined that gender accounted for 11.4% of the total
variance in the perceptions of self-efficacy related to teaching process and 9.1% of the total variance in the
perceptions of responsibility for students success, experience was found to account for 13.6% of the total
variance in the perceptions of self-efficacy related to teaching and 8.7% of the total variance in the perceptions
of responsibility for students' success. As indicated in these results, gender and experience are among the
important variables that predict both the perceptions of self-efficacy related to teaching process and the
perceptions of responsibility for students' success.
Consequently, the fact that Biology teachers have high levels of perceptions of self-efficacy and responsibility
can be interpreted as just a few of the important factors considering that they can be quality teachers.
However, many factors may affect one another while becoming a quality teacher. Perceptions of self-efficacy
and responsibility are among the important factors that affect each other. In the studies conducted in line with
this, it is stated that teachers with high levels of perceptions of self-efficacy and professional responsibility are
more successful in and ambitious for issues such as choosing appropriate teaching techniques, ensuring higher
students' success, effective communication with students (Anderson, Dragsted, Evans & Sorensen, 2004;
Appleton & Kindt, 2002; Guskey, 1988). Accordingly, the fact that teachers have high levels of perceptions of
self-efficacy related to teaching process and responsibility indicates that there might be more successful
students during teaching and learning process and quality individuals who have sufficient biological knowledge
and can apply this knowledge in their daily lives in the society. In this regard, Biology teachers lack in related
issues can be compensated through in-service training activities.
th
IJONTE’s Note: This article was presented at 4 International Conference on New Trends in Education and
Their Implications - ICONTE, 25-27 April, 2013, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 4
Number 2 of IJONTE 2013 by IJONTE Scientific Committee.
43
Murat AKTAŞ. He received his PhD in Biology education at Gazi University. He is currently
working as a Dr. at Private Mehmet Tunç Science Education Institutes. His main area of
study includes Biology education, teacher education and curriculum development.
Dr. Murat AKTAŞ
Mehmet Tunç Science Education Institutes
Ankara,TURKEY
Hakan KURT. He received his PhD in Biology education at Selçuk University. He is currently
working as an assistant professor in the division of Biology Education in the department of
Secondary Science and Mathematics Education, Ahmet Keleşoğlu Faculty of Education at
Necmettin Erbakan University. His main area of study includes learning and teaching,
teaching concepts, cognitive structure, alternative concepts, biology education and
teacher education.
Assist. Prof. Dr. Hakan KURT
Ahmet Keleşoğlu Education Faculty, Department of Biology Education
42090 Meram-Konya, TURKEY
Özlem AKSU. She received her PhD in Biology education at Gazi University. She is currently
working a teacher of biology at Kazan Mustafa Hakan Güvençer Anatolian high School in
Ankara. Her main area of study includes alternative measurement and evaluation, biology
education, teacher education and curriculum development.
Dr. Özlem AKSU
Kazan Mustafa Hakan Güvençer Anatolian High School.
Ankara,TURKEY
[email protected]
44
Gülay EKİCİ. She received her PhD in Curriculum and Instruction in the Department of
Educational Sciences, Gazi Faculty of Education at Gazi University. He is currently
working as an associate professor at the same department. Her main area of study
includes learning and teaching, curriculum development, learning styles, biology
education, teacher education, self-efficacy and learning-teaching approaches.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gülay EKİCİ
Gazi University,
Gazi Education Faculty, Department of Educational Sciences
06500 Teknikokullar/Ankara, TURKEY
E-mail: [email protected] & [email protected]
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47
THE EFFECT OF GENDER AND COMPUTER USE VARIABLES ON RECOGNATION
OF GEOMETRICAL SHAPES IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN
Oğuz Serdar KESİCİOĞLU
Giresun University Educational Faculty
Department of Early Childhood
Giresun,TURKEY
ABSTRACT
In this study it is aimed to search the geometrical shapes recognition levels of pre-school children. This is a
descriptive study which uses screening model. The study group of the study consists of total 192children (60-72
months) chosen from the nursery classes of elementary schools subject to National Educational Ministry in
Giresun city centre and from independent nursery schools by “random sampling” method. As a data gathering
tool, “Recognition of Geometrical Shapes Test”, developed by Aslan (2004), was used in the study. Recognition
of Geometrical Shapes Test consists of four dimensions as triangle, square, circle and rectangle. The date was
analyzed in SPSS for Windows program. Percentage and frequency values are used. As a result of this study it is
found out that the recognition level of the geometrical shapes varies in a meaningful way according to gender
and computer use at home.
Key Words: Preschool, geometry, gender, computer.
INTRODUCTION
Geometry consists of four basic shapes including triangle, square, circle and rectangle (Clements, 1998; MEB,
2006). Geometry teaching is more important in pre- school period, when first critical geometrical observations
are made, instincts develop and concept and information is acquired, than the other periods following it (Develi
and Orbay, 2003). The pre-school children have some misconceptions about these four geometrical shapes.
The children may develop these misconceptions according to their location, oblateness, and deformity
(Clements, 1999). Location, oblateness, deformity and size affect the children’s classification decisions and as a
result of this they cannot make a reliable decision. That is they can recognize the shape when it is in its classical
location, however, they cannot recognize the same shape when the location changes (Aslan and Aktas Arnas,
2004). This situation results from the geometrical thinking abilities of the pre- school children. Van Hiele divides
geometrical reasoning into five levels and mentions that pre-school children are in ‘visual level’ which is the
first level. In this level, the children perceive the shapes as a whole and make classifications by comparing the
shape with a prototype (Bennie, 1998; Jami and Gutierrez, 1994). According to Van Hiele’s theory, geometrical
reasoning levels can be improved if individual is supported with education (Van Hiele, 1986). In recent years
researches show that appropriate curriculum can improve numerical and geometrical knowledge in pre-school
children. Teachers can reinforce children’s mathematical thinking by asking questions as ‘Have you tried to do
it in this way?’, ‘What would be if it happens?’, ‘Do you think you can do this?’ (Clements, 2001). Clements and
colleagues examined the tendencies and styles of preschool children in understanding geometrical shapes. As a
result it is defined that 96% of the children could fully recognize circles. Although the children consider
equilateral quadrangle as a square, 87 % could fully recognize squares. It is put forth that little children are less
48
successful in recognizing triangles (60%), this level is even lower in rectangles (54%) and children also have the
tendency to define parallel edges as rectangle. Another study conducted by Clements and colleagues (1999)
concludes that children’s rectangle recognition levels are lower than the other shapes. In a study conducted in
Turkey by Kesicioglu and colleagues (2011b) similar findings are presented and it is observed that pre-school
children made mistakes while recognizing the triangle, square, rectangle and circle shapes and their distractors.
The aim of pre-school education is to support all development fields of a child. Computers are symbols of
modern technology. Children need to have early experience with the developing tool (Coskun, 1990). It must
be provided that the child learns within the game via computers. Also it is an attractive tool for the child. One
way of developing mathematical knowledge is through usage of appropriate technology. The child’s interaction
with computer leads to positive results while learning geometrical shapes concept (Dwyer, 2002). The child
obtains different shapes and results on the screen by using certain keys of the computer. For instance, finding
two similar shapes and inserting one shape into another are games for the child; however, he learns to
differentiate different geometrical shapes at that moment (Arıcı and Demir, 2009). An activity in Building Blocks
software aiming to improve mathematical skills of children enables children to draw pictures by using special
tools related to geometry. Via this software, awareness levels of children about geometrical shapes are
enhanced (Clements, 2001). In a similar study completed by Kesicioglu (2011a) computer use has important
effects on children’s learning geometrical shapes, eliminating misconceptions and permanency of the
knowledge.
It can be seen that one of the factors affecting mathematical abilities of individuals mentioned in literature
reviews is “gender”. Gender difference in mathematics is one of the most mentioned issues not only for Turkey
but also for other countries and it brought about studies focusing on gender difference (Duru, 2002). Later, the
factors influencing the gender difference in mathematical success were studied (Alkhateeb, 2001). According to
the researches, socio- cultural factors such as biological differences, abstract thinking differences between
genders, attitudes towards mathematics, families’ and teachers’ expectations from student define the
differences (Alkhateeb, 2001; Duru, 2002). However, there are little research on mathematical skills and gender
in preschool period (Unutkan, 2007; Guven,2007), there are no studies directly aiming children’s geometrical
levels. The literature touches upon the necessity to improve pre-school children’s geometrical skills. Along with
this, since pre-school period is the most critical period for mathematical skills as well as most of the skills and
there are not enough researches in Turkey on this field, this study aims to investigate the geometrical skill
levels of pre-school children. In order to reach this aim answers to the following sub-problems were sought;
1. Do the recognition levels of geometrical shapes in pre-school children vary meaningfully according to
gender?
2. Do the recognition levels of geometrical shapes in pre-school children vary meaningfully according to
whether they use computer at home or not?
METHOD
This section consists of research model, study group of the research, data gathering tools, research process and
statistical techniques used in data analysis.
Research Model
The research is de descriptive study which uses screening model. Screening model is a research approach
aiming to describe a situation as it was or as it still is. Individual or object subject to research is tried to be
defined in its conditions and as it is. There is no attempt to change or affect them by any means (Karasar,
2002). In descriptive screening model, answers are sought to the research problem or problems by the analysis
of the data gathered from multiple experimental subjects or objects in a period of time (Arseven, 2001).
49
Study Group
Data gathering tool was applied to 272 (60-72 months) children by the researcher; however, the children “who
have computers at home” were included to the study group of the research. The study group of the study
consists of total 192 children (60-72 months) chosen from the nursery classes of elementary schools subject to
National Educational Ministry in Giresun city centre and from independent nursery schools. In simple random
sampling, every element forming the universe has the equal chance to be the sample. Therefore, the weight to
be given will be the same for every element while calculating (Arıkan, 2004). The children constituting the
sample consist of 115 boys and 77 girls.
Data Gathering
Data gathering tool was applied to pre-school children taken into study group in 2012-2013 educational years
by the researcher. The scale was applied to the children one by one in order not that they influence each other.
Four test were given to the children in order and instructions such as tick the triangle, tick the rectangle, tick
the square and tick the circle were given. All children were given the same instruction which enabled the
objectivity of the research for all the children. Time for data gathering for each child lasted approximately 30
minutes. As a part of the research, information on whether the child had computer at home or not was
gathered from the children’s parents. The answers “yes” and “no” to the questions “there is a computer/there
are no computers at home” and “my child actively uses computer” were required from the parents.
Data Gathering Tool
In the study, “Recognition of Geometrical Shapes Test” developed by Aslan was used as a data gathering tool.
Recognition of Geometrical Shapes Test consists of four dimensions as triangle, square, circle and rectangle.
There are totally 12 items in triangle recognition test which are 6 triangle shapes and 6 distractors, 12 items in
rectangle recognition test which are 5 rectangle shapes and 7 distractors, 12 items in square recognition test
which are 4 square shapes and 8 distractors, 12 items in circle recognition tests which are 5 circle shapes and 7
distractors. The maximum points that can be obtained from each sub dimension is ‘12’ points and it is ‘0’ points
at minimum. There are total 48 items. The maximum points that can be obtained from whole test is ‘48’ points
and it is ‘0’ points at minimum. In order to determine the validity- reliability of Aslan’s (2004) testing tool, each
item’s strength and differentiating indexes were calculated by considering item and test analysis. It is observed
that there is no item below .15 in terms of differentiating and item strength varies between .32 and .99. As a
result of the reliability study conducted by Aslan (2004), KR 20 alpha values was defined as .80 for triangle
recognition test, .88 for rectangle recognition test, .81 for square recognition test and .77 for circle recognition
test. Taking these results into consideration it can be said that this test have enough reliability level to be used.
As a result of the reliability test conducted for this research the values were found as .76 for triangle
recognition test, .82 for rectangle recognition test, .77 for square recognition test and .71 for circle recognition
test.
Data Analysis and Evaluation
The data was analyzed in SPSS for Windows 18 program. Percentage and frenquency values were used. By
taking dimensions constituting the scale into consideration while evaluating the data, for the items forming
each dimension, these items average point was found and afterwards general average point was obtained.
Statistical comparison (t test) was conducted with average points obtained for each sub dimension of the scale.
In order to test the meaningfulness of average points obtained from the scale dimensions and the statistical
difference according to gender and computer use at home variables, “t test” was used. While evaluating the
differences between the groups arithmetic average and meaningfulness values were taken into consideration
depending on analysis results (Büyüköztürk, 2006).
50
FINDINGS
The results of the study completed in order to find out the relationship between geometrical shapes
recognition level of pre-school children and gender and computer use variables are presented below.
Findings related to first sub problem: Do the recognition levels of geometrical shapes in pre-school children
vary meaningfully according to gender?
Table 1: T test results of geometrical shapes recognition level of pre-school children in terms of gender.
Dimensions
Gender
n
x
S
Girl
77
8.87
1.47
Boy
115
9.52
1.72
Girl
77
8.18
1.63
Boy
115
10.01
1.77
Girl
77
7.93
1.69
Boy
115
9.86
2.05
Girl
77
8.68
1.65
Boy
115
8.93
2.35
Girl
77
33.66
4.27
Boy
115
38.32
5.07
Triangle
Rectangle
Square
Circle
Total
Sd
t
P
190
2.69
.59
190
7.22
.01*
190
4.47
.01*
190
8.2
.24
190
8.22
.00*
*p<0.01
When Table 1 is analyzed, it can be observed that rectangle and square sub dimensions of the geometrical
shapes recognition test in pre-school children and their total points vary meaningfully in statistical terms in
gender for boys. Triangle and circle sub dimensions of the geometrical shapes recognition test in pre-school
children do not statistically reflect a meaningful variation in terms of gender.
Findings related to second sub problem: Do the recognition levels of geometrical shapes in pre-school
children vary meaningfully according to whether they use computer at home or not?
51
Table 2: T test results of geometrical shapes recognition level of pre-school children in terms of whether they
use computer at home or not .
Dimensions
PC use at
home
N
Yes
x
S
139
Gender
Boy
Girl
96
43
8.55
1.44
No
53
19
34
7.49
1.76
Yes
139
96
43
10.90
1.59
No
53
19
34
6.66
1.72
Yes
139
96
43
9.68
1.64
No
53
19
34
7.52
2.27
Yes
139
96
43
10.06
1.44
No
53
19
34
10.04
2.69
Yes
139
96
43
39.20
3.79
No
53
19
34
31.73
5.27
Triangle
Rectangle
Square
Circle
Total
Sd
t
P
190
3.90
.00*
190
8.20
.00*
190
7.25
.00*
190
6.69
.62
190
10.89
.00*
*P<0.01
When Table 2 is analyzed, it can be observed that triangle, rectangle and square sub dimensions of the
geometrical shapes recognition test in pre-school children and their total points vary meaningfully in statistical
terms in terms of their computer use at home in favor of the children who have a computer at home. Circle
sub dimension of the geometrical shapes recognition test in pre-school children does not statistically reflect a
meaningful variation in terms of computer use or not.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
When the findings of the research is analyzed, it can be observed that rectangle and square sub dimensions of
the geometrical shapes recognition test in pre-school children and their total points vary meaningfully in
statistical terms in terms of gender for children. Beginning from this information it can be concluded that there
is a relationship between gender and geometrical shapes recognition test in pre-school children. It can also be
observed that there is no statistically meaningful variation in terms of gender in triangle and circle sub
dimensions of the geometrical shapes recognition test in pre-school children. There is not any study that deals
with geometry skills and gender relationship in pre-school level. Nevertheless, when the studies on older age
groups examined, it is seen that there are differences for boys parallel to the findings of this study (Hanna,
1990, Battista, 1990; Knodel, 1997; Ubuz, 1999, Livatidis and et al, 2003). We reach more informative findings
when these results and the findings related to the second sub problem are evaluated together. If we consider
the number of the children who use computer at home, it can be seen that the of the boys is “96” and girls is
“43”. It is obviously seen that the boys use computer more at home. When the literature was reviewed, it was
found out that boys use computer at home more than girls (Lipinski et al, 1986; Seng, 1997). If the findings of
the second sub problem are examined, it is seen that boys geometrical shapes recognition is higher. In this
case, it can be said that since boys use more computer, their geometrical shapes recognition levels are in favor
52
of boys. On the contrary, Unutkan (2007) could not find a meaningful relationship between mathematical skills
and genders of the children in pre-school period.
When the research findings are analyzed, it can be observed that triangle, rectangle and square sub
dimensions of the geometrical shapes recognition test in pre-school children and their total points vary
meaningfully in statistical terms in terms of their computer use at home in favor of the children who have a
computer at home. No statistically meaningful variation in terms of computer use was found in circle sub
dimension of the geometrical shapes recognition test in pre-school children. When the literature is reviewed, it
is defined that children have misconceptions especially about rectangle and triangle shapes and they have the
least misconception about circle shape (Clements and et all, 1999; Clements and et all, 2000; Kesicioğlu and et
all, 2011b). As a result of this study, there are no meaningful relationships between the children’s recognition
levels of the circle shape and their computer use at home, which may result from that the children have
already known this shape. Again when the literature is taken into consideration, it is seen clearly that their
computer use at home has a positive effect on their recognition levels of other geometrical shapes (triangle,
square, and rectangle). With reference to this situation, it can be put foth that there is a positive relationship
between the computer interaction of the children in pre-school period and their recognition level of
geometrical shapes. Moreover, it can be added that computer games and educational software have beneficial
effects on children’s recognition of shapes (Kesicioglu, 2011a, Clements, 2002, Battista, 2002). This situation
brings about the impact of computers on children’s geometrical shape concepts; however, it must be
considered that there can be other factors can influence the result. If it is considered that the children who
have a computer at home have families higher in socio- economical situations than the other children, it can be
assumed that the children encounter more stimulants. Many researches put forward that socio- economical
level have effects on mathematical skills and; therefore, children with a higher socio- economical level are
more successful (Clements et all., 2001; Thompson et all, 2005). Parallel to the findings of this study, Roorda
(1994) and Olgun (2003) mention that the stimulants and concrete experiences provided to the child in early
childhood affects the child’s geometry skills in a positive way. In the literature view it is seen that the computer
use of the child at home provides great opportunities for child’s learning and teacher- parents cooperation, but
parents have some drawbacks about computer use at home (Haughland, 1997). In order to eliminate these
drawbacks, the pre-school teacher have some important duties.
SUGGESTIONS
1.
As a result of the research, pre-school period children’s recognition levels of geometrical shapes
statistically differ in a meaningful way in favor of boys. It is suggested to present different variables by
conducting further researches defining the causes of this situation.
2.
In the conclusion part of the research, it is put forward that pre-school period children’s recognition levelf
of geometrical shapes differ in a meaningful way in favor of the children who have a computer at home
when computer use at home is taken into consideration. It is suggested that factors and variables to affect
this situation such as socio- economical level of the child must be studied and the causes of differences in
computer use in boys and girls must be explained.
3.
It is suggested that the families are given educational seminars about how to provide their children with
educational benefits via computer in pre-school period.
53
Oguz Serdar KESİCİOGLU an Assistant Professor, Department of Early Childhood Education,
Giresun University, Giresun, TURKEY. He received his MBA in 2008 and Ph.D in 2011 from
University of Gazi, Ankara, Turkey. His research interest is math, geometry and science in
the early childhood education.
Oğuz Serdar KESİCİOĞLU
Giresun University Educational Faculty
Department of Early Childhood
Giresun,TURKEY
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56
METACOGNITIVE AWARENESS IN SCIENCE CLASSROOM OF HIGHER SECONDARY STUDENTS
Assist. Prof. Dr. G. JAYAPRABA
P.S.N.College of Education
& Research scholar M.S.University , Tirunelveli,
Tamilnadu, INDIA
Assist. Prof. Dr. M. KANMANI
M.S.University , Tirunelveli, Tamilnadu, INDIA
ABSTRACT
Metacognition is the awareness one has about his/her thinking process and how he/she is able to control these
processes. This study aims at examining the effects of inquiry based learning and cooperative learning on
metacognitive awareness in science class room. A quasi experimental design involving three groups namely,
two treatment groups- inquiry based learning and cooperative learning and control group was adopted.
Standardized tool developed by Schraw and Dennision(1994) was used to measure metacognitive awareness in
three groups. Results revealed that students in cooperative learning received higher metacognitive awareness
compared to other groups. The researchers recommend that cooperative learning be adopted regularly in
classroom to enhance metacognitive awareness of higher secondary students.
Key Words: Metacognitive awareness, Metacognition.
INTRODUCTION
Today, one of the main goals of education is to make the students gain the thinking skills and strategies which
they will use throughout their lives, rather than storing information. A good education should be able to show
the students how to learn, how to remember, how to motivate themselves and how to control their own
learning, so that they can teach how to learn. For all these reasons, to investigate the process of the
metacognitive skills of students is quite important. Metacognition concept was put forward for the first time in
1976 by John Flavell and developed by many researchers until today. Some descriptions related to the concepts
of metacognition made by different researchers are as follows: Flavell (1976) sees metacognition as ‘‘the
cognitive processes or outcomes of individuals or the knowledge of anything about them.’’ According to Brown
(1980) metacognition includes the capabilities such as the estimation of one’s own mental activities, planning,
monitoring and evaluation. Brown(1987) divides metacognition into two broad categories: Knowledge of
cognition and regulation of cognition. Knowledge of cognition refers to activities that involve conscious
reflection on one cognitive abilities and activities. Regulation of cognition refers to activities regarding selfregulatory mechanisms during an ongoing attempt to learn.
Shelia(1999) stated that, the fact that metacognition has been linked to increases in the academic achievement
of learners at all ability levels is another reason for its use. Ellis(1999), Lippmann(2005) and Coutinbo(2007) in
their contributions noted that metacognitive activity engages the student in the learning process and seeks to
improve the critical thinking, reasoning, and problem-solving skills of the learner. Coutinbo(2007) again
emphasized that as learners, some of who might normally "turn out" or refuse to speak out in a traditional
49
setting, become actively involved in the learning process through metacognition. Ozsoy(2008) noted that every
metacognitive strategy, when used appropriately, can enable students to move beyond the text, memorization
of basic facts, and learning lower level skills. This method which results in cognitive restructuring leads to an
increase in understanding of students.
Apart from academic benefits, metacognitive approach has been found to promote self-esteem, and improved
attitudes toward school and peers (Magno,2001). Kramarski et.al (2004) found that different metacognitive
strategies can be employed to help low ability students to improve achievement, who had difficulties making
success in the traditional classroom. In general, metacognitive strategies can be said to lead to the promotion
of critical thinking, reasoning, and problem-solving behaviour (Sheila 1999; Lippman,2005; Coutinbo,2007).
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
It has been observed by the researcher that many students, after learning about science concepts through
activities that address the various intelligences and learning styles, still choose not to participate in classroom
discussions. Instead a select few students answer teacher generated questions and develop their own
questions on the topic while the rest of the students remain mute. Based on the lack of response from the
majority of students, many times the teacher assumes that students that do not speak up have mastered the
material but the results of an assessment over that topic frequently indicate something different.
Students can gain the metacognitive skills by a science lesson based on the constructivist approach. In recent
years, "constructivist learning" theory which has an important place in the field of science education, aims to
educate students who play an active role of engaging in research for deep knowledge, and use the information
they have learnt rather than the students, who play a passive recipient role in information. There are
approaches such as cooperative learning and inquiry based learning which can develop metacognitive skills
among students.
The cooperative learning and inquiry based learning would be easy to put into metacognitive practice in the
science classroom even with the pressure of syllabi and the demand for marks from the parents. In this article,
an attempt is made to compare the influence of the cooperative learning and inquiry based learning in science
classroom of higher secondary students.
DESIGN OF THE STUDY
The research was carried out using a quasi-experimental design with pre- and post tests with two experimental
groups and one control group. Higher secondary students from Municipal Girls Higher Secondary School,
Tirunelveli town, Tamilnadu, India were taken as the sample of the study. The sample was divided into three
groups consisting of 35 students. Each group is almost having equal number of low ability students and high
ability students. Those students who have scored below 35 out of 100 in science in school record are treated as
low ability students. Remaining students are treated as high ability students. The three groups were first
administered metacognitive awareness test (MAT) and the results have been compared in order to study the
equivalence of the groups.
50
Table 1: Comparison between control and experimental groups in MAT pre-test
Group
N
Mean
S.D
Control group
Experimental group1
(Inquiry based learning)
Control group
Experimental group2
( Cooperative learning)
35
22.9
7.1
35
24.2
6.9
35
22.9
7.1
35
23.7
7.3
‘t’ value
Remarks at 0.01
level
0.77
Not significant
0.46
Not significant
From Table 1 there is no significant difference between metacognitive awareness pre-test mean scores
achieved by experimental groups with control group. The researchers assigned three experienced teachers to
teach the experimental and control groups and trained them on the basic skills of metacognitive strategy
before the commencement of treatment. The three teachers selected to teach the subjects had taught science
for the past ten years and both of them were graduates of science. The three teachers had similar experiences
on teaching skills based on their training as teachers. The teachers were randomly assigned to the experimental
and control classes. All the classes were taught by their respective teachers at the early hours of the day.
INSTRUMENT
The standardized tool for metacognitive awareness developed by Schraw and Dennison(1994) was used in the
present study. It consists of 52 items. It is used as a metacognitive awareness tool by many researchers in
metacognition research.(Lin,2002; Lippmann,2005) The items helps to identify the presence of metacognitive
behaviour among students. Items were reviewed for face validity. Wording and grammatical structures were
changed according to the local Indian context and the target groups’ level.
TREATMENT PROCEDURE
th
The researcher had gone through the 12 standard text book of National Council for Educational Research and
Training of Indian Government. The chapter human anatomy was selected for the study. The topics were:
Integumentary system, Skeletal system, Muscular system, Digestive system, Circulatory system, Lymphatic
system and Nervous system. The study consisted of three different treatments: a control group, Inquiry based
metacognitive instructions group and cooperative learning based metacognitive instructions group. The study
lasted for 20 days.
The control group was taught in the existing normal process of teaching followed and answering cognitive
questions that were related to the material being taught. Students were asked to share the information with
the entire class if they so desired. The teaching of students in this group was centered on the use of the
textbook. Instead of discussing the material, helping each other, students read the assigned reading material
silently, completed assignments independently at their seats.
The experimental group1 i.e. inquiry based metacognitive instructions group followed the procedure used by
the control group with one modification. The investigator formulated pivotal questions in advance. After the
lesson taught, the teacher conducted inquiry based learning by posing carefully drafted questions.
Metacognitive questions were framed in terms of student responses. The students were asked to respond to
these questions, which helped them to develop higher level of thinking. For example, teacher provides
metacognitive instructional practice such as what information is important to remember? What do you need to
do if you don't understand? Are you on the right way? How should you proceed? When they are monitoring
lesson they are guided to ask themselves the metacognitive questions. How am I doing? What information is
51
important to remember? What do I need to do if I don't understand? How well did I do? Did my particular
course of thinking produce more or less than I had expected? What could I have done differently? Do I need to
go back through the topic to fill in any "blanks" in my understanding? Students engaged in discussions with the
teacher in response to the teacher’s questions. But pivotal questions planned in advance gave direction and
thrust to the lesson and helped to accomplish the goal. Hartman(2001) states that teaching with metacognitive
strategies means that teacher will think about how their questions will activate and develop students’
metacognition.
The experiment group2 i.e. cooperative learning based metacognitive instructions group followed the
procedure used by the control group with one modification. After the lesson taught, individual students in the
group read the textbook. Each student was paired off with a classmate to discuss the topic with the help of
metacognitive instructions. In the cooperative learning strategy students have the opportunity to discuss their
answers with fellow students. The students could jot –down their answers to a question, turn to their
neighbour and talk about their answers and sharing the same with the entire class. It forces student to discuss
their thinking, analyze their position, and explain their point of view to their classmates. By their sharing
information with the entire class, students would be able to evaluate themselves while gathering information
from other classmates. The teacher would also have the opportunity to evaluate the students’ understanding
based on the content of the discussions. Some of the questions that are posed during the discussion can be
meaningful and multifaceted.
The cooperative learning group incorporated the following metacognitive strategies recommended by Blakey
and Spence (1990):
1. Define what you know and what you do not know:
Students determine their levels by asking themselves ‘What is my relevant information about the subject?’
What do I know? What do I want to learn? What do I not know?
2. Talk about what you are thinking:
This includes the loud thinking in the process of making plan or problem solving. This study can be performed in
peer groups or in small groups, that one student assumes the role of a teacher. These students talk and ask
questions by telling and making explanations and abstraction.
3. Keeping a diary of thinking:
Students can write difficulties and their interpretations about problems in that notebook. They also note the
process and methods used to solve the problem. Thus, students have the idea about experience and methods
of thinking.
4. Planning and self-control:
It is students’ plan to control the process that is relevant to the subject that is going to be learnt. However,
students must have earned some characteristics in advance such as adjusting time, identifying and using
materials.
5. Thinking process briefing:
This strategy covers, develops and uses the metacognitive and thinking skills that the students acquired. It
involves a three-step method. Primarily, the teacher needs to guide the students about how they gained
information by thinking in class and how they took part in activities. In the next stage, students need to group
ideas and define which thinking strategies they used, and in the final stage, students should evaluate their own
achievements and make assessments about their election in relation to future strategies.
6. Self-assessment:
52
It is the determination of the metacognitive skills of the students by the pre-prepared individual checklist in the
form of assessment. Metacognitive strategies are the sequential processes used to provide control in learning
and in reaching one’s goal. They help individuals significantly to make regulations and take control of their
learning. For example, after reading a text, a student can query himself about the concepts discussed in the
paragraph. This self evaluation is a monitoring metacognitive strategy and at this stage, the cognitive purpose
of students is to understand texts. If a student fails to answer his own question, he must determine what he
needs to perform his cognitive purpose which is to understand the text.
RESULTS
Statistical calculations such as paired ‘t’ test was used to analyse the data.
Table 2: Comparison of MAT score using paired ‘t’ test
Mean
Group
Control group
Experiment group1
Experiment group2
NS- Not significant S- Significant.
N
SD
Paird test ‘t’
value
Remarks at
0.01 level.
2.2
NS
4.2
5.6
S
3.8
7.2
S
35
Pre
test
22.9
Post
test
24.3
Pre
test
7.1
Post
test
5.4
35
24.2
31.2
6.9
35
23.7
36.7
7.3
The observed ‘t’ value for the control group was t(34)=2.2(p>0.01). Hence there is no significant improvement
in metacognitive awareness in control group. In the experiment group1 the t value was t(34)=5.6(p<0.01). It
shows that there is significant improvement in metacognitive awareness in inquiry based learning. In the
experiment group2 the t value was t(34)=7.2(p<0.01). It indicates there is significant improvement in
metacognitive awareness in cooperative learning.
The results revealed that the cooperative learning group received higher metacognitive awareness and they
could also answer higher level of cognitive questions compared to inquiry group and control group.
Table 3: Comparison of MAT scores of low ability students using paired‘t’ test
Mean
Group
Control group
Experiment group1
Experiment group2
NS- Not significant S- Significant.
N
SD
Paird test ‘t’
value
Remarks at
0.01 level.
1.9
NS
3.1
2.1
NS
2.8
7.9
S
35
Pre
test
15.4
Post
test
22.4
Pre
test
4.2
Post
test
3.6
35
16.1
23.7
4.4
35
15.9
31.7
4.1
The observed ‘t’ value for the control group was t(34)=1.9(p>0.01). Hence there is no significant improvement
in metacognitive awareness of low ability students in the conventional lecture method. In the experiment
group1 the ‘t’ value was t(34)=2.1(p>0.01). It shows that there is no significant improvement in metacognitive
awareness of low ability students in inquiry based learning. In the experiment group2 the t value was
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t(34)=7.9(p<0.01). It indicates there is significant improvement in metacognitive awareness of low ability
students cooperative learning.
The results revealed that the low ability students in cooperative learning group received higher metacognitive
awareness and they could also answer higher level of cognitive questions compared to inquiry group and
control group.
DISCUSSION
The findings of this study have demonstrated the effectiveness of method to promote metacognitive
awareness in the teaching and learning of science at the higher secondary school level of education. This study
is also significant in that it demonstrated the effects of inquiry and cooperative learning on students'
metacognitive awareness in one single study.
One major finding of this study is that students taught using the cooperative learning approach scored higher
marks in metacognitive awareness than those taught using the inquiry based method. This may have been
achieved by the high level of students' participation in learning activities. All the students in the cooperative
learning performed specific roles in solving problems which are presented in the classroom to the benefit of all
members of the group. When learners are confronted with problems which they must solve, they are forced to
reason and think critically in order to solve the problems. It is believed that when properly and carefully used
metacognitive activities engage the students in the learning process and seek to improve the critical thinking,
reasoning and problem solving skill of learners (Taylor,1999; Coutinbo,2007; Magno,2010).
In the control group , when the teacher explains a concept to the whole class only the high achievers are able
to follow the class while the low achievers may simply be listening without grasping the facts. They are not
benefited by the conventional lecture given to the whole class.
CONCLUSION
As described in this study, cooperative learning makes sense for students’ metacognitive awareness, is a very
viable option among other instructional methods for teaching science in higher secondary schools. The major
purpose of student-student interaction during cooperative learning is to promote metacognitive awareness.
The interaction among students in cooperative learning groups is intense and prolonged. Teachers must
improve their students’ metacognitive awareness in order to improve their learning abilities. “The more
students know about effective learning strategies, the greater their metacognitive awareness and the higher
their classroom achievement is likely to be”(Mango 2010).
G..JAYAPRABA is a Assistant Professor in PSN College of Education, Tirunelveli, India. She is
doing Ph.D in Metacognition under the guidance of the second author in Manonmaniam
Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli, India. She has published more than ten articles in both
national and international level seminars. She acquired degrees of M.Ed. and M. Phil. in
Manonmaninam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli.
Assist Prof. Dr. G.JAYAPRABA
P.S.N.College of Education, Tirunelveli, India
Research Scholar, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli, INDIA
54
Dr. M.KANMANI is a Assistant Professor in Department of Education, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University,
Tirunelveli, India. She has published articles in international journals and organized workshop and seminars and
guided Ph.D research scholars.
Assist Prof. Dr. M.KANMANI
Manonmaniam Sundaranar Univeristy , Tirunelveli, Tamilnadu, INDIA
REFERENCES
Blakey M, Spence S (1990). Developing Metacognition. Syracuse, NY: ERIC Resources Information Center
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Brown AL (1980). Metacognitive Development and Reading. In R.J. Spiro, B. Bruce, W. Brewer (Eds.),
Theoretical Issues in Reading Comprehension. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erbaum
Brown, A. L. (1987). Executive control, self- regulation, and other more mysterious mechanisms. In F. Weinart &
R. Kluwe (Eds.), Metacognition, Motivation and Understanding (pp 65-116). Hillsdale,NJ: Erlbaum.
Candan AS (2005). Metacognitive Theory and History Teaching. Kastamonu Educ. J., 13 (2): 327-332.
Coutinbo, S.A.(2007). The relationship between goals, metacognition and academic success. Educate, 7(1), 3947.
Ellis, G. (1999). Developing metacognitive awareness-the missing dimension. The Journal, 10, 1-6.
Flavell JH (1976). Metacognitive Aspects of Problem Solving. In L.R. Resnick (Ed.), The Nature of Intelligence.
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erbaum.
Hartman, H.J. (2001). Metacognition in learning and instruction, theory, research and practice, Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Kramarski, B., Mavrech, Z. R & Arami, M. (2004). The Effects of metacognitive instruction on solving
mathematical authentic tasks. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 49, 225-250.
Lin, X.D. (2002). Developing students' metacognitive awareness in asynchronous learning networks in
comparison to face to face discussion groups. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 36(4), xxx.
Lippmann, R. (2005). Analyzing students’ use of metacognition during laboratory activities. Learning Individual
differences, 14, 131-137.
Magno, C. (2010). The role of metacognitive skills in developing critical thinking. Learning, Memory, and
Cognition, 36(1), 255–262.
Ozsoy G (2008). Metacognition. Turkish Educ. Sci. J., 6 (4): 713-740.
Taylor S (1999). Better learning through better thinking: Developing students’ metacognitive abilities”, J.
College Reading and Learning, 30(1): 34.
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Schraw, G., & Dennison, R.S. (1994). Assessing metacognitive awareness. Contemporary Educational
Psychology, 19, 460-475.
Sheila R. Vaidya. (1999). Metacognitive learning strategies for students with learning disabilities. Educator.
56
E- AND M-LEARNING: A COMPARATIVE STUDY
Assist. Prof. Dr. Santosh Kumar BEHERA
Department of Education
Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University
Purulia, West Bengal, INDIA
ABSTRACT
st
21 century declared to be the age of information and communication technology. This is the time when more
people everywhere are involved in acquiring new knowledge and skills. The world is undergoing
transformations due to rapid development of Information and Communication Technology. We can not work in
the society without on-line technology. Online technology is also entered in the field of education. Electronic
Learning is a subset of Distance Learning and Mobile Learning is a Subset of E-learning. E-learning and Mlearning have become extremely important buzz words of the educational technological revolution; each
characterising a whole raft of ideas and resources for the tech-savvy teacher. But the two terms are not always
used correctly, with some confusion about the differences between them and where they overlap. And in more
complex terms, thinking about the differences between E-learning and M-learning can be particularly useful for
teachers who use technology in the classroom, as it can help them to pick out which techniques are best for
which education scenario. The present paper was based on secondary sources of data highlighting the
comparison of concept, characteristics, advantages, disadvantages, similarities and differences between Elearning and M-learning.
Key Words: E-learning, M-learning, U-learning, ICT, Technology, ET, Distance learning.
INTRODUCTION
E-learning plays an important role in the educational growth of any nation. It also offers opportunities for
developing nations to enhance their educational development. It can also plays a critical role in preparing a
st
new generation of teachers, as well as upgrading the skills of the existing teaching force to use 21 century
tools and pedagogies for learning. So it is the changing trend in education. The modern technologies
particularly the internet made education no longer limited to the four walls of the class room. E-learning
comprises all forms of electronically supported learning and teaching. The information and communication
systems, whether networked or not serve as specific media to implement the learning process. The term will
still most likely be utilized to reference out-of classroom and in-classroom educational experiences via
technology, even as advances continue in regard to devices and curriculum.
Mobile learning combines E-learning and mobile computing. Mobile learning is sometimes considered merely
an extension of E-learning, but quality M-learning can only be delivered with an awareness of the special
limitations and benefits of mobile devices. Mobile learning has the benefits of mobility and its supporting
platform. M-learning is a means to enhance the broader learning experience. M-learning is a powerful method
for engaging learners on their own terms. E-learning and M-learning diagrammatically mentioned below:--
Computer
Functionality
Laptop computers
PDA’s
handhelds
palmtop
E- Learning
Mobility
Smart phones
Mobile phone
M-Learning
(Functionality and mobility in a definition of mobile learning)
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9
Though there are some differences lies between E-learning and M-learning, they are closely related. M-learning
is a sub-set of E-learning. Their relationships are diagrammatically given below:-
Perspective of learning paradigms
(Georgiev et al., 2004)
Relationship of E-learning, M-learning
& Flexible Learning (Low and O’Connell, 2006)
Mobile technology in word open various ways for new educational technologies aimed at fulfilling the country’s
educational needs. There are various ways to use mobile phones for enhancing learning. Mobile phone plays an
important role in our day-to-day lives in various purposes. One of the important purposes is learning. Mobile
learning, as a novel educational approach, encourages flexibility; students do not need to be a specific age,
gender, or member of a specific group or geography, to participate in learning opportunities. Restrictions of
time, space and place have been lifted.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
In this new millennium modern technology plays inevitable role in our lives. The technological revolution poses
tremendous challenges to the educators to rethink their basic tenets, to apply technology in creative way to
redesign education. In this context, E-learning and M-learning play an important role. These are the new
innovations which help greater learning opportunities for the students. The study will cover a wide range of
topics relating the context of E-learning, M-learning, their characteristics, advantages and disadvantages. The
present study also judges the similarities and differences between E-learning and M-learning. The study reveals
with supporting education through modern technology, solving educational problems, promoting educational
outcomes linking it with real life situations.
Objectives Of The Study
The following were the specific objectives of this study:
To shed light on the concept of E-learning and Mobile learning.
To focus on the characteristics of E-learning and Mobile learning.
To compare the advantages of E-learning and Mobile learning.
To compare the disadvantages of E-learning and M-learning.
To judge the similarities and differences between E-learning and Mobile learning.
Research Questions
The study addressed the following questions:
• What is meant by E-learning?
• What is meant by M-learning?
• What are the characteristics of E- learning?
• What are the characteristics of mobile learning?
• What are the advantages and disadvantages of E-learning?
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•
•
What are the advantages and disadvantages of mobile learning?
What are the similarities and differences between E-learning and mobile learning?
Design Of The Study
The researcher was adopted the analytical descriptive approach in collecting data, information, facts, concepts
and opinion related with various phases of this study. The researcher was also reviewed previous literature of
the concept, characteristics, advantages and disadvantages of E-learning and Mobile learning.
Plan Of The Study
The study was done in five main phases:
1. First Phase: The concept of E-learning and M-learning.
2. Second Phase: The characteristics of E-learning and Mobile learning.
3. Third Phase: Comparison between the Advantages of E-learning and M-learning.
4. Fourth Phase: Comparison between the Disadvantages of E-learning and M-learning.
5. Fifth Phase: Similarities and differences between E-learning and mobile learning.
1. First Phase: The concept of E-learning and M-learning
E-learning is the acquisition and use of knowledge distributed and facilitated primarily by electronic means. It
may include the use of web-based teaching materials and hypermedia in general, multimedia CD-ROMs,
websites, discussion boards, collaborative software, e-mail, blogs, wikes, test chat, computer aided
assessment, educational animation, simulations, games, learning management software, electronic voting
systems and more, with possibly a combination of different methods being used. E-learning is an approach to
facilitate and enhance learning through and based on both computer and communication Technology. It is used
to support distance learning through the use of WANS (Wide Area Net Workers), and may also be considered to
be a form of flexible learning where learning is possible in no time. E-learning is also called ‘online learning’. It
is developed to apply information technology skills to education getting connected to the internet or any
network is essential for E-learning. E-learning or Electronic learning is a general term used to refer to
computer-enhanced or technology enhanced learning. E-learning is naturally suited to distance learning and
flexible learning, but can also be used in conjunction with face to face teaching, in which case the term blended
learning is commonly used. E-learning is a means of education that incorporates self-motivation,
communication, efficiency, and technology. It is a flexible term used to describing a means of teaching through
technology. E-learning refers to the use of Internet technologies to deliver a broad array of solutions that
enhance knowledge and performance (Rosenberg, 2001; Wentling et al., 2000). In general, E-learning is the
expression broadly used to describe “instructional content or learning experience delivered or enabled by
electronic technologies” (Ong and Wang, 2004). Broadly, we can define it as “the use of the Internet, intranets /
extranets, audio and videotape, satellite broadcast, interactive TV, and CD-ROM, not only for content delivery,
but also for interaction among participants”. Elliott Masie defines “E-learning as the experience dimension of Elearning, which includes such factors as engagement, curiosity, simulation and practice”. E-learning can be
defined as the use of any of the new technologies or applications in the service of learning or learning support
(Laurillard, 2006). E-learning means sharing knowledge using technology, computer and network-enabled
transfer of skills and knowledge. E-learning applications and processes include Web-based learning, computerbased learning, virtual classroom and digital collaboration. Content is delivered via Internet, intranet/extranet,
wireless telephonic, audio or video tape, satellite TV, and CD-ROM. It can be self-paced or instructor-led and
includes media in the form of text, image, animation, streaming video and audio. It is the use of the Internet
and related technologies for the development, distribution and enhancement of learning resources. This form
of learning currently depends on networks and computers, but will likely evolve into systems consisting of a
variety of channels (e.g., wireless, satellite), and technologies (e.g., cellular phones, personal digital assistants)
as they are developed and adopted. E-learning can take the form of courses as well as modules and smaller
learning objects. E-learning may incorporate synchronous or asynchronous access and may be distributed
geographically with varied limits of time (Wentling, Waight, Fleur, Wang, and Kanfer, 2000).
There are some other definitions of E-learning which are as follows:
E-learning is instruction that is delivered electronically, in part or wholly – via a Web browser, through the
Internet or an intranet, or through multimedia platforms such as CD-ROM or DVD (Hall, 1997).
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E-learning is a structured, purposeful use of electronic system or computer in support of the learning
process (Allen, 2003).
E-learning covers a wide set of applications and processes, such as Web-based learning, computer-based
learning, virtual classrooms, and digital collaboration. It includes delivering content via the Internet,
intranet/extranet (LAN/WAN), audio and videotape, satellite broadcast, interactive TV, and CD-ROM
(ASTD, 2001).
E-learning is training delivered on a computer (including CD-ROM, Internet, or intranet) that is designed to
support individual learning or organizational performance goals (Clark and Mayer, 2003).
Mobile learning, sometimes called M-learning, is learning accomplished with the use of small, portable
computing devices. These computing devices may include: smart phones, personal digital assistants (PDAs) and
similar handheld devices. There is some debate on the inclusion of tablet and laptop computers. Often,
wireless two-way internet connection is assumed as an integral component. Mobile learning refers to the use
of mobile or wireless devices for the purpose of learning while on the move. Typical examples of the devices
used for mobile learning include cell phones, smartphones, palmtops, and handheld computers; tablet PCs,
laptops, and personal media players can also fall within this scope (Kukulska-Hulme & Traxler, 2005). Mlearning is the idea that a student can learn from any place at any time using portable learning devices. Mlearning or ‘mobile learning’ is any sort of learning that takes advantages of learning opportunities offered by
mobile technologies.
• M- learning means "acquisition of any knowledge and skill through using mobile technology anytime,
anywhere that result in alteration of behaviour".
• M- learning also brings strong portability by replacing books and notes with small RAM's filled with tailored
learning contents.
• M-learning implies different things to different people. Here there are some definitions of M-learning
given below:
• According to Quinn (2000) “Mobile learning is learning through mobile computational devices”.
• Shepherd (2001) Says: M- learning is not just electronic, it’s mobile.
• Colazzo, Ronchetti, Trifonova, and Molinari (2003) state that, “A mobile learning educational process can
be considered as any learning and teaching activity that is possible through mobile tools or in settings
where mobile equipment is available.”
• Polsani (2003) defines “mobile learning as a form of education whose site of production, circulation and
consumption is the network”.
• Pinkwert et. al. (2003), who defines M-learning as “. . . E-learning that uses mobile devices and wireless
transmission.”
• Trifonova (2003) Any form of learning (studying) and teaching that occurs through a mobile device, or in a
mobile environment.
• Sharples (2005), who defines M-learning “ . . . as a process of coming to know, by which learners in
cooperation with their peers and teachers, construct transiently stable interpretations of their world.”
• Traxler (2005) defined it as “any educational provision where the sole or dominate technologies are hand
held and palmtop devices.”
• Pea and Maldonado (2006) stated that mobile learning incorporates “transformative innovations for
learning futures”.
• Parsons & Ryu (2006) M-learning is broadly defined as the delivery of learning content to learners utilizing
mobile computing devices.
• Peters (2007) also stated that it was a subset of E-learning, a step toward making the educational process
“just in time, just enough and just for me” (Peters, 2007, p. 15).
• Ally (2009) The process of using a mobile device to access and study learning materials and to
communicate with fellow students, instructors or institution.
M-learning provides the potential to provide the right information to right people at the any time and any place
using portable learning devices. Thus the M-learning can be summarized in a single statement – “deliverance of
education or any learning via any portable devices”.
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2. Second Phase: The Characteristics of E-learning and Mobile learning
There are some important characteristics of E-learning mentioned below:
• Empowered by digital technology: E-learning is pedagogy empowered by digital technology.
• Computer enhanced learning: E-learning is a term which is used to refer computer enhanced learning.
• Technology enhanced learning: E-learning includes all types of technology enhanced learning (TEL), where
technology is used to support the learning process.
• Online learning: Use of E-learning is generally confined to “on-line learning” carried out through the
Internet or Web-based technology, with no face-to-face interaction.
• More than CBL and CAI: E-learning conveys broader meaning than the terms CBL (Computer based
learning) and CAI (Computer assisted instruction).
• More than on-line learning: E-learning is broader in its meaning that they conveyed through the simple
terms like “on-line learning” or “on-line education”.
•
Not synonymous to audio-visual and multimedia learning: E-learning should not be considered as
synonymous to audio- visual learning, multi-media learning, distance education or distance learning.
Although the audio-visual and multimedia technology and distance education programmes are based on
the Internet and Web services provided through the computers, yet these are not identical but
complementary.
• Confined to Web-based and Internet-based learning: The use of the term E-learning should be confined
to the type of learning carried out, supported or facilitated through Web enhanced instruction and the
Internet based communications like e-mail, audio and video conferencing, mail list, live chats and
telephony.
•
Exclusion of non-Internet and non-Web technology: All types of non-Internet and non-Web technology
are not included in E-learning.
• On the other hand M-learning has following characteristics:
• Accessibility - The information is always available whenever the learners need to use it.
• Immediacy - The information can be retrieved immediately by the learners.
• Interactivity - The learners can interact with peers, teachers and experts efficiently and effectively through
different media.
•
Context-awareness - The environment can adopt to the learners real situation to provide adequate
information for the learners.
• Permanency - The information remains unless the learners purposely remove it.
• Flexible Learning, Large mass covered, reduces students’ indiscipline and unrest problem.
• Used Very where at every time.
• Most of mobile devices have lower prices than desktop PCs.
•
Similar size and light weight than desktop PCs.
• Ensure bigger students engage as M-learning is based on modern technologies, which students use in
everyday life.
3. Third Phase: Comparison between the Advantages of E-learning and M-learning
The following are the advantages of E-learning:
• Individualized instructions: E-learning provides individualized instructions suiting to the need, abilities,
learning styles and interests of the learners. E-learning has much potential to make the education,
instruction and learning opportunities provided to the learners adaptable to the need, local need and
resources at their hands. Thus, it is learner centred.
• Easy access: The learner gets access to learning by breaking all barriers of time, place and distance. The
learners can access information and educational contents anytime and at anyplace. E-learning is available
even in areas where there is no school or college. It can reach any remote or far off areas of the country or
world.
• Disadvantageous children: it is available for those with poor health or disadvantageous conditions that
can inhibit them from under going any institutionalized education. E-learning enables even handicapped
liked deaf and dumb to learn.
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•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Qualitative: E-learning has a unique feature of arranging an access to unlimited number of students the
same quality of the content that a fulltime student has.
Effective media: E-learning can prove an effective media and tool for facing the problem so lack of trained
teachers, shortage of schools and needed facilities for providing quality education to the number of
students residing in far and wide corners of the country.
Different learning styles: Unlike traditional classroom education, E-learning can cater to different learning
styles and promote collaboration among students from different localities, cultures, regions, states and
countries.
Flexibility: The flexibility of E-learning in terms of delivery media (like CD, DVD, Laptops and Mobile
Phones), type of courses and access may prove very beneficial for the learners.
Play-way spirit and learning by doing: Learning experiences via simulated and gaming techniques may
also provide the advantages of getting richer experiences on the useful pedagogical footings of play-way
spirit and learning by doing or leaving.
Interesting and motivating: E-learning may make the students more interested and motivated towards
learning as they may get a wide variety of learning experiences by having an access to multimedia.
On-line, Off-line and live interaction: The opportunities of having an on-line, off-line and live interaction
between the students and teachers and among the students themselves may make the task of E-learning a
joy and best alternative to the lively face-to-face interaction and real time sharing of the experiences in a
traditional classroom settings.
Self-learning and self-improvement: E-learning leads to self-learning. It can be utilized for improving
technical and vocational skills.
Evaluation and feedback: E-learning can also provide opportunities for testing and evaluating the learning
outcomes of the learners through teachers, peers and auto-instructional devices and software available
with there a ding material online, or through the internet and mobile phone facilities
There are also a lot of advantages of mobile learning. These are listed below:• Increased mobility: Learning is not restricted to fixed locations any more. Mobile devices allow learners to
access learning content and learning interactions anywhere, such as factories, museums, hospitals,
shopping malls, cafes and outdoor areas.
• Time-saving: People can now study when they are commuting and traveling.
• Environmental-friendly: It is amazing to find out how much information a mobile device can carry despite
its light weight. Less printing is required.
• Interactive: Mobile technology enables students to closely link with their peers, teachers, distant partners,
and even interest groups worldwide.
• Use of relatively inexpensive everyday technologies.
• Better opportunities to acquire skills at one’s own pace, with a degree of privacy that may be missing
when using shared computer facilities or relying on equipment belonging to somebody else.
• Good support for preferred modes of interaction, e.g. accessing audio content or participating in social
networks on the move.
• Catering for interests beyond what is provided in class, through access to additional content such as
podcasts or free learning materials (e.g. Open Learn).
• Handheld devices are often an everyday part of business, so learning can contribute directly to enhancing
employability, life skills and work practices.
• Opportunities for learners to give immediate feedback on their learning experience.
• Better assessment and diagnosis of learning problems as they occur.
• Psychological support for those at risk of dropping out, through social networks or personal guidance from
a mentor.
• Learning materials can become accessible to a larger audience, through podcasts, mobile applications,
blogs and e-books, which are seen by potential students.
• Catering for disadvantaged social groups for whom mobile learning presents an opportunity to improve
their life chances.
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•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Revitalizing the curriculum, rethinking teaching methods and implementing improved feedback to
learners.
Turning geographically dispersed learners into a valuable teaching resource by enabling them to
contribute their local knowledge and research data more easily.
Supporting learner retention, progression and transition.
Making the learning experience more tailored to the changing needs of individuals, encouraging learners
to return for knowledge updating and further study.
Mobile educational systems have started to emerge as potential educational environments supporting
lifelong learning though other forms of learning like distance learning etc are very popular in India,
learning is yet to find a pathway into Indian educational system. Also to notice that India’s mobile services
market is growing at a very rapid pace and the technological base required supporting mobile devices is
also quite strong in India. So India has the potential to be considered as a strong market for M-learning.
The learning material is mostly colourful and inviting which may prompt students to go back and forth and
practice more.
Learner gets stimulated in learning.
Convenient.
Interesting.
4. Fourth Phase: Comparison between the Disadvantages of E-learning and M-learning
The following are the disadvantages of E-learning:
• Requires knowledge and skills: E-learning requires special knowledge and skills for the use of multimedia
Internet and Web technology on the part of the users. Lack of knowledge and skills on this account may
prove futile in taking advantages from the valuable services of E-learning.
• Lack of equipment: Most of our schools are not at all ready, willing and equipped for making use of Elearning in the proper interest of the teachers and students. Leaving aside a small number of self financing
public schools meant for children of rich parents, most of the schools in our country cannot even imagine
for venturing in the area of E-learning.
• Costly: E-learning is more costly than traditional education. E-learning tools are very expensive. Their
repair is also very expensive. Hence, E-learning is beyond the rich of most of the students. They do not
have resources for purchasing electronic equipment.
•
Feeling of Isolation and Missing Social Contact: The feeling of isolation experienced by the users of Elearning is one of the main defects quite visible in any system of distance learning including E-learning.
There is no face-to-face interaction and humanistic touch profoundly available in the traditional class room
setup. Moreover the lack of social participation and community sharing experiences may prove handicap
to the students of E-learning in their adequate physical, emotional and social development.
•
Lack of provision for teacher training programme: There is lack of provision of equipping the teachers in
their pre-service or in-service programmes for getting acquainted with the knowledge and skills required
on their part for the use of E-learning at their work places. As a result, the teachers neither have any
inclination towards E-learning nor have any competence for its organization in the school or providing
guidance to their students in its use.
•
Negative attitude: An overall attitude of the learners, teachers, parents, educational authorities and
society is usually found negative towards the processes and products of E-learning. E-learning is adjusted
as second rate in comparison to regular classroom teaching.
• Adverse effect on health: E-learning adversely affects the eyesight and some other parts of the body. The
learners become physically inactive. Sometimes they become victims of physical diseases.
•
Lack of co-curricular activities: Co-curricular activities have great importance in the field of learning and
education. But these activities are neglected in E-learning.
• Technical defect: E-learning is based on technology. When technical defect occurs, E-learning stops. As a
result, continuity of learning is broken and there is no progress in E-learning.
• Stressful and consumed more time.
There are also a lot of disadvantages of mobile learning. These are listed below:
• There is no denying that the storage capacities of PDA are limited.
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•
•
•
•
•
•
Device may become outdated quickly and students have to keep combating obsolescence.
The buttons on the keypad or styles pens are small and can be trickily for some people to manipulate.
There are attachable keyboards available for some devices but these are also small, can be different to use
to cost money.
Too small display.
Usable with some models only.
Network connectivity limitations.
Expenses / Costs.
5. Fifth Phase: Similarities and Differences between E-learning and Mobile learning
E-Learning is a subset of Distance Learning – Mobile Learning is a Subset of E-Learning. The conceptual shifts
from E-learning to M-learning then to u-learning are given below:-
Similarities
Each of them needs an infrastructure and a wide community base in dealing with wire and wireless
electronic computer technologies.
Each of them needs a high cast technological system.
E- and M-learning provide students with digital literacy focusing on information processing.
Students are centre of learning process in both models (Self- Learning).
In both learning models students can access and surf the internet.
E-and M- learning models allow communication between individual students and between students and
teachers anywhere and at anytime from one hand, and communication with local and international on the
other via the use of e-mails and text message.
In both learning models the learning content is delivered in the form of texts, images and video clips.
Both learning models depend on developing problem solving and creative thinking skills among students.
E-and M- learning models are capable of providing learning opportunities to many students.
Learning material can be updated continuously in both learning models.
Differences
E- learning use fixed, wire devices such as PC's, but mobile learning uses wireless communication devices
such as cell and smart phones, micro computers and personal digital assistants.
In E- learning, access to the internet is achieved the available telephone service, while mobile learning uses
IR when accessing the internet anywhere at any time.
In E- learning, messages are exchanged via the internet whereas MMS and SMS messages are used to
exchange information between users.
In E-learning, it is difficult to transfer books and files between individual learners, while in mobile learning,
Bluetooth and IR technologies are used to exchange books and files among learners.
Storage applications used in E-learning are more effective than ones used in mobile learning.
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Communication channels used in E-learning have low protection levels as learners use more than one
device, whereas mobile learning provides users with more protection as learners use their own devices to
connect with others.
It is difficult to pass devices through learners in E-learning while these devices are easy to pass between
learners in mobile learning.
In an attempt to distinguish E-learning from M-learning, Sharma and Kitchens (2004).
E-learning
Computer
Bandwidth
Multimedia
Interactive
Hyperlinked
Collaborative
Distance Learning
Simulated Situation
Hyper Learning
M-learning
Mobile
Bluetooth
Objects
Networked
Situated Learning
Realistic Situation
Constructivism
Social Interaction
Collaborative
Traxler (2007) attempts to further distinguish E-learning from M-learning by analyzing the descriptions of both
fields found in the literature. Comparison of E-learning to M-learning (Traxler, 2007):
E-learning
M-learning
Structured
Personal
Media-Rich
Spontaneous
Broadband
Disruptive
Interactive
Opportunistic
Intelligent
Informal
Usable
Pervasive
Situated
Private
Context-Aware
Bite-Sized
Portable
Differences between E- and M-learning environments with respect to methods of Evaluation, communication
between actors, and terminology.
E-learning
M-learning
Computer
Mobile
Bandwidth
GPRS, G3, Bluetooth
Multimedia
Objects
Interactive
Spontaneous
Hyperlinked
Connected
Collaborative
Networked
Distance learning
Situated learning
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Respect to communication between actors (instructor and student)
E-learning
Communication
Asynchronous
Scheduled
Time-delayed
Passive
M-learning
Communication
Synchronous
Spontaneous
Instant delivery
Instant
Student and student
E-learning
Face-to-face
Audio-teleconference common
Private location
Travel time to reach Internet site
Respect to methods of Evaluation
E-learning
1-to-1 basis possible Asynchronous and at times
delayed
Mass/standardized
Instruction
Benchmark-based grading
Simulations & lab based experiments
Paper-based
M-learning
Flexible
Audio and video- conference possible
No geographic boundaries
No travel time since wireless connectivity
M-learning
1-to-1 basis possible Both asynchronous
and synchronous
Customized
Instruction
Performance & improvement-based grading
Real-life cases and on the site experiments
Less paper, less printing, lower cost
CONCLUSION
However E- and M-learning play an important in the field of modern education. In spite of some differences,
there are some relationship lies in them. E- and M-learning encourage both teachers and students to take
personal responsibility for their own learning. When teachers succeed it builds self-knowledge and self
confidence in them. The recent trend in E-learning sector is screen casting. E- and M-learning will also bring a
substantial change in the method of spreading knowledge to improve the quality in teacher education and
hence will make teachers of global standard. Thus, these are beneficial to education, corporations and to all
types of teachers / learners. It is the effective learning process created by combining digitally delivered content
with learning support and service. Therefore, we can conclude that teachers need to acquire technological skills
in order to succeed in E-learning. Mobile technology is also used in learning purpose. It is an innovative
educational approach which provides learning opportunities to the students.
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Dr. Santosh Kumar BEHERA is an Assistant Professor, Department of Education, SidhoKanho-Birsha University, Purulia, West Bengal, INDIA. His research interests are Sc and St
Education, Distance Education, Peace Education, Environmental Education, Human Rights
Education, Teacher Education, Philosophy of Education and Educational Technology. He is
the Editor-in-Chief, EDUQUEST, An International Refereed Journal in Education (ISSN:
2277-3614).
Dr. Santosh Kumar BEHERA
Department of Education
Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University
Purulia, West Bengal, INDIA,
Pin-723101
Mobile: 91-9475660604 or 9635928135
E Mail: [email protected]
[email protected]
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ANALYSIS OF OP: 63 PIANO ETUDES BY LUIS STREABBOG WITH REGARDS
TO TARGET BEHAVIOURS
Assist. Prof. Dr. Yüksel PİRGON
Süleyman Demirel University
Faculty of Fine Arts, Department of Music
Isparta, TURKEY
ABSTRACT
In this study, etudes in no op:63 piano etude method by Luis Streabbog have been determined with regards to
target behaviors by using content analysis method. To what extent so-called method meets the target
behaviors in undergraduate programs of music education departments set by Higher Education Institution has
been studied. The outcomes of this study have proved that the method fits second year of undergraduate
program. This study also aimed at introducing these etudes to the faculty of piano lecturers with regards to
their target behaviors as this method is rarely known and involved at piano classes of music education
departments. This study assumes great importance in that it enriches beginner level piano etude course books
and turns out to be an alternative to these course books. As a result of this study, it has been seen that target
behaviors –which performing legato, performing staccato, playing scales, playing cadences and musical
dynamics- in undergraduate programs of music education departments set by Higher Education Institution, in
accordance with etudes in no op:63 piano etude method by Luis Streabbog. In contrast with this results, it has
been seen that target behaviors –which performing portato and using pedal- are not compatible etudes in no
op:63 piano etude method by Luis Streabbog.
Key Words: Luis Streabbog, Etude, Piano Education, Piano Technique.
INTRODUCTION
“Piano is regarded as the most universal and essential instrument with respect to playing, listening to and
singing the music; appreciating the music, forming music knowledge as well as with respect to setting basis for
other music studies by music educators. Thus, piano education is an indispensible part of music education.”
(Buchanan, 1964:12). “Piano, without doubt, is the sole instrument with which polyphony in every type or
intensity could be obtained and which has completed its evolution. That is the feature that places piano in
educational and professional life of the music teacher with utmost supremacy. Once the essentials and relevant
training of this instrument have been planned accordingly at music teaching, it will also improve music
education in general.” (Kıvrak, 2003:210). A candidate music teacher who has been raised with an informed
and conscious piano education will have caught a serious opportunity in order to complement the basic skills
and knowledge that s/he acquired during his/her university education and to make use of these strengths in
his/her professional career. With great emphasis placed on piano at music education departments, educators
as well as students are required to involve themselves in this instrument meticulously.
“To raise music teachers of future as piano experts has been a widely acknowledged issue at music teaching
schools of Turkey. Piano classes are offered to all candidate music teachers at music teaching schools. Piano
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classes ensure candidate teachers to be equipped with basic piano skills that they will need at classes from
kindergarten to high school and that will also serve for their own music background.” (Kasap, 2004:160). One of
the most effective methods of acquiring advanced piano playing skills is to attain a certain technical capacity.
“Technical practices clean nerve tracks so that the transition of voluntary impulses from motor center (brain
cells) to playing organs would be quick and uninterrupted. Finger sensitivity should be sharpened and
strengthened. It is called the sensitivity of internal linkage organs like muscle, bond and bone. They provide
main stimulus which run the motor center.”(Çimen, 1994:28). Student receiving instrument training will get the
shape how s/he is advised technically. Every student is required to learn how to play an instrument by using an
efficient technique. For the piano education to be instructed effectively and efficiently, relevant technical
practices are supposed to done in a certain discipline regularly and accurately. Otherwise, playing an
instrument will not be a discipline and will turn into a technical challenge that student has to wrestle
with.”(Çilden, 2003:297).
Etudes are the most crucial materials to improve the technique in piano education. Etudes are the practices
that are introduced in every phase of piano education and a student has to study in order to get to a certain
technical level. “Etude is the mature practice pieces that allow the playing technique to be improved in an
expert level while it also attaches emphasis on musical quality.”(Say, 2005:556). “Etudes involve dynamics that
help technical and deciphering skills enhance and speed and sense of musicality improve. (Ercan, 1994:35).
“Etudes could be identified in two groups:
1. Etudes written to help students acquire basic piano attitudes like tones, measures, deciphering, basic
techniques, ornamenting styles and technical components (practices).
2. Etudes written to help students acquire advanced technique and musicality. (Karahan, 2004:4).
Repertory of etudes in music education departments are largely made up of those identified in the first group.
“Practicing etudes with training objectives has been proved beneficial in that etudes cover all challenges in
music in a systematic manner and to see the whole pictures inspires the player an opportunity of experience.”
(Pamir, t.y.:130). That is why the target behavior is to be set explicitly while studying etudes and this behavior is
to be studied in great detail. An etude played superficially with no emphasis on correct manners won’t bring
any good at all. “The student should bear in mind that an etude practice requires more rigor on fine details
rather than quantity” (Pamir, no date:131). Thus, piano lecturers are required to choose etudes catering for the
needs of the students, to be expert in the etude they are planning to introduce and to make sure the etudes
overlap with the level of their students. Scarce number of etude methods introduced at piano classes of music
teaching schools restricts the alternatives of etudes that the lecturers might offer their students. This study has
enabled lecturers to be familiar with a different beginner level etude method and to make use of it.
Objective
This study aimed at determining target behaviors of etudes in no op:63 piano etude method by Luis Streabbog,
which is rarely known and used in piano education, by using content analysis method as well as at investigating
to what extent they meet the piano curriculum objectives of second year of undergraduate programs set by
Higher Education Institution.
Significance
Considering the variety of the beginner level etude methods in piano education at music teaching schools, we
note that a limited number of etude methods are being benefited and alternatives are ignored. With regards to
this challenge, this study assumes great importance in that it enriches beginner level etude methods. Besides,
this study, no op:63 piano etude method by Luis Streabbog, is the first study investigating to what extent they
meet the piano curriculum objectives of second year of undergraduate programs set by Higher Education
Institution.
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METHOD
In this study, general survey model has been used to obtain data for purposes of setting the hypothetical
framework. Content analysis, one of qualitative survey methods, has been used to determine target behaviors
of 12 etudes in no op:63 piano etude method by Luis Streabbog. “In content analysis, similar data brought
together around certain concepts and themes are organized and interpreted in a manner that the users can
understand” (Şimşek H., Yıldırım A.,2000:162).
Universe and Sample
The universe of the study is the beginner level etude methods used in piano education while no op:63 piano
etude method by Luis Streabbog is the sample of the study.
Analysis of Data
The data has been obtained through coding, identifying themes and organizing and grouping the data
according to themes. The data has been presented in outcomes section under frequency distribution and
themes with codes.
FINDINGS
Outcomes of the analysis of no op:63 piano etude method by Luis Streabbog have been grouped in five
categories: musical dynamics, right-hand playing techniques, left-hand playing techniques, tonality-measure
number-speed terms and harmonic structure. Additionally, to what extent the data overlap with the piano
curriculum objectives of second year of undergraduate programs set by Higher Education Institution has been
demonstrated in another category.
Table 1: Descriptive Distribution of Target Behaviors of Musical Dynamics that No Op:63 Piano Etude Method
by Luis Streabbog involved
MUSICAL DYNAMICS
PURPOSE
PURPOSEFUL BEHAVIORS
ETUDES IN WHICH MUSICAL DYNAMICS
%
Piano
Mezzo-forte
Forte
1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12
3,9,10
1,2,5,7,10,11,12
83
25
58
Fortisimmo
Crescendo
De-crescendo
12
1,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,11
4,6,7,9,10
8
75
41
Diminuendo
Rallentanto
Puandorg
Accent
9
5,9
3,5,7,9,10
6,8,10,11
8
16
41
33
The outcomes demonstrate that 83% of piano, 25% of mezzo forte, 58% of forte, 8% of fortissimo and
diminuendo, 75% of crescendo, 41% of de-crescendo and puandorg, 16% of rallentanto and 33% of accent are
in use. In this case, it might be noted that the percentages of musical dynamics required to be introduced in
beginner level piano etudes are comparatively bigger.
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RIGHT-HAND PLAYING TECHNIQUES
Table 2: Descriptive Distribution of Target Behaviors of Right-Hand Playing Techniques that No Op:63 Piano
Etude Method by Luis Streabbog involved
ETUDES IN WHICH RIGHT-HAND
PURPOSE
%
PLAYING TECHNIQUES
Legato
Staccato
Bound Staccato
Syncope Ligature
Playing Trio Sound Chords
Melody Move In Overlapping Sounds
1,4,5,6,7,9,10,11,12
3,8,11
11
2,4,9,10
1,2,3,5,9,10,11
10
75
25
8
33
58
8
Legato Trio Parallels
Technique Of Octave
Technique Of Arpeggio
Figuring The Chords
Chromatic Movements
9
8
7
6
5
8
8
8
8
8
1 Octave Scales
Ornaments
Dual Or Trio Sound (Chord) Staccato
Playing Dual Sounds
Thumb Pass
1
4
3
3,4,9
1,6
8
8
8
25
16
The outcomes demonstrate that 75% of legato, 25% of staccato and playing dual sounds, 8% of bound staccato,
melody move in overlapping sounds, legato trio parallels, octave, arpeggio, figuring the chords, chromatic
movements, 1 octave scales, ornaments and dual or trio sound (chord) staccato, 33% of syncope ligature, 58%
of playing trio sound chords and 16% of thumb pass are in use. In this case, it might be noted that the
percentages of target behaviors required to be introduced in beginner level piano etudes for right hand are
comparatively bigger.
LEFT-HAND PLAYING TECHNIQUES
Table 3: Descriptive Distribution of Target Behaviors of Left-Hand Playing Techniques that No Op:63 Piano
Etude Method by Luis Streabbog involved
ETUDES IN WHICH LEFT-HAND PLAYING
PURPOSE
%
TECHNIQUES
Legato
Staccato
Legato Chord
Syncope Ligature
4,7,10
10,11
1
1,3,4,5,8,9,10,11
25
16
8
66
Playing Trio Chords
Playing Dual Sounds
Cross Transitions
Technique Of Octave
Technique Of Arpeggio
Figuring The Chords
1 Octave/ Scales In Interval In 5
Thumb Pass
1,5,8,9,10,11,12
3,5,8,9
6
9
2,4,7
3,8,11,12
1,2
1
58
33
8
8
25
33
16
8
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The outcomes demonstrate that 25% of legato and arpeggio, 16% of staccato and 1 octave/ scales in interval in
5, 8% of legato chord, cross transitions, octave and thumb pass, 66% of syncope ligature, 58% of playing trio
chords, 33% of playing dual sounds and figuring the chords are in use. In this case, it might be noted that the
percentages of target behaviors required to be introduced in beginner level piano etudes for right hand are
comparatively bigger.
TONALITY-MEASURE NUMBER-SPEED TERMS
Table 4: Descriptive Distribution of Target Behaviors of Tonality-Measure Number-Speed Terms that No Op:63
Piano Etude Method by Luis Streabbog involved
ETUDES IN WHICH TONALITY-MEASURE NUMBERPURPOSE
SPEED TERMS
%
C Major
G Major
F Major
A Minor
1,2,4,6,8,12
3,5,11
7,9
10
50
25
16
8
2/4
4/4
3/4
6/8
8,9,12
1,2,6,7,10,11
3,5
4
25
50
16
8
Allegro Vivace
Allegretto
Andante
Allegro
Adagio
Allegro Moderato
Allegro Grazioso
12
3,8,11
4,6,10
2
9
1,7
5
8
25
25
8
8
16
8
The outcomes demonstrate that 50% of C major, 25% of G major, 16% of F major and 8% of A minor are in use.
In this case, it might be noted that the outcome overlaps with the tones required to be introduced in beginner
level piano etudes.
The outcomes demonstrate that 25% of 2/4, 50% of 4/4, 16% of 3/4 and 8% of 6/8 are in use. In this case, it
might be noted that the outcome overlaps with the measure numbers required to be introduced in beginner
level piano etudes.
The outcomes demonstrate that 8% of Allegro vivace, , Allegro, Adagio and Allegro Grazioso, 25% of Andante
and Allegretto, 16% of Allegro moderato are in use. In this case, it might be noted that the outcome overlaps
with the speed terms required to be introduced in beginner level piano etudes.
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Table 5: Descriptive Distribution of Target Behaviors of Harmonic Structure that No Op:63 Piano Etude Method
by Luis Streabbog involved
PURPOSE
ETUDES IN WHICH HARMONİC STRUCTURE
%
st
1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12
10
12
12
2
100
8
8
8
8
nd
4,5,8,9,11
8,11
10
7
9
41
16
8
8
8
th
9,12
9,10
2,4,7,9,11
1,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12
7,8,9
7
7,10
16
16
41
91
25
8
16
HARMONIC STRUCTURE
1 Degree Major Chord
st
1 Degree Minor Chord
st
1 Degree Major Chord in 7
st
1 Degree Aug-4 Chord
nd
nd
rd
rd
rd
th
th
th
th
th
th
st
st
st
The outcomes demonstrate that 100% of 1 Degree Major Chord, 8% of 1 Degree Minor Chord, 1 Degree
st
nd
rd
rd
Major Chord in 7, 1 Degree Aug-4 Chord, 2 Degree Major Chord, 3 Degree Major Chord, 3 Degree Minor
rd
th
nd
th
Chord, 3 Degree Major Chord in 7 and 7 Degree Major Chord, 41% of 2 Degree Major Chord in 7 and 5
nd
th
th
th
Degree Major Chord, 16% of 2 Degree Minor Chord, 4 Degree Major Chord, 4 Degree Minor Chord and 7
th
th
Degree Major Chord in 7, 91% of 5 Degree Major Chord in 7 and 25% of 6 Degree Minor Chord are in use. In
this case, it might be noted that the outcome overlaps with the cadence structures (I-V or I-V7) required to be
introduced in beginner level piano etudes.
Table 6: Descriptive Distribution of Target Behaviors of Second Year of Undergraduate Programs Set by Higher
Education Institution that No Op:63 Piano Etude Method by Luis Streabbog involved
TARGET BEHAVIORS OF SECOND YEAR OF UNDERGRADUATE
PROGRAMS SET BY HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTION
ETUDES IN WHICH THESE TARGET
BEHAVIOURS
%
Performing Legato
Performing Staccato
Playing Scales
1,4,5,6,7,9,10,11,12
3,8,10,11
1,2,5
75
33
25
Playing Cadences
Musical Dynamics
Performing Portato
Using Pedal
1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12
1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12
-
100
100
-
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The outcomes demonstrate that 75% of legato, 33% of staccato, 25% playing the scales, 100% of playing
cadences and musical dynamics are in use while use of portato and pedal is never mentioned. In this case, it
might be noted that target behaviors of no op:63 piano etude method by Luis Streabbog overlap largely with
the target behaviors of second year of undergraduate programs set by Higher Education Institution.
CONCLUSION
It has been noted that no op:63 piano etude method by Luis Streabbog:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
largely involves musical dynamics (p,mf,f,cressendo,de-cressendo) required to be introduced in beginner
level piano etudes,
largely involves right-hand playing techniques (legato, staccato, syncope ligature, legato playing of trio
parallels, string, thumb pass, octave technique, arpeggio technique, playing dual or trio sounds, figuration)
required to be introduced in beginner level piano etudes,
largely involves left-hand playing techniques (legato, staccato, syncope ligature, legato playing of trio
parallels, string, thumb pass, octave technique, arpeggio technique, playing dual or trio sounds, figuration,
cross transition) required to be introduced in beginner level piano etudes,
largely involves tonality, measure number and speed terms (1 accidental major tones, non-accidental
minor tones, measures with simple times, speed terms between andante and allegro vivace) required to
be introduced in beginner level piano etudes,
largely involves harmonic movements and cadences (I-V or I-V7) required to be introduced in beginner
level piano etudes,
largely involves all target behaviors of second year of undergraduate programs set by Higher Education
Institution except for “portato and pedal technique”.
All in all, this study has demonstrated that no op:63 piano etude method by Luis Streabbog could replace the
limited number of piano etude course books followed at second year of music teaching departments or be
used as a supplementary material to these course books in accordance with the piano course content and
objectives set by Higher Education Institution.
th
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADRESS OF AUTHOR
YÜKSEL PİRGON, currently employed as an assistant professor at Süleyman Demirel
University, Faculty of Fine Arts, Department of Music. She received Phd degree in Institute
of Education Sciences at Selçuk Universty. She is interested in music education and new
approach to piano education.
Assist. Prof. Dr. Yüksel PİRGON
Süleyman Demirel University
Faculty of Fine Arts, Department of Music,
Isparta- TURKEY
Tel: 0246.2113559
Fax: 0246.2113551
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REFERENCES
Buchanan, G. (1964). Skills of piano performance in the preparation of music educators. Journal of Research in
Music Education. 134-138.
Çilden, Ş. (2003). Çalgı eğitiminde nitelik sorunları. Cumhuriyetimizin 80. Yılında Müzik Sempozyumu Bildiriler
Kitabı. (297-302).
Çimen, G. (1994). Piyano eğitiminde bireysel çalışma süreci. Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, Musiki Muallim
Mektebi’nin Kuruluşunun 70. Yılı Özel Sayısı. 137-142.
Ercan, N. (1994). Piyano eğitiminde etüt çalışmaları ve alıştırmalar. Orkestra Dergisi. Temmuz Sayısı. 34-39.
Karahan, A. (2004). Türkiye’de müzik öğretmeni yetiştiren kurumların piyano öğretimi sürecinde kullanılan
Klasik Batı Müziği piyano etütlerinin öğrencileri Çağdaş Türk Müziği piyano eserlerini çalmaya hazırlama
durumu. Yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. Gazi üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü. Ankara.
Kasap, T. B. (2004). Müzik öğretmeni yetiştiren kurumlardaki yardımcı çalgı piyano dersleri üzerine bir
araştırma. 1924-2004 Musiki Muallim Mektebinden Günümüze Müzik Öğretmeni Yetiştirme Sempozyumu
Bildiriler Kitabı. (160-165).
Kıvrak, N. İ. (2003). Müzik öğretmeni yetiştirmede piyano eğitimi. Cumhuriyetimizin 80. Yılında Müzik
Sempozyumu Bildiriler Kitabı. (209-211).
Pamir, L. (no date). Çağdaş piyano eğitimi. İstanbul: Beyaz Köşk(Müzik Sarayı) Yayınları.
Say, A. (2005). Müzik ansiklopedisi. Etüt (Cilt:1, s.506) . Ankara: Müzik Ansiklopedisi Yayınları.
Şimşek, H. ve Yıldırım, A. (2000). Sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri. Ankara: Seçkin Yayıncılık.
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THE OPINIONS OF THE ACADEMICIONS REGARDING TO PIANO EDUCATION
Research Assist. İzzet YÜCETOKER
Niğde University College of Education
Department of Fine Arts
Music Education Department
Niğde,TURKEY
Assist. Prof. Dr. Özer KUTLUK
Faculty of Fine Arts, Depertment of Music
Konya, TURKEY
ABSTRACT
Piano education, an instrument recognized all over the world, and music education departments compulsory
education is taught in this course. Because a student of piano education polyphony grip, sight-reading skills
development, training to run the hearing, harmony is considered as an opportunity for improvement in many
areas of work, and so on.
This research studied piano lesson music education department faculty members who have experience in
solving problems and is thought to be important in terms of minimizing the problems. Selcuk University Faculty
of Education the current state of music education in the department of piano education is being given?
sentence of the problem have been developed with the support of movement of the problems that emerged
from the study. This research is a descriptive model of the research is carried out using literature review and
interviews. Given the qualitative approach is used to collect the data Selcuk University, working in the music
section was collected through interviews with six faculty member. The data obtained were analyzed and coded
using content analysis method. Thus, the case should have been identified and have been identified existing
condition. Consistency and contradictions between the existing and the case should be determined and agreed
specific results, including some suggestions for the elimination of situations that are missing.
Key Words: Music, Music Education, Piano Education.
INTRODUCTION
Piano education, musical education refers to one of the lower branches. Piano teaching, practical and
theoretical aspects of the whole. In order to achieve the current level of learning and teaching in the lessons,
practice and theoretical fields at the same time support each other as needed (Kahramansoy, 2006:13).
Piano education, instrument training all around the world considered to be accepted. In our country, piano
instruction, fine arts schools, music, fine arts departments, public and private conservatories, universities,
faculties of education on the part of the fine arts, music teacher education departments, carried out through
private lessons and music classrooms.
Piano education, reasons for use of the above-mentioned institutions are mandatory. These reasons include:
(Kutluk, 1996: 4).
1. A person playing the piano voices in one-grip, sight reading, musical hearing, harmony, form, music is very
important areas in terms of development, such as the ability to find information.
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2.
Piano solo instrument as well as a self-contained, accompanied by the sounds of other instruments, or
used to make people have a companion educational musical instrument increases the importance of
teaching.
Piano, music education is taught as a compulsory subject departments and institutions in the definition of
piano education course "Piano education and training program forms the basis of a music teacher." As the
pass. (Bradley, 2004). Piano music teacher education institutions are grown is located under the instrument
training. Studied piano in educational programs since 1988, first as a 1, 2, and 3 took part in two hours of
classes per week. However, since 2006, 4 class also been studied piano and programmed as 1 hour per week.
These piano training institutions form the basis of teaching in music.
Piano, music education: Audio line width, due to the consistency of sound due to the hard walls can easily
benefit from, ear training, development of a sense of very loud, rich literature, comfortable, able to accompany
the ability of the student enjoyed the training facility has been due to the provision of the most preferred
instrument. (Yönetken, 1996: p.69).
For these reasons, piano, musical instrument consisting of education is an important area, accompanied by the
school's music can be made available for comfortable and convenient carrying and the ability to be regarded as
the most suitable instrument.
Piano, music educators have an important role in educating. Music educators raising the basic functions are:
- Basic music knowledge and skills,
- Students apply the solo instruments an accompaniment,
- Student choirs build infrastructure,
- Type of music, literature, varieties, forms to inform,
- Acquire the habit of listening to music (Özen, 1998: 29).
There are techniques that are essential in teaching piano. These are the most basic techniques used by an
instructor teaching piano: piano movements and weight control, overall body posture and hand position,
practical, acquisition and touch tone, tempo, metronome, rhythm, dynamics, articulation, pedal using a
number of techniques, chord, and arpeggios (Agay, 1981: 11 -19).
Learning the piano is basically a very complex and multifaceted process. Piano teaching, the mind, the body,
vision, hearing, reading notes, detection and so on. Such actions are intertwined.
Piano is very important to start training. Piano music departments of the faculties of education adult education.
The first thing needed here is an "adult" is not a word to better understand and implement appropriate
training. Children's education is more difficult than training the most important factor for the training of adult
piano "patience" is. For the successful achievement of the purpose of piano education student’s love this job,
playing the piano lesson at the request must come.
Piano teachers in adult education, have to keep in mind that many psychological factors. Some adults playing
the piano and the piano are often difficult for people who are motivated and behaviors often exhibit a negative
idea. Musical education in piano skills often works in the background and may not want to throw. Therefore,
teachers must ensure that their experience success in giving psychological support to use. If you cannot provide
this success will not reach the target to be studied piano (Agay, 1981: 253).
Adult education is important, the teacher approach. Educators who want to learn the piano at an early age is
very eager to write, but psycho - motor development may be encountered with the student model is not
suitable to play the piano. Faced with this model piano educator, student, piano and musical terms may be
insufficient to transfer. However, the following should be noted that the teacher, the student's resolve to wish
the need to find appropriate teaching techniques, students should approach exhibiting positive behavior. Adult
students have a tendency to ask a lot of questions because of their age piano or music education. Teacher, do
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them answerable, both physically and psychologically ready to participate in the course as Occurrence
(Newman, 1984: 25).
Leisure time than ever for a lot of people would like to piano lessons. Do not run with the nature of these
people, a professional student of music education, music students will gain general be given behavior.
Therefore, a music teacher, both general and special, as well as professional a person must have the capacity to
provide training.
Initially, adult piano students in general, are not developed in terms of rapidity finger. Also more limited
capabilities than children. In terms of detection of vision, hearing and reading is faster than the forces of adult
education, the learning styles of piano, giving more weight foreseen (Bastien, 1973: 13 -14).
Problem Statement
Piano, music teacher departments are seen as the main instrument. Students as teachers of music sound, ear
and body to control and develop education. So the piano, can meet all of these developments due to be
regarded as the most important professional instrument.
"In this context, training in the fine arts faculty of education on the part of the piano music teacher candidates
studying at the department of music teacher education is important to use the acquired knowledge and skills in
accordance with the requirements of a music teacher" (Yılmaz, 2005: 8).
Music teacher education department of fine arts faculty of education departments on the 1996 - 1997
academic years, the program was administered from the public. According to this program, six were given
piano instruction period. Accordingly 4 There were piano lessons in the classroom. However, the period since
2006, studied piano and removed 7, 8 period programmed as the piano and teaching. Thus, the music
department students are provided the opportunity to receive training in piano for 4 years.
Use students' future professional lives studying music department is the main instrument, the piano, and
solving the existing problems students face in terms of minimizing the importance of this research.
Selcuk University, Faculty of Education, Department of Fine Arts, and Department of Music Education is given
the current state of education in the piano?
This problem required the teaching of sentence on the basis of expert opinions on the piano faculty members
were asked to fill in the interview. Determining the level of students in this forum, the adequacy of hours of
piano lessons, piano room, and the adequacy of working conditions, extra-curricular activities and productive
piano lessons piano skills to the solution of what is discussed.
Importance of Research
This research, Selcuk University, Faculty of Education, Department of Fine Arts, Department of Music Education
studied piano at the Music Education Department at 1, 2 and 3 grade students to determine the factors that
affect positively or negatively the achievements piano education, work environments and quality pianos status,
the relationship between the instructor and students, is intended to determine the status of students' attitudes
towards and motivation.
Selcuk University, Department of Music students in this research and the teaching staff to reveal his
understanding of problems and solutions for these problems are important.
METHOD
This research is a descriptive research, literature review and interviews carried out using the model. Collecting
the data given in the qualitative approach. Qualitative data were collected through interviews with faculty
members working in the institution. Interview data was analyzed and coded using content analysis method.
Thus, the situation has been found to be identified and existing condition. Consistency and contradictions
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9
between the states which have to be determined, suggestions have been made for the elimination of situations
that are missing.
The data required for this research, collection of resources on this topic and piano instructors are analyzed and
applied to the coding of the answers given were obtained by interview. Literature review, research and
institutional basis to determine the basic facts on which to base monitored as a technique applied to create.
Interview form, designed for the working group, and an example of an open-ended question, an example of
closed-ended questions, descriptive questions and hypothetical questions sample consisted of sample types.
Interview, the purpose and duration of this study, Selcuk University Faculty of Education at the Department of
Fine Arts faculty members who served six piano lessons were applied in order to obtain the necessary data in
order to determine their views. Piano teaching piano education faculty members prepared for the meeting a
positive or negative effect on students' achievement to get their views on the fundamental factors applied.
RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION
1 - The criteria applied to determine the level of student for strategies
Code: Level to determine the significance (6), Readiness (6), to determine technical errors (6), literature study
(6), missing training (4), the trial and error method (4). Working methods (3), physical fitness (1), and ear
training (1).
A faculty member teaching staff participated in the research, stressed that determines the level of students
started studying the piano. In determining the level of the students received training in how many years the
student to ask, if you have already been playing a work by listening to him, seeing the shortcomings, if there is
no dearth to continue to provide the student where the level. If students have come straight from high school,
and if there is no readiness basic techniques are expected to start studying the piano.
B faculty members participated in the study, teaching staff, and students stressed the need to determine the
level do. To determine the student's level of listening to it if you have already been playing a piece. Pre-piano
training took part of several attempts by the students try to determine the level.
C faculty members participated in the study, teaching staff, students determine levels. In order to determine
the student's level determines whether the student previously studied piano. Students do not have any music
education at judging whether there is a problem physically before, then on the ear training is working. Prepiano education students by examining the work that they have done before, and to what level the playing
pieces that have previously entered the exam notes, learn piano. After this operation, a piece of playing piano
student wants to work with him again. Has been playing in student work from start to finish after listening
carefully and working to determine the technical errors trying to reach a judgment about the student's
musicality. Piano student across the physical posture, arm weight, balance and comfort of a good measure to
determine the level of the students stressed. How to decipher a small work pieces, giving the student the
student acquires insight as to the method.
D faculty members participated in the study, teaching staff, student determines the level. Worked in the last
year to determine the level that the student wants a list of the works and the surveys. The behavior of many
technical studies and a host in the list by selecting a work of baroque wants to prepare for the next class.
Baroque works or studies that are available do not meet the required criteria listed in the list of studies and
works on the basis of estimated level selects for. Was chosen to study and without interfering in any way in the
preparation phase of the work the student did not make or what are you trying to understand what they had
seen. After these stages, the instructor determines the level of the student to understand the accumulation of
literally advocating for one month trial period.
E faculty members participated in the study, teaching staff, students stressed that determines the level. In
order to determine the level of works executed before the student asks what it is. After listening to the work
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that the student had worked previously worked close to the level of the work requires the operation of a study.
After hearing given to the study of the technical behavior gained so far, the program determines by ready.
F faculty members participated in the study, teaching staff, and students started studying the piano at the level
of sets. The evidence given by a number of studies of the first 30 in line with the student's study by Czerny. The
aim of study which did not play stealing, but to what extents have the technical behavior, whether it is
expressed in these behaviors settled how to sit. If you are a student at a particular level piano album continues
to observe the behavior of single-page technical easy parts. After determination of the level sets a specific
curriculum in this direction. Operating in accordance with the level where level is a good level of work of the
students would like to repeat. This kind of group of students while at the Sonata direct support to the works of
Schumann, or is Mendelsohn.
2 - Piano lesson hours per week on the strategies
Code: Student absences (6), the adequacy of class hours (6), lack of teaching staff (6), the control difficulty (6),
careful study (6), lack of time (5), to establish the discipline (5), the conscious study (5 ), the number of
instrument failure (4), psychological factors (4), the development process misbehavior (4).
A faculty members participated in the study noted that piano lessons 1 hour per week are not enough. A piano
is a very special instrument, indicating that the students are not at home and around the piano playing panicky
fear of failure works has stated that it has found. It started as a lecturer for 3 hours by the piano education
should be reduced to two hours later. Thus, be given better advocates of basic techniques.
B faculty members participated in the study said that piano lessons 1 hour per week are not enough. This is
because when there are 1 hour per week course that makes a student absent more than a week, the student
teacher is a two-week-seen, is of the opinion that impede the development process so that the instructor of
the course to be two hours a week, it will contribute a discipline of the highlights for the student.
C faculty members participated in the study, at least two hours of piano lessons should be said that the
standard for the students. 40 minutes per week that the student is a very poor standard due to lack of teaching
staff in dealing with difficult students emphasized that in 40 minutes 2. The initiation of the initial two-hour
piano lessons, piano work habits once you understand the method and the one-hour piano lessons can be said
enough.
D faculty members participated in the study stated that there is insufficient time of piano lessons. Conscious
work habits was unable to obtain follow-up piano lessons students have one hour per week, submitted that she
was extremely poor in terms of monitoring. The student has made 1 week absent, the interval between the
two piano lessons to 15 days from their students on their own terms, thus causing loss of control over stressed.
As a result of this absence of a long time in front of the student so that other piano lesson given by the comfort
of knowing what to defer its work until the last moment was unable to yield a psychology courses are taken in
and in doing so stated. This piano lessons two hours a week should be based on the instructor.
E faculty members participated in the study, each lesson piano lesson to a student's regular employees by
making careful and meticulous study may be sufficient in the case argued that the first time. However, the
opinion in this case, this can be a standard way of teaching staff, plus the number of hours students having
more control over the rapid progress in a short time, the opinion may be.
F faculty members participated in the study, the number of students with an excess of one hour piano lessons
be argued that a good result in terms of the student. Previous studied piano with 2 hours of curriculum, the
students twice a week is better in terms of monitoring the state of development at the same time emphasized.
Current training is given as a 1-hour program, the student 15 days due to absenteeism, thus stated that
hampered the development of the piano.
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3 - Number of piano, piano skills, and working rooms of the department mentioned on strategies
Code: Operation lack of maintenance of rooms (6), the room temperature failure (6), students' reluctance to
work (6), Work opportunities restriction (6), lack of maintenance of pianos (6), psychological factors (5), the
lack of working hours (5), Piano An insufficient number of (4) Motivation (3) Awareness (2).
A faculty members participated in the study, the school does not find sufficient number of piano. Student work
as much as possible in terms of the number of piano could be better said. Thus, finding plenty of opportunity to
study stated that they could ready for class. A maintenance-free, indicating that the rooms, especially the work
of providing efficient cleaning of the room temperature and the room was likely.
B faculty members participated in the study, of the opinion that sufficient number of piano. Understanding of
the student who wants to work can find every opportunity to work defending B, piano room care, the piano is
more important than the number of the working environment in terms of psychology emphasized the
importance of students.
C faculty members participated in the study, the number of school piano sufficient. Besides the idea that the
piano is more than enough to contribute a fastness stated that work. Piano is adequate but the number of
hours of work that lasts until late than C, working hours 20:30 until 17:00 in the evening but stressed the need
to continue. C, which is of the opinion that the appropriate qualifications pianos, piano student clean, accurate,
to the suggestion does not use, so use pianos stated life. To do this, to educate students how to comprehend
emphasized the need for students to be used.
D faculty members participated in the study, work, or play the piano, the action of the mind is a process which
is entirely possible participation, so it is no factor in the study was conducted in the absence of the students
emphasized the need for a negative stimulus. D finds insufficient number of piano, a piano out of tune and
broken keys, dirty, cold and room acoustics distorted study indicated that negatively affects the student's
motivation.
E faculty members participated in the study, the number of school piano sufficient. However, the general
condition of the school stated that the negative effects of students' work in terms of cleaning and
maintenance.
F surveyed faculty members at the school, but the number of people falling piano, finding sufficient number of
hours of work argues that there should be more. The current situation is provided to each student the
opportunity to work 4 hours a week said F, more than you need to work late or very early hours of the students
at the school who can make the work of the opinion states. Operating rooms, maintenance, cleaning, heat,
insulation, lighting, maintenance of pianos in addition to this, the key is very important in terms of regulation
and tuning regularity of the opinion that the student. So taking cares of the room, temperature, and defends
the idea that cleanliness is of paramount importance.
4 - The strategies related to extracurricular activities
Code: Time constraints (6), activity limitation (6), Student reluctance (6), the excess burden of course (4),
repeating-based studies (4), the intensity of academic study (4), the general cultural studies (2).
A faculty members participated in the study, the institution cannot charge for his work to help students outside
of class. Students do not have time to do extracurricular activities, and plenty of opportunities to go to concerts
by the students to listen to cd recommends. When students work as long as the student works in the piano
class composers are given information about the facts and general culture.
B faculty members participated in the study stated that outside of class time to help students. Works, or to ask
for something other than playing your lessons to help the students indicating that B, it cannot do any other
activity emphasized.
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C faculty members participated in the study, emphasized that help students outside of class. C, especially the
coordination remains weak students have to do repetitive work. These studies, except for four-hand works
with students working in C, not concert this work because it is not stressed. Piano concert programs to help
students who do not fight for a particular instrument, due to their seeing the concert emphasized that they do
not want to do.
D faculty members participated in the study, said that the course load and been unable to help due to the
extent desired. Standard on the course the student is interested in and runs in to help the students stated
withhold.
E faculty members participated in the study, because it is the period of the thesis stated that students could
not allocate the time required outside of class. Y indicates that a lot of extracurricular activities, most of the
time the students back to playing your work, stressed that running.
F faculty members participated in the study, except of course a kind of cannot resolve, or coordination of
places from which to help students stated that passages. Course breaks, all the students in the evening a little
help with their student or the F, apart from these, harmony, orchestration, or help students emphasized that
the issues of popular music.
5 - With the expectations of the lecturers on the course, the student’s strategies piano
Code: Piano lesson liking (6), the bidder study (6), adequate study (6), course attendance (6), Readiness (6),
Occupational aggregation (6), the correct method (4), Education behaviors (4) , Knowledge transfer (4), a sense
of responsibility (4), researchers and people carrier (3), Piano culture (2), polyphonic music, love (2),
Surveyed faculty members, students waiting for work and willing to love piano lesson. Due to a lot of problems
at the application states that the students want to work more.
B faculty members participated in the study; students come to class prepared to continuously and, expect to
pay attention to the warnings. Stressing the importance of continuity in class B, the work requires the right
method.
C surveyed faculty members, students, stolen works of students of the future teacher to share his life, waiting
for them to be a good companion and a good instructor. Piano students who want to be in the future educator
who wants to be a good educational C, piano understanding of the culture and literature, music, culture,
improve their pending. Very loud music to love and wants to make this work with pleasure.
D faculty members participated in the study, playing the piano, and his musical understanding how important it
is waiting for gaining professional knowledge. Then the next steps for the student understand it will not be very
difficult emphasizing D successfully completing this work has emphasized hard work. D of the expectations,
piano music lessons other easily transfer their savings gained everything, teacher, researcher and waiting to be
argumentative, regular work habits and gain conscious, they have learned a work, without the need to tell the
teacher transfer works and can keep trying to work the works of other composers of the period, and is to have
an idea about.
E faculty members participated in the study, the students' regular working class ready and waiting for them to
come. However, looking to the work of the previous lesson to the notes E, to be responsible for the students to
other classes, piano believes that this responsibility.
F surveyed faculty members, students waiting for enough work the first time. Certain level students who want
to work and good work to read the correct note F, the better to master level students in the music and the
work of a good part of the so-called phenomenon indicated that it wishes to contemplate.
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6 - Piano concerts strategies for
Code: Concert deficiency (6), the scarcity of concerts in Section (6), student failure (5), Lecture program
intensity (4), the lack of potential (4), Negligence (2).
A faculty members participated in the study noted that the school the student attended piano recitals. The
reason for this is not the best student grown, so has not emphasized a concert.
B faculty members participated in the study noted that the school the student attended piano recitals. Best
student section showed their concerts, piano recitals stressed that the success of individual students.
C faculty members participated in the study, student participation in school concerts of piano is not stated.
Indicate the reason for this is the pace of the work required of the student, he was very busy because of the
curriculum that emphasized the concerts could not allocate an extra working time.
D faculty members participated in the study, preparing students for the last two years, but the last two years
until the end of year concerts for piano and academic studies of their own to take the time noted that this issue
had neglected.
Faculty members participated in the study; from the moment the concert activities not conducted a concert at
the potential of a student does not comply with the stated reason for this.
F faculty members participated in the study, concerts, events you want to edit, but it stated that. F indicates
that the cause of intensive program, students also emphasized that working more for the concert.
7 - Efficient strategies mentioned on a piano lesson
Code: Student quality (6), Concert editing (6), the understanding of the discipline (6), basic music education (5),
Fast decipher (5), the placement (5), to determine criteria (5), decisions of the Council (4) , the intensity of the
program (4), the excess burden of course (4), the common point of view (4), Orientation (4) Operating hours
(4), Individual lessons (3), Music culture (2), technological tools (1).
Faculty members participated in the survey, more efficient, better to take a piano lesson, student’s basic music
education, waiting for them to decipher the works faster than the effort. Spending time with a certain equality
of the piano literature lecturers Hashes, recommends them to take decisions in order to overcome the
shortcomings of making meetings.
B faculty members participated in the study, chapter sends students a wide variety of fine arts high school
level, a level not be achieved correctly stated that due to the arrival of students. Use and abuse of students
who think that this situation B, the level of the fine arts high schools students except by properly considering
the problem will continue. B, section input ability tests required to be kept piano, so that stressed a certain
level can be kept.
C faculty members participated in the study believes that the courses would help in eliminating defects in the
making of a single person. Piano aptitude test to determine the level programs and want to make the
rearrangement of C, as well as piano lessons with Anatolian Fine Arts High School has emphasized the need to
be more qualified. Concerts or recordings to DVD with period features and stolen works of students would like
to investigate.
D faculty members participated in the study emphasized the need for reducing the burden of the course of the
teaching staff as a priority. Processing of a common perspective of the lecturers of the course, taking into
account lessons should be determined according to the criteria that the public says. To encourage students to
spend more time in school, says D is a factor to increase the success of teaching staff, aims to increase
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students' self-confidence in front of them and transpose them say that will make you happy. This requires
regular intervals during the organization of concerts.
E faculty members participated in the survey, more efficient teaching staff absences for a piano lesson
retention schedule are self-discipline, and the students emphasized the classes regularly so that they can be
kept in this table. Expectations for the course until the time of the students come to class regularly given them
to do the work proposed.
F faculty members participated in the study, for all classes of more specific levels, creating a specific program,
starting with the piano, it would be possible to think that by encouraging students to work harder. For this to
be more than the number of piano, require more hours of work to be emphasized those improvements. Other
than that, from time to time review of teaching methods and techniques of teaching staff requesting F, is how
to decipher the student from time to time, to give seminars on topics such as How to assess a piano requires
working hours.
8 - Imperfections cleared on the working efficiency of the strategies
Code: Operation deficiency (6), working conditions (6), the efficiency of working hours (5), a sense of
responsibility (5), Success and development (4) Motivation (3).
A faculty members participated in the study, believes that the negative impact success. This assumes that you
can add up to success in the negative is resolved.
B faculty members participated in the study will not change the student's success in case of failure to work
more stressed. So I said drawbacks can be solved by working students.
C faculty members participated in the study, highlighting the importance of working hours the student wants to
use it efficiently working hours. C may be individual differences among students who stressed the importance
of keeping students' motivation and desire to survive. Piano teacher, coach, student, such as C, which is
thought to be a student of the opinion presenting a very good recognition and working conditions.
D faculty members participated in the study, on the elimination of all negative believes that success. To what
extent increases student motivation, success, will he or she considers degree.
E faculty members participated in the study, believes that could change the negative is removed. E indicates
the first step is the responsibility of the student, the student's work considers catch line success.
F faculty members participated in the study, in which case the hold be found only necessary to be emphasized
that the student's work. However, decrease in the number of students said that working in the event of
removal of the negative. Improving conditions for the student to be interested in playing the piano and say it
will take pleasure chanter, F, in this case, can be seen a considerable increase in the number of students eager
to believe that works.
9 - Piano lesson about the criteria used to determine the grade of the strategies
Code: Number of Author (6), regular work (6), absenteeism schedule (6), the right work equipment (5), basic
techniques (5), Readiness (5), musicality (4), Road to fold (3), Author of period features (3).
Faculty members participated in the study, the behavior of students in the next grade in determining the
correct techniques for assessing the work. A success-minded behavior affects the student's course more,
coming to the class to come up with methods to use such forms of behavior that the said criteria.
B surveyed faculty members, students, not counting towards determining the right notes, study techniques,
and moral articulations, finger numbers, such as making a nice nuance is important criteria. Students in these
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criteria with the number of tracks played during the period B, student attendance, take into consideration
factors such as coming to class prepared. B, and notes before the exam is to remind students of these criteria.
C faculty members participated in the study, determining the classes regularly and trying to come up exam
grade students a lesson, correcting previous errors come up, and have passed successfully through the period
of the road to be taken seriously. In addition, posture, tempo, rhythm, sound, bonding and so on. That there
are basic techniques, such as the C is wrong, students self-confidence, I cannot recommend suspicion.
D faculty members participated in the study, mid-term and final exams determine the criteria stated
separately. X visa, sitting exams, hand and body position, he played in the work of technical behavior, tempo,
period features and musicality absorb how they feel, the integrity of the work and not doing work during the
period features such as regular use as a benchmark. D, while the final exam, midterm exam criteria used in the
next class attendance, and nuance in pieces, and pays attention to the properties, introducing adopt.
E faculty members participated in the study, primarily in determining the semester grade students in the
behavior of the expected acquisition and application of basic technical work pending. Who care about the
integrity of the work, however, from the character of the work piece and the tempo indicated that the
appropriate play importance.
F faculty members participated in the study, the student's work to understand the criteria before performing
continuity or integrity in the musical, said that the main emphasis on the technical and musical acts. Unit beats
the feeling, such as playing the right note and weighing emphasis on the basic techniques of F, the continuation
of the student and how this instrument lays said that the time allocated between the criteria.
10 - The strategies related to the courses of the teaching staff
Code: Lecturer excess (5), the excess burden of course (4), Academic studies (4), social life (2), Technological
classes (1).
A faculty members participated in the study, due to the performance of 20 hours per week did not prevent the
burden. A course load that is too heavy for other teaching staff, experts in the field of elements should be
emphasized that the piano.
B faculty members participated in the study noted that affected the performance due to the 20 hours per week
program. Due to impair the performance brought a suggestion.
C faculty members participated in the study, the course certainly affects the performance of load states. C
which experts in the field to take piano instructor, as well as classes in technology have made the course
requires headphones.
D faculty members participated in the research, teaching load is affected due to the stated performance. D is a
reasonable course load to land a number of new faculty members that it would be the only solution is taking.
Faculty members participated in the study, from 32 hours per week, and the performance of the burden has
fallen excessively stated. Both complain about his lack of academic study as well as the time course load, but
the E, the instructor recommends the adoption.
F faculty members participated in the study, the performance of every aspect of the weekly course load falls
stated that due to fatigue is brought. When the intensity of the students in the week, friends and social life of
the business reflects the F, recommends the adoption of new teaching staff.
11 - Piano lessons on school songs to accompany and decipher the strategies to increase of the power
Code: Fast decipher (6), basic techniques (6), practicality of winning (6), the accumulation of Harmony (5),
Willingness (5), Easy playback studies (4), the usability profession (4), kinesthetic skills (4),
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A faculty members participated in the study, believes that improved skills accompanied by piano lessons.
Accompanied by surveys indicating that the ability to help Easy A, at the end of the course must have done the
work to decipher, contributed to the ability of these studies indicated that accompany.
B faculty members participated in the study, accompanied by piano students who do well in the education of
the opinion that a good proportion. However, the accompanying course, not with studied piano, harmony
knowledge regarding the extent of saying the same B, the students emphasized that it is unable to merge the
two areas.
C faculty members participated in the study, accompanied by piano lessons and a good Transcripts affect the
ability to provide the convenience of the school considers parts. Intelligence theory and practical application of
the student should be the best C, associated consumables highlights the fact that making a lot of importance in
teaching.
D faculty members participated in the study believes that improves the ability of the piano accompanied by
education. D needs to be done to develop this skill are primarily expressed as:
Simple forms of school songs, a good way to understand the level of knowledge and sight, part traffic, increase
the power of the harmonic structures to predict, and therefore increase the speed to decipher. Harmonic
structure of the piece to be equipped to easily understand and apply the rate increase to decipher. Piano
lessons learned technical savings, ease of parts will make a feint, and therefore increase the speed to decipher.
E faculty members participated in the study, accompanied by piano and an ability believed that the power of
education to decipher. E, primarily in gaining the necessary psychomotor skills, speed reading notes, which is a
central element to the piano for two-hand coordination skills gained accompanied think. However, knowledge
of theory and harmony will contribute to the ability to accompany said.
F faculty members participated in the study, piano lesson, the student must decipher the strength of said
increase. Czerny etudes or Sonata stole example and, of course, it is possible to learn to work in harmony and
accompaniment styles that says F, or curiosity, or an observation of the students in this direction cannot be
said that it's possible. In addition, to increase the weekly course hours demanding course is accompanied by
piano, F, piano education they have received the opportunity to apply can be found via this course discusses
the basic techniques.
12 - Student success strategies listed on the core issues that adversely effect of the status
Code: Playing the insufficiency of the conditions (6), the lack of class hours (6), Indifference (6), Level detection
(5), lack of motivation (5), Capability limitation (4), Perception limitation (4) , the excess burden of course (4),
the understanding of the discipline (4), an excess of tolerance (3), Dialog (1).
A faculty members participated in the study noted that all the negativity from not only the student
performance.
B faculty members participated in the study, the main problems that adversely affect the status of success at
work, the ability to be more tolerance and perception of the teaching staff and the lists limitations.
C faculty members participated in the study, the key issues that adversely affect the status of success; AGSL
levels of students coming from not knowing what exactly the students' reluctance, do not want to slog, the
physical structure of the school, have a lot of concerts, don'ts, and the lists.
D faculty members participated in the study, the key issues that adversely affect the status of success, working
conditions, failure, piano shortages, course hours to 1 hour per week, lack of motivation, and the ranks of the
teaching staff to be more course load.
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E faculty members participated in the study, the key issues that adversely affect achievement, piano lesson
student discipline is reflected in other courses, the physical conditions, lack of teaching staff and student lists as
the absence of work habits.
F faculty members participated in the study, the key issues that adversely affect the status of success;
education course element in the dialogue between students, faculty member state, and the movement is very
important, especially attitudes, inadequate number of teaching staff, the methods.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
In this section, which is defined in the previous section, depending on the findings and interpretations
developed in line with the results obtained and the results obtained are given suggestions.
Selcuk University, Faculty of Education, Department of Fine Arts, Department of Music Education Piano
education teaching staff was interviewed. Piano positive education - in order to determine the adverse effects
of this research, music education, evaluation of the piano lessons, piano, and after that to bring innovations in
education are thought to be important in terms of shedding light on the future studies.
According to the opinions of the teaching staff, the piano faculty members, largely determines the level of
students started studying the piano. Determining the level of the student, piano lessons show was a productive
start.
Piano lesson is one hour a week, it was not sufficient for the acquisition of knowledge and skills required for
the course.
While piano lessons program faculty, student comments were largely taken into account. Develop students'
motivation to take the opinion.
Piano evaluation criteria used to determine the student's course grade, indicating that very little information.
The organization does not meet the identified needs in terms of quality and quantity pianos.
Lack of piano study rooms in the institution qualifies negatively affect student motivation.
Extra-curricular education of students in piano teaching staff during the "very low" benefit has been
determined. Agreement between a piano lesson instructor and student success factors "totally" are affected.
Concerts of piano section were found to be very little. Even if a lot can be said that student participation piano
music.
Piano lessons about the works studied in research, carried out partly to take account of period features.
Looking at the results of this study, the piano lessons piano education criteria given in music education, is
understood not reach the desired level.
According to the opinions of the teaching staff in general education in piano is inferred to have a negative
nature. This is the necessity and importance of music education as a teacher to determine the necessity of
piano lessons. In parallel, the piano re-determined training program, developed new approaches to teaching
and improved student developing positive attitudes towards negative attitudes.
Piano lessons are a very important factor in student motivation. New approaches to raising student motivation
instructors teaching the piano, hands-on course, the student and the student's attention then collect. In this
case, we also may increase the level of student achievement.
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Due to the large piano lessons with students one-on-one lecturers in question. Due to the scarcity of spare
hours of lessons observed teaching staff in the institution. Therefore, a sufficient number of institutions on the
piano faculty members thought that this problem be addressed.
Education in piano performance, considering it is a course that requires hours of course a fact that is very
important for students and teaching staff. 1 hour a week is not enough for the student who has emerged piano
education. At the same time course load of faculty teaching performance drops due to an excess of 1 hour
piano lesson with a completely negative effect on yield. Thus, unable to follow the development of the
student's individual academic staff within 1 hour, the student cannot take control of their work. Therefore, the
program should be discussed, hours requested.
The small number of pianos and piano study rooms is inadequate in terms of understanding of the knowledge
and skills required for the course. In the absence of piano lessons and assignments given to each student's
home could not confer limited working hours. Thus, the performance loss is experienced. Number of Rooms
amplified piano and piano tuning and maintenance of pianos made and students who have achieved the level
of success is thought.
Students evaluate the effective working time. For this to happen to student work programs, control of working
hours, and is thought to be under constant supervision. Therefore, students learn about the issues that it will
face in the student's academic staff, to what extent is the work studied the piano as a lesson in how you should
work and how an active player continuously emphasized on the need to take place to the success of the
students are expected to create a huge impact.
Music education in the constantly researched not only the piano is provided that the objectives and aims of
education. The student in mind the requirements of the profession of music teacher chooses the program
should be established in the future. The use of the piano teaching profession in mind, plans to acquire the
necessary skills and behavior training program, the establishment of a piano, can be said to be important in
terms of the rise to success.
Rating scale used to determine the student's grade must be reported to the student. Know the behavior of the
target and a student preparing for the exam will operate according to the intended behavior. Thus, he has
failed to assess the success or why. So I announced to the student exam reviews student motivation is thought
to rise.
Frequently performed piano concerts section. Students should listen to others, the necessity of the works will
enter the work will be further work is required. Also individual efforts and achievements of both students and
lecturers, promoting and supporting the work that it is necessary to increase self-confidence.
Education is extremely important in taking the positive results in compliance with the physical environment.
First, the physical conditions required for the fulfillment of piano education in piano education in both the
transmitter and receiver location will bring you more productive. Developments in this regard will be provided
is thought to be important in the first degree.
Of course cannot be measured only physical conditions of the working environment to be healthy. In this
environment, the productivity of the people must be matured in terms of psychological trigger. Easing the
burden of the course lecturers will be reflected in the student more time and attention. Students who
successfully work and it more. Will reveal the psychological maturity of mutual satisfaction. Piano education,
the creation of such a work environment is believed to bring top-level achievements.
This research aims to determine the problems experienced in piano education. After that, the work done on
the piano education is thought to be the guiding nature. technical levels, as they are irrelevant to arrest and
class listed.
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th
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADRESSES OF AUTHORS
İzzet YÜCETOKER is Research assistant at Niğde University College of Education
Department of Fine Arts Music Education Department, TURKEY. In 2007, Yücetoker has
graduated Music Education from Selçuk University College of Education Department of
Fine Arts Music Education Department in Konya. He received his Master Degree in Piano
Education from Selçuk University. Earned his Ph.D. degree in 2009 at the University of
Abant Izzet Baysal. He is still a PhD candidate at the moment.
His research interest is piano education, musicology, music and literature.
Research Assist. İzzet YÜCETOKER
Niğde University College of Education
Department of Fine Arts
Music Education Department
Niğde,TURKEY
Assist. Prof. Dr. Özer KUTLUK. He was born in1954. After he graduated from Akşehir
Training Collage for Men in 1972, he graduated Gazi Training İnstitute in 1975. He worked
Karaman Lisesi and Ilgın Lisesi as music teacher. He was instructor at SU Music Education
Depertmant in 1988. He completed doctorate at Gazi University, Institute of Science in
2001.He was Assist. Prof. Dr. in 2005. He was head of department beetween 2007-2009. His
academic research area is mainly focused on piyano education, harmony, Turkish music
harmony and musical hearing education. He is working as Assist. Prof. Dr at NEU AK
Education Faculty Music Education Department.
Assist. Prof. Dr. Özer KUTLUK
Faculty of Fine Arts, Department of Music
Konya, TURKEY
REFERENCES
Agay, D. (1981), Teaching Piano, Volume I, Yorktown Music Press Inc, New York.
Bastien, J. W. (1973), How to Teach Piano Successfully, Third Edition, Neil A. Kjos Music Company, San Diego,
California.
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Bulut, D. (2004), Müzik Öğretmeni Yetiştiren Kurumlarda Alınan Piyano Eğitiminin Müzik Öğretmenliğinde
Kullanılabilirliği, 1924 – 2004 Musiki Muallim Mektebinden Günümüze Müzik Öğretmeni Yetiştirme
Sempozyumu Bildirisi, Isparta.
Kahramansoy, C. (2006), Müzik Öğretmenliği Programlarında Görevli Piyano Öğretim Elemanlarının Müzik Alan
Bilgisinin Derse Transferi, Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Yayınlanmamış Yüksek
Lisans Tezi, Bolu.
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Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Selçuk Üniversitesi, Konya.
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Özen, N. (1996), Müzik Eğitiminde Çalgı Eğitiminin Önemi, Filarmoni Sanat Dergisi, 20. sayı.
Yılmaz, P. (2005), İnönü Üniversitesi Güzel Sanatlar Eğitimi Müzik Eğitimi Anabilim Dalı Piyano Öğretim
Elemanları ve 3. Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Piyano Eğitimine İlişkin Görüşleri, Ankara Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri
Enstitüsü, Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara.
Yönetken, H., Bedii. (1996), “Müzik Öğretimi”,Okulda Çalgı Sorunu ve Çalgısal Müzik Etkinlikleri, Müzik
Ansiklopedisi Yayınları, s. 69, Ankara.
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Eğitiminin Durumuna İlişkin Görüşleri, Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Yayınlanmamış Yüksek
Lisans Tezi, Konya.
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BIOLOGY DEPARTMENT AND SCIENCE EDUCATION STUDENTS’ ENVIRONMENTAL
SENSITIVITY, ATTITUDE AND BEHAVIOURS
Science and Technology Teacher Yusuf KARADEMİR
Osman Yozgatli Elementary School
Aydin, TURKEY
Prof. Dr. Murat BARLAS
Muğla Sıtkı Koçman University
Mugla, TURKEY
Res. Assist. Çiğdem Aldan KARADEMİR
Adnan Menderes University
Aydın,TURKEY
ABSTRACT
The aim of this study is, to determine the students’ environmental sensitivity, attitude and behaviour levels in
terms of different variables. The sample included a total of 507 students who studied at Biology department
and Science Education undergraduate programme of a state university in Turkey. “Environmental Sensitivity,
Attitude and Behaviour Scale” and “Personal Information Form” were used for data collection. Findings show
that, there was found a meaningful difference in terms of gender, grade level, choice order, to be a member of
civil society organization and reading at least one journal about environment variables. According to their
undergraduate programmes and living places there was not found any meaningful difference at all subdimensions.
Key Words: Environmental Sensitivity, Environmental Attitude, Environmental Behaviour.
INTRODUCTION
In last three decades, concerns about the environment have increased. Initially, people were interested in
discovering the main environmental problems (Fraj & Martinez, 2007). Because at present, one of the greatest
problems facing Earth is the impact of humans on environment (Stern, Dietz & Kalof, 1993). Moving towards
the goal of sustainability, requires fundamental changes in human attitudes and behaviour. Progress in this
direction is thus critically dependent on education and public awareness (UNESCO, 1997). Subsequently,
consumers became aware of the need to make more responsible purchases and looked to the institutions to
behave in this way too. People are aware that environmental protection is not only the task of firms and
institutions, but also their responsibility as consumers (Fraj & Martinez, 2007). So the investigation of students’
environmental sensitivity, attitude and behaviours and the discussion of the results have a critical importance.
Because Kaiser & Shimoda (1999)’s research results show that, environmental sensitivity is an explanatory
variable for environmental behaviours and Kaiser, Wölfing & Fuhrer (1999)’s research results show that,
environmental attitudes are an explanatory variable for environmental behaviours. And environmental
sensitivity does not effect the environmental behaviour directly but, people who have high environmental
attitudes behave environmentalist and they show a tendency to buy ecologic products (Yılmaz, Çelik & Yağızer,
2009). In this framework the aim of this study is to determine the biology department and science education
students’ environmental sensitivity, attitude and behaviour levels in terms of different variables. Investigation
of students’ environmental sensitivity, attitude and behaviours in terms of different variables and discussion of
the results towards the sub dimensions will contribute to recognize the students at different faculties of a
university and to find out that any environmental education programme for students is necessary or not. Also
this study will remind the “environmental sensitivity”, “environmental attitude” and “environmental
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behaviour” concepts to the students again that are very important for environment and human being
interaction. For that purpose, the sub-questions of the research are as following:
1.
2.
What are the biology department and science education undergraduate programme students’
environmental sensitivity, attitude and behaviours?
Do the biology department and science education undergraduate programme students’ environmental
sensitivity, environmental attitude and environmental behaviours differ in terms of the variables such as
gender, undergraduate programme, grade level, choice order, living places, to be a member of civil society
organization about environment and reading at least one journal about environment variables?
METHOD
Research Model
A general screening model was used in this study.
Participants
The participants of the research includes, randomly chosen through sample method, total of 507 students
studying at biology department (n=249) and science education undergraduate programme (n=258) at a state
university in Turkey.
Data Collection Tools
Environmental Sensitivity, Attitude and Behaviour Scale: This five point likert scale developed by Yılmaz, Yıldız
& Arslan (2011), profitted by researches of Kaiser & Wilson (2000), Fraj & Martinez (2007), Tilikidou &
Delistavrou (2008) and Yılmaz, Çelik & Yağızer (2009). It is consisted of 17 items and three factors named as
“environmental sensitivity”, “environmental attitude” and “environmental behaviour”. The coefficiencies of the
internal consistency are respectively 0.75, 0.53 and 0.74. Confirmatory Factor Analysis calculated by lisrel 8.74
and the results support that the scale consisted of three subscales (df=291, X²=487,77, X²/ df= 1,68,
RMSEA=0.047, GFI=0.89, AGFI=0.87, NFI= 0,92, NNFI= 0.97, CFI= 0.97). As a five degree scale was used, the
interval coefficients were calculated for four intervals (5-1=4), (4/5=0.80) and the students’ means of
environmental sensitivity, attitude and behaviours have been interpreted in accordance with the criteria
below.
Never = 1.00-1.80
Rarely = 1.81-2.60
Sometimes= 2.61-3.40
Often = 3.40-4.20
Always= 4.21-5.00
The Personal Information Form: In the personal information form prepared by researchers; the questions in
relation with the demographical characteristics such as gender, undergraduate programmes, grade level,
choice order, living places, to be a member of civil society organization about environment and reading at least
one journal about environment have taken part.
Data Analysis
The data collected with the scale was inputted into the computer according the codes that were given the each
question on the scale. When inputting the data process was finished, the data was processed and analyzed. In
the analysis of the data, arithmetic mean and standard deviation of the students’ points were calculated by
SPSS 18 package programme. In addition to this, Mann Whitney U and Kruskal Wallis have been used. The
significance level was accepted as 0.05.
FINDINGS
In this part findings were given according to the sub-questions as following:
The Findings of the First Sub-question: “What are the biology department and science education
undergraduate programme students’ environmental sensitivity, environmental attitude and environmental
behaviours?” have been given in Table 1.
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Table 1: Students’ Evironmental Sensitivity, Attitude and Behaviours
Subdimensions of
the scale
Environmental
Sensitivity
Environmental
Attitude
Environmental
Behaviour
Score
Interval
Totally Disagree
Disagree
Indecisive
Agree
Totally Agree
Totally Agree: TA
n
Mean
SD
Min
Max
The
number of
items
Level
507
4,34
.59
1,17
5
6
TA
507
3,99
.63
1,25
5
4
A
3,30
.64
1,00
5
7
I
507
Agree: A
Indecisive: I
Disagree: DA
Totally Disagree: TD
As you see in Table 1, students “totally agree” that they are sensitive to environment ( X = 4,34), “agree” that
their attitudes to environment are at high levels ( X = 3,99), but they are “indecisive” to behave
environmentalist ( X = 3,30).
The Findings of the Second Sub-question: “Do the biology department and science education undergraduate
programme students’ environmental sensitivity, environmental attitude and environmental behaviours differ in
terms of the variables such as gender, grade level, choice order, to be a member of civil society organization
about environment, reading at least one journal about environment, undergraduate programme and living
places variables?” have been given in Tables.
Table 2: Students’ Environmental Sensitivity, Attitude, Behaviours and Gender
Sub-dimensions of the scale
Environmental Sensitivity
Environmental Attitude
Environmental Behaviour
Gender
n
Mean Rank
Sum of Ranks
Girl
331
268,99
89034,50
Boy
176
225,82
39743,50
Girl
331
259,49
85892
Boy
176
243,67
42886
Girl
331
265,24
87794
Boy
176
232,86
40984
U
p
24167,5
.001*
27310
.243
25408
.018*
*Statistically significant differences at p < .05.
As seen in Table 2, there is a meaningful difference (p<0.05) in terms of gender in the sub-dimensions of
“Environmental Sensitivity” and “Environmental Behaviour”. In other words, the girls’ environmental
sensitivities and environmental behaviours are higher than that of boys. On the other hand, there is no
meaningful difference in terms of gender in the sub-dimension of “Environmental Attitude”.
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Table 3: Students’ Environmental Sensitivity, Attitude, Behaviours and Undergraduate Programme
Sub-dimensions of the
scale
Undergraduate
Programme
n
Biology Department
249
262,87
65454
Science Education
258
245,44
63324
Biology Department
249
253,79
63193,50
Science Education
258
254,20
65584,50
Biology Department
249
243,62
60661
Science Education
258
264,02
68117
Mean Rank
Sum of
Ranks
U
p
29913
.178
32068,50
.974
29536
.116
Table 3 shows that, there is no meaningful difference (p>0.05) in terms of undergraduate programmes, in all
sub-dimensions that are “Environmental Sensitivity”, “Environmental Attitude” and “Environmental
Behaviour”.
Table 4: Students’ Environmental Sensitivity, Attitude, Behaviours and Grade Level
Sub-dimensions of the Scale
Grade level
n
Mean
Rank
1
2
3
4
114
137
150
106
258,15
220,64
258,01
286,98
1
2
3
4
114
137
150
106
241,17
247,47
262,96
263,55
1
2
3
4
114
137
150
106
257,67
242,43
265,33
248,97
2
df
X
p
3
12,864
.005*
3
2,194
.533
3
1,958
.581
As seen in Table 4, there is a meaningful difference (p<0.05) in terms of grade level only in the sub-dimension
of “Environmental Sensitivity”. In other words, fourth grade students’ environmental sensitivities are higher
than that of first, second and third grade students. On the other hand, there is no meaningful difference in
terms of grade level in the sub-dimensions of “Environmental Attitude” and “Environmental Behaviour”.
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Table 5: Students’ Environmental Sensitivity, Attitude, Behaviours and Choice Order
Choice Order
n
Mean Rank
First
Second-Fifth
Sixth- Tenth
Tenth and above
110
160
89
148
265,58
258,58
258,42
237,78
First
Second-Fifth
Sixth- Tenth
Tenth and above
110
160
89
148
281,49
259,15
231,86
241,32
First
Second-Fifth
Sixth- Tenth
Tenth and above
110
160
89
148
269,31
268,39
214,52
250,80
2
df
X
p
3
2,778
.427
3
7,333
.062
3
9,328
.025*
Table 5 shows that, there is a meaningful difference (p<0.05) in terms of choice order only in the subdimension of “Environmental Behaviour”. In other words, students who choose their undergraduate
programmes at their first choice have higher environmental sensitivity than that of students who choose their
undergraduate programmes at their second and above choices. On the other hand, there is no meaningful
difference in terms of choice order in the sub-dimensions of “Environmental Sensitivity” and “Environmental
Attitude”.
Table 6: Students’ Environmental Sensitivity, Attitude, Behaviours and Living Places
Living Places
n
Mean Rank
Metropolis
City
District
Village
191
122
131
63
266,15
251,10
253,98
222,83
Metropolis
City
District
Village
191
122
131
63
254,16
259,73
246,05
258,94
Metropolis
City
District
Village
191
122
131
63
257,87
242,53
257,42
257,36
2
df
X
p
3
4,275
.233
3
,655
.884
3
,991
.803
When Table 6 is examined, there is no meaningful difference (p>0.05) in terms of living places, in all subdimensions that are “Environmental Sensitivity”, “Environmental Attitude” and “Environmental Behaviour”.
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Table 7: Students’ Environmental Sensitivity, Attitude, Behaviours and To be a Member of Civil Society
Organization About Environment
Sub-dimensions of
the scale
Environmental
Sensitivity
To be a Member of Civil
Society Organization About
Environment
Member
n
Mean Rank
Sum of Ranks
65
300,84
19554,50
Not Member
442
247,11
109223,50
Member
65
294,53
19144,50
Not Member
442
248,04
109633,50
Member
65
301,29
19584,00
Not Member
442
247,05
109194
Environmental
Attitude
Environmental
Behaviour
U
p
11320,50
.005*
11730,50
.016*
11291
.005*
Table 7 shows that, there is a meaningful difference (p<0.05) in terms of to be a member of civil society
organization about environment in all sub-dimensions. In other words, students who are a member of civil
society organization about environment have higher environmental sensitivity, attitude and behaviours than
that of students who are not a member civil society organization about environment.
Table 8: Students’ Environmental Sensitivity, Attitude, Behaviours and Reading at Least One Journal About
Environment
Sub-dimensions of
the scale
Reading at Least One
Journal About Environment
n
Mean Rank
Sum of Ranks
Environmental
Sensitivity
Read
61
276,08
16841
Not Read
446
250,98
111937
Read
61
278,93
17014,50
Not Read
446
250,59
111763,50
Read
61
294,54
17967
Not Read
446
248,46
110811
Environmental
Attitude
Environmental
Behaviour
U
p
12256
.206
12082,50
.153
11130
.021*
As seen in Table 8, there is a meaningful difference (p<0.05) in terms of reading at least one journal about
environment only in the sub-dimension of “Environmental Behaviour”. In other words, students who read at
least one journal about environment have higher environmental behaviour than that of students who don’t
read a journal about environment. On the other hand, there is no meaningful difference in terms of this
variable in the sub-dimensions of “Environmental Sensitivity” and “Environmental Attitude”.
DISCUSSION AND RESULTS
The aim of this study was to determine the environmental sensitivities, attitudes, behaviours of biology
department and science education students, in terms of different variables such as gender, undergraduate
programme, grade level, choice order, living places, to be a member of civil society organization and reading at
least one journal about environment.
As a result of the applied analysis, students’ mean points from environmental sensitivity ( X = 4,34) and
environmental attitude ( X = 3,99) are at high levels. Only from environmental behaviour, students’ mean
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points are a little low ( X = 3,30). It shows that, students “totally agree” that they are sensitive to environment,
“agree” that their attitudes to environment are at high levels, but beside these, they are “indecisive” to behave
environmentalist.
While students’ environmental sensitivities and behaviours differ in terms of gender in favor of girls, their
environmental attitude doesn’t differ. Students’ environmental sensitivities (Çabuk & Karacaoğlu, 2003; Çelen,
Yıldız, Atak, Tabak & Arısoy, 2002; Yurtseven, Vehid, Köksal & Erdoğan, 2010) and environmental behaviours
(Akıllı & Yurtcan, 2009) are high in favor of girls in given studies too. The result of this research about students’
environmental attitudes also supports other studies (Kahyaoğlu, Daban & Yangın, 2008). It is expected that,
women behave empathic, sensitive, permissive, kindly, thoughtful, tidy and responsible (Kağıtçıbaşı, 1990).
These expectations of society make women to use ecologic resources economical and behave them
environmentalist. This result can be because of these expectations. According to the undergraduate
programme, there was not found any meaningful difference between Biology department and Science
Education students. As we investigate the curricula, lessons related to ecology and environmental education
take part in biology department and Science Education undergraduate programmes both. And the students,
who succeed these undergraduate programmes, come from science-maths department of the high schools.
According to the grade level, while students’ environmental attitudes and behaviours don’t change, only
students’ environmental sensitivities differ in favor of fourth grade students. According to the grade level,
considering the correlation between environmental sensitivity, attitude and behaviour, only the changing of
their environmental sensitivities is a remarkable finding. On the other hand, the difference might be due to the
courses related to ecology that students took during their education at university. Engin (2003)’s study results
about grade level is parallel with our study results.
In terms of choice order, there was found a meaningful difference only at environmental behaviour in favor of
students who choose their undergraduate programme at their first choice. Infact, it is expected that students’
environmental sensitivities, attitudes and behaviours must be change correspondingly. As is known, education,
is a process to constitute changes through their own experience in the desired direction and deliberately at a
person’s behaviour (Ertürk, 1987). As the education occurs in the desired direction, students’ choice orders are
very important to achieve their undergraduate programmes.
Akıllı & Yurtcan (2009)’s research findings show that, there was a meaningful difference in terms of living places
in environmental attitudes and behaviours but this research results show that there was not found any
meaningful difference (p>0.05) in terms of living places, at all sub-dimensions.
According to the analysis, while, only sixty-five students are members of civil society organization about
environment, beside this, four hundred forty-two students are not. The number of students who aren’t
members of civil society organization about environment is great. There was found meaningful difference
(p<0.05) in terms of to be a member of civil society organization about environment in all sub-dimensions. In
other words, students who are a member of civil society organization about environment have higher
environmental sensitivity, attitude and behaviours than that of students who are not. In terms of this variable
other research results (Sadık & Çakan, 2010; Uzun & Sağlam, 2006) are parallel with this research results.
The last variable was, reading at least one journal about environment. The analysis shows that, number of
students who read at least one journal about environment is almost the same with the number of students
who are members of civil society organization about environment. Only sixty-one students read at least one
journal about environment among five hundred seven students. There was found a meaningful difference
(p<0.05) in terms of reading at least one journal about environment only in the sub-dimension of
“Environmental Behaviour”. In other words, students who read at least one journal about environment have
higher environmental behaviour than that of students who don’t read a journal about environment. On the
other hand, there was not found any meaningful difference in terms of this variable in the sub-dimensions of
“Environmental Sensitivity” and “Environmental Attitude”. Similar to the other results according to grade level,
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considering the correlation between environmental sensitivity, attitude and behaviour, only the changing of
their environmental behaviours is a remarkable finding.
Because of the term, “environment” is very important for all, so the teachers’ and the parents’ roles must be to
educate children as a good environment protectors in the lessons and at their special lives. For this reason, on
the other researches with different participants and age groups, environmental sensitivity, attitude and
behaviours must be searched out with other variables.
IJONTE’s Note: This article was presented at World Conference on Educational and Instructional Studies WCEIS, 07- 09 November, 2012, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 4 Number 3 of
IJONTE 2013 by IJONTE Scientific Committee.
Yusuf KARADEMİR is a Science and Technology teacher in Aydin, Turkey. He is also MA
student at Mugla Sitki Kocman University, Environmental Science Department. His
research areas include environmental education and science education. He attended the
congresses about Science and Environmental Education.
Yusuf KARADEMİR
Osman Yozgatli Elementary School
Aydin, TURKEY
Murat BARLAS is professor at Mugla Sitki Kocman University, Science Faculty, Biology
Department. He worked as a dean and head of Biology Department at this university. Dr.
Barlas, give lessons at undergraduate, gradute and doctoral levels. He carried out
different projects supported by TUBİTAK and the others. Dr. Barlas guided many thesis at
MA and Phd levels. His research interests are aquatic ecosystems, invertebrates and
environment. Dr. Barlas, has authored/edited books and authored, co-authored, or
presented articles and conference presentations.
Prof. Dr. Murat BARLAS
Mugla Sitki Kocman University
Biology Department
Mugla, TURKEY
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Cigdem ALDAN KARADEMİR is a research assistant at Adnan Menderes University Science
Education Department. She is also PhD student at Curriculum and Instruction Department
of Adnan Menderes University. Her research areas include science education and teacher
education. She authored, co-authored, or presented articles and conference
presentations.
Cigdem ALDAN KARADEMİR
Adnan Menderes University
Science Education Department
Aydin, TURKEY
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Okulu Öğrencilerinin Çevresel Riskler Konusundaki Duyarlılıkları. Fırat Üniversitesi, Sağlık Bilimleri Tıp Dergisi,
24(3), 193-199.
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PAULO FREIRE’S PERCEPTION OF DIALOGUE BASED EDUCATION
Assist. Prof. Dr. Abdullah DURAKOĞLU
Abant İzzet Baysal University
Bolu, TURKEY
ABSTRACT
Dialogue based educational approach, which was put forward by Paulo Freire (1921 – 1997), one of the most
significant thinkers of radical education approach, was designed in such a way to enable teachers and students
to carry out research together. Freire proposes this educational approach as an alternative to the traditional
educational model which he calls as banking education. Therefore, the criticism of the banking model of
education by Freire is provided in the first place in the study.
The central concept in the educational model put forward by Freire is dialogue. Dialogue also constitutes the
main concept of this study. Therefore, the study comprehensively focuses on the concept of dialogue, which is
one of the techniques to be used in problem posing education according to Freire. As Freire emphasizes,
dialogue is not only an educational technique, but also a style of confrontation that is peculiar to humans and
must be used by all humans. Considering this fact, the concept of dialogue was examined in both dimensions in
this study.
Key Words: Freire, critical pedagogy, problem posing education, dialogue.
INTRODUCTION
Paulo Freire, one of the leading representatives of critical pedagogy, is well-known for his libertarian ideas in
this field. A great part of his ideas is concentrated on the criticism of the traditional educational methods within
a broad framework. Establishing a strong relation between education and politics, Freire proposes a new model
of education. He criticizes the traditional educational method, which he calls banking education, by drawing a
perspective of society in line with his experience in Latin America. According to him, those privileged people
who make the social relations imperative and dominant are from the class of oppressors. The other members
of the society constitute the oppressed. Furthermore, this imperative process is facilitated by many
instruments. One of these instruments is the ordinary education, which is named as banking education by
Freire (Mayo, 2011).
Banking Education System
Banking education, the most important theme of Freire’s critical pedagogy, means a process in which the
knowledge is directly transferred to students, the teacher is the sole distributor of knowledge, and the student
is the passive receiver of this knowledge. Under these conditions, the learner is the object of the learning
process, but not the subject. In this process, the knowledge is consumed without any criticism, and the learners
experience a cultural alienation and become defenseless against cultural imperialism (Mayo, 2011).
According to Freire, those being educated through banking education are ignored at the first step and
converted into empty containers to be filled by the educators. The reason why Freire calls this educational
model as banking education is that it regards depositing in the students as one of the most important purposes
(Milan, 2008). Freire explains this as follows:
“The students are the depositories and the teacher is the depositor. Instead of communicating, the teacher
issues communiques and makes deposits which the students patiently receive, memorize, and repeat. This is
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the "banking" concept of education, in which the scope of action allowed to the students extends only as far as
receiving, filing, and storing the deposits.” (Freire, 2011: 51).
Freire named banking education as ‘educação bancaria’ in Portuguese, his mother tongue. The term bancaria
has such meaning as bank or bank-related (Tagliavia, 2008). According to Freire (2004), banking education has
been shaped by the views of the proponents of this model towards the humans. This model ignores the fact
that the human is a historical being.
In banking education, the educators know and those being educated do not. The educator speaks and those
being educated listen amenably. Thus the educator deposits the knowledge mechanically into the memory
bank of the student (Mclaren, 2006; Tagliavia, 2008). In this respect, it is not surprising that the banking
education considers the humans as beings to be influenced. As the students get busier with storing the
material loaded on them, their critical conscious that would help them intervene in the world will be more
passive (Freire, 2000).
Joel Spring (2010), a professor of pedagogy from the United States, believes that the banking education is not
libertarian and that it causes the oppressed to become obedient and alienated. This model of education
ignores life and makes it more difficult to be conscious of oneself, rather than verifying the life of the learner
and providing him/her with the tools of developing a perception of life. The purpose of the education provided
through this method is not to understand oneself, but to change the individual according to alien purposes. In
this model determined by the oppressors, the oppressed are instructed how to exist. Such a model naturally
tends to sustain the existing social structure. It is apparent that the content and ethical orders of this model
reflect the ideology of the ruling class, i.e. oppressors.
According to Freire (2011), the banking education is designed to serve the purpose of the oppressors and it
causes dehumanization. This model is covertly based on the assumption that there is a polarity between the
human and the world. According to this assumption, the human just exists on the world, but is not together
with the world or others. This assumption rejects that the human is a conscious being, and it accepts that
human has conscious. If education is based on this assumption, it causes alienation rather than humanization.
Freire (1991) alleges that both the humanization and dehumanization of the human are possible as the human
is not an incomplete being. The humanization process of the persons is hindered through such instruments as
unfairness, exploitation and pressure.
According to Freire, banking education is one of the instruments that hinder the humanization process of the
person to the greatest extent. This model makes the individual an object on which work is performed, and the
learner is regarded as a tool for the teaching to achieve its purpose. Therefore, the target achieved by the
banking education is the creation of a conscious that is alien to the learner (Spring; 2010). However, Freire
suggests that the main purpose of education is to develop the social awareness and critical thinking skills of
people. Within this framework, Freire considers education as a process of assistance to raising one’s
awareness. Believing that this purpose can be achieved through problem posing education, Freire considers it
as an alternative to the banking model education (Ayhan, 1995).
Problem Posing Education
Freire (2011) suggests that the defenders of liberation should reject banking model of education and replace it
with the problem posing education because this type of educational work corresponds to the core of the
conscious and puts communication into practice. Therefore, problem posing model of education is a libertarian
educational work.
Considering this aim of the problem posing education, more importance is attributed to what Freire means by
liberty. According to Freire (2004; 2011), liberty is the thinking and acting of the people in order to transform
the world on which they live. Actual liberation can be also considered as humanization.
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Stressing that the general aim of the problem posing education is liberation, Freire also sets specific aims for
the implementation of this model. According to him, problem posing education aims to strengthen the
student’s skills of thinking critically or contemplating on the object of knowledge and reasons for his/her
existence. When this aim is achieved, the student will start acquiring knowledge through a feeling of
epistemological curiosity. It is not possible to acquire systematical knowledge without curiosity. In this respect,
curiosity is an instrument of acquiring knowledge (Vittoria, 2010). Freire summarizes the process of acquiring
knowledge as follows:
“Knowledge emerges only through invention and re-invention, through the restless, impatient, continuing,
hopeful inquiry human beings pursue in the world, with the world, and with each other.” (Freire, 2011: 51).
According to Freire; for the implementation of the problem posing education, it is necessary to abandon the
thoughts that educators hold absolute knowledge. In this model, the educator should be ready for a dialoguebased relation and thus for listening. Furthermore, the educator should not accept the educators as the subject
of the knowledge (Vittoria, 2010).
The banking education considers the knowledge as a gift given by those considering themselves as the knower
to those considered by them as knowing nothing while the knowledge in problem posing education is a real
perception that is not only taught by the educators but also taught to the educators together with the
students. Therefore, the problem posing education considers the teacher not as a person that transfers
knowledge, but as a person that perceives together with the students. In this process, the students carry out
critical research together with the teacher rather than being amenable listeners (Freire, 2011).
The teacher does not interrupt the action of the student in problem posing education. The teacher also gets
into the process of perceiving together with the student. Therefore, he/she does not consider the objects of
perception as his/her own private property. In this way, people develop their strength of critically
comprehending their ways of existing in the world in which they have found themselves and in the world of
themselves (Yıldırım, 2011).
With the problem posing education, people start perceiving the world not as a stable reality but as a reality in
the process of transformation. Thus, people think of the world and themselves, and they do not separate the
act of thinking from action. The problem posing model defines people as beings that are in the process of being
completed. Unlike other living beings, the humans are aware of the fact that they are not complete and
competent. This incompleteness and awareness makes it compulsory for the education to be a continuous
activity as a way of expression that is unique to the human. The people undergoing such education create an
actual form of thinking and acting (Freire, 2011).
The central concept in Freire’s epistemology is praxis, which means conscious action. The act of knowing
includes a dialectical movement from action to idea and from thinking on action to a new action (Ayhan, 1995).
However, according to Freire, the educator must act in such a way to enable action and thinking to be in
interaction with each other as thinking and action constitute a simultaneous unity in the praxis concept. These
two items are so connected to each other that even if one of them is sacrificed only partially, the other would
be damaged (Freire, 2011). It is apparent that Freire’s educational theory is an initiative to concretize the
epistemology that is based on praxis. Freire proposes dialog in this model of education, in which the teacher
and the learner jointly undertake the act of knowing.
Dialogue
Freire regards dialog as the basic item in the knowledge structure. So, the classrooms designed in accordance
with this model of education will become the meeting places where information is researched (Ayhan, 1995).
Within this framework, it is apparent that Freire does not consider dialog as a simple education technique
leading to the attainment of certain results. He considers dialog mainly as complementary to the human
nature. We need others to know ourselves and we can affirm our identity only through other people, i.e.
through dialog (Tolomelli, 2012). Freire (2000) suggests that the human has a social and historical existence
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unlike other living beings. Besides, the human has the capacity to know himself/herself. In other words, the
human beings are conscious of their incompleteness unlike other living beings. Thanks to this feature, they can
educate themselves by encountering others.
Dialog, which means encounter of people with each other, is also experienced through world to name the
world. Thus, dialog is not possible between those who want to name the world and those who do not. As dialog
is an existential reality, it should be applied to the pedagogy, too (Freire, 2011). Freire (2000) does not consider
dialog only as a need of the human nature. Dialog is also a sign of the democratic stance of the educator.
Therefore, a democratic educator is a dialogist by nature.
According to Freire, who takes dialog as an element of pedagogical communication, education means sharing.
Therefore, education must be based on dialog, through which relational opportunities are created. In such
education, where authority-based reasons are not valid, no one teaches another person (Yıldırım, 2011).
Therefore, educator learns from the student and the student learns from the educator in the process of dialog.
So, the roles of the educator and the learner interchange. Thus, in the process of dialog, educators help the
development of a process in which the educators and the learners can learn together (Mayo, 2011). Freire
believes that dialog has a number of preconditions. And one of these preconditions is love (Ayhan, 2000).
Dialog requires a deep love of the world and the humans. Dialog is an act of naming the world, and it can be
realized only by being blended with love. Therefore, love is the basis of dialog and also the dialog itself. Thus,
one who does not love the world, the life and the people cannot enter into dialog. Another precondition for
dialog is modesty (Freire, 2011).
According to Freire, dialog in education is accompanied by modesty. In other words, dialog cannot be used
without modesty. Therefore, dialog is an element that directly influences the establishment of a relation
between the educator and the learner based on equality (Tagliavia, 2008). Freire explains this as follows:
“On the other hand, dialogue cannot exist without humility. The naming of the world, through which people
constantly re-create that world, cannot be an act of arrogance. Dialogue, as the encounter of those addressed
to the common task of learning and acting, is broken if the parties (or one of them) lack humility. How can I
dialogue if I always project ignorance onto others and never perceive my own?” (Freire, 2011).
Dialog also requires a strong faith, too. This is the human beings’ faith in their strength to do and to create.
Every human has this faith by nature. However, those who are exposed to a concrete alienation cannot use this
strength (Freire, 2011).
Another precondition for dialog is hope. Hope arises from the continuous search of humans due to their
incompleteness. On the other side, hopelessness is a form of ignoring the world and escaping. However, hope
does not mean crossing the arms and wait passively. The human can have hopes only if he/she struggles
(Freire, 2011).
Lastly, dialog requires courage. The parties of dialog should encourage thinking critically, in other words
thinking without fearing the dangers of the action. The determinant for a critical thinker is the continuous
transformation of the reality in favor of the continuous humanization of the humans. Such a dialog can create
critical thinking (Freire, 2011).
The basis of the educational method proposed by Freire is constituted by the element of dialogue. In this
respect, dialogue is a technique used in Freire’s method. There are a number of preconditions for dialogue,
which is also one of the most important elements of human nature. When the preconditions are closely
examined, it can be seen that each of them corresponds to a characteristic of the human that is unique to the
human. This demonstrates that the technique of dialogue is not only used in the process of education.
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Dialogue, which is possible through the satisfaction of preconditions, also helps the strengthening of the
characteristics that are peculiar to the human. The preconditions of dialogue include love, humility, faith, hope
and courage. According to Freire, these are also the human characteristics that are peculiar to the human.
Estranging of people from these qualifications indicates their alienation. However, the alienation of the human
does not mean that the characteristics peculiar to his/her nature have been eliminated. These can only be
deactivated. If Freire thought that the alienated people lost these qualifications, he would not attempt to
educate these people as each of these is a precondition. Dialogue, which is the most important component of
the problem posing education in this context, is also a style of encounter that can be experienced by all people
including those that have been alienated. Therefore, hope, a precondition for dialogue, also constitutes the
point of origin of its pedagogy. Within this framework, Freire was quite hopeful that every human could be
educated.
th
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESS OF THE AUTHOR
Abdullah DURAKOĞLU works as Assistant Professor at the Department of Sociology of
the Faculty of Science and Letters, Abant İzzet Baysal University. He completed his
doctoral studies in the Institute of Educational Sciences of Gazi University. His research
interests include philosophy of education, Sufi philosophy, and education of philosophy.
Abdullah DURAKOĞLU
Faculty of Science and Letters
Department of Sociology
Gölköy /Bolu, Turkey
REFERENCES
Ayhan, S. (1995). Paulo Freire: Yaşamı, eğitim felsefesi ve uygulaması üzerine. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim
Bilimleri Dergisi. 28,193- 205.
Freire, P. (2000). Yüreğin pedagojisi.(Translated by Özgür Orhangazi). Ankara: Ütopya Yayınevi.
Freire, P. (2004). La pedagogia degli opressi. Torino: Ega.
Freire, P. (2011). Ezilenlerin pedagojisi.(Translated by Dilek Hattatoğlu, Erol Özbek). İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları.
Mayo, P. (2011). Gramsci, Freire ve yetişkin eğitimi. (Translated by Ahmet Duman). Ankara: Ütopya Yayınları.
Mclaren, P. (2006). Devrimin pedagojisi. (Translated by Hale Alpmen). İstanbul: Kalkedon Yayınları.
Milan, G. (2008). L’educazione come dialogo riflessioni sulla pedagogia di Paulo Freire. Studi e Ricerche. 1, 4369.
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Spring, J. (2010). Özgür eğitim. (Translated by Ayşen Ekmekçi). İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları.
Tagliavia, A. (2008). La pedagogia di Paulo Freire nelle società multiculturali. Tesi di Dottorato.Università degli
studi Roma Tre, Roma.
Tolomelli, A. (2012). “Dalla pedagogia degli oppressi al teatro dell’oppresso. Da Freire a Boal” Educazione
Demokratica- Rivista di Pedogogia Politica. 2,21- 43.
Vittoria, P. (2010). “La relazione educativa in Paulo Freire: non c'è insegnamento senza apprendimento”
Psicologia Scolastica, 6, 71- 93.
Yıldırım, A. (2011). Eleştirel pedagoji. Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık.
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A STUDY ON THE ATTITUDES OF IRANIAN CANDIDATES TOWARDS THE GENERAL IELTS TEST
Seyyed Behrooz HOSSEINI
IAU South Tehran Branch
Iran Language Institute
IRAN
Seyyed Ali HOSSEINI
IRAN
Alireza ROUDBARI
Sharif University of Technology
IRAN
ABSTRACT
IELTS, International English Language Testing System, is nowadays widely used as a certificating device and is
claimed to be a reliable and strongly accountable measure of language proficiency by the organizations and
educational centers that utilize it. Irrespective of the importance IELTS has gained in the present world, the
attitudes of those who take the test have rarely been explored. Therefore, the present study aimed at
investigating the attitudes of Iranian candidates towards the IELTS test. Accordingly, a standardized attitudes
questionnaire was administered to 40 homogeneous Iranian IELTS candidates after taking the test. The
collected data were then analyzed through Pearson correlation coefficient to find out whether there were any
significant relationships between the candidates’ test scores and their attitudes towards IELTS. The findings
indicated that the participants of the study mostly had a positive attitude towards IELTS. Implications can also
be drawn for all the stakeholders including candidates intending to sit the test, institutes running IELTS
preparation programs, teachers wishing to teach such programs, and finally, IELTS test administrators.
Key Words: IELTS, Attitude, Belief, Motivation, Affective Factors.
INTRODUCTION
To get an insight into the minds of language learners there is no more certain way than to study their beliefs.
As in the area of language teaching, there has recently been an increasing emphasis on the styles and variables
of learners. Additionally, learners’ attitudes and beliefs are to join the growing body of research in the field.
When learners step in a language classroom, they bring all their personality features including their beliefs,
attitudes, and language styles to the learning environment. Almost all of the scholars admit that how successful
people are in learning a language is exactly and directly influenced by what they think and how they evaluate
the target language, the target language speakers, culture, and of course, the learning setting. Though merely
investigating the attitudes and beliefs of learners may not guarantee any success, they, in turn, can be the
guidelines for the next steps taken, as learners play the main role in any learning environment.
The concept of learners’ attitudes has been the focus of attention in explanation and investigation of human
behavior offered by social psychologists. Attitude is usually defined as a disposition or tendency to respond
positively or negatively towards a certain thing such as an idea, object, person, or situation. Students
have positive or negative attitudes towards the language they want to learn or the people who speak it. Having
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positive attitude towards tests is also claimed to be one of the reasons which make students perform better on
the tests (Malallaha, 2000). A large number of studies have also investigated the relationships between
attitude and proficiency in the language (Bachman, 1990; Malallaha, 2000; Coleman, Strafield, & Hagan, 2003).
Additionally, Gardner (1985) believes that attitude and other affective variables are as important as aptitude
for language achievement.
IELTS
IELTS, which is now jointly administered by the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate (UCLES),
the British Council, and the IDP Education Australia, is required for anyone who wishes to pursue their
education in an English speaking country or anyone who desires to migrate to or work in such countries.
IELTS is taken by more than 25,000 candidates each year. The test is accepted for undergraduate or
postgraduate entry by Australian and British universities, colleges, and professional and technical institutions.
IELTS has been developed on the basis of new approaches to language teaching and testing. It may be claimed
that IELTS is more content based, task oriented and authentic than TOEFL. The tasks in IELTS are closer to real
life situations. IELTS continues to help change people’s lives as they look for opportunities around the world
whether that is in education, for migration, or employment. This is the reason why IELTS is a high stakes test
and also why it is so critical that the test continues to be a robust and rigorous measure of English language
proficiency.
IELTS, initially called ELTS (English Language Testing Service), is used to judge potential higher education (HE)
students’ language proficiency, the job which was previously carried out by EPTB (English Proficiency Test
Battery) since the mid 1960s. It was in the late 1980s that some practical administrative issues, especially
around the scope of the test, were questioned. Following a validation study (Criper & Davies, 1988; Hughes,
Porter & Weir, 1988; Cited in Hyatt & Brooks, 2007), the ELTS Revision Project was set up to design a new test.
Hyatt and Brooks document that to highlight the international aspect of the test the International Development
Program of Australian Universities and Colleges (IDP), now known as IELTS Australia, joined British Council and
UCLES to form an international partnership. The new test was simplified and shortened and also changed its
name to reflect the new internationalization, becoming known as the International English Language Testing
System (IELTS) and went into operation in the 1989. During the period between 1989–1994, the system was
monitored through a host of research evaluations, and further modifications were introduced in the 1995,
including the replacement of three subject-specific subtests with one Academic Reading and one Academic
Writing modules, the removal of the thematic link between the Reading and Writing modules, the convergence
of scoring on all modules to nine bands, the introduction of checks on marking consistency, an appeal
procedure, new validation procedures, security procedures, and computerized administration procedures.
The change from three subject-specific subtests was based on feedback from IELTS administrators and
examiners (Charge & Taylor, 1997) and from a significant body of research into ESP and second language
conducted by Clapham (1993, 1995, 1996). Clapham concluded that a single test did not discriminate for or
against candidates regardless of their disciplinary areas and that a single test would not hinder accessibility.
More specific details of these innovations and the rationale behind them can be found in Charge and Taylor
(1997). More recently, continued evaluation of the system led to the introduction of a new Speaking test in the
years 2001 and 2005, the introduction of new assessment criteria for the Writing test and the introduction of
computer-based testing. A recent and comprehensive overview of the history of the assessment of academic
English can be found in Davies (2008). Along with such global popularity, a large number of studies have been
conducted worldwide to investigate issues related to IELTS. Merrylees (2003) conducted a study to investigate
two IELTS user groups: candidates who sit the test for immigration purposes and candidates who sit the test for
secondary education purposes. He believed that with the increase in candidature of both user groups, there is
an increasing need to investigate and analyze how each group is performing on the test in terms of nationality,
age, gender and other factors.
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Compared with such studies, however, it seems that fewer studies have been carried out to examine and
identify the IELTS candidates’ attitudes and views towards this test. The attitudes of IELTS stakeholders were
once investigated in a study conducted by Coleman et al. (2003). In their study, respondents perceived the
IELTS test to have high validity in this study. Another study carried out by McDowell and Merrylees (1998)
investigated the receiving institutions’ attitudes to IELTS with positive results reported.
While there is a significant and growing literature on English language testing (Cheng, Watanabe, & Curtis,
2004) and on the credibility, reliability, and validity of IELTS in particular (Green, 2007), other more social and
qualitative impacts also deserve consideration (Brown & Taylor, 2006; Barkhuizen & Cooper, 2004; Read &
Hayes, 2003; Coleman et al., 2003). In light of this, a body of recent research has focused on impact studies on
IELTS, including the consideration of stakeholder attitudes. A key overview of methodological and theoretical
issues of such research is presented in Hawkey (2006) which focuses on one of its two case studies on IELTS
impact testing. The stakeholders considered in this research include test-takers, teachers, textbook writers,
testers and institutions. However, unlike the present study, there was no specific emphasis on admissions
gatekeepers, a niche the present research aims to fill, while acknowledging that Hawkey (2006), provides an
invaluable guide at both theoretical and practical levels to those engaging in impact studies.
Smith and Haslett (2007) investigated the attitudes of HE decision-makers in New Zealand towards the English
language tests used for admission purposes. They argued that the changing context and growing diversity were
leading to the consideration of more flexible pathways to entry. Coleman et al. (2003) contrasted stakeholder
attitudes to IELTS in Australia, the people of the Republic of China and the United Kingdom. The researchers
argued that students were, on the whole, more knowledgeable than staff on a wide range of themes related to
the IELTS test. Students tended to have a positive view of IELTS as a predictive indicator of the future
investigating stakeholders’ perceptions of IELTS as an entry requirement for higher education in the UK success
whereas staff were less satisfied with the predictive value of the test and wished to see minimum standards for
entry set at a higher level.
The current project therefore sought to investigate if such perspectives were still reflected by institutional
gatekeepers some four years after the publication of this key piece of research, though the nature of student
perceptions was beyond the remit of this study. Read and Hayes (2003) also investigated the impact of IELTS on
the preparation of international students for tertiary study in New Zealand. They found that even students who
gained the minimum band score for tertiary admission were likely to struggle to meet the demands of Englishmedium study in a New Zealand university or polytechnic, though teachers generally recognized that IELTS was
the most suitable test available for the purpose of admission to HE programs. The current study sought to
ascertain whether the views of gatekeepers at HE institutions in the UK converged or diverged from those
positions. Additionally, Kerstjens and Nery’s (2000) research sought to determine the relationship between the
IELTS test and students’ subsequent academic performance. They reported that for students at the vocational
level, IELTS was not found to be a significant predictor of academic performance, although staff and students
were generally positive about students’ capability to cope with the language demands of their first semester of
study.
The correlation between English language proficiency and academic performance is an issue that has been
researched frequently and an overview of this research theme can be found in Davies (2008). The present
study therefore, examined this relationship and sought the perspectives of HE respondents as to the difficulties
students encounter and whether or not IELTS fully meets their needs in terms of addressing language
difficulties. Mok, Parr, Lee and Wylie (1998) compared IELTS with another examination used for purposes
similar to the general IELTS paper. McDowell and Merrylees (1998) investigated the range of tests available in
Australian tertiary education to establish to what extent IELTS was serving the needs of the receiving
institutions. Similarly, Hill, Storch and Lynch (2000) explored the usefulness of IELTS and TOEFL as predictors of
readiness for the Australian academic context. The current research project was intended to uncover whether
IELTS was the dominant language testing system in UK and if stakeholders view it as meeting their needs, as
well as those of their students.
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Feast (2002) investigated the relationship between IELTS scores as a measure of language proficiency and
performance at university. Her research revealed a significant and positive, but weak, relationship between
English language proficiency and academic performance. Edwards, Ran, and Li (2007) also highlighted the
concerns of university teachers and administrators around the limitations of tests of English used in relation to
university admissions, and expressed concerns around the degree to which acceptance of students with levels
well below native-speaker competence represented a lowering of academic standards, or a pragmatic response
to an increasingly globalised HE market. In the light of this changing context, the present study sought to elicit
participants’ attitudes regarding their performance on IELTS.
Attitude and Language Learning
One core aim of education is to convey factual knowledge about subjects, but another is to encourage
students’ interest in these subjects. To encourage mastery of factual knowledge and skills, education systems
rely on examinations. However, research has raised the possibility that exams could have the unintended sideeffect of undermining the other core aim of education, that of encouraging student interest. Research has
shown that people’s goals can significantly influence how they react to a task (Lamb, 2004). Therefore, fulfilling
a task such as international examinations of English proficiency can be inextricably related to the goal of the
participants who take them. Barron and Harackiewicz (2000), for example, have summarized the research on
college students which suggests that individuals with mastery goals are more likely to enjoy a task, while
individuals with a performance goal are more likely to do well on it. However, these differences are not
absolute. Under some circumstances, performance goals can actually lead to greater interest than mastery
goals (see for example, Barron & Harackiewicz, 2001).
The reaction and attitude toward a task can also be determined by the degree of the participants' motivation
(Oxford & Shearin, 1994). According to Holmes (1992), in learning a foreign language, students can be
motivated by the people who speak the language or the context in which the language is spoken. The Amount
of the anxiety of the learners in foreign language learning contexts may account for the changes in motivation
of language learners (Johnson & Johnson, 1998) and ultimately changes the students’ positive attitudes.
According to Brown (2000), second language learners benefit from positive attitudes, and negative attitudes
may lead to decreased motivation. Nevertheless, he believes negative attitudes can be changed, often by
exposure to reality – for example, by encounters with actual persons from other cultures. Positive attitudes on
the part of language learners can cause the development of an integrative motivation and this can
consequently facilitate second language progress.
Berwick and Ross (1989) assessed the motivation of university students at the beginning and end of their
freshmen year. Their analysis indicated a limited development of an orientation towards personal growth
through widening of their horizons and a desire to study abroad. While they supported the idea that it was
difficult to bring students back from the pressure of exam they also maintained that the curriculum was at
fault, by not being relevant to learners’ needs and motives for language study.
The type of the task is also a determining factor with respect to the formation of attitudes and reactions
towards the tasks. The students who sit for school or university exams would display lower motivation in
comparison to students who learn the material without any assessment and test at the end of the curriculum.
Test anxiety is a crucial factor in testing circumstances which results in lower motivation in pre-test conditions.
Anxiety theorists have suggested that test anxiety is caused by individuals’ perception of the test as a form of
pressure to do well. These theorists further suggest that test anxiety is determined by individuals’ personal
interpretation or cognitive appraisal of the situation (Sarason & Sarason, 1990). The anticipation of a
forthcoming exam is likely to be demotivating for most students because it directs their attention towards the
consequences of being graded rather than the inherent interest of the subject (Harackiewicz, Manderlink, &
Sansone, 1984). According to Vallerand and Reid (1984) motivation can be boosted after the exam if the
student receives positive feedback on their performance. They suggest when individuals learn in order to
achieve grades; the information they process is likely to be seen as useful only for that specific task. Thus, after
the test is completed, the materials will no longer warrant retention.
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Truitt (1995) found in a study regarding attitude of language learners that students’ beliefs and attitudes about
language learning may vary based on cultural background and previous experiences as well. Thus, it can be
argued that positive or negative attitudes do not develop accidentally but have some reasons for their
emergence. Malallaha (2000) investigated the attitudes of Arab learners towards English and discovered that
they have positive attitudes towards the English language and their proficiency in tests was positively related to
their attitude to English. Hence, it can be argued that having positive or negative attitudes towards a certain
language can exert considerable effect on the learners’ performance on a language test. By the same token,
learners’ attitudes towards a certain language proficiency test may affect their performance on that test. IELTS
candidates’ attitudes and perceptions towards IELTS might, therefore, affect their overall band score they get
in this standardized test.
Bernat and Lioyd (2007) conducted a study to investigate the relationship between beliefs about language
learning and gender through The Belief About Language Learning Inventory (BALLI). Their study revealed that
females and males hold generally similar beliefs about language learning; the results, as they claim, deviate
from those reported in a previous study conducted in the U.S. Mansareh (2003) cited in a study conducted by
Cleary (1996) on university students in Malysia. The findings of the study revealed that all of the students did
not have a positive attitude toward English and believed that Arabic should be raised to equal status with
English or should completely take the role of English in Malaysia. Mansareh, in the same study, mentions
another study by Shaaban and Ghaith (2003) who embarked upon investigating the linguistic attitudes of
Lebanese college students towards Arabic, French, and English. They found that students considered foreign
languages, e.g., French and English, to be more useful in domains of science, technology, and business. They
didn't believe in such status for their native language, i.e., Arabic. Al-Tamimi and Shuib (2009) conducted a
survey to identify Petroleum Engineering students’ motivation and attitudes towards learning the English
language. To do this, their study focused on three motivational frameworks: instrumental motivation,
integrative motivation and, personal motivation. They also studied learners’ attitudes in 4 areas: 1) the use of
English in the Yemeni social context, 2) the use of English in the Yemeni educational context, 3) the English
language and, 4) the culture of the English speaking world. The results showed that instrumental motivation
including utilitarian and academic reasons, was more highlighted than the other motivational subdivisions
among students. Personal reasons came next, however, students showed the least support for integrative
motivation.
In terms of learners’ attitudes toward learning English, the data showed that most of the students had positive
attitudes towards the social value and educational status of English. Besides, the results uncover the students’
positive orientation toward the English language. Surprisingly, a high number of participants showed their
interest in the culture of the English speaking world as represented by English-language films. Rasti (2009)
studied Iranian candidates' attitudes towards IELTS. In his research he explored the attitudes of 60 Iranian IELTS
candidates who had taken the actual test in Iran.The findings suggest that almost 80% of the participants in this
study showed a positive attitude towards IELTS. No meaningful relationship was found between Iranian
candidates’ sex, age, educational background, and IELTS scores with their attitudes towards IELTS.
With regard to the aforementioned studies and the significance of affective factors such as perception, attitude
etc., influencing language learners’ performance, IELTS Joint-funded research program (2006, 2007) states that
one of the areas of interest for IELTS external research purposes is the investigation of attitudes of IELTS test
takers. Therefore, the present study seeks to determine whether there is any positive correlation between the
candidates’ performance on IELTS and their attitudes after the test through the following research question:
RQ. Is there any significant relationship between the IELTS candidates’ performance and their attitudes after
taking the test?
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METHOD
Participants
The participants of the study were forty IELTS candidates (both male and female) taking part in the IELTS
preparation courses in the TEFL research center, Tehran, Iran. They were selected based on the results of the
homogeneity test and their performance on IELTS test. Sixty participants who were EFL learners received the
test and according to the results, forty learners whose scores fell 1 SD below and above the mean score met
the requirements and were randomly selected for the purpose of the study. These participants were of various
disciplines and they enjoyed different educational backgrounds.
Instruments
The present study enjoyed three instruments in the process of data collection as follows:
1. A language proficiency test of PET (2007), developed by Cambridge University Press, to homogenize the
prospective candidates for the study.
2.
A standard IELTS (general module, 2003) as the main test on which the candidates perform.
3.
A questionnaire of attitude developed and validated by Rasti (2009) based on the framework developed by
Bachman (1990) to check the candidates’ attitudes after taking the test (see Appendix I).
Data Analysis
With regard to the analysis of the collected data, three levels of analysis were carried out including:
1. Descriptive statistics of the homogeneity test of PET
2. Normality tests for IELTS
3. A Pearson correlation coefficient to investigate any significant relationship between the IELTS
candidates’ performance and their attitudes towards the test.
Procedures
A group of sixty IELTS candidates taking part in the IELTS preparation courses in the TEFL research center,
Tehran, Iran after completing their due course, were given a version of standardized IELTS which consisted of
25 listening comprehension items, 35 reading comprehension items, and 2 types of writing. The pilot study was
also conducted before the experiment for the purpose of standardization and making sure of their
homogeneity.
The participants received standard IELTS general module test and according to the results, 40 learners whose
scores fell 1 SD below and above the mean were selected randomly for the purpose of the study. The
questionnaire investigating the candidates’ attitudes which had been already developed and validated by Rasti
(2009) was also administered after taking the test. The learners’ responses to the items in the questionnaire
were then collectively correlated with their performance on the IELTS test to investigate whether there was
any significant relationship between the candidates’ performance and their attitudes towards the test.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Descriptive Statistics
In order to select a group of homogenous participants in terms of their general language proficiency, the PET
test was administered to 60 students. 40 cases whose scores were 1 SD above and below the mean were
selected to participate in the main study. That is to say, those whose scores fall within the ranges of 35.74
(mean - 1SD) and 46.42 (mean + 1SD) were randomly selected to participate in this study. The following table
represents the results of descriptive statistics of the homogeneity test of PET.
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Table1: Descriptive statistics of PET
PET
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
60
41.0833
5.34026
Normality Tests
In order to analyze any sets of data through parametric tests, four assumptions of interval data, independence
of subjects, normality, and homogeneity of variances should be met. The present data were measured on an
interval scale and the subjects were independent, i.e., none of them participated in more than one group.
The assumption of normality was empirically tested through the ratios of skewness and kurtosis over their
respective standard errors. As displayed in Table 2, these ratios were all within the ranges of +/- 1.96, thus the
present data did not show any marked deviations from normal distribution.
Table2: Normality tests
Skewness
N
Kurtosis
Statistic
Statistic
Std.
Error
Normality
Statistic
Std.
Error
Normality
PET
40
0.04
0.37
0.10
-0.78
0.73
-1.06
IELTS
40
-0.16
0.37
-0.43
-1.02
0.73
-1.38
Attitude
40
-0.35
0.37
-0.93
0.12
0.73
0.17
Pearson Correlation Coefficient
In order to answer the following question, a Pearson correlation coefficient was run to probe any significant
relationship between the IELTS candidates’ attitudes towards the test and their performance on the test.
RQ. Is there any significant relationship between the IELTS candidates’ performance and their attitudes after
taking the test?
Table 3: Pearson correlation of IELTS with attitude
Pearson Correlation
IELTS
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Attitude
**
.662
.000
40
The results (R = .662, P = .000 < .01; it does represent a large effect size) indicated that there was a positively
significant and meaningful relationship between the IELTS candidates’ performance on the test and their
attitudes towards the test.
Discussion
With respect to the reported results, this study revealed that there was a significant and meaningful
relationship between the IELTS candidates’ performance on the test and their attitudes towards the test. The
findings represent that the examinees with high positive attitude towards learning English could perform better
in the IELTS exam. The reported results are also in line with those of Rasti (2009) who conducted a similar
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research in Liverpool University and came up with the notion that “almost 80% of the participants in this study
had a positive attitude towards IELTS” (p.110). Statistics clearly indicate that IELTS is constantly growing more
popular worldwide. Just as IELTS candidature is growing significantly, so is the number of organizations,
universities, professional bodies, and governments that recognize IELTS results.
The Islamic Republic of Iran, among many other countries, was among the top 25 countries in terms of the
number of candidates who took the IELTS test in 2003 (IELTS Annual Review, 2003). According to Keyvanfar
(2005), in the last five years a great number of young Iranians have traveled to other countries and they have
been required to take the IELTS or other proficiency exams for the assessment of their communicative abilities
in English. Many of these people have represented positive attitudes towards the IELTS exam and learning
English (Keyvanfar , 2005). The reported findings of the present study are also supported by the previous
research conducted in the ELT domain concerning the relationship between IELTS candidates’ performance on
the test and their attitudes towards the test (Amiri, 2012; Ayres, 2003; Brown, 2003; Keyvanfar, 2005; Mickan
& Slater, 2003; O'Loughlin& Wigglesworth, 2003; Rasti, 2009).Mickan and Slater (2003) investigated
candidates’ interpretation of prompts and compared the written responses of English background speakers
with those of IELTS intending candidates, who were not English background speakers. Their findings suggest
implications for item writers and for teachers preparing candidates for IELTS examinations.
O’Loughlin and Wigglesworth (2003) also conducted a study on task difficulty in the IELTS Academic Writing
Task 1. The study examined firstly, the extent to which the difficulty of the task is affected by the amount of
information provided to the candidate and secondly, the extent to which the difficulty of the task is affected by
the presentation of the information to the candidate. The findings indicated that there were no substantial
differences in difficulty between the tasks, either in terms of the amount of information presented or in terms
of the differences in presentation of the tasks. Brown (2003) intended to find out whether handwriting and
neatness have any impact on the overall judgment of the IELTS writing quality of the candidates or not. The
findings of her study clearly indicated that in general the quality of handwriting in IELTS does have an impact on
the scores awarded to essays, and that increased legibility results in higher ratings. Ayres (2003) designed and
delivered an online academic writing course (www.ielts.ac.nz). His course is specifically targeted at prospective
candidates of IELTS examinations with the aim to develop both writing proficiency and awareness of the IELTS
examination format and requirement.
The findings of the present study revealed that Iranians have a positive attitude towards IELTS. Increasingly
significant growth in candidature in Iran shows how much popularity IELTS has gained among Iranians which is
exactly in line with the findings of the present study. Coleman et al. (2003) also find IELTS a very popular test
and according to their study, IELTS stakeholders in various countries have high positive attitudes towards IELTS.
Such findings could be employed by IELTS administrators to do the modifications required.
CONCLUSION
The present study aimed at investigating the relationship between the IELTS candidates’ performance and their
attitudes towards the test. To conduct the study, out of 60 participants who received a standard PET test, 40
IELTS candidates were selected based on the results of the pilot study. After taking the IELTS test, they were
provided with a questionnaire evaluating their attitudes towards the test. After collecting the required data,
Pearson correlation coefficient was run to probe any significant relationship between the IELTS candidates’
attitudes towards the test and their performance on the test. The results of the analysis revealed a highly
significant and meaningful relationship between the IELTS candidates’ attitudes towards the test and their
performance.
The present study can help all the IELTS stakeholders including candidates intending to sit the test, institutes
running IELTS preparation programs, teachers wishing to teach such programs and the IELTS test
administrators. Further studies are suggested to be carried out to investigate issues related to IELTS in Iran and
internationally including:
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Studies involving the IELTS Listening and Reading tests.
Further studies on the use of IELTS for professional purposes or for migration.
Studies intended to establish appropriate IELTS score levels for specific uses of the test (for access to a
university department, for professional registration, for access to a vocational training course).
Studies of test preparation practices and investigation of the cognitive processes of IELTS test takers.
Finally, further studies must be carried out to investigate the process of writing IELTS test items.
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF THE AUTHORS
Seyyed Behrooz HOSSEINI holds an M.A. in TEFL from IAU South Tehran Branch. He has
published numerous articles on language learning and teaching at international journals. He
has been teaching English as a foreign language in Tehran for many years. He is currently
teaching at the ILI. His areas of research interest include assessment, testing, learner
attitude and perception, CMC, CALL, e-learning, and related fields.
Seyyed Behrooz HOSSEINI
Iran Language Institute
IRAN
Seyyed Ali HOSSEINI holds an M.A. in TEFL from IAU South Tehran Branch. He is currently
teaching at different institutes in Tehran. His areas of interest include assessment, testing,
learner attitude and perception.
Seyyed Ali HOSSEINI
IRAN
Alireza ROUDBARI is a Ph.D. student in aerospace engineering at Sharif University of
Technology, Tehran, Iran. He has attended numerous conferences and published scientific
articles in his field. He is currently assistant Professor at Shahid Sattari Aeronautical
University of Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran. His areas of research interest include
neural networks, fuzzy systems, aerospace engineering, English language.
Alireza ROUDBARI
Sharif University of Technology
IRAN
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Appendix I
Language learning attitudes questionnaire
Fill out the following questionnaire, checking the box which best describes whether you agree or disagree
with each statement. This is for yourself not for anyone else, so answer as honestly as you can.
SA= Strongly Agree, A= Agree, N= Neither agree nor disagree, D= Disagree, SD= Strongly Disagree
No Item
SA
A
N
D
SD
1
I think I’m a pretty good language learner.
2
Learning a language may be important to my goals, but I don’t expect
it to be much fun.
3
My language learning aptitude is probably pretty high.
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
I don’t have any idea about how to go about learning a language.
I think that I could learn pretty much any language I really put my
mind to, given the right circumstances.
I worry a lot about making mistakes.
I’m afraid people will laugh at me if I don’t say things right.
I end up trembling and practically in a cold sweat when I have to talk
in front of people.
I find it hard to make conversation even with people who speak my
own language.
I feel a resistance from within when I try to speak in a foreign
language, even if I’ve practiced.
It is a mark of respect to people to learn their language if you’re living
in their country.
I like getting to know people from other countries, in general.
Speaking the language of the community where I’ll be living will let
me help people more than I could otherwise.
I don’t like the idea of relying on speaking English (or my mother
tongue) in another country.
I think the people of the country where I’ll be living would like for me
to learn their language.
I won’t really be able to get to know people well if I don’t speak their
language.
There is a right and a wrong way to do almost everything, and I think
it’s my duty to figure out which is which and do it right.
It annoys me when people don’t give me a clear-cut answer, but just
beat around the bush.
You should say “yes” if you mean yes and “no” if you mean no. Not to
do so is dishonest.
You have to understand people’s culture and value system before you
can be sure whether some things are right or wrong.
I like to mimic other accents, and people say I do it well.
I can do impersonations of famous people.
I find it easy to “put myself in other people’s shoes” and imagine how
they feel.
In school, if I didn’t know an answer for sure, I’d sometimes answer
out loud in class anyway.
I often think out loud, trying out my ideas on other people.
I want to have everything worked out in my own head before I
answer.
I’d call myself a risk-taker
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MUSEUM OF SOCIAL STUDIES IN EDUCATION STUDENTS ATTITUDES AND VIEWS
Assist. Prof.Dr. Hatice MEMİŞOĞLU
Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi
Faculty of Education
Department of Primary Education
Social Studies Education
Bolu,TURKEY
Samet KAMÇI
Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi
Faculty of Education
Postgraduate Student in the Institute
of Educational Sciences
Bolu,TURKEY
ABSTRACT
Museums are very important in the social studies course to help students to understand the value of historical
monuments and the cultural properties, to protect the cultural heritage, to tolerate different cultures, to
personalize multiculturalism, to provide history education and to acquire the national identity. Museums also
help students to protect their national identity, culture and memory as well as facilitating the transmission of
history and culture from one generation to another. The purpose of the study is to reveal the attitudes and
opinions of 258 secondary school students in the Bolu province about the museum education in the social
studies course in the 2012-2013 academic year. Quantitative and qualitative research (mixed) methods were
used to determine the students' views. A survey including 25 questions and 10 qualitative questions were used
to reveal their opinions and attitudes towards the use of museum and museum education. As a result of the
study, it was found that students' attitudes towards museums were positive, the monuments in the museum
informed them, museums were necessary and suitable for the social studies course, and finally it was necessary
to organize trips to museums and virtual museums. Through the qualitative questions, it was found that
museum education and virtual museums in the social studies course were mostly neglected.
Key Words: Social studies, students, museum education.
INTRODUCTION
Social sciences are study areas that are composed of art, literature and social disciplines approaches to gain
citizenship proficiency. Within the school program, Social studies enable a systematic and coordinative study
area that come from the related and appropriate natural sciences as anthropology, archeology, economy,
geography, law, philosophy, political sciences, psychology, religion, sociology and art, literature. The main
purpose of Social studies is to help young people to develop making logical decisions for the sake of the public,
as citizens of a democratic society with cultural differences in a global and attached world (NCSS,1993;
Doğanay;16).
The main goal of social studies is to prepare the individual for the society. That is why keeping the learners only
indoors when there are real sources outside will not be enough for this goal to be successful (Altın and
Demirtaş, 2009 :516). Therefore outdoor activities must be included in Social Studies lesson. One of the
outdoor activities is museums.
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On the subject of museum many people think about places with some objects existed, exhibited, protected and
open to public. However the functions of museums are not limited to these. Museums have another important
function that we lay stress on. Museums are also an education and training places. In other words museums
that we can take as places where one can see history alive, are part of education. Therefore when museums
are defined these should be taken into consideration as well. (Abacı, 2005:13). According to the definition of
museum by ICOM (International Council of Museum), museum “is an continuous institution that does not
solely look for its interest but also serves the society and their development, open to public, researching on the
materials that witness the surrounding environment, collecting and protecting them, and upon the result
sharing the information and afterwards exhibiting for the purposes of research, education and entertainment”(
Oruç and Altın, 2008:12).
Museum Education
Besides their responsibilities coming from the past, the museums also have taken the big mission, education
mission, on. In order to have constant museum visits, to keep intercultural communication alive and to infuse
their important role in education process, museums carry out their educational mission (Oruç and Altın,
2008:127). Museum education is the usage of museum means for the purpose of education. Museum
education especially serves the purposes of understanding itself and people in time and place, maintaining
cultural heritage, associating past, today and the future in a meaningful way, understanding cultural properties
and old artifacts, protecting and sustaining them, identifying and understanding own culture and different
cultures in a versatile and tolerant approach, gaining a living institution qualification, developing intercultural
understanding and empathy (İlhan , 2006:15).
Museum education is very different from traditional school education. Museum education is free from tests
and grades as in school. The visitor goes and visits the exhibit according to his taste. Because voluntariness is
essential to museum trip, it should be a pleasing experience. Therefore ways to attract visitiors should be
sought. Unlike in a classroom, learning in a museum is visual; it aims to draw the visitor’s attention and
interest. One of the main purposes of the museum education is to awaken imagination and develop his
emotional wakefulness. Museum educators see learning as an open-ended, continous, life-long experience
(Cihan, 2006:6).
The teacher must understand the learning environment of the museum very well. Learning in a museum is
different from the learning in a class, and both of the environments complete each other. Learning in a school
happens in oral communication. However in a museum, objects and visual resources are the main parts of the
learning process. In a museum, students are surrounded by “real things”. These add another dimension to the
knowledge attained from school (Ata,2002:70).
According to Hooper and Greenhill (1999); today museum education is a wider activity composition that
surpasses guided tours for schools but includes exhibits, workshops and publications not only for students but
families as well. Actually today’s education emphasizes not the result but abilities, activities, experience and
creative potential that leads to the result. Therefore the process gains importance in museums; educational
activities must be inventive and life-like. The basic principles of the museum education can be listed as below:
• Museum education is a constant, life-long education.
• Each museum has a unique education system.
• It is essential to make connection with museum collections and the needs and interests of the visitors.
• It is prerequisite to examine the collections, to pick up objects suitable for education.
• Making connection between collections and target group is necessary.
• Interaction of the visitor with environment and objects must be enabled.
• It is more important to address to emotions, imagination and creativity than to deliver
findings/information.
• Learning in a museum is learning from objects. It uses emotions as a base, and it bases on living.
• Museum education is not compulsory, it is voluntary.
• It is expected to enjoy, take delight in learning in a museum. The learning in museum requires abstract
thinking (Onur, 2002).
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Steps of Museum Education
Museum educations must be conducted in a planned way. Museum planning is divided into three as before
museum, during museum and after museum. Studies before museum are processes of planning people and
conditions. The trainer that conducts the study will decide on the group he will work with. He gets necessary
permissions and dates and prepares the trip plan based on the group’s characteristic. He informs the group
about the study and provides them with the necessary materials. He informs the officials in museum about the
day, time and the characteristics of the group. Studies in the museum are pre-planned but open to necessary
changes based on the conditions, addressing to different perceptions and emotions, educational, fun, creative
and available for open thinking applications. It is not necessary to see the whole museum in this study. Most of
the time this study includes creative drama and workshops, which are focusing on an object, an idea, a thought
that are supporting new acquisitions. In museum education studies, studies towards handcrafting, writing,
creative drama, studies on voice, smell and taste, studies on living history or oral history etc. can be used as a
method. The results of the museum studies are evaluated in the museum or in school. The products of the
activity (painting, fabric, mask, sculpture etc.) that are created in workshops can be displayed as an exhibit.
The intellectual outcomes of the studies are put forward in forms of applications, such as composition, debate,
letter and report. (İlhan et al, 2006:15).
In social studies lesson there can be different activities in a planned museum trip. Within the culture and
heritage learning sphere, prior to museum trip architectural exploration, photography animation, clock tower,
our traditions: ancestor sports and games, during the museum trip young archeologists, ritual organization,
design hunt in carpet and rugs, slabs; after the museum trip mutual culture heritage project, museum
presentation posters and brochures, costume designing in the museum and time capsule activities can be done
(İlhan et al, 2006:10).
Museum Education in the World and in Turkey
In many countries around the world, at this moment, the museum and exhibit education has reached to a point
where a concrete application structure is prepared, people with experience and dedication work and a big selfconfidence come up.
Museum and gallery education is accepted by the museum world as a vital and inseparable part of all the
museums with good managements, and the main side of a government’s enlightening presentation in
educational fields (Hooper- Greenhill, 1999:84).
It is seen that after World War II, new duties are taken in hand concerning museum studies in the whole world.
Two perspectives gain importance worldwide. First of them is education demands from the museums, the
second is aiming to have kids as target group. However unlike all the museums in the world, the postwar years
in Germany became the years when museum building are rebuilt, collections and organizations are gathered
and damages are compensated. 1960s were the beginning for museum education in Germany. This era lasts till
the middle of 1970s. In the year 1961 the Berlin Museum External Transactions Office was brought to life.
Afterwards big cities like Köln follow the tracks. In the year 1963 Ministry of Culture emphasizes in a
conference that education mission is as important as their other functions (saving, collecting, protecting) and
museums are called to have closer relationships with schools (Zilcioğlu, 2008:36).
In Turkey however, museology has 150 years long past (Hisar, 2010;177,178). After the proclamation of the
republic with the growing importance of the museum studies, many historical structures (Topkapi palace
museum, Agiasophia museum etc.) were protected with the things inside them and turned into museums for
the future generations to come. Also new museums (Ankara ethnography museum) are built along with
peculiarly built museum buildings. Turkish Historical Society which was built with Atatürk’s order enabled a fast
development for history and archeology museology in Turkey (Abacı, 2005:16). Türkiye’de 1923 yılında
st
toplanan 1 Science Committee that gathered in Turkey in the year 1923, put “school museum” concept into
their agendas and decide that this concept should be developed in every part of the school. In this decision it
was announced that all the materials related with education like equipments used in lessons, school
nd
equipments, documents would be used in school museum. At the end of the 2 Constitutional Monarcy era, in
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9
which museums’ development as a learning environment through the formation of school museum, school
museum relationship, museology studies and projects were supported, with the leadership of Mr. Satı and
İsmail Hakkı Baltacıoğlu in the beginning of 1920s the introduced concept was emphasized indirectly again after
1950s. In the first studies they lay stress on school-museum cooperation and understanding of laboratory
st
museum. Additionally there was a report prepared on doing education in museums in the 1 Culture Assembly
in 1982. (Paykoç, 2003:50).
The idea of benefiting from museums in education is not new in Turkey. However studies in this field are not
enough. For a country that has lands with very rich history and protects the documents of this history, it is a big
loss not to benefit from such opportunity. It is not difficult with leadership of the schools in Turkey to
implement programs, which are implemented by the museums to school groups in the West. For schools to
benefit from museums is possible through a three-stepped museum education program. This three-stepped
museum education method can be implemented to all the museums in Turkey with appropriate collections
depending on the subjects the trainer picks (Önder, Abacı and Kamaraj,2009:105-106).
Museum Education With Regards to Social Studies
Museums are ideal learning and practice centers where people learn while having fun and where they enjoy
learning. “Discovery rooms” that are aiming to learn through discovery and full with materials that encourage
the visitor to discover, “artificial or historical structures or even settlements” where past is revived, “science
museums” that are interactive exhibits where details of technology and science take place concretely, give
their visitors more than a learning done in a classical classroom atmosphere (İlhan et al, 2006:20).
School has lost its priority and qualification being first to be remembered when learning and education are
mentioned. Understanding of addition of differences to education today is considered together with many
factors that can contribute to children’s learning and education. It is clear that museums are indispensable
parts of the education. When the educational characteristic of museums is taken into consideration, the results
of children’s benefits from them can be listed as below:
• Children learn to develop their knowledge and they gain the habit of comparing them with the knowledge
in the books.
• Children have the chance to see the real life objects that were used in historical periods.
• They try to make connection between historical events and the life objects of that period. This situation
helps them gain true history awareness.
• In their minds they compare the differences and similarities between the objects today and objects in
museum.
• Children develop their sense of observation, logic, creativity and taste.
• They develop their sense of aesthetics.
• They learn creative thinking.
• Museums show children that development and change is unavoidable.
• It teaches to think and to evaluate the events in all aspects (thinking with multiple perspectives).
• In addition, children learn different cultures.
• They obtain consciousness to protect cultural values they own (Önder, Abacı and Kamaraj, 2009:105-106).
Museums are not only places where old artifacts are protected and displayed but also active learning places
where one can have fun walking around and much knowledge can be attained in this trip. Learning today is not
only through teachers’ lectures but also with the abilities and research instinct of the learners. Learning in a
museum is a composite of activities where the individual’s research and learning curiosity is awakened and this
curiosity is met through teacher’s guidance (İlhan et al, 2006:15). Because museums are not demanding a
certain certificate or grade, and most of the time voluntariness is of essence, they provide a wider place
compared with the traditional school boundaries to their participants or free learning area for their visitors
(Adıgüzel, 2002:24).
Some of the ability and values that are aimed through museum education in social studies are like this:
Gathering, recording, organizing and presenting data from cultural heritage themed activities, creating a sense
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9
of protection and sustentation of old artifacts, creating toleration and awareness towards different civilization
and cultures, evaluating cultural heritage with aesthetics and beauty concepts. As a result of these activities
students gain a lot of ability and values related with daily lives. Some of them are like this: He can differentiate
between local and universal, thinking and imagination develop through games and animations, researching
abilities develop, respects different ideas and compares modern day life with the past (İlhan et al, 2006;8-9).
In social studies education there are many outdoor activities (land works, community services) and one of the
important of these is museums. As a part of social studies, the students must be taken to museums. Especially
in teaching history or gaining national consciousness, museums are effective classrooms. When museums are
compared with schools, universities and libraries, they provide different learning options for the learner. One
of the advantages of museums is that they have wider visitor potential. Museums provide opportunities for the
identity development. While the visitors are interested in the objects and information in a museum, they
discover themselves and reflections of their culture. This phase helps the learner make new connections, make
sense and learn. Museums had some educational purposes. Museums can be defined as free-optioned or
informal learning environments. Free-optioned concept; can be used for the learning situations where the
individual guides himself, encouraged by voluntariness, personal need and interests, and aiming towards
widening the life ( Altın and Demirtaş, 2009:518). According to the theory of multiple intelligences and
constructivist approach, learning ways of the learners may vary. Because the museums create their own
learning environment, the date the students receive will be more. The gains coming from the teacher or guide’s
leadership will achieve their purpose (Yılmaz and Şeker, 2010:26).
There are many benefits of the usage of museums in social studies lesson. Museums help students understand
the values of historical artifacts and cultural properties of the past protect the cultural heritage and internalize
multiculturalism by tolerating different cultures. The collections displayed in the museums contribute their
critical thinking abilities on the past and history discipline through helping them to see how past is evaluated.
Collected and displayed objects or collections in the museums also help the protection of national identity,
culture and memory, and help them handing down the historical and cultural heritage to next generations.
Apart from these benefits, museums help the formation and development of abilities like observation, using
imagination and creativity, and emotions like aesthetics or like. It concretizes the lesson like social studies, in
which there are many abstract concepts and a lot of object teaching. Due to these reasons, museums have the
potential to enable the realization of the goals stated by the social studies curriculum as well as history
education curriculum in an effective way. Due to these contributions of museums to social studies and history
education, it is emphasized that museums should be used for educational purposes and it is advised for social
studies learning methods class in undergraduate programs must include museum education (Lacina and Latson
2003, akt.Yılmaz and Şeker, 2010:24).
Museum Education in Social Studies Program
th
Museum Education in 5 Grade Social Studies Program
CLASS UNIT
ACQUISITION
1. He recognizes the natural properties and
historical places, objects and monuments
within his environment and in our country.
2. He gives examples for cultural qualities
from our country’s various places.
3. He compares the similarities and
5
TURKEY
differences of cultural qualities between his
STEP BY STEP
environment and various places in our
country.
4. He explains the importance of cultural
elements and people living together.
EXPLANATION
Research trips can be arranged
to the natural properties and
historical places in close areas
and various places in our
country,
old
settlements,
national parks, open air
museums (Trojan, Cappadocia,
Dardanelles, Nemrut etc.) and
archeology, ethnography and
province museums.
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9
4. He compares the daily lives before and after
Atatürk’s reforms by using evidence.
DREAMS
COME
TRUE
1. He relates discoveries with technological
developments.
2. He discusses the impacts of discoveries and
techonological device to our social lives.
3. He realizes the common traits in inventors
and men of science.
4. He shows the importance that Atatürk gave
about science and technology.
5. He values the National Sovernigty and
independence symbols.
5
ONE
COUNTRY,
ONE FLAG
4. He gives examples to common heritage
items in various countries.
WORLD FOR
ALL OF US
CLASS
UNIT
LIFE
EARTH
ON
6
TURKS ON
THE SILK
ROAD
ELECTRONIC
CENTURY
Independence War Museum,
Mausoleum Museum, Military
Museums, Atatürk Museums in
all the cities that Atatürk
travelled
to
during
Independence War.
A trip can be arranged to
agency and institutes that
display technologic devices and
private
museums
that
individuals built.
Turkish
Grand
National
Assembly Museum can be
examined.
Natural properties that are in
virtual setting in various
countries, old settlements with
historical artifacts, national
parks, open air museums,
archeology ethnography and
various country museums with
objects can be visited.
ACQUISITION
6. He makes deductions from the factors that
affect the settlement which comes from the
first settlements before history until today.
7. He realizes the intereaction between
settlement and economic activities and social
strucutues of the first civilizations that lived in
Anatolia and Mesopotamia.
EXPLANATION
Archeology museums, province
museums
that
display
archeologic findings, and open
air museums like Çatalhöyük,
Kültepe, Alişar, and Trojan can
be visited in virtual or real
environment.
2. He makes deductions from the political,
economic and cultural characteristics of
Central Asia and first Turkish states using
saga, scripture and other documents.
3. He comprehends the importance and
duties of Turkish Armed Forces through
relating today’s Turkish Armed Forces with
the army of first Turkish states.
2. He puts forward creative ideas on the
affects of scientific and technologic
developments on future life.
Orkhon Inscriptions can be
searched
in
virtual
environment.
A research trip can be arranged
to military museums in virtual
or real environment.
Object and drama study can be
done in agent and institutes
that display technologic devices
and in private museums that
individuals built.
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9
Museum Education in the 7th Grade Social Studies Program
CLASS
UNIT
ACQUISITON
1. He evaluates the political
struggeles of the Turks of the Turkish
Seljuks and their cultural activites’
contribution to Turkization process of
Anatolia.
7
A TRIP
TURKISH
HISTORY
TO
3. He evaluates the conquest and
struggles of the Ottoman Empire
through the importance of commerce
and seas in Ottoman Empire.
6. He realizes the interaction between
senses of culture, art and aesthetics
in
terms
of
Ottoman-Europe
relations.
8. He makes deductions from social
and economic changes depending on
the institutions that come out as a
result of reforms in Ottoman Empire.
SCIENCE
TIME
IN
ECONOMY AND
SOCIAL LIFE
BRIDGES
BETWEEN
COUNTRIES
BRIDGES
BETWEEN
COUNTRIES
1. He gives examples to scientific and
technologic contributions of the first
civilizations.
2. Based on the first writing examples,
he realizes the usage area of writing
and its importance on transferring the
knowledge.
1. He explains the importance of
production and management of land
with examples.
3. He evaluates the impact of
developments
of
production
technology on social and economic
life through examples.
1. He connects the political and
economic structures of Ottoman
Empire and European countries in the
th
beginning of 20 century with the
results and outcomes of Worl War I.
4. He realizes the responsibility of
humanity in keeping products of
thought, art and literature, natural
properties and historical places alive
as common heritage item.
EXPLANATION
A virtual or real visit to city museums
in the cities that were the centers of
Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate and first
Turkish beylic and states in Anatolia (
Konya, Sivas, Erzurum etc.), Ahlat
Open Air Museum can be organized.
A real or virtual visit to Sea museums
can be organized.
Turkish and European museums
which are located in Istanbul
(Dolmabahçe Palace, Beylerbeyi
Palace, Yıldız Palace etc.)
and
various cities in Anatolia that display
cultural items from the last period of
Ottoman Empire
A trip to private museums that
belong to agency and institutes
(Reform Museum), bank museums,
military
museum,
education
museums can be arranged.
Archeology museums in various
cities of Turkey, Kültepe Settlement
with first cuneiform to be found in
Anatolia,
Anatolian
Civilization
Musum can be researched in virtual
or real environment.
Archeology museums in various
cities of Turkey and the first bay
settlement Çatalhöyük in Anatolia
can be visited in virtual or real
environment.
The museums in places where fronts
from World War I were built,
historical places (Erzurum Tabyaları,
Dardanelles vb.), and museums on
World War I in Europ can be visited
in a virtual environment.
A research trips can be done to city
museums, archeology museums,
science museums, ethnography
museums and art museums.
(MEB, 2008:6-8).
127
9
METHOD
The current situation is defined with the help of scanning mixed research methods in this research. According
to Leech and Onwuegbuzie (2007) mixed research includes gathering qualitative and quantitive data related
with basic facts in the series of one or multiple studies, analysis and commentary (Kıral and Kıral, 2011:294).
Universe and Sample
The universe of the research is composed of formal middleschoolers that live in the city of Bolu between the
th
school years 2012-2013. The sample of the research is composed of totally 258 students that are 6 and 7
graders in a middleschool in the city of Bolu. The distribution of the elementary students that took part in
th
th
research is like this: the number of 6 graders is 129, 7 graders 129, in total of 258. The distribution of the
th
th
students to the classes is shown in Table 1. Half structured questions are asked to 96 students (6 and 7
grade).
Collection and Analysis of the Data
In this research qualitatitve, quantative data collection and analysis methods are used. In order to collect
quantative data of the research a questionnaire with 5 stepped Likert scale is used and the collected data is
analysied with a computer program called SPSS 20. For the qualitative part of the analysis, 12 half structured
questions are asked, and the collected data are analyzed.With the mixed statistical operations on the data the
answers of the students to the questionnaire are detected accordin to their frequency and percentage
distribution. The data collection tool’s Cronbah Alpha Value is found as .89.
While analyzing the data in student questionnaire; it is coded as totally agree(1), agree(2), partially agree(3), do
not agree(4), do not agree at all (5) Totally agree is defined as “between 1.00 and 1.79”, agree as “between
1.80 and 2.59”, partially as “between 2.60 and 3.39”, do not agree as “between 3.40 and 4.19” and do not
agree at all as “between 4.20 and 5.00”.
FINDINGS
In this chapter the data collected with questionnaire are analyzed and the findings are shown in the tables
below. The findings about students’ attitudes towards museum trips are shown in table 1.
Do not agree at
all
Do not agree
Partially agree
Totally agree
Agree
Frequency
percentage
Table 1: The Frequency and Percentage Values of the Statements of the Students About Their Attitudes
Towards Museum Trips
I love going to museums.
%
65,9 20,5 8,9 3,5 1,2
f
170 53 23
9
3
Collections in museums excite me.
%
51,9 26,4 15,9 1,9 3,9
f
134 68
41 5
10
I enjoy being knowledgable about the
%
55,4 27,9 12,4 2,3 1,9
artifacts in museums
f
143
72 32
6
5
I would like to see things that belong to
%
72,9 17,8 6,6 8,0 1,9
ancient peoples
f
188 46
17
2
5
Museums are fun places.
%
41.1 27.1 19,4 3,5 8,9
f
106 70
50
9
23
As seen in Table 1, the students answered the “I love going to museums.” question with 65,9% as totally agree
and 20,5% agree ; “Collections in museums excite me” question with 51,9% as totally agree, 26,4% agree. While
the students answered “I enjoy being knowledgable abouth the artifacts in museums.” question with 55,4% of
them as totally agree and 27,9% as agree, they answered “I wouıld like to see things that belong to ancient
128
9
peoples” question with 72% as totally agree, 17,8% as agree. Students answered “Museums are fun places.”
question with 41.1% as totally agree 27.1% agree.
The arithmetic mean of the questions related with students’ attitudes towards museum trips is “1.70” ‘totally
agree’. The highest arithmetic mean is “2.12” agree as an answer to the question “Museums are fun places”.
The lowest arithmetic mean is “1.41” totally agree as an answer to the question “I would like to see things that
belong to ancient peoples”.
3. Artifacts displayed in museums help us realize.
the differences between past life and life today
4.I learn new things when I go to a museum.
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
20. The museums that are in our neighborhood help
us learn about our culture.
24. There must be constant visits to museums
in social studies lesson.
67,8
175
65,5
169
65,1
168
48,4
125
23,3
60
20,9
54
26,0
67
21,7
56
5,8
15
11,2
29
6,2
16
17,4
45
Do not agree at all
Do not agree
Partially Agree
Agree
Totally Agree
Frequence and
Percentag
Table 2: The Frequency and Percentage Values of the Statements of the Students’ Opinions about the Necessity
of Museum Trips
1,2 1,9
3
5
1,9 4,0
5
1
1,6 1,2
4
3
5,8 16,6
15
17
7. I would love to visit museums in social.
studies lesson
8. I love doing activities in a museum.
during social studies lesson
11.It is fun going to museums in social studies
lesson
18. I would like to go to museums and examine.
artifacts in social studies lesson
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
76,0
196
53,9
139
63,2
163
75,6
195
15,1
39
26,4
68
18,2
47
12,0
31
Do not agree at
all
Do not agree
Partially Agree
Agree
Totally agree
Frequency
percentage
As seen in Table 2, students are asked about the necessity to visit museums. To the question “Artifacts
displayed in museums help us realize the differences between past life and life today” 67,8% of the students
answered as totally agree, 23,3% as agree, to the question “I learn new things when I go to a museum” 65,5%
of the students answered as totally agree, and 20,9% as agree. To the question “The museums that are in our
neighborhood help us learn about our culture” 65,1% of the students answered as “totall agree”, 26,0% as
agree; to the question “There must be constant visits to museums in social studies lesson” 48,4% of the
students answered as totally agree, and 21,7% as agree. the arithmetic mean of the questions towards the
opinions of students about the necessity of museum trips is “1,60” as totally agree. The highest arithmetic
mean is agree with “2,00” and the answer to the question “There must be constant visits to museums in social
studies lesson”. The lowest arithmetic mean is totally agree with “1,46” and positive answer to the question
“Artifacts displayed in museums help us realize the differences between past life and life today”.
Table 3: The Frequency and Percentage Values of the Statements of the Student’s Attitudes Towards Museum
Trips in Social Studies Lesson
5,0 1,6
2,3
13
4
6
12,0 2,7 4,7
31
7
12
12,8 4,3 1,6
33
11
4
8,1 2,3 1,9
21 6
5
129
9
In Table 3 students answered the question “I would love to visit museums in social studies lesson”, which was
related with their attitudes about museum trips in social studies lesson, is answered as totally agree by 76,0%,
and agree as 15,1%, to the question “I love doing activities in a museum during social studies lesson” 53,9% of
them answered as totally agree, 26,4% as agree. To the question “It is fun going to museums in social studies
lesson” 63,2% of the students answered as totally agree, 18,2% as agree, to the question “I would like to go to
museums and examine artifacts” 75,6% of the students answered as totally agree and 12,0% as agree.
The arithmetic mean of the questions that were about the attitudes of the students towards museum trips in
social studies lesson is 1,56 with “totally agree”. The highest arithmetic mean is with 1,81 (agee) with the
answer to the question “I love doing activities in a museum during social studies lesson”. The lowest arithmetic
mean is “1,39” with the answer to the question “I would love to visit museums in social studies lesson”.
9. Seeing some artifacts that I saw earlier
in the social studies book help me learn
the subject better
13. Discussing a subject about history from
social studies lesson in a museum helps me
understand the subject better
15. Going to museums in social studies lesson
help us socialize
19. The museums in our neighborhood
help us learn about our local history in
social studies lesson
Do not agree at
all
Do not agree
Partially agree
Agree
Totally agree
Frequency
Percentage
Table 4: The Frequency and Percentage Values of the Statements of the Students’ Opinions on Benefits of
Museum Trips in Social Studies Lesson
%
f
41,1 27,1 19,4 3,5 8,9
106 70
50
9
23
%
f
67,1 22,1
173 57
%
f
%
f
5,0
13
1,9
5
3,9
10
58,5 20,5 14,3 3,5
151 53 37
9
67,1 22,1 7,8
1,6
173
57 20
4
3,1
8
1,6
4
Students answered the questions that were based on the benefits of the museum trips in social studies lesson,
to the question “Discussing a subject about history from social studies lesson in a museum helps me
understand the subject better” 67,1% of the students answered as totally agree, 22,1% as agree, to the
question “The museums in our neighborhood help us learn about our local history in social studies” 67,1% of
the students answered as totally agree, and 22,1% as agree.
The arithmetic mean of the questions to the students about the benefits of the museum trips in social studies
lesson is 1,63 as totally agree. The highest arithmetic mean is 1,80 with the answer totally agree to the
question “Seeing some artifacts that I saw earlier in the social studies book help me learn the subject better”.
The lowest arithmetic mean belongs to the answer of the question “The museums in our neighborhood help us
learn about our local history in social studies lesson” with “1,47”.
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12. Museum trips should be organized.
in social studies lesson in schools
21. Some subjects on geography and history
in social studies lesson can be taugh in a museum
22. Science and technology subjects in social
studies lesson can be taught in science and
technology museums
%
f
%
f
%
f
69,8
180
44,2
125
47,3
122
16,3
42
29,5
56
25,2
65
9,3
24
17,4
45
13,3
34
Do not agree
at all
Do not agree
Partially Agree
Agree
Totally Agree
Frequency and
Percentage
Table 5: The Frequency and Percentages of Students’ Opinions on the Appropriateness of Museum Trips to
Social Studies Lesson
1,9 2,7
5
7
5,4 3,5
15
17
7,4 7,0
19 18
In Table 5 student opinions on appropriateness of museum trips in social studies lesson is given. According to
this to the question “Some subjects on geography and history in social studies lesson can be taught in a
museum” 44,2% of the students answered as totally agree, to the question “Science and technology subjects in
social studies lesson can be taught in science and technology museums” 47,3% of the students answered as
“totally agree”, 25,2% as agree.
The arithmetic mean of the questions on appropriateness of museum trips to social studies lesson is 1,82 as
“agree”. The highest arithmetic mean is 2,01 (agree) to the answer of the question “Science and technology
subjects in social studies lesson can be taught in science and technology museums”. The lowest arithmetic
mean is 1,51 (totally agree) to the positive answer of the question “Museum trips should be organized in social
studies lesson in schools”. Findings towards the attitude and opinion questions of the students related to
virtual and mobile museums are given in Table 6.
23,3
60
55,4
143
51,2
132
Partially Agree
Agree
27,5
71
23,6
61
20,2
52
18,2
47
11,6
30
17,8
46
Do not agree at
all
%
f
%
f
%
f
Do not agree
14. In social studies lesson virtual.
museum trip is organized
23. Virtual museum trip in social studies.
lesson makes me like the lesson better
25. Mobile museum visiting our school help
me like the museums better.
Totally Agree
Frequency and
Percentage
Table 6: The Frequency and Percentages of Attitudes and Opinions of Students Towards Virtual and Mobile
Museum
10,1
26
5,8
15
4,7
12
20,9
54
3,5
9
6,2
16
According to Table 6 the answers to the question “In social studies lesson virtual museum trip is organized” are
very similar to each other. According to this to the question “Virtual museum trip in social studies lesson makes
me like the museum better” 55,4% of the students answer as “totally agree”, 23,6% as agree, to the question
“Mobile museum visiting our school help me like the museums better” 51,2% of them as “totally agree”, 20,2%
as “agree”. The arithmetic mean of the questions on students’ attitude and opionos towards virtual and mobile
museums is “2,16” agree. The highest arithmetic mean is “2,77’ as partially agree with the answer to the
question “In social studies lesson virtual museum trip is organized”. The lowest arithmetic mean is the positive
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answer to the question “Virtual museum trip in social studies lesson makes me like the museum better” with
1,78 “totally agree”.
Do not agree at
all
Do not agree
Partially Agree
Agree
Frequency and
Percentage
Totally Agree
Table 7: The Frequency and Percentage Value of Student Tendencies to Go to Museums Outside of School
16. I also go to museums apart from the museum % 33,7 23,6 24,4 9,3
trips organized by our school
f 87 61 63 24
8,9
23
In Table 7 the students’ tendencies to go to museums outside of school. According to this to the question “I
also go to museums apart from the museum trips organized by our school.” 33,7% of the students answered as
totally agree, 23,6% as agree, 24,4% as partially agree, 9,3% as do not agree, 8,9% do not agree at all.
17.In the education of the subjects in social
studies, the museums in our local areas
are sufficient
%
f
22,5 25,2
58
65
24,8
64
Do not agree
at all
Do not agree
Partially
Agree
Agree
Totally Agree
Frequency
and
Percentage
Table 8: The Frequency and Percentage Values of the Students2 Views on Proficiency of the Museums in the
Region
14,3 13,2
37
34
To the question “In the education of the subjects in social studies, the museums in local areas are sufficient”
22,5% of the students answered as totally agree, 25,2% as agree, 24,8% as partially agree, 14,3% as do not
agree, 13,2% as do not agree at all. Data about the students are given in Table 9.
Table 9: T-test Findings According to the Grades of the Students
Class
N
X
S
F
th
6 Grade
th
7 Grade
129
129
1.71
1.86
.521
.586
1.923
t
df
P
-2.159
256
.032
th
As seen in Table 9 the number of students that took the questionnaire are 129 from the 6 grade, 258 from the
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7 grade is checked with “t” test. In order to determine if there was any difference between the 6 and 7
graders in their attitudes and opinions about the usage of museums, “t” test is applied. According to the result
of analysis is found as P= .032. According to this we can say that there is a meaningful difference at a level of
th
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0.05 in terms of the opinions of the students on museum usage between 6 and 7 graders.
Using Museums as an Education Environment in Social Studies and Findings on Half Structured Questions
Asked to Students About Museum Education
In this chapter, the answers to the half structured questions given by the students will be analyzed.
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Table 10: The Frequency Values of the Answers Given to the Question “Is museum education given in social
studies lesson?”
f
Yes
8
Partially yes
15
No
72
As seen in Table 10 according to the opinions of the majority of the students (72), museum education is not
given in social studies lesson. The ones that answered as “partially yes” are 15, the ones that answered as “yes”
are 8 students.
Table11: The Frequency Values of the Answers Given to the Question “What is the importance of museum
education with regards to social studies lesson?”
f
It helps us understand the social studies lesson better.
We learn our history.
We learn our culture.
It helps the knowledge easy to remember.
We see the discussed subjects live.
47
38
17
11
8
As seen in Table 11 students said that museum education help understand the social studies lesson better (47),
help learn our history better (38), help learn our culture easier (17), increase the permanence of the knowledge
(11) and enables the evidence of the subjects taught in school to be seen in museums (8).
I can follow the lecture better. Because doing lessons in museums interest me (S.90). While studying the unit ‘A
Trip to Turkish History’ I love seeing artifacts from old times (S56). It helps us to socialize (S.44).We reinforce our
previous knowledge (S88).
Table12: The Frequency Values of the Answers Given to the Question “What kind of studies are conducted
before going to a museum?”
f
We do not go to museums.
Information is given about the museum artifacts.
There is no study.
The rules to obey in a museum are taught.
78
15
15
13
As seen in Table 12, (78) students indicate that they do not go to museums, (15) of them say information is
given about museum artifacts, (15) students say that there is no study, (13) of them say that the rules to obey
in a museum are taught.
At first the permission paper is given (S81).The trip is planned (S51). The lessons are taught normally, we do not
go to museums (S55). The subject in the museum is taught in the class (S10). The people who are going is
determined (S12).
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Tablo13: The Frequency Values of the Answers Given to the Question “ What is done during a trip to the
museum in social studies lessons?”
f
There is not any study.
Information is given about the artifacts.
We analyze historical artifacts
Information is given about the arfifacts.
We just walk around.
The rules to obey are explained.
60
20
13
20
8
10
As seen in Table 13 according to the majority of the students (60) there is not any study during the museum.
Information is given about the artifacts (20), We analyze historical artifacts (13),The rules to obey are explained
(10).
Table14: The Frequency Values of the Answers to the Question “ What kind of studies are conducted in Social
studies calls after returning from the museum?”
f
There is not any study.
78
We talk about our comments on the museum.
16
We repeat the things we learned in the museum.
12
We answer the questions we prepared.
11
As seen in Table 14 the majority of the students (78) there is not any study after returning from the
museum(78) we talk about our comments on the museum (16), we repeat the things we learned in the
museum (12), we answer the questions we prepared (11).
We talk about the things we see in the museum after we return, we repeat the things we learned (S42). We are
talking about the things we learned in the museum when we return from there and then we write a composition
about it (S19).
Does museum education increase your interest towards social studies lesson?
The students that answered as “yes it does” consist of 89, the ones with the answer “partially yes” consist of 7
students.
Which virtual museums have you visited in social studies lesson?
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th
6 graders (10) answered that Ethnography Museum, Topkapi Musem are visited. However the 7 graders (16)
answered that they organized a virtual museum trip to Ethnography Museum, Anatloian Civilizations Museum
and Topkapi Palace Museum. We could not organize virtual museum trip in school and classrooms because we
did not have the opportunity (S95).
What are the contributions of the museum trips you organize in social studies lesson for you?
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The 6 and 7 graders who visited the museum in social studies lesson said that they were informed (20), their
culture is enhanced (14) and they became socialized (6).
What kind of museums would you like to visit in social studies lesson?
Generally students indicated that they would like to visit history museums, Bolu Museums, Mausoleum
Museum, and Dardanelles Museum.
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What are the problems you encountered, and what are your wishes in social studies lesson about museum
education?
As part of social studies the students that attended the museum education did not encounter any problems. As
a wish almost all of them (90) indicated that they would like to go to museums and do activities there.
CONCLUSION, DISCUSSION AND SUGGESTIONS
th
It is seen that 6th and 7 grades that participated in the research generally like museums, excited by the
artifacts and learn from them, museum trips are appropriate and necessary for social studies lesson, there
should be real and virtual museum trips in social studies lesson. The answers given by the students is seen as
sincere and consistent.
With the findings, the students stated the opinion that the real and virtual museum education is not widely
given in social studies lesson. Additionally it is found that the students taking museum education as part of
social studies are not made to do planned activites before, during and after the museum trip. On the contrary
to these findings, students stated that museum education is important, and museum education increases the
interest towards social studies.
It is detected that students receiving museum education in social studies lesson did not visit any museum apart
from Bolu Museum. However student in general indicated that they would like to visit Bolu museu, Mausoleum
Museum, Dardanelles Museum, Ethnography Museum and Anatolia Civilizations Museum.
As a result of the study, it is found that the students that participated in museum study did not encounter any
problem during the education, both the participated and not participated students would like to go to
museums and do activities there.
The results of this study support the ideas towards using museums efficiently in social studies lesson. As in the
case of studies about museum education (Ata, 2002; Akmehmet ve Ödekan,2006; Aktekin, 2008; Castle, 2002;
Dikyol, İnce and Usta, 2011; Erim,2005; Güler, Gökkaya and Yeşilbursa, 2009; Güleç and Alkış, 2003; Gökmen,
2004; Okvuran,2012; Oruç and Altın, 2008; Önder, Abacı and Kamaraj 2009;Taş,2012; Şahan, 2005; Yılmaz and
Şeker, 2010) it has been reached to the conclusion that the attitude and opinions of the students towards
museums are positive.
In this research a questionnaire is used to analyze students’ attitudes and opinions towards museum trips and
museum education. According to this it is seen that students’ attitudes towards museums are positive, they
believe museum trips our beneficial for them in various ways, they think that museums are appropriate
learning environments for social studies lesson and they want to visit museums as part of social studies lesson.
Museums, which are seen beneficial by the students for learning as well, must be used in an effective way in
today’s modern education system and it should continue its purpose as to save social studies lesson from
memorization, and to be places where it is more enjoyable and where students can be more active. The advices
of Ministry of National Education (MEB) Board of Education and Discipline about the usage of museums in
social studies education must be taken into consideration. According to the decision they reached in the year
2008 the concerned board announced which lesson subjects and units can be associated with museums (MEB,
2008). In this context, the resources at hand must be used in a good way and teachers must take the students
in appropriate subjects. However, as understood from the previous studies teachers stated that they do not
want to take the students to museums and it is hard to get necessary permissions. Because of this reason, it is
necessary to finalize the bureaucratic barriers in this subject fast, to provide the cooperation of museum and
school, and local government to support this subject.
As understood from the findings of the study, museum education and the desires of the students on the same
subject do not match. A planned museum education will affect the knowledge, ability and attitudes of the
students positively. Therefore their museum education should include some planned (before, after, and during
the museum trip) applications.
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About the usages of museum, teacher candidates in universities must be given applied training, the things that
teachers lack in this subject must be compensated through in-service trainings. The studies on the usage of
museums in our country for the purpose of education and training continue, but they are not at a sufficient
level. Therefore starting with the regional museums, province museums must be prepared to serve the
educational purposes. Also the continuity of museum educations must be provided through school-museum
cooperation. Virtual museum trips should be provided to students in social studies lesson when there is an
appropriate subject. As understood from the study, it is reached to the conclusion that virtual museum trip is
not done enough in social studies lesson but they thought that museum trips in a virtual environment will
increase the attitude of the student towards the lesson. Virtual museum trips must be arranged in places
where museums are not appropriate for education or the authorities in charge must send mobile museums to
these regions. Panoromic mobile museums can be built for the purpose of museum usage in education
(Ottoman Museum, İstanbul’s Conquest Museum). About the subject of mobile museums, projects that
concern all Turkey must be conducted.
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BIODATA AND CONTACT ADRESSES OF AUTHORS
Hatice MEMİŞOĞLU, currently employed as an an Assistant Professor at Abant İzzet Baysal
University Faculty of Education, Department of Primary Education. She Phd degree in
Institute of Social Sciences at Gazi University. She is specifically interested in project based
learning, values education and social studies instruction.
Assist. Prof. Dr. Hatice MEMİŞOĞLU
Abant İzzet Baysal University, Faculty of Education
Department of Primary Education, Social Studies Education
Bolu- TURKEY
Tel: +90374 2541000
Samet KAMÇI, Abant Izzet Baysal Üniversity, graduate student in the Institute of Educational
Sciences. He is specifically interested in social studies education and museum education
studies.
Samet KAMÇI
Abant İzzet Baysal University, Institute of Education Sciences,
Department of Elementary Education, Social Studies Education
Bolu-TURKEY
Tel: +90 544 323 82 83
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Oluşum Tiyatrosu Yayınları.
Akmehmet, K.T., Ödekan, A.(2006). Müze Eğitiminin Tarihsel Gelişimi, İTÜ Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Sanat Tarihi
Programı, İstanbul.
Alev, Ö.,Abacı, O., Kamaraj, I. (2009). “Müzelerin Eğitim Amaçlı Kullanımı”: İstanbul Arkeoloji Müzesi’ndeki
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Castle, M. C. (2002).Teaching History in Museums, Reprinted with permission from Ontario History/ Vol XCIV,
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yüksek lisans tezi , Ankara.
Dikyol, D.Ç., İnce, E.,Usta, S.(2011). Öğretmen Adaylarının Tarihi Mekanlara ve Eserlere İlişkin Görüşlerinin
İncelenmesi, Hasan Ali Yücel Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi Sayı 16 (2011-2), 57-68 İstanbul.
Doğanay, A.(2002). Sosyal bilgiler Öğretimi, Hayat Bilgisi ve Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi, Öztürk C.ve Dilek D. (ed).
Ankara :Pegem A Yayıncılık.
Erim, G.(2005).Bursa Anadolu Arabaları Müzesinde Bir Araştırma: Müzede Sanat Eğitimi, Uludağ Üniversitesi
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299-307.
Gökmen,C.O. (2004).İlköğretim 1. Kademede müzelerin öğretim ortamı olarak kullanılması. Tezsiz Yüksek Lisans
Projesi, Ankara.
Gökkaya, K., Yeşilbursa C. C.(2009).Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretiminde Tarihi Yerlerin Kullanımının Akademik Başarıya
Etkisi, Türk Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi Bahar, 7(2), 483-506.
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İlişkisi”. İlköğretim-online 2 (2), ss. 19–27, Haziran.
Güler, A.(2011).Planlı Bir Müze Gezisinin İlköğretim Öğrencilerinin Tutumuna Etkisi, Elementary İlköğretim
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İlhan, A.Ç.et al.(2006). Müze Eğitimi Akran Kitabı, Ankara:Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları.
İlhan, A.Ç.et al.(2006). Müze Eğitimi Yetişkin Kitabı, Ankara:Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları.
İlhan, A.Ç.et al .(2006). Müze Eğitimi Etkinlik Kitabı, Ankara:Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları.
Kıral, B., Kıral, E.(2011).Karma Araştırma Yöntemi;Antalya (International Conference on New Trends in
Education and Their Implications’da bildiri olarak sunulmuştur.)
Maccario, N.K.(2002). Müzelerin Eğitim Ortamı Olarak Kullanımı, Uludağ Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi
Cilt: XV, Sayı: 1, , Bursa.
MEB.(2008). İlköğretim 1-8.Sınıflar Türkçe, Matematik, Sosyal Bilgiler, Hayat Bilgisi İle Fen ve Teknoloji Dersi
Öğretim Programlarında Müze ile Eğitim, Ankara:MEB Yayınları.
Taş, A.M.(2012). Primary-Grade Teacher Candidates’ Views on Museum Education, US-China Education Review
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Onur, B. (2002). Müze Eğitimi: Temel İlkeler ve Politikalar, Müze Eğitimi Seminerleri I: Akdeniz Bölgesi Müzeleri,
Antalya.
Okvuran, A. (2012). Müzede Dramanın Bir Öğretim Yöntemi Olarak Türkiye’de Gelişimi, Eğitim ve Bilim 2012,
Cilt 37, Sayı 166 Ankara.
Oruç, S., Altın, B.N.(2008). Müze Eğitimi ve Yaratıcı Drama makalesi, Çukurova Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi
Dergisi, 35. Sayı, Adana.
Paykoç, P. (2003).Türkiye’de Müze Eğitimi Uygulamaları: Tarihçe ve Örnekler, B. Onur (Ed.), Antalya .
Şahan,M.(2005). (http://www.tebd.gazi.edu.tr/arsiv/2005_cilt3/sayi_4/487-501.pdf adresinden 23.03.2013
tarihinde alınmıştır.)
Yılmaz, K., Şeker, M.; Yılmaz, K.(2010). “İlköğretim Öğrencilerinin Müze Gezilerine ve Müzelerin Sosyal Bilgiler
Öğretiminde Kullanılmasına İlişkin Görüşlerinin İncelenmesi” adlı makalesi, Aydın Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri
Dergisi , İstanbul.
Zilcioğlu, Ş.(2008). Avrupa’da Çocuk Müzeleri ve Müze Eğitimi: “Almanya Örneği. Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans
Tezi, Ankara.
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GENERAL PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN GENERAL INSPECTIONS
OF PRIMARY SCHOOLS ACCORDING TO THE VIEWS OF INSPECTORS AND PRINCIPALS*
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Salih Paşa MEMİŞOĞLU
Bolu, TURKEY
Zeki EKİNCİ
Mardin Provincial Directorate of National Education
Mardin,TURKEY
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to determine the problems encountered in the general inspection of primary
schools according to the views of inspectors and principals and develop suggestions. The survey model was
used in the study. The study population consisted of the principals and assistant principals who worked at
primary schools in Mardin’s central districts in the school year of 2010-2011 and Education Inspectors of the
Province of Mardin. In this study, “One Way Variance Analysis” was used in order to discover whether there
was a significant difference between the views of principals and education inspectors according to the variables
of duty state, seniority and education level or not. While the principals had “high” levels of views concerning
the general problems encountered in general inspection of primary schools, the education inspectors and
assistant principals had “medium” levels of views. In conclusion, it was discovered that there was not a
significant difference between the views of principals, assistant principals and education inspectors in terms of
the variables of duty state, seniority and education.
Key Words: General inspection, inspector, principal.
INTRODUCTION
Inspection had an administrative quality before the 1900s. Teachers are perceived as wage earners who should
be inspected by the administration. In the 1900s, on the other hand, it was emphasized that the specialised
knowledge was required in educational inspection. Inspection remained a branch of administration during this
period, as well. It is observed that inspection acquired a scientific qualification in the 1920s and human
relations were emphasized in inspection applications in the 1930s and 1940s. In recent years, on the other
hand, a notion of inspection, which gives importance to the development of human capital in educational
inspection where organizations aim to develop the human capital and use it in an effective way, has been
emphasized (Aydın, 2011:12).
Inspection is an element of administration processes and the school administration. Inspection is used in
finding the realization degree of predetermined educational objectives (Bursalıoglu, 2002). In this context, the
objective of inspection is to determine the realization degree regarding the objectives of the organization.
General inspection that is conducted at primary schools aims to determine the realization degree regarding the
objectives of the organization. The counseling and inspection that are conducted by education inspectors at
public and private primary schools in our country aim to make these institutions more efficient and productive
(Memişoğlu and Ekinci, 2013). Inspection is universal. It is not possible for organizations to function without
inspection no matter what their types, objectives and establishments are. (Başaran, 1988:369). Inspection is
the process of following, regenerating and developing the functioning of the organization in order to prevent
possible deviations from the planned organizational objectives.
*
This study was prepared by using the postgraduate thesis.
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According to the views of classical administration led by Taylor, inspection is required by the human nature.
Even though there is a perception that human beings could inspect and direct themselves without needing any
outer inspections in the notion of modern administration, inspection is still an important process of
administration (Kaya 1991:126). Inspection is an organizational and administrative obligation.
The necessity of inspection for organizations and the importance of its benefits require its careful
implementation. Inspection is among key provisions of using the organizational resources in an efficient and
useful way, as well as sustaining and developing the organizations (Başar, 1998: 5). All of the authors
emphasize the necessity and importance of inspection in the educational system. Especially the inspection of
intraclass education is considered inevitable. Inspection involves working with individuals and groups. If the
system gets devoid of inspection, it is condemned to loneliness, disorder and stability, and a power loss occurs
(Kimbrough and Burkett,1990: 170; cited by: Aydın, 2005:3).
Inspection is an activity that enables the school to achieve its goals. Functions of inspection could be collected
under six groups (Sağlamer, 1975:11):
1.Generation of objectives,
2.Procurement and control of coordination,
3.Motivation,
4.Problem solving,
5.Development,
6.Evaluation
In the educational system, inspection is separated into two parts as lesson inspection and general inspection.
Lesson inspection includes the observation, investigation and evaluation of studies of teachers rendering
service at an educational institution in educational activities. General inspection, on the other hand, includes
the procurement and control of human and material resources in the realization of the objectives of an
educational organization, as well as the observation of utilization state and evaluation according to certain
criteria (Taymaz,1997: 24).
Increase in the number of schools and the rules necessitated by laws, as well as duties such as regulations in
education, checking whether schools obey these rules or not, coordination, education on-the-job, guiding the
teachers, following the functioning and process operation have necessitated not only the educational
administration, but also inspection in education (Başaran, 1998). Inspection is required in order to understand
to what extent the school administrations realize the objectives of the educational system and realize these
objectives at higher levels.
The objectives of inspection at a school include: (1) Providing cooperation in teacher-student relations, (2)
Providing the cooperation and communication of inspector-teacher, (3) Providing the planning and
sustainability in inspection, (4) Providing the evaluation function of inspection, (5) Conducting researches,
investigations and making corrections accordingly (Su, 1974: 13).
In the Turkish educational system, the primary schools are inspected by education inspectors. This study aimed
to reveal the general problems encountered in the inspection of primary schools. We sought answers for the
following questions within the scope of the designated objective.
Regarding the general inspection:
a. What are the general problems encountered by principals, assistant principals and education inspectors?
b. Is there a significant difference between the views of principals, assistant principals and education
inspectors regarding the general problems they encounter?
c. Is there a significant difference between the general problems encountered by principals, assistant
principals and education inspectors according to the variables of seniority and education?
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METHOD
Study Model
This is a survey model study. Survey model is a study approach that aims to describe a past or present
condition as it is. (Karasar, 2002: 77). According to another description, survey model aims to collect data in
order to determine certain characteristics of a group (Büyüköztürk, 2010: 16).
Population and Sample
The study population consisted of 44 principals, 61 assistant principals who worked at primary schools in
Mardin’s central districts in the school year of 2010-2011 and 50 Education Inspectors in the Province of
Mardin. No attempt was made for sampling in the study, since it was possible to reach the entire population.
Collection of the Data
The assessment instrument that was developed by Gök (2009) was used as the data collection tool in the study.
In order to implement the assessment instrument, official correspondences were conducted between Abant
İzzet Baysal University Institute of Social Sciences and Mardin Provincial Directorate of National Education , and
a permission was obtained from the Mardin Provincial Directorate of National Education for the study. The
assessment instrument was distributed to school administrators and education inspectors in the central district
of Mardin and collected by the researcher. The assessment instrument was distributed to 44 principals, 61
assistant principals and 50 education inspectors, which makes 155 people in total. 43 out of 44 principals, 59
out of 61 assistant principals and 50 out of 50 education inspectors, who were sent the assessment
instruments, returned these instruments. All of the returned assessment instruments were involved in the
evaluation.
Data collection tool of the study consists of two parts. In the first part, a personal information form was
prepared to obtain the personal information of administrators and inspectors. In this part, the administrators
and inspectors were asked about their gender, occupational seniority, educational status and duties. In the
second part, on the other hand, the assessment instrument that was developed by Gök (2009) was used in
order to determine the views of administrators and inspectors rendering service at primary schools, concerning
the problems encountered in the general inspection of primary schools. The researcher checked the internal
consistency (Cronbach Alpha) of each dimension of the assessment instrument and the Cronbach Alpha value
(reliability coefficient) of the assessment instrument was found as .93,8.
Data Analysis
The data that were obtained from the study were analysed with the SPSS packaged software. Frequencies,
percentages, arithmetic means and standard deviations were calculated in the analysis of the data that were
obtained from the study. “One Way Variance Analysis” was conducted to determine whether there was a
significant difference between the views of principals, assistant principals and education inspectors.
FINDINGS
The task distributions of study participants are shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Task Distributions of Groups in the Study Population
Task
Principal
Assistant Principal
Education Inspector
Total
f
%
43
59
50
152
28,3
38,8
32,9
100,0
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According to Table 1, 28,3% of study participants are consisted of principals, 38,8% are consisted of assistant
principals and 32,9% are consisted of education inspectors.
Table 2: Findings regarding the General Problems Encountered by Principals, Assistant Principals and Education
Inspectros in General Inspections
Groups
Questions
Principal Assistant Principal
Inspector
X
SS
SS
X
X
SS
1-Objective and policy of inspection
in institutions are not determined
3.37 1.23
3.15
1.25
3.22 1.28
2-There is a dual inspection
structuring in the national education system
3.18 1.25
3.32
1.07
3.60
1.30
3-Inspection is limited with past and not
prudential
3.48 1.22
3.57
. 05
3.22
1.21
4-Number of inspectors in institutions
is less compared to the work load
3.76 1.10
3.06
1.24
3.26
1.19
5-Inspectors who are responsible for the
general inspection also inspect teachers
3.11 1.33
3.08
1.41
2.68
1.26
6-General inspection reports that are
presented to the presidency are not evaluated
in a short time as is required
3.67 1.12
3.35
1.26
3.68 1.25
7-Regulations and notices regarding the inspection
are changed frequently
3.88 1.23
3.71
1.27
3.20
8-Forms and reports being used in inspection
are not standardized
3.65 1.36
3.49
1.30
3.10 1.37
3.51 0.84
3.34
0.89
3.24 0.87
TOTAL
1.19
The arithmetic means of the views of principals regarding the dimension of general problems encountered in
the general inspection was found as X = 3.51 with a standard deviation of 0.84. Based on this means, it could
be asserted that problems experienced by principals in the general inspection are at a “High” level.
It could be asserted that the finding regarding the fact that principals consider the problems “forms and
reports being used in inspection are not standardized” and “Inspection is limited with past and is not
prudential” as very important is supported by the finding of Karagözoğlu (1977), which was obtained from his
study titled “Inspection Applications in Primary Education” and is as follows “… teachers think that they can not
receive sufficient support from inspectors regarding the planning and implementation of educational activities,
inspection reports are considered a threat risk and the view of inspectors regarding success is affected by
appearance, neatness and interest in the inspector rather than education”.
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It is observed that the finding regarding the fact that principals consider the problems “Objective and policy of
inspection in institutions are not determined”, “There is a dual inspection structuring in the national
education system” and “Inspectors who are responsible for the general inspection also inspect teachers” as
moderately important is supported by the conclusion of Öztürk (1999) in his study titled “Views of Inspectors
and Principals regarding the Problems Encountered in General Inspections of Primary Schools”.
The arithmetic means of the views of assistant principals regarding the dimension of general problems
encountered in the general inspection was found as X = 3.34 with a standard deviation of 0.89. Based on this
means, it could be asserted that general problems experienced by assistant principals in the general
inspection are at a “Medium” level.
Examining Table 2, assistant principals consider the problem “regulations and notices regarding the
inspection are changed frequently” as very important with an arithmetic means of X = 3,71, consider the
problem “Inspection is limited with past and is not prudential” as very important with an arithmetic means of
X = 3,57, and consider the problem “forms and reports being used in inspection are not standardized” as very
important with an arithmetic means of X = 3,49.
It is observed that the finding regarding the fact that assistant principals consider the problems “General
inspection reports that are presented to the presidency are not evaluated in a short time as is required”,
“There is a dual inspection structuring in the national education system”, “Objective and policy of inspection
in institutions are not determined”, “Inspectors who are responsible for the general inspection also inspect
teachers” and “Number of inspectors in institutions is less compared to the work load” as moderately
important is supported by the determination of Öztürk (1999) in his study titled “Views of Inspectors and
Principals regarding the Problems Encountered in General Inspections of Primary Schools”.
The arithmetic means of the views of inspectors regarding the dimension of general problems encountered in
the general inspection was found as X = 3.24 with a standard deviation of 0.87. Based on this means, it could
be asserted that general problems experienced by inspectors in the general inspection are at a “Medium”
level.
Examining Table 4-5.3, inspectors consider the problem “General inspection reports that are presented to
the presidency are not evaluated in a short time as is required” as very important with an arithmetic means
of X = 3,68 and consider the problem “There is a dual inspection structuring in the national education
system” as very important with an arithmetic means of X = 3,60.
It is observed that the finding regarding the fact that education instructors consider the problem “General
inspection reports that are presented to the presidency are not evaluated in a short time as is required” as
very important is supported by the finding of Söbü (2005), which was obtained from his study titled “Problems
of Primary School Inspectors” and is as follows “the reports that are prepared at the end of the general
inspection and presented to the Provincial Directorate of National Education are not handled sufficiently”.
The finding regarding the fact that education inspectors consider the problem “There is a dual inspection
structuring in the national education system” as very important is supported by the finding of Arabacı (2010),
which was obtained from his study titled “Education Inspection in the Reconstruction Process and the Chaotic
Condition: Suggestion for a New Model” and is as follows “As is observed in many public organizations, there is
a conflict of authority and duty between inspection units such as Ministry Inspection Committee, Presidency of
Primary School Inspectors and Internal Inspection Unit within the Ministry of National Education. The
assertions in 14. 15. 17. National Education Councils of the Inspection System, as well as many researches and
scientific platforms support the finding, which requires assembling under the same roof.
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Table 3 : One Way Variance Analysis regarding the Views of Education Inspectors, Principals and Assistant
Principals concerning the Problems Encountered in General Inspections
Dimension
Resource of Total of
sd
Average of
F
p
Variance
Squares
Squares
Problems
Encountered
In
Inspections
InterGroup
1,740
IntraGroup
114,465
Total
116,205
2
149
0.870
1.132
0,325
0.768
As is seen in Table 3, according to the results of the One Way Variance Analysis that was conducted to
determine whether there was a significant difference between the subject views of principals, assistant
principals and education inspectors regarding the “General Problems Encountered in the General Inspection” in
terms of the variable of duty state, it was determined as p > 0.5 in the lower dimension of “General Problems
Encountered in the General Inspection”. This value shows that there is not a significant difference between the
subject views in terms of the variable of duty state in the dimension of problems encountered in the general
inspection at a level of .05.
It was observed that there was not a significant difference between the views of principals, assistant principals
and education inspectors who participated in the study in terms of the variables of seniority and education
level regarding the “general problems encountered in the general inspection” at a level of .05.
Regarding eight problems in the dimension of the general problems encountered in the general inspection , it is
observed that two are perceived as a problem by inspectors, five are perceived as a problem by principals and
three are perceived as a problem by assistant principals at a considerable rate. The fact that general problems
encountered in the general inspection are felt by principals more than inspectors could be explained through
the relation between the problems encountered in the dimension of general problems being encountered and
roles and duties that are expected from the inspection and inspectors. According to this result; while inspectors
think that the general inspection they conduct organizes and develops the system, principals believe that the
general inspection is limited with the determination of the situation.
Principals consider the problems “regulations and notices regarding the inspection are changed frequently,
number of inspectors in institutions is less compared to the work load, general inspection reports that are
presented to the presidency are not evaluated in a short time as is required, forms and reports being used in
inspection are not standardized, inspection is limited with past and is not prudential” as very important.
Asistant principals consider the problems “regulations and notices regarding the inspection are changed
frequently, inspection is limited with past and is not prudential, forms and reports being used in inspection
are not standardized” as very important.
Education instructors consider the problems “general inspection reports that are presented to the presidency
are not evaluated in a short time as is required and there is a dual inspection structuring in the national
education system” as very important.
The dual inspection system, which is involved in the central organization of the Ministry of National Education
within the body of Counseling and Inspection Presidency and Provincial Directorate of National Education as
the Presidency of Education Inspectors, is considered as a very important problem by education inspectors.
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According to the arithmetic means of participants’ views regarding the dimension of general problems
encountered in the general inspection; it could be asserted that while principals experience problems at a
“high” level, assistant principals and inspectors experience at a “moderate” level.
Reegarding the lower dimension of general problems encountered in the general inspection; it was observed
that there was not a significant difference between the views of principals, assistant principals and education
inspectors in terms of the variables of duty state, seniority and education level.
SUGGESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
In the dimension of general problems encountered in the general inspection; it was concluded that
while principals experience problems at a “high” level, assistant principals and inspectors experience at a
“moderate” level. Thus, it is required to standardize the inspecton reports and forms that are used in
inspection.
It is suggested to develop the occupational competences of administrators and generate a system
where they can follow the legal regulations regarding the inspection.
It is suggested to involve inspectors that are required by the system immediately.
It is suggested to remove the double-headed inspection system which is thought to decrease the
strength of the inspection system and gather the inspection under the same roof.
It is suggested to determine the objectives and policies of the general inspection and inform the
education inspectors, principals and assistant principals about these objectives and policies.
It is suggested to conduct this study in cities that are located in different service areas and compare the
results.
th
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADRESSES OF AUTHOR
Salih Paşa MEMİŞOĞLU, currently employed as an Associate Professor at Abant İzzet Baysal
University Faculty of Education, Department of Educational Sciences. He Phd degree in
Institute of Social Sciences at Abant İzzet Baysal University. He is specifically interested in
educational administration, educational supervision, leadership, school management.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Salih Paşa MEMİŞOĞLU
Abant İzzet Baysal University, Faculty of Education
Department of Educational Sciences, Educational Administration and Supervision
Bolu- TURKEY
Tel: +90374 2541000
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Zeki EKINCI, 1998, Abant Izzet Baysal University, Department of Special Education. He
graduated from the Faculty of Education. 2012, Abant Izzet Baysal University, Institute of
Educational Sciences, did his masters degree in Educational Administration and
Supervision.
Education inspector Zeki EKİNCİ
Mardin, Directorate of Education
Education inspectors presidency
Mardin- TURKEY
Tel : +90544 548 00 38
E. Mail : [email protected]
REFERENCES
Aydın, M. (2011). Modern Educational Inspection. 6th Edition. Ankara: Hatiboğlu Publishing House.
Aydın, İ. (2005). Inspection in Education. Ankara: Pegem Publishing.
Arabacı, İ. (1995). Competences of Primary School Inspectors concerning the Inspection Principles.
Unpublished PHD Thesis, Ankara: A.U. Institute of Social Sciences.
Başar, H. (1998). Education Inspector. 4th Edition. Ankara: Pegem Publishing.
Başaran, İ.E.(1988). Educational Administration. Ankara: Sevinç Printing House.
Başaran, İ.E. (1992). Introduction to Education. Ankara: Kadıoğlu Printing House.
Bursalıoğlu, Z .(2002). New Structures and Behaviours in School Administration. Ankara: Pegem Academy.
Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2010). Scientific Research Methods. Ankara: Pegem Academy.
Gök, T. (2009). Views of Inspectors and Principals concerning the Problems Encountered in General Inspections
of Primary Schools. Unpublished PHD Thesis, Muğla University Institute of Social Sciences.
Karagözoğlu, G.(1977). Inspection Applications in Primary Education. Unpublished Readership Thesis, Ankara:
G.U. Institute of Social Sciences.
MEB. (1993). Fourteenth Council of National Education. İstanbul: Milli Eğitim Printing House.
MEB. (1996). Fifteenth Council of National Education. İstanbul: Milli Eğitim Printing House.
MEB. (2006). Seventeenth Council of National Education. İstanbul: Milli Eğitim Printing House.
Memişoğlu, S.P.; Ekinci, Z. (2013). Views of Inspectors and Principals concerning the Problems Encountered in
General Inspections of Primary Schools. Journal of Research in Education and Teaching. Volume 2, Number 1.
Öztürk, Ş. (2009). Views of Inspectors and Principals concerning the Problems Encountered in General
Inspections of Primary Schools. Unpublished PHD Thesis, Muğla: Muğla University Institute of Social Sciences.
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Sağlamer, E. (1975). Inspection and Inspection Techniques in Education.. Ankara: Milli Eğitim Printing House.
Söbü, A. (2005). Problems of Primary School Inspectors. Unpublished PHD Thesis, Sivas: Cumhuriyet University.
Institute of Social Sciences.
Su, K. (1974). Importance of Inspections in the Turkish Education. İstanbul: Milli Eğitim Printing House.
Taymaz, H. (1997). Inspections in the Educational System. Ankara: PegemA Publishing.
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THE EFFECT OF STRESS COPING PROGRAM ON BURNOUT LEVELS
OF HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS∗
M.Sc. Gülriz YEDİGÖZ SÖNMEZ
Şevket Pozcu Lisesi
Mersin, TURKEY
Assist. Prof. Dr. Burhan ÇAPRİ
Mersin Üniversitesi
Mersin, TURKEY
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study is to examine the effect of "Stress Coping Program" on the levels of burnout of high
school students. Pretest-Posttest controlled group design was used in this research. The study group included
20 individual selected among students carry on education in the Şevket Pozcu High School within 2011-2012
academic year and who volunteered to participate in the group work. 10 of them took place in the
experimental group, 10 of them took place in the placebo control group. Maslach Burnout Inventory that was
adapted by Çapri, Gündüz, & Gökçakan (2011) was used as a measurement. And also Personal Information
Form was used to know personal information. While 8 sessions of Stress Coping Program were applied to the
experimental group, in order to reduce and control the Hawthorne effect 8 sessions of the placebo activity
program was applied to the placebo control group. In order to determine whether the long lasting effect of
Stress Coping Program continue or not, follow up study was held after 1 month and 2 months. One- factor
analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), t-test and Wilcoxon signed rank test were used during data analysis. The
significance level was taken as 0.05 in the interpretation of the collected data with SPSS 17.0 statistical
software program. As a result of the study it is observed that Stress Coping Program is effective in reducing
exhaustion and depersonalization scores of the experimental group and the effect is continued after 1 and 2
months after the end of the study.
Key Words: Student burnout, Stress coping program, High school students.
INTRODUCTION
By our educational system, years of high school are a period affecting the future of the person and steering the
future. Area selection determines and limits higher education programs which can be studied. Scores received
in the period of secondary education are affecting the entry to the Student Selecting Exam. In this case, shortterm purpose of this adolescent may be to be very well prepared to come examinations and to get high marks,
medium-term purpose may be to keep this success at the upper classes and get high marks from YGS and LGS.
Long-term purpose is to work in a good job, to go abroad, to build an academic career, to produce an
important invention, etc. In this process students are required to make important decisions and to be in a
constant struggle. All these stages are experienced together with problems of adolescence of students (Güner,
2006).
Adolescence is one of the most critical and problematic periods in human life which is between childhood and
adulthood, physically, personally, sexually, cognitively, morally, socially and emotionally developing of
individual, experiencing rapid changes in the body, considered as “Stormy and Stressful” period by the
theorists. Transition of close relations of family environment to close relations of circle of friends; orientation
∗
This study had been derived from Yedigöz Sönmez (2013)'s Master’s thesis and had been funded by Mersin
University Scientific Research Project (BAP-EBE EB (GYS) 2012-3 YL).
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to independence by breaking of the mother; search for identity; adapting to social and sexual roles;
identification efforts to find the ideal ego; effort to make and search for different, varied and something new;
acceptance and adoption of body image and living satisfied with it can be considered among the most
important developmental stresses compelling the young individuals and which must be experienced by the
essence of this period. A young individual has difficulty in both emotionally, cognitively and behavioral levels,
lives stresses require new adaptations (Baltaş & Baltaş, 1985).
Excessive workload, poorness of resting time, students’ demands can not to be met, lack of professional skills
of administrators and teachers, insufficient guidance activities, conflicts among students, lack of social
environments, pressure of administrator and teacher, non-democratic classroom management are causes lead
to stress at school for adolescent students. Socio-economic status of family, parent education, conflicts out of
school, living environment of family, use of cigarette and alcohol are among the causes of stress outside the
school for adolescent students (Eker, 2007). Stress arises when there is imbalance between abilities of
individual and wishes of the environment. Organism goes through the alarm state in order to protect itself
against stress, afterwards normally offers resistance and finally stress resulting with exhaustion reaches serious
levels (Kavla, 1998). By many specialists burnout is recognized as a result of failed attempts to cope with a
variety of negative stress situations (Farber, 1984).
The concept of burnout firstly has been included in the book written by Greene (1961). According to The New
York Times book describes the experiences of an architect who lost the motivation to work, not suffering and
laughing, tired and bored (Maslach & Leiter, 1997). The first definition of burnout is expressed by
Freudenberger (1974) as exhaustion caused by failure, fatigue or intense demands on energy, power and
resources. The concept of burnout has become increasingly popular with the development of Maslach Burnout
Inventory (Maslach & Jackson, 1981). Researches about burnout initially concentrated in occupations those
subjects are human (teachers, doctors, nurses, psychologists etc.) (Maslach & Leiter, 1997). The first version of
the Maslach Burnout Inventory is Maslach Burnout Inventory-Human Service Survey (MBI-HSS) which assessing
symptoms of exhaustion in professions those working subject is human (Çapri, Gündüz, & Gökçakan, 2011).
Then Maslach Burnout Inventory-Educators Survey (MBI-ES) is developed to be used for teachers which is
another profession group requires face-to-face relationship and interaction. The difference between MBI-HSS
and MBI-ES is to use the word “student” instead of “patient” (Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001). Almost a
quarter of a century researches and applications showed that is a phenomenon also occurred outside the
human service area and extended to cover all occupational groups (Maslach & Leiter, 1997). The Maslach
Burnout Inventory has been adapted to those outside the service sector and this new version is called Maslach
Burnout Inventory-General Survey (MBI-GS) (Schaufeli, Leiter, Maslach, & Jackson, 1996).
Recent years burnout studies accelerated with intensive use of MBI-GS and apart from studies on employees of
almost all professions it is observed that studies on non-occupational samples such as students are widespread
(Balogun, Helgemoe, Pellegrini, & Hoeberlein, 1995; Chang, Rand, & Strunk, 2000; Çapri, Gündüz, & Gökçakan,
2011; Çapulcuoğlu & Gündüz, 2012; Gold, Bachelor, & Michael, 1989; Gündüz, Çapri, & Gökçakan, 2012;
Fimian, Fastenau, Tashner, & Cross, 1989; Hu & Schaufeli, 2009; Kutsal, 2009; Meier & Schmeck, 1985; Pines,
Aronson, & Kafry, 1981; Schaufeli, Martinez, Marques-Pinto, Salanova, & Bakker, 2002a; Schaufeli, Salanova,
Gonzalez-Roma, & Bakker, 2002b; Yang, 2004; Yang & Cheng, 2005; Zhang, Gan, & Zhang, 2005). These studies
regarded as academic burnout for students was carried out with Maslach Burnout Inventory-Student Survey
(MBI-SS), which is developed as an adapted version of MBI-GS by Schaufeli et al. (2002a). Although students
are neither employed nor hold jobs; their core activities can be considered as ‘‘work’’ from a psychological
perspective (Schaufeli & Taris, 2005). Because this students are involved in structured coercive activities (such
as attending classes and doing assignments), which aim toward a specific goal (such as passing exams and
acquiring a degree) (Salanova, Schaufeli, Martineza, & Breso, 2009). Therefore, burnout which is a work related
phenomenon may also occur in students (McCarthy, Pretty, & Catano, 1990; Meier & Schmeck, 1985).
Looking at researches about student burnout, it is seen that the vast majority of studies performed on
university students (Addis, 2006; Balkıs, Duru, Buluş, & Duru, 2011; Breso, Salanova, & Schaufeli, 2007; Breso,
Schaufeli, & Salanova, 2010; Çapri, Gündüz, & Gökçakan, 2011; Çavuşoğlu, 2009; Divaris, Polychronopoulou, &
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9
Taoufik, 2012; Esteve, 2008; Gündüz, Çapri, & Gökçakan, 2012; Dyrbye, Eacker, & Harper, 2012; Hu & Schaufeli,
2009; Jacobs & Dodd, 2003; Kanji, White, & Ernst, 2006; Kutsal, 2009; Margalit, Glick, Benbassat, Cohen, & Kats,
2005; Ouweneel, Le Blanc, & Schaufeli, 2010; Ören & Türkoğlu, 2006; Pisarik, 2009; Salmela-Aro & Parker,
2011; Schaufeli et al., 2002a, 2002b; Uludağ & Yaratan, 2010; Weckwerth & Flynn, 2006; Yang, 2004; Yılmaz,
2009; Zhang, Gan, & Zhang, 2005; Zhang, Gan, & Cham, 2007), and a small number was performed on high
school students (Aypay & Eryılmaz, 2011a, b; Aypay & Sever, 2011; Aypay, 2012; Çapulcuoğlu & Gündüz, 2012;
Eker, 2007; Kutsal, 2009; Seçer & Gençdoğan, 2012; Seçer, Halmatov, Veyis, & Ateş, 2013). Also it is found that
these studies have mostly a descriptive characteristic and correlated with socio-demographic variables such as
gender (Aypay & Sever, 2011; Breso, Salanova, & Schaufeli, 2007; Çapulcuoğlu & Gündüz, 2012; Çavuşoğlu,
2009; Esteve, 2008; Gündüz, Çapri, & Gökçakan, 2012; Kutsal, 2009; Ören & Türkoğlu, 2006; Seçer &
Gençdoğan, 2012; Weckwerth & Flynn, 2006; Yılmaz, 2009), age (Addis, 2006; Kutsal, 2009; Ören & Türkoğlu,
2006; Yılmaz, 2009), school type (Aypay & Sever, 2011; Çapulcuoğlu & Gündüz, 2012; Seçer & Gençdoğan,
2012), number of children (Kutsal, 2009) and academic success (Balkıs, Duru, Buluş, & Duru, 2011; Esteve,
2008; Kutsal, 2009; Schaufeli et al., 2002a; Seçer & Gençdoğan, 2012) and with psychological variables such as
social support (Gündüz, Çapri, & Gökçakan, 2012; Jacobs & Dodd, 2003; Kutsal, 2009; Weckwerth & Flynn,
2006; Yang & Cheng, 2005; Zhang, Gan, & Chan, 2005), work/school engagement (Esteve 2008; Schaufeli et al.,
2002a; Zhang, Gan, & Zhang, 2005), self-efficacy (Çapri, Özkendir, Özkurt, & Karakuş, 2012; Esteve, 2008),
perfectionism (Zhang, Gan, & Cham, 2007), subjective well-being (Aypay & Eryılmaz, 2011a) and motivation
(Aypay & Eryılmaz, 2011b; Pisarik, 2009).
On the other hand, from the perspective of experimental studies, it is seen that the studies performed are just
on a limited number of university students (Breso, Schaufeli, & Salanova, 2010; Kanji, White, & Ernst, 2006;
Margalit et al., 2005), any experimental studies on the burnout of high school students is not performed.
Therefore, this study intended reduction in burnout levels of high school students, who are in a critical period
affecting the future and shape the future, is important in terms of being an experimental study previously not
studied on high school students. Furthermore, with this study, it is considered that contribution on students’
learning to cope with stress and its extreme form burnout feelings can be achieved and can be shed light on
studies of prevention and intervention in Psychological Counseling and Guidance Services at schools.
Purpose of the Research
The general purpose of this research is to examine the effect of “Stress Coping Program” to the burnout level of
high school students. In the framework of this general purpose answer of following questions were sought:
1. Is there a significant effect of Stress Coping Program on burnout level of high school students?
2. Is long-term a decline on burnout levels of high school students?
METHOD
This research is designed in accordance with the experimental research model with Pre-test and Post-test
Control Group.
Research Group
The research group is selected among a total of 30 students who study at Şevket Pozcu High School in 20112012 educational year and have a score of above 1 standard deviation of sub-scale mean scores of exhaustion
and depersonalization which are the main dimensions of MBI-SS (Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001; Schaufeli
& Taris, 2005). A Pre-interview performed on these students and they have been invented to participate in this
research. After pre-interviews 20 students, who voluntarily agreed to join the study, are assigned into two
groups randomly withdraw method as experimental and placebo control. It is considered to show similar
features in terms of gender, age, educational level of parents, number of siblings and family income for
selection of students in experimental and placebo control groups.
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Measures
Personal Information Form: Personal Information Form is developed by researchers in order to collect data for
the independent variables of the research. In this form there are statements to collect details such as gender,
age, grade levels of students.
Maslach Burnout Inventory-Student Survey (MBI-SS): The inventory MBI-GS, developed by Schaufeli et al.
(1996), adapted by Schaufeli et al. (2002a) in order to use on students is a 7-point Likert-type scale consists of
16 items and three sub-scales. Exhaustion [exhaustion, EX] sub-scale is composed of 5 items, cynicism
[cynicism, CY] sub-scale is composed of 5 items and efficacy [efficacy, EF] sub-scale is composed of totally 6
items. Scale items are scored on a 7-point frequency rating scale ranging from 0 (never) to 6 (always). As a
result of confirmatory factor analysis of the scale, which is adapted to Turkish language by Çapri, Gündüz, &
Gökçakan (2011), three-factor structure consisting 13 items was obtained. It is determined that correlations
between the points of the sub-scales obtained from the scale are ranged between 0,32 and 0,83; item total test
correlations are ranged between. 32 and .69. In the criterion-related validity study of MBI-SS, Burnout Measure
Short Version (BM-SV) is applied and correlations between the total score of this scale and sub scales of MBI-SS
are found respectively as 51, .45 and-.38. Cronbach Alfa co-efficient of internal consistency, calculated to
determine the reliability of the scale, is found respectively as .76, .82 and .61, test-retest test reliability results
are found respectively as .76, .74 and .73. Ergin (1992) adapted the Maslasch Burnout Inventory (MBI) to
Turkish language which is previously developed by Maslach & Jackson (1981) for profession group working with
people face to face stated that 7-rating format does not comply with the Turkish culture. Therefore, 5-rating
format is accepted for this adaptation (never, sometimes, often, generally, always) study. High scores on EX
and CY and low scores on EF (reverse scored) are indicative for burnout. Three separate burnout score is
calculated per each person for scoring.
Procedure
In the first stage obtained from the means of measurement applied to students in the experimental and
placebo control groups by researcher, was discussed as pretest. Data; obtained from collectively
reimplementation of means of measurement to experimental and placebo groups after a 15-minute break
when their last session is finished, was discussed as post-test. For avoidance of confounding to research
results, students were not informed about whether they are in the experimental or placebo control group.
Totally 8 sessions of Stress Coping Program were applied to the experimental group 1 times a week for 8 weeks
duration and each session lasting 90 minutes. Placebo control group was applied a program of totally 8 sessions
for 8 weeks duration 1 times a week, each session lasting 90 minutes. Furthermore, re-applied to experimental
and placebo groups after the end of the experiment, for determination of the long-lasting effects of the
program whether continuing or not.
Data Analysis
For data analysis, the one-factor covariance analysis (ANCOVA) was used in order to examine the significance of
difference between pretest and posttest scores of experimental and placebo control groups. One-factor
covariance analysis is a powerful technique by enabling another variable or variables, called as covariant
variable and in association with the dependent variable other than the independent variable those effect is
tested in the research, to be statistically controlled, and allowing comparison between groups (Büyüköztürk,
2001). All numerals required to apply one-factor covariance analysis; stated as the scores of dependent
variable show a normal distribution in each group (Wexhaustion=.955, p= .443; Wcynicism= .914, p= .076),
variances of scores of groups for dependent variable to be equivalent (Levene Test- Fexhaustion=.108, p= .746;
Fcynicism= 3.683, p= .071), to have a linear relationship between pretest and posttest scores of the subjects
participated in the research and the regression coefficients use to estimate posttest statistical scores of groups
according to pretest to be equal (Büyüköztürk, 2001), were observed to be met. On the other hand, in order to
determine whether the posttest scores of the experimental group and following up test scores differentiate or
not, for the dependent groups t test is used if scores distribute normally, Wilcoxon signed rank test was used if
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scores does not distribute normally. The significance level was taken as 0.05 in the interpretation of the
collected data with SPSS 17.0 statistical program.
Application
In the research, the Stress Coping Program developed by Çoban & Hamamcı (2008) was applied to the
experimental group in order to test the effect on levels of burnout of students. Techniques used in cognitivebehavioral approach is located on the basis of the program prepared by Çoban & Hamamcı (2008) on the basis
of techniques located in Cognitive Behavioral Training Program of Coping With Stress developed by Gaab,
Blattler, Menzi, Pabst, & Stoyer (2003). The main purpose of the Stress Coping Program is, group members to
be informed about stress responses and their results, to get aware of stressful conditions and events in their
own lives, to learn the proper techniques of coping with stress, to provide support to each other with their
group mates by sharing techniques of solving problems used by their owns and to get aware of the negative
thoughts prevent to cope with stress and convert them to positive. Techniques such as provide information,
discussion, problem solving, modeling, role playing and homework are used in the program. In this program
each session takes approximately 90 minutes, in which provided both didactical information as well as
structured exercises applied. The program prepared by Çoban & Hamamcı (2008) consisting of 10 sessions on
the basis. However not to divide coinciding in the semester break and also because the sessions are available to
combine, it is applied as session numbers decreased to 8. Targets intended to be gained by group members are
given below in order of each session number:
In the first session; providing group members to be informed about general purpose and content of the
program,
In the second session, determining the targets they want to achieve in the group period, informing about
“General Adaptation Syndrome” and its phrases and stress responses, providing to make awareness about
different and similar aspects of stress responses,
In the third session, determining stress levels of group members, providing to get aware of events and
conditions causes stress in their own lives, providing them to gain awareness about negative effects caused by
stress in their lives,
In the fourth session, providing to get aware of effective and non-effective coping strategies used by group
members, providing to be informed about healthy methods used for coping with stress,
In the fifth session, providing reducing effects of stress as a result of introducing methods for body, teaching
proper breathing techniques and muscle relaxation methods,
In the sixth session, providing the group members to relax themselves in stressful situations by teaching them
conditioning and imagination,
In the seventh session, to provide group members to be able to recognize stressful events or situations they
experienced, to learn the strategies of cognitive coping and problem solving needed for coping with stressful
situations as determining the most urgent and solution expecting stressful situation in their lives, to gain ability
to cope with negative thoughts which cause stress or enable to cope with it,
Finally in the eighth session, to teach the group members' abilities to divert attention and to stop thinking
which are one of the abilities of cognitive coping with stress, by discussing knowledge and skills acquired during
the program, provide them to evaluate the effectiveness of programmes to reduce their stress.
Activities which are not related to subject of the research such as watching film, listening music, telling jokes,
playing games are applied to placebo control group of the study in 8 sessions consisting of 90 minutes.
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FINDINGS
In this session, findings according to sub problems of the research are given.
Findings Regarding the First Sub Problem of the Research
The first sub problem of the research is stated as “There will be a reduction on burnout levels of high school
students applied the Stress Coping Program according to burn out levels of placebo control group students who
were not applied this program”. Findings related to exhaustion and cynicism the sub scales of MBI-SS pretest
and posttest scores are respectively presented below.
Findings Related to Exhaustion Subscale of MBI-SS Pretest and Posttest Scores
N, average, standard deviation and posttest average corrected according to pretest, standard error values of
pretest and posttest scores of exhaustion subscale of MBI-SS are given in Table 1.
Table 1: N, Average, Standard Deviation and Posttest Average Corrected According to Pretest, Standard Error
Values of Pretest and Posttest Scores of Exhaustion Subscale of Experimental and Placebo Control Groups
Pretest
Posttest
Posttest Corrected Scores
N
Ss
Ss
Sh
Χ
Χ
Χ
Experimental Group
10
17.60
3.43
13.10
4.35
13.17
1.14
Placebo Control Group
10
17.92
1.94
17.80
2.93
17.73
1.14
As seen in Table 1, while exhaustion average scores of subjects in experimental groups before “Stress Coping
Program” was 17.60, after “Stress Coping Programs” this value became as pretest average scores 13.10;
corrected posttest average scores were 13.17. While exhaustion average scores of subjects in placebo control
group before “Placebo Program” was 17.92, after “Placebo Program” posttest average scores were 17.80;
corrected posttest average scores were found 17.73. In this case, considering the average scores, it can be said
that decline on the exhaustion levels of subjects of experimental group participated in “Stress Coping Program”
was observed regarding placebo control group.
Results of one-factor covariance analysis (ANCOVA) regarding whether changes showing a significant difference
or not; which are observed after the program compared to Stress Coping Program, in the exhaustion levels of
subjects in the experimental and placebo control groups exposed to two different experimental processes, are
given in Table 2.
Table 2: Results of Covariance Analysis (ANCOVA) For Exhaustion Subscale Pretest-Posttest Scores
Source of Variance
Model
Variable Controlled
(Exhaustion Pretest)
Main Effect of Grouping
Error
Sum
Sum of Squares
136.290
df
2
Average of Squares
68.145
25.840
1
25.840
103.563
222.660
358.950
1
17
19
103.563
13.098
F
5.203
p
.017
1.973
7.907
.178
.012
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As seen in Table 2, difference between total scores of posttest corrected according to pretest scores of
exhaustion scores of experimental and placebo control groups is found statistically significant (F=7.907,
p<.012). This finding shows that the experimental treatment applied causes a significant decrease in exhaustion
scores of subjects.
Findings Related Cynicism Subscale of MBI-SS Pretest and Posttest Scores
N, average, standard deviation and posttest average corrected according to pretest, standard error values of
pretest and posttest scores of cynicism subscale of MBI-SS are given in Table 3.
Table 3: N, Average, Standard Deviation and Posttest Average Corrected According to Pretest, Standard Error
Values of Pretest and Posttest Scores of Cynicism Subscale of Experimental and Placebo Control Groups
Pretest
Posttest
Posttest Corrected Scores
N
Ss
Ss
Sh
Χ
Χ
Χ
Experimental Group
10
10.60
3.37
7.80
1.87
8.11
.68
Placebo Control Group
10
12.60
3.20
11.10
2.64
10.78
.68
As seen in Table 3, while cynicism average scores of subjects in experimental groups before “Stress Coping
Program” was 10.60, after “Stress Coping Programs” this value became as pretest average scores 7.80;
corrected posttest average scores were 8.11. While exhaustion average scores of subjects in placebo control
group before “Placebo Program” was 12.60, after “Placebo Program” posttest average scores were 11.10;
corrected posttest average scores were found 10.78. In this case, considering the average scores, it can be said
that decline on the cynicism levels of subjects of experimental group participated in “Stress Coping Program”
was observed regarding placebo control group.
Results of one-factor covariance analysis (ANCOVA) regarding whether changes showing a significant difference
or not; which are observed after the program compared to Stress Coping Program, in the cynicism levels of
subjects in the experimental and placebo control groups exposed to two different experimental processes, are
given in Table 4.
Table 4: Results of Covariance Analysis (ANCOVA) For Cynicism Subscale Pretest-Posttest Scores
Source of Variance
Sum of Squares
df
Average of Squares
F
Model
73.302
2
36.651
8.236
Variable Controlled
18.852
1
18.852
(Cynicism Pretest)
4.237
Main Effect of Grouping
32.515
1
32.515
7.307
Error
75.648
17
4.450
Sum
148.950
19
p
.003
.055
.015
As seen in Table 4, difference between total scores of posttest corrected according to pretest scores of
cynicism scores of experimental and placebo control groups is found statistically significant (F=7.307, p<.015).
This finding shows that the experimental treatment applied causes a significant decline in cynicism scores of
subjects.
Findings Regarding the Second Sub Problem of the Research
The second sub problem of the research is stated as “Decline in burnout levels of high school students who are
applying stress coping program will be long lasting”. In order to test this sub problem of research difference
between scores of posttest and following up tests of exhaustion and cynicism for subjects of experimental
groups are examined. For this reason, 1 and 2 months after posttest, following up tests were applied and it is
examined if there is difference between posttest and following up test scores of subjects.
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Findings Related Scores of Posttest and Following up (1 and 2 Months) Tests of Exhaustion Subscale of MBISS for Experimental Group
For determining whether a significant difference in exhaustion scores of subjects of experimental group
occurred in time, in order to define which test would be used, Shapiro Wilk Normality Test was performed on
data of exhaustion posttest and following tests (1 and 2 months) of experimental group and because data of
exhaustion posttest and following up (1 and 2 months) tests for experimental groups were not seen normal in
results of analysis (Wposttest= .791, p= .011; Wfollowing up1 test= .857, p= .070; Wfollowing up2 test= .812, p=
.020) Wilcoxon signed ranks test was used.
Test Results of Wilcoxon Signed Ranks, which is applied to determine if there is difference between posttest
scores of subjects in experimental group from exhaustion subscale and following up test (1 and 2 months)
score averages, are given in Table 5.
Table 5: Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test Results for Subjects in Experimental Group
Posttest-Following up Test N
Rank
(1 Month)
Average
Negative Rank
6
6.83
1. Following up
Positive Rank
4
3.50
Equal
0
Posttest- Following up Test N
Rank
(2 Months)
Average
2. Following up
Negative Rank
7
6.29
Positive Rank
3
3.67
Equal
0
* Based on Negative ranks
Rank
Total
41.00
14.00
Rank
Total
44.00
11.00
-
z
p
-1.383*
.167
z
p
-1.688*
.091
According to the results of the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test is given in Table 5, it is seen that there is no
significant difference between exhaustion subscale posttest scores of subjects in the experimental group and
scores of 1 month (z= -1.383, p> 0.05) and 2 months (z= -1.688, p> 0.05) after the end of “Stress Coping
Program”. Based on these results, it can be said that the effect of “Stress Coping Program” to reduce the
exhaustion levels continues in following up studies performed 1 month later.
Findings Related Scores of Posttest and Following up (1 and 2 Months) Tests of Cynicism Subscale of MBI-SS
for Experimental Group
For determining whether a significant difference in cynicism scores of subjects of experimental group occurred
in time, in order to define which test would be used, Shapiro Wilk Normality Test was performed on data of
cynicism posttest and following up tests (1 and 2 months) of the experimental group and t test was used
because the data of cynicism posttest and following up (1 and 2 months) tests for experimental groups were
seen normal in results of analysis (Wposttest= . 858, p= . 072; Wfollowing up1 test= . 951, p= . 680; Wfollowing
up2 test= . 924, p= . 388).
Test Results of t Test, which is applied to determine if there is difference between posttest scores of subjects in
experimental group from cynicism subscale and following up test (1 and 2 months) score averages, are given in
Table 6.
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Table 6: t Test Results for Subjects in Experimental Group
1. Following up
Tests
N
2. Following up
Posttest
Following up Test (1
Month)
Posttest
Following up Test (2
Months)
Χ
Ss
t
p
10
10
8.30
8.50
2.00
2.01
-.375
.716*
10
10
8.30
8.90
2.00
2.28
-1.500
.168*
p>.05
According to results of t Test given in Table 6, it is seen that there is no significant difference between cynicism
subscale posttest scores of subjects in the experimental group and scores of 1 month (t= -.375, p> 0.05) and 2
months (t= -1.500, p> 0.05) after the end of “Stress Coping Program”. Based on these results, it can be said that
the effect of “Stress Coping Program” to reduce the cynicism levels continues in following up studies performed
1 month and 2 months later.
DISCUSSION AND INTERPRETATION
The findings of the research were discussed and interpreted in this section.
Discussion and Interpretation of Findings of the First Sub Problem of the Research
By the results of this research it is seen that “Stress Coping Program” application performed on experimental
group has a significant effect on the reduction of exhaustion and cynicism scores of students in the
experimental group. It can be said that methods of coping with stress are in the second rank predicted
variable, there is negative correlation between burnout and the using positive coping methods, and there is a
positive correlation between burnout and negative coping methods (Çapulcuoğlu & Gündüz, 2012). When
considered that Stress Coping Program is a program concluding teaching positive coping behaviors, findings
support the reviews of Çapulcuoğlu & Gündüz (2012).
It is seen in the literature that very few experimental studies are performed about student burnout. It can be
seen that performed studies are about university students and no experimental studies about high school
students are performed. Looking at experimental studies about university students; Breso, Schaufeli, &
Salanova (2010) made a half experimental study in order to test the hypothesis that personal-achievement
oriented intervention program would decrease burnout of university students and increase engagement and
improve performance or not and reported that they have seen decrease of burnout scores. It is considered that
the decrease of burnout in experimental group supports the findings obtained for the first sub problem of this
research. On the other hand, Margalit et al. (2005) have found that internal burnout is increased after program
as a result of their studies on effects of 2 education programs on students’ bio-psychosocial knowledge,
management intentions, patient-oriented attitude, professional self esteem, burnout, tension and effect on
related job by mental workload. Similarly, Kanji, White, & Ernst (2006) in their research which they applied
autogenic training (a relaxation technique consisting of 6 mental exercises used for relieving stress, tension and
anger) on nursing student for reducing anxiety, they couldn’t find a difference according to results of Maslasch
Burnout Inventory between the groups formed. In this case, it is considered that the summarized research
findings differentiate from the findings of the first sub problem of the research.
On the other hand, since experimental studies on student burnout are very few, researches performed on
burnout of other professions are also reviewed. When these are reviewed, Rowe (2000) applying Stress Coping
Program on mental health professionals, has observed decrease in exhaustion score, increase in reduced
personal accomplishment score, Gorter, Eijkman, & Hoogstraten (2001) have seen that career counseling
program decreases emotional exhaustion scores of dentists and increases reduced personal accomplishment
scores. Similarly, Ewers, Bradshaw, McGovern, & Ewers (2002) as a result of their research that they have
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applied psychosocial treatment program to nurses, they have found decrease in emotional exhaustion and
depersonalization, increase in reduced personal accomplishment. Additionally, Cheek, Bradley, Parr, & Lan
(2003) have applied musical therapy on primary school teachers and reported that they have seen decrease of
cynicism score. Hayes, Bissett, Roget, Padilla, Kohlenberg, Fisher et al. (2004) have provided “Acceptance and
Determination Training” for a group oriented on reducing labeling and prejudice of substance abuse counselors
against users of pills, and provided “Multicultural Training” for other group. They have revealed that
Multicultural Training is effective immediately after training on labeling attitudes and burnout. Innstrand,
Espnes, & Mykletun (2004) have attempted to examine effects of different intervention approaches on stress,
burnout and job satisfaction of staff working with mentally disabled persons in 2 different municipalities in
Norway. After treatment they have seen decrease in burnout and stress levels of experimental group. In the
other study, Zołnierczyk-Zreda (2005) applied 2-days burnout intervention program in order to increase coping
with stress observed in business of teachers, and significant decrease in the intervention group of emotional
exhaustion, perceived workload and somatic complaints. Similarly, Çoban & Demir (2007) as a result of their
studies that they applied “Structured Peer Counselor Program” on psychological counselors at school, they
have seen a significant decrease in scores of emotional exhaustion and cynicism and significant increase of
reduced personal accomplishment subscale scores. On the other hand, Akgün-Çıtak (2006) applied conflict
resolution skills training on nurses working in intensive care units and after training they have found that score
averages of emotional exhaustion subscale are significantly lower. Further although there is decline in
depersonalization subscale, increase in personal achievement subscale they reported that the results are not
found significant. Le Blanc, Hox, Schaufeli, Taris, & Peeters (2007) who performed a similar study on oncology
professionals, as a result of their research which they applied cognitive behavioral therapy, communication,
social support and coping skills they have seen decrease in emotional exhaustion and cynicism. Bilgin & Gözüm
(2009) made interactive application on mothers who have mentally disabled children one hour per week and
additionally given an educational booklet. They have found that educated mothers have lower burnout scores
than mothers who weren’t educated. All summarized research findings are considered to show parallelism with
findings obtained for the first sub problem of this research.
Further Palsson, Hallberg, Norberg, & Björvell (1996) examined the effect of systematic clinical supervision on
burnout, empathy, sense of coherence and personality traits in their research and found in the results obtained
for control group (21 people) and comparison group (12 people) systematic clinical supervision has no
significant effect on burnout, empathy and sense of coherence. Similarly, İkiz (2006) in the results obtained
from their study performed to determine Basic Counseling Skills Training course effect levels of burnout,
empathetic skills and empathetic tendency of psychological counselors or not, they have reported that
emotional exhaustion score averages of psychological counselors significantly increased after course and they
experienced emotionally more feeling of burnout after the course. Results obtained from these two
researches, differs from results obtained for the first sub problem of this research.
Discussion and Interpretation of Findings of the Second Sub Problem of the Research
The second sub problem of research is stated as “Decrease in burnout levels of high school students who are
applying Stress Coping Program shall be Long Lasting”. According to scores of exhaustion and cynicism of the
subjects in the experimental group, it is seen that there is no significant differences between posttests and
following up (1–2 Month) measurements. This case shows that intervention continues its effect at the end of
both 1 month and 2 months and supports the sub problem of decrease in burnout levels of high school
students who were applied the “Stress Coping Program” shall be Long Lasting.
When searched for experimentally studied researches to examine whether burnout has long lasting effects, any
following up study could be found about student burnout. When seen in experimental researches on other
professions about burnout; Rowe (2000) has studied the effect of Stress Coping Program on burnout and has
seen that there is a stable long lasting decline in burnout. Similarly, Van Rhenen, Blonk, Van der Klink, Van Dijk,
& Schaufeli (2005) have applied intervention programs, one is a cognitive-oriented and other is a newly
developed combining physical exercise and relaxation, in order to see short- and long-term effects of stress
management program and they have found that both two interventions have positive effects on burnout in the
long term. Le Blanc et al. (2007) have examined the effects of a team-based burnout intervention program
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combining a staff group with a participant action research approach. Both immediately after the program and
as well as 6 months after the end of the program the subjects significantly reported that they are experiencing
less emotional exhaustion. Also Rø, Gude, Tyssen, & Aasland (2008) in their studies on 227 doctors, have
carried out a 1-day individual or 1-week group counseling session for acceptance and motivation of the status
of doctors and personal needs. They have seen a significant reduction in doctor’s level of exhaustion for a long
period in the results obtained. In another study examining studies related burnout intervention Awa,
Plaumann, & Walter (2009) have reviewed totally 25 intervention studies and reported that % 80 of these
programs are effective on reducing burnout. They also found that individual interventions reduce burnout in
short-term (6 months and less), both individual and institutional interventions reduce burnout in long-term (12
months and more). It is considered that all research findings summarized support the findings obtained for the
first sub problem of this research. On the other hand, in the half experimental study of Ossenbaad (2000) effect
of relaxation method is examined with Alfa and Beta brain machines on anxiety and burnout of 42 staff working
in addiction clinic. Results in this study about relaxation method has no long-term effect on burnout,
performed by Alfa and Beta brain machines, considered to differ from the results obtained from the second sub
problem of this research.
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS
In this research, the effect of “Stress Coping Program” performed in 8 sessions, on burnout levels of high school
students was examined. Considering the results of research, it is seen that there is no significant difference in
exhaustion and cynicism pretest scores of MBI-SS between experimental and placebo groups, there is a
significant difference between pretest and posttest scores in exhaustion and cynicism of experimental group,
there is no significant difference between pretest and posttest scores of placebo control group in exhaustion
and cynicism. Regarding these results, it can be expressed that a change observed in exhaustion and cynicism
scores of subjects participated in “Stress Coping Program” compared to the scores before experimental process
and a decrease in burnout scores of subjects taken “Stress Coping Program”.
On the other hand, it is observed that there is no significant difference between the posttest scores of subjects
in the experimental group in burnout and cynicism and scores in 1 and 2 months after the end of “Stress
Coping Program”. In this case, it can be said that the effect of “Stress Coping Program” on decreasing the
burnout and cynicism scores of subjects is lasting in the following up studies performed after 1 and 2 months.
In light of the results of this study the following suggestions can be given to researchers and practitioners who
will be working on this issue:
1. Psychological counselors working in the counseling and guidance services of schools may apply “Stress
Coping Program” in their schools for prevention of burnout.
2. As well as studies, similar to this one performed in general public high schools, can be performed in
different types of high schools such as Science High Schools, Anatolian High Schools, Anatolian Teacher High
Schools, Social Sciences High Schools, Vocational High Schools, similar researches can be performed on primary
school, secondary school, university students and even on employees of different professions.
3. 1 and 2 months following up measurements are used in Stress Coping Program. These following up
measurements can be increased to longer periods.
4. Although original “Stress Coping Program” consists of 10 sessions, in this research it is applied as 8 sessions.
The effect of 10 session program can be tested both in similar sample groups as well as sample groups with
different features.
5. In this research only exhaustion and cynicism subscales are used which expressed to be basic dimensions of
MBI-SS. In new researches effect of “Stress Coping Program” on groups, formed according to the scores
rd
obtained from efficacy subscale which is 3 dimension of MBI-SS, can be examined in more detail.
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6. Student burnout is a problem which administrators, teachers and school counselors may face at schools
with a maximum possibility and which is intensively searched in recent years. Therefore, without experiencing
more negative consequences, taking into account the principle of preventive guidance, individual and group
works in order to prevent student burnout may be importantly included at schools.
7. Burnout is now not only a syndrome in workers, but also in students and parents who are in couple.
Individuals who have different roles such as student, mother, father, couple, teacher, and administrator have a
high possibility to face with this problem both at home and family environment as well as in business and
working environments. Therefore, educations may be provided to teach how to cope with this syndrome at
home and in business environments of individuals with different roles.
Financial Support: This research was supported by Mersin University Scientific Research Project (BAP-EBE EB
(GYS) 2012-3 YL).
Gülriz YEDİGÖZ SÖNMEZ is a psychological counselor at Şevket Pozcu High School in
Mersin. She is specifically interested in guidance and psychological counseling.
M.Sc. Gülriz YEDİGÖZ SÖNMEZ
Şevket Pozcu Lisesi
Mersin, TURKEY
Tel: 03243275807
Burhan ÇAPRİ currently employed as an Assistant Professor at Mersin University Faculty of
Education, Department of Educational Sciences. She received Phd degree in Social Sciences
at Mersin University. He is specifically interested in guidance and psychological counseling,
stress and burnout (career, couple and student), self-efficacy (general, techer and
student).
Assist. Prof. Dr. Burhan ÇAPRİ
Mersin University, Faculty of Education
Department of Educational Sciences, Guidance and Counseling
Mersin, TURKEY
Tel: 03243412815
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Addis, R. S. (2006). Burnout among undergradutae athletic training students. Dissertation. California University,
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EXAMINATION OF LEARNING APPROACH LEVELS IN PIANO COURSES ACCORDING
TO SOME VARIABLES IN INDIVIDUAL INSTRUMENT COURSE
Assist. Prof. Dr. Mehtap AYDINER UYGUN
Niğde University
Niğde, TURKEY
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study is to examine the learning approach levels of music teacher candidates in piano
courses according to some variables in individual instrument course. The sample group of the study is 770
students that are having music education in music departments of universities in Turkey in the 2nd half of the
2011-2012 academic years. The data of the study was collected by “Scale for detrmination of learning
approaches in piano course” developed by Aydıner Uygun (2012a) and a form including questions about
individual instrument courses. According to the results of the study, the deep learning approach levels of
students whose instrument type are Turkish music instrument are lower than other students. [x=3.17;
F(2,737)=10.33; p<0.01]. The deep learning approach levels of students whose instruments are played manually
or by plectrum are lower than students whose instruments are played by bow or students who have vocal
training. [x=3.24; F(2,737)=10.81; p<0.01]. The deep learning approach levels of students whose academic grades
are lower than 70 are lower than students whose learning approaches are 70 or higher. [x=3.17; F(2,737)=16.30;
p<0.01].
Key Words: Piano course, learning approach, individual instrument course.
INTRODUCTION
In musical instrument learning process, ‘learning motivation’ and ‘learning strategy’ come out as two essential
factors. Learning motivation, which is defined as “the tendency to find the academic activities meaningful and
to try to ensure the intended benefits”, is significant in finding the learning activities meaningful and ensuring
the aimed benefits in those activities (Brophy, 1988; cited in Ün Açıkgöz, 2003:207). Learning strategy, which is
stated as “behaviours and thoughts that the learner can perform during the learning process and that are
expected to affect the learner’s coding process” (Weinstein & Mayer, 1986;315), is significant in the occurrence
of easier and more permanent learning and learner’s acquisition of independent learning ability. In the related
literature, there are studies in which ‘motivation’ related to musical instrument learning (Ercan, 1999;
McPherson and McCormick, 2000; Wristen, 2006; Yıldırım Orhan, 2006; Çalışkan, 2008; Modırı, 2012) and
‘learning strategies’ used in musical instrument learning (Hallam 2001a, b; Ertem, 2003; Nielsen, 2004; Akın,
2007; Nielsen, 2008; Yokuş, 2009; Aydıner Uygun and Kılınçer, 2012a, b; Kan and Kurtuldu, 2012) are dealt
separately. On the other hand, few studies in musical instrument learning area examine ‘learning approach’,
which is a concept that involves both ‘learning motivation’ and ‘learning strategy’ (Cantwell and Millard, 1994;
Aydıner Uygun, 2012a, b; 2013).
Learning approach term was introduced first after a qualitative study conducted by Marton and Saljö (1976)
(Marton and Saljö, 1976; cited in Yılmaz, Orhan, 2011:71). When approached from the student’s point of view,
learning approach calls a motivation question (Why am I studying this lesson?) and a strategy question (What
should I do to learn?) to mind (Tang et al. 2000, cited in Yılmaz, 2009: 66). Learning approach depends on and
practically develops as a response to the objectives or the standards of the lesson, teacher’s attitude towards
the student, teacher’s occupational, teacher’s teaching methods, student’s concern about the subject,
student’s attitude towards the subject, the style of assessment both in and out of class, and also the level of
readiness for the subject (Entwistle and Ramsden, 1983; cited in Ünal Çoban, Ergin, 2008:274). In contrast to
individuals’ specific and constant learning styles, learning approaches may differ according to the situation. The
relation between the learner and the subject (love, interest, need, etc) also determines the learning approach
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that the learner prefers (Ramsden, 1991, cited in Yılmaz, Orhan: 2011:72). Therefore, knowing the differences
between the individuals’ learning approaches may help the teachers find more effective and creative ways
(Entwistle, 1997; Biggs, 1999, cited in Yılmaz, 2009:56-57).
Learning approach term is the starting point of this study. The variables that affect the students’ learning
approach levels in piano lessons are the subjects of this study. Piano lesson makes up one of the two main
dimensions of the musical instrument lessons in the undergraduate programs at music education branches.
Individual musical instrument lesson is the other dimension of the musical instrument lessons in the programs.
During this process, piano lesson and individual musical instrument lesson are like the sides of the same coin.
Therefore; while an analysis on one lesson is made, it should be considered to be related to the other lesson as
well. In this regard, it is thought to be necessary to examine the relations of the learning approach levels in
piano lesson with some variables in individual musical instrument lesson. With the determination of variables
that may affect the learning approach levels in piano lesson, it will be possible to provide tangible information
for teachers, students and researchers.
Purpose
In a study on learning approach levels in piano lesson (Aydıner Uygun, 2012b), the relations between learning
approach levels of candidate music teachers and the universities at which they studied, their genders, the
numbers of students with whom they shared weekly piano lesson hours, places where they studied for piano
lesson and weekly hours of piano practice are analyzed. In another study also conducted by the researcher
(Aydıner Uygun, 2013), the relation between learning approach levels and academic success levels is studied.
The main purpose of this study is to analyze candidate music teachers’ levels of learning approach in piano
lessons according to some variables in individual musical instrument lesson.
Within this main purpose, the study tries to find answers to the following questions:
Do the candidate music teachers’ levels of learning approach in piano lesson show a significant difference,
• According to the types of musical instruments they study in individual musical instrument lesson?
• According to the playing styles of the musical instruments they study in individual musical instrument
lesson?
• According to their scores of academic success in individual musical instrument lesson?
METHOD
This study is designed using the descriptive research method and the correlative investigation model.
Population and Sample
The population of the study is composed of students studying in the music education branches in Turkey in the
2nd term of 2011-2012 academic years. The sample group of the study are 770 students chosen among this
population. The distribution of sample group students according to the institutions at which they study is like
this: Atatürk University (n=82, 10.6 %), Balıkesir University (n=92, 11.9 %), Dokuz Eylül University (n=70, 9.1 %),
Gazi Osman Paşa University (n=74, 9.6 %), İnönü University (n=88, 11.4 %), Mehmet Akif Ersoy University
(n=77, 10.0 %), Necmettin Erbakan University (n=103, 13.4 %), Niğde University (n=94, 12.2 %), On Dokuz Mayıs
University (n=90, 11.7 %). 57.5 % (n=443) of the sample group students are male while 42.5 % (n=327) of them
are female. The sample group consists of 23.8 % (n=183) first grade students, 24.4 (n=188) second grade
students, 25.2 % (n=194) third grade students and 26.6 % (n=205) fourth grade students.
Procedure
In this study, the data related to sample group students’ learning approaches in piano lesson is collected by
“Scale for Determining Learning Approaches to Piano Lesson” developed by Aydıner Uygun (2012a). The scale is
based on the configuration in “Study Process Questionnaire (R-SPQ-2F)” by Biggs, Kember and Leung (2001).
According to this configuration, the scale is composed of two main dimensions such as deep learning approach
and superficial learning approach. Both dimensions include motivation and strategy sub-dimensions. The deep
learning motivation, deep learning strategy, surface learning motivation and surface learning strategy subdimensions of the 25-item scale are composed of 5, 9, 6 and 5 items respectively. Factor loadings relating to
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the sub-dimensions are as; deep learning motivation 0.598-0.729, deep learning strategy 0.533-0.761, surface
learning motivation 0.611-0.774 and surface learning strategy 0.612-0.779. Reliability coefficients (Cronbach
alfa) of the sub-dimensions are calculated as deep learning motivation 0.84, deep learning strategy 0.91,
surface learning motivation 0.90 and surface learning strategy 0.84.
Apart from the scale mentioned above, the students are also asked to fill in a form that requires them to state
the musical instruments they study in the individual musical instrument lesson and their academic success
scores of that lesson. These scores are evaluated under three groups. The academic success scores of the
students in the first, second and third groups are between 0-69, 70-84 and 85-100 respectively.
Independent Sample t test is used to compare two groups and One-Way ANOVA is used to make a comparison
among more than two groups as the data obtained from the study show normal distribution. If a significant
statistical difference among the groups is found after the analysis of variance, Scheffe test- one of the multiple
comparisons tests- is used to find out which groups are different from each other (Büyüköztürk, 2008). Scheffe
test results are given in the difference column of related tables. The results of the analyses are interpreted at
0.01 significance level. IBM SPSS 20.0 package software is used for the analyses in the study.
FINDINGS
In this section, findings in line with the research data are explained through tables. In the tables, ‘motivation’
and ‘strategy’ sub-dimensions are handled separately and then findings about ‘learning approach’, which is a
main dimension, are offered.
Table 1: The Comparison of the Students’ Deep Learning Motivation Levels in Piano Lesson in accordance with
the Type of the Musical Instrument They Study
Type of Musical Instrument
n
Mean
SS
F
p
Discrepancy
(1) Turkish Music Instrument
93
3.06
1.09
(1)-(2)
11.30*
0.00
(2) Western Music Instrument
607
3.48
.91
(1)-(3)
(3) Singing/Vocal Training
70
3.72
.91
*p<0.01
According to Table 1, it can be said that students’ deep learning motivation levels in piano lesson are not at the
same level in accordance with individual musical instrument they study [F(2,737)=11.30; p<0.01]. Considering the
results of average values and multiple comparisons tests, the deep learning motivation levels of students
whose individual musical instruments are the Turkish Music instrument are seen to be lower than those of the
other students. “Deep motivation is related to internal motivation while surface motivation is related to
external motivation” (Aydıner Uygun, 2012b:378). “Internal motivation, without any necessity for external
incentives, occurs as a result of effects like reward, punishment, pressure and request” (Ün Açıkgöz, 2003:209).
From this point of view, it can be stated that students whose individual musical instruments are singing or
Western Music instruments are more internally motivated for piano lesson.
Table 2: The Comparison of the Students’ Deep Learning Strategy Levels in Piano Lesson in accordance with the
Type of the Musical Instrument They Study
n
Mean
SS
F
p
Discrepancy
93
3.23
1.03
(1)-(2)
9.38*
0.00
607
3.60
.89
(1)-(3)
(3) Singing /Vocal Training
70
3.82
.89
*p<0.01
According to Table 2, it can be said that students’ deep learning strategy levels in piano lesson are not at the
same level in accordance with individual musical instrument they study [F(2,737)=9.38; p<0.01]. When the results
of average values and multiple comparisons tests are considered, the deep learning strategy levels of students
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whose individual musical instruments are Turkish Music instruments are seen to be lower than those of the
other students. “While a student who uses a deep strategy looks for meaning in learning, a student who uses
an surface strategy does not look for meaning in learning and studies only enough to meet the minimum
requirements” (The Oxford Learning Institute, 2006; cited in Yılmaz, 2009:61). In view of this, it can be deduced
that students whose individual musical instruments are singing or Western Music instrument seek more
meaning in learning situations in piano lesson than those whose individual musical instruments are Turkish
music instruments do.
Table 3: The Comparison of the Students’ Deep Learning Approach Levels in Piano Lesson in accordance with
n
Mean
SS
F
p
Discrepancy
93
3.17
1.04
(1)-(2)
607
3.56
.88
10.33*
0.00
(1)-(3)
70
3.78
.89
*p<0.01
According to Table 3, it can be stated that students’ deep learning approach levels in piano lesson are not at
the same level in accordance with individual musical instrument they study [F(2,737)=10.33; p<0.01]. The analysis
of the results of average values and multiple comparisons tests shows that the deep learning approach levels of
students whose individual musical instruments are Turkish Music instruments are lower than those of the other
students. Based on the findings, it can be inferred that students whose individual musical instruments are
singing or Western Music instrument have a higher level of deep learning approach in piano lesson.
Table 4: The Comparison of the Students’ Surface Learning Motivation Levels in Piano Lesson in accordance
with the Type of the Musical Instrument They Study
n
Mean
SS
F
p
Discrepancy
93
2.34
1.16
(1)-(2)
8.89*
0.00
607
1.94
.93
(1)-(3)
70
1.77
.80
*p<0.01
According to Table 4, it can be inferred that students’ surface learning motivation levels in piano lesson are not
at the same level in accordance with individual musical instrument they study [F(2,737)=8.89; p<0.01].
Considering the results of average values and multiple comparisons tests, it can be stated that the surface
learning motivation levels of students whose individual musical instruments are Turkish Music instruments are
higher than those of the other students. Findings show consistency with the findings explained in Table 1.
Table 5: The Comparison of the Students’ Surface Learning Strategy Levels in Piano Lesson in accordance with
n
Mean
SS
F
p
Discrepancy
93
2.52
1.18
(1)-(2)
607
2.07
.95
10.45*
0.00
(1)-(3)
70
1.91
.84
*p<0.01
Table 5 shows that students’ surface learning strategy levels in piano lesson are not at the same level in
accordance with individual musical instrument they study [F(2,737)=10.45; p<0.01]. When the results of average
values and multiple comparisons tests are analyzed, it can be stated that the surface learning strategy levels of
students whose individual musical instruments are Turkish Music instruments are higher than those of the
other students. Findings seem to be consistent with the findings explained in Table 2.
168
9
Table 6: The Comparison of the Students’ Surface Learning Approach Levels in Piano Lesson in accordance with
n
Mean
SS
F
p
Discrepancy
93
2.42
1.15
(1)-(2)
9.89*
0.00
607
2.00
.93
(1)-(3)
70
1.83
.80
*p<0.01
According to Table 6, the students’ surface learning approach levels in piano lesson are not at the same level in
accordance with individual musical instrument they study [F(2,737)=9.89; p<0.01]. In view of the results of
average values and multiple comparisons tests, it can be stated that the surface learning approach levels of
students whose individual musical instruments are Turkish Music instruments are higher than those of the
other students. Findings are seen to be consistent with the findings explained in Table 3.
the Group of the Musical Instrument They Study
Group of Musical Instrument
n
Mean
SS
F
p
Discrepancy
(1) Wind Instrument
113
3.37
.92
(2)-(3)
(2) Played with a plectrum
189
3.17
1.01
10.01*
0.00
(2)-(4)
(3) Stringed Instrument
398
3.56
.89
70
3.72
.91
*p<0.01
According to Table 7, the students’ deep learning motivation levels in piano lesson are not at the same level in
accordance with individual musical instrument they study [F(2,737)=10.01; p<0.01]. In view of the results of
average values and multiple comparisons tests, it can be stated that the deep learning motivation levels of
students who study musical instruments that are played with a plectrum are lower than those of the students
who study stringed instruments or singing. Findings show that students studying stringed instruments or
singing are more internally motivated to the piano lesson than those who study musical instruments played
with a plectrum do.
Table 8: The Comparison of the Students’ Deep Learning Strategy Levels in Piano Lesson in accordance with the
Group of the Musical Instrument They Study
n
Mean
SS
F
p
Discrepancy
(1) Wind Instrument
113
3.53
.92
189
3.28
.97
(2)-(3)
10.83*
0.00
(2)-(4)
398
3.69
.86
70
3.82
.89
*p<0.01
According to Table 8, the students’ deep learning strategy levels in piano lesson are not at the same level in
accordance with individual musical instrument they study [F(2,737)=10.83; p<0.01]. Considering the results of
average values and multiple comparisons tests, it is seen that the deep learning strategy levels of students who
study musical instruments that are played with a plectrum are lower than those of the students who study
stringed instruments or singing. Findings show that students studying stringed instruments or singing look for
meaning more than the students who study musical instruments played with a plectrum do.
169
9
Tablo 9: The Comparison of the Students’ Deep Learning Approach Levels in Piano Lesson in accordance with
n
Mean
SS
F
p
Discrepancy
(1) Wind Instrument
113
3.47
.91
189
3.24
.97
(2)-(3)
10.81*
0.00
(2)-(4)
398
3.64
.85
70
3.78
.89
*p<0.01
According to Table 9, the students’ deep learning approach levels in piano lesson are not at the same level in
accordance with individual musical instrument they study [F(2,737)=10.81; p<0.01]. When the results of average
values and multiple comparisons tests are analyzed, the deep learning approach levels of students who study
musical instruments that are played with a plectrum are seen to be lower than those of the students who study
stringed instruments or singing. From the findings, it can be inferred that students studying stringed
instruments or singing have higher levels of deep learning approach in piano lesson than those of the students
who study musical instruments played with a plectrum.
with the Group of the Musical Instrument They Study
n
Mean
SS
F
p
Discrepancy
(1) Wind Instrument
113
1.99
.96
189
2.20
1.10
(2)-(3)
5.51*
0.00
(2)-(4)
398
1.90
.90
70
1.77
.80
*p<0.01
According to Table 10, the students’ surface learning motivation levels in piano lesson are not at the same level
in accordance with individual musical instrument they study [F(2,737)=5.51; p<0.01]. When the results of
average values and multiple comparisons tests are analyzed, it is seen that the surface learning motivation
levels of students who study musical instruments that are played with a plectrum are higher than those of the
students who study stringed instruments or singing. Findings are seen to be consistent with the findings
explained in Table 7.
n
Mean
SS
F
p
Discrepancy
(1) Wind Instrument
113
2.16
.97
189
2.37
1.09
(2)-(3)
7.23*
0.00
(2)-(4)
398
2.01
.94
*p<0.01
70
1.91
.84
According to Table 11, it can be stated that the students’ surface learning strategy levels in piano lesson are not
at the same level in accordance with individual musical instrument they study [F(2,737)=7.23; p<0.01]. The results
of average values and multiple comparisons tests show that the surface learning strategy levels of students
who study musical instruments that are played with a plectrum are higher than those of the students who
study stringed instruments or singing. Findings are seen to be consistent with the findings explained in Table 8.
170
9
Table 12: The Comparison of the Students’ Surface Learning Approach Levels in Piano Lesson in accordance
with the Group of the Musical Instrument They Study
n
Mean
SS
F
p
Discrepancy
(1) Wind Instrument
113
2.07
.95
189
2.28
1.08
(2)-(3)
6.45*
0.00
(2)-(4)
398
1.95
.90
70
1.83
.80
*p<0.01
According to Table 12, it can be stated that the students’ surface learning approach levels in piano lesson are
not at the same level in accordance with individual musical instrument they study [F(2,737)=6.45; p<0.01].
Considering the results of average values and multiple comparisons tests, it can be seen that the surface
learning approach levels of students studying musical instruments that are played with a plectrum are higher
than those of the students who study stringed instruments or singing. Findings show consistency with the
findings explained in Table 9.
Their Academic Success Scores in Individual Musical Instrument
Academic Success Score
n
Mean
SS
F
p
Discrepancy
(1) 0-69
147
3.12
1.02
(1)-(2)
13.02*
0.00
(2) 70-84
260
3.46
.85
(1)-(3)
(3) 85-100
363
3.58
.94
*p<0.01
According to Table 13, the students’ deep learning motivation levels in piano lesson are seen to be at the
different levels in accordance with their academic success scores in individual musical instrument lesson
[F(2,737)=13.02; p<0.01]. When the results of average values and multiple comparisons tests are analyzed, it is
seen that the deep learning motivation levels of students whose academic success scores are below 70 are
lower than those of the students with academic success scores 70 and above. From the findings, it can be
inferred that students whose individual musical instrument lesson scores are 70 and above are more internally
motivated for the piano lesson.
Table 14: The Comparison of the Students’ Deep Learning Strategy Levels in Piano Lesson in accordance with
Academic Success
n
Mean
SS
F
p
Discrepancy
Score
(1) 0-69
147
3.20
1.00
(1)-(2)
17.60*
0.00
(2) 70-84
260
3.58
.84
(1)-(3)
(3) 85-100
363
3.72
.90
*p<0.01
According to Table 14, the students’ deep learning strategy levels in piano lesson are not the same levels in
accordance with their academic success scores in individual musical instrument lesson [F(2,737)=17.60; p<0.05].
In view of the results of average values and multiple comparisons tests, it is seen that students whose academic
success scores are below 70 have lower deep learning motivation levels than the students with academic
success scores of 70 and above do. Findings reveal that students whose academic success scores in individual
musical instrument lesson are 70 and above look for more meaning in learning situations.
171
9
Table 15: The Comparison of the Students’ Deep Learning Approach Levels in Piano Lesson in accordance with
Academic Success
n
Mean
SS
F
p
Discrepancy
Score
(1) 0-69
147
3.17
.99
(1)-(2)
16.30*
0.00
(2) 70-84
260
3.54
.83
(1)-(3)
(3) 85-100
363
3.67
.90
*p<0.01
According to Table 15, the students’ deep learning approach levels in piano lesson are not the same levels in
The results of average values and multiple comparisons tests show that students whose academic success
scores are below 70 have lower deep learning approach levels than the students with academic success scores
of 70 and above do. Considering the findings, it can be concluded that students whose academic success scores
in individual musical instrument lesson are 70 and above have higher levels of deep learning approach.
with Their Academic Success Scores in Individual Musical Instrument
Academic Success
n
Mean
SS
F
p
Discrepancy
Score
(1) 0-69
147
2.34
1.08
(1)-(2)
14.39*
0.00
(2) 70-84
260
1.96
.89
(1)-(3)
(3) 85-100
363
1.84
.93
*p<0.01
According to Table 16, the students’ surface learning motivation levels in piano lesson are not the same levels
in accordance with their academic success scores in individual musical instrument lesson [F(2,737)=14.39;
p<0.01]. When the results of average values and multiple comparisons tests are analyzed, it is seen that the
surface learning motivation levels of the students whose academic success scores are below 70 are higher than
the surface learning motivation levels of the students with academic success scores of 70 and above. Findings
show consistency with the findings explained in Table 13.
Academic Success
n
Mean
SS
F
p
Discrepancy
Score
(1) 0-69
147
2.49
1.10
(1)-(2)
15.05*
0.00
(2) 70-84
260
2.08
.91
(1)-(3)
(3) 85-100
363
1.97
.95
*p<0.01
Table 17 shows that the students’ surface learning strategy levels in piano lesson are not the same levels in
When the results of average values and multiple comparisons tests are analyzed, the surface learning strategy
levels of the students whose academic success scores are below 70 seem to be higher than the surface learning
strategy levels of the students with academic success scores of 70 and above. Findings are consistent with the
findings explained in Table 14.
172
9
Table 18: The Comparison of the Students’ Surface Learning Approach Levels in Piano Lesson in accordance
with Their Academic Success Scores in Individual Musical Instrument
Academic Success Score
n
Mean
SS
F
p
Discrepancy
(1) 0-69
147
2.41
1.07
(1)-(2)
15.17*
0.00
(2) 70-84
260
2.02
.88
(1)-(3)
(3) 85-100
363
1.90
.92
*p<0.01
In Table 18, it is seen that the students’ surface learning approach levels in piano lesson are not the same levels
in accordance with their academic success scores in individual musical instrument lesson [F(2,737)=15.17;
p<0.01]. In view of the results of average values and multiple comparisons tests, the surface learning approach
levels of the students whose academic success scores are below 70 are seen to be higher than the surface
learning strategy levels of the students with academic success scores of 70 and above. Findings are consistent
with the findings explained in Table 15.
According to the results of this study, the deep learning approach levels [x=3.17; F(2,737)=10.33; p<0.01] in piano
lesson of the students whose type of individual musical instrument is Turkish music are found lower than those
of the other students. On the other hand, the surface learning approach levels of the same group of students
are seen to be higher than those of the other students.
According to the literature, learning approach is not a constant qualification of a student. It should be accepted
as a student’s response to the learning situation (Entwistle and Ramsden, 1983, cited in Ünal Çoban and Ergin,
2008:274). Thus; seeing that the deep learning approach levels of the students whose individual musical
instruments are Turkish music type are low while their surface learning approach levels are high, it can be
claimed that these students show negative responses to the learning situations in piano lesson. This may result
from the idea that the students’ relations with piano cannot strengthen because of the differences between
the sound systems of piano and the musical instruments that the students whose individual musical instrument
types are Turkish music play. To contribute to the argumentation of the results, interview were made with 8
nd
students who studied in the Department of Music Education at Niğde University during the 2 term of 20112012 academic years and whose types of individual musical instruments are Turkish music. In the interviews,
students have mentioned that they haven’t been able to establish a connection with piano which they think is
essential to be able to practice the instrument and be successful in musical instrument lessons. The disability to
have a connection with the instrument may cause the students not to be able to get motivated to the piano
lesson and not to use deep learning strategies. Considering that learning approach is not a constant
qualification of a student, with some arrangements in the learning-teaching environment, the learning
approaches of the students whose type of individual musical instruments is Turkish music may change from
surface learning approach towards deep learning approach. In this respect, including more frequently the
works of Turkish composers or works that can be described in terms of mode is thought to be an effective way
to strengthen the emotional bonds of students with piano.
The results of Şen’s (2011) are in fact a verification of the ideas explained above. Şen (2011) aimed at analyzing
the attitudes of the students in the departments of music education towards traditional Turkish music in terms
of various variables. According to the results of the study, the attitudes of students whose individual musical
instrument is bağlama (x=4.20) towards traditional Turkish Folk Music lessons are higher than those of the
students whose individual musical instruments are violin (x=3.61), cello (x=3.55), guitar (x=3.53 and flute
(x=3.31). As for traditional Turkish Classical Music, students whose individual musical instrument is bağlama
(x=4.00) are seen to have higher attitude values than those of the students whose individual musical
instrument is flute (x=3.42). Similarly, the attitude values about traditional Turkish music lessons of the
students who play Western music instruments in individual musical instrument lessons are found lower than
those of the students who play Turkish music instruments in individual musical instrument lessons.
173
9
According to another result of the study, the deep learning approach levels [x=3.24; F(2,737)=10.81; p<0.01] of
students who study musical instruments that are played with a plectrum are found lower in comparison with
the levels of the students who study stringed instrument or singing. On the other hand, the surface learning
approach levels [x=2.28; F(2,737)=6.45; p<0.01] of students who study musical instruments that are played with a
plectrum are found higher than those of the students who study stringed instrument or singing. In Music
Education branches, training for musical instruments such as bağlama, ud (lute), guitar is given to the students
within the scope of musical instruments played with a plectrum. Therefore, it can be said that most of the
musical instruments played with a plectrum are Turkish Music instruments. In this respect, the result of the
study supports the abovementioned result related to the types of individual musical instrument. The result that
the deep learning approach levels of the students who receive education on singing are high may be
considered as a positive effect of instructing the singing lessons accompanied by piano. Singing lesson students
make use of piano more effectively in both doing tune-up practices and singing the songs they have learned
within singing lessons than the students in the other musical instrument groups. It can be said that a similar
situation is true for the students who study stringed instruments as well. As a result, the deep learning
approach levels in piano lesson of the students who receive education in both musical instrument groups are
thought to be higher in comparison with those of the students studying musical instruments played with a
plectrum.
According to another result of the study, the deep learning approach levels of the students [x=3.17;
F(2,737)=16.30; p<0.01] whose academic success scores in individual musical instrument lessons are below 70 are
found lower than those of the students whose academic success scores in individual musical instrument lessons
are 70 or above. On the other hand, the surface learning approach levels of the students [x=2.41; F(2,737)=15.17;
p<0.01] are found higher than those of the students whose academic success scores in individual musical
instrument lessons are 70 or above. This result makes us think that students with higher academic success are
more internally motivated for learning and that they use deep learning strategies more frequently. As a matter
of fact, it is discovered that students who are internally motivated (who have deep learning motivation) for
learning situations make use of deep learning strategies much more than the students who are not internally
motivated (who do not have deep learning motivation) do (Pintrich, Garcia, 1991; cited in Stefanou, SalisburyGlennon, 2002:276). This result also matches up with the results obtained from related studies. In a study by
Entwistle (1988, cited in Stefanou, Salisbury- Glennon, 2002:276), beneficial effects of deep cognitive
processing period on academic success and learning are identified. It is also found out in other empirical
researches that successful university students use deep learning strategies (Van Zile- Tamsen ve Livingston,
1999; cited in Stefanou, Salisbury- Glennon, 2002:276). According to related studies, successful students make
use of learning strategies more and better than unsuccessful students do. Based on the results of related
studies, the discovery that the deep learning approach levels of students whose academic success scores in
individual musical instrument lesson are 70 or above are high is considered as an expected result.
th
Mehtap AYDINER UYGUN is an assistant professor at Faculty of Education, Nigde University,
Nigde, Turkey. She received master in 2004 and Ph.D. in 2009 from University of Gazi,
Ankara, Turkey. Her research interests are music education, piano education, learning
strategies and learning approaches.
Assist. Prof. Dr. Mehtap AYDINER UYGUN
Nigde University Faculty of Education, Nigde, TURKEY
174
9
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başarısına ve üstbilişsel farkındalığa etkisi. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Marmara University, Institute of
Education Sciences, İstanbul.
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PROSPECTIVE ELEMENTARY TEACHERS’ MISCONCEPTIONS IN BIOLOGY LESSON:
URINARY SYSTEM SAMPLE
Asisst. Prof.Dr. Murat GENÇ
Bartin University
Education Faculty
Department of Science Education
Bartin, TURKEY
ABSTRACT
The aim of this study was to investigate misconceptions of prospective elementary teachers in biology lesson.
The sample of the research consists of 45 prospective teachers in Bartin University Education Faculty. Urinary
system which was Biology unit was selected as the research subject. Before the application, the students were
asked 5 open-ended questions which were about urinary system. The lessons were treated with computer
animations and presentations which were prepared in cooperative learning groups. After the applications
open-ended questions were asked to students as a post-test. In the result of the research, it was concluded
that the students confused the urinary system with digestive system. It was revealed that students have lots of
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wrong information about urinary system which was taught in 5 and 7 class. They have misconceptions about
diseases and organs of urinary system. They said diseases of digestive system instead of urinary system. The
findings of the study proved that the most of the misconceptions of the students were removed.
Key Words: Misconceptions, Urinary System, Primary School Teaching, Computer Animations, Cooperative
Learning.
INTRODUCTION
Concept is the word, which occurs when living creatures, things and incidents are classified according to their
similarities. Individuals make generalization as to common features of the 3 things above and then they
compose their concepts according to their other common features. Concepts have differences form individual
to individual in terms of their perceived property, so they have subjective property. Because of its
subjectiveness, concept mistakes occur. They are difficult to uncover it’s because students compose them in
their mind and also they are not able to observe directly.
Because of the concepts’ subjective qualities, they cause some complications for teachers and students. Some
materials are done in order to decrease these complications. With the help of these activities such as;“
Meaning resolution table” , “concept Networks” , “ Conceptual change texts” , “ Concept maps” and “concept
games”, it is aimed to teach concept correctly. At the researches, it is recommended to use different methods
to teach concepts. Some of these are predict-observe-explain (Bilen and Aydoğdu, 2010), concept maps (Yılmaz
and Çolak, 2012), multi-stimulant educational environments (Hayran, 2010), multiple intelligence, (Köksal,
2006), animation, simulation, video and multimedia (Pekdağ, 2010). It is also important to determination of the
concept mistakes to correct concept teaching for the desired level.
Different methods are used to determine the concept mistakes. Some of these methods are concept maps
(Altın and Aslan, 2006; Roth and Roychoughury,1992), ) predict-observe-explain (Köse, Coştu and Keser, 2003),
V- diagrams (Nakiboğlu and Arık, 2006), Documan usage (Coştu, Aysal and Ünal, 2007), Concept test (Artun
Coştu, 2011; Atasoy and Akdeniz, 2007; Değirmenci, Bacanak and Karamustafaoğlu, 2012; Gülçiçek and
Yağbasan, 2004; İsen and Kavcar, 2006; Koray, Özdemir ve Tatar, 2005; Kutluay, 2005), Semi-structured
interview forms (Anıl and Küçüközer, 2010), and Games (Genç, Genç and Yüzüak, 2012).
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At the concept teaching, some different methods are use to establish the concept mistakes. And in order to
find solutions to these mistakes, different methods can be used. In order to find solutions to concept mistakes;
researchers do some researches such as, predict-observe-explain method (Aydın, 2010), worksheets
(Demircioğlu, Demircioğlu and Ayas, 2004), Conceptual change texts (Demirbaş Tanrıverdi, Altınışık and
Şahintürk, 2011), and Know-want-learn strategy (Yurd, 2007, Yurd and Olğun, 2008).
Thanks to the last differences teaching programme students try to research, direct, arrange the course time
and durations and improve the classrooms (Hurd, 2000). It is especially researched how the different methods
affect the student success (Genç, 2007; Tosun and Taşkesenligil, 2013). In addition, classrooms are decorated
and researches for improving student success are done. (Akyol and Fer, 2010; Güneş, 2005; Kalem and Fer,
2003; Usta and Mahiroğlu, 2008; Yılmaz and Akkoyunlu, 2006).
It is also needed to dwell upon the teachers who are important to teach concepts in addition to these
researches, teachers who are one of the most important elements of education, are able to be component and
assume the program. It is important to make the education effective, teachers needed to do their roles best.
(Arslan, 1996; Güven, 2001). Teachers have big roles to students acquire, build and learn the information.
Teachers have such an effective roles that the problems they face are handicaps for arriving the aims. For this
reason, teacher training is also started to take importance. Teachers are tried to give some various education
both university and working periods. During this education, different feedbacks are taken and program
corrections are done. Anyway, information about the practices in the courses are taken and recommendations
are given.
In order to estimate the effect situation of activities especially in the lesson, it is needed to teachers’ and
students’ points of view (Altunoğlu and Atav, 2005; Kaya and Gürbüz, 2002; Öztürk, 2004; Yeşilyurt and Gül,
2008). In this research paper, the concept mistakes of the teachers in their branches before courses and
removal of the problems after the practice are researched.
Aim of Study
The aim of this study is to define the mistakes of candidate class teachers about the biological concepts.
According to this aim, urinary system sample is exampled.
METHOD
The pattern of the research is pretest and posttest model (Karasar, 2012). At this model, argument model is
done and results are compared. Data of the research are gathered via an open-ended questionnaire and
commented on.
Working Group
In this research paper, participants are from biology course of first grade, Bartin University Education Faculty
Elementary Teacher Education Department. Total 45 which were 12 male and 33 female prospective teachers
participated the study. Participants take part in research for the subject urinary system in biology course in
2012-2013.
Researcher collect data via a questionnaire form. 5 open-ended questions are asked to the participant. In spite
of their deficiency, open-ended questions are preferred because they give chance to participants to say their
real thoughts. Except from the researcher, two experts also review the form and they give their
recommendations.
Practice of the Work
Work is done in the urinary system in biology course at first term in Elementary Teacher Education class. 5
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open-ended questions are asked to the participant before the practice. This subject is run twice at the 5 and
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7 grades. The subject is run for two weeks. For the cooperation group -5 students- research urinary, urinary
organs, urinary products, urinary system illnesses and urinary system health. They use animations.
FINDINGS
5 open-ended are asked to the candidate teachers in order to get information. Before and after practice
answers are at the table.
Table 1: “Why human body needs urinary?” Pretest, posttest distribution.
Pretest distribution.
Posttest distribution.
To be thrown the useless products
27
38
To continuation of life
15
35
To save the body health
12
37
To save the body balance
9
41
To work the systems regularly
5
26
To health of inside
1
15
For the Table 1, pretest answers are dominant to be thrown the useless products. The interviews with the
students show that they give this answer but they do not know the exact meaning of urinary. For example,
student 2 (S2) said that: “…. Urinary means excrete something. That is to say, our body excretes something so
we say urinary. It excretes harmful things.” Similarly, (S4) “….. I don’t know the whole definition but I think
urinary means to throw. Waste from what we eat shouldn’t stay in the body. They are waste anymore.”
After the practice, students say that urinary should be done in order to save the body health and balance,
continuation of life and also throw the harmful waste. (S3)”… while we are going our life, some extra products
occur at the end of the metabolic activities of the body. They are harmful for the health and the balance of the
body. For this reason they should be thrown out of the body. That’s why disposal through urine is done…”
(S4)”…. As I guess, this is done to protect the balance and health of the body. Actually beforehand I supposed
that the throwing digestion product was urinary. But the point was different.
Table 2: “Which organs are there in the Urinary System?” Pretest, posttest distribution.
Kidney
Intestines
Sudoriferous glands
Urine bag
Urinary tract organ
Urinary channel
Gallbladder
Liver
Skin
Ureter
Urethra
Lung
Anus
43
37
9
7
4
3
3
2
1
0
0
2
0
45
10
0
42
38
11
0
26
32
43
42
34
36
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When we look at Table 2, we see that students give very different examples about the urinary system. Urinary
tract organs like Sudoriferous glands, Gallbladder and Intestines are not able to exist, so the other helping
organs are liver, skin and lungs. S6 “…I thought and write lung and skin as urinary tract organ. They also throw
something out of the body. But they were the kidneys doing the real job…”. S5 said that “…first of all I thought
that our meals are just the urinary substance. However I thought that Intestines are urinary tract organ, too.
But I didn’t think excreting substances through cells.
It is defined that students wrote both urinary tract organs and urinary system after the practice. They talked
generally in their speech about urinary tract organs and helping organs. Anyway, they declared which organs
excrete which urinary substance.
Table 3: “Which substance can be thrown out of the body through urinary system?” Pretest, posttest
distribution.
Harmful substances
17
36
Excess and waste substances
16
42
Urea and uric acid
16
36
Water
9
42
Salt
8
25
Ammonia
14
3
Carbohydrate
3
0
Sweat
1
15
Urine
1
38
Glucose
0
5
Vitamin
0
5
Mineral salts
Carbon dioxide
Amino-acid
0
16
0
0
22
5
When Table 3 is examined, it takes attention that urinary substance is very much. Before the practice, students
said that the substances after the digestion are urinary substance and they are harmful, much and waste for
the body. The ones who said Ammonia is thrown as a urinary substance changed their sayings and said “… I
didn’t know that Ammonia is less harmful for the liver.…”. Vitamin, Amino-acid and Glucose shouldn’t be in a
healthy human’s urine but it can be excrete from an unhealthy human’s urine. It is because they are urinary
system substance. S34 said that “….anyway the Glucose can be seen in the urine of the human who are
diabetes, has vitamins and eats fruit. …”. Most of the student speeches show us that they said urinary
substance such as urea, uric acid and ammonia which include harmful and waste substance are thrown out of
the body through urinary”. Students sometimes said the general names of the substances or they talked about
their contents. For instance, some students said for the sweat that “salt and water”.
Table 4: “Write Urinary System Diseases.” Pretest, posttest distribution.
Pretest distribution
Posttest distribution
Diarrhea
28
5
Constipation
Prostate
28
10
5
29
Urinary tract diseases
Kidney stone
7
5
32
45
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Intestines cancer
Hemorrhoid
17
14
2
2
Renal failure
3
36
Kidney diseases
Pancreatic cancer
5
3
26
0
Diabetes
Cystitis
0
0
3
35
Albumin
Reproductive
0
0
36
42
Nephritis
0
43
Ulcer
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When we examine Table 4, students said urinary system diseases to their digestion system diseases such as
Diarrhea, Constipation, Hemorrhoid and Renal failure before the practice. After the practice, less student write
urinary system diseases for this kind of diseases. Therefore the diseases such as cystitis, reproductive and
nephritis aren’t known before the practice but they are talked about after the practice.
Table 5. “What should or shouldn’t be done for the health of Urinary system?” Pretest, Posttest distribution.
Consume water
Healthy nutrition
Balanced nutrition
Attention to cleaning
Regular urinary
Not eating hot, acidic and salty
Warm feet
Chew well
Consume fruit and vegetable
Do regular sports
Having shower regularly
Attention to mouth and teeth
Using regular pills and completing the cure
Saving kidneys from cold
Cure of throat inflammation
Not holding the urea
40
12
8
10
5
6
16
13
3
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
45
44
44
36
29
39
2
0
14
25
15
39
26
22
12
38
When we look at Table 5, we see that recommended substances which are needed to health of urine system
are increase after the practice. Before the practice, participant wrote usual recommendations about the
health. S5 wrote that “doctors recommend drinking more water, balanced nutrition do not swallow the food
without chewing well”. So I wrote these thanks to doctors’ recommendations. I did not know how much these
affect the urinary system. But now I know the urinary system and my recommendations are fit with it”. These
are common healthy rules we can see this. After the practice, recommendations are focused on urinary system
health. S2 declared that “I especially learned what we should do to protect ourselves after I learned the
diseases. This kind of diseases decreases the life standards of human. We should be careful”. And S4 explained
that “my animation was related to urinary system health. For this reason, I remember all these
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recommendations. Anyway I presented my subject in the classroom effectively; hence my friends also
remembered them too”.
It is aimed to define mistakes of participants about biology in this research which is done with candidate class
teachers. Also it is expected from candidate teachers to know the basic subjects of most sources because they
are in the curriculum. Teachers are expected to acquire basic level Maths, Sciences, Social Science, etc.
Teachers use this branch information to direct students and presentation of subjects. They present their
knowledge to students through pedagogic formation. The mistakes occur in the presentation of the knowledge
affect the student’s life.
It is expected that concept mistakes at the biology subjects will be more in the future. It is because that biology
as a branch of Sciences is taught incorrectly or students shouldn’t be internalized correctly. In the research, the
candidate class teachers’ mistakes about the urinary system which is one of the systems in the human body,
are defined. It is appeared that participants confuse this system with especially digestion system, they do not
know the urinary system diseases and they do not know what should be done. Also it is seen that the
participants who are taught to teach this subject, forget what they learned.
Urinary system is at the 5th and 7th grade curriculum. The participants gave answers thinking the concept
“urinary”. Their answers about urinary system organs, urinary substances and urinary system diseases show
that they have wrong manners for so common daily life issues.
Various ways are used to correct the concept mistakes. Courses were done with computer animations and
presentations through collaborative learning groups. Students prepared suitable animations about the topic
and presented in the classrooms. The question and answer part at the end of the course helped the students to
understand the topic. Constructive learning is used in our country and this helps candidate teachers to learn
these other methods.
It is defined that the concept mistakes seen at the teachers are also seen at the students (Barrass, 1984). At this
condition, in order to prevent concept mistake of students, the mistakes of the teacher who will educate them
should be determined. There are various recommendations for more effective concept teaching. Pekdağ (2010)
recommends information and communication technology in order to increase the effectiveness of concept
teaching.
Eraslan (2009) declared after examining the Finland sample which is successful in the competition that teacher
training needs much more importance. It is also recommended that teacher training programs should be
improved in terms of teaching team and substructure, teachers should renew themselves with the help of
universities and in-service course should be organized, also schools should be decorated, successful teachers
should be rewarded.
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BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF AUTHOR
Murat GENÇ, currently employed as an Assistant Professor at Bartin University Education
Faculty, Department of Science Education. He received Phd degree in Science Education at
Marmara University. His research interests include science education, cooperative
learning, Information and Communication Technologies, environmental education,
Project-Based Learning.
Assist. Prof. Dr. Murat GENÇ
Bartin University
Education Faculty
Department of science Education
Bartin-TURKEY
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Yılmaz, K. & Çolak, R. (2012). Sosyal bilgiler öğretiminde kavram haritaları kullanımının öğrencilerin tutum,
akademik başarı ve bilgilerinin kalıcılık düzeylerine etkisi, Uluslararası Cumhuriyet Eğitim Dergisi, Cilt 1 / Sayı 1 /
Mart 2012.
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Yılmaz, M. & Akkoyunlu, B. (2006). Farklı öğrenme ortamlarının kalıcılığa etkisi, [The effect of different learning
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Yurd, M. (2007). İlköğretim 5. sınıf fen ve teknoloji dersinde probleme dayalı öğrenme yöntemi ile bil-iste-öğren
stratejisi kullanılarak geliştirilen bil-iste-örnekle-öğren stratejisinin öğrencilerin kavram yanılgılarının
giderilmesine ve derse karşı tutumlarına etkisi, Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Mustafa Kemal Üniversitesi,
Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Hatay.
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AN INVESTIGATION OF GOODNESS OF MODEL DATA FIT:
EXAMPLE OF PISA 2009 MATHEMATICS SUBTEST
Res. Assist. Gülden KAYA UYANIK
Sakarya University
Education Faculty
Department of Measurement and Evaluation in Education
Sakarya, TURKEY
Inst. Gülşen TAŞDELEN TEKER
Sakarya University, Education Faculty
Sakarya, TURKEY
Assist. Prof. Dr. Neşe GÜLER
Sakarya, TURKEY
ABSTRACT
Although Classical Test Theory (CTT) has been used for test development, Item Response Theory (IRT) is
beginning to major theoretical source. However, the model-data fit should be verified as a prerequisite.
Therefore, in this study it is aimed to investigate which IRT model will provide the best fit to the data obtained
from PISA 2009 mathematics subtest. For goodness-of-fit analysis, first the model assumptions and then the
expected model features were tested. The model assumptions unidimensionality, local independence and nonspeeded test administration were investigated. In the expected model features part the invariance of ability
parameter estimates and invariance of item parameter estimates were analyzed. In addition, item
characteristics curves and item information functions were analyzed. To determine the best model, two
different ways were followed: first number of items which fits with the model and then the results of the kisquare statistics of -2 log likelihood values of models were compared. The results suggested that two
parameter logistic model is the most appropriate model for data fit.
Key Words: Item response theory, model data fit analysis, person and item statistics.
INTRODUCTION
One of the advantages of Item Response Theory (IRT) compared to Classical Test Theory (CTT ) is that item and
test parameters can be predicted independently of the group and the group members’ properties. The
advantages of IRT is true only when the model-data fit is achieved at a satisfactory level. When the
concordance is low, invariance of item and ability parameters cannot be attained. The model-data fit is
achieved by satisfying the primary assumptions. The assumptions necessary for all IRT models are: assuring
unidimensionality and local independence, and making sure that the test is not a speed test (Hambleton,
Swaminathan and Rogers, 1991; Baker, 2001; Embretson and Reise, 2000). This study examines firstly the
model assumptions and then the invariance of the predictions for item and ability parameters- the expected
model properties.
One of the suppositions of IRT is “unidimensionality”. What is meant by the term unidimensionality is the
measurement of one single ability with one test, and it is too difficult to meet this assumption exactly. In order
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to achieve this, it is sufficient to have a dominant factor affecting the test performance. The dominant factor
represents the ability to be measured with the test (Hambleton and Swaminathan, 1985). Unidimensionality
means measurement of only one variable with the items. In other words, it means that there is only one
property leading the answering behaviour for the items. However, unidimensionality is an assumption too
difficult to confirm in practice. Besides, when there is one dimension in unidimensionality studies, it might not
always be easy to predict what the dimension is and to describe it (Crocker and Algina, 1986). For this, another
dimension leading the answering behaviour, a factor, is mentioned. Unidimensionality work is generally done
with factor analysis. Additionally, correlations used in local independence studies can also be employed (Lord
1980; Hambleton and Ravinelli 1986; Crocker and Algina 1986; Harvey and Hammer 1999; quoted by Doğan,
2002).
An assumption equivalent to the assumption of unidimensionality is local independence. Local independence
points to the statistical independence of the responses given by sub-groups of a certain ability level to an item.
For this assumption to be correct, an individual’s performance in an item should not influence his/her
performance in the other items. That is to say, it means that the correct or incorrect answer given to an item is
independent of the correct or incorrect answer given to another item (Doğan, 2002). An item, for instance,
should not give clues as to answering the other items, or the answer given to an item should not be a
prerequisite to answering the other items. This can be represented with the equation given below (Hambleton
and Swaminathan, 1985):
Another assumption is whether or not the test is a speed test. Hambleton, Swaminathan and Rogers (1991)
contend that one of the criteria used to determine whether a test functions like a speed test is that 75% of the
group should answer 80% of the test. This same criterion was used in this study so as to find whether the
matmenatics test in the research was a speed test.
The expected model properties of the Item Response Theory is the invariance of the predictions for item and
ability parameters. One of the major properties of all item response models is that item parameters are
invariant; that is to say, they are independent of the group. Hambleton and Swaminathan (1985) pointed out
that the invaiance of item parameters could be checked by comparing the item parameters obtained from two
or more sub-groups (such as boys and girls, top group, bottom group) taken from the population.
Another property of item response models is the invariance of predictions for ability parameters. Hampleton
and Swaminathan (1985) claimed that the invariance of ability parameter predictions could be analysed by
comparing the predictions made by selecting two or more samples from the relevant pool of samples. In this
research, the comparability of ability parameters obtained from items of different difficulty levels for the same
group of students was checked for the purposes of analysing the invariance of ability predictions. For our
purposes, the items were classified as easy-difficult and even-odd; and Pearson’s Moments Multiplication
Correlations between ability predictions obtained separately for each individual from easy-dificult and evenodd items according to 1-, 2-, and 3-parameter logistic models were examined.
This research aims to analyse the 2009 PISA mathematics test scores in 1-, 2-, and 3-parameter logictic models,
and to determine the most appropriate model for item scores. In line with this purpose, firstly model
assumptions were examined separately, and then the invariance of ability parameter predictions- which are
the expected model proerties- was examined.
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METHOD
Research Model
This is a descriptive study analysing model-data fit for PISA 2009 mathematics sub-test in 1-, 2-, and 3parameter logistic models according to item response theory.
Data Source
The research data were composed of the scores for 12 items belonging to 1127 people who had taken the 2009
PISA mathematics sub-test in Turkey. The item scores for the individuals were obtained by encoding 1 for
correct answers and 0 for incorrect answers. The descriptive statistics for 2009 PISA mathematics sub-test are
shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics
N
K
Ortalama
Ortanca
Tepe Değer
Std. Sapma
Varyans
Çarpıklık Katsayısı
Basıklık Katsayısı
1127
12
4,88
5
4
2,524
6,370
0,298
-0,518
N: number of person, K: number of ıtem
As is clear from Table 1, the average for 2009 PISA mathematics sub-test is smaller than the median, and the
skewness coefficient receives a positive value close to zero. Based on these findings, it may be said that the
scores display almost normal distribution. Based on skewness coefficient’s receiving a negative value,
mathematics test scores may be said to be more skew than the normal (Büyüköztürk, Köklü, and Çokluk, 2012).
Analyses of Data
This research firstly examines the model assumptions and then analyses the expected model properties. The
assumptions of unidimensionality, local independence and unaccelerated test application were investigated in
the model assumptions part while the invariance of ability parameter predictions and the invariance of item
parameter predictions were investigated in the model properties part. In addition to that, item characteristic
curves and item information functions were also analysed. Two ways were pursued in deciding on the model
with the best model-data fit. Firstly, the number of items fitting the model was decided on. As a second way,
the chi-square results were compared with -2 likelihood values obtained from the models. The SPSS,
STATISTICA, ITEMAN and BILOG programmes were used for the analyses.
FINDINGS
Unidimensionality
In order to test whether or not the PISA mathematics test met the unidimensionality assumption, factor
analysis was performed. Because the item scores obtained from the test had two categories, factor analysis
was done through tetrakoric correlation matrix by using the STATISTICA programme. The eigenvalues for the
factor analysis and the findings concerning the explained variance percentages are shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Factor Analyses Results of PISA 2009 Mathematics Subtest
Factor
Eigenvalues
% of Variance
1
4,843
40,36
2
1,111
9,26
Cumulative %
40,36
49,62
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40.36% of the variance in the PISA 2009 mathematics sub-test is accounted for by the first factor. Besides, the
fact that there is a sharp decrease in the proportions between eigenvalues and accounting for the variance
after the first factor and that the difference between them becomes fourfold is remarkable. Based on these
results, the PISA 2009 mathematics test may be said to be unidimensional, or to measure only one structure.
In order to be able to identify unidimensionality visually, the factor eigenvalue chart shown in Figure 1 was
examined.
Figure 1: Factor Eigenvalue Chart
According to Figure 1, the slant forms a plateau after the second point; which means that the contibutions
made by factors after this point are small and almost the same. For this reason, it is thought that the number of
factors available is one. In this case, it might be said that the scale is unidimensional.
Local Independence
If the items are not statistically independent for constant level of ability, the test scores of some individuals are
expected to be higher than those of other individuals. In consequence, it will be possible to account for the
individual’s test performance with more than one ability. The violation of this assumption also means the
violation of unidimensionality assumption. Hence, explanation of the relations in a set of items should be
connected to only one ability (Hambleton and Swaminathan, 1985). Thus, the 12 items in the PISA 2009
mathematics sub-test achieving the assumption of unidimensionality were also regarded as achieving the
assumption of local independence.
Non-Speeded Test Administration
Following the analysis, it was found that 85% (967 people) of the group of 1127 people answered the whole
test whereas 89% (1006 people) answered 75% of the test. With this result, the 75% criterian set by
Hambleton, Swaminathan and Rogers (1991) was attained. That the majority of the group had answered the
whole test was regarded as the indicator of the fact that the test was not a speed test. Moreover, the
answering rate for the final item in the test was analysed, and the answering status of the individuals for the
item was shown in Table 3.
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Table 3: Answering Rate For The Final Item
Whole
Answered
Skipped
Correct
Incorrect
Frequency
1127
1102
25
162
940
%
100
97,8
2,2
14,7
85,3
According to Table 3, 1102 out of 1127 people (97.8%) answered the last item of the test. 25 people ((2.2%)
skipped the item while 162 people (14.7%) answered it correctly, and 940 (85.3%) answered it incorrectly.
Thus, it was found that more than ¾ of the group had answered the item. On examining the answers given to
the whole test by those who had skipped the item, it was observed that they did not answer the items also in
the other items beginning with item 1. In this case it might be interpreted as that they skipped the item not
because they could not reach the item due to time restrictions, but because they did not have the behaviour
tested by the item. Thus, it was established that the test did not function as a speed test.
Invariance of Item Statistics
This study analysed the item parameters predicted under each model through correlations between item
parameters that were predicted by forming different groups. The groups were divided in two different ways.
First, the group of 1127 was ordered according to total scores, and thus it was divided into two according to
individuals receiving high and low scores. Individuals receiving low scores were those whose score was in the
0%-60% range, and individuals rereceiving high scores were those whose score was in the 60%-100% range. In
selecting these intervals, the criterion required that the individuals had answered a minimum of 2/3 of the test
for the 60%-100% range, and they had answered a maximum of 2/3 of the test for the 60%-0% range. Second,
the group of 1127 people was divided into two on the basis of gender as girls and boys.
Item parameters specific to 1-, 2-, and 3- PL models were predicted for all groups. Because the number of
items was smaller than 30, the invariance of item parameters were analysed by comparing Spearman’s nonparametric rank differences Correlation Coefficients (rho) calculated between item parameters that were
predicted in different groups for each model. The correlations between item parameters predicted for each
group are shown in Table 4.
Table 4: Invariance of Item Statistics: Correlations of Item Statistics Obtained on Different Samples
Parametreler
Item-Difficulty (b)
Item-discrimination
Guessing (c)
(a)
1 PL
2PL
3PL
2PL
3PL
3PL
High-low ability
1,00**
0,998**
0,993**
0,991**
0,974**
0,991**
Female-male
0,986** 0,988**
0,980**
0,644**
0,554**
0,778**
**p<0,01
According to Table 4, it may be said that there is a perfect correlation between item difficulties predicted
according to 1-PL model (r=1.00, p<0.01), and there are very high and significant correlations between item
difficulties predicted according to 2-PL model (r=0.998, p<0.01) and between item difficulties predicted
according to 3-PL model (r=0.993). A similar case is also observed on dividing the group according to gender.
The strongest correlation forms in the girls and boys groups between item difficulty values predicted according
to 2-PL model; but there are also high and significant correlations between item difficulty parameters predicted
according to 1-PL (r=0.986) and 3-PL models (r=0.980). The high and significant correlations observed between
item difficulty values that were obtained from different groups indicate that the invariance of item difficulty is
achieved for all models. Besides, the correlation values obtained from gender groups with low and high scores
decreased by 0.14 in the 1PL model, 0.10 in the 2PL model, and 0.13 in the 3PL model. Based on these findings,
the interpretation might be that the best invariance of item difficulty parameter is obtained in the 2PL model.
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The invariance of item distinctiveness parameters which were obtained in the 2PL and 3PL models was
analysed in groups with low and high scores and in gender groups. Although high and significant correlations
were found between the predicted distinctiveness parameters in 2PL (r=0.991, p<0.01) and 3PL models
(r=0.974, p<0.01) in the low score and high score groups, the correlation value obtained in the 2PL model is
bigger. In gender groups, a higher correlation was obtained between distinctiveness parameters in the 2PL
model (r=0.644, p<0.01), but a medium level significant correlation was observed in both models. In the light of
these findings, it may be said that the invariance between distinctiveness parameters is not as strong as that of
item difficulty parameter, but that it is achieved best in the 2PL model.
And lastly, correct responses by chance predicted from the low and high score groups according to 3PL modelthat is to say, the invariance of c parameter- was analysed. According to Table 3, there are significant and very
high correlations (r=0.991) between c parameters predicted from low score and high score groups, and
significant and high correlations (r=0.778, p<0.01) between c parameters predicted from boys and girls groups.
Based on these findings, the c parameter may be said to achieve independence from the group.
Invariance of Ability Parameter Estimates
In analysing the invariance of ability predictions, the comparability of ability parameters obtained for students
of the same goup from items with different levels of difficulty was checked. For that purpose, the items were
classified as easy-difficult, and as even-odd numbered, and Pearson’s Moments Multiplication Correlations
between ability predictions obtained separately for each individual from easy-dificult and even-odd numbered
items according to 1-, 2-, and 3-parameter logistic models were examined.
In doing the easy-difficult classification for the items, the items below average difficulty were regarded as
difficult, and those above the average difficulty were regarded as easy.
Table 5: Item Difficulties of PISA 2009 Mathematics Sub-Test
Number of Items
Item difficulties
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0,433
0,404
0,326
0,654
0,055
0,546
0,170
0,522
0,871
0,253
11
0,506
12
0,144
According to Table 5, items 4,6, 8, 9, and 11 are the easy items; and 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, and 12 are the difficult
ones. The average for item difficulty indices was 0.26 for the difficult items in the mathematics test whereas
the average was 0.62 for the easy items. The average item difficulty index for items with odd number was 0.40
while it was 0.42 for the items with even number. Table 6 shows the correlations between ability predictions
obtained from easy-difficult and even-odd numbered items for each model.
Table 6: Invariance of Ability Parameter: Correlations of θ Values Obtained on Different Samples
1-PL Model
2-PL Model
3-PL Model
Easy-diff.
0,823**
0,820**
0,819**
Odd-even
0,790**
0,796**
0,778**
**p<0.01
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On examining the correlations in Table 6, it may be said that there is a positive high level correlation between
scores obtained from easy-difficult and even-odd numbered items and ability parameters predicted with 1-,2-,
and 3-parameter logistic models. The correlation expressing the invariance between ability predictions
obtained from the easy and difficult items whose item difficulty averages were different increased by 0.033 in
the 1 PL model, by 0.024 in the 2 PL model, and by 0.041 in the 3 PL model, compared to the correlation
expressing the invariance between ability predictions obtained from even and odd-numbered items with very
close item difficulty averages. On comparing the models, it might be sid that the invariance of ability
predictions assumption is best achieved in the 2 PL model.
The fit between PISA 2009 mathematics test and 1 PL, 2 PL, and 3 PL- which are the models of item response
theory- was examined through the BILOG programme. Two ways were followed in analysing the model-data fit.
In the first one, the numbers of items fitting the model were compared. In the other method, the results of
chi-square statistics performed were compared with -2 loglikelihood values obtained from the models. Table 7
shows the values compared in relation to the model-data fit.
Table : Values compared in relation to the model-data fit
1PL
2PL
-2loglikelihood
14522,2967
14389,0691
Number of fitting ıtems
6
8
3PL
14406,0247
5
The item concordance statistics obtained through analyses were examined for each model. In deciding the item
concordance of the items, the chi-square statistics were taken into consideration. Thus, in the research it was
concluded that items yielding a p value bigger than 0.05 fitted the model. On examining the values, it was
found that only 6 of the 12 items in the test fitted the 1-parameter model whereas 8 items fitted the 2parameter model, and 5 fitted the 3-parameter model. Based on these findings, it was concluded that the 2parameter model was more congruous in terms of model-data fit.
Another method suggested by Emretson and Reise (2000) for the evaluation of model congruity is the
difference between -2 log likelihood values. The -2 log likelihood value of the data shows the degree of model’s
differentiation from the data. The betterment of 2 PL model for PISA 2009 mathematics test compared to 1 PL
model can be evaluated with this calculation:
The degree of freedom for
is the number of increasing parameters in a more complex model (for the 2 PL
model). Because there were 12 items in PISA 2009 mathematics test, compared to the 1 PL model, an increase
of 12 item distinctiveness parameter occurred in the 2 PL model. Hence, the degree of freedom is 12. The value
for 12- freedom degree is 21.0267. Because..... , the hypothesis is refuted. Based on this result, the
interpretation may be that the 2 PL model causes a significant difference in terms of the betterment of the
model. In a similar vein, it may be calculated that the 3 PL model’s bettering according to the 2 PL model is not
significant.
The degree of freedom for
model this time.
is the number of increasing parameters for 3 PL model, which is a more complex
Because there were 12 items in PISA 2009 mathematics test, compared to the 2 PL model, an increase of 12
chance parameter occurred in the 3 PL model. Hence, the degree of freedom is 12. since the value for 12194
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freedom degree is 21.0267, the hypothesis is accepted. Based on this result, it may be said that the 2 PL model
does not cause a significant difference in terms of the betterment of the model.
In addition to the results obtained, considering the fact that the assumption of the invariance of item and
ability parameters prediction is achieved best in the 2 PL model, it may be concluded that the best fitting
model for PISA 2009 mathematics test is the 2-parameter logistic model.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This research aimed to analyse the model-data fit holding for the items in PISA 2009 mathematics sub-test. In
the scope of concordance statistics, firstly the assumptions of item response theory were focussed on. It was
found that the data satisfied the assumptions of unidimensionality, local independence and that the test is not
a speed test. In the second step, the invariance of item and ability parameters was analysed.
Within the scope of the research, 2009 PISA mathematics sub-test was evaluated with 1-, 2-, and-parameter
logistic models; and an attempt was made to determine the best fitting model for the item scores. The
goodness of fit results showed that the best fit was achieved with the 2 PL model. In line with these findings, it
may be stated that the studies and analyses to be performed in relation to PISA 2009 mathematics sub-test
based on item response theory would yield more accurate results with the 2 PL model.
th
Gülden KAYA UYANIK is a research assistant of the Measurement and Evaluation
Department in Faculty of Education, Sakarya University, Sakarya-Turkey. She is a graduate
student at the Hacettepe University, working towards her PhD in Measurement and
Evaluation in Education. Her research interest is measurement and evaluation in education;
generalizability theory, statistics and research methods in social sciences. She has authored
a book about generalizability theory, co-authored or presented many articles, and
conference presentations.
Res. Asst. Gülden KAYA UYANIK
Department of Measurement and Evaluation
54300 Hendek/Sakarya-Turkey
Gülşen TAŞDELEN TEKER is an instructor at the Sakarya University, Turkey. She worked as a
science and technology teacher for 2 years. After that she has begun to work as an
instructor since three years. Gülşen is a graduate student at the Hacettepe University,
working towards her PhD in Measurement and Evaluation in Education. Her research
interest is generalizability theory, standard setting, differential item functioning, and
statistical analysis. She has co-authored a book called Generalizability Theory and has
presented many articles and conference presentations.
Gülşen TAŞDELEN TEKER
Sakarya University, Faculty of Education
Hendek, Sakarya, Turkey
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Neşe GÜLER is assistant professor and division head of the Measurement and Evaluation
Department in Faculty of Education, Sakarya University, Sakarya-Turkey. Her research
interest is measurement and evaluation in education; generalizability theory, statistics
and research methods in social sciences.Dr. Güler has authored two books and authored,
co-authored, or presented almost fourty articles, and conference presentations.
Assist. Prof. Dr. Neşe GÜLER
Department of Measurement and Evaluation
54300 Hendek/Sakarya-Turkey
REFERENCES
Baker, F. B. (2001). The Basics of Item Response Theory (2th Edition). USA, Heinemann.
Büyüköztürk, Ş., Köklü, N. ve Çokluk, Ö. (2012). Sosyal Bilimler için İstatistik. PegemA Yayıncılık, Ankara.
Crocker, L. ve Algina, J. (1986). Introduction to Classical and Modern Test Theory. New York: Holt, Rınehart and
Wınston
Doğan, N. (2002). Klasik Test Teorisi ve Örtük Özellikler Kuramının Örneklemler Bağlamında Karşılaştırılması.
Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Ankara.
Embretson, S. E. ve Reise, S. P. (2000). Item Response Theory for Psychologists. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
Publishers, Mahwah, New Jersey.
Hambleton, R. K. ve Swaminathan, H. (1985). Item Response Theory: Principles and Applications. Kluwer Nijhoff
Publishing, Baston.
Hambelton, R.K., Swaminathan, H. ve Rogers, H.J. (1991). Fundamentals of Item Response Theory. Newbury
Park, CA: Sage Publications.
Yen, W. M. ve Fitzpatrick, A. R. (2006). Item Response Theory. R. L. Brennan (Ed.) Educational Measurement
(pp.112-153). USA, American Council on Education and Praeger Publishers.
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THE IMPORTANCE OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT HAS BEEN INCREASING
IN STUDENT ACADEMIC SUCCESS, BASED ON INTERNATIONAL EXAMS
*
Ph. D. (C.) Haydar ATEŞ
Hacettepe University
Institute of Social Sciences
Ankara, TURKEY
Ph. D. (C.) Gülbanu ARTUNER
Institute of Social Sciences
Ankara, TURKEY
ABSTRACT
The developed countries have focused on the school management and education systems in their education
reforms, starting in the late 1990s. Some international organizations, aiming to contribute to these reforms,
have given special attention to education and tried to help countries with their deficiencies in teaching, testing
and evaluation systems. The PISA exams, one of the international exams, give the opportunity to countries to
check regularly to what extent they approach their educational goals in basic education and share the results
and evaluation of the factors affecting their education systems. TALIS is also one of these exams that identifies
problems and develops suggestions for solving these problems on some sub-areas. The UNESCO IIEP and EU
have done similar studies. According to the assessments and reports prepared by the aforementioned
organizations, the school administrators in the school system, along with other factors, play an important role
in the academic success of student. In this study, it is aimed to develop some recommendations on selection
and education process of school administrators for improving the quality of education and academic
achievement in the light of exam results and research reports.
Key Words: PISA (Programme for International Student Assestment), TALIS (Teaching and Learning
International Survey), School Management, Academic Success.
PREFACE
The schools are open systems. As with any other system, the school system also has inputs, processes, outputs,
feedback, and there are sub-systems interact with its environment. If we consider “process”, one of the subsystems, we can encounter its sub-systems which are based on four basis in cycle; these are management,
education, cultural, and politics. According to reports prepared as a result of international exams, surveys and
assessments, the most important factors that affect academic success in the educational process, the
administration and faculty, school principals and teachers that come to the fore. In this study; the "school
management" that affects and increases student academic success and the implications for its development is
selected as a main problem and tried to be clarified the results obtained, evaluation findings, and proposals on
the subject.
METHODOLOGY
This research is descriptive and qualitative techniques are used. The primary school management is the main
research area. Because, the international exams try to determine the outputs and efficiency of primary school
*
Correspondent Author
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education while evaluating the graduate student’s level on basic knowledge and give some inputs to compare
countries’ education systems.
The international exams’ reports, the reports on countries’ education systems, and the evaluation papers
based on those reports are taken care of while collecting data. In this context, the outputs of OECD PISA
reports, the reports and research papers on Finland education system, as the most successful country in this
exam, the ERG and other institutions reports, Turkish Minister of Education reports, and the special report
(Preparing teachers and developing school leaders for the 21st century) from 2012 International Summit on the
Teaching Profession - New York City—March 14-15 are used.
To analyze the data, first the data was grouped in theme-based approach, and then data analysis was
performed on the basis of it. In this context; the roles of school management in academic success, in addition
to the duties related to general management, to clarify student evaluation system, the courses that will be
given, the textbooks, the coverage of courses, and the percentage of school management responsibilities of
OECD countries were considered and evaluated.
FINDINGS
The school administration systems, and especially school managers, teachers, educational programs, support
systems, the physical structure of the school have been focused during the school educational reforms since at
the end of 1990’s.
The school manager has been studied by many researchers as one of the most important factors that affects
student achievement. The school researches (Brookover, Beady, Flood, Scweithzer ve Wisenbaker, 1979;
Edmonds, 1979; Stedman, 1987; Balcı, 1993) results refer that school manager has effects on student success.
In addition, especially in the earlier studies on leadership (Leithwood ve Montgomery, 1982) refer that the
school atmosphere and student achievement have been affected by instructional and educational leadership
(Altun & Çakan, 2008;3).
According the study results conducted in Turkey by Balcı (1993, Akt: Altun&Çakan, 2008), school managers give
more importance to administration jobs than educational leadership.
Witziers, Bokser, and Kruger (2003) performed meta-analysis in different countries to examine the effect of
educational leadership on academic success and to solve this contradiction among researches from 1986 to
1996. As a result, researchers proved that primary school educational leaders have influence on academic
success (Altun & Çakan, 2008).
According to the researches on school management system; distributed powers and decentralized structure,
management, programs, mandatory standards are continually being developed in relation to education,
constant system monitoring, evaluation tools, provide a high level of individual responsibility are the fore issues
in order to establish an effective school management system.
School managers shape the teachers development, determine the educational goals of the school, direct
educational applications to achieve educational objectives, make recommendations on the regulatory practices
of teachers’ methodology, find solutions for the problem between teachers and the classroom, take measures
to ensure the motivation of teachers to improve the quality of education. The main duties of the school
managers are to develop the learning environment at school and to ensure the development of teaching
methods for teachers.
As a result of the inspections carried out by the OECD on PISA 2009 tests, student achievement is higher in
schools that provided discipline. 81 % of the successful students stated that systematic school environment has
positive contribution to the academic success. The school manager is the most important factor to maintain
discipline in the school environment.
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Another report prepared after the PISA 2009 tests stated that the reason of higher success rate in private
schools compared to public schools is the result of better management systems and administrators of these
schools. In this review, it is determined the reasons for being more successful manager of private school and
better performance are to have more initiative, better allocation of resources, and school atmosphere.
th
th
With the participation of the top 23 countries in the PISA exams, a meeting was held in 14 and 15 of March
2012 in the United States, to discuss the improvement of the quality of education and success. During the
meeting, taking into account the results of research on this subject has been compiled in a report that the most
important factors affecting the success were determined as school administrators and teachers and what can
be done to train school administrators and teachers to have better results around the world to prepare for the
21th century. The U.S. Secretary of Education gave opening speech of the meeting while emphasizing the
importance of school administrators and teachers for quality and success in education, and then he gave
general information about the projects on this issue.
The OECD PISA reports and the above-mentioned meeting minutes stated that “the initiative” is the first key
issue in the school system for success. As the key factors were determined in the use of the initiative are the
strong school administrators, senior teachers, head teachers and strong school support systems. However, in
these reports, the well-trained school administrators were referred as fundamental element of education
reforms.
In OECD PISA reports, assessing the effectiveness of school administrators in the system are determined in four
areas and the manager's effect is measured on these. These are;
a. To determine evaluation system for students,
b. To determine textbooks which are used,
c. To determine the scope of the courses,
d. To determine the lessons to be given.
In this context, the manager’s effect in school system in Turkey, in United Kingdom, and in Finland were
defined as seen in the table below.
Table 1: The influence of the school manager in the school system (%)
Topic
To determine evaluation system for students
To determine textbooks which are used
To determine the scope of the courses
To determine the lessons to be given
(Source OECD, PISA 2009 Database, Table IV.3.6.)
Turkey
42
14
9
14
United
Kingdom
88
98
77
86
Finland
50
98
32
55
In this context, the central government effect in school system on those areas in Turkey, in United Kingdom,
and in Finland were defined as seen in the table below.
Table 2: The influence of the central government in the school system (%)
Topic
To determine evaluation system for students
To determine textbooks which are used
To determine the scope of the courses
To determine the lessons to be given
(Source: OECD, PISA 2009 Database, Table IV.3.6.)
Turkey
30
68
76
65
United
Kingdom
0
0
2
0
Finland
7
0
16
6
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Comparing the situation in Turkey with the most successful countries in PISA exams, the results can be reached
that the school administrators’ initiative is an important criterion in contributing to the success and the overcentralized structure reduces the chance of success of education system, and prevent the development of
school managers.
Some of the key qualifications for effective school managers can be identified which are strategic leadership,
leadership for training and education, managing human resources, providing organizational development,
managing the change, getting the life-long learning as basis, making the overall management, developing
themselves and others, being directive, establishing and developing relationships with people, improving
organization, managing the school, and being effective while using financial resources. Some countries have
improved more qualifications for school managers; such as to be a teacher with experience in a certain time
period, to have postgraduate education, to be participated in school-level certification programs, to have
worked as a deputy of the undertaken position, and to participate in special programs at universities have been
opened in the school management. The school is open system, so, it is highly interactive with its environment.
For this reason, one of the features of school administrator is to establish strong relationships with the
environment. The school managers spend 1/3rd of their time for the social studies and relationships with
environment in Finland. One of the most important features of school manager is to share authority with
deputies and other officials in proper ways. The collaborative and participatory leadership approach for the
development and success of the school should be the basic behavior features of the school manager.
The programs that are prepared to train school principals candidates cover theoretical background, case
studies, personal behaviors, working with advisors, personnel management and development, communication
skills, preparing special project for school, management, preparing and implementing strategy, managing the
change, and problem solving. Some countries carry out leadership training for candidates within the program in
order as project leadership, team leadership, school leadership, and strategic leadership. The managers who
took leadership programs can be appointed as local and national level educational leaders.
While the education is re-defined as concept, system, structure, and process, the education system
components also have entered into a structural transformation. While the school is defined at the center as a
fundamental change agent in information societies; students are defined as strategic human resources, the
school managers are defined as strategic transformation leaders, the parents are strategic partners, and the
teachers are defined as strategic education leaders (MEB, 2011).
The schools, as open systems, have been operated under different names constitute the basis of the formal
education system since the beginning of social life. One of the outputs of the school system is to increase
student achievement with high-quality education and good management of the process.
According to the reports prepared based on international examinations and other studies on education stated
that, the school managers and teachers are the most important factors for the success in comparison with the
other factors which contributed.
Education managers and planners must consider to have well-trained school managers and teachers while
preparing strategic plans, targets, and projects on education to obtain better success, higher productivity, and
to increase the quality of education.
Education system is not only a social system, but the only way to educate manpower for other social systems,
such as legal system, economy, policy, security, and others, and the basis system to transmit common culture
to the next generations to provide eternity of nation as well. The success of this system is the success of the
community. The managers who are the cornerstones of this success, should be chosen by systematic approach,
well trained, developed, continuity should be provided. They should keep track of our era and follow the
changes and developments to train next generations to realize the improvement and better quality.
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School managers should take some special education and courses, such as theoretical basis, system
management, education planning, decision making process, organization, communication, motivation,
supervising and evaluation, usage of resources, personal behaviors, human resource management and
development, preparing special project for schools, preparation and implementation of strategy, management
of change, problem-solving, and information management with case studies. School managers’ career
development program should cover project leadership, team leadership, school leadership, and strategic
leadership.
Educational leaders must be trained in accordance with the requirements of the information age; such as
thinking methods (creativity, critical thinking situations, problem solving, decision making, learning), operating
procedures (communication and collaboration), working tools (information technology, communication
technology, information literacy) and skills to live in the world (citizenship, life and career, personal and social
responsibility), in fields of education, to contribute to the success and quality of education.
th
Haydar ATEŞ is a PH. D. candidate in Hacettepe University, Institute of Social Sciences,
Education Management, Supervising, Planning, and Economics Department (EYTPE). He
has experience leading, training, and performance improvement efforts in lifelong
learning, higher education financing, to improve quality of education managers and
teachers, strategic planning, logistics management systems, and logistics education.
Haydar is a graduate student at the Turkish Army War College as an officer. His major is
Management, then MA in Management and Organization in Army War Academy. He
served as Head of Support and Deputy HOM in multinational organization (TIPH) in West
Bank/Palestine and Deputy Commander of NATO ISAF Regional Command Capital in
Kabul/Afghanistan. He served as an officer in Turkish Army for 27 years, in command and staff posts in different
national and multinational organizations, and retired as Colonel. He has been in 25 countries for mission, as
LNO in US Army TRADOC CAC. He has been lecturer in some national and international educational conferences
and researcher on educational issues.
Haydar ATEŞ
Institute of Social Science, Beytepe. Ankara/TURKEY
Gulbanu ARTUNER is a PH. D. candidate in Hacettepe University, Institute of Social
Sciences, Education Management, Supervising, Planning, and Economics Department
(EYTPE). She has experience in Turkish auditing, accounting, planning and economics
system. She has worked on the problems of sustainable development & education and
Turkish Vocational & Technical Education. Gülbanu is a graduate from Gazi University
Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences. She also has “authorized certificate” on
Public Accounting since 1999. She has been lecturer in some national and international
educational conferences. She is married and the mother of three children.
Gülbanu ARTUNER
Institute of Social Science, Beytepe. Ankara/TURKEY
201
9
REFERENCES
Altun, S. A., Çakan, M. (2008), Factors Affecting Student Success on Exams.
Çobanoğlu, R., Kasapoğlu, K. (2010), PISA’da Fin Başarısının Nedenleri ve Nasılları.
Ekinci, A., Öter, Ö. M. (2010), Finlandiya’da Eğitim ve Öğretmen Yetiştirme Sistemi.
Eraslan, A. (2009), Finlandiya’nın PISA’daki Başarısının Nedenleri: Türkiye için Alınacak Dersler.
ERG (2009), Türkiye’de Öğrenci Başarısında Eşitsizliğin Belirleyicileri.
ERG (2011), PISA 2009 Sonuçlarına İlişkin Değerlendirme.
Maden, Ö. (2012), PISA ve Finlandiya.
MEB (2010), PISA 2009 Ulusal Ön Raporu.
MEB (2012), EARGED PISA Bülteni 2.
MEB (2012), EARGED PISA Bülteni 3.
OECD (2003), School Leaders: Challenging Roles and Impact on Teacher and School Effectiveness.
OECD (2004), What Makes School Systems Perform? Seeing School Systems Through The Prism Of PISA.
OECD (2007), Basic Education in Turkey.
OECD (2007), School Leadership for Systemic Improvement in Finland.
OECD (2009), Creating Effective Teaching and Learning Environments: First Results from TALIS.
OECD (2010), PISA 2009 At a Glance.
OECD (2010), PISA 2009 Results: Executive Summary.
OECD (2010), PISA 2009 Results: What Students Know and Can Do Volume I.
OECD (2010), PISA 2009 Results: What Students Know and Can Do Volume IV.
OECD (2010), The High Cost of Low Educational Performance.
OECD (2011), PISA in Focus 4.
OECD (2012), Preparing Teachers and Developing School Leaders for the 21st Century: Lessons From Around
the World.
OECD (2012), Public and Private Schools: How Management and Funding Relate to Their Socio-Economic
Profile.
OECD (2012), PISA 2009 Technical Report.
TEPAV (2010), PISA 2009 Sonuçlarına İlişkin Bir Değerlendirme.
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their

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