Evaluación sensorial de productos cárnicos derivados del cerdo

Transcription

UNIVERSIDAD
DE EXTREMADURA
TESIS DOCTORAL
Evaluación Sensorial de Productos Cárnicos Derivados del Cerdo
Ibérico: Aplicación de Técnicas Dinámicas y Descriptivas Rápidas
Sensory Evaluation of Iberian Meat Products: Application of Dynamic
and Rapid Descriptive Sensory Techniques
LAURA LORIDO CONTRERAS
DEP. PRODUCCIÓN ANIMAL Y CIENCIA DE LOS ALIMENTOS
Conformidad de los Directores:
Fdo.: Sonia Ventanas Canillas
Mario Estévez García
2016
AGRADECIMIENTOS /ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
AGRADECIMIENTOS/ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Quiero mostrar mi agradecimiento a las personas e instituciones que han hecho
posible la realización de esta Tesis Doctoral:
Al Gobierno de Extremadura (Consejería de Economía e Infraestructuras) por la beca
FPI (PD10025) que disfruté durante el desarrollo de la Tesis y por la ayuda de la Unidad
de Tecnología de los Alimentos de la Facultad de Veterinaria para poder realizar mi
estancia predoctoral en la Universidad de Nottingham. Al INIA por el proyecto titulado
“Optimización y control de la calidad tecnológica, nutricional y organoléptica del jamón
serrano e ibérico” (CLASHAM-RTA-2010-00029-C04-03) que me permitió acudir a
congresos nacionales e internacionales para la difusión de resultados. Al Centro para el
Desarrollo Tecnológico Industrial (CDTI) por el proyecto “Programa FEDERInnterconecta: Proyecto Innterbiocured (referencias116/13, 117/13 y 118/13)” que
nos permitió contar con muestras para los experimentos de la presente tesis.
A todos los miembros del panel de cata por su participación en las evaluaciones
sensoriales llevadas a cabo durante el desarrollo de la presente tesis.
Un agradecimiento especial al Dr. Jesús Ventanas por la colaboración y apoyo brindado
y sobre todo por escucharme y aconsejarme siempre.
A Sonia y Mario, mis directores de tesis y a la cuales ya considero amigos, por todo su
apoyo recibido a lo largo de todos estos añosporque aparte de ser unos excelentes
investigadores son mejores personas. Sonia gracias por acogerme cuando todavía era
una recién titulada y no sabía muy bien la dirección que tomar, porque conseguiste
que me apasionara por todo lo que me has ido enseñando. Mario gracias por estar ahí
y ayudarme cada vez que lo he necesitado y por todo el último esfuerzo para sacar a la
luz esta tesis.
5
AGRADECIMIENTOS/ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
A los que fueron mis compañeros de la antigua sala de doctorandos, por todo el apoyo,
colaboración, ánimo y sobre todo cariño y amistad.
A la profesora Joanne Hort por acogerme en el “Sensory Science Center” de la
Universidad de Nottingham y a Curtis Eaton por toda su ayuda durante esos 3 meses.
Agradecer hoy y siempre a mis padres Emilio y Quini por ser el pilar fundamental en
todo lo que soy, en toda mi educación, tanto académica, como de la vida, por su
incondicional apoyo mantenido a través del tiempo y por ser siempre mi fuente de
energía cuando lo necesito.
A mis hermanos, Sergio y Mari Carmen, por estar conmigo y apoyarme siempre, los
quiero mucho.
A mi tía Mari Carmen y mis abuelos Gabriel y Reposo, a los que la vida se llevó
injustamente antes de tiempo, porque desde arriba sé que velan por mí, que sepan
que no los olvido. También a mi abuelo Fernando y mi abuela María a los que todavía
puedo tener a mi lado.
A Mane, por ser la persona que ha compartido el mayor tiempo a mi lado, porque en
su compañía las cosas malas se convierten en buenas, la tristeza se transforma en
alegría y la soledad no existe.
Laura Lorido
6
INDEX
INDEX
RESUMEN/ABSTRACT......................................................................................................14
LIST OF PAPERS ...............................................................................................................20
INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................................................23
1. Iberian pigs and Iberian meat products ..................................................................25
2. Meat Processing .......................................................................................................27
3. Salt: perception, reduction and substitution ...........................................................29
4. Fat content: perception, reduction and substitution ..............................................35
5. Post-process technologies: High hydrostatic pressure ............................................36
6. Sensory analysis of muscles foods ...........................................................................36
6.a. Dynamic sensory techniques: Time-intensity (TI) .........................................38
6.b. Dynamic sensory techniques: Temporal Dominance of Sensations (TDS) ....42
6.b.1. Introduction and overview ...............................................................42
6.b.2. TDS attributes selection and tasting protocol ..................................45
6.b.3. TDS curves ........................................................................................46
6.b.4. Application of TDS and comparison with other methods ................49
6.c. New and quick descriptive methods: Flash profile .......................................51
JUSTIFICATION AND OBJECTIVES ...................................................................................56
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN ..................................................................................................62
MATERIAL AND METHODS .............................................................................................68
1. Material ...................................................................................................................69
1.a. Chemicals .....................................................................................................69
1.b. Equipments ...................................................................................................69
1.c. Samples .........................................................................................................70
1.c.1. Iberian meat products (Experimental phase I) ...............................70
1.c.2. Iberian and Serrano dry-cured hams (Experimental phase II)........71
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INDEX
1.c.3. Dry-cured hams (Experimental phase III) ......................................73
1.c.4. Dry-cured loins (Experimental phase III) ........................................75
2. Methods ..................................................................................................................76
2.a. Physico-chemical analysis .............................................................................76
2.a.1. Moisture content............................................................................76
2.a.2. Protein content ..............................................................................77
2.a.3. Fat content .....................................................................................78
2.a.4. Chloride content .............................................................................80
2.a.5. Color measurement........................................................................81
2.a.6. Texture profile analysis (TPA) ........................................................82
2.a.7. Analysis of fatty acid profile...........................................................82
2.b. Sensory evaluation ........................................................................................83
2.b.1. Panellist ..........................................................................................83
2.b.2. QDA® ..............................................................................................84
2.b.3. Time-intensity ................................................................................90
2.b.4. Temporal Dominance of Sensations technique .............................95
2.b.5. Flash Profile (FP) ..........................................................................103
REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................105
SCIENTIFIC ARTICLES .....................................................................................................121
GENERAL DISCUSSION ..................................................................................................225
1. Influence of fat content on the sensory properties of meat products.................227
2. Influence of salt content on the sensory properties of meat products ..............231
3. Influence of high hydrostatic pressure treatment (HHP) on the sensory properties
of meat products ......................................................................................................234
4. Technological interest and adequacy of the studied sensory techniques to the
meat industry. ..........................................................................................................236
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INDEX
5. References. ..........................................................................................................241
CONCLUSIONS ...............................................................................................................245
ANNEX ...........................................................................................................................249
11
RESUMEN/ABSTRACT
RESUMEN/ABSTRACT
Los productos cárnicos curados derivados del cerdo Ibérico son unos de los productos
cárnicos más importantes y apreciados en España, siendo nuestro país, el primer
productor a nivel mundial. Para conseguir productos de alta calidad, sanos, seguros y
palatables es necesaria la optimación de los procesos de elaboración (controlando la
materia prima y los procesos tecnológicos) y la aplicación de nuevas tecnologías como
las altas presiones que aseguren la calidad microbiológica y permitan cumplir con las
exigencias establecidas en algunos
paises importadores. Por otro lado, hay una
creciente demanda por parte de los consumidores por conocer las características
nutricionales del producto final, sobre todo en cuanto a contenidos de sal y grasa. Es
fundamental evaluar como estos factores pueden afectar a las características
organolépticas tan valoradas por parte de los consumidores en este tipo de productos.
La percepción tanto del flavor como de la textura son fenómenos dinámicos que se
modifican durante el proceso de consumo del alimento (Dijksterhuis y Piggott, 2001).
Por tanto, el análisis de estos atributos que son determinantes de la calidad en
productos derivados del cerdo ibérico, resulta de un gran interés. Para ello en la
presente tesis se han aplicado las técnicas sensoriales más novedosas y de mayor
interés en la actualidad como son la técnica Tiempo-Intensidad (TI), la técnica
Sensaciones Dominantes Temporales (TDS) y una de las técnicas descriptivas rápidas
como es la técnica Flash Profile (FP).Dichas técnicas nos han permitido caracterizar
15
RESUMEN/ABSTRACT
sensorialmente productos cárnicos de diversa naturaleza (pâté, salchichón, lomo
curado, jamón Ibérico y jamón Serrano) y obtener información de los cambios
sensoriales que se producen en función de su composición (variación en el contenido
en grasa y sal) y tratamiento post-procesado como las altas presiones.
Palabras clave: evaluación sensorial, productos curados ibéricos, grasa, sal, altas
presiones.
16
RESUMEN/ABSTRACT
Dry-cured meat products derived from Iberian pigs are some of the most important
and appreciated meat products in Spain, which is the world's largest producer. The
optimization of manufacturing processes is required (controlling the raw materials and
technological processes) to achieve high quality, healthy, safe and palatable products.
Moreover, the application of new technologies such as high hydrostatic pressure is
necessary to ensure the microbiological safety and to conform to the established
requirements of some importing countries. On the other hand, there is a growing
demand from consumers to know the nutritional characteristics of the final product,
especially in terms of salt and fat content. It is important to evaluate how all these
factors can affect the much appreciated organoleptic characteristics of such products
by consumers. The perception of both flavor and texture attributes are dynamic
phenomena that are modified during food consumption (Dijksterhuis and Piggott,
2001). Therefore, the evaluation of these attributes, which determine the quality of
Iberian products, has an enormous interest. In this Thesis, the newest and most
interesting sensory techniques as Time-Intensity (TI), Temporal Dominance of
Sensations (TDS) and one of the rapid descriptive techniques such as Flash Profile (FP)
have been applied.Such techniques have allowed us to characterize different meat
products (pâté, dry-cured sausage, dry-cured loin, Iberian dry-cured ham and Serrano
dry-cured ham) and to obtain information from the sensory changes caused by
17
RESUMEN/ABSTRACT
variations in their physico-chemical composition (fat and salt content) and the
application of post-processing treatment such as high hydrostatic pressure.
Keywords: sensory evaluation, Iberian dry-cured products, fat, salt, high hydrostatic
pressures.
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LIST OF PAPERS
LIST OF PAPERS
1. Lorido, L., Estévez, M. & Ventanas, S. (2014). A novel approach to assess
temporal sensory perception to muscle foods: Application of a time-intensity
technique to diverse Iberian meat products. Meat Science, 96, 385-393.
2. Lorido, L., Estévez, M., Ventanas, J. & Ventanas, S. (2015). Salt and
intramuscular fat modulate dynamic perception of flavour and texture in drycured hams. Meat Science, 107, 39-48.
3. Lorido, L., Estévez, M., Ventanas, J. & Ventanas, S. (2015).Comparative study
between Serrano and Iberian dry-cured hams in relation to the application of
high hydrostatic pressure and temporal sensory perceptions. LWT- Food
Science and Technology 64, 1234-1242.
4. Lorido, L., Hort, J., Estévez, M. & Ventanas, S. (2016). Reporting the sensory
properties of dry-cured ham using a new language: Time Intensity (TI) and
Temporal Dominance of Sensations (TDS). Meat Science (Submitted;
01/02/2016)
5. Lorido, L., Estévez, M. & Ventanas, S. (2015). Using Flash profile and
conventional dynamic descriptive techniques for sensory characterization of
dry-cured meat products. Journal of Food Science (Submitted; 15/02/2016)
21
LIST OF PAPERS
PAPERS IN ANNEX
1. Lorido, L., Ventanas, J. & Ventanas, S. (2013). Caracterización sensorial de
productos cárnicos derivados del cerdo Ibérico (I): utilización de técnicas
descriptivas estáticas. Eurocarne, 222, 75-83.
2. Lorido, L., Ventanas, J. & Ventanas, S. (2014). Caracterización sensorial de
productos cárnicos derivados del cerdo Ibérico (II): utilización de técnicas
descriptivas dinámicas. Eurocarne, 224, 136-146.
3. Armenteros, M., Lorido, L., Ventanas, S., Silva, A., Sánchez, M.F. & Ventanas J.
(2015). Predicción no destructiva y rápida de la sal: su aplicación en el jamón
curado. Eurocarne, 237, 68-14.
4. Lorido, L., Ventanas, S., Akcan T. &Estévez, M. (2016). Effect of protein
oxidation on the impaired quality of dry-cured loins produced from frozen pork
meat. Food Chemistry, 196, 1310-1314.
22
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
1. Iberian pigs and Iberian meat products
Iberian pig is an ancient native breed. They are adipogenic animals asthey exhibit a
genetic tendency to store large lipid deposits. As a result, muscles generally have large
intramuscular lipids,and that is reflected in an intense marbling and a characteristic
texture and aroma of the subsequently processed Iberian meat products.
"Iberian" meat products are commonly regarded as "high quality” products by Spanish
consumers due to their particular and unique sensory properties. Moreover, the
occurrence of these meat products in foreign markets (France, Japan, Russia, and
EEUU) has been strongly promoted in recent years becoming a high quality hallmark of
Spanish gastronomy. Spanish government regulates the market of these products (drycured hams, dry-cured shoulder, dry-cured loins and fresh meat) in the national
market by means of a Quality regulation called “Norma de Calidad” which has been
recently updated (Real Decreto 4/2014 del 10-01-14, BOE 11/01/14). The main
objective of this regulation is to control the quality of these derived products from the
farm to the market. Additionally, this guideline establish different commercial
categories depending i) on the genetic background of the animals (“100% Iberian” or
“Iberian”, with the latter being at least 50% Iberian) and ii) on the feeding and rearing
background during the final fattening period (“Bellota”, “Cebo de campo” or “Cebo”).
“Bellota” designation involves that animals were reared outdoors in a natural
environment so-called “dehesa” system (ever-green oak forests) and fed on acorn,
grass and other natural resources. “Cebo de campo” involves that animals were also
reared in the “dehesa” systemand mainly fed on concentrates containing mainly
cereals and legumes while these animals may also use natural resources. “Cebo”
25
INTRODUCTION
involves that animals were reared indoorsand fed exclusively on concentrates.
Regarding the genetic background, the market designation is “100% Iberian” if the
animals are 100% Iberian pure breed as well as the maternal and the paternal
progenitors. However, the market designation is “Iberian” if the animals are 50%
Iberian pure breed.
Figure 1. Image of Iberian pigs grazing in “Dehesa” rearing system
However, the main production (38,5 million pieces) of dry-cured products in Spain
comes from “white” (industrial-genotypes) pigs (Duroc, Landrace, Large White or
Pietrain and their corresponding genetic crosses) reared indoors and fed on
concentrateswith the Serrano dry-cured hams being a good example of such
commercial product. There are significant differences between Iberian and Serrano
dry-cured hams regarding the processing. Most of these differences are related to the
total length of processing, salting time and the temperature and relative humidity
values along the drying and curing steps.
26
INTRODUCTION
2.Meat processing
Meat products could be classifiedbased on different criteria as the types of raw
materials and the nature of the elaboration process: if they are stuffed or not, minced
or not, subjected to a thermal treatment, cured, fermented and/or subjected to a
ripening-drying process. In Spanish markets we can find pork pâtés as an example of
canned cooked product, “salchichón” or “chorizo” asminced dry-cured products
(~fermented sausages), dry-cured loins as whole muscle dry-cured product and drycured hams as a salted and subsequently ripened/dried meat product. Pork pâtés has
as main ingredient pork liver and as main spice black pepper. They are subjected to a
sterilization process which achieves the coagulation of meat proteins (Orden de 5 de
Noviembre de 1981, BOE 09/11/81). “Salchichón” and “chorizo” are manufactured
from a mixture of minced meat or pieces of pork meat and bacon and/or pork fat. Salt,
paprika (“chorizo”), black pepper (“salchichón) and other spices are added to these
products. They are stuffed into natural or artificial casings and subsequently undergo a
process of ripening-drying (“Norma de calidad para el chorizo y salchichón”, BOE
21/03/80). Dry-cured loins are elaborated from longissimus dorsiet lomborummuscles.
Their processing has three phases: seasoning, stuffing into natural or artificial casings
and cured-ripening. Iberian dry-cured loins has a minimum processing length of 70
days (Real Decreto 4/2014, BOE 11/01/14). Dry-cured hams are elaborated from the
hind leg of a pig, including muscles, nervous, blood vessels and bones. Nowadays, in
Spain, two types of dry-cured hams are mainly produced and consumed: Serrano and
Iberian dry-cured hams. Their processing includes four phases: salting, postsalting,curing-ripening and final resting in cellar. Dry-cured ham is a meat product in
which the salt is an essential ingredient. Traditionally, sodium chloride is used mixed
27
INTRODUCTION
with other cured salts as nitrites and nitrates to guaranteethe microbiological safety
throughout the whole process (Toldrá, 2003).A previous pre-salting is done through a
massage of the surface of hams with a small amount of salt containing the exact dose
of additives (mainly nitrates and nitrites) to be incorporated into the ham. This process
facilitates the distribution and penetration of salt to the core of the meat product. It
can be done manually, but it is typically done by mechanical equipment (Arnau, 2007).
An unlimited salt coating in containers is applied during the salting phase in which a
gradual dehydration of the ham occurs along with the inhibition of spoilage and
potentially pathogenic microorganisms (Toldrá, 2002). The temperature is maintained
throughout the salting process between 3-4 ° C, while the relative humidity is set
around 90-95 %. These conditions are maintained for approximately 1.1 day per kilo of
ham (Ventanas, Ruiz & Córdoba, 2001).During the subsequent stages (drying/cellar),
the temperature increases gradually while the relative humidity decreases to allow the
ongoing dehydration of the hams so that final products display around 50% of water
loss and water activity values below 0.90 (Ventanas et al., 2005).
The main differences between Serrano and Iberian dry-cured hams are i) the pig breed
(industrial genotypes for Serrano dry-cured hams and Iberian or Iberian x Duroc pigs
for Iberian dry-cured hams) (Reglamento (CE) 2419/99; Real Decreto 4/2014) and ii)
the processing conditions (Ventanas, Ventanas, Ruiz & Estévez, 2005). These
differences in both the raw material and the process conditions lead to a significant
difference in the length of production: a minimum of 210 days for Serrano dry-cured
hams and 600 days for Iberian dry-cured hams.
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INTRODUCTION
Figure 2. Diagram of meat products processing.
3. Salt: perception, reduction and substitution
Sodium is essential for the normal physiological function of human beings. It is the
most prevalent cation in extracellular fluid, and decreases in sodium levels result in
reduction of blood volume and pressure (McCaughey, 2007). For this reason, animals
have the ability to identify sodium through the sense of taste,and get it from the diet
in order to maintain sodium levels in their body.The chemical identity of sodium is
converted into an electrical signal trough a transduction mechanism which takes place
in the receptor cells of the taste buds. This electrical signal is propagated through the
human´s nervous system to the brain resulting in the perception of a unique sensory
quality called saltiness (McCaughey, 2007). Among sodium-containing compounds,
NaCl is the saltiest (Schiffman et al., 1980). AlthoughNaCl is mainly known for
contributing to saltiness, this salt may be also responsible for non-salty
29
INTRODUCTION
flavourattributes, depending on its concentration. At low concentrations mildly sweet
flavours are detected while a small sourness is perceived at higher concentrations
(Bartoshuck et al., 1978). Salty compounds not only generate perceptions related to
taste quality and intensity, but also hedonic perceptions that range from highly
palatable to highly unpalatable (Bartoshuck et al., 1978).
Salt is commonlyused in meat products processing(Table 1) mainly due to its role
aspreservative reducing the water activity of products and, therefore, retarding
microbial growth. Moreover, salt is also a flavour enhancing agent by increasing the
volatility of aroma compounds thorough the ‘salting out’ phenomenon (Rabe, Krings &
Berger, 2003) and it is also responsible for the development of the texture in
processed meat products modulating the activity of photolytic enzymes (Toldrá, Flores
& Sanz, 1997). On the other hand, salt is a potent pro-oxidant agent that will promote
lipid and protein oxidation in meat products(Bess et al., 2013; Soladoye et al., 2015)
thus contributing to the development of particular odours and flavours. However, an
excess of oxidative reactions could lead to off-odours and flavours in the product.It is
worth mentioning that not all meat products contain the same salt levels and even
within the same product,salt content can significantly vary. For Iberian dry-cured
products, Iberian pâtés have approximately 1.5% of salt, dry-cured sausages and loins
2.5% salt and dry-cured hams 3-6% salt (Estévez & Cava, 2004; Martin, Ruiz, Kivikari, &
Puolanne, 2008; Ramírez & Cava, 2007; Fuentes et al. 2013). The perception of
saltiness in meat products not only depends on the salt content of the product as it is
also influenced by factors such as texture characteristics, fat content, formation of saltproteins complexesand the presence of certain amino acids or other substances from
proteolysis which can be taste enhancers or maskers (Aristoy and Toldrá, 1995;
30
INTRODUCTION
Desmond 2006, Ventanas, Poulanne & Tuorila, 2010; Chabanet, Tarrega, Septier, Siret
& Salles 2013).
Table 1. Salt content inassortedmeat products.
Source: Desmond, (2006).
Nowadays, consumers are increasingly aware of the health recommendations to
prevent high blood pressure and demand less salty meat products (Morgan, Aubert, &
Brunner, 2001). In Spain, the 2005 Strategy for Nutrition, Physical Activity and
Prevention of Obesity recommended that salt intake from all sources should be
reduced to less than 5 g/day (REF). A focused plan to reduce salt consumption has
been under development since 2009.This plan aims to reduce the salt content in food
products by 20% over a four-year period (2010–2014). According to the Spanish
Agency for Food and Nutrition Safety and the Ministry of Health, the main sources of
sodium in the adult population are dry-cured meat products, accounting for 26.2% of
the total intake (Figure 2).
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INTRODUCTION
Figure 3. Bar chart of the main food sources of sodium in Spain.
On this line, the World Health Organisation (WHO) identifies certain food categories
like meat products as products for sodium reduction.Taking into consideration the
potential negative health effect of including high levels of salt during dry-cured meat
products processing, different strategies have been developed to improve the quality
of this products from a healthy perspective. Desmond, (2006) reported the main
approaches to salt reduction in processed meat.
1.
First, lowering the level of salt added to products. However, the reduction of
added NaCl increases texture defects in dry-cured products particularly softness and
pastiness associated to lower inhibitory effect of NaCl on protease activities (Toldrá
2002, Toldrá 2003). Furthermore, proteases can overact on proteins and peptides and
generate excess nitrogen compounds that could cause off-flavors in the product
(metallic and/or bitter notes) (Martin et al., 1998; Toldrá et al, 2000).
2.
Replacing part of the NaCl with other chloride salts (KCl, CaCl 2 , MgCl 2 ) or non-
chloride salts (phosphate and lactate salts). The partial substitution of NaCl by KCl
32
INTRODUCTION
appears to be the best alternative because both salts have similar properties.
However, KCl addition is limited because at certain levels this salt imparts bitterness
and metallic flavours. Literature indicates that the substitution up to 50% of NaCl with
KCl is adequate to obtain acceptable products. This strategy has been used in several
meat products such as cooked sausages (dos Santos, Campagnol, Morgano & Pollonio,
2014; Paulsen, Nys, Kvarberg & Hersleth, 2014), fermented sausages (Guàrdia,
Guerrero, Gelabert, Gou & Arnau, 2008) and cured meat product (Armenteros, Aristoy,
Barat & Toldrá, 2009; Armenteros, Aristoy, Barat & Toldrá, 2012).
3.
Another strategy combines the reductionor partial replacement of NaCl
together with the addition of commercial flavour enhancers and masking agents
including yeast extracts, lactates, monosodium glutamate (MSG) and nucleotides,
amongst others. Taste enhancers work by activating receptors in the mouth and
throat, which contributes to compensating the salt reduction (Brandsma, 2006).
Masking agents, for example adenosine 5´-monophosphate (AMP), works by blocking
the activation of the bitterness receptor cells and thereby preventing bitter tastes
(McGregor, 2004). This could be used to improve the taste of NaCl/KCl mixtures.
4.
Finally, changing the physical form of salt by means of modifying crystal size
and shape may be another feasible strategy for salt reduction. The perception of salt
in the solid form is actually affected by crystal size and shape. Recent investigations
have focused on the modificationof the physical form of salt to optimize salty taste and
hence, reduce the amount of ingoing salt in food products. This involves increasing the
efficiency of the salt, changing the structure and modifying the perception of the salt
(Angus et al., 2005).
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INTRODUCTION
Even though these approaches show promise in helping manufactures to reduce salt
content in their products, one of the biggest barriers to apply them is the cost. Salt is
one of the cheapest food ingredients available and the majority of the
alternativetechnologies involve a remarkable investment.
Recent publications reported that dry-cured hams have a sodium concentration of
1200 mg/100 g average with this concentration making this product not suitable
forconsumerssuffering from high blood pressure (Jiménez-Colmenero, Ventanas &
Toldrá, 2010). Therefore, substitution of NaCl by others mixtures of salts is the most
common strategy to develop dry-cured products containing less sodium (Table 2).
Table 2. Some strategies of salt reduction in dry-cured meat products.
Strategy
Product
Partial replacement of NaCl with KCl
Dry fermented sausages
Substitution of NaCl by KCl, potassium lactate and
Fermented sausages
glycine
and in dry-cured pork loin
Substitution of NaCl by mixtures of KCl and
potassium lactate
Fermented sausages
Partial replacement of NaCl by KCl
Dry-cured loins
Substitution of NaCl by potassium lactate and high
Restructured
pressure
hams
Substituting NaCl by KCl, CaCl2 and MgCl2
Dry-cured ham
Partial replacements of NaCl by others chloride
salts
Dry-cured ham
Reference
Ibañez et al., 1995
Gou et al., 1996
Guardia et al., 2008
Armenteros et al.,
2009
dry-cured
Fulladosa et al., 2009
Aliño et al., 2010
Armenteros et al.,
2012
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INTRODUCTION
4. Fat content: perception, reduction and substitution
Subcutaneous, intermuscular and intramuscular fat (IMF) are important components in
Iberian dry-cured products, varying in quantity and quality according to genetics
(Ventanas et al., 2007) and feeding system (Ruiz et al., 1998). The higher IMF content
in Iberian dry-cured products compared to similar products from other pig breeds is
one of theirdistinctive features and is attributed to the adipogenic metabolism of
Iberian pigs (López -Bote, 1998). Moreover, both the quantity and the composition of
IMF significantly influence particular sensory attributes, such as brightness, juiciness,
aroma and flavor of Iberian dry cured hams (Ruiz et al., 2000; Carrapiso et al., 2003;
Ventanas et al., 2007; Fuentes et al. 2013).Marbling has a major influence on juiciness
with this parameter being highly appreciated by consumers of dry-cured ham (Ruiz et
al., 2000). IMF facilitates chewiness, and also stimulates the secretion of saliva
enhancing the juiciness sensation which has a significant importance in a dehydrated
product such as dry-cured ham (Ventanas, 2010). IMF as also acts as source of
precursors of volatile compounds responsible of the olfactory perceptions before
(smell) and during (aroma) chewing. The formation of suchvolatile compounds
requires the participation of products derived from lipid oxidation and nitrogen
compounds with low molecular weight compounds (primarily amino acids) from
proteolysis occurred during ripening process (Ruiz et al., 2000).These volatile
compounds therefore arise in the places of contact between thefat and lean, so the
IMF is key in this respect as these lipid depots are located within the muscle fibres
(Ventanas, 2012).
35
INTRODUCTION
5. Post-process technologies: High hydrostatic pressure
High hydrostatic pressure (HHP) treatment subjects foods to pressures between 500600 MPa for 1-5 minutes with the purpose of inactivating microorganisms by affecting
the molecular structure of chemical compounds necessary for theirmetabolism
(Rendueles et al., 2011). HHP offers several advantages since it could be applicable to
many different food matrices and it is not a thermal process (5-12ºC). It has been
widely applied in order to minimize microbiological risk such as the occurrence of
Listeria monocytogenes in "ready to eat" products (Rendueles et al., 2011). The
effectiveness of the HHP has been demonstrated in the microbiological quality of
sliced and packaged meat products such as dry-cured ham (Hereu, Bover-Cid, Garriga
& Aymerich, 2012). Moreover, several authors have evaluated the impact of HHP on
physico-chemical, nutritional and sensory properties of both Iberian and Serrano drycured hams (Fuentes, Ventanas, Morcuende, Estévez &Ventanas, 2010; Clariana,
Guerrero, Sárraga, Díaz, Valero & García-Regueiro, 2011; Fulladosa, Sala, Gou, Garriga
& Arnau, 2012). Overall, results from these studies revealed a decrease in the lean
colour intensity, pastiness and juiciness whereas hardness and chewiness increased. It
seems also that HPP potentiated the rancid odour and saltiness of the evaluated drycured hams. Nevertheless, the information regarding the influence of HHP on the
sensory properties of Iberian dry-cured products is rather limited.
6. Sensory analysis of muscle foods
Sensory evaluation is often described using the definition from theInstitute of Food
Technologists (IFT) – a scientific method used to evoke, measure, analyse and interpret
those responses to products as perceived through the senses of sight, smell, touch,
taste and hearing (Anonymous 1975). The role of sensory evaluation has changed
36
INTRODUCTION
considerably over the years. Initially, it was a service provider supplying data, but now
its role is to provide insights to help guide development and commercial strategy.
Successful sensory testing is driven by setting clear objectives, developing robust
experimental strategy and design and also applying appropriate sensory techniques
and statistical analysis. There are many sensory tests and different situations in which
they can be applied. The test employed will depend on the test objective(s) which have
to be proved and clarified before testing begins.
Often, a series of tests is required to meet the objectives and also sometimes the most
appropriate test may not be the most cost-effective or feasible with the amount of
sample or assessors available.
We can classify the sensory test in two groups: objective and subjective. Objective
tests provide objective data on the sensory properties of products and are carried out
by trained assessors. There are two classes of objective tests:
• Discrimination tests: Determine whether there are sensory differences between
samples.
• Descriptive tests: Identify the nature of a sensory difference and/or the magnitude of
the difference.
Subjective tests are known as affective or consumer tests. They provide subjective data
on acceptability, liking or preference, and are carried out by untrained assessors.
Descriptive tests have been widely used to assess the quality of meat products.
However the methodology used in most previous studies is based on the evaluation of
the perception of different sensory attributes in a static way mainly applying the
Quantitative Descriptive Analysis®(Ruiz et al., 1998; Carrapiso et al., 2003; Ventanas et
al.. 2007; Casquete et al., 2011). However we have to keep in mind that perception,
37
INTRODUCTION
mainly related with flavor and texture attributes, is a dynamic phenomenon that is
changing during the process of food consumption. Therefore all descriptive methods
that provide information about variations in the perception of sensory attributes along
the time are closer to the reality than static sensory methods which only provide
information about the perception of a sensory attribute at a given point (Dijksterhuis &
Piggott, 2001).
6a. Dynamic sensory techniques:Time-intensity (TI)
One of the dynamic sensory techniques more frequently used in food products is TimeIntensity (TI) that allows evaluating the variations in the intensity of a particular
attribute perception over time. The TI results are a sequence of very intuitive graphical
representations (TI curves) (Figure 3). The TI curves show increases and decreases
inthe intensity of sensory perception over time (Dijksterhuis & Piggott, 2001).
The Fizz software® collectsreal-time data generated by the panelistswhich is displayed
in the form ofTI curves. The information finallyobtained isvery complete and accurate.
However, there are individual differences between the curves generated by the
panelists, requiring an exhaustive training to reduce the differences between them
(Van Buuren, 1992). Consequently, the main point is to have an adequatelytrained
panel. Therefore, it is recommended to perform previous sessions of specific training
for this type of analysis.
Peyvieux and Dijksterhuis, (2001) described three phases in the panel training for TI:
1. Introduction of the method to the panel. This first phase is a brief introduction or
talk about technique and computer system.
38
INTRODUCTION
2. Getting to know the computer system and assessment method by the use of
solutions of basic tastes (sweet, salty, sour, bitter and umami) at concentrations above
the threshold of perception.
3. Training panel with the product of interest, which includes the development of a
sensory profile of the product using a static sensory method as QDA and a specific
training with TI technique.
The scales used for both training and for evaluation sessions in this type of analysis are
10 cm non-structured vertical or horizontal scales anchored with “less” and
“more”.The protocol of samples for TI evaluation has to be fixed after panel discussion.
The panelists would keep the sample in their mouths, chew and start the evaluation.
After swallowing, the panelists would continue the evaluation until they did not
perceive the attribute under study. The panelists are required to move the cursor
along the scale according to the intensity of their perception. The intensity recordings
start when assessors click on the scale and stop whenever the assessors return the
marker to the lowest value in the scale, meaning that they do not perceive the
attribute any more.
39
INTRODUCTION
Figure 4. Typical TI curve and a set of parameters commonly extracted.
Source: from Dijksterhuis&Peyvieux (2001).
Several parameters can be extrapolated from these curves (Imax: maximum intensity,
Tmax: time to achieve the maximum intensity, DurPl: duration of maximum
intensity,Tend:total duration of perception, AreaTse:area under the curve, SIMInc:
maximum slopes of the increasing portion of the curve, SIMDec: maximum slopes of
the decreasing portion of the curve, etc.) which enable the numerical and objective
evaluation of the temporary changes as well as the comparison between TI-curves
obtained fromdifferent products, panelists, sessions and so on.
40
INTRODUCTION
Compared to the QDA, this dynamic technique has been scarcely used for evaluating
the sensory quality of meat products. The Table 3 summarizes the works providing
data fromthe application of TI on assorted meat products.
Table 3. Summary of the different applications of TI technique for assessing sensory
attributes related to the flavour and texture of meat products in chronological order.
Reference
Meat product
Sensory attributes
Duizer et al. (1996).
Beef meat
Tenderness
Butler et al. (1996).
Pork roast
Tenderness
Reinbach et al. (2007).
Chili spiced pork patties
Chili burn and meat flavour.
Ventanas et al. (2010).
Cooked bologna sausages
Mushroom flavour, saltiness and
juiciness.
Fuentes et al. (2013).
Dry-cured hams
Overall flavour, saltiness, cured flavour,
rancid flavour, hardness, juiciness and
fibrousness.
Gomes et al. (2014).
Beef strip loin steaks
Tenderness and juiciness.
41
INTRODUCTION
6.b. Dynamic sensory techniques: Temporal Dominance of Sensations (TDS).
6.b.1. Introduction and overview
Temporal Dominance of Sensations (TDS) was developed at the “Centre Européen des
Sciences du Goût” in the LIRIS lab in 1999 and was first presented at the Pangborn
Symposium by Pineau, Cordelle, and Schlich (2003). TDS studies the sequence of
dominant sensations of a product during a certain period of time (Pineau et al., 2009).
More precisely, it consists of identifying and sometimes rating the intensity of
sensations perceived as dominant until the perception ends.The definition of a
dominant attribute is therefore naturally a key element. In the literature, several
definitions have been given. It is either defined as the sensation “popping-up” (Pineau
et al., 2009), or the sensation that “triggers the most your attention” (Le Reverend et
al, 2008; Lenfant et al., 2009). Practically, the concept of dominance can be introduced
as such:
•
The dominant attribute is the one which triggers the most your attention at a
given time.
•
But the dominant attribute does not necessarily have to be very intense or the
most intense attribute in the product.
During the panel training, this concept can also be illustrated through sounds, with the
attributes being the different instruments of a band, as presented by Lannuzel and
Rogeaux (2007). For the panel, it is easy to understand that the most triggering
perception is not always the louder one, but the one bringing the most remarkable
change in the melody.
42
INTRODUCTION
The TDS computerized system (FIZZ software) show to the assessors the entire list of
attributes with their corresponding buttons on a computer screen (Figure 4). Judges
start the evaluation while putting samples into their mouths and click on the
chronometer. They may identify the sensation perceived as dominant while
performing the protocol. During the testing, assessors are free to choose the same
attribute for several times as long as they think it is dominant, but they have to take
into account that only one attribute can be selected at atime. Conversely, they might
not necessarily use all the provided attributes (Pineau et al., 2009).The evaluation ends
when assessors can no longer perceive sensations, and stop the chronometer (Meillon
et al., 2009).
Figure5. Example of TDS computer screen with buttons.
43
INTRODUCTION
To summarize TDS data and obtaina descriptive picture of each product, the most
common representation is the TDS curve (Figure 5). The procedure considers each
attribute separately. For each point at a time, the proportion of evaluations (subject x
replications) for which the given attribute was assessed as dominant is computed.
These proportions are smoothed over time and displayed as curves of the evolution of
the dominance rate for each attribute.
Figure6. Data processing to build TDS curves.
Source: From Pineau et al. (2009).
44
INTRODUCTION
TDS is often compared to Time-Intensity (TI), the classicalmethod for dynamic sensory
measurement, because both are time-related measures. But these two methods
actually do not target the same needs. TI is dedicated to the evolution of the intensity
of one single sensory attribute over time, whereas TDS is a multi-attribute method
aimed at evidencing the sequence of dominant perceptions along tasting. Therefore,
results from both methods cannot strictly be compared and the choice of the
methodology depends on the objective to be obtained.Among the temporal methods,
TDS can be classified as a rapid method since it has the possibility to record temporal
information on several attributes during the same evaluation, whereas with TI, we
need as many evaluations as the number of attributes we want to evaluate. In
comparison with Descriptive Analysis, TDS can also be seen as a rapid method because
it does not require any training step on the scoring of the intensity scale (Delarue,
Lawlor& Rogeaux, 2015).
6.b.2. TDS attributes selection and tasting protocol
The selection of attributes is critical and more important than for other descriptive
sensory techniques because the attributes are not evaluated independently (one by
one). Through a TDS evaluation, panelists have to continuously make a choice between
several attributes to determine the sequence of dominant sensations. For that reason
the attribute list hasto be exhaustive (all potential dominant sensory perceptions must
to be included) but also short enough to be handled by the panel (Delarue, Lawlor &
Rogeaux, 2015). Pineau et al.(2012) proposed to keep the number of attributes
between 8 and10 based on results from21 TDS studies.
45
INTRODUCTION
For attribute selection, different methods have been adopted by different researchers.
The most common way of building an attribute list is to firstly provide judges with the
samples to be evaluated and ask them to taste the samples and write all the perceived
sensations.Secondly,
collect
and
compare
the
answers
of
assessors
in
discussiongroupswith the panel leader.During this discussion,the hedonic, quantitative
and irrelevant descriptors have to be eliminated and synonyms combined.Finally, only
the most frequently cited attributes are selected and evaluated by TDS analysis (Di
Monaco, Su, Masi & Cavella, 2014).Pineau et al. (2012) recommended that attribute
order presentation should bedifferent for each panellist to avoid order effects, but
maintained within each panellist to facilitate scoring.
6.b.3. TDS curves
It is important to bear in mind that TDS curves rely solely on the selection of an
attribute as dominant or not, no data concerning attribute intensity is shown. TDS
curves show the dominance rates of attributes (y-axis) against time (x-axis) for each
sample (Bruzzone et al., 2013; Meillon et al., 2010).The dominance rate is the
percentage of selections of an attribute as dominant at a particular time point (Ng et
al., 2012). It is calculated by dividing the number of citations of an attribute (all
replications) by the number of runs (judge x replication). The higher the dominance
rate of the attribute, the better the agreement among judges (Albert et al., 2012).
These dominance rates can be seen as a reflection of consensus among judges and
therefore, a measurement of panel performance (Pineau et al., 2009).
To assist the interpretation of TDS results, two lines representing the chance level and
significance level are drawn on TDS curves:
46
INTRODUCTION
•
Chance level: is the dominance rate that an attribute can obtain by chance
(Pineau et al., 2009). It is calculated as P 0 = 1/p, where p is the number of
attributes.
•
Significance level: indicates the minimum value that must bereached for the
dominance rate to be considered as significantlyhigher than the chance level
(Pineau et al., 2009). It is calculated as P s = P 0 + 1.645 [P 0 (1-P 0 )/n]1/2 , where P s is
the lowest significant proportion value (α= 0.05) at any point of time for a TDS
curve, and n is the number of runs (judges x replicates).
Different authorshave reported different panel level definition criteria. For instance,
Albert et al. (2012) considered TDS curves consistent at panel level when they rise
from between chance and significance levels to above the latter, while others
consideredthat TDS curves are consistentwhen they are above significance level
(Pineau et al., 2009; Teillet et al., 2010; Loubens et al., 2011).
TDS curves can be represented as standardized or not. After standardization, the X-axis
of the TDS curve does not represent true consumption time but the mastication period
from when judges click the start button to the moment they click the stop button (Ng
et al., 2012). This choice depends on the tasting protocol. If this protocol is precise,
with messages at specific times to do specific actions (intake, swallow…) data
standardized is not necessary because the protocol “naturally” standardizes the data.
However if the time of evaluation varies because products or panellists have different
tasting duration (typically when mastication is involved) data standardization is
recommended (Delarue, Lawlor & Rogeaux , 2015) (Figure 6).
47
INTRODUCTION
Figure 7.Standardized TDS curves of all the evaluated attributes for fish sticks.
Source: Albert el al. (2012).
In addition to TDS curves, TDS difference curves are commonly plotted for sample
comparisons (Albert et al., 2012; Bruzzone et al., 2013; Lenfant et al., 2009; Meillon et
al., 2009; Pineau et al., 2009). These curves are drawn by subtracting the dominance
rates of two samples for each attribute at each point of time (Figure 7). The difference
in dominance rate is only plotted when it is considered significantly different from 0
(Pineau et al., 2009).
48
INTRODUCTION
Figure 8.Comparison between two wines using TDS difference curves.
Source: Meillon et al. (2009).
Some authors have extracted various parameters from raw TDS data. Déléris et al.
(2011) extracted mean duration D (the cumulative duration for which a given attribute
was selected) and mean time T (the first time point at which a given attribute was
selected) for all judges in order to understand the influence of swallowing on aroma
perception of alcoholic beverages.
6.b.4. Application of TDS and comparison with other methods
TDS has already been used for various products with different texture properties,
ranging from liquid to semisolid and solid food items (Table 4). However, there is just
one published study about the application of this technique in meat products,
particularlyin cooked sausages with different levels of NaCl substitution (Paulsen et al.
2014).
49
INTRODUCTION
Table 4. TDS studies available in the literature.
Source: Di Monaco et al. (2014).
TDS and TI methods, both of which are dynamic tests, have been compared in some
studies (Le Révérend et al., 2008; Pineau et al., 2009; Sokolowsky et al., 2012; VàzquezAraùjo et al., 2013). The conclusions of these authors were that both techniques
provided coherent results but they are not designed for the same needs. TI focuses on
the evolution of the intensity of one attribute at a time, thus being more suitable when
the intensity of a specific attribute needs to be specifically analyzed. However, when
several attributes have to be compared over time, TDS seems better suited because it
is a less time-consuming and multi-attribute temporal method which highlights the
interactions among attributes.
On the other hand, good agreement between conventional descriptive profiling data
and TDS curves was demonstrated in previous studies (Sokolowsky at al., 2012; Ng et
50
INTRODUCTION
al., 2012; Bruzzone et al., 2013). However, compared to static sensory techniques, TDS
has obvious advantages due to its temporal component.
As pointed out by Meyners (2010), TDS is conceptually different from any method
focused on perception intensity such as TI or sensory profiling, therefore it cannot be
considered as a replacement, but simply as a method useful to analyse and interpret
another sensory dimension.
TDS could be a feasible and useful method to assess the dynamic perception of sensory
attributes of meat products since provides a more realistic picture of the consumers’
response to food properties. Furthermore, it is not necessary an exhaustive training for
this technique. Future studies may introduce this innovative sensory technique to
achieve additional insight on the impact of formulation and processing of particular
meat products on specific sensory attributes.
Recently, Jager et al. (2014) studied the temporal dynamics of sensory and emotional
attributes during chocolate tasting. They used TDS to determine the dynamic sensory
properties of dark chocolates and assessed this method as an innovative approach to
replace sensory attributes by emotional attributes. This new method is called
“Temporal Dominance of Emotions” (TDE).
6.c. New and quick descriptive methods: Flash profile.
The demand from the food industry of faster and cheaper sensory methods has led to
the rise in recent years of some quick descriptive sensory techniques allowing
obtaining descriptive profiles of the tested products without long and expensive
training processes (Varela & Ares, 2012;Valentin, Chollet, Lelièvre & Abdi, 2012). These
51
INTRODUCTION
techniques are based on different approaches: methods based on the evaluation of
individual attributes (intensity scales, check-all-that-apply questions or CATA, flash
profiling, paired comparisons) and methods based on the evaluation of global
differences (sorting, projective mapping or Napping®).
These novel methodologies consist of valid, reliable, simple and quick alternatives for
sensory characterization of food products. They have been reported to provide similar
information to classical descriptive analysis performed with trained assessor panels.
However, it is important to highlight that they could not be considered a replacement
ofclassic descriptive analysis since the latteris always more accurate due to the fact
that assessors are extensively trained in the identification and quantification of
sensory attributes.
Flash Profiling (FP) is a flexible method meant to rapidly profile products according to
their most salient sensory attributes. It has proven to be as satisfactory as
conventional profiling in many applications (Dairou & Sieffermann, 2002). FP can be
performedin two sessions, or in one session with two steps. In practice, coded samples
are presented all together. In a first step consumers have to taste them comparatively
in order to generate all descriptors that they consider appropriate to discriminate
between the samples. In a second step, they rank all samples from “low” to “high” on
each selected attribute, where ties are allowed. Each consumer generates his/her own
set of attributes; no indication is given regarding the number of attributes (Dairou &
Sieffermann2002; Delarue & Sieffermann, 2004; Lassoued, Delarue, Launay, & Michon,
2008; Moussaoui & Varela, 2010). The simultaneous comparison of all samples could
allow better product discrimination. Furthermore, when the tested products belong to
52
INTRODUCTION
the same or to similar product categories, flash profiling can be more discriminating
than conventional profiling (Delarue & Sieffermann, 2004; Mazzucheli & Guinard,
1999).
Although FP has become somewhat popular in food companies, only few publications
referring to this new technique are available. After a first application on jams (Dairou &
Sieffermann, 2002), it has been applied to describe different foods, including dairy
products (Delarue & Sieffermann, 2004), traditional dry sausages (Rason et al.,
2006),fruit purees (Tarea et al., 2007), jellies (Blancher et al., 2007), bread (Lassoued et
al., 2008), wines (Perrin et al., 2008), hot beverages (Moussaoui & Varela, 2010),
lemon iced teas (Veinand et al., 2011) and fish nuggets (Albert et al., 2011).
53
JUSTIFICATION & OBJECTIVES
Itisestimatedthat75%ofnewproductsfailwithintheirfirstyearonthesupermarket
shelf(Buisson1995) andas aconsequence,considerableresources invested in product
developmentis
misspent
(Deschamps&Nayak1996).Sensoryattributesarekeydeterminantsofproductdeliveryinclu
dingquality,functionalandemotionalbenefits.Thus,aconsiderableproportionofproductfa
ilurecanbeattributedtoamismatchbetweensensorypropertiesandconsumerneedsorexp
ectations.
Sensorycharacterizationisextensivelyappliedintheindustry
forthedevelopmentandmarketingofnewproducts,thereformulationof
existingproductsand
theoptimizationofmanufacturingprocessesandforestimating
sensory shelflife.
Descriptive
and
static
sensorytechniques,suchasQDA®(applied
withtrainedassessorpanels) have been the most common methodologies for sensory
characterization of foods, over the last 50 years. However sensory perception is a
dynamic phenomenon that changes during the process of food consumption (Cliff &
Heymann, 1993). Dynamic sensory methods provide information about variations in
perception intensity of flavour and texture attributes over time. While traditional
static sensory methods provide information about the intensity of the sensory
perception of an attribute at a particular moment, these dynamic techniques are
closer to the real sensory perception during food consumption (Dijksterhuis
&Piggott, 2001). Among the dynamic sensory techniques, the Time– Intensity
method (TI) allows assessing variations in perception intensity of a particular
attribute over time using a sensory panel trained for this purpose (Cliff & Heymann,
57
1993) and the Temporal Dominance of Sensations method (TDS) allows
simultaneous recording of several sensory attributes, providing a temporal
sequence
of
attribute
perception
(Pineau
et
al.,
2009).
However,duetothecostandtime
neededfortheirapplication,severalalternativemethodshavebeenrecently
developed.Thesemethodsdonotrequire an exhaustive training andcanbeperformedby
semi-trainedassessorsorevennaiveconsumers.Thistypeofmethodology
opensnewopportunitiesforthosecompaniesthatcannotaffordtraining
andmaintainingatrainedsensorypanel,or
whenquickinformationabout
the
sensory
characteristics of products is required.
Iberian dry-cured meat products, particularly dry-cured hams, are highly appreciated
by consumers owing to their distinctive sensory features including intense cured
flavor, moderate juiciness, and pleasant aftertaste (Ventanas et al., 2005). Diverse
quality categories are found in the market depending on the genetic and feeding
background of the animals that is reflected in the sensory quality of the final product
(Ventanas et al., 2005). Nowadays, population is aware that consumption of high levels
of fat or salt enhances the risk of different diseases by increasing the cholesterol and
blood pressure levels (USDA/HHS, 2010; WHO, 2012). In Spain, meat products and
particularly dry-cured ones are the main source of sodium to consumers, contributing
to 26% of daily sodium chloride intake (AECOSAN, 2013). During the last decade, meat
companies have developed different strategies in order to fulfil consumers’ demands
regarding healthy meat products. Taking into consideration the prominent role of
intramuscular fat and salt on the sensory characteristics of Iberian dry-cured hams, a
58
balance of the risk and rewards of salt/fat reduction in terms of safety-technological
aspects and sensory properties is required. The dynamic and innovative sensory
techniques previously described would be highly helpful in performing an in-depth
sensory characterisation of Iberian dry-cured products and evaluate the effect of
commercial categories and technological variations in terms of fat and salt levels.
Regrettably, these sensory methods have never been applied to these particular
muscle foods.
Therefore, the present PhD study was conceived to originally apply dynamic and
innovative descriptive sensory techniques to Iberian meat products varying in
commercial categories and chemical composition.
Specific objectives
In order to fulfil this general objective, the present work was planned in three
investigation stages in which different partial objectives were considered, as follow:
1. Stage 1 focuses on the application of a dynamic sensory evaluation technique
(TI) to evaluate the flavour and texture of three different meat products
derived from Iberian pigs, namely, liver pâté, dry-cured sausages and dry-cured
loins (Chapter I).
2. Stage 2 was designed to study the effect of IMF and salt content on the
dynamic perception of flavour and texture attributes of Iberian and Serrano
dry-cured hams (Chapter II). Moreover, the effect of high hydrostatic pressure
on this temporal perception is also evaluated (Chapter III).
59
3. Lastly, stage 3 was devoted to investigate whether some more novel sensory
methods as TDS and Flash Profile provides relevant temporal sensory
information about dry-cured hams (Chapter IV) and loins (Chapter V) with
different salt content.
60
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
In order to fulfil the objectives proposed in the present Thesis, we considered three
experimental phases based on the type of meat product evaluated and the sensory
technique applied:
•
Experimental phase I (Chapter I; Figure 1): Application of static sensory
techniques (QDA®) and dynamic sensory techniques (Time-Intensity) to the
evaluation of different Iberian meat products (pâté, dry-cured loins and drycured sausages).
•
Experimental phase II (Chapter II and III; Figure 2): Effect of the intramuscular
fat content, salt content and high hydrostatic pressure treatment on the
sensory characteristic of Iberian and Serrano dry-cured hams evaluated by
QDA® and Time-Intensity techniques.
•
Experimental phase III (Chapter IV and V; Figure 3):
-Effect of the feeding system and salt content on the sensory characteristic of
Iberian dry-cured hams evaluated by Time-Intensity and Temporal Dominance
of Sensations (TDS).
-Effect of the salt substitution of Iberian dry-cured loins evaluated by TimeIntensity, Temporal Dominance of Sensations (TDS) and Flash Profile (FP)
techniques.
64
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Figure 1. Experimental phase I
Product effect:
Pâté
Dry-cured sausage
Dry-cured loin
Static and dynamic
sensory evaluation
(QDA and TI)
CHAPTER I
65
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Figure 2. Experimental phase II
IMF content effect
Salt content effect
HHP treatment effect
Static and dynamic
Sensory evaluation
(QDA and TI)
CHAPTER II and III
66
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Figure 3. Experimental phase III
Feeding system effect
Salt content effect
Dynamic techniques (TI and TDS)
and fast techniques (FP)
CHAPTER IV and V
Salt substitution effect
67
MATERIAL & METHODS
MATERIAL & METHODS
1. Material:
1.a. Chemicals
The chemicals used for laboratory analysis in this study were A.C.S. (high purity
chemical grade that meets or exceeds purity standards set by the American Chemical
Society) quality. All products were supplied by Panreac firms (Panreac Química, SA;
Barcelona, Spain), Merck (Merck Ltd., Darmstadt, Germany) and Sigma-Aldric (SigmaAldrich, Steinheim, Germany) and Scharlau (Scharlab, SL, Barcelona, Spain). The
company ‘Air Liquide’ supplied chromatography gases.
1.b. Equipment
Processing, preservation and analysis of samples were developed using the following
equipment:
•
-86ºC Freezer, model 923 (Forma Scientific Inc.).
•
Domestic refrigerator ‘Super-Ser G.L.’ model 355-88.
•
Domestic refrigerator ‘A+ CLASS Zanussi’, RF. 3855.
•
Homogenizer ‘Polytron’ model PT10-35.
•
Magnetic stirrer ‘VWR’ model 52BF.
•
Flow hood ‘CRUMA’
•
Drying oven ‘Selecta’ model 210.
•
Digester and distillation ‘Büchi’ (B-324 y K-435).
•
Refrigerated centrifuge ‘Eppendorf’ model 5810R.
•
Rotatory evaporator ‘Heidolph’ model VV 2000
70
MATERIAL & METHODS
•
Colorimeter ‘Minolta’ CR 300 series (Minolta Camera Corp., Meter division,
Ramsey, NJ, USA).
•
Vacuum packing machine ‘Lavezzini’ model CS 40.
•
Gas Chromatograph Hewlett Packard, model HP-5890-II, flame ionisation
detector.
•
Gas Chromatograph CG-EM Hewlett Packard HP-6890-II ‘Agilent’ 5973.
•
Universal texture meter ‘TA-XT2i’ (Stable Micro Systems, Godalming, UK).
•
Thermo stated water bath ‘Selecta’ Precisterm model 146 (J.P. Selecta, S.A.,
Barcelona, Spain).
•
Analytical balance ‘Kren’ model 770.
•
Tasting room designed according to UNE 87004:1979.
•
Commercial slicer ‘OMS’ model TGI 300.
1.c. Samples
1.c.1. Iberian meat products (Experimental phase I)
Three different Iberian meat products (n = 6) were randomly purchased from a local
supermarket (pâté) and from a local industry ("Dehesa Serrana" S.A., Cáceres, Spain)
(dry-cured sausages “salchichón” and dry-cured loins) as representative of cooked,
minced dry-cured and whole dry cured products. Iberian meat products were
processed according to the national quality regulations (BOE, 1980, 1981, 2014). Spices
were added to all these products in the manufacturing process (black pepper in pâté;
nutmeg, cumin, black pepper, etc. in salchichón; and paprika, oregano, garlic, etc. in
dry-cured loin).
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MATERIAL & METHODS
1.c.2. Iberian and Serrano dry-cured hams (Experimental phase II)
Thirty Iberian dry-cured hams and 28 Serrano dry-cured hams were used to study the
effect of fat and salt contents of dry-cured ham together and the effect of high
hydrostatic pressure (HP) treatment on sensory characteristics of dry-cured ham after
5 month of refrigerated storage
One hundred and twenty Iberian dry-cured hams were purchased from a local
company ("Dehesa Serrana" S.A., Cáceres, Spain) in order to select hams with a wide
range in the fat and salt content. The salt and fat content of these dry-cured hams
were estimated at the Institute of Food and Agricultural Research and Technology
(IRTA) using a non-destructively methodology called Computed Tomography technique
(HiSpeed scanner model Zx / i, GE Healthcare, Barcelona, Spain). The thickness of
subcutaneous fat which is a parameter related to the overall fat content of dry-cured
hams was used as a reference for determining the fat content. The salt content was
determined in muscles Biceps femoris (BF) and Semimembranosus (SM) using a
previously developed prediction models (Santos-Garcés et al., 2010) and other
analytical tools which was developed using the Matlab mathematical software (SantosGarcés et al ., 2012).
Finally, 30 of these Iberian dry-cured hams with a wide variation in fat and salt content
were selected for the study. Two samples of 450 grams were obtained from each ham
(Figure X ) and vacuum packaged in plastic bags of multilayer polyamide/polyethylene
(oxygen permeability of 50 cc/m2/24h at 23ºC and water permeability of 2.6 g/m2/24h
at 23°C and 85% RH, Sacoliva® S.L., Spain). One of the samples from each ham were
pressurized at 600 MPa (pressurization time: 2.5 min; pressure holding time: 6 min;
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MATERIAL & METHODS
pressure release time: nearly instantaneous (< 2 s) and temperature of the
pressurization water: 21 ºC). The high-pressure treatment was done in a Wave 6000
equipment of 120 l (NC Hyperbaric, Burgos, Spain). The rest of the samples were kept
as controls. They all were stored in refrigeration conditions (<3ºC) for 5 months until
reception in our laboratory.
Figure 1. Sampling of dry-cured hams.
For Serrano dry-cured hams, 60 hams were obtained from different commercial
slaughterhouses supplied by animals with different breeds (large White, Landrace and
crosses with a minimum of 50% of Duroc breed). Homogeneous sets of hams in terms
of weight and pH were used for the elaboration procedure. Fatness of hams was
determined using Ham grading system (JMP Ingenieros, S.L., Sotés, La Rioja, Spain).The
ham-grading system is an industrial prototype for online non-invasive total fat
prediction of green hams. The ham-grading system technology is based on
electromagnetic induction measurements. After scanning each ham a signal value is
obtained which is proportional to the lean amount of the ham. In order to have a
classification index, the signal value is corrected by the ham weight. Hams were salted
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MATERIAL & METHODS
in piles of salt with just one row of hams during 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4 and 1.5
days/kg of raw ham depending on the fatness of hams and in order to get the variation
of salt contents present in the market. After salting, hams were washed with cold
water, weight and hung in a cold room at 3 °C to rest. The relative humidity inside the
cold room was 75−80%, and the temperature was progressively increased (from 10 to
20 °C) until the end of the process. The process finished when a total weight loss of
36% was achieved. Total time of processing was 9 months. Finally, 28 of these Serrano
dry-cured hams with a wide variation in fat and salt content were selected for the
study. Similarly to Iberian dry cured hams, samples of 450 grams were obtained from
each ham, vacuum packaged and stored in refrigeration conditions for 5 months until
1.c.3. Dry-cured hams (Experimental phase III)
Two types of dry-cured hams based on the feeding system were supplied by a local
company (“Coto de Galan”, Extremadura): 34 dry cured hams derived from Iberian
(50%) pigs fed on acorn and grass in the so called “montanera” system and 30 dry
cured hams derived from Iberian pigs fed on concentrate. A selection based on the salt
content in the final product was done (normal and reduced salt content).The pieces of
ham were perforate with a trocar and it was extracted a transverse cylinder (Figure 2),
in which the salt content was determined by the selective electrode of chloride (Cl-ISE)
(Armenteros et al., 2014).
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MATERIAL & METHODS
Figure 2. Extraction of a transverse cylinderto determine the salt content.
After obtaining the values % of salt content of the 64 hams, the data behaved
following a normal distribution. Four experimental groups were considered based on
the feeding system and the salt content: AR (feed with acorn and reduced salt
content: 2.5% approximately); AN (feed with acorn and normal salt content: 5.5%
approximately), CR (feed with concentrate and reduced salt content: 4%
approximately) and CN (feed with fodder and normal salt content: 6.5%
approximately). The selected pieces were sliced in the industry facilities using an
automatic slicer Bizerba (TOINCA SL, Segovia, Spain) and a thermoforming packaging
for food (MULTIVAC Packaging Systems Spain SL). The packaging format was 90 g
vacuum packages using a multilayer film (polyester, polyvinylidene chloride (PVdCSARAN) and polyethylene, with an oxygen permeability <9 cm3 / m2 / 24h and water
vapour permeability <4 g / m2 24h). The samples were preserve under refrigeration
conditions until sensory evaluations.
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MATERIAL & METHODS
Figure 3.Normal distribution of % NaCl (weight) for AR/AN (acorn reduced/normal) and
CR/CN (concentrate reduced/normal).
1.c.4. Dry-cured loins (Experimental phase III)
Four experimental groups (n=5) of dry-cured loins derived from 50% Iberian x Duroc
pigs were processed in a local company (Mallo S.L). Processing of dry-cured loins was
carried out following the standard protocol established by the industry. The KCl was
provided by the supplier Doscadesa 2000 S.L. (Murcia, Spain). Salting process was
developed by rubbing the loins’ surface with salt and stuffing into natural casings.
After that, pieces were kept for 7 days at refrigerated conditions (< 6ºC). Finally, loins
were dried and maturated during 80 days at 10ºC and at relative humidity of 70-80%.
The average percentage of losses was 38% at the final of processing.
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MATERIAL & METHODS
Table1. Formulation of dry-cured loin samples.
BATCH 1
BATCH 2
BATCH 3
BATCH 4
(Control)
(15%)
(20%)
(25%)
Total weight (kg)
25
27
24
25
NaCl (g)
580
527
445
435
93
110
145
160
140
150
KCl (g)
Additive package* (g)
150
* salt, sugar, E-252, E-250, dextrose and E-301
Once the curing process was completed, sampling of the central part (500 grams) of
the dry-cured loins was obtain to carry out the physico-chemical and sensory
characterization.The pieces were sliced with 1 mm thickness in a slicer Weber®
(MULTIVAC Packaging Systems Spain SL) and packed with a thermoforming (ULMA
Packaging S. Coop., Gipuzkoa, Spain). The packaging format was 80-90 g vacuum
packages and with a multilayer film (PET PVDC/PP COPO, with an oxygen permeability
< 8 cm3 / m2 / 24h and water vapour permeability < 2 g / m2 / 24h).
2. Methods:
2.a. Physico-chemical analysis
2.a.1. Moisture content
The moisture was determined by drying porcelain capsules containing an amount of
sea sand equal to 3 times the weight of the sample following the AOAC method (2000).
Approximately 5 g of each sample were mixed with ethanol and subjected to drying in
an oven for 24 h at 102 ° C. After drying time, capsule was cooled in a desiccator until
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MATERIAL & METHODS
room temperature and constant weight was reached. The moisture content was
calculated according to the following formula:
% Moisture = [(P1+P2) - P3] * (100/P2)
Where: ‘P1’ is the initial weight of the capsule with the sea sand; ‘P2’ is the sample
weight and ‘P3’ is the final weight of the capsule with the sea sand and the drying
sample.
Figure 4. Moisture desiccators.
2.a.2. Protein content
Total protein content of samples was determined by quantifiyingthe total nitrogen
content by Kjeldahl method (AOAC,2000), and multiplied by the factor 6.25 (Jones and
Gersdorff, 1929). The method involved three stages: digestion, distillation and
titration.
One g of minced sample was weighed and placed in a Büchi digestion tube (B -435 )
when it was added 15 g of catalyst Kjeldahl (Cu- Se) to be subjected to digestion with
20 ml of H2SO4 concentrated. After the digestion, sample was distilledin a Büchi
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MATERIAL & METHODS
distiller (K -324) after the addition of 100 ml of 30% NaOH, and 100 ml distilled water,
collecting the distillate in 100 ml of 2% H 3 BO 3 . The ammonia collected in the
distillation was titrated with 0.1N HCl. Point of equivalence was detected by a colour
change and using a mixed indicator (methyl red / methylene blue) to detect. The
percentage of protein was calculated on the following formula:
% Nitrogen = [0.14 (V1 – V2)] / P
Where: ‘V1’ are the millilitres of 0.1N of HCl using in the sample titration; ‘V2’ of 0.1N
of HCl using in the white titration; y ‘P’ is the sample weight.
% protein = 6.25 * % Nitrogen
Figure 5. Distiller for protein content determination.
2.a.3. Fat content
Determination of fat content was performed in liver pates and dry-cured sausages
(total fat content) and in dry-cured hams and loins (Intramuscular fat content, IMF),
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MATERIAL & METHODS
according to the method described by Folch et al. (1957) with some modifications. Five
grams of 5 g of finely chopped sample in centrifuge plastic bottles were homogenized
with 100 ml of chloroform/methanol (2:1). After centrifugation at 3000 rpm for 10
min, mixture was filtered with filter paper to another centrifuge bottle and 25 ml of
distilled water was added. It was centrifuged a second time at 3000 rpm for 10 min.
The upper phase (water and methanol) was removed with a Pasteur pipette and then
the under phase (fat and chloroform) was filtered through a filter paper with
anhydrous sodium sulphate into a conical flask. Finally the conical flask is placed on the
rotatory evaporator at a temperature of 40 ° C under vacuum conditions to evaporate
the residual chloroform. The possible traces of solvent were removed under a nitrogen
stream. The fat percentage was calculated using the following formula:
%Fat = [100*(M1 - M2)] / P
Where: ‘M1’ is the weight of the conical flask with the fat, ‘M2’ is the weight of the
empty conical flask and ‘P’ is the sample weight.
Figure 6.Rotatory evaporator.
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MATERIAL & METHODS
2.a.4. Chloride content
Salt content (NaCl) were quantified using the traditional Carpentier-Volhard method
(AOAC, 2000) and the potentiometric Ion-Selective electrode (Cl-ISE) using an ion
chloride selective electrode (Orion TM Chloride Electrode, Thermo Fisher Scientific
Inc.)
10 g of sample finely chopped were weighed into flasks, 150 ml of 40 % alcohol was
added and heated under gently stirring for 1 hour. Consecutively 5 ml of each Carrez
reagents were added and brought to 250 ml volume with 40% alcohol. After 10 min
resting, it was centrifuged at 3000 rpm. The resulting supernatant was filtered and
brought to 200 ml volume with distilled water. The sample was heated until get a final
volume of 100 ml in order to remove the alcohol.
The resulting chloride extract was subjected to chloride content determination. 10 ml
of sample extract was mixed with 1 ml of 65% HNO 3 , 50 ml distilled water, 1 ml of
(NH 4 ) Fe (SO 4 ) 2 and an excess of AgNO 3 (10 ml) was prepared, was performed by
titration until the indicator change in volumes containing. Excess of AgNO 3 was
determined by titration with KSCN 0.1N. The results were expressed as grams of NaCl
per 100 g of sample.
The percentage of sodium chloride was calculated by the following formula:
% NaCl = 14,625 * (10 - C) / P
Where: 'C' is thevolume of the titrant spent at the endpoint of the titration; 'P' is the
weight of the sample and '10 ' is the volume of the titrant spent at the titration of the
white tittle.
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MATERIAL & METHODS
2.a.5. Colour measurements
Total Myoglobin content
Myoglobin content of samples was determined by method developed by Hornsey
(1956). It was started from 40 ml of C 3 H 6 O, 10 ml of distilled water and 1 ml of HCl 12
M was added to 10 g of minced dry-cured ham in frosted flasks. A white tittle was
done with distilled water, C3H6O and HCl, in the same quantities as for the other
samples. It was homogenized for 2 min, covered and stored at dark in refrigeration
conditions for 12 h. Afterthat, it was filtered and measured in the spectrophotometer
at 640 nm of absorbance.
Myoglobin concentration was calculated as follow:
Ppm hematin= [Abs 640 * Volumen * 652] / [E * L* P]
Where: 'E' is the mill molar extinction coefficient at 640 nm = 4.8 cm2/mM, 'L' is the
cuvette thickness = 1 cm, 'P' is the sample weight.
Mg myoglobin / g of sample = ppm hematin * 0.026.
Ppm heme iron = 8.82 * (ppm hematin / 100).
Instrumental colour analysis
Instrumental colour determination was carried out in the lean of sliced dry-cured
hams, using a portable colorimeter Minolta Chroma Meter CR-300, with a
measuringarea of 8 mm in diameter, a xenon lamp for diffuse lighting of the sample
and a CIE illuminant type D 65. Reflectance measurements were collected at a viewing
angle of 0 º. The equipment was calibrated with a pattern of calibration provided by
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MATERIAL & METHODS
the manufacturer. The measurement system chosen was CIE L* a* b* which define the
colour with the use of three components; L* which determines the intensity of the
brightness (L* = 0 dark, L* = 100 bright); a* indicates the colour tone of the sample
into the space red-green (+ 60 red, – 60 green); and b* which reveals the colour tone
within space yellow-blue (+ 60 yellow, - 60 blue).
The colour measurements were performed in triplicate in three randomly selected
different zones and at room temperature (≈ 18 ° C).
2.a.6. Texture Profile Analysis (TPA)
Instrumental evaluation of the dry-cured hams texture was performed by the method
described by Bourne (1978). The trial consisted of compress four cubes portions of
each sample (15 mm side) equilibrated at 16 ºC for at least 60 min. They were
compressed to 40% of its original thickness by a cylindrical plunger of 5 cm in diameter
at a 5 mm/sec speed for two cycles, imitating mastication so that texture parameters
are extracted from a force-time curve. In a first movement cycle the plunger press and
compresses the sample and then return to their initial position and then the process
was repeated in a second movement.
The determined parameters were (Bourne, 1978):
Hardness (N/cm2), Cohesiveness (dimensionless), Adhesiveness (N x sec), Elasticity
(cm), Chewiness (N x sec), Gumminess (N/cm2) and Resilience (dimensionless).
2.a.7. Analysis of fatty acid profiles
Methyl esters of fatty acids of the dry-cure hams were prepared (intramuscular fat) by
a mixed trans-esterification in the presence of CH 3 ONa and 5% H 2 SO 4 in methanol
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MATERIAL & METHODS
(Cava et al., 1997) previously adding tridecanoic acid as internal standard. The
separation and determination of the fatty acids was made using a HP 5890A gas
chromatograph equipped with on-column injector, FID detector (flame ionization
detector) and a capillary column polyethyleneglycol (Supelcowax-10, Supelco,
Bellefonte PA ) (60 m length x 0.32 mm internal diameter x 0.25µm thickness) . The
carrier gas was helium at 0.8 ml/min-1 flow and the temperature program was started
at 190 ° C , increased 2 ° C min-1 up to 235 ° C , it was kept 15 min at this temperature
and subsequently increased 6 ° C min-1 up to the 250 ° C , temperature which finally
was held for 20 min. The injector and detector temperature was 250 ° C. The
identification of each fatty acid was performed by comparison of the retention times in
the samples with standards (Sigma, St. Louis, MO), which were analysed using the
same chromatographic conditions.
2.b. Sensory evaluations
Quantitative descriptive analysis (QDA) and time-intensity (TI) techniques were both
applied in liver pates, dry-cured sausages, dry-cured loins and dry-cured hams.
Temporal dominance of sensations technique (TDS) and flash profiling (FP) were
applied in dry-cured loins and dry-cured hams.
2.b.1. Panellists
These analyses was carried out with the help of a sensory panel trained according to
InternationalStandards (ISO 8586:2012), composed of 6 men and 6 women, all of them
were laboratory staff (graduates students, PhD students, lecturer, researches and
professors) of Animal Production and Food Science Department aged between 25 and
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MATERIAL & METHODS
55 years, with previous experience in sensory analysis and most of them in TI
evaluations.
2.b.2. QDA®
Iberian meat products (experimental phase I)
To generate the attributes that better described the different meat products, a list of
potential descriptors was given to the panel based on the scientific literature (Ruiz
Pérez-Cacho et al., 2005; Ventanas et al., 2007). First, the panellists individually
generated a set of terms that better described the samples. After that, the panellists
consensually developed the set of definitive attributes for each product, decided on
verbal definitions that should be used to anchor the descriptive terms, establish the
protocol of samples evaluation and decide the sequence of attributes evaluation. After
these preliminary sessions for selection and validation (4 sessions of 3 h each), the
following attributes were chosen for pâté and grouped in appearance (colour intensity,
colour homogeneity, and brightness), oral texture (pastiness, adherence, granularity
and chewiness), odour (overall, liver, spicy, meat and rancid), no oral texture
(cohesiveness and spreadability), and flavour (overall, saltiness, umami, liver-like and
spicy). Protocol for pâté evaluation was fixed as follows: the pâté was provided to the
panellist using a spoon for flavour and oral texture evaluations. The other attributes
were evaluated by spreading the sample over unsalted toast.
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MATERIAL & METHODS
Figure 7. Pâté samplespread over an unsalted toast.
The final attributes of dry-cured sausages were grouped in: appearance (redness of
lean, colour homogeneity of lean, brightness of fat and fat/ lean proportion), tactile
texture (hardness and cohesiveness), odour (intensity, acetic, spicy), oral texture
(hardness, chewiness, juiciness and fibrousness) and flavour (overall, sourness,
saltiness, spicy and rancid). Regarding dry-cured loins, the following attributes were
selected and grouped: appearance (redness of lean, brightness, marbling and marbling
size), odour (overall, cured and spicy), oral texture (hardness, chewiness, juiciness and
fibrousness), and flavour (overall, saltiness, cured, spicy, rancid and after-taste).
Concerning the dry-cured products (sausages and loins), two halves of a slice were
presented to the panellists for the evaluation of flavour and oral texture attributes
while a whole slice was provided for the evaluation of appearance, odour and tactile
texture attributes.
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MATERIAL & METHODS
Figure 8. Dry-cured loin slices.
Nine sessions for the QDA analysis were carried out (3 sessions for each meat product).
In each session, two samples were presented to the panellists, with the serving order
of the samples randomized according to the Williams Latin Square design.
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MATERIAL & METHODS
Table 2. Attributes and definition sorted by the evaluated meat products (pâté-P, dry-cured sausage-DCS and dry-cured loin-DCL).
Attributes
Appearance
Colour intensity
Colour
homogeneity
Brightness
Fat colour
Fat/Lean
proportion
Marbling
Marbling size
No oral texture
Cohesiviness
Product
Definition
P, DCS, DCL
P, DCS, DCL
Brownness of pâté (pale brown to dark brown) and redness of lean of dry-cured products (pale pink to dark red)
Colour uniformity (very low to very high)
P, DCS, DCL
DCS
DCS
Intensity of brightness on the meat product surface (dull to very bright)
Yellowness of fat (white to yellow)
Attribute which shows the relation of fat and lean content on the dry-cured sausages slice (very low to very high)
DCL
DCL
Level of visible intramuscular fat (very lean to intense marbled)
Size of the fat veins (very small to very big)
P
Spreadability
P
Hardness
Odour
Overall
Liver
DCS
Degree of adhesion between the different ingredients. Evaluate by spreading the pâté over a toast using a knife
(very low to very high) or by shaking gently a dry-cured sausage slice (very low to very high).
Ability of a soft product to be spreaded and adhered over a solid surface. Evaluate by spreading the product over a
toast using a knife (very low to very high).
Effort required for deforming a dry-cured sausage slice between the fingers (not hard to very hard)
Pepper note
Meat
Rancid
Acetic
Spicy
P
P
P
DCS
DCS, DCL
Cured
DCL
P, DCS, DCL
P
Level of overall odour before sample consumption (very low to very high)
Intensity of the typical odour provided by the presence of the liver before sample consumption (very low to very
high)
Odour associated with black pepper (very low to very high)
Intensity of the typical odour from cooked meat before sample consumption(very low to very high)
Odour associated with aroma compounds derived from fat oxidation reactions (very low to very high)
Characteristics odour of acetic acid (very low to very high)
Odour associated with aromatic spices added to dry-cured sausage (nutmeg, cumin, black pepper, etc.) and to drycured loin (paprika, oregano, garlic, etc.) (very low to very high)
Intensity of the typical odour from cured meat products before sample consumption (very low to very high)
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MATERIAL & METHODS
Oral texture
Hardness
Juiciness
Fibrousness
Chewiness
DCS, DCL
DCS, DCL
DCS, DCL
DCS, DCL
Pastiness
Adherence
P
P
Granularity
P
Flavour
Overall
Saltiness
Umami
Liver-like
Spicy
P, DCS, DCL
P, DCS, DCL
P
P
P, DCS, DCL
Sourness
Cured
Rancid
After-taste
DCS
DCL
DCL
DCL
Effort required to bite through sample and to convert it to a swallowable state (very tender to very firm)
Impression of lubricated food during chewing (not to very juicy)
Extent to which fibres are perceived during chewing (not to very fibrous)
Number of chews or time of chewing required to masticate the product until reaching a state ready for swallowing
(very low to very high)
Sensation of paste in mouth (very low to very high)
Effort required to separate the product surface when compressed with the tongue against the palate (very low to
very high)
Particle sensation in the mouth during chewing (very low to very high)
Level of overall flavour (flavourless to very intense flavour)
Level of salt taste (not to very salty)
Level of umami taste (very low to very high)
Level of liver-like taste (very low to very high)
Flavour associated with black pepper in pâté, with aromatic spices added to dry-cured sausage (nutmeg, cumin,
black pepper, etc.) and to dry cured loin (paprika, oregano, garlic, etc.) (very low to very high)
Level of source taste (not to very sour)
Intensity of the typical flavour from cured meat products (very low to very high)
Intensity of the rancid flavour (very low to very high)
Intensity and duration of the overall flavour perception after the sample was swallowed (very low to very high)
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MATERIAL & METHODS
Iberian and Serrano dry-cured hams (experimental phase II)
Training with Iberian and Serrano dry-cured hams was shorter, considering that this
kind of products were frequently evaluated by the members of the sensory panel, and
they were familiar with basis of sensory evaluation and the use of unstructured scales.
In this case, the training was aimed at establishing and strengthening the specific
aspects of QDA evaluation of dry-cured hams for appearance (fat: yellow colour
intensity, colour homogeneity, brightness; lean: red colour intensity, marbling and
brightness), odour (overall intensity, rancid and cured odour) and non-oral texture
attributes (fat: fluidity; lean: hardness) in a whole slice. A reference scales for same
appearance attributes were used (Arnau et al., 2011).
Figure 9. Reference scale for yellow colour intensity of fat.
Figure 10. Reference scale for red colour of lean.
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MATERIAL & METHODS
Figure 11. Reference scale for marbling.
Twenty nine sessions for the QDA analysis were carried out for the evaluation of the
appearance, odour and non-oral texture attributes. In each session, 4 samples were
presented to the panellists, with the serving order of the samples randomized
according to the Williams Latin Square design.
Figure 12. Dry-cured ham presentation for QDA analysis.
2.b.3. Time-Intensity
Iberian meat products (experimental phase I)
A specific training for TI evaluations was carried out (10 h). Taking into consideration
the sensory profile analysis and the panel discussion, particular flavour and texture
attributes were selected for TI evaluation. Texture attributes of pâté were not
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MATERIAL & METHODS
evaluated by TI since the panellists said that the pâté was too soft and crumbled
rapidly in their mouths. Based on the results obtained in the sensory profile the most
informative attributes were chosen to be evaluated by TI methodology. The following
attributes were selected for pâté: overall flavour, saltiness, liver-like and spicy flavour.
The selected attributes for dry-cured sausages were: overall, sourness, saltiness, spicy
and rancid (flavour); hardness, chewiness, juiciness and fibrousness (oral texture).
Regarding dry-cured loins the selected attributes were: overall, saltiness and spicy
(flavour); hardness, juiciness and fibrousness (oral texture).
The protocol of samples for TI evaluation was fixed after panel discussion and was
established as follows: the panellists would keep the sample in their mouths, chew
(dry-cured products) or taste (pâté) and then swallow. After swallowing, the panellists
would continue the evaluation until they did not perceive the attribute under study.
The panellists were required to move the cursor along a vertical scale according to the
intensity of their perception. The intensity recordings started when assessors clicked
on the scale and stopped automatically after 120 s (total time of evaluation) or
whenever the assessors returned the marker to the lowest value in the scale within the
120 s, meaning that they did not perceive the attribute any more. During TI evaluation
of flavour attributes, the panellists were requested to swallow at fixed times (7 s for
pâté and 10 s for dry-cured products) by a message displayed on the screen. During TI
evaluation of texture attributes, the panellists swallowed the sample when they
considered it was ready to swallow. Attributes were scored on a 10 cm non-structured
vertical scale anchored with “less” and “more”. Between samples, the panellists were
required to follow the rinsing protocol, consisting of mineral water and a piece of
unsalted cracker.
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MATERIAL & METHODS
Figure 13.Pâté presentation for TI analysis.
Nine sessions for the TI analysis were carried out (3 sessions for each meat product). In
each session, two samples were presented to the panellists, with the serving order of
the samples randomized according to the Williams Latin Square design. The panellists
rated one attribute at a time and all attributes were evaluated by eleven panellists,
thus a total of 66 TI-curves of each attribute were obtained for each Iberian meat
product.
Iberian and Serrano dry-cured hams (experimental phase II)
The TI technique was used to evaluate the attributes related to the temporal
perception of flavour and oral texture. Representative samples of the studied drycured hams were presented to the panellists to generate a list of sensory attributes
that better describe the studied dry-cured hams during two sessions of three hours
each. To help the panellist to generate the attributes, a list of potential descriptors
were given to the panel based on previous studies carried out in the same product
(Fuentes et al., 2010; Fuentes et al., 2013). Panellists were requested to evaluate the
samples and to individually generate those descriptors which better defined the dry93
MATERIAL & METHODS
cured hams. After that, panellists reach a consensus related to definitive attributes,
their verbal definitions, their scale anchors, the evaluation protocol and the sequence
of attribute evaluation. This sessions enables to verify whether the selected attributes
are applicable or not to the product under investigation and allows panellists to get
familiar with the attributes and samples subsequently used in the TI study.
A specific training for TI evaluations was carried out (6 hours). The protocol of samples
for TI evaluation was fixed as described before. During TI evaluation of flavour
attributes, panellists were requested to swallow at fixed time (10 seconds) by a
message displayed on the screen. During TI evaluation of texture attributes, panellists
swallowed the sample when they considered it was ready to swallow. Attributes were
scored on a 10 cm non-structured vertical scale anchored with “less” and “more”.
Between samples, panellists were required to follow the rinsing protocol, consisting of
mineral water and a piece of unsalted cracker.
Figure 14. Dry-cured ham portion presented to evaluate each attribute in TI analysis.
94
MATERIAL & METHODS
Thirty nine TI technique sessions were carried out for the evaluation of flavour and
texture attributes (3 samples for each session). Panellists rated one attribute at a time
and all attributes were evaluated for eleven panellists.
Dry-cured hams (experimental phase III)
The TI technique was used to evaluate the attributes related to the temporal
perception of flavour and oral texture. Representative samples of the studied drycured hams were presented to the panellists to generate a list of sensory attributes
that better describe the studied dry-cured hams during two sessions of three hours
each. The protocol of samples for TI evaluation was fixed after panel discussion and
was established as before. During TI evaluation of flavour attributes, panellists were
requested to swallow at fixed time (10 seconds) by a message displayed on the screen.
During TI evaluation of texture attributes, panellists swallowed the sample when they
considered it was ready to swallow. Attributes were scored on a 10 cm non-structured
vertical scale anchored with “less” and “more”. Between samples, panellists were
required to follow the rinsing protocol, consisting of mineral water and a piece of
unsalted cracker.
Seven TI technique sessions were carried out for the evaluation of flavour and texture
attributes. In each session, 3 samples were presented to the panellists, with the
serving order of the samples randomized according to the Williams Latin Square
design.
Dry-cured loins (experimental phase III)
95
MATERIAL & METHODS
Ten for the TI technique for the evaluation of flavour and texture attributes. In each
session, 3 samples were presented to the panellists, with the serving order of the
samples randomized according to the Williams Latin Square design.
2.b.4. Temporal Dominance of Sensation technique
Training
The panel had no previous experience using TDS and therefore attended eleven onehour training sessions. Panellists were introduced to the notion of temporality of
sensations using the analogy of an orchestra playing music (Lord of the Ring
soundtrack) and some photos (Figure 15). A dominant sensation was defined as a
sensation that triggers the most attention at a point of time (Pineau et al., 2009). The
panellists were then trained to use the computerised TDS data capture system (FIZZ,
Biosystemes, Couternon, France). Three different products were used for panel
training: chips potatoes, cooked sausages and dry-cured loins.
Figure 15.Picture used in the training of the TDS technique.
96
MATERIAL & METHODS
Pineau et al. (2009) indicated that a maximum of 10 attributes could be evaluated
using TDS. The attributes were presented simultaneously on the computer screen.
Panellists were instructed to put the product in mouth and click on the start button to
begin the evaluation. At 10 s, panellists were cued on screen to swallow the product
and continue their evaluation until no sensation was perceived, at which point they
were instructed to click the stop button unless data acquisition had automatically
stopped after 60s. Panellists were asked to identify the sensation they perceived as
dominant while performing the tasting protocol. They were informed that they did not
have to use all the attributes in the list and were allowed to choose the same attribute
several times throughout the evaluation or conversely to never select an attribute as
dominant. Attribute order presentation was different for each panellist to avoid order
effects, but attribute order was maintained within each panellist to facilitate scoring.
Potato chips sensory evaluations
Three different commercial flavoured potato chips were purchased from a local
supermarket (extra crispy chips, low salt chips and dry-cured ham flavoured extra
crispy chips).
97
MATERIAL & METHODS
Figure 16. Commercial potato chips.
The panel attended a one one-hour training session to generate taste, flavour and
texture attributes of the tree potato chips. The selected attributes were nine: hardness
(effort required to bite through sample and to convert it to a swallowable state),
crispiness (is the gustatory sensation of brittleness in the mouth, such that the food
item shatters immediately upon mastication), adhesiveness (the property of food to
stick to the palate), presence of particles (particle sensation in the mouth during
chewing), oiliness (oily mouthfeel), saltiness, dry-cured ham flavour, potato flavour
and rancid flavour.
The different commercial chips were evaluated in triplicate over one two-hour session
according to a balanced design. Products (one chip) were presented monadically with
1 min between samples to ensure no carry-over effects and follow the palate cleansing
protocol (golden apple and water). TDS data were collected using FIZZ software
(Biosystem, Couternon, France).
98
MATERIAL & METHODS
Figure 17. TDS curve of extra crispy chips.
Cooked sausages
Three different commercial cooked sausages were purchased from a local supermarket
(Vienna style sausages, Vienna style sausages containing dry-cured ham pieces, and
chicken and turkey Vienna sausages).
Figure 18. Commercial cooked sausages
texture attributes. The selected attributes were ten: crispiness (is the gustatory
99
MATERIAL & METHODS
sensation at the first beat due to the break to the sausage casing), hardness (effort
required to bite through sample and to convert it to a swallowable state),presence of
particles (particle sensation in the mouth during chewing), oiliness (oily mouthfeel),
cocked meat flavour, smoked flavour, saltiness, dry-cured ham flavour, turkey flavour,
rancid flavour, juiciness and particles.
The different commercial cocked sausages were evaluated in the same way as potato
chips.
Figure 19. Sample presentation of cooked sausages for TDS technique.
100
MATERIAL & METHODS
Figure 20. TDS curve of Vienna style sausages
Dry-cured loins
Nine commercial dry-cured loins were purchased from from a local supermarket in
order to train the panel with a dry-cured product.
Figure 21. Commercial dry-cured loins.
101
MATERIAL & METHODS
texture attributes. The selected attributes were ten: hardness, juiciness, fibrousness,
pastiness, saltiness, umami, bitterness, cured flavour, rancid flavour and spicy flavour.
The different commercial dry-cured loins were evaluated in triplicate over three twohour session according to a balanced design. Products (a half slice of dry-cured loin)
were presented monadically with 1 min between samples to ensure no carry-over
effects and follow the palate cleansing protocol (golden apple and water). TDS data
were collected using FIZZ software (Biosystem, Couternon, France).
Figure 22. Sample presentation of dry-cured loins for TDS technique.
102
MATERIAL & METHODS
Figure 23. Computer screen of the TDS evaluation of dry-cured loins.
Sensory evaluation sessions
Four TDS technique sessions were carried out for the evaluation of flavour and texture
attributes. The final selected attributes were: saltiness. Cured flavour, rancid flavour,
hardness, juiciness and fibrousness.Panellists were forced to swallow at 10 seconds of
evaluation time. In each session, 5 samples (portions of 5 cm2) were presented to the
panellists, with the serving order of the samples randomized according to the Williams
Latin Square design.
Six TDS technique sessions were carried out for the evaluation of flavour and texture
attributes. The final selected attributes were: spiced flavour (only for spiced dry-cured
103
MATERIAL & METHODS
loins), cured flavour, saltiness, bitterness, rancid flavour, hardness, juiciness,
fibrousness and pastiness. Panellists were forced to swallow at 10 seconds of
evaluation time. In each session, 5 samples (half slice) were presented to the
panellists, with the serving order of the samples randomized according to the Williams
Latin Square design.
2.b.5. Flash Profile (FP)
It was used previous explained batches of hams: ALS (feed with acorn and low salt
content); AN (feed with acorn and normal salt content), FLS (feed with fodder and low
salt content) and FN (feed with fodder and normal salt content).
Flash profiling consisted of two sessions. During the first session the assessors were
given an explanation about the procedure and each assessor generated his/her own
list of attributes individually. No indication was given regarding the number of
attributes that should be used. In the second session they assessed the four samples,
ranking the products attribute per attribute (ties were allowed). Products were
presented all at the same time, coded with three-digit numbers.
Data analyses were performed using XLSTAT system software (version 2009.4.03,
Addinsoft™). Individual matrices for each consumer (Products x Attributes) were built
in order to enter product rankings from FP. A Generalized Procrustes Analysis (GPA),
which computes the best possible consensus among all subjects, was then performed.
The average sensory configuration obtained for the panel is displayed, as for Principal
Component Analysis (PCA), on a score plot representing the inter-product sensory
104
MATERIAL & METHODS
distances. Besides, the loading plot represents the correlations of all individual
attributes with the factorial axes. Thus, a given attribute may appear several times on
this plot, should several subjects use it. In order to facilitate the semantic
interpretation of Flash Profile data, a Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA) was
subsequently performed on the coordinates of the attributes on all principal
components obtained from the GPA. The resulting dendrogram allows identifying
clusters of attributes that are best correlated.
It was used previous explained batches of non-spice dry-cured loins (Iberian x Duroc
50%): control and with different % NaCl substitution by KCl (15%, 20% and 25%).
The
procedure
followed
was
the
same
as
for
the
dry-cured
hams.
105
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descripción del proceso tradicional de elaboración. En: Tecnología del Jamón
Iberico: De los sistemas tradicionales a la explotación racional del sabor y el
aroma. Ed. Ventanas, J. et al. pp 45-72. Ediciones Mundi Prensa, Madrid,
España.
Ventanas, S., Puolanne, E., & Tuorila, H. (2010). Temporal changes of flavour and
texturein cooked bologna type sausages as affected by fat and salt content.
Meat Science,85, 410–419.
Ventanas, S., Ventanas, J., & Ruiz, J. (2007). Sensory characteristics of Iberian drycuredloins: Influence of crossbreeding and rearing system. Meat Science, 75,
211–219.
Ventanas, S., Ventanas, J., Ruiz, J., & Estévez, M. (2005). Iberian pigs for the
development ofhigh-quality cured products. Recent research in development in
agricultural and foodchemistry. Trivandrum, Kerala, India: Research Singpost,
27–53.
120
SCIENTIFIC PAPERS
PAPER 1
Meat Science 96 (2014) 385–393
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Meat Science
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/meatsci
A novel approach to assess temporal sensory perception of muscle foods:
Application of a time–intensity technique to diverse Iberian
meat products
Laura Lorido, Mario Estévez, Sonia Ventanas ⁎
Animal Production and Food Science Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Avd/Universidad s.n., Cáceres, Spain
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 14 February 2013
Received in revised form 27 June 2013
Accepted 28 July 2013
Keywords:
Time–intensity
Flavour
Texture
Pâté
Dry-cured sausage
Dry-cured loin
a b s t r a c t
Although dynamic sensory techniques such as time–intensity (TI) have been applied to certain meat products,
existing knowledge regarding the temporal sensory perception of muscle foods is still limited. The objective of
the present study was to apply TI to the flavour and texture perception of three different Iberian meat products:
liver pâté, dry-cured sausages (“salchichon”) and dry-cured loin. Moreover, the advantages of using dynamic
versus static sensory techniques were explored by subjecting the same products to a quantitative descriptive
analysis (QDA). TI was a suitable technique to assess the impact of composition and structure of the three
meat products on flavour and texture perception from a dynamic perspective. TI parameters extracted from
the TI-curves and related to temporal perception enabled the detection of clear differences in sensory temporal
perception between the meat products and provided additional insight on sensory perception compared to the
conventional static sensory technique (QDA).
© 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Sensory perception is a dynamic phenomenon that changes
during the process of food consumption (Cliff & Heymann, 1993).
Dynamic sensory methods provide information about variations
in perception intensity of flavour and texture attributes over
time. While traditional static sensory methods provide information
about the intensity of the sensory perception of an attribute at a
particular moment, these dynamic techniques are closer to the
real sensory perception during food consumption (Dijksterhuis &
Piggott, 2001). Among the dynamic sensory techniques, the time–
intensity method (TI) allows assessing variations in perception
intensity of a particular attribute over time using a sensory panel
trained for this purpose (Cliff & Heymann, 1993). The result is a sequence of very intuitive graphical representations (TI curves). The
TI curves show increases and decreases of the intensity of sensory
perception over time (Dijksterhuis & Piggott, 2001). Several parameters can be extrapolated from these curves (maximum intensity, time to achieve the maximum intensity etc.) which enable
the objective evaluation of the temporary changes as well as the
comparison between TI-curves obtained for different products,
panellists, sessions etc.
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 927257100.
E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Ventanas).
0309-1740/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2013.07.035
TI has been applied to the dynamics of flavour and texture perception
in a variety of food products such as dairy products (King, Lawler, &
Adams, 2000; Silva-Cadena & André-Bolini, 2011; Tuorila, Sommardahl,
& Hyvönen, 1995), chewy gums (McGowan & Lee, 2006; OvejeroLópez, Bro, & Bredie, 2005), salad dressings (Guinard, Wee, McSunas, &
Fritter, 2002) and cheeses (Pionnier et al., 2004). Although this methodology has been applied to meat products such as pork patties (Reinbach,
Toft, & Møller, 2009) and sausages (Ventanas, Puolanne, & Tuorila, 2010),
existing knowledge regarding the temporal sensory perception of
muscle foods is still limited (Fuentes, Ventanas, Morcuende, &
Ventanas, 2013). Meat products derived from Iberian pigs are highquality products with distinctive sensory properties (Ventanas,
Ventanas, Ruiz, & Estévez, 2005). The sensory quality of meat products
derived from Iberian pigs has been widely studied (Andrés, Cava,
Ventanas, Thovar, & Ruiz, 2004; Carrapiso, Bonilla, & García, 2003, Ruiz,
Ventanas, Cava, Timon, & García, 1998; Ventanas, Ventanas, & Ruiz,
2006). However, the methodology used in these studies (mainly Quantitative Descriptive Analysis—QDA) is based on the assessment of the
perception of the different quality attributes as a “static” phenomenon.
Therefore, the use of dynamic sensory techniques such as TI would
represent a breakthrough in the field of sensory evaluation of meat
products and particularly of those derived from Iberian pigs.
The aim of the present study was to apply a dynamic sensory evaluation technique (TI) to the flavour and texture of three different meat
products derived from Iberian pigs, namely, liver pâté, dry-cured sausages and dry-cured loins.
386
L. Lorido et al. / Meat Science 96 (2014) 385–393
Table 1
Attributes and definition sorted by the meat products (pâté-P, dry-cured sausage-DCS and dry-cured loin-DCL).
Attributes
Product
Definition
Appearance
Colour intensity
Colour homogeneity
Brightness
Fat colour
Fat/lean proportion
Marbling
Marbling size
P, DCS, DCL
P, DCS, DCL
P, DCS, DCL
DCS
DCS
DCL
DCL
Brownness of pâté (pale brown to dark brown) and redness of lean of dry-cured products (pale pink to dark red)
Colour uniformity (very low to very high)
Intensity of brightness on the meat product surface (dull to very bright)
Yellowness of fat (white to yellow)
Attribute which shows the relation of fat and lean content on the dry-cured sausages slice (very low to very high).
Level of visible intramuscular fat (very lean to intense marbled)
Size of the fat veins (very small to very big)
No oral texture
Cohesiviness
P, DCS
Spreadability
P
Hardness
DCS
Degree of adhesion between the different ingredients. Evaluate by spreading the pâté over a toast using a knife
(very low to very high) or by shaking gently a dry-cured sausage slice (very low to very high).
Ability of a soft product to be spreaded and adhered over a solid surface. Evaluate by spreading the product over a
toast using a knife (very low to very high).
Effort required for deforming a dry-cured sausage slice between the fingers (not hard to very hard).
Odour
Overall
Liver
Pepper note
Meat
Rancid
Acetic
Spicy
P, DCS, DCL
P
P
P
P
DCS
DCS, DCL
Cured
DCL
Oral texture
Hardness
Juiciness
Fibrousness
Chewiness
DCS, DCL
DCS, DCL
DCS, DCL
DCS, DCL
Effort required to bite through sample and to convert it to a swallowable state (very tender to very firm).
Impression of lubricated food during chewing (not to very juicy)
Extent to which fibres are perceived during chewing (not to very fibrous).
Number of chews or time of chewing required to masticate the product until reaching a state ready for swallowing
(very low to very high).
Flavour
Overall
Saltiness
Umami
Liver-like
Spicy
P, DCS, DCL
P, DCS, DCL
P
P
P, DCS, DCL
Sourness
Cured
Rancid
After-taste
DCS
DCL
DCL
DCL
Level of overall flavour (flavourless to very intense flavour)
Level of salt taste (not to very salty)
Level of umami taste (very low to very high)
Level of liver-like taste (very low to very high)
Flavour associated with black pepper in pâté, with aromatic spices added to dry-cured sausage
(nutmeg, cumin, black pepper, etc.) and to dry cured loin (paprika, oregano, garlic, etc.) (very low to very high).
Level of source taste (not to very sour)
Intensity of the typical flavour from cured meat products (very low to very high)
Intensity of the rancid flavour (very low to very high)
Intensity and duration of the overall flavour perception after the sample was swallowed (very low to very high).
Level of overall odour before sample consumption (very low to very high)
Intensity of the typical odour provided by the presence of the liver before sample consumption (very low to very high)
Odour associated with black pepper (very low to very high)
Intensity of the typical odour from cooked meat before sample consumption (very low to very high)
Odour associated with aroma compounds derived from fat oxidation reactions (very low to very high).
Characteristic odour of acetic acid (very low to very high)
Odour associated with aromatic spices added to dry-cured sausage (nutmeg, cumin, black pepper, etc.)
and to dry-cured loin (paprika, oregano, garlic, etc.) (very low to very high).
Intensity of the typical odour from cured meat products before sample consumption (very low to very high)
2. Material and methods
2.3. Sensory evaluation
2.1. Samples
2.3.1. Assessors
Eleven panellists (six males and five females, aged: 26–54 years)
with previous experience in sensory evaluation, participated in the
study (training and evaluation sessions). All were staff at the University
of Extremadura.
Three different Iberian meat products (n = 6) were randomly selected from a local supermarket (pâté of liver) and from a local industry
“Dehesa Serrana” (dry-cured sausages “salchichón” and dry-cured
loins) as representative of cooked, minced dry-cured and whole drycured products. Iberian meat products were developed according to
their quality standard (BOE, 1980, 1981, 2007). Spices were added to
all these products in the manufacturing process (black pepper in pâté;
nutmeg, cumin, black pepper, etc. in salchichón; and paprika, oregano,
garlic, etc. in dry-cured loin).
2.2. Physico-chemical analysis
Each sample was analysed for chemical composition in triplicate.
Moisture content was determined by drying the sample at 102 °C for
24 h (AOAC, 2000). Total protein content was analysed using the
Kjeldahl method (AOAC, 2000). Fat content was determined according
to Folch, Lees, and Sloane Stanley (1957) and chloride content using
the Volhard method (AOAC, 2000).
2.3.2. Panel training
Prior to TI evaluation, a descriptive sensory profile of the meat
products was carried out according to international standards (ISO
4121:1987). Moreover, the development of a conventional sensory profile of the products can be considered as part of the TI training (Peyvieux
& Dijksterhuis, 2001). This training enables verification as to whether
the selected attributes are applicable or not to the product under investigation and allows panellists to get familiar with the attributes and
samples subsequently used in the TI study. To generate the attributes
that better described the meat products, a list of potential descriptors
was given to the panel based on the scientific literature (BrizEscribano & García-Faure, 2000; Ruiz Pérez-Cacho, Galán-Soldevilla,
León Crespo, & Molina Recio, 2005; Sancho, Bota, & de Castro, 1999;
Ventanas et al., 2006). First, the panellists individually generated a set
of terms that better described the samples. After that, the panellists
consensually developed the set of definitive attributes for each product,
decided on verbal definitions that should be used to anchor the descriptive terms, establish the protocol of samples evaluation and decide the
sequence of attributes evaluation (Table 1). After these preliminary sessions for selection and validation (4 sessions of 3 h each), the following
attributes were chosen for pâté and grouped in appearance (brown colour intensity, colour homogeneity, and brightness), oral texture (pastiness, adherence, granularity and chewiness), odour (overall, liver, spicy,
meat and rancid), no oral texture (cohesiveness and spreadability), and
flavour (overall, saltiness, umami, liver-like and spicy). Protocol for pâté
evaluation was fixed as follows: the pâté was provided to the panellist
using a spoon for flavour and oral texture evaluations. The other attributes were evaluated by spreading the sample over unsalted toast.
The final attributes of dry-cured sausages were grouped in: appearance
(redness of lean, colour homogeneity of lean, brightness of fat and fat/
lean proportion), tactile texture (hardness and cohesiveness), odour
(intensity, acetic, spicy), oral texture (hardness, chewiness, juiciness
and fibrousness) and flavour (overall, sourness, saltiness, spicy and rancid). Regarding dry-cured loins, the following attributes were selected
and grouped: appearance (redness of lean, brightness, marbling and
marbling size), odour (overall, cured and spicy), oral texture (hardness,
chewiness, juiciness and fibrousness), and flavour (overall, saltiness,
cured, spicy, rancid and after-taste). Concerning the dry-cured products
(sausages and loins), two halves of a slice were presented to the
panellists for the evaluation of flavour and oral texture attributes
while a whole slice was provided for the evaluation of appearance,
odour and tactile texture attributes.
A specific training for TI evaluations was carried out (10 h). Taking
into consideration the sensory profile analysis and the panel discussion,
particular flavour and texture attributes were selected for TI evaluation.
Texture attributes of pâté were not evaluated by TI since the panellists
said that the pâté was too soft and crumbled rapidly in their mouths.
The protocol of samples for TI evaluation was fixed after panel
discussion and was established as follows: the panellists would keep
the sample in their mouths, chew (dry-cured products) or taste (pâté)
and then swallow. After swallowing, the panellists would continue the
evaluation until they did not perceive the attribute under study. The
panellists were required to move the cursor along a vertical scale
according to the intensity of their perception. The intensity recordings
started when assessors clicked on the scale and stopped automatically
after 120 s (total time of evaluation) or whenever the assessors
returned the marker to the lowest value in the scale within the 120 s,
meaning that they did not perceive the attribute any more. During
TI evaluation of flavour attributes, the panellists were requested to
swallow at fixed times (7 s for pâté and 10 s for dry-cured products)
by a message displayed on the screen. During TI evaluation of texture
attributes, the panellists swallowed the sample when they considered
it was ready to swallow. Attributes were scored on a 10 cm nonstructured vertical scale anchored with “less” and “more”. Between
samples, the panellists were required to follow the rinsing protocol,
consisting of mineral water and a piece of unsalted cracker.
2.3.3. Sensory profile sessions
Prior to TI, sensory profile of the three different meat products was
carried out. Samples were served on glass plates with a glass of water
and a piece of unsalted cracker to follow the rinsing protocol between
samples. Evaluations took place in individual booths under white fluorescence light. In each session, two samples were presented to the
panellists, with the serving order of the samples randomized according
to the Williams Latin Square design. Three sessions were carried out in
total for each meat product. The assessors response were recorder in a
non-structured linear scale of 10 cm between the anchors “0, low intensity” and “10, high intensity”. Data were collected using the FIZZ
software, 2.20 C version (Sensory Analysis and Computer Test Management) (Biosystemes, France, 2002).
387
2.3.4. Time–intensity evaluations
Based on the results obtained in the sensory profile the most informative attributes were chosen to be evaluated by TI methodology. The
following attributes were selected for pâté: overall flavour, saltiness,
liver-like and spicy flavour. The selected attributes for dry-cured sausages were: overall, sourness, saltiness, spicy and rancid (flavour);
hardness, chewiness, juiciness and fibrousness (oral texture). Regarding
dry-cured loins the selected attributes were: overall, saltiness and spicy
(flavour); hardness, juiciness and fibrousness (oral texture).
The panellists rated one attribute at a time and all attributes were
evaluated by eleven panellists, thus a total of 66 TI-curves of each attribute were obtained for each sample. Evaluation of the three types of
meat product was performed in 18 sessions (one session per sample),
with the serving order of the samples randomised according to the
Williams Latin Square design. The protocol evaluation of samples for
the TI analysis is described previously in the panel training section.
Data were collected using the FIZZ software, 2.20 C version (Sensory
Analysis and Computer Test Management) (Biosystemes, France, 2002).
2.3.5. Data analysis
Data from chemical composition was analysed by one-way ANOVA
using the different products (pâté, dry-cured sausage and dry-cured
loin) as main factor.
Data from individual TI curves of the evaluated attributes were
analysed and average TI-curves were computed for each attribute over
eleven assessors using FIZZ software. Six TI parameters were extracted
from TI curves: maximum intensity (Imax), final time (Tend), duration
of the phase plate (DurPI), start time of the phase plate (TSPl), the maximum slope measured in the increasing phase of the curve (SIMInc) and
area under the curve (AreaTse). Time–intensity parameters were
analysed by one-way ANOVA using the different attributes as main factor. Moreover, TI parameters of particular attributes (overall flavour,
saltiness, spicy flavour, hardness, juiciness and fibrousness) were
analysed by one-way ANOVA using the different products (pâté, drycured sausage and dry-cured loin) as main factor. Finally, average TI
curves were calculated to compare the dynamic perception between
the different Iberian meat products.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Chemical composition
Table 2 shows the chemical composition of the three Iberian meat
products. Pâté had the highest moisture (p b 0.05) compared to meat
products subjected to a drying–ripening process (dry-cured sausage
and loin). As expected, dry-cured sausage had the highest fat content
(p b 0.05) followed by pâté and dry-cured loin. Accordingly, drycured loin had the highest protein content since this product is elaborated using the intact longissimus dorsi muscle. Sodium chloride content
was similar in both dry-cured meat products (sausages and loins).
Both meat products showed significantly higher salt concentrations
compared to pâté. These results agree with those in previous studies
Table 2
Proximate chemical composition of the meat products (pâté, dry-cured sausage and
dry-cured loin). Results are expressed as % (means ± SD).
Pâté
Moisture
Fat content1
Chloride content
Protein
56.48
25.15
1.48
14.89
Dry cured sausage
± 0.82a
± 0.88b
± 0.10b
± 0.85c
29.67
36.64
2.44
26.64
± 0.37c
± 1.50a
± 0.46a
± 0.95b
Dry cured loin
p
41.39 ± 1.26b
9.79 ± 1.41c
2.46 ± 0.38a
39.53 ± 1.45a
***
***
**
***
Different letters within the same row denote significant differences between means at
p b 0.05.
*p b 0.05, **p b 0.01, ***p b 0.001.
1
Calculated as intramuscular fat (IMF) content in dry-cured loins.
388
Fig. 1. The appearance, no oral texture and odour profile of pâté (descriptors values within
a 10 cm scale).
Fig. 3. The appearance, no oral texture and odour profile of dry cured sausage (descriptors
values within a 10 cm scale).
carried out on similar Iberian meat products (Estévez & Cava, 2004;
Martin, Ruiz, Kivikari, & Puolanne, 2008; Ramírez & Cava, 2007).
Iberian pâté with moderate pastiness (4.47 ± 0.78) and granularity
(4.05 ± 0.95), with low adherence (2.37 ± 1.09) and identified the
product as easy to chew (2.95 ± 1.04). Finally, the flavour profile,
showed an intense overall flavour (6.17 ± 0.65), with liver-like
(4.49 ± 1.25) and spicy flavour (4.11 ± 1.29) being more predominant than saltiness (3.20 ± 0.61) and umami (1.98 ± 0.66). As
expected, liver-like notes were predominant in both the odour
and flavour profiles as the major ingredient was pork liver.
The sensory profile of dry-cured sausages is presented in
Figs. 3(appearance, no oral texture and odour profile) and 4(oral
texture and flavour profile). Dry-cured sausages showed a moderate
red colour of lean (5.92 ± 0.23), colour homogeneity (5.49 ± 1.20)
and brightness (5.24 ± 1.26). Moreover, fat colour intensity and the
ratio fat/lean received moderate (5.24 ± 1.26) and low scores
(3.35 ± 1.36), respectively. These results agree, in general terms,
with those reported in experimental Spanish dry-cured sausages
(Martín-Sánchez et al., 2011). Regarding tactile texture, dry-cured sausages were defined by high cohesion of the different ingredients
(6.20 ± 0.69 scores on a scale 0–10) as well as with moderate hardness
(4.65 ± 0.57 scores on a scale 0–10). Moreover, dry-cured sausage had
3.2. Quantitative–descriptive analysis of Iberian meat products
The sensory profile of pâté is shown in Figs. 1(appearance, no oral texture and odour profiles) and 2(oral texture and flavour profiles). Whereas previous sensory analyses using triangular tests and hedonic scale
ratings were carried out in liver pâté from Iberian pigs (Delgado-Pando,
Cofrades, Rodríguez-Salas, & Jiménez-Colmenero, 2011; MoralesIrigoyen, Severiano-Pérez, Rodriguez-Huezo, & Totosaus, 2012), no quantitative–descriptive analysis of Iberian pâté has been carried. In the
present study, regarding appearance attributes, Iberian pâté had a moderate brown colour (5.49 ± 0.76 scores on a scale 0–10), a marked colour
homogeneity (7.80 ± 0.25) but a low brightness intensity (3.11 ± 1.02).
Results of texture profile of Iberian pâté showed moderate cohesiveness
(5.55 ± 0.79) and spreadability (5.67 ± 0.81). The last attribute was important since pâté is commonly consumed by spreading the product on a
toast. Moreover, the odour of pâté was defined by an intense overall
odour (6.59 ± 0.73) with liver-like being the most remarkable note
(4.36 ± 1.18) compared to meat (2.74 ± 0.72) and pepper note odours
(2.26 ± 1.01). Regarding oral texture attributes, assessors scored the
Fig. 2. The oral texture and flavour profile of pâté (descriptors values within a 10 cm
scale).
Fig. 4. The oral texture and flavour profile of dry cured sausage (descriptors values within
a 10 cm scale).
an intense overall odour (6.89 ± 0.67 scores on a scale 0–10), with lactic acid odour (5.36 ± 0.75 scores on a scale 0–10) and spicy odour
notes (4.84 ± 0.55 scores on a scale 0–10) presenting a considerable
contribution. Similarly, Lorenzo, Temperán, Bermúdez, Cobas, and
Purriños (2011) reported high scores for spicy odour in foal dry-cured
sausage since the presence of spices in this product is marked, black
pepper being the dominant spice. Moreover, lactic acid is the main
acid resulting from the fermentation of this type of meat product during
ripening (Mateo & Zumalacárregui, 1996; Varnam & Sutherland, 1995),
thus it was expected to be an important contributor of lactic acid odour
to the odour profile of the Iberian dry-cured sausages. The flavour profile shows that overall flavour of dry-cured sausages was intense
(6.41 ± 0.46) mainly due to the contribution of sourness (5.59 ±
0.56) followed by spicy notes (4.66 ± 0.74). Accordingly, Benito,
Rodríguez, Martín, Aranda, and Córdoba (2003) found a strong acid
taste in Iberian dry-cured sausages. Moreover, saltiness and rancid flavour had low impacts on dry-cured sausages flavour (3.51 ± 0.69 and
1.74 ± 0.86, respectively). Regarding oral texture, the highest scores
were ascribed to juiciness (4.87 ± 0.28) followed by chewiness
(4.05 ± 0.84) and hardness (3.66 ± 0.41). Finally, dry-cured sausage
was defined by low fibrousness (2.20 ± 0.52 on a scale 0–10). Surprisingly, dry-cured sausages had only slight juiciness compared to the
results obtained in previous studies in the same product (Benito et al.,
2003; Casquete et al., 2011). Taking into consideration the high fat content in dry-cured sausages (Table 1), high juiciness scores were
expected, given the relationship between chemical and sensory parameters (Ventanas et al., 2005).
Sensory profiles of Iberian dry-cured loins are presented in
Figs. 5(appearance and odour) and 6(texture and flavour). Drycured loins showed an intense redness (5.63 ± 0.76), low brightness
(3.36 ± 0.16) and marbling (3.67 ± 1.28). Moreover, in the surface of
dry-cured loin slices, small fat veins rather than big ones were predominant (2.45 ± 0.58 scores for marbling size). Ventanas et al. (2006) and
Ramírez and Cava (2007) reported similar results in Iberian dry-cured
loins for redness and brightness while these authors found higher
scores for marbling attributes. In this regard, Martin, Antequera,
Muriel, Perez-Palacios, and Ruiz (2008) reported similar results for
marbling in the same dry-cured meat product. Regarding the odour
profile, the results show that spicy (5.43 ± 0.55) followed by cured
odour (4.70 ± 0.45) contributed greatly to the overall odour perception (5.99 ± 0.66). A similar profile was described by Ventanas et al.
(2007) except for spicy odour as this attribute was not considered
389
Fig. 6. The oral texture and flavour profile of dry cured loin (descriptors values within a
10 cm scale).
since these authors used no spices for the manufacture of dry-cured
loins. Iberian dry-cured loins are commonly produced by rubbing a mixture of curing agents (salt and nitrite) and spices (Spanish paprika,
Capsicum annuum L. and garlic, Allium sativum L.) onto the surface of
the loin pieces (Martin, Antequera, et al., 2008; Martin, Ruiz, et al.,
2008), with Spanish paprika being the ingredient responsible for the
spicy odour and flavour. According to the flavour profile of Iberian
dry-cured loin, this product had an intense overall flavour (5.64 ±
0.69) mainly attributed to spicy and cured flavours (4.32 ± 0.43 scores
and 4.39 ± 0.56). Moreover, after-taste flavour received moderate
scores (4.37 ± 0.16). Similar scores were obtained by Ventanas et al.
(2007), Martin, Antequera, et al. (2008) and Martin, Ruiz, et al. (2008)
for flavour intensity, cured, rancid and after-taste flavour. Considering
the salt content in the dry-cured loins (Table 2), their salty taste
(1.97 ± 0.55) was surprisingly slight and considerably lower than
that reported by Ventanas et al. (2007), Martin, Antequera, et al.
(2008) and Martin, Ruiz, et al. (2008) in the same product. However,
subsequent application of the time intensity technique showed a higher
intensity perception of saltiness over time. Finally, dry-cured loin
showed a moderate intensity of hardness (4.96 ± 0.93), chewiness
(5.27 ± 0.99), juiciness (4.19 ± 0.66) and fibrousness (4.56 ± 0.63)
agreeing with the texture profile reported by Ventanas et al. (2007).
3.3. Time–intensity analysis of particular Iberian meat products
Fig. 5. The appearance and odour profile of dry cured loin (descriptors values within a
10 cm scale).
Results (means ± SD) from the application of a TI sensory analysis
to pâté, dry-cured sausages and dry-cured loins are shown in Tables 3,
4 and 5, respectively. Average TI-curves for particular attributes are
shown in Fig. 7. Results of the TI study of pâté (Table 3) show that the
highest (p b 0.05) scores of Imax and AreaTse were for overall flavour.
Among the other flavour attributes, intensity perception of liver-like flavour over time was higher (Imax and AreaTse) compared to saltiness
and spicy flavours although these differences were not significant.
These results are in agreement with those obtained from the AQD
since pork liver is one of the main ingredients of the pâte. The SIMInc
parameter shows that the spicy flavour may be perceived faster while
the liver-like flavour may be detected more slowly compared to the
other flavour attributes. The spices have strong specific aromas, which
could mask the liver-like notes at the first stages of the sensory evaluation (Gandemer, 2002). Therefore, although liver-like flavour tended to
be perceived as more intense, spicy flavour was perceived faster likely
390
Table 3
Time intensity parameters of the flavour attributes of pâté (means ± SD): maximum intensity (Imax), total area under the curve (AreaTse), time to start the plateau phase (TSPl), duration
of the plateau phase (DurPI), maximum slope measured in the increasing phase of the curve (SIMInc) and final time (Tend).
IMax
Overall
Saltiness
Liver-like
Spicy
AreaTse
6.4 ±
4.9 ±
5.3 ±
4.7 ±
0.44a
0.54b
0.53b
0.41b
74.2 ±
50.2 ±
60.1 ±
55.9 ±
TSPl
8.68a
6.71b
11.93b
7.84b
DurPl
6.55 ±
4.88 ±
5.20 ±
5.30 ±
0.80
1.18
0.67
0.33
4.7 ±
4.4 ±
4.3 ±
5.1 ±
SIMInc
0.45
0.54
0.80
0.62
3.65 ±
3.87 ±
2.87 ±
4.22 ±
Tend
1.36
1.93
0.90
2.19
19.2 ±
16.1 ±
17.9 ±
18.5 ±
1.49
1.95
2.62
1.79
Different letters within the same column denote significant differences between means at p b 0.05.
due to the particular characteristics of the components of this stimuli
(spices).
Regarding dynamic sensory perception of dry-cured sausages
(Table 4), overall and spicy flavour showed the highest intensity perception (Imax and AreaTse) (p b 0.05) compared to the other flavour attributes. Moreover, the time to reach the maximum intensity (TSPl) was
significantly longer for spicy flavour compared to the other flavour attributes. Therefore, according to the present results, spicy flavour was
probably the largest contributor to the overall flavour perception of
dry-cured sausages whereas the contribution of rancid flavour was the
lowest as reflected in the Imax and AreaTse obtained for this attribute.
These results are in agreement with those reported using the static
technique AQD. However, the scores reached for spicy and rancid flavour
using the dynamic technique (Imax values) were higher compared to
those given by the panellists using the AQD. Moreover, focusing on
dynamic parameters, spicy flavour was the most persistent (Tend) although these differences were not significant compared to persistence
of saltiness and overall flavour. Regarding texture attributes, dynamic
sensory evaluation revealed that the intensity of juiciness perception
(Imax and AreaTse) was the highest compared to other texture attributes. Moreover, dry-cured sausages showed the lowest Imax scores
for hardness (p b 0.05). Juiciness tended to be perceived faster (higher
SIMInc) and exhibited the longest persistence (higher Tend).
Dynamic sensory evaluation of dry-cured loins (Table 5) revealed
that intensity of overall flavour (Imax and AreaTse) was the highest
(p b 0.05) compared to the other flavour attributes. Compared to
saltiness, spicy flavour would have contributed to overall flavour
perception to a greater extent. Regarding dynamic perception of
texture, intensity (Imax and AreaTse) of hardness and juiciness
was the highest (p b 0.05) compared to the other attributes. Hardness showed the highest maximum slope of the increasing phase
(SIMInc) and the lowest start time of the phase plate (TSPl). Although hardness and juiciness are commonly considered as opposite
attributes, the factors that determine their perception are different
in dry-cured meat products and thus both attributes may be perceived simultaneously with high intensities. The high levels of intramuscular fat (IMF) in Iberian dry-cured meat products play a very
important role in juiciness since IMF stimulates saliva secretion
and contributes directly to juiciness by coating the tongue, teeth
and other parts of the mouth (Ventanas et al., 2005). On the same
line, juiciness of Iberian dry-cured loins had the lowest values of
SIMInc which could be directly linked to the fact that the IMF was
slowly released from the whole muscle structure during consumption. As a result, juiciness could have been perceived slower compared to such texture attributes as hardness and fibrousness which
are more dependent on the moisture content of the product and
the structure and integrity of the muscle fibres.
3.4. Comparative analysis of sensory properties of Iberian meat products
Fig. 7 shows the average time intensity curves for at least two of the
three different Iberian meat products evaluated, sorted by attribute.
Differences in the sensory profile of the Iberian meat products
should be related to differences in the chemical composition, the meat
matrix structure (minced or whole meat product) and nature and
intensity of processing (cooking, drying, etc.). For better comprehension
of the discussion, flavour and texture attributes will be described
separately.
3.4.1. Flavour attributes
Regarding overall flavour (Fig. 7a), both dry-cured products had a
significantly higher AreaTse [F(2,17) = 38.7, p b 0.001] compared to
pâté. Moreover, the highest Imax and persistence of the perceived
maximum intensity (DurPl) of this attribute were recorded for drycured sausage (F(2,17) = 14.2; p b 0.001 for Imax and F(2,17) =
41.01; p b 0.001 for DurPl). Perception of overall flavour was slower
in dry-cured loin compared to the other products agreeing with the longest time to reach the maximum intensity (TSPl) (F(2,17) = 65.6;
p b 0.001). Differences were found for the total duration (Tend) of overall flavour between the three products, with the persistence of this attribute being significantly longest in dry-cured loin (28.58 ± 2.89 s)
followed by dry-cured sausages (23.68 ± 1.00 s) and finally the Iberian
pâté (19.2 ± 1.49 s) [F(2,17) = 33.2, p b 0.001]. Similar differences
between products were found for the dynamic sensory perception of
spicy flavour as reflected in the average TI curves of Fig. 7b. TI parameters related to the intensity of spicy perception (Imax and AreaTse)
were the highest for dry-cured sausage followed by dry-cured loin
and finally for pâté [F (2,17) = 61.8, p b 0.001 for Imax and F (2,
Table 4
Time intensity parameters of the flavour and texture attributes of dry cured sausage (means ± SD): maximum intensity (Imax), total area under the curve (AreaTse), time to start the
plateau phase (TSPl), duration of the plateau phase (DurPI), maximum slope measured in the increasing phase of the curve (SIMInc) and final time (Tend).
Imax
AreaTse
TSPl
DurPl
SIMInc
Tend
Flavour
Overall
Sourness
Saltiness
Spicy
Rancid
7.40
5.64
5.04
7.33
2.78
± 0.21a
± 0.50b
± 0.32b
± 0.47a
± 0.47c
127.50 ±
79.67 ±
83.33 ±
130.50 ±
42.33 ±
8.87a
10.33b
12.19b
23.47a
14.77c
5.32
5.18
5.00
6.73
5.88
±
±
±
±
±
0.97ab
0.88ab
1.30b
0.91a
0.87ab
9.55 ±
8.37 ±
9.70 ±
8.75 ±
7.98 ±
0.80
0.94
1.99
1.11
2.91
3.60
3.80
3.70
2.88
1.40
±
±
±
±
±
2.53
1.04
1.18
1.37
0.80
23.68
20.87
22.63
26.48
21.62
±
±
±
±
±
1.00ab
2.18b
2.58ab
3.53a
3.99b
Oral Texture
Hardness
Chewiness
Juiciness
Fibrousness
3.47
4.37
6.28
4.57
± 0.38c
± 0.30b
± 0.20a
± 0.96b
37.33 ±
48.50 ±
74.17 ±
52.67 ±
8.69b
9.09b
7.19a
15.42b
5.28
5.20
5.38
5.37
±
±
±
±
1.37
0.72
1.27
1.30
6.08 ±
6.12 ±
6.88 ±
6.05 ±
1.58
1.96
1.39
2.01
2.74
2.57
4.39
4.01
±
±
±
±
0.87
0.65
2.05
2.32
15.43
14.88
16.10
15.38
±
±
±
±
1.05
0.71
0.98
0.73
391
Table 5
Time intensity parameters of the flavour and texture attributes of dry cured loin (means ± SD): maximum intensity (Imax), total area under the curve (AreaTse), time to start the plateau
phase (TSPl), duration of the plateau phase (DurPI), maximum slope measured in the increasing phase of the curve (SIMInc) and final time (Tend).
Imax
AreaTse
TSPl
DurPl
SIMInc
Tend
Flavour
Overall
Saltiness
Spicy
6.13 ± 0.57a
5.06 ± 0.89b
5.86 ± 0.36ab
116.67 ± 13.38a
87.17 ± 19.37b
101.00 ± 13.39ab
13.10 ± 1.72
14.68 ± 2.13
13.45 ± 2.40
5.07 ± 1.49
4.55 ± 2.61
4.90 ± 1.19
2.09 ± 0.73
1.88 ± 0.93
2.66 ± 0.95
28.58 ± 2.89
25.80 ± 3.53
26.98 ± 2.27
Oral texture
Hardness
Juiciness
Fibrousness
5.11 ± 0.59a
5.28 ± 0.42a
4.19 ± 0.29b
61.67 ± 14.02a
62.33 ± 7.81a
44.50 ± 7.06b
5.37 ± 0.92
5.33 ± 0.86
5.02 ± 1.08
6.19 ± 2.38a
2.96 ± 1.48b
6.00 ± 2.27ab
18.87 ± 2.83
20.92 ± 2.63
17.75 ± 2.33
4.25 ± 1.32b
9.17 ± 1.74a
6.98 ± 1.49a
17) = 34.3, p b 0.001 for AreaTse]. Moreover, a significantly longer
time was required for the dry-cured loin (13.45 ± 2.40 s) to reach
the maximum intensity perception of spicy flavour [F(2,17) = 50.4,
p b 0.001 for TSPl] compared to dry-cured sausages (6.73 ± 0.91 s)
and pâté (5.30 ± 0.33 s). Persistence of the maximum intensity of
spicy flavour (DurPI) was significantly longer in dry-cured sausage
Fig. 7. Average time intensity curves for at least two of the three different Iberian meat products sorted by attribute: overall flavour (a), spicy (b), saltiness (c), juiciness (d), hardness
(e) and fibrousness (f) (n = 66; 11 panellists × 6 replications).
392
[F (2,17) = 28.2, p b 0.001] compared to the other Iberian meat
products. Finally, both dry-cured products showed a significantly
higher persistence (Tend) of spicy flavour (26.48 ± 3.53 s for
dry-cured sausages and 26.98 ± 2.27 s for dry-cured loin) compared
to pâté (18.5 ±1.79 s) [F(2,17) = 61.8, p b 0.001]. Although no
significant differences were found for the maximum slope of the
increasing phase (SIMInc), as previously reported for overall flavour,
this TI parameter tended to be lower for dry-cured loin [F(2,17) =
0.94, p = 0.414].
According to both the static and dynamic analyses, the main contributor to the overall flavour of the meat products was the spicy flavour
which is linked to the presence of paprika and other ingredients.
Differences in the intensity of flavour perception between products
would be related to differences in the amount of spices present in the
product formulation and thus in the flavour compound concentrations
in the final product. However, other factors related to the matrix
structure and composition should also be taken into consideration.
The structure of a product influences the migration of volatiles into
the oral and nasal cavities, while the composition of a product
influences the interactions between flavour and non-flavour ingredients (Taylor, 1998). The higher salt content (Table 2) in both drycured products compared to pâté would have enhanced the flavour
perception in these products by means of the “salting out” phenomenon
(Salles, 2006) as reported in cooked bologna type sausages (Ventanas
et al., 2010). Moreover, the matrix structure was very different between
products since pâté had a very soft texture and thus it crumbled rapidly
in the panellist mouths. On the contrary, dry-cured loin is a whole
muscle and the panellists had to chew the product for a longer time.
These differences in the structure would have affected the resistance
to flavour compounds to transfer from the meat matrix to the mouth.
The disintegration of the matrix of dry-cured products during prolonged
chewing could have enhanced the gradual release of flavour compounds
from these products explaining a slower but more persistent perception
of flavour attributes in dry-cured loin than in liver pâté. Differences in
the fat content between products could also have influenced the differences found in flavour perception because of the suppression of fat on
volatile release (Carrapiso, 2007; Seuvre, Espinosa Diaz, & Voilley,
2002; Ventanas, Estevez, Andrés, & Ruiz, 2008). Thus, the significantly
lower amount of IMF in dry-cured loins would have led to a higher release of volatiles related to spicy flavour, explaining the higher intensity
and the longer persistence of this attribute. Similar results were found
by Fuentes et al. (2013) for rancid flavour in Iberian dry-cured hams
using the TI method. The high fat content of pâté would have promoted
the formation of a lipid coating in the mouth during sample consumption hindering flavour perception.
For saltiness (Fig. 7c), no significant differences were found in the
maximum intensity (Imax) (p N 0.05) between the three meat products
[F(2,17) = 0.18, p = 0.983]. However, significant differences were
found in the AreaTse [F(2,17) = 12.018, p b 0.001] and total duration
(Tend) [F(2,17) = 17.315, p b 0.000]. Both dry-cured products showed
significantly (p b 0.05) higher intensity (AreaTse) and persistence
(Tend) of saltiness compared to pâté which can be related to the higher
salt content of dry-cured products compared to pâté (Table 2).
Moreover, dry-cured sausage showed the highest duration of the
maximum intensity (DurPl) [F(2,17) = 15.155, p b 0.000] whereas
dry-cured loins needed more time to achieve the maximum intensity
(TSPl) [F(2,17) = 72.835, p b 0.000]. Although no significant differences were found in the maximum slope of the increasing phase
(SIMInc) [F(2,17) = 3.564, p = 0.054], this TI parameter tended to be
lower in dry-cured loin. Both dry-cured products and particularly drycured loin had a harder matrix compared to pâté which could delay
the interaction between salty compounds (Na+) and the specific receptors located in the gustatory taste papillae (McCaughey, 2007). These
arguments would explain that dynamic perception of saltiness was
slower but more persistent in dry-cured loin compared to the other
meat products.
3.4.2. Texture attributes
Intensity (Imax and AreaTse) of juiciness was significantly higher in
dry-cured sausage (t = 5.290, p b 0.000 for Imax; t = 2.729, p b 0.05
for AreaTse) compared to dry-cured loin (Fig. 7d). Dry-cured sausage
also needed less time to achieve the maximum intensity of juiciness
and moreover it showed a higher duration of this maximum intensity
(t = −4.293, p b 0.01 for TSPl; t = 2.323, p b 0.05 for DurPl). These
results could be attributed to the higher fat content in dry-cured sausage compared to dry-cured loin as previously discussed. Thus, the
lower fat and moisture content of dry-cured loin lead to less stimulation
of saliva secretion which is directly related to juiciness perception
(Ventanas et al., 2005). Regarding hardness (Fig. 7e), the intensity
(Imax and AreaTse) and the maximum slope of the increasing phase
(SIMInc) were higher in dry-cured loin (t = −5.737, p b 0.000 for
Imax; t = −3.613, p b 0.01 for AreaTse; t = −3.336, p b 0.01 for
SIMInc). Differences in chemical composition mainly related to fat and
moisture content would explain these results. Finally, no significant
differences (p N 0.05) were found in the TI parameters of fibrousness
between the two dry-cured products (Fig. 7f).
4. Conclusions
This study can be considered a first approach to the application of a
TI method to different meat products. TI was a feasible and useful method to assess the dynamic perception of sensory attributes in cooked and
dry-cured meat products. Unlike the static methods, the TI technique
provides a more realistic picture of the physiological responses to food
properties. Furthermore, this technique enables a deeper comprehension of the influence of the matrix composition and food structure on
the perception of attributes over time. As a result, the application of TI
to complex meat products provides practical and valuable information
on sensory perception of muscle foods. Future studies may introduce
this innovative sensory technique to achieve additional insight on the
impact of formulation and processing of particular meat products on
specific sensory attributes.
Acknowledgements
Laura Lorido thanks the Government of Extremadura for the FPI
grant (PD10025). This study was supported by the project entitled
“Application of dynamic sensory techniques to study the flavour and
texture perception in meat products derived from Iberian pigs”
(ACCVII11) funded by the University of Extremadura and the project
entitled “Optimización y control de la calidad tecnológica, nutricional
y organoléptica del jamón serrano e ibérico” (CLASHAM-RTA-201000029-C04-03) funded by INIA (Instituto de Investigaciones Agrarias y
Alimentarias). Mario Estévez thanks the Spanish Ministry of Science
and Innovation for the contract through the “Ramón y Cajal (RYC2009-03901)” and the European Community for the economical support from the Marie Curie Reintegration (ERG) Fellowship (PERG-GA2009-248959 — Pox-MEAT).
Authors gratefully thank all members of the sensory panel for their
participation.
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PAPER 2
Meat Science 107 (2015) 39–48
Meat Science
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/meatsci
Salt and intramuscular fat modulate dynamic perception of flavour and
texture in dry-cured hams
Laura Lorido, Mario Estévez, Jesús Ventanas, Sonia Ventanas ⁎
IPROCAR Research Institute, Animal Production and Food Science Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Avd/Universidad s.n., Cáceres, Spain
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 3 September 2014
Received in revised form 6 March 2015
Accepted 30 March 2015
Available online 15 April 2015
Keywords:
Time–intensity
Salt
Intramuscular fat
Dry-cured hams
a b s t r a c t
The present study aimed to evaluate the influence of salt and intramuscular fat (IMF) content on the sensory
characteristics of two different types of dry-cured hams (Iberian and Serrano) using the time–intensity (TI)
method. All studied TI parameters of flavour attributes (overall flavour, saltiness, cured and rancid flavours)
were significantly (p b 0.05) affected by variations in the salt and/or IMF content. However, regarding texture attributes only the maximum intensity (Imax) of hardness was significantly (p b 0.05) affected by the salt content
of hams. Compared to Iberian dry-cured hams, the dynamic perception of the flavour and texture of Serrano drycured hams was less influenced by variations in salt and/or IMF content. The dynamic sensory techniques may be
helpful to guarantee the quality of dry-cured products subjected to strategies of salt and fat reduction.
1. Introduction
Dry-cured ham industry has an important economic impact in Spain
with a consumption of about 109.596 t in 2009 (MARM, 2010). Iberian
and Serrano dry-cured hams differ in terms of chemical composition
and sensory traits owing to the different genetic background of the animals (Iberian pigs vs. Industrial genotypes) (Ventanas et al., 2005). Iberian hams, in particular, are very appreciated by consumers due to their
particular sensory properties partly attributed to the characteristics of
the raw material (i.e. intramuscular fat (IMF) content and composition)
and the length of the drying–ripening process (Ruiz, García, Muriel,
Andrés & Ventanas, 2002). IMF of Iberian dry-cured hams contributes
to flavour and odour perception through different mechanisms (lipid
oxidation, Maillard reactions etc.) involved in volatile compounds
formation (Ruiz et al., 2002). IMF also plays an important role in the
perception of the texture of Iberian dry-cured hams, particularly in juiciness, since these products are strongly dehydrated and the contribution
of moisture to the perception of this attribute is limited (Ventanas,
Ventanas, Ruiz & Estévez, 2005). Fat stimulates the saliva secretion
and contributes directly to juiciness by coating the tongue, teeth and
other parts of the mouth acting as a lubricant agent (Lynch, Liu, Mela
& MacFie, 1993).
The process of Iberian dry-cured hams includes a salting phase
which is responsible for a variable concentration of sodium chloride in
the final product (from 3.5% to 5.5% average) (Ventanas et al., 2005).
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 927257100 51390.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2015.03.025
0309-1740/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Salt contributes to the flavour perception by likely increasing the volatility of aroma compounds thorough the salting out phenomenon (Rabe,
Krings & Berger, 2003). Similarly to fat, salt also regulates the juiciness
perception by stimulating salivation (Ventanas, Puolanne & Tuorila,
2010). Sensory attributes as hardness and pastiness are strongly dependent on salt since it modulates the degree of dry-cured ham drying and
the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Toldrá, Flores & Sanz, 1997).
Nowadays, the population is aware that consumption of high levels
of fat or salt enhances the risk of different diseases by increasing the
cholesterol and blood pressure levels (USDA/HHS, 2010; WHO, 2012).
Dietary fat intake should ideally account for between 15% and 30% of
total diet energy (WHO, 2013) and meat products are identified as
products for sodium reduction (EC, 2012). Taking into consideration
the prominent role of IMF and salt on the sensory characteristics of
Iberian dry-cured hams, it is known that salt and fat reduction certainly
modifies texture and flavour perception (Andrés, Cava, Ventanas,
Thovar & Ruiz, 2004; Fuentes, Ventanas, Morcuende & Ventanas, 2013).
Flavour and texture perception are dynamic phenomena which
changes along the process of food consumption (Dijksterhuis & Piggott,
2001). Hence, the use of dynamic sensory techniques as Time–intensity
(TI) is gaining importance in meat products and particularly in drycured ones (Emrick, Penfield, Bacon, Van Laack & Breeke, 2005; Fuentes,
Estévez, Grèbol, Ventanas & Ventanas, 2014; Fuentes, Ventanas,
Ventanas & Estévez, 2014; Fuentes et al., 2013; Reinbach, Toft & Møller,
2009; Ventanas, Puolanne & Tuorila, 2010). In the present study, pieces
of Iberian and Serrano dry-cured hams varying in both IMF and salt content were selected to study the effect of both parameters on the dynamic
perception of flavour and texture attributes.
40
2.1. Selection of Iberian dry-cured hams
Each sample was analysed for chemical composition in triplicate.
Moisture content was determined by drying the sample at 102 °C for
24 h (AOAC, 2000). Total protein content was analysed using the Kjeldahl
method (AOAC, 2000). Fat content was determined according to the
method developed by Folch, Lees, & Stanley (1957) and chloride content
was analysed using the Volhard method (AOAC, 2000). Fatty acid methyl
esters (FAMEs) were prepared by acidic-trans-esterification in the presence of sulphuric acid (5% sulphuric acid in methanol) (Ventanas,
Ventanas, Tovar, García & Estévez, 2007). FAMEs were analysed by gas
chromatography using a Hewlett-Packard HP-5890A gas chromatograph,
equipped with an on-column injector and a flame ionization detector
(FID), using a polyethylene glycol capillary column (Supelcowax-10,
Supelco, Bellefonte, PA). Individual FAMEs were identified by comparing
their retention times with those of standards of all fatty acids analysed
supplied by Sigma Aldrich (Steintein, Germany). Results are expressed
as percentage of the total fatty acids analysed.
One hundred and twenty Iberian dry-cured hams with a wide range
of fat and salt content were purchased from a local company (“Dehesa
Serrana” S.A., Cáceres, Spain). Salt and fat content of these products
were estimated at the Institute of Food and Agricultural Research and
Technology (IRTA, Girona, Spain) using a non-destructive methodology
called Computed Tomography technique (HiSpeed scanner model Zx/i,
GE Healthcare, Barcelona, Spain). The thickness of subcutaneous fat
which is a parameter related to the overall fat content of dry-cured
hams was used as a reference for determining the fat content. The
salt content was determined in muscles Biceps femoris (BF) and
Semimembranosus (SM) using previously developed prediction models
(Santos-Garcés et al., 2010) and other analytical tools which were developed using the Matlab mathematical software (Santos-Garcés et al.,
2012). Finally, 20 of those Iberian dry-cured hams were selected for the
study. Samples of 450 g were obtained from each ham (Fig. 1), packaged
under vacuum and stored in refrigeration conditions for 5 months until
2.2. Elaboration of Serrano dry-cured hams
Sixty green hams were obtained from different commercial slaughterhouses supplied by animals with different breeds containing a wide
range of fat content. 42 hams from animals with crosses of Large white
and Landrace breeds and 18 hams from animals with crosses with a minimum of 50% of Duroc breed were obtained. Homogeneous sets of hams in
terms of weight and pH were used for the elaboration procedure. Fatness
of hams was determined using Ham grading system (JMP Ingenieros, S.L.,
Sotés, La Rioja, Spain). Hams were salted individually with excess of salt
during 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4 and 1.5 days/kg of raw ham in order
to get the variation of salt content present in the market. Each one of
the salting times had hams with different fatness. After salting, hams
were washed with cold water, weighed and hanged in a cold room at
3 °C to rest. The relative humidity inside the cold room was 75–80%,
and the temperature was progressively increased (from 10 to 20 °C)
until the end of the process. The process finished when a total weight
loss of 36% was achieved. Finally, 28 of these Serrano dry-cured hams
with a wide variation in fat and salt content were selected for the study.
Sampling procedure was the same as previously reported for Iberian
dry-cured hams (Fig. 1). Processing of Serrano dry-cured hams took
place at the Institute of Food and Agricultural Research and Technology
(IRTA, Girona, Spain).
2.4.1. Assessors
Eleven panellists (six males and five females, range age: 26–54 years)
with previous experience in TI evaluation participated in the study (training and evaluation sessions). All of them were staff at the University of
Extremadura.
2.4.2. Panel performance
In order to ensure satisfying performance of the panel it is of great
importance to study unwanted variation between the assessors. Graphically based methods can provide a way to quickly and effectively visualize panel performance in a simple and comprehensive manner (Tomic
O., Nilsen A., Martens M. & Næs T., 2007). Free open source sensory software package called PanelCheck (Panel, 2006) was used to check
whether the panel was well trained enough. The panel consisted of 11
assessors rating with time–intensity method the maximum intensity
(Imax) of 6 attributes (attribute A: juiciness, attribute B: hardness, attribute C: fibrousness, attribute D: overall flavour, attribute E: saltiness
and attribute F: cured flavour) on a scale from 1 to 10. A set of 4 drycured hams samples, 2 Iberian and 2 Serrano, were tested with two replicates per sample.
Fig. 2 shows the 3-way ANOVA plot for the assessor effect (2a), product effect (2b), replicate effect (2c) and the interaction between assessor and product effect (2d). Fig. 2a shows that the assessor effect was
significant for juiciness, fibrousness, overall flavour and cured flavour.
Fig. 1. Sampling of dry-cured ham.
Fig. 2b shows that the product effect was significant for juiciness. Fig. 2c
shows that any of the studied attributes were significantly affected by
the replicate effect. Finally Fig. 2d shows that the assessor ∗ product effect was significant for juiciness and saltiness.
2.4.3. Panel training
The TI technique was used to evaluate the attributes related to the
temporal perception of flavour and oral texture. The studied attributes
were selected based on previous studies and were the most commonly
used attributes to describe sensory properties of dry cured hams.
(Fuentes, Ventanas, Morcuende, Estévez & Ventanas, 2010; Fuentes
et al., 2013). Three training sessions were carried (6 h in total) in
order to review with the panel the attributes definitions, their scale anchors, the evaluation protocol and the sequence of attribute evaluation.
The protocol of samples for TI evaluation was established as follows:
panellists should keep the sample in their mouths, chew it and then
swallow. After swallowing, panellists should continue the evaluation
until they did not perceive the attribute under study. Panellists were
required to move the cursor along a vertical scale (10 cm) according
to the intensity of their perception. The intensity recordings started
when assessors clicked on the scale and stopped automatically after
120 s (total time of evaluation) or whenever the assessors returned
the marker to the lowest value in the scale within the 120 s, meaning
that they did not perceive the attribute any more. During TI evaluation
of flavour attributes, panellists were requested to swallow at fixed
time (10 s) by a message displayed on the screen. During TI evaluation
of texture attributes, panellists swallowed the sample when they considered it was ready to swallow. Attributes were scored on a 10 cm
non-structured vertical scale anchored with “less” and “more”. Between
samples, panellists were required to follow the rinsing protocol,
consisting of mineral water and a piece of unsalted cracker.
2.4.4. Time–intensity evaluations
After the preliminary sessions for selection, training and validation
(12 h), the following attributes were chosen for TI evaluation and
grouped in flavour (overall flavour, saltiness, cured and rancid) and texture (hardness, juiciness and fibrousness). Panellists rated one attribute
at a time and all attributes were evaluated for eleven panellists. Evaluation of the 20 Iberian dry-cured hams and 28 Serrano dry-cured hams
was performed in 16 sessions (three samples per session) with the serving order of the samples and attributes randomised according to the
Williams Latin Square design. Data were collected using the FIZZ software, 2.20 C version (Sensory Analysis and Computer Test Management) (Biosystemes, France, 2002).
Data from the chemical composition of Iberian and Serrano drycured hams was analysed by one-way ANOVA using the four treatments
(HS: high salt, LS: low salt, HF: high fat, LF: low fat) as main factor, with
the detected differences being tested by the Tukey post hoc test. The
Tukey test was used when the ANOVA showed a significant effect.
Data from individual TI curves of the evaluated attributes (11
assessors × 3 repetitions = 33 curves analysed) were analysed and average TI-curves were computed for each attribute over eleven assessors
using FIZZ software. Six TI parameters were extracted from TI curves:
maximum intensity (Imax), standardized duration of the phase plate
(DurPI), maximum slope measured in the increasing phase of the
curve (SIMInc), area under the curve (AreaTse) and standardized final
time (Tend). Imax and AreaTse parameters were extracted in order to
evaluate the intensity of the attributes and the DurPl and Tend parameters in order to evaluate the persistence of the intensity.
The compositional model variables were salt and IMF content both
of them with two experimental levels (low and high). Respectively,
the response variables were: Imax, DurPl, SIMInc, AreaTse and Tend
for all the flavour and texture attributes evaluated (overall flavour, saltiness, cured flavour, rancid flavour, hardness, juiciness and fibrousness).
41
The experimental levels of the independent variables are presented in
Table 1. The surface and contour graphical presentations of the response
surface models, were performed using The Unscrambler® software
package (v 9.0).
A principal component analysis (PCA) was carried out with data obtained from sensory analysis. It was conducted using the software
XLSTAT 2014 for Windows.
3.1. Chemical composition
Table 2 shows the chemical composition of the four groups of Iberian
and Serrano dry-cured hams. As expected, there were significant differences between the experimental groups of both Iberian and Serrano
dry-cured hams (low and high) in the IMF [F (16; 19) = 28.98,
p b 0.01; F (24; 27) = 13.41, p b 0.01] and salt content [F (16; 19) =
6.88, p b 0.01; F (24; 27) = 13.57, p b 0.01]. Significant differences
in the moisture content of Iberian dry-cured hams were also found
[F (16; 19) = 3.60, p b0.05].
Fatty acid profiles of the IMF of Iberian and Serrano dry-cured hams
were significantly different (Table 3). Iberian dry-cured hams showed
the highest proportion of palmitic acid (C16:0), oleic acid (C18:1, n-9)
and total monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA). High levels of oleic
acid in the IMF of Iberian dry-cured hams are linked to a high fluidity
of the fat which influences, in turn, the juiciness (Fuentes, Ventanas,
et al., 2014). Moreover, high concentrations of oleic acid have been related to pleasant aroma notes in various processed products from Iberian pigs (Estévez, Morcuende, Rámirez, Ventanas & Cava, 2004; Ruiz,
Muriel, & Ventanas, 2002; Ventanas, Ventanas, Tovar, et al., 2007).
Serrano dry-cured hams displayed the highest proportion of stearic
acid (C18:0), linoleic acid (C18:2) and total polyunsaturated fatty
acids (PUFA), agreeing with previous results reported by Fernández,
Ordoñez, Cambero, Santos, Pin and de la Hoz (2007) in the same
product.
3.2. Dynamic sensory responses to salt and IMF content
The results obtained in the response surface analysis for the studied
flavour and texture TI parameters in Iberian dry-cured hams showed
that the effect of salt and IMF content on dynamic perception of flavour
attributes was larger than the impact of such factors on the TI texture
parameters. All studied TI parameters of flavour attributes (overall
flavour [Imax: F (16; 19) = 4.14, p b 0.05; SIMInc: F (16; 19) = 6.40,
p b 0.01], saltiness [Imax: F (16; 19) = 8.98, p b 0.01; AreaTse:
F (16; 19) = 25.19, p b 0.001; DurPl: F (16; 19) = 3.71, p b 0.05; Tend:
F (16;19) = 13.65, p b 0.001], cured [Imax: F (16; 19) = 8.89, p b 0.01]
and rancid flavours [DurPl: F (16; 19) = 6.12, p b 0.01]) were significantly
affected by variations in the salt and/or IMF content, whereas only the
Imax of hardness was significantly affected by the salt content of hams
[F (16; 19) = 4.01, p b 0.05].
Compared to Iberian dry-cured hams, the dynamic perception of the
flavour and texture of Serrano dry-cured hams was less influenced by variations in salt and/or IMF content, with saltiness [AreaTse: F (24; 27) =
3.07, p b 0.05; Tend: F (24; 27) = 4.60, p b 0.05] and cured flavour
[AreaTse: F (24; 27) = 2.65, p b 0.05; Tend: F (24; 27) = 2.52, p b 0.05]
being the only attributes significantly affected by the studied factors.
3.2.1. Dynamic flavour perception as affected by salt and IMF content
In Iberian dry-cured hams, Imax of overall flavour significantly increased with salt content (from 3.5% to 5.5% average) (main effect of
salt F (16; 1) = 8.05, p = 0.012) probably due to the salting out phenomena (Fig. 3a). Moreover, the salt content also promoted the perceived intensity of cured flavour in Iberian-dry-cured hams (Imax)
(main effect of salt F (16;1) = 18.48, p = 0.000) (Fig. 3c) as well as in
Serrano dry-cured ones (AreaTse) (main effect of salt F (24;1) = 5.28,
42
p = 0.030) (Fig. 3d). Persistence (Tend) of cured flavour in Serrano drycured hams also significantly increased with salt content (main effect of
salt F (24;1) = 5.45, p = 0.029) (Fig. 3e). These results revealed a role of
NaCl as enhancer of certain flavour attributes. Similar results have been
previously reported in flavoured model systems (Ventanas, Mustonen,
Puolanne & Tuorila, 2010) and bologna sausages (Ventanas, Puolanne,
et al., 2010). NaCl is likely to increase the volatility of the most hydrophobic compound by decreasing the water molecules available for its
solubilisation (Rabe, Krings & Berger, 2003; Salles, 2006). Moreover,
meat proteins are able to bind volatile compounds (Pérez-Juan, Flores
& Toldrá, 2008) and NaCl reduces this ability by modifying the polarity
of surface proteins (Ruusunen, Simolin & Puolanne, 2001) and by causing protein denaturation (Pérez-Juan et al., 2008).
In Iberian dry-cured hams, the maximum slope measured in the increasing phase (SIMInc) of overall flavour significantly decreased with
salt content (main effect of salt F (16;1) = 11.91, p = 0.003) and this
effect was more evident at high fat levels (Fig. 3b). Therefore, increasing
the level of NaCl involved a slower perception of the overall flavour of
hams which was potentiated by the presence of high levels of IMF
(16% average). Fat could act as a physico-chemical barrier and hence,
Fig. 2. Assesor (a), product (b), replicate (c) and assesor* product (d) effect of panel performance. The attributes are juiciness (A), hardness (B), fibrousness (C), overall flavour (D), saltiness (E) and cured flavour (F).
43
Fig. 2 (continued).
retard the diffusion of flavour compounds from the food matrix to the
saliva phase. Additionally, salt could favour the formation of fat/water
emulsions that may retain flavour compounds inside the water phase
(Phan et al., 2008). The global structure of the mixture of food with saliva and its evolution during the in-mouth process affects the release of
flavour compounds and the corresponding perception phenomena
(Phan et al., 2008).
Surprisingly, the intensity (main effect of IMF, Imax: F (16;1) =
25.42, p = 0.001; and AreaTse: F(16;1) = 74.52, p = 0.000) and the
persistence (main effect of IMF, DurPl: F(16;1) = 8.61, p = 0.010; and
Tend: F(16;1) = 37.28, p = 0.000) of the dynamic perception of saltiness in Iberian dry-cured hams were significantly affected by IMF but
not by the salt content (Fig. 4a, b, c and d). In Iberian dry-cured hams
containing an IMF level from 8 to 16%, variations in the salt content
from 3.5 to 5.5% did not have any marked impact on saltines perception,
particularly at the highest IMF levels. The suppression effect of IMF on
dynamic perception of saltiness was more evident than the potential
enhancer effect of NaCl content. Therefore, considering the present results, at levels of IMF between 8 and 16% in Iberian dry-cured hams,
NaCl content may be reduced from 5.5 to 3.5% in the final product
44
Table 1
Levels of salt and intramuscular fat (IMF) tested in the different treatments of Iberian and
Serrano dry-cured ham samples. HS (high salt), LS (low salt), HF (high fat), LF (low fat).
Iberian
LS–LF
LS–HF
HS–LF
HS–HF
Table 3
Fatty acid profile (%) of Iberian and Serrano dry-cured hams. Values presented as mean in
percentage ± SD.
Serrano
Dry-cured ham number
Salt (%)
IMF (%)
Salt (%)
IMF (%)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
4.15
4.27
4.32
4.03
4.15
–
–
3.51
3.92
4.26
3.90
4.15
–
–
5.32
4.60
4.85
5.34
5.03
–
–
5.26
4.79
4.85
4.44
4.44
–
–
8.87
11.50
11.47
10.73
10.89
–
–
15.69
15.52
13.43
14.49
13.01
–
–
9.51
10.88
9.61
9.23
10.99
–
–
12.75
12.74
13.86
12.76
16.62
–
–
3.75
4.08
3.41
3.86
4.34
3.54
3.35
4.28
4.30
3.21
3.35
3.32
3.97
4.15
5.34
4.53
5.29
4.53
4.75
6.77
5.20
4.36
4.96
4.68
4.64
5.24
5.13
5.84
4.70
4.77
4.65
6.54
5.21
6.27
6.52
7.71
7.42
7.56
9.91
9.70
12.47
10.86
6.56
6.34
4.06
4.50
5.60
2.28
4.31
7.32
6.74
6.86
7.19
10.98
9.20
10.95
without almost modifying the saltiness perception regarding both its intensity and persistence. According to previous studies (Emrick et al.,
2005; Lynch et al, 1993), samples with higher fat levels would leave a
higher oily coating in mouth during mastication and as a consequence
it would difficult the complete salt solubilisation in saliva masking
saltiness perception. Saltiness perception is mainly governed by sodium
release from the food matrix since this event determines sodium
concentration in saliva after product mastication (Chabanet, Tarrega,
Septier, Siret & Salles, 2013). The higher the fat content, the lower the
mass transfer of sodium in food matrix and thus the lower the sodium
release. Recently, Chabanet et al. (2013) reported that the higher the
fat content in chicken sausages, the lower the level of sodium release
with this effect remaining significant even though the product was no
longer present in the mouth. Fat could act as a sodium barrier in the
food matrix to slow its diffusion into the saliva phase, or it could favour
the formation of emulsion fat/water retaining salt inside the water
phase (Phan et al., 2008). In addition, sodium release seemed to be
C14:0
C16:0
C18:0
C18:1
C18:2
Σ AGS
Σ MUFA
Σ PUFA
Iberian
Serrano
p
t
1.42 ± 0.28
29.29 ± 3.34
10.50 ± 0.77
45.84 ± 3.60
6.21 ± 0.80
41.76 ± 3.90
50.70 ± 3.58
7.52 ± 1.07
1.41 ± 0.34
25.83 ± 2.15
12.05 ± 1.13
41.34 ± 2.70
10.97 ± 3.29
41.16 ± 2.82
45.59 ± 2.86
13.34 ± 4.11
n.s.
***
***
***
***
n.s.
***
***
0.045
4.343
−5.385
4.937
−6.462
0.611
5.495
−6.295
***p b 0.001.
influenced by other events as the salivary flow rate and masticatory performance since food matrix should be broken to release sodium chloride
in the mouth. The harder the food, the more mastication events are required (Jack, Piggot & Paterson, 1995). Otherwise Bult, De Wijk and
Hummel (2007) hypothesised that fat acts on taste receptors as the micromolar level through the interaction of free fatty acids with taste buds
acting as gustatory stimuli. In humans, the threshold value for saltiness
in a chloride solution has been seen to increase when long-chain fatty
acids were added (Mattes, 2007).
In the case of Serrano dry-cured hams, saltiness intensity (AreaTse)
significantly increased with the salt content (from 3% to 6% average)
(main effect of salt F (24;1) = 7.99, p = 0.0093) and the persistence
(Tend) of this attribute was affected by both the IMF (main effect of
IMF F(24;1) = 7.26, p = 0.0126) and the salt content (main effect of
salt F(24;1) = 4.80, p = 0.0383), increasing with both factors. This
effect was more evident in samples with the highest IMF content
(Fig. 4e and f). Increasing the IMF in these hams would have led to a
slower release of compounds related with saltiness, mainly NaCl. Similarly, Ventanas, Mustonen, et al. (2010), Ventanas, Puolanne, et al.
(2010) reported that loss of temporal saltiness perception in cooked bologna type sausages was slower in high-fat samples. Compared to Iberian dry-cured hams, the suppression effect of fat on saltiness in Serrano
hams was not so marked which could be attributed to the differences in
the IMF content and composition. Overall, the amount of IMF in Serrano
dry-cured hams was lower compared to Iberian ones and thus the
masking effect of fat on saltiness perception was not enough to hinder
the enhancer effect of increasing the salt content. Moreover, perceptual
interactions between texture and saltiness could have taken place since
the fatty acid profile of both dry-cured hams was different (Table 3)
which may have contributed to a different texture perception.
Regarding temporal perception of rancid flavour in Iberian drycured hams, persistence of the maximum intensity (DurPl) was the
only TI parameter significantly influenced by fat content (main effect
of fat F(16;1) = 5.25, p = 0.0358). Increasing the fat content was linked
Table 2
Proximate chemical composition of the different Iberian and Serrano dry-cured ham treatments: HS (high salt), LS (low salt), HF (high fat), LF (low fat). Results are expressed as % (means ± SD).
Iberian
Moisture
IMF
Chloride content
Chloride content
(D.M.)
Protein
Serrano
LS–LF
LS–HF
HS–LF
HS–HF
p
LS–LF
LS–HF
HS–LF
HS–HF
p
40.84 ± 1.91a
10.62 ± 1.36b
4.38 ± 0.48ab
7.40 ± 0.73ab
37.73 ± 1.70b
14.31 ± 1.17a
3.99 ± 0.23b
6.29 ± 0.47b
39.41 ± 0.92ab
10.67 ± 1.17b
4.92 ± 0.23a
8.09 ± 0.50a
38.01 ± 1.99ab
13.75 ± 1.68a
4.76 ± 0.34a
7.67 ± 0.62a
⁎
⁎⁎⁎
⁎⁎
⁎⁎
48.43 ± 2.45
5.52 ± .1.12b
3.76 ± 1.69b
7.31 ± 0.86b
46.57 ± 2.33
9.38 ± 3.19a
3.80 ± 1.67b
7.09 ± 0.79b
48.39 ± 2.51
4.81 ± 1.16b
5.20 ± 0.96a
10.05 ± 1.14a
44.59 ± 3.56
8.46 ± 2.24a
4.98 ± 0.99a
9.00 ± 0.86a
n.s.
⁎⁎⁎
⁎⁎⁎
⁎⁎⁎
39.26 ± 1.28
39.53 ± 0.87
39.88 ± 0.67
39.72 ± 1.19
n.s.
37.81 ± 3.00
36.20 ± 1.55
36.80 ± 2.43
36.79 ± 1.76
n.s.
Different letters within the same row denote significant differences between means at p b 0.05.
⁎ p b 0.05.
⁎⁎ p b 0.01.
⁎⁎⁎ p b 0.001.
45
a) Maximum intensity (Imax)
b) Maximum slope measured in the increasing phase of the curve (SIMInc)
c) Maximum intensity (Imax)
d) Area under the curve (AreaTse)
e) Persistence (Tend)
Fig. 3. Response surface of salt and fat content on overall (a and b) and cured (c) flavour of Iberian and cured flavour (d and e) of Serrano dry-cured ham.
to a more persistent rancid flavour particularly in samples containing
the highest levels of salt (Fig. 5a). The promotion of formation of rancid
flavours as hexanal associated to lipid oxidation could explain these results as lipids and salt act as precursors and enhancer of these reactions,
respectively. The levels of hexanal reported in Iberian dry-cured hams is
commonly higher than in other dry-cured hams (Ruiz et al, 2002). It
could be hypothesised that this may lead to unacceptable rancidity
notes, but conversely, rancid levels in dry cured Iberian hams are perfectly acceptable for consumers probably due to the presence of many
other compounds showing a great variety of flavours (Ruiz et al,
2002). These results are in disagreement with those reported by
Fuentes et al. (2013), who found a lower persistence of cured flavour
in dry-cured hams with higher IMF content, explaining those results
due to a higher retention of non-polar compounds derived from lipid
oxidation by the IMF.
3.2.2. Texture
Salt content significantly influenced temporal perception of texture
attributes evaluated in both Iberian and Serrano dry-cured hams although this effect was less marked compared to the obtained results
for flavour attributes. In fact, statistical analyses only revealed a significant effect of salt content on Imax of hardness in Iberian dry-cured hams
(main effect of salt F(16;1) = 10.65, p = 0.0049) (Fig. 5b). Several authors (Sárraga, Gil, Arnau, Monfort, & Cussó, 1989; Toldrá, Flores, &
Sanz, 1997; Andrés et al., 2004) have reported a suppression effect of
salt on the intensity perception of certain texture traits. The lower
46
a) Maximum intensity (Imax)
c) Area under the curve (AreaTse)
e) Area under the curve (AreaTse)
b) Duration of the phase plate (DurPl)
d) Persistence (Tend)
f) Persistence (Tend)
Fig. 4. Response surface of salt and fat content on saltiness of Iberian (a, b, c and d) and Serrano (e and f) dry-cured ham.
protease activity related to higher salt levels (Sárraga et al., 1989) would
partly explain the present results. Moreover, according to Hidalgo and
Zamora (2001), the formation of some oxidized lipid/amino acid reaction products also inhibits proteolytic activity. Salt is a known prooxidant in meat products (Bess et al., 2013) and for that reason it is plausible that protein oxidation promoted by salt content caused an increase
of hardness and loss of juiciness in dry-cured hams through the loss of
protein solubility and the formation of cross-links between proteins
(Fuentes et al., 2010). Specific carbonyl compounds generated from protein oxidation are involved in cross-linking of damaged proteins via
Schiff base formation (Estévez, Killy, Puolanne, Kivikari & Heinonen,
2008). Schiff bases are generated as a result of reactions between lipid
oxidation products (aldehydes) and amino groups from the side chain
of proteins (Estévez et al., 2008).
Although we did not found a significant effect of the IMF content on
dynamic perception of texture attributes, Fuentes et al. (2013) found
that the dynamic perception of hardness (intensity and persistence)
was positively affected by the IMF content of dry-cured ham samples
(IMF: 14.58% ± 0.62 analysed in the Biceps femoris muscle). Moreover
Ruiz et al. (2000) found a positive relationship of IMF with juiciness
but negatively with dryness, hardness and fibrousness in dry-cured
hams.
3.3. Principal component analysis
PCA was carried using the sensory data obtained from TI analysis
(Imax and Tend values of flavour and texture attributes) of all evaluated
dry-cured ham samples (Fig. 6). The first two principal components
a) Duration of the phase plate (DurPl)
47
b) Maximum intensity (Imax)
Fig. 5. Response surface of salt and fat content on rancid flavour (a-DurPl) and hardness (b-Imax) of Iberian dry-cured hams.
accounted the 42.25% of the total variance (18.83% for the PC1 and
24.42% for the PC2) (Fig. 6). Time–intensity parameters related to intensity (Imax) and persistence (Tend) of flavour attributes including saltiness are located at the right side of the PC2 plot whereas the same TI
parameters of texture attributes are located at the left side of the PC2.
Imax and Tend of saltiness, cured flavour and overall flavour were
defined with higher loadings for PC1 compared to PC2. PC2 is mainly defined by temporal perception of hardness and fibrousness with positive
loadings and by Imax of juiciness with negative loadings. The projection
of the samples onto the PC space revealed not a clear discrimination between the studied dry-cured ham samples.
4. Conclusions
Due to consumer's health concerns, reduction in the IMF and salt
content in dry-cured hams have turned into a goal for the industry.
Modifying these two factors without affecting particular sensory properties of these products is a major challenge. The present study reveals
that, unlike flavour attributes, the dynamic sensory perception of texture is not affected by salt and IMF content. In the present study, results
indicate that the reduction of salt content from 5.5 to 3.5% in the final
product seems not to modify dynamic saltiness perception in Iberian
dry-cured hams containing an IMF levels between 8 and 16%. Keeping
Fig. 6. Principal component analysis (PCA): projection of the samples (Iberian and Serrano) and TI parameters (Imax and Tend) onto the space defined by the two principal components.
Bold font style represents Iberian samples and normal font style Serrano samples.
48
unalterable the saltiness perception is important for the industry since
consumers expect to perceive this attribute when they taste these
products.
Acknowledgements
Laura Lorido thanks the Government of Extremadura for the FPI
grant (PD10025). This study was supported by the project entitled
“Optimización y control de la calidad tecnológica, nutricional y
organoléptica del jamón serrano e ibérico” (CLASHAM-RTA-201000029-C04-03) funded by INIA (Instituto de Investigaciones Agrarias y
Alimentarias). Mario Estévez thanks the Spanish Ministry of Science
and Innovation for the contract through the “Ramón y Cajal (RYC2009-03901)” and the European Community for the economic support
from the Marie Curie Reintegration (ERG) Fellowship (PERG-GA-2009248959 — Pox-MEAT).
Authors gratefully thank all members of the sensory panel for their
participation.
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PAPER 3
LWT - Food Science and Technology 64 (2015) 1234e1242
LWT - Food Science and Technology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/lwt
Comparative study between Serrano and Iberian dry-cured hams in
relation to the application of high hydrostatic pressure and temporal
sensory perceptions
vez, Jesús Ventanas, Sonia Ventanas*
Laura Lorido, Mario Este
ceres, Spain
Animal Production and Food Science Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Avd/Universidad s.n, Ca
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 27 April 2015
Received in revised form
7 July 2015
Accepted 12 July 2015
Available online 14 July 2015
The present study aimed to evaluate the influence of high hydrostatic pressure (HPP) treatment on the
sensory characteristics of two different types of dry-cured hams (Iberian and Serrano) on the perception
of their sensory characteristics using static (quantitative descriptive analysis) and a dynamic (time
eintensity) sensory methods. Differences in the temporal sensory perception of Iberian and Serrano drycured hams were originally found. Significant differences in the appearance profile and temporal
perception of flavour were detected between Iberian and Serrano dry-cured hams. The effect of the HHP
treatment was mainly observed on certain flavour attributes such as saltiness and cured flavour and
texture attributes such as fibrousness and pastiness. The application of this technology on intact samples
seems to alleviate the negative impact of HHP on the sensory properties of dry-cured ham.
Keywords:
Sensory evaluation
Timeeintensity
High hydrostatic pressure
Dry-cured hams
1. Introduction
During centuries, dry-cured hams have been elaborated in Spain
and other Mediterranean countries as a method of pork meat
preservation by means of salting and dehydration processes.
Nowadays, in Spain, two types of dry-cured hams are produced and
consumed, Serrano and Iberian dry-cured hams. The main differences between both types of dry-cured hams are i) the pig breed
(industrial genotypes for Serrano dry-cured hams and Iberian or
Iberian Duroc pigs for Iberian dry-cured hams) (Reglamento (CE)
2419/99; BOE, Real Decreto 4/2014) and ii) the processing condivez, 2005). These differences
tions (Ventanas, Ventanas, Ruiz, & Este
in both the raw material and the process conditions lead to a significant difference in the length of production: a minimum of 210
days for Serrano dry-cured hams and 600 days for Iberian drycured hams. Moreover, a high proportion of the Iberian dry-cured
hams are produced from pigs reared outdoors and fed on acorns,
grass and natural resources during the final fattening period (60
days average) in the so called “montanera” system (Reglamento
(CE) 2419/99; BOE, Real Decreto 4/2014). This rearing system allows obtaining a derived dry-cured product with particular and
* Corresponding author.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2015.07.029
0023-6438/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
appreciated sensory characteristics. As expected, the higher quality
of Iberian compared to Serrano dry-cured hams is also reflected in
the price of the final product (Ventanas et al., 2005).
High hydrostatic pressure (HHP) treatment subjects foods to
pressures between 500 and 600 MPa for 1e5 min inactivating the
microorganisms by affecting the molecular structure of chemical
compounds necessary for its metabolism (Rendueles et al., 2011).
HHP offers several advantages since it could be applicable to many
different food matrices and it is not a thermal process (5e12 C). It
has been widely applied in order to minimize microbiological risk
as the occurrence of Listeria monocytogenes in “ready to eat”
products (Rendueles et al., 2011). The effectiveness of the HHP has
been demonstrated in the microbiological quality of sliced and
packaged meat products such as dry-cured ham (Hereu, Bover-Cid,
Garriga, & Aymerich, 2012). Moreover, several authors have evaluated the impact of HHP on physico-chemical, nutritional and
sensory properties of both Iberian and Serrano dry-cured hams
vez, & Ventanas, 2010;
(Fuentes, Ventanas, Morcuende, Este
Clariana et al., 2011; Fulladosa, Sala, Gou, Garriga, & Arnau, 2012).
Overall, results from these studies revealed a decrease in the lean
colour intensity, pastiness and juiciness whereas hardness and
chewiness increased. It seems also that HPP potentiated the rancid
odour and saltiness of the evaluated dry-cured hams.
Dynamic sensory techniques as Time intensity (TI) have been
recently used to assess the sensory properties of meat products
L. Lorido et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 64 (2015) 1234e1242
from a temporal perspective (Ventanas, Puolanne, & Tuorila, 2010;
vez, & Ventanas, 2014). We have to
Fuentes et al., 2010; Lorido, Este
keep in mind that perception, mainly related with flavour and
texture attributes, is a dynamic phenomenon that is changing
during the process of food consumption. Therefore all sensory
methods that provide information about variations in the perception of sensory attributes along the time are closer to the reality
than static sensory methods which only provide information about
the perception of a sensory attribute in a point of time (Dijksterhuis
& Piggott, 2001).
In the present study, differences in the temporal perception of
flavour and texture of Serrano and Iberian dry-cured hams are
originally reported. Moreover, the effect of high hydrostatic pressure on this temporal perception is also evaluated.
1235
the surface of all dry-cured hams using a Minolta chromameter CR300 (Minolta Camera Corp., Meter Division, Ramsey, NJ). All measurements were made in triplicate on biceps femoris muscle. Three
colour indices were obtained: L* (lightness), a* (redness) and b*
(yellowness) values.
2.3.1. Assessors
Eleven trained panellists (six males and five females, range age:
26e54 years) with previous experience in sensory evaluation of
dry-cured hams, including TI technique, participated in the study.
All of them were staff at the University of Extremadura. The same
panel participated in the quantitative descriptive analysis and in
the Timeeintensity evaluations.
2.1. Experimental design
Fifteen Iberian and fifteen Serrano dry-cured hams, from thirty
different animals (50% Iberian Duroc and 50% Large-white Landrace, respectively), were produced at local processing plants
(Extremadura, Spain) in corresponding independent processing
batches. Two alike samples of 450 g were obtained from each ham
and packaged under vacuum. One of the samples was pressurized
at 600 MPa [pressurization time: 2.5 min; pressure holding time:
6 min; pressure release time: nearly instantaneous (<2 s) and
temperature of the pressurization water: 21 C]. The high-pressure
treatment was performed in a Wave 6000 equipment of 120 l (NC
Hyperbaric, Burgos, Spain). The other twin sample was kept as
control. The control and treated samples were stored under vacuum packaging in refrigeration conditions (2e3 C) for 5 months
until reception in our laboratory.
Fifteen dry-cured hams were analysed for chemical composition
in triplicate. Moisture content was determined by drying the
sample at 102 C for 24 h (AOAC, 2000). Total protein content was
analysed using the Kjeldahl method (AOAC, 2000). Fat content was
determined according to the method developed by Folch, Lees, and
Sloane Stanley (1957) and chloride content was analysed using the
Volhard method (AOAC, 2000).
Fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) were prepared by acidic-transesterification in the presence of sulphuric acid (5% sulphuric acid in
vez, 2007).
methanol) (Ventanas, Ventanas, Tovar, García, & Este
FAMEs were analysed by gas chromatography using a HewlettePackard HP-5890A gas chromatograph, equipped with an oncolumn injector and a flame ionization detector (FID), using a
polyethylene glycol capillary column (Supelcowax-10, Supelco,
Bellefonte, PA).
Instrumental evaluation of dry-cured hams texture was performed by the method described by Bourne (1978). The trial consisted of compress four cubes portions of each sample (15 mm side)
conditioned at 16 C for at least 60 min. They were compressed to
40% of its original thickness by a cylindrical plunger of 5 cm in
diameter at a 5 mm/s speed for two cycles, imitating mastication so
that texture parameters are extracted from a forceetime curve. In a
first movement cycle the plunger press and compresses the sample
and then return to their initial position and then the process was
repeated in a second movement. The determined parameters were:
hardness (N/cm2), cohesiveness (dimensionless), adhesiveness
(N sec), elasticity (cm), chewiness (N sec), gumminess (N/cm2)
and resilience (dimensionless).
Instrumental colour (CIE L*, a*, b*; CIE, 1976) was measured on
2.3.2. Quantitative descriptive analysis (QDA)
QDA was carried out over eight consecutive sessions to evaluate
the descriptors related to appearance, odour and tactile texture of
dry-cured ham samples. First, panellist revised and confirmed a
previous list of attributes characterizing the dry-cured ham samples according to previous studies carried out in similar samples
(Fuentes et al., 2010). After discussion the panel reached an
agreement and selected the following attributes for appearance: fat
colour intensity, fat brightness, red colour intensity, marbling and
lean brightness; for odour: overall, rancid and cured; and for tactile
texture: hardness and fat fluidity. Their verbal anchors were from
“less” to “more” for all attributes, except for fat colour intensity that
anchors were from “white” to “yellow”. Panellists were instructed
to evaluate first the appearance attributes followed by odour and
finally the tactile texture on a slice of dry-cured ham. An unstructured scale of 10 cm was used for rating the intensity of the selected
attributes. Evaluation of the 15 Iberian dry-cured hams samples
and 15 Serrano dry-cured hams samples was performed in 10
sessions (three samples per session) with the serving order of the
samples randomised according to the Williams Latin Square design.
Samples (a portion of 5 cm2 approximately) were served on glass
plates with a glass of water and a piece of unsalted cracker to follow
the rinsing protocol between samples. Evaluations took place in
individual booths under white fluorescence light. Data were
collected using the FIZZ software, 2.20C version (Sensory Analysis
and Computer Test Management) (Biosystemes, France, 2002).
2.3.3. Timeeintensity evaluations
The TI technique was used to evaluate the attributes related to
the temporal perception of flavour and oral texture. The studied
attributes were selected based on previous studies and were the
most common used attributes to describe sensory properties of dry
cured hams (Fuentes et al., 2010; Fuentes, Ventanas, Morcuende, &
Ventanas, 2013). Preliminary sessions for selection, training and
validation (6 h) following the procedure described by Lorido et al.
(2014) with some modifications were carried out. The following
attributes were chosen for TI evaluation and grouped in flavour
(overall flavour, saltiness, cured and rancid flavour) and texture
(juiciness, hardness, fibrousness and pastiness) attributes. Panellists rated one attribute at a time and all attributes were evaluated
for eleven panellists. Evaluation of the 15 Iberian dry-cured hams
samples and 15 Serrano dry-cured hams samples was performed in
10 sessions (three samples per session) with the serving order of
the samples randomised according to the Williams Latin Square
design. Protocol of samples evaluation by TI was previously
described by Fuentes et al. (2013). Time to swallow was fixed at 10 s
and the total time of evaluation was 120 s. Data were collected
using the FIZZ software, 2.20C version (Sensory Analysis and
Computer Test Management) (Biosystemes, France, 2002).
1236
Data from chemical composition, instrumental texture and
sensory analysis (QDA and TI) of Iberian and Serrano dry-cured
hams was analysed by two-way ANOVA using the effect of the
product (Iberian and Serrano) and the high hydrostatic pressure
treatment (Control, HHP) as main factors. Also a t-student test was
performed to evaluate the effect of HHP within each batch of drycured ham, Serrano and Iberian.
Data from individual TI curves of the evaluated attributes (11
assessors 3 repetitions ¼ 33 curves analysed) were analysed and
average TI- curves were computed for each attribute over eleven
assessors using FIZZ software. Four TI parameters were extracted
from TI curves: maximum intensity (Imax), standardized duration
of the phase plate (DurPI), area under the curve (AreaTse) and
standardized final time (Tend). Imax and AreaTse parameters were
extracted in order to evaluate the intensity of the attributes and the
DurPl and Tend parameters in order to evaluate de persistence of
the intensity.
A principal component analysis (PCA) was carried out with data
obtained from sensory analysis, physico-chemical analysis, fatty
acid profile and instrumental texture and colour. It was conducted
using the software XLSTAT 2014 for Windows.
was significantly higher in Iberian samples than in the Serrano
counterparts while no significant differences were found for rancid
and cured odours. Finally, tactile texture evaluation of fat samples
showed that Iberian fat was significantly more fluid and less hard
compared to Serrano fat.
Results of dynamic sensory evaluation (Timeeintensity) of
flavour and texture are presented in Table 3 and Figs. 3e8.
Regarding flavour attributes, Iberian samples displayed a significant
higher duration of the maximum Intensity (DurPl) of overall flavour
compared to Serrano dry-cured hams although the total persistence of this attribute (Tend) was significantly higher in Serrano
ones. These samples also displayed a higher intensity perception
(AreaTse) and persistence (Tend) of cured flavour (Fig. 5). For saltiness, Serrano samples were significantly rated by panellist as more
salty (higher Imax and AreaTse) and with a more persistent saltiness (Tend) compared to Iberian samples (Fig. 4). Dynamic evaluation of texture attributes revealed that Iberian samples were
juicier (Imax and AreaTse) than Serrano ones. The persistence of the
maximum intensity (DurPl) of juiciness and fibrousness were also
longer in Iberian dry-cured hams. Regarding hardness, although
panellist rated Serrano samples with higher Imax scores, the
plateau phase (DurPl) was longer in Iberian ones.
3. Results
3.2. Impact of HHP treatment
3.1. Iberian vs. Serrano dry-cured hams
Results revealed that the application of the HHP had no significant effect on any of the physico-chemical, fatty acid profile or
sensory properties evaluated by the static techniques (AQD)
(Tables 1e3). However, the instrumental colour of both Iberian and
Serrano dry-cured hams was affected by the HHP treatment,
increasing the parameters L* and b*. Regarding the b* values, this
effect was only found in Serrano samples to a significant extent
(p < 0.05).
The application of dynamic sensory techniques revealed the
influence of HHP treatment particularly on flavour attributes
(Table 3 and Figs. 3e5). The overall flavour was perceived as more
intense (Imax) in treated dry-cured hams. Persistence (Tend) of this
attribute was also significantly longer in treated samples at least for
Serrano dry-cured ones (p < 0.01). Moreover, HPP significantly
potentiated saltiness intensity perception and persistence as the
Imax and Tend parameters were significantly higher in treated
compared to control dry-cured ham samples regardless the type of
dry-cured ham evaluated (Table 3 and Fig. 4). Similar results to
saltiness were found for dynamic perception of cured flavour
particularly for Serrano dry-cured hams as treated samples displayed a longer and higher intensity perception for this attribute
compared to control ones (p < 0.05). Regarding texture attributes,
no significant effect of HPP treatment was found on dynamic
Table 1 shows the chemical composition of the four groups of
dry-cured hams. As expected, there were significant differences
(p < 0.001) in moisture, intramuscular fat (IMF) and protein content
between products (Iberian and Serrano dry-cured hams). Moreover,
significant differences (p < 0.01) were found in the fatty acid profile
(Table 1).
Similarly, analysis of instrumental texture (Table 2) revealed
significant differences between types of dry-cured ham, with
Serrano samples displaying the highest values for adhesiveness,
springiness, cohesiveness, gumminess, chewiness and resilience
(p < 0.001). Regarding the results of instrumental colour (Table 2),
Iberian dry-cured hams showed higher values for a* parameter,
whereas Serrano dry-cured hams displayed higher values for L* and
b* parameters.
Interesting results were obtained for the appearance (Fig. 1),
odour and tactile texture (Fig. 2) profiles of dry-cured hams obtained using the QDA. Visible fat of samples from Iberian dry-cured
hams was significantly rated yellower and brighter compared to fat
from Serrano samples. Moreover, Iberian samples displayed a lean
with a significantly more intense red colour, brightness and
marbling. Regarding odour attributes, the intensity of overall odour
Table 1
P
P
Main effect of HHP treatment (T) and product (P) on the physico-chemical composition and the fatty acid profile ( SFA: percentage of saturated fatty acids, MUFA: perP
centage of monounsaturated fatty acids, PUFA: percentage of polyunsaturated fatty acids) of Iberian (control: CT and treated: HP) and Serrano (control: CT and treated: HP)
dry-cured hams.
Iberian
pt*
CT
Moisture
IMF
Proteins
Salt
P
SFA
P
MUFA
P
PUFA
38.96
12.35
39.59
4.47
41.40
51.11
7.48
HP
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
1.97
2.23
0.97
0.49
2.51
2.13
1.02
38.97
12.33
39.60
4.44
41.73
51.31
6.95
Serrano
CT
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
1.88
2.29
0.94
0.51
2.64
2.41
1.19
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s
n.s
n.s
46.68
6.39
42.14
4.34
39.74
44.62
15.86
pt*
T
P
TxP
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s
n.s
n.s
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
***
***
***
n.s.
**
***
***
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
HP
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
2.59
2.14
2.37
0.82
1.44
2.62
3.53
46.70
6.54
42.11
4.43
39.29
44.89
16.00
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
2.20
2.18
1.82
0.83
1.35
2.59
3.60
CT (Control samples), HP (High Hydrostatic pressure treatment samples). IMF (Intramuscular Fat Content). SFA (saturated fatty acids), MUFA (monounsaturated fatty acid),
PUFA (polyunsaturated fatty acid). Significance level for HHP treatment effect (T), product effect (P) and T*P interaction: n.s.: non-significant, *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.
Pt*: significance level for treatment effect within each group of dry-cured hams (Iberian or Serrano).
1237
Table 2
Main effect of product (P) and HHP treatment (T) on the instrumental texture and colour of Iberian (control: CT and treated: HP) and Serrano (control: CT and treated: HP) drycured hams.
Iberian
pt*
CT
Hardness (N)
Adhesiviness (kg/s)
Springiness
Cohesiviness
Gumminess (kg)
Chewiness (kg)
Resilience
L
a
b
22.91
0.06
0.57
0.43
0.97
0.55
0.13
34.22
13.68
5.27
HP
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
6.21
0.02
0.08
0.05
0.26
0.17
0.03
1.39
1.28
0.83
24.78
0.08
0.55
0.42
1.04
0.61
0.14
36.04
13.88
5.75
Serrano
CT
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
5.80
0.03
0.10
0.06
0.24
0.21
0.02
1.38
1.11
0.83
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
**
n.s.
n.s.
pt*
T
P
TxP
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
***
n.s.
*
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
***
n.s.
**
n.s.
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
**
n.s.
n.s.
HP
26.17
0.04
0.66
0.52
1.36
0.92
0.16
43.21
11.49
11.95
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
7.60
0.02
0.06
0.03
0.40
0.30
0.02
1.91
1.57
1.51
25.84
0.04
0.63
0.50
1.31
0.85
0.17
48.03
11.16
13.31
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
7.45
0.01
0.06
0.04
0.42
0.29
0.03
2.89
1.48
1.82
CT (Control samples), HP (High Hydrostatic pressure treatment samples). Significance level for HHP treatment effect (T), product effect (P) and T*P interaction: n.s.: nonsignificant, *p < 0.05,**p < 0.01,***p < 0.001. Pt*: significance level for treatment effect within each group of dry-cured hams (Iberian or Serrano).
4. Discussion
4.1. Appearance
Fig. 1. Appearance profile of Iberian (control: IB-CT and treated: IB-HP) and Serrano
(control: SE-CT and treated: SE-HP) dry-cured hams.
Fig. 2. Odour and tactile texture profile of Iberian (control: IB-CT and treated: IB-HP)
and Serrano (control: SE-CT and treated: SE-HP) dry-cured hams.
perception of juiciness and hardness in any of the dry-cured hams
evaluated. Only fibrousness seemed to be affected by this technology as the persistence of the Imax (DurPl) was longer in treated
samples compared to control ones regardless the type of dry-cured
ham. Moreover, HPP significantly decreased the intensity of pastiness (AreaTse) in Serrano dry-cured hams (p < 0.01).
Consumers purchasing decision of dry-cured hams is mostly
affected by appearance attributes particularly when they are purchased as a sliced and vacuum-packed product. As previously reported, appearance profile showed marked differences between
Iberian and Serrano dry-cured hams. These differences may be
partly explained by differences in the chemical composition and
fatty acid profile. The higher IMF content of Iberian dry-cured ham
would explain the higher scores for marbling in these samples.
Similarly, Fuentes et al. (2013) also reported a positive relationship
between IMF content of dry-cured ham and appearance traits such
as lean brightness and marbling. Moreover, the brightness of both
the fat and the lean of dry-cured ham samples are dependent on
the fatty acid profile and particularly of the proportion of MUFA:
the higher the MUFA proportion, the higher the brightness (Ruiz,
s, & García, 2000). Accordingly, in the preVentanas, Cava, Andre
sent study, Iberian dry-cured samples showed a significant higher
MUFA proportion compared to Serrano ones, agreeing with the
higher scores for the related attributes found in these samples. On
the other hand, the more intense yellow colour of the fat in Iberian
dry-cured hams may be related to the length of processing that
allows the formation of polymeric coloured products derived from
oxidative and Maillard reactions (Carrapiso & García, 2005).
HHP is known to modify the colour properties of muscle
foods due to modifications of meat pigments and muscle strucbol, Gu
ture (Serra, Gre
ardia, Guerrero, Gou, & Masoliver, 2007).
Several authors have described a decrease in the lean colour
intensity and the brightness of sliced dry-cured ham subjected to
HPP treatment (Fuentes et al., 2010; Clariana et al., 2011;
Fulladosa et al., 2012) However, in the present study, no significant effect of HPP treatment on sensory results related to
appearance was observed in these samples. In the present study,
samples were whole intact pieces of dry-cured ham of 450 g
with 5 months of storage and were sliced just before the sensory
evaluation which could have minimized the potential effect of
HHP on appearance properties.
Regarding the results of the instrumental colour, HPP caused
changes in lightness (CIE L*-value) and yellowness (CIE b*-value).
The significant increase in lightness in Iberian and Serrano drycured hams (Table 2) could be explained by changes in the myofibrillar component leading to an increase in reflection of light
(Fulladosa et all., 2012). In contrast, no significant changes were
observed in redness (CIE a*-value). The protective action of nitric
oxide on myoglobin in cured meat products facilitates the
1238
Table 3
Time intensity parameters of flavour (a) and texture (b) attributes of profile of Iberian (control: CT and treated: HP) and Serrano (control: CT and treated: HP) dry-cured hams
(means ± SD): maximum intensity (Imax), final time (Tend), duration of the plateau phase (DurPI) and total area under the curve (AreaTse).
Iberian
pt*
CT
a)
Flavour
Overall
Imax
Tend
DurPl
AreaTse
Saltiness
Imax
Tend
DurPl
AreaTse
Cured
Imax
Tend
DurPl
AreaTse
Rancid
Imax
Tend
DurPl
AreaTse
b)
Texture
Juiciness
Imax
Tend
DurPl
AreaTse
Hardness
Imax
Tend
DurPl
AreaTse
Fibrousness
Imax
Tend
DurPl
AreaTse
Pastiness
Imax
Tend
DurPl
AreaTse
HP
Serrano
CT
pt*
T
P
TxP
HP
6.44
23.02
9.18
104.12
±
±
±
±
0.72
4.45
1.91
26.89
6.70
23.32
9.34
107.36
±
±
±
±
0.65
3.59
1.64
18.92
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
6.48
28.21
7.14
107.42
±
±
±
±
0.82
4.27
3.66
32.66
6.88
34.14
8.44
119.40
±
±
±
±
0.64
3.64
3.79
32.99
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
*
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
**
*
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
6.00
20.64
8.47
86.40
±
±
±
±
0.69
3.47
1.83
23.70
6.11
22.29
9.14
96.36
±
±
±
±
0.76
3.88
1.98
22.80
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
6.33
25.08
7.01
108.24
±
±
±
±
0.78
3.31
3.79
23.08
7.01
28.04
9.19
137.04
±
±
±
±
0.90
3.56
4.21
30.92
**
**
n.s.
**
*
**
n.s.
n.s.
***
***
n.s.
***
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
5.78
21.88
8.84
88.76
±
±
±
±
0.48
3.18
1.45
15.66
6.02
21.76
8.34
88.36
±
±
±
±
0.48
3.21
1.51
15.53
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
6.06
25.90
7.89
106.28
±
±
±
±
0.75
3.72
3.33
26.58
6.17
29.63
9.03
111.68
±
±
±
±
0.57
4.49
3.69
25.41
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
*
***
n.s.
***
n.s.
***
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
3.50
19.10
7.41
46.50
±
±
±
±
0.84
3.45
1.78
20.33
3.73
20.06
7.57
51.23
±
±
±
±
0.95
2.96
2.29
18.51
n.s
n.s
n.s.
n.s.
e
e
e
e
6.18
15.02
6.91
67.20
±
±
±
±
0.62
1.04
1.50
11.92
5.85
15.55
7.09
65.24
±
±
±
±
0.82
1.50
1.29
14.51
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
5.24
15.50
4.52
54.32
±
±
±
±
0.76
1.75
1.89
12.41
5.10
16.00
4.91
55.28
±
±
±
±
1.01
2.21
2.15
18.68
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s
n.s
n.s
n.s
***
n.s
***
***
n.s
n.s
n.s
n.s
3.04
13.23
5.66
29.04
±
±
±
±
0.93
1.39
1.45
10.68
3.13
12.76
5.73
28.44
±
±
±
±
0.83
1.04
1.02
8.73
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
3.37
12.90
3.86
27.80
±
±
±
±
1.09
2.01
2.31
12.00
3.80
13.99
4.04
32.08
±
±
±
±
0.79
4.89
2.13
9.49
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s
n.s
n.s
n.s
**
n.s
***
n.s
n.s
n.s
n.s
n.s
3.06
12.60
4.78
26.28
±
±
±
±
0.73
1.29
1.35
9.43
3.61
13.05
5.29
33.32
±
±
±
±
0.88
0.97
1.44
10.84
*
n.s.
n.s.
*
3.24
12.97
3.86
27.32
±
±
±
±
0.71
1.96
2.11
9.31
3.93
13.25
4.26
36.00
±
±
±
±
0.86
1.52
1.96
12.72
**
n.s.
n.s.
**
***
n.s
n.s
***
n.s
n.s
**
n.s
n.s
n.s
n.s
n.s
4.10
14.10
4.56
43.13
±
±
±
±
1.34
2.90
2.82
9.97
3.61
13.48
3.95
34.24
±
±
±
±
0.83
2.05
2.38
7.45
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
**
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
Significance level for HHP treatment effect (T), product effect (P) and T*P interaction: n.s.: non-significant, *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001. Pt*: significance level for
treatment effect within each group of dry-cured hams (Iberian or Serrano).
Fig. 3. Average timeeintensity curves for overall flavour of Iberian (control: IB-CT and
treated: IB-HP) and Serrano (control: SE-CT and treated: SE-HP) dry-cured hams.
Fig. 4. Average time intensity curves for saltiness of Iberian (control: IB-CT and
1239
Fig. 5. Average time intensity curves for cured flavour of Iberian (control: IB-CT and
Fig. 8. Average time intensity curves for fibrousness of Iberian (control: IB-CT and
Fig. 6. Average time intensity curves for juiciness of Iberian (control: IB-CT and
Fig. 7. Average time intensity curves for hardness of Iberian (control: IB-CT and
preservation of the colour of these products (Carlez, VecianaNogues, & Cheftel, 1995; Farkas et al., 2002).
4.2. Texture
In the present study, different techniques have been applied to
evaluate the texture of samples. Differences in the IMF and moisture content between Iberian and Serrano dry-cured hams would
explain the texture results particularly for those related to juiciness
and hardness. Sensory evaluation of hardness regardless the technique applied, static or dynamic, revealed that Iberian dry-cured
hams was perceived as less hard compared to Serrano ones.
Similar results were obtained for juiciness using TI. Several studies
in Iberian dry-cured hams have found a marked correlation between the IMF content and the juiciness and hardness of samples
(Ruiz et al., 2000; Ventanas et al., 2005). In the present study,
application of TI allowed showing that not only the intensity but
also the persistence of these attributes (DurPl) were different
depending of the type of dry-cured ham evaluated. Although Iberian dry-cured samples were perceived as juicier and less hard
compared to Serrano ones, the persistence of the maximum intensity (DurPl) for both attributes was longer in Iberian samples.
Not only the IMF but also the moisture content can contribute to
texture perception (Ventanas et al., 2005) particularly for hardness
and fibrousness. In fact, the Imax for both attributes was lower
compared to the Imax obtained for juiciness and thus it is probable
that the lower moisture content in Iberian samples have contributed to the longer persistence of hardness and fibrousness in these
samples compared to Serrano ones.
Previous studies devoted to the effect of HHP on sensory quality
of both sliced Iberian and Serrano dry-cured hams described that
this treatment increases the hardness and chewiness perception
but decreases the pastiness and the juiciness (Fuentes et al., 2010;
Clariana et al., 2011; Fulladosa et al., 2012). In the present study,
hardness and juiciness were not significantly affected by HPP
treatment while fibrousness intensity increased (Imax and AreaTse)
and pastiness decreased (AreaTse). In the reported studies, samples
subjected to HHP treatment were sliced dry-cured hams whereas in
the present study pieces of 450 g of dry-cured ham were used and
thus the potential effect of HPP could have been minimized. No
previous studies have reported similar results. The pastiness was
also evaluated in Serrano dry-cured hams. Application of HHP
treatment resulted in a decrease of pastiness (AreaTse) (p 0.01)
which has previously been reported by Fulladosa et al. (2012) but
not from a dynamic perspective as in the present study. According
to Cheftel and Culioli (1997) the changes in protein conformation
caused by HPP lead to changes in the distances of weak intra- and
intermolecular interactions, which include proteinewater interactions. Fulladosa et al. (2012) reported that this rearrangement
was responsible for the increase in hardness and as a result a
1240
decrease in pastiness in their studied hams. However in this study
we only observed a decrease in pastiness in Serrano dry-cured
hams.
4.3. Odour and flavour
Different routes of generation of volatile compounds contributing to odour and flavour of dry-cured hams have been proposed.
Some compounds are directly accumulated into the pig fat depots
from the feeding. However, most of them arise during the ripening
process. The main reactions resulting in aroma volatiles are the
oxidation of fatty acids and the Maillard reactions between compounds from lipid oxidation and nitrogen compounds (Ruiz, Muriel,
& Ventanas, 2002). Microbial formation of volatile aroma compounds in dry-cured hams should also be considered particularly in
Iberian hams since the mould and yeast population is considerably
& Flores, 1998).
higher than in Serrano ones (Toldra
In the present study, the static sensory technique (AQD) was
used to evaluate odour perception whereas perception of flavour
attributes was evaluated by TI. Among the odour attributes evaluated, overall odour received significantly higher scores in Iberian
compared to Serrano dry-cured hams. A higher intensity of odour is
often found in long-aged meat products such as Iberian ham (600
days) compared to Serrano dry-cured hams with a relatively short
ripening period (210 days).
No significant effect of HPP treatment was observed on odour
attributes. However, Clariana et al. (2011) found that sliced Serrano
dry-cured hams treated with 600 MPa for 6 min underwent a
decrease in odour intensity. Nevertheless, after 50 days of settling,
the samples showed a better retention of aroma compounds in the
sensory analysis. Therefore, as previously reported, the fact that the
samples from the present study were not sliced, would explain the
limited effect of HPP on the perception on certain odour attributes
as rancid and cured compared to the results described in similar
studies.
In general, dynamic sensory evaluation of flavour attributes
revealed that Serrano dry-cured hams showed a higher persistence
and intensity perception of overall flavour, saltiness and cured
flavour. These results could be explained by the differences in
chemical composition between both types of dry-cured hams,
particularly in the IMF content. Among the components of food, fat
is an essential part of the food matrix and therefore its content
affects both the sensory characteristics and the overall palatability
and acceptability (Ventanas et al., 2005). The mobility of the
compounds responsible for the flavour and taste is influenced by
the composition and structure of food matrix and the diffusion
coefficient of these compounds decreases with the fat content
, Saint-Eve, Loubens, De
le
ris, & Souchon, 2011). More(Panouille
over, the fat forms a film around the oral mucosa (tongue and
palate) limiting contact between flavour compounds and their receptors and that leads, in turn, to a lower perception of flavour and
taste (Lynch, Liu, Mela, & MacFie, 1993). Therefore, the lower IMF
content of Serrano samples compared to Iberian ones would have
contributed to the marked differences in the dynamic flavour
perception found in the present study.
On the other hand, the perceived intensity of overall flavour,
saltiness and cured flavour and also the persistence of saltiness
were promoted by the HHP treatment. Several studies have reported that HPP treatment enhances lipid and protein oxidative
reactions and thus the formation of derived volatile compounds
contributing to flavour perception, particularly overall and rancid
attributes. Moreover, HPP could induce changes in the interaction
between Na þ ions and proteins leaving these ions more accessible
which would lead to an increase of saltiness (Clariana et al., 2011).
The increase in saltiness perception with HPP was not related to an
increase in the salt content, since no differences in salt content with
HPP were found (Table 1). This increase in saltiness was higher in
Serrano hams probably due to their lower IMF content which may
have allowed the interaction between Na þ ions and the taste buds.
In fact, negative and significant correlations between TI parameters
related to saltiness intensity and IMF content (Pearson coefficient
for Imax saltiness*IMF ¼ 0.40, p < 0.05; for Area
saltines*IMF ¼ 0.40, p < 0.05) and saltiness persistence and IMF
content (Pearson coefficient for Tend saltiness*IMF ¼ 0.52,
p < 0.05) were obtained. Previous studies also reported an increase
in saltiness perception in dry-cured ham pressurized at 600 MPa
(Saccani, Parolari, Tanzi, & Rabbuti, 2004; Fulladosa et al., 2012).
The increase in saltiness due to the application of HPP treatment
could be beneficial in salt-reduced products because it makes them
more similar to traditional ones.
4.4. Principal component analysis
PCA was carried out using the data obtained from sensory
evaluation (QDA and TI) which showed a significant effect by
product and/or HPP treatment and the proximal chemical composition, fatty acid profile and instrumental texture and colour of all
evaluated dry-cured ham samples (Fig. 9). The first two principal
components accounted the 39.69% of the total variance (30.73% for
the PC1 and 8.96% for the PC2) (Fig. 9). Instrumental texture parameters (hardness, adhesiveness, springiness, cohesiveness,
gumminess, chewiness and resilience) and TI parameters related to
the intensity of perception and persistence of overall flavour (Imax
and Tend), saltiness (Imax, AreaTse and Tend), cured flavour
(AreaTse, Tend) and fibrousness (Imax and AreaTse) were located in
the right upper quadrant of the PCA (Fig. 9a). TI parameters of
saltiness and hardness were defined with higher loadings for PC1
compared to PC2. However cured flavour and juiciness were
defined with higher loadings for PC2 compared to PC1. Regarding
appearance and odour attributes (fat colour, fat brightness, fat
fluidity, tactile hardness, lean colour, marbling, lean brightness and
overall odour) were located in the upper left quadrant of the PCA
(Fig. 9a). Fat colour, brightness and fluidity, lean colour and
brightness, marbling, and overall odour showed higher loadings for
PC2 compared to PC1. Moreover, all evaluated attributes related to
fat (colour, brightness and fluidity) were located close to IMF content and MUFA proportion. Samples plot (Fig. 9b) showed a clear
discrimination between Iberian and Serrano dry-cured samples,
with Iberian ones mainly located at the left side and Serrano
samples at the right side of PC1. Serrano samples were the saltiest
(AreaTse and Imax) and displayed the higher intensity (AreaTse) for
cured flavour. Moreover these samples exhibited a longer perception (Tend) for the evaluated flavour attributes. Iberian samples
were associated with a high intensity (AreaTse, Imax) and persistence (DurPl) of juiciness. Finally, as expected, IMF and MUFA
characterized Iberian samples whereas Serrano ones are defined by
PUFA and moisture content.
5. Conclusions
High-pressure is a post-process technology commonly applied
to dry-cured ham. However, undesirable consequences on sensory
traits have been reported particularly on sliced dry-cured ham. The
treatment of intact vacuum samples (450 g) by HPP (600 MPa)
seems to minimize the impact of this technology on appearance,
odour and texture attributes. The occurrence of pastiness in drycured hams, particularly on Serrano ones, is a common defect
associated to salt reduction. In the present study, application of HPP
revealed an enhancer effect on dynamic perception of saltiness
whereas pastiness perception decreased. Therefore, HPP treatment
1241
P
Fig. 9. Principal component analysis (PCA) of sensory analysis (QDA and TI parameters), physic-chemical analysis (moisture, IMF, proteins and salt), fatty acid profile ( SFA,
P
P
MUFA and PUFA) and instrumental texture (hardness, adhesiveness, springiness, cohesiveness, gumminess, chewiness, resilience) and colour (L*, a* and b* values). Parameter
loadings (a) and factor scores (b) plots for the two first principal components.
could be considered as an alternative strategy to reduce pastiness in
salt reduced dry-cured hams in order to obtain healthier food
products with a high consumer acceptance.
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BOE. (2014). Real Decreto 4/2014, de 10 de enero, por el que se aprueba la norma de
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Bourne, M. C. (1978). Texture profile analysis. Food Technology, 33, 62e66.
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myoglobin of minced beef meat due to high pressure processing. LebensmittelWissenschaft und Technologie, 28(5), 528e538.
Cheftel, J. C., & Culioli, J. (1997). Effects of high pressure on meat: a review. Meat
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Clariana, M., Guerrero, L., Sa
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and purification of total lipids from animal tissues. The Journal of Biological
Chemistry, 226, 497e509.
vez, M., & Ventanas, S. (2010). Lipid and
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subjected to high hydrostatic pressure. Meat Science, 85(3), 506e514.
Fuentes, V., Ventanas, J., Morcuende, D., & Ventanas, S. (2013). Effect of intramuscular fat content and serving temperature on temporal sensory perception of
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Fulladosa, E., Sala, X., Gou, P., Garriga, M., & Arnau, J. (2012). K-lactate and high
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Hereu, A., Bover-Cid, S., Garriga, M., & Aymerich, T. (2012). High hydrostatic pressure and biopreservation of dry-cured ham to meet the food safety objectives
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vez, M., & Ventanas, S. (2014). A novel approach to assess temporal
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PAPER 4
Elsevier Editorial System(tm) for Meat
Science
Manuscript Draft
Manuscript Number:
Title: Reporting the sensory properties of dry-cured ham using a new
language: Time Intensity (TI) and Temporal Dominance of Sensations (TDS)
Article Type: Research Paper
Keywords: time-intensity-TI, temporal-dominance of sensation-TDS, salt,
feeding background, dry-cured hams.
Corresponding Author: Dr. Sonia Ventanas, Ph.D
Corresponding Author's Institution: University of Extremadura
First Author: Laura Lorido
Order of Authors: Laura Lorido; Joanne Hort; Mario Estévez; Sonia
Ventanas, Ph.D
Abstract: The present study aimed to evaluate the influence of salt
content (normal and reduced) and feeding system (montanera and
concentrate) on the dynamic sensory characteristics of dry-cured hams
using time-intensity (TI) and Temporal Dominance of Sensations (TDS)
techniques. Differences in the temporal sensory information given by the
two different techniques were found. Significant differences in the
temporal perception of flavour and texture were detected between normal
and reduced salt contend dry-cured hams which are a Spanish pricy meat
product very appreciated by consumers due to its particular sensory
characteristics. The effect of the feeding system was mainly observed on
flavour attributes such as saltiness and cured flavour and texture
attributes such as juiciness. The application of TDS technique to study
temporal sensory attributes of dry-cured ham is reported for the first
time in the present article.
Suggested Reviewers: David Labbe
[email protected]
Pascal Schlich
[email protected]
Fidel Toldra
[email protected]
Cover Letter
Dr. Sonia Ventanas Canillas
TECAL GROUP (IPROCAR INSTITUTE)
Avd/ Universidad s.n.
Caceres. 10003
University of Extremadura
Spain
Cáceres, 25th January 2016
Dear Editor,
Please, find enclosed the paper entitled: Reporting the sensory properties
of dry-cured ham using a new language: Time Intensity (TI) and Temporal
Dominance of Sensations (TDS). We hope the article is suitable for publication in
MEAT SCIENCE, we shall be pleased to receive any comment you or the
reviewers may make.
Yours sincerely
Dr. Sonia Ventanas
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*Manuscript
Click here to view linked References
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Reporting the sensory properties of dry-cured ham using a new language: Time
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Intensity (TI) and Temporal Dominance of Sensations (TDS)
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Laura Loridoa, Joanne Hortb, Mario Estéveza and Sonia Ventanasa*
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Institute of Meat and Meat Products (IPROCAR), University of Extremadura, Avd.
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Uviversidad s.n., Cáceres, Spain
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Sensory Science Centre, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus,
Loughborough, Leics LE12 5RD, United Kingdom
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*Corresponding author: [email protected]
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Abstract
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The present study aimed to evaluate the influence of salt content (normal and reduced)
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and feeding system (montanera and concentrate) on the dynamic sensory characteristics
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of dry-cured hams using time-intensity (TI) and Temporal Dominance of Sensations
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(TDS) techniques. Differences in the temporal sensory information given by the two
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different techniques were found. Significant differences in the temporal perception of
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flavour and texture were detected between normal and reduced salt contend dry-cured
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hams which are a Spanish pricy meat product very appreciated by consumers due to its
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particular sensory characteristics. The effect of the feeding system was mainly observed
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on flavour attributes such as saltiness and cured flavour and texture attributes such as
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juiciness. The application of TDS technique to study temporal sensory attributes of dry-
38
cured ham is reported for the first time in the present article.
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Keywords: time-intensity-TI, temporal-dominance of sensation-TDS, salt, feeding
background, dry-cured hams.
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1. Introduction
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Temporal sensory methodologies allow understanding of sensory perception during the
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process of food consumption as a dynamic phenomenon (Cliff & Heymann, 1993).
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Time intensity (TI) is a well-known method to record and obtain the intensity variations
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of one specific attribute over the time and it has been successfully applied to very
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different food matrices over the years including dairy products (Cadena & Bolini.,
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2011), beverages (Sokolowsky, Rosenberger & Fischer, 2015), and meat products
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(Lorido et al., 2014a). However, it is still not broadly used as a routine method mainly
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due to the time consuming training required and its overall cost depending on the
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products to be tested (Dijksterhuis & Piggott, 2001). Taking into account these
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disadvantages, some scientists have proposed alternative dynamic sensory methods to
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time intensity, such as temporal dominance of sensations (TDS). This technique was
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developed by Pineau et al. (2009) and allows simultaneous recording of several sensory
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attributes, providing a temporal sequence of attribute perception. More precisely,
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panellists identify the attribute perceived as “dominant” throughout food consumption.
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“Dominant” is defined as the sensation that captures one´s attention or the most striking
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perception but may not be necessarily the most intense one (Pineau et al., 2009).
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Recently, TI and TDS results have been compared in several studies where TDS
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dominance curves were ‘visually’ compared to TI curves (Pineau et al., 2009;
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Sokolowsky, Rosenberger & Fischer, 2015). Results were promising as TDS provided
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dynamic information of products in a faster way compared to TI and also provided
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additional information regarding the sequence of sensations whereas TI reported
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information regarding the temporal intensity perception of attributes.
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Iberian dry-cured hams are highly appreciated by consumers owing to their distinctive
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sensory features including intense cured flavor, moderate juiciness, and pleasant after3
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taste (Ventanas et al., 2005). Diverse quality categories are found in the market
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depending on the genetic and feeding background of the animals that is reflected in the
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sensory quality of the final product (Ventanas et al., 2005). Hams from pure-breed
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animals fed outdoors on natural resources (grass, acorns) are typically considered top
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quality. In Spain, meat products and particularly dry-cured ones are the main source of
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sodium to consumers, contributing to 26% of daily sodium chloride intake (AECOSAN,
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2013). Nowadays, the fact that dietary salt contributes to increased risk of high blood
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pressure
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(USDA/HHS, 2010; WHO, 2012). Nutritional guidelines strongly recommend a drastic
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reduction in sodium daily intake to less than 5 g/day to prevent health problems (WHO,
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2012). During the last decade, meat companies have developed different strategies in
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order to fulfil consumers’ demands regarding low salt meat products. However, sodium
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chloride (NaCl) acts as preservative of microbial growth and enables assorted
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technological processes including emulsification and gelation (Desmond, 2006). From a
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sensory perspective, salt increases the palatability of foods, enhancing overall flavour
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and contributing to texture properties (Andrés et al., 2003; Rabe, Krings & Berger,
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2003; Salles, 2006). Balancing the risk and rewards of salt reduction in terms of safety-
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technological aspects and sensory properties is required. Dry-cured hams have a sodium
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concentration of approximately 1200 mg/100 g limiting the suitability for their
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consumption by those sectors of the population that suffer from high blood pressure
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(Jiménez-Colmenero, Ventanas & Toldrá, 2010).
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In the present study, TDS was applied to dry-cured hams to investigate whether the
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TDS method provides value in obtaining relevant temporal sensory information
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compared to the TI technique. Hams were selected to provide four experimental sets
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consumers
increasingly
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concerned
about
food
formulation
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enabling the impact of salt content and breeding regime on temporal sensory properties
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of ham to be evaluated.
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2.1. Samples
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Twenty dry-cured hams derived from pure breed Iberian pigs fed on acorn and grass in
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the so called “montanera system” (BOE 2014, Real Decreto 4/2014) and twenty dry-
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cured hams derived from 50% Iberian x Duroc pigs fed on concentrate produced
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according to the Spanish Quality Standard (BOE 2014, Real Decreto 4/2014) were
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randomly selected from a local industry. A non-destructive method (Armenteros et al.,
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2014) was applied to assess the salt level of these hams and hence classify them into
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two groups according to salt content: normal and reduced.
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For the present study, four experimental groups of Iberian dry-cured hams (n=5) were
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considered based on a total factorial design: M-NS (dry-cured hams derived from
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Iberian pigs fed on acorn and grass outdoors with normal salt content: ~5.5%), M-RS
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(dry-cured hams derived from Iberian pigs fed on acorn and grass outdoors with
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reduced salt content: ~2.5%), C-NS (dry-cured hams derived from Iberian pigs fed on
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concentrate outdoors with normal salt content: ~6.5%). and C-RS (dry-cured hams
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derived from Iberian pigs fed on concentrate outdoors with reduced salt content: ~4%)
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The selected pieces were sliced using an automatic slicer Bizerba (TOINCA SL,
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Segovia, Spain) and packaged using thermoforming packaging (MULTIVAC Packaging
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Systems Spain SL). Samples were vacuum packaged (90 g) using a multilayer film
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(polyester, polyvinylidene chloride (PVdC-SARAN) and polyethylene, with an oxygen
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permeability <9 cm3 / m2 / 24h and water vapour permeability <4 g / m2 24h). Samples
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were preserved under refrigeration conditions in our laboratory until sensory evaluation
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(less than one week).
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Samples were analysed for chemical composition in triplicate. Moisture content was
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determined by drying the sample at 102 °C for 24 h (AOAC, 2012). Total protein
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content was analysed using the Kjeldahl method (AOAC, 2012). Fat content was
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determined according to the methodology described by Folch, Lees, & Sloane Stanley
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(1957). Chloride ion (Cl-) content was quantified using a potentiometric Ion-Selective
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electrode (Cl-ISE) (Orion TM Chloride Electrode, Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc.). The
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NaCl content was obtained according to the following formula:
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% NaCl = C x (58.5/35.5) x (0.21) x (100/10) x (1/Px10)
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Where C = Cl- content (ppm) and P= weight of the sample
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To obtain the sodium ion (Na+) content of food the NaCl content was divided by 2.5.
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Participants
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Eleven non-paid Spanish panellists (six males and five females, aged: 26–54 years) with
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previous experience in dynamic sensory evaluation participated in the study (training
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and evaluation sessions). All were staff at the University of Extremadura and regular
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consumers of dry-cured ham. The panel for TI analysis was identical to the one used for
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the TDS analysis.
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Time-intensity analysis
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All panel members participated in TI sessions carried out in previous studies (Fuentes et
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al., 2013; Lorido et al., 2014a). However, to ensure reliability and accuracy of the data,
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the panel attended a further three two-hour training sessions to generate flavour and
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texture attributes and to verify the use of attribute scales for the product range to be
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tested in this study. After panel discussion, the following attributes were selected for TI
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evaluations: saltiness (level of salt taste), cured flavour (intensity of the typical flavour
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from cured meat products), rancid flavour (intensity of the rancid flavour), hardness
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(effort required to bite through sample and to convert it to a swallowable state),
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juiciness (impression of lubricated food during chewing) and fibrousness (extent to
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which fibres are perceived during chewing).
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Evaluations (3 repetitions) of the four types of dry-cured hams were performed over 10
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sessions (two different samples per session) with the serving order of the samples
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between panellists presented according to a Williams Latin Square design.
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Samples (4 cm2 portion) were presented monadically, with 1 min between the products
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to ensure no carry-over effects. During TI evaluation of flavour attributes, the panellists
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were requested to swallow the samples at 10 seconds by a message displayed on the
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screen. During TI evaluation of texture attributes, the panellists swallowed the sample
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when they considered it was ready to swallow. Attributes were scored on a 10 cm non-
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structured vertical scale anchored with “not very intense” and “very intense”. Total time
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of TI evaluation was fixed at 120 seconds with a minimum at 30 seconds. Between
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samples, the panellists were required to follow the rinsing protocol, consisting of
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mineral water (Aguadoy, Spain) and a piece of unsalted cracker (Nogalitas, Argentina).
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All tests were conducted at room temperature (20ºC±1ºC) and in individual booths
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located in standardized sensory cabins (UNE-EN ISO 8589:2010). TI data were
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collected using FIZZ software (v 2.40A, Biosystemes France).
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Temporal dominance of sensations analysis
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TDS training
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The panel attended six one-hour training sessions as they had no previous experience
175
using TDS. Panellists were introduced to the notion of “dominant sensation” using the
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analogy of an orchestra playing music and some photographs in which there were
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elements that stood out above background image. The panellists were then trained to
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use the computerised TDS data capture system (FIZZ v 2.40A) by evaluating different
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products (chips potatoes, cooked sausages and dry-cured loins) (Lorido et al., 2014b)
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following the protocol described by Pineau et al. (2009). Panellists were required to put
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the product into the mouth and click on the start button for starting the evaluation. At 15
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seconds, panellists were requested to swallow the sample by a message displayed on the
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screen and continue their evaluation until no sensation was perceived. Then, they were
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instructed to click the stop button unless data acquisition had automatically stopped
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after 60 seconds. Panellists were asked to identify the sensation they perceived as
186
dominant while performing the tasting protocol. They were informed that they did not
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have to select all the attributes in the list and that they could choose the same attribute
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several times throughout the evaluation or conversely to never select an attribute as
189
dominant.
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Iberian dry-cured hams evaluation by TDS
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Evaluations (3 repetitions) of the four types of dry-cured hams were performed over 10
192
sessions (two different samples per session) with the serving order of the samples
193
between panellists presented according to a Williams Latin Square design.
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Samples (4 cm2 portion) were presented monadically, with 1 min between the products
195
to ensure no carry-over effects.
8
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The selected attributes for Iberian dry-cured ham evaluations by TDS were the same as
197
for TI: 3 flavour attributes (saltiness, cured and rancid flavour) and 3 texture attributes
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(hardness, juiciness and fibrousness).
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Each TDS attribute was represented by one button on the computer screen. The
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sequence of attribute buttons differed from judge to judge to compensate for possible
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order effects. However, each panellist had the same sequence of attributes in all sessions
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to facilitate button location. Sample tasting started by clicking the start button parallel to
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putting the dry-cured ham sample in the mouth at which point panellists were requested
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to click on the button representing the currently dominating oral sensation. Assessment
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stopped automatically after 60 seconds or individually by the judges, when attributes
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were no longer dominant.
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All the samples were swallowed at 25% of Stdtime (15 seconds). Unsalted crackers and
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filtered tap water were used as palate cleansers.
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Data analysis
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Data concerning the chemical composition of the Iberian dry-cured hams was analysed
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by two-way ANOVA using the effect of the feeding system (M vs C) and the salt
212
content (N vs R) as main factors. In addition, a student t-test was performed to evaluate
213
the effect of salt content within each group of dry-cured hams, M or C (Table 1).
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Data from individual TI curves of the evaluated attributes were analysed and average
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TI-curves were computed for each attribute over eleven assessors using the FIZZ
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software. As panellists rated one attribute at a time and all attributes were evaluated by
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eleven panellists, a total of 33 TI-curves (11 assessors x 3 repetitions) for each attribute
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were obtained for each sample. Four TI parameters were extracted from TI curves:
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maximum intensity (Imax), standardized duration of the phase plate (DurPI), area under
9
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the curve (AreaTse) and standardized final time (Tend). Imax and AreaTse parameters
221
were extracted in order to evaluate the intensity of the attributes and the DurPl and Tend
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parameters in order to evaluate de persistence of the intensity.
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TDS curves, whereby dominance rates are plotted against standardised time, were
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obtained for each attribute using FIZZ software. Each panellist’s time data was
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standardised to a score between 0 and 100, 0 representing when they clicked start and
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100 when they clicked stop or after 60 s when recording stopped automatically. Line
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based smoothing was applied on each curve (Figure 1). In order to facilitate the
228
interpretation of TDS curves, two other additional lines (chance and significance) are
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displayed on each TDS curve. The chance limit represents the dominance rate that an
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attribute can obtain by chance (P0= 1/number of attributes) (Pineau et al., 2009). The
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significance limit represents the smallest value of the proportion being significantly (p =
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0.05) higher than the chance level (Ps= P0+1.645[P0(1- P0)/n]1/2, n is the number of
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runs: judges x replicates). Two TDS parameters were extracted from TDS curves for
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each attribute: StdTime% (Time of first citation) and StdDuration% (Total duration of
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dominance over citations).
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A principal component analysis (PCA) was carried out (XLSTAT 2014, Addinsoft
237
SARL, Spain) with the data obtained from sensory analysis and physico-chemical
238
analyses.
239
Results and discussion
240
3.1 Physico-chemical composition
241
Table 1 shows the proximate chemical composition of the four groups of dry-cured
242
hams under study. Significant differences were found for the moisture, IMF and salt
243
content (p <0.05) between M and C dry-cured hams. Reduction of salt content was
10
244
achieved as significant differences were found for NaCl and Na+ content between RS
245
and NS samples in both M and C dry-cured hams. Na+ reduction was higher than 45%
246
regardless the type of dry-cured ham. The minimum percentage of salt reduction to
247
label a product as reduced sodium is 25% (Reglamento (CE) 1924/2006).
248
3.2. TDS vs TI
249
Average TI curves allowed comparison of the changes in intensity perception of the
250
selected attributes between the different dry-cured hams (Figure 1 and 2). TI parameters
251
results are shown in table 2. The average curves for the six attributes evaluated are
252
plotted on the same graph for each type of dry-cured ham: M-NS, M-RS, C-NS and C-
253
RS. Figures 1 and 2 show the average standardised TDS curves for each of the products
254
under study: (M-NS (a) and M-RS (b), C-NS (c) and C-RS (d)).
255
3.2.1. Salt content effect.
256
Graphically, average TI-curves (Figure 1) of M dry-cured hams were similar regardless
257
of the salt content (NS vs RS). In fact, no significant differences were found for TI
258
parameters of saltiness (Imax, Tend, DurPl and AreaTse), cured flavour (Imax, Tend,
259
DurPl and AreaTse), rancid flavour (Imax, Tend, DurPl and AreaTse), juiciness (Imax,
260
DurPl and AreaTse), hardness (Imax, Tend, DurPl and AreaTse) and fibrousness (Imax,
261
Tend, DurPl and AreaTse) between both types of dry-cured ham.
262
Hardness and fibrousness presented relatively lower intensity scores although the first
263
in-mouth impact in this kind of product is known to correspond to texture attributes due
264
to the first contact between the muscles fibres of dry-cured ham samples and the
265
structures of the mouth (tongue, palate) (Albert et al., 2012).
11
266
Cured flavour and saltiness presented relatively high intensity scores in both M-NS and
267
M-RS dry-cured hams (Figure 1).
268
Persistence of juiciness (Tend) was significantly higher in M-RS samples compared to
269
M-NS. Although a lower salt content could result in lower saliva stimulation (Ventanas,
270
Puolanne & Tuorila, 2010), in this kind of product juiciness are more influenced by the
271
fat content (sustained juiciness) (Ventanas et al., 2005).
272
TDS curves revealed some differences between M-NS and M-RS dry-cured hams
273
(Figure 1). In NS dry-cured samples, hardness and fibrousness were significantly
274
dominant perceptions at the beginning of the evaluation and before swallowing the
275
samples. As expected, saltiness showed a significantly (p<0.05) higher %StdDuration in
276
M-NS samples compared to M-RS ones (Table 3). The rancid flavour of M-NS samples
277
was significantly dominant in the after-taste period at around 40%-50% and 80%-85%
278
of standardized time with a % of dominance rate less than 30%. Cured favour and
279
juiciness of M-NS samples showed a % of dominance rate above 20% in the after
280
swallowing period but not to a significant extent. Therefore, in M-NS dry-cured hams,
281
saltiness was one of the most intense and the most dominant perceptions compared to
282
the other evaluated attributes. It was expected that saltiness would have a major role in
283
the intensity and dominant sensory sensations in this type of salted-dried product as
284
reflected by TI and TDS. Although cured flavour and juiciness were scored with
285
relatively high intensity values (TI curves) that was not enough to cause them to be
286
perceived as significantly dominant attributes. Salt can contribute to flavour perception
287
by increasing the volatility of aroma compounds thorough the salting out phenomenon
288
(Rabe, Krings & Berger, 2003). Considering the effect of aroma on taste perception, it
289
has been shown that aroma can increase the perception of taste: for example ‘meat’,
290
‘fish’, and ‘cheese’ notes enhanced saltiness (Lawrence, Salles, Septier, Busch, &
12
291
Thomas- Danguin, 2009; Nasri, Beno, Septier, Salles, & Thomas-Danguin, 2011) via
292
cross modal integration. Texture attributes such as hardness and fibrousness had similar
293
TI and TDS curves recording high relative intensity scores as well as being dominant at
294
the beginning of sample evaluation.
295
Regarding the TDS curves of M-RS dry-cured hams (Figure 1), hardness and
296
fibrousness were also the dominant attributes at the beginning of the evaluation period
297
but not to a significant extent. In this product, cured flavour was perceive as the first
298
significantly dominant sensation from 20% to 100% of Stdtime, with a maximum
299
dominance rate of about 35% at 75% of Stdtime. Saltiness appeared in the aftertaste
300
period as significantly dominant from 45% to 100% of Stdtime with a maximum
301
dominance rate of about 55%. Similarly to M-NS samples, the attributes that were
302
reported as intense (TI curves) did not match with those reported as the most dominant
303
(TDS curves). This supports the evidence that TI and TDS methods are not designed for
304
obtaining the same information. TI is suitable to carefully follow the intensity of one
305
specific attribute over time. However, when several attributes have to be compared and
306
recorded over time, the TDS methodology is a better option because the panellists really
307
have to make a choice when selecting a dominant attribute. According to the present
308
results, TDS is confirmed as a multi-attribute temporal method that accounts for
309
interactions among attributes, whereas TI focuses on the evolution of the intensity of
310
one attribute at a time (Le Révérend et al., 2008; Pineau et al., 2009).
311
Concerning C dry-cured hams, average TI-curves (Figure 2) were similar regardless of
312
the salt content (NS or RS). In fact, no significant differences were found for TI
313
parameters of saltiness (Imax, Tend, DurPl and AreaTse), cured flavour (Imax, Tend,
314
DurPl and AreaTse), rancid flavour (Imax, Tend, DurPl and AreaTse), juiciness (Imax,
13
315
Tend and AreaTse), hardness (Imax, Tend, DurPl and AreaTse) and fibrousness (Imax,
316
Tend, DurPl and AreaTse) between both types of dry-cured hams.
317
Saltiness, cured flavour and juiciness presented higher relative intensity scores.
318
Duration of maximum intensity of juiciness (DurPl) was significantly higher in C-RS
319
samples compared to C-NS. Regarding other texture attributes, hardness and
320
fibrousness were reported as not very intense.
321
TDS curves revealed some differences between C-NS and C-RS dry-cured hams (Figure
322
2). In C-NS samples, hardness was the first significantly dominant sensation followed
323
by saltiness which was perceived significantly dominant for most of the tasting period
324
(from the 12% to 100% of Stdtime), with a maximum dominance rate of about 75% at
325
100% of Stdtime. Juiciness and cured flavour appeared in the aftertaste period as
326
significantly dominant for 28% of the panel at 60%Stdtime for juiciness and
327
67%Stdtime for cured flavour. Therefore, in C-NS dry-cured hams saltiness was
328
reported as very intense and also the dominant perception compared to the other
329
evaluated attributes. However, cured flavour and juiciness were scored with high
330
intensity values (TI curves) and they were also perceived as significantly dominant
331
attributes during the aftertaste period. Hardness and fibrousness showed a significantly
332
higher %StdDuration (p<0.05) in C-NS samples compared to C-RS ones. (Table 3).
333
Accordingly, several authors have reported a protease activity suppression of salt
334
resulting in higher intensity perceptions of certain texture traits such as hardness and
335
fibrousness (Toldrá, Flores, & Sanz, 1997; Andrés et al., 2003).
336
TDS curves of C-RS dry-cured hams showed that hardness was perceived as the first
337
significantly dominant sensation followed by saltiness which was perceived as
338
dominant from the 25% to 100% of Stdtime, with a maximum dominance rate of about
14
339
50%. Cured flavour presented a significantly higher %StdDuration (p<0.01) in C-RS
340
samples compared to C-NS ones. This shows a possible masking effect of the saltiness
341
over other attributes when they are evaluated at the same time as in the TDS technique.
342
According to the reported results, it seems that salt reduction did not have a marked
343
effect on dynamic sensory perception for most of the studied attributes particularly in C
344
dry-cured ham samples. However, TDS methodology revealed more differences
345
between NS and RS content in the sequence of dominant attributes during sample
346
consumption compared to the information provided by TI analysis (dynamic intensity
347
perception).
348
3.2.2.
Feeding background effect
349
In regards to flavour attributes, M dry-cured hams displayed a significantly higher
350
intensity (Imax) (p < 0.05) and a higher persistence (Tend) (p<0.01) of cured flavour
351
compared to C ones (Table 2). The TDS technique also revealed a higher StdDuration%
352
of cured flavour (p<0.01) and rancid flavour (p < 0.05) in M samples (Table 3). These
353
differences are most likely due to the differences in fatty acid composition, derived from
354
the characteristics of the rearing conditions of the period prior to slaughter and the
355
subsequent chemical reactions occurring in meat lipids during ham processing
356
(Ventanas et al., 2007). It is generally accepted that flavour of Iberian hams and other
357
types of dry-cured meats strongly depends on the extent of lipid oxidation, the type of
358
generated volatile compounds and the salt content (Garcia et al., 1991; Buscailhon et al.,
359
1994; Ruiz et al., 1999). The higher lipid content in M dry-cured ham samples (Table 1)
360
would have also contributed to a higher level of volatiles derived from lipid oxidation
361
reactions enhancing particular flavour notes such as cured and rancid.
15
362
However C samples presented a higher StdDuration% of saltiness (p<0.01) compared to
363
M ones (Table 3). The higher salt content of C samples compared to M ones would have
364
contributed to these differences in the dominance of saltiness (Table 1). Although salt is
365
well recognized as a flavour enhancer, the persistent dominance of saltiness in C dry-
366
cured hams may have masked flavour attributes such as rancid and cured.
367
Dynamic evaluation of texture attributes revealed that M samples were juicier (Imax,
368
p<0.01) (AreaTse, p < 0.05) but also presented a more persistent (Tend, p<0.01)
369
hardness compared to C ones (Table 2). Moisture and fat content contribute to hardness
370
and juiciness perception in meat and meat products (Cameron & Enser, 1991; Lawrie,
371
1996; Wood et al., 1996). In the present study, dry-cured hams from M pigs contained
372
higher intramuscular fat and less moisture than hams from pigs fed on cereal-based
373
concentrate (Table 1). The higher IMF content contributes to the higher perception of
374
juiciness in these samples (Ventanas et al., 2005). The more persistent hardness in
375
montanera samples could be explained by factors related to protein oxidation taking into
376
account previous studies that have seen this effect (Estevez, 2011). However, in the
377
present study parameters of protein oxidation were not evaluated.
378
379
Principal component analysis: PCA
380
PCA was carried out using the data obtained from sensory evaluation (TI and TDS
381
parameters) and the proximal chemical composition of all evaluated dry-cured ham
382
samples (Figure 3). The first two principal components accounted the 40.70% of the
383
total variance (17.29% for the PC1 and 23.42% for the PC2) (Figure 3).
384
TI parameters related to the intensity of perception and persistence (Imax and Tend) and
385
TDS parameters related to the duration of the dominance (%StdDuration) of cured
386
flavour and juiciness were located in the right upper quadrant of the PCA (Figure 3a).
16
387
However, TI parameters related to the intensity of perception and persistence (Imax and
388
Tend) of hardness, fibrousness, saltiness and rancid flavour were located in the left
389
upper quadrant of the PCA correlated with the salt content. Persistence of juiciness and
390
IMF content were located in the right bottom quadrant of the PCA. Finally,
391
%StdDuration of hardness and fibrousness along with moisture content were located in
392
the left bottom quadrant of the PCA.
393
The samples plot (Figure 3b) showed a clear discrimination between M-RS dry-cured
394
samples located at the right side of PC1 and C-NS ones mainly located at the left
395
bottom quadrant. M-RS samples are associated with a higher intensity (Imax),
396
persistence (Tend) and dominance (%StdDuration) of cured flavour and juiciness.
397
Moreover, these samples presented a higher IMF content. C-NS samples are associated
398
with a longer dominance (%StdDuration) of hardness and fibrousness.
399
Conclusions
400
This paper presents the first application of the TDS method to evaluate Iberian dry-
401
cured hams. This methodology enabled curves of the dominance of each attribute over
402
time to be evaluated. TDS and TI methods globally provide coherent and
403
complementary results. However, this study shows that TDS supplied more valuable
404
information concerning temporal differences between the studied products. This could
405
be due to the fact that TDS is a descriptive multi-attribute methodology that deals with
406
the interactions among attributes and the process of choose dominant attributes during
407
food consumption which is some-what of a comparison process. TDS is following the
408
integration of all the attributes rather than one a time - the disadvantage of TI is that the
409
scales are not normally equal and so it is not possible to compare attributes. However,
410
TDS does not indicate why an attribute is dominant.
17
411
Furthermore, TDS is a less time-consuming which is important nowadays in the food
412
industry. In this work, we can observe that salt reduction results in a longer dominant
413
perception of the typical cured flavour found in this type of dry-cured products.
414
Therefore, this study indicates that it could be possible to reduce salt content without
415
reducing the sensory quality of dry-cured hams. But further consumer tests would be
416
needed to test that hypothesis. Nowadays people care more about their diet due to health
417
associated problems and for that reason reduced salt labelled dry-cured hams have the
418
potential to gain more popularity.
419
Acknowledgements
420
Laura Lorido thanks the Government of Extremadura for the FPI grant (PD10025). This
421
study was supported by the project “Programa FEDER-Innterconecta: Proyecto
422
Innterbiocured (referencias116/13, 117/13 y 118/13)” funded by “Centro para el
423
Desarrollo Tecnológico Industrial (CDTI)”. Mario Estévez thanks the Spanish Ministry
424
of Science and Innovation for the contract through the ―Ramón y Cajal (RYC-2009-
425
03901)‖ and the European Community for the economic support from the Marie Curie
426
Reintegration (ERG) Fellowship (PERG-GA-2009-248959 —Pox-MEAT).
427
Authors gratefully thank all members of the sensory panel for their participation.
428
429
430
18
431
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Table 1. Main effect of feed (P) and salt content (T) on the physico-chemical
537
composition of Iberian dry-cured hams.
538
Figure 1. TI/TDS curves of montanera raised dry-cured hams a) normal salt content and
539
b) reduced salt content.
540
Figure 2. TI/TDS curves of concentrate raised dry-cured hams a) normal salt content
541
and b) reduced salt content.
542
Table 2. Time intensity parameters of flavour (a) and texture (b) attributes of
543
Montanera (NS: normal salt and RS: reduced salt) and Concentrate (NS: normal salt and
544
RS: reduced salt) dry-cured hams (means ± SD): maximum intensity (Imax), final time
545
(Tend), duration of the plateau phase (DurPI) and total area under the curve (AreaTse).
546
Table 3. Temporal dominance parameters of flavour (a) and texture (b) attributes of
547
Montanera (NS: normal salt and RS: reduced salt) and Concentrate (NS: normal salt and
548
RS: reduced salt) dry-cured hams (means ± SD): maximum intensity (Imax), final time
549
(Tend), duration of the plateau phase (DurPI) and total area under the curve (AreaTse).
550
Figure 3. Principal component analysis (PCA) of sensory parameters (TI and TDS) and
551
physico-chemical analyses (moisture, IMF, proteins and salt). Parameter loadings (a)
552
and factor scores (b) plots for the two first principal components.
553
554
555
556
557
22
558
Table 1.
559
Montanera
NS
Pt
Concentrate
RS
NS
pt
T
P
TXP
RS
Moisture
39.14±2.32
40.10±2.36
n.s.
40.89±1.68
42.22±0.61
n.s.
n.s.
*
n.s.
IMF
12.96±1.79
16.22±1.36
*
13.05±2.02
10.78±1.74
n.s.
n.s.
**
**
Proteins
37.46±2.05
36.68±3.77
n.s.
38.60±0.55
37.86±0.98
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
Salt
5.17±0.53
2.83±0.40
***
5.95±0.24
3.20±0.43
***
***
**
n.s.
Na+
2.06±0.21
1.13±0.16
***
2.38±0.09
1.28±0.17
***
***
**
n.s.
560
Significance level for salt content (T), feed (P) and T*P interaction
561
n.s.:non-significant, *p<0.05,**p<0.01,***p<0.001.
23
Figure 1.
a)
Average TI curve
Normalized TDS curve
b)
Average TI curve
24
Figure 2.
a)
Average TI curve
10
Intenity (scores)
8
Saltiness
Cured flavour
Rancid flavour
Hardness
Juiciness
Fibrousness
6
4
2
0
0
5
10
15
Tiempo (seg)
20
25
30
b)
Average TI curve
10
Saltiness
8
Intensity (scores)
Cured flavour
Rancid flavour
6
Hardness
Juiciness
Fibrousness
4
2
25
0
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Table 2.
a)
Montanera
Concentrate
pt*
NS
RS
Imax
6.87 ± 1.06
7.22 ±1.54
Tend
26.04 ± 4.91
DurPl
pt*
T
P
TxP
NS
RS
n.s.
7.69 ± 1.25
6.67 ±0.82
n.s.
n.s
n.s
n.s
27.33 ± 3.58
n.s.
28.03 ± 3.37
26.36 ± 3.77
n.s.
n.s
n.s
n.s
7.30 ± 2.50
9.14 ± 1.69
n.s.
9.08 ± 2.74
7.24 ± 2.37
n.s.
n.s
n.s
n.s
116.80 ± 40.30
128.34 ± 44.41
n.s.
137.50 ± 40.67
109.60 ± 29.77
n.s.
n.s
n.s
n.s
Imax
7.46 ± 0.52
7.34 ± 0.61
n.s.
6.29 ± 0.65
6.97 ± 0.63
n.s.
n.s
*
n.s
Tend
28.48 ± 2.36
26.90 ± 2.08
n.s.
23.98 ± 2.58
25.78 ± 2.13
n.s.
n.s
**
n.s
DurPl
9.20 ± 0.60
9.35 ± 1.27
n.s.
8.78 ± 0.51
8.32 ± 1.34
n.s.
n.s
n.s
n.s
138.60 ± 15.42
134.97 ± 18.72
n.s.
100.75 ± 20.17
114.80 ± 21.53
n.s.
n.s
n.s
n.s
Imax
4.11 ± 0.93
3.27 ± 0.87
n.s
4.14 ± 1.53
3.43 ± 0.81
n.s.
n.s
n.s
n.s
Tend
19.48 ± 3.74
18.03 ± 2.37
n.s
19.20 ± 3.67
19.46 ± 2.61
n.s.
n.s
n.s
n.s
DurPl
5.74 ± 1.59
5.47 ± 0.92
n.s.
6.68 ± 2.34
5.46 ± 1.95
n.s.
n.s
n.s
n.s
51.40 ± 21.62
40.54 ± 15.91
n.s.
55.25 ± 27.28
42.80 ± 17.63
n.s.
n.s
n.s
n.s
Flavour
Saltiness
AreaTse
Cured
AreaTse
Rancid
AreaTse
26
b)
Montanera
Concentrate
pt*
pt*
T
P
n.s.
n.s
**
n.s
18.90 ± 1.16
n.s.
n.s
n.s
n.s
5.62 ± 1.20
6.90 ± 0.62
*
n.s
n.s
n.s
n.s.
65.75 ± 7.41
72.60 ± 7.57
n.s.
n.s
*
n.s
3.54 ± 0.35
n.s.
3.73 ± 0.65
3.96 ± 1.20
n.s.
n.s
n.s
n.s
15.24 ± 1.27
15.50 ± 0.69
n.s.
14.35 ± 0.70
13.94 ± 0.71
n.s.
n.s
**
n.s
5.54 ± 0.94
5.24 ± 1.34
n.s.
5.83 ± 0.25
5.50 ± 0.57
n.s.
n.s
n.s
n.s
43.00 ± 10.17
34.87 ± 6.56
n.s.
38.00 ± 6.98
38.00 ± 11.20
n.s.
n.s
n.s
n.s
Imax
4.36 ± 1.31
3.64 ± 0.59
n.s.
3.94 ± 0.49
4.83 ± 1.44
n.s.
n.s
n.s
n.s
Tend
15.24 ± 1.16
14.87 ± 1.27
n.s.
14.78 ± 1.08
15.04 ± 1.24
n.s.
n.s
n.s
n.s
DurPl
6.20 ± 0.68
5.22 ± 1.14
n.s.
6.40 ± 1.12
6.08 ± 0.99
n.s.
n.s
n.s
n.s
47.80 ± 15.96
37.97 ±8.30
n.s.
41.50 ± 5.80
51.00 ±19.04
n.s.
n.s
n.s
n.s
NS
RS
NS
RS
Imax
6.23 ± 0.42
6.50 ± 0.91
n.s.
5.19 ± 0.26
5.86 ± 0.61
Tend
18.60 ± 0.89
20.23 ± 1.44
*
18.48 ± 2.14
DurPl
6.38 ± 0.53
7.26 ± 2.03
n.s.
AreaTse
78.00 ± 4.80
89.69 ± 20.92
Imax
4.15 ± 1.10
Tend
DurPl
TxP
Texture
Juiciness
Hardness
AreaTse
Fibrousness
AreaTse
27
Table 3.
a)
Montanera
pt*
Concentrate
pt*
T
P
TxP
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
38.4±11.43
n.s.
n.s.
**
n.s.
40.2±12.75
25.6±5.32
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
*
n.s.
8.6±1.34
17.2±4.97
**
***
**
n.s.
29±8.24
n.s.
46.6±4.98
28±6.81
n.s.
***
n.s.
n.s.
12±3.80
n.s.
5.4±1.51
12.6±4.45
n.s.
n.s.
*
**
NS
RS
NS
RS
26.4±4.33
34±1.87
*
28.2±4.71
28±4.89
29±4.30
23.4±9.71
*
45.2±11.16
StdTime%
24.8±5.35
31.4±9.5
n.s.
StdDuration%
16.8±5.26
27±6.24
StdTime%
37.8±6.61
StdDuration%
14.6±2.70
Flavour
Saltiness
StdTime%
StdDuration%
Cured
Rancid
28
b)
Montanera
NS
pt*
RS
Concentrate
NS
pt*
RS
T
P
TxP
Texture
Hardness
StdTime%
5.2±1.48
12.4±3.20
n.s.
10±2.23
7±2.73
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
***
StdDuration%
3.4±2.07
5.4±2.88
n.s.
6.4±3.57
4.4±1.34
*
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
StdTime%
35.6±6.87
29.4±5.12
n.s.
37.2±7.29
34.6±8.73
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
StdDuration%
10±3.16
8.8±3.56
n.s.
10.8±4.14
7.4±2.88
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
StdTime%
19.2±3.27
16.6±6.46
n.s.
20.2±9.17
19±7.07
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
StdDuration%
6.4±1.14
4.6±1.67
n.s.
7.4±4.33
5.8±1.48
**
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
Juiciness
Fibrousness
29
Figure 3.
a)
30
b)
31
Highlights (for review)
HIGHLIGTHS
1. TI and TDS are arranged in dry-cured ham.
2. Differences in the information reported by both techniques are discussed.
3. Salt reduction modified temporal perception of dry-cured hams.
PAPER 5
Sensory characterization of dry-cured loins using Flash Profile and comparison
with dynamic sensory techniques: Time Intensity and Temporal Dominance of
Sensations
Laura Lorido, Mario Estévez and Sonia Ventanas*
Institute of Meat and Meat Products (IPROCAR), University of Extremadura,
Avd. Universidad, sn., Cáceres, Spain
*Corresponding autor: [email protected]
1
1. Introduction
For new meat product development, it is crucial to understand the consumer perception
of the food item (Grunert, Verbeke, Kugler, Saeed, & Scholderer, 2011). In addition, it
is important to perform the quantitative characterization of the sensory attributes of the
product, and this can be achieved using a trained panel (Cadena, Cruz, Faria, & Bolini,
2012). The limiting issue for food industries is related to the time required to train
several and different panels, in accordance with the products to be analysed. The
demand from the food industry of faster and cheaper sensory methods has led to the rise
in recent years of some quick descriptive sensory techniques allowing to obtain
descriptive profiles of the tested products without long and expensive panel training
(Varela and Ares, 2012; Valentin, Chollet, Lelièvre & Abdi, 2012). These novel
methodologies consist of valid, reliable, simple and quick alternatives for sensory
characterization of food products. They have been reported to provide similar
information to classical descriptive analysis performed with trained panels (Varela and
Ares, 2012). However, it is important to highlight that they could not be considered a
replacement for classic descriptive analyses since it is always more accurate due to the
fact that panellists are extensively trained in the identification and particularly in the
quantification of sensory attributes.
The Flash Profile (FP) is a technique developed by Sieffermann (2000) which combines
Free-Choice Profiling (Williams & Langron, 1984) with a comparative evaluation of the
product set. This method consists in asking the panellists to use their own descriptive
terms in order to rank the tasted products for each of these terms. The fact that panellists
have a simultaneous access to the whole sample set forces them to focus on the
differences they perceive in order to generate only discriminant attributes. It has proven
2
to be as satisfactory as conventional profiling in many applications (Dairou &
Sieffermann, 2002). With this novel method, more attention is paid to the relative
positioning of the products rather than to product scores on the separate attributes. In
practice, FP can be performed in two sessions or in one session with two steps where
the whole coded products set are presented simultaneously. The simultaneous
comparison of all the samples could allow better product discrimination (Moussaoui &
Varela, 2010). Furthermore, when the tested products belong to the same or to similar
product categories, FP can be more discriminating than conventional profiling (Delarue
& Sieffermann, 2004). After a first application on jams (Dairou & Sieffermann, 2002),
FP has been applied to dairy products (Delarue & Sieffermann, 2004), traditional dry
sausages (Rason et al., 2006), fruit purees (Tarea et al., 2007), jellies (Blancher et al.,
2007), bread (Lassoued et al., 2008), wines (Perrin et al., 2008), hot beverages
(Moussaoui & Varela, 2010), lemon iced teas (Veinand et al., 2011) and fish nuggets
(Albert et al., 2011). As far as we know, FP has not been applied to dry-cured meat
products characterization.
On the other hand, dynamic descriptive techniques such as Time intensity (TI) and
Temporal Dominance of Sensations (TDS) are gaining importance, as the obtained
information is closer to sensory perceptions taking place during food consumption. TI
is a well-known method to record and obtain the intensity variations of one specific
attribute over the time and it has been successfully applied to very different food
matrices over years including dairy products (Cadena & Bolini., 2011), beverages
(Sokolowsky, Rosenberger & Fischer, 2015), and meat products (Lorido et al., 2014).
TDS technique allows simultaneous recording of several sensory attributes, providing a
temporal sequence of attribute perception. More precisely, panellists identify the
attribute perceived as “dominant” throughout food consumption (Pineau et al., 2009).
3
As well as TI, TDS has been extensively applied to a great variety of foods, including
meat products (Paulsen et al., 2014).
The objective of this work was to compare FP as a rapid descriptive technique with
more conventional descriptive techniques, TI and TDS, with the purpose of gaining
insight into sensory perception of the flavour and texture of dry-cured loins. In order to
evaluate the feasibility of the three methodologies for product discrimination, dry-cured
loins in which NaCl was replaced by KCl at different levels were evaluated. We aimed
to compare the sensory maps obtained with each method as well as the descriptive terms
elicited by the panellists. Special attention was paid to sensory characteristics associated
to KCl presence.
2. Materials and methods
2.1 Samples
Four types of dry-cured loins (n=5) derived from 50% Iberian x Duroc pigs were
produced by the food manufacturer Mallo S.L. at their pilot plant in Cáceres, Spain.
One of the groups of dry cured loins was considered as control (C) group. The treated
groups were a combination of different levels of NaCl reduction and replacement by
KCl. Three different substitution percentages were selected: 15 % (S15), 20 % (S20)
and 25% (S25) (Table 1).
Processing of dry-cured loins was carried out following the standard protocol
established by the industry. Salting process was developed by rubbing the loin’s surface
with salt and spices and stuffing into natural casings. After that, pieces were kept for 7
days at refrigerated conditions (< 6ºC). Finally, loins were dried and maturated during
80 days at 10ºC and at relative humidity of 70-80%. The average percentage of losses
was 38% at the final of processing.
4
Once the curing process was completed, sampling of the central part (500 grams) of the
dry-cured loins was obtain to carry out the physico-chemical and sensory
characterization. The pieces (n=5 per group) were sliced with 1 mm thickness in a slicer
Weber® (MULTIVAC Packaging Systems Spain SL) and packed with a thermoforming
(ULMA Packaging S. Coop., Gipuzkoa, Spain). The packaging format was 80-90 g
vacuum packages and with a multilayer film (PET PVDC/PP COPO, with an oxygen
permeability < 8 cm3 / m2 / 24h and water vapour permeability < 2 g / m2 / 24h).
Samples were preserved under chilled conditions (+4ºC) in our laboratory until sensory
evaluations (less than 2 weeks).
2.2.
Physico-chemical composition
All samples were analysed for chemical composition in triplicate. Moisture content was
determined by drying the sample at 102 °C for 24 h (AOAC, 2012). Total protein
content was analysed using the Kjeldahl method (AOAC, 2012). Intramuscular fat
content (IMF) was determined according to the Folch, Lees, & Sloane Stanley (1957)
methodology.
Chloride content of dry-cured loins was determined using the Volhard method (AOAC,
2012). Sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) cations content of dry-cured loins were
quantified using an ion chromatograph (IC) (Armenteros, Aristoy, Barat & Toldrá,
2011).
2.3.
Sensory evaluations
Participants
FP was carried out by seven panellists (three males and four females, aged: 26–54
years) with previous experience in sensory evaluation. All were staff at the University
5
of Extremadura. The panel for TI and TDS analysis was identical to the one used for the
FP analysis.
Flash Profile
Flash profiling consisted of two sessions carried out in individual booths and products
were all presented at the same time, coded with three-digit numbers. In the first session,
panellists were requested to list the sensory characteristics that best described the
differences between dry-cured loin samples. They were instructed to avoid hedonic
terms. All the descriptive terms were listed by the interviewer on a blank sheet of the
panellist’s booklet. No indication was given regarding the number of attributes that
should be used. This first session lasted about 30 minutes. In the second session, they
were asked to rank the products according to each descriptive term they found
previously and reported those ranks on the score sheets of their booklet. Ties were
allowed and panellists could re-taste the samples as much as they needed.
Time-intensity
All panel members participated in TI sessions carried out in previous studies (Fuentes et
al., 2013; Lorido et al., 2014). After panel discussion, the following attributes were
selected for TI evaluations: overall flavour (intensity of the perceived general flavour),
saltiness (level of salt taste), cured flavour (intensity of the typical flavour from cured
meat products), rancid flavour (intensity of the rancid flavour), bitterness (level of bitter
taste), hardness (effort required to bite through sample and to convert it to a
swallowable state), juiciness (impression of lubricated food during chewing),
fibrousness (extent to which fibres are perceived during chewing) and pastiness
(impression of pasty food during chewing). Evaluations of the four dry-cured loins (C,
S15, S20 and S25) were performed over 10 sessions (two different samples per session)
6
with the serving order of the samples between panellists presented according to a
Williams Latin Square design. Samples (half slice of dry-cured loins) were presented
monadically, with 1 min between the products to ensure no carry-over effects. Unsalted
crackers and filtered tap water were used as palate cleansers. TI data were collected
using FIZZ software (v 2.40A, Biosystemes France).
Temporal Dominance of Sensations
The selected attributes for Iberian dry-cured loin’s evaluations by TDS were the same as
for TI. Each TDS attribute was represented by one button on the computer screen. The
sequence of attribute buttons differed from panellist to panellist to compensate for
possible order effects. However, each panellist had the same sequence of attributes in all
sessions to facilitate button location. Sample tasting started by clicking the start button
parallel to putting the sample into the mouth. At this point, panellists were requested to
click on the button representing the currently dominating oral sensation. Assessment
stopped automatically after 60 seconds or individually by the judges, when attributes
were no longer dominant. All the samples were swallowed at 25% of Stdtime (15
seconds). Unsalted crackers and filtered tap water were used as palate cleansers.
Evaluations of the four types of dry-cured loins (C, S15, S20 and S25) were performed
over 10 sessions (two different samples per session) with the serving order of the
samples between panellists presented according to a Williams Latin Square design.
Samples (half slice of dry-cured loins) were presented monadically, with 1 min between
the products to ensure no carry-over effects. TDS data were collected using FIZZ
software (v 2.40A, Biosystemes France).
2.4.
Data analysis
7
Data concerning the chemical composition of the Iberian dry-cured loins was analysed
by one-way ANOVA with the effect of the salt replacement level (C, S15, S20 and S25)
as main factor using SPSS (IBM SPSS Statistics version 20.0). .
A Generalized Procrustes Analysis (GPA), which computes the best possible consensus
among all subjects, was performed for FP results. Individual matrices for each panellist
(Products x Attributes) were built in order to enter product rankings from FP. The
average sensory configuration obtained for the panel is displayed, as a Principal
Component Analysis (PCA), on a score plot representing the inter-product sensory
distances. Besides, the loading plot represents the correlations of all individual attributes
with the factorial axes. Thus, a given attribute may appear several times on this plot,
should several subjects use it. A Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA) was performed on
the coordinates of the attributes obtained from the GPA in order to facilitate the
semantic interpretation of Flash Profile data and the resulting clusters are displayed in
the loading plot.
TI-curves were computed for each attribute over seven panellists using the FIZZ
software (v 2.40A, Biosystemes France). Two TI parameters were extracted from TI
curves: area under the curve (AreaTse) and standardized final time (Tend). TDS curves,
whereby dominance rates are plotted against standardised time, were obtained for each
attribute using FIZZ software. Two TDS parameters were extracted from TDS curves
for each attribute: StdTime% (T-Time of first citation) and StdDuration% (D-Total
duration of dominance over citations). Each of the two data sets (TI and TDS data) was
submitted to PCA which allows obtaining a score plot (consensual product map) where
general TI and TDS parameters of the different flavour and texture attributes directions
can be described using the loadings.
8
Agglomerative Hierarchical Clustering (AHC) (Euclidian distances, Ward’s criterion)
was performed on the data resulting from the FP, TI and TDS techniques in order to
group the dry-cured loins with different sensory characteristics assessed by each
methodology.
GPA and AHC were performed using XLSTAT system software (version 2009.4.03,
Addinsoft™).
3.1 Physico-chemical composition
Table 2 shows the proximate chemical composition of the four groups of studied drycured loins. No significant differences were found for the moisture, proteins and IMF
content (p >0.05) between the four groups of dry-cured loins studied. Replacement of
NaCl by KCl in the formulation resulted in significant differences in the Na+ (p≤0.01)
and K+ content (p≤0.001). Na+ content was significantly lower in S25 dry-cured loins
compared to the content determined in the other three groups of samples. Dry-cured
loins including in the S25 group could be labelled as “reduced in sodium content” since
according to the EU regulations the minimum percentage of salt reduction to label a
product as reduced sodium is 25% (Reglamento (CE) 1924/2006). There was more than
a 25% of sodium content reduction in S25 dry-cured loins compared to the control
group (C) (Table 2). Moreover, as expected the K+ content increased according to the
level of replacement (15%, 20% and 25%). Differences in the penetration kinetics of
Na+ and K+ has been reported. In fact, in loins processed with a salt mixture containing
different Na+/K+ proportions, a higher penetration of K+ compared to Na+ inside the
loins was described (Aliño et al., 2009). As both NaCl and KCl present CL-, no
9
significant differences in the Cl- content was obtained for the different groups of drycured loins analysed.
3.2. Flash profile
In the first session each panellist generated between 9 and 16 different terms. We
obtained 88 terms in total, with 20 of them being different. The frequency of mention
for each attribute generated with the FP is listed in Table 3. The following attributes (10
in total) obtained more than the 50 % of frequency of mention: red colour, marbling,
cured odour, cured flavour, saltiness, bitterness, juiciness, pastiness, hardness and
fibrousness. Colour homogeneity and sourness received the lowest frequency of
mention (less than 15%) whereas hardness was mentioned by all panellists (100% of
frequency of mention).
Examination of the PCA plot obtained from GPA analysis of FP data indicates that the
first 2 principal axes account for 75.96% of the variation (29.44% for PC1 and 46.51%
for PC2) and produced the sample plots shown in Figure 1a and the variables plots
shown in Figure 1b. First, we observe a good discrimination between dry-cured loins
with different salt replacement level. The control samples and those with the lower level
of salt replacement (15%) were located in the right side of the PCA. On the other hand,
the samples with higher level of salt replacement (20 and 25%) were located in the left
side of the PCA.
Spatial distribution of each of the sensory attributes of dry-cured loins according to the
sensory description of panellists is shown in Figure 1a. In order to report the results,
only terms with more than 50% of frequency of mention were considered for describing
the sensory map of each group of dry-cured loins obtained using the FP. Dry-cured
loins with the highest level of NaCl replacement (S25) were associated with the
following attributes: marbling, saltiness, bitterness, cured flavour, juiciness, pastiness,
10
hardness and fibrousness. Otherwise, saltiness, hardness, pastiness and juiciness
characterized S20 dry-cured loins. S15 dry-cured loins were ranked as the samples with
more intense red colour of lean, cured odour, saltiness, bitterness, juiciness and
hardness. Finally the C dry-cured loins were characterized by marbling, cured flavour
and bitterness attributes. Dry-cured loins with the highest levels of NaCl replacement
were correlated with the highest amount of terms, some of them related to a positive
impact on the product quality as cured flavour and juiciness and others associated with a
negative impact as bitterness, hardness or fibrousness. However, other authors as
Guárdia et al. (2008) reported lower scores for ripened flavour in fermented sausages
with higher KCl levels. According to PCA, bitterness linked to K+ perception
(Desmond, 2006), characterized all groups except S20 dry-cured loins. Presence of
bitterness in control ones was not expected as these samples did not include KCl, but we
have to keep in mind that bitterness was just mentioned by one of the panellists in this
case. Saltiness was mentioned by the panellists in all the substituted samples (15, 20 and
25%) but not in control ones. These results are in contrast to those reported by Wu et al.
(2014) who found lower saltiness scores in dry-cured bacon with 40 and 70 % KCl
replacement. However, in our study assessors ranked the samples but did not give the
intensity perception of each attribute.
3.3. Comparison with conventional dynamic sensory techniques: Time-intensity and
Temporal Dominance of Sensations
The generated attributes in both TI and TDS technique were obtained by consensus
whereas in the FP technique the vocabulary was freely and individually generated by
each panellist. However, the final list of attributes which appears in the three sensory
maps are similar, which allow us comparing the sensory information provided by the
11
three methodologies. Figure 2 represents the four evaluated groups of dry-cured loins
and the terms used to describe the samples at the first two dimensions of the PCA from
TI (88.60% of total explained variance: 57.79% for PC1 and 30.82% for PC2) and TDS
technique (79.25% of total explained variance: 40.27% for PC1 and 38.99% for PC2).
Result from PCA of dynamic techniques reveled that dry-cured loins with the highest
level of NaCl replacement (S25) were perceived doughy (high records of Area-pastiness
TI parameter) (Figure 2a). Moreover, cured flavor and pastiness (high values of D-cured
and D-pastiness) were dominant along S25 dry-cured loins consumption (TDS data,
Figure 2b). S20 dry-cured loins also revealed an effect of NaCl replacement on
pastiness perception but in terms of the dominance (high values of D-pastiness TDS
parameter) (Figura 2b). These results are in agreement with those previously reported
using the FP technique regarding the pastiness and cured flavor perception.
Accordingly, a significant reduction of hardness measured by texture profile analysis in
dry-fermented sausages manufactured with KCl was reported by Gimeno et al. (1999)
and Gou et al. (1996). This could be due to a more intense proteolysis in reduced salt
samples which leads to a higher intensity of the perception of certain texture traits such
as pastiness (Toldrá, Flores, & Sanz, 1997; Andrés et al., 2003). However, Armenteros
et al. (2009) and Wu et al. (2014) found that KCl achieves similar NaCl inhibitory effect
on the activity of proteolytic enzymes.
Results from PCA of TI showed that S15 dry-cured loins were juicier, more fibrous, and
saltier and displayed a higher overall flavour compared to the other groups (Area TI
parameters). Moreover, S15 samples displayed a longer persistence (Tend parameter) of
saltiness and overall flavor. Regarding TDS results, rancid flavor was cited as dominant
attribute in S15 samples later during sample consumption (high T-rancid TDS
parameter) but the duration of this dominance was longer (high D-rancid TDS
12
parameter). Moreover, bitterness and fibrousness was characterized for being dominant
attributes in S15 dry-cured loins for a longer period along the consumption (higher
values of D-rancid and D-bitternes TDS parameters). According to these results,
different information was obtained from each dynamic sensory technique which
supports that TI and TDS could be used as complementary methods. The attributes
perceived as more intense or persistent may not be necessarily the same as those
perceived as dominant (Le Révérend et al., 2008). Wu et al. (2014) and Lorenzo et al.
(2015) reported a less salty taste in dry-cured bacon (40% and 70% KCl) and lacón
samples (50% KCl) respectively in which NaCl was replaced by KCl. However, in the
present study S15 dry-cured loins presented a higher intensity and persistence of
saltiness with could lead to a higher intensity and persistence of overall flavour due to
the salting out phenomenon. However, taking a look to TDS results, saltiness was not a
dominant attribute in S15 dry-cured loins and these results may be closer to the
perception of a real consumer. In fact, saltiness was not a dominant attribute, in terms of
being the first to be cited as dominant and total duration of the dominance, for both S15
and S25 dry-cured loins. Regarding bitterness, it seems that using FP, this terms was
presented in both samples but from a dynamic perspective, mainly in terms of intensity
and persistence (TI parameters), this attribute was not very important although in S20
samples it appears as being dominant for a long period (high D-bitterness TDS
parameter). The former result is in agreement with those reported by Wu et al. (2014)
and Lorenzo et al. (2015) in which panelists reported higher bitterness scores in samples
with NaCl replacement due to K+ bitter taste. But again, we have to take into account
that these authors described the result in terms of intensity but not in terms of the
dominance of the attributes.
Regarding dry-cured loins without replacement (C), TI results revealed that these
13
samples are negatively correlated with the intensity (Area Tse) of juiciness, hardness
and cured flavor (Figure 2a) and the persistence (Tend) of hardness, juiciness,
bitterness, pastiness and fibrousness. Moreover, rancid flavour, saltiness, pastiness and
hardness were cited as dominant early along the consumption as reflected the negative
correlation with the T TDS parameter of these attributes (Figure 2b).
Finally, the three sensory techniques (FP, TI and TDS) were compared in terms of the
availability of product discrimination. In order to analyze the results more thoroughly,
we decided to run a cluster analysis of the data obtained from each technique and to
look at the corresponding dendrograms (Figure 3). These dendrograms compare the
distribution of products according to the selected sensory methodology. The resulting
dendrograms of the cluster analysis of dry-cured loins (Figure 3) indicated the existence
of three groups besides the sensory technique considered. The groups obtained by FP
and TI were identical: the first one contained the S20 and S25 samples which indicate
similar sensory characteristics; the second group contained the control samples; and the
third group contained the S15 samples, suggesting that these samples present particular
sensory characteristics. However the TDS technique grouped the S15 and S25 samples
together and the control and S20 samples independently. These results suggest that FP
and TI allow obtaining similar sensory maps for the dry-cured loins evaluated. This is
expected as in both techniques panellists assessed the samples using a rank (FP) or a
dynamic scale (TI). However, again using the TDS the panellist should report
information regarding the dominance of the evaluated attributes.
4. Conclusion
The generated sensory attributes evaluated using FP technique clearly discriminates
between dry-cured loins with different levels of NaCl replacement. Similarities between
14
the obtained results between FP and TI suggest that FP would be an interesting tool for
obtaining a sensory map in a fast and effective way. However, TI and particularly TDS
still gives information related to the dynamic perception that is not possible to obtain
using FP. Further studies exploring the combination of rapid and dynamic descriptive
techniques are needed in order to get the most complete information regarding the
sensory perception including the dynamic perspective in a fast and effective way.
5. Acknowledgements
Laura Lorido thanks the Government of Extremadura for the FPI grant (PD10025). This
study was supported by the project “Programa FEDER-Innterconecta: Proyecto
Innterbiocured (referencias116/13, 117/13 y 118/13)” funded by “Centro para el
Desarrollo Tecnológico Industrial (CDTI)”. Mario Estévez thanks the Spanish Ministry
of Science and Innovation for the contract through the ―Ramón y Cajal (RYC-200903901) and the European Community for the economic support from the Marie Curie
Reintegration (ERG) Fellowship (PERG-GA-2009-248959 —Pox-MEAT).
Authors gratefully thank all members of the sensory panel for their participation.
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20
Table 1. Formulation of Iberian dry-cured loins samples.
Table 2. Physico-chemical composition of Iberian dry-cured loins.
Table 3. Frequency of mention for each attribute generated with the FP for dry-cured
loins (panel of seven tasters).
Figure 1. Generalized Procrustes Analysis (GPA) of the sensory attributes generated
individually by panellists in Flash Profile. Parameter loadings (a) and factor scores (b)
plots for the two first principal components.
Figure 2. Principal component analysis (PCA) of sensory parameters of Iberian drycured loins obtained by TI (a) and TDS (b).
Figure 3. Agglomerative Hierarchical Clustering carried out on the three consensus drycured loin configurations by the three sensory techniques: a) FP, b) TI and c) TDS.
21
Table 1.
Control
S15
S20
S25
Total weight (kg)
25
27
24
25
NaCl (g)
580
527
445
435
93
110
145
160
140
150
KCl (g)
Additive package* (g)
150
* sugar, E-252, E-250, dextrose and E-301
22
Table 2.
Control
S15
S20
S25
p
Moisture
42.29 ± 1.94
41.49 ± 1.84
41.35 ± 1.92
39.21 ± 1.18
n.s.
Proteins
37.77 ± 0.46
36.86 ± 1.03
35.53 ± 1.65
37.03 ± 1.70
n.s.
IMF
12.54 ± 1.97
13.00 ± 1.55
13.99 ± 1.88
15.57 ± 1.56
n.s.
Na+
1.02 ± 0.23a
1.24 ± 0.12a
1.07 ± 0.12a
0.74 ± 0.11b
**
K+
0.07 ± 0.04c
0.32 ± 0.06b
0.41 ± 0.05ab
0.45 ± 0.09a
***
Cl--
2.63 ± 0.62
2.45 ± 0.29
2.46 ± 0.13
2.14 ± 0.42
n.s.
IMF: intramuscular fat
23
Table 3.
Spanish attributes
English translation
Frequency of mention
Homogeneidad color
Colour homogeneity
14
Color rojo
Red colour
71
Veteado
Marbling
85
Tamaño de las vetas
Marbling size
14
Brillo
Brightness
42
Olor general
Overall odour
28
Olor a curado
Cured odour
85
Olor a rancio
Rancid odour
28
Intensidad de flavor
Overall flavour
28
Flavor a rancio
Rancid flavour
42
Flavor a curado
Cured flavour
85
Sabor salado
Saltiness
85
Sabor ácido
Sourness
14
Sabor amargo
Bitterness
71
Persisitencia del flavor
Aftertaste
28
Jugosidad
Juiciness
85
Pastosidad
Pastiness
57
Dureza
Hardness
100
Fibrosidad
Fibrousness
71
Masticabilidad
Chewiness
14
24
Figure 1:
a)
b)
25
Figure 2.
a)
b)
26
Figure 3.
a)
b)
c)
27
28
GENERAL DISCUSSION
GENERAL DISCUSSION
In this section of the Doctoral Thesis, the most relevant results in relation to the
various experiments are interconnected and discussed. Although these results have
already been partially discussed in their corresponding papers, the objective of this
section is to provide a more comprehensive and integrated view of all of them.
The discussion is divided into four sections: The first section includes all aspects related
to the effect of fat content on the sensory attributes of particular meat products. The
second section includes those aspects related to the salt content on the sensory
attributes of particular meat products. The third one discusses the results obtained in
reference to the effect of high hydrostatic pressure treatment on the sensory
attributes of particular meat products. Finally, the fourth section lists the more
interesting aspects obtained from the application of different sensory techniques on
the assessment of the sensory quality of meat products.
1. Influence of fat content on the sensory properties of meat products.
The fat content of Iberian pig meat and more precisely the intramuscular fat content
(IMF), is typically abundant and evident, with levels as high as 10% fresh matter
(Mayoral et al., 1999). Such a high fat content in Iberian pigs is due to several factors.
First, pigs are usually slaughter at high weights (between 150-160 kg), which means
that fat deposition is much greater that in lighter pigs. Second, pigs are fed ad libitum
during the fattening finishing phase where the growth of the fat takes place. Third,
free reared animals are mainly fed on acorn and grass. This feeding regime shows a
high caloric content due to the presence of acorns (Ruiz et al., 1998) but low protein
content. It seems that a low ratio protein/calories in the diet leads to a higher fat
227
GENERAL DISCUSSION
deposition (Goerl et al., 1995). In addition to all this, Iberian pig is an anabolic breed
(Lopez-Bote et al., 1998) with a high tendency to accumulate fat.
The high intramuscular fat content of Iberian meat has several consequences on the
technological properties of the meat for the dry-curing processing, and is also one of
the main factors leading to the high sensory quality of the derived dry-cured
products. Both, high levels of IMF and thick backfat, contributes to slow down
moisture losses during the processing, since fat shows a much lower diffusion rate for
water than lean (Palumbo et al., 1977). This leads to a long processing time which
allows the development of slow and complex biochemical and chemical reactions
(Ruiz et al., 2002), which causes, in turn, the formation of an intense and particular
flavour in Iberian dry-cured ham, which is highly appreciated by consumers.
Juiciness has been pointed out as the main trait influencing overall quality of Iberian
dry-cured ham (Ruiz et al., 2002). The processing of dry-cured products involves
strong dehydration and for that reason the moisture from saliva and the direct
contribution of IMF play a very important role in juiciness of this kind of products
(Winger et al., 1994). Intramuscular fat stimulates saliva secretion and contributes
directly to juiciness by coating the tongue, teeth and other parts of the mouth
(Dikeman, 1987). Together with juiciness, flavour intensity has been highlighted as
the main element behind consumer acceptability of Iberian dry-cured ham (Ruiz et
al., 2002). The intense flavour of this product is due to the presence of high levels of
low molecular weight non volatile compounds (mainly amino acids, peptides,
nucleotides and sodium chloride) and a huge variety of low molecular weight volatile
compounds (Ruiz et al., 1999). IMF acts as a reservoir of compounds which
subsequently undergo transformations leading to volatile compound formation.
228
GENERAL DISCUSSION
The association of certain meat constituents, such as fat content and cholesterol, with
the risk of development of certain human diseases, has originated a considerable
impact on public opinion. In fact, meat is perceived as the major dietary source of fat
and especially of saturated fatty acids (SFA) in developed countries (Wood et al.,
2003). According to the recommendations of the World Health Organization (WHO
2008) fat should provide between 20 and 35 % of the calories in the diet of an adult
and saturated fat should provide less than 10 % of these calories. Nowadays,
consumers prefer low-fat meat products and for that reason much efforts has been
done by meat industry in reducing fat content in order to fulfill consumer’s demands.
For that reason it is essential to study the effect of fat content in the sensory
properties in this kind of products considered by Spanish consumers as high quality
meat products.
In the present Thesis, an influence on the dynamic flavour and texture perception of
different meat products with different levels of fat content was found. The following
specific effects are emphasized:
i) The significantly lower amount of IMF in dry-cured loins compared to other meat
products as pâté and dry-cured sausages have led to a higher intensity and longer
persistence of its typical spicy flavor (mainly for the presence of spices like paprika in
dry-cured loins formulation; and black pepper in pâté and dry-cured sausages
formulation) due to the suppression effect of the fat on volatile compound release
which are responsible of the aroma of these kind of meat products (Carrapiso, 2007;
Ventanas et al., 2007). Moreover the high fat content of pâté would have promoted
229
GENERAL DISCUSSION
the formation of a lipid coating in the mouth during sample consumption hindering
flavour perception (Paper I).
ii) Intensity of juiciness was significantly higher in dry-cured sausages compared to drycured loins due to the lower fat content of dry-cured loins which leads to a less
stimulation of saliva secretion which is directly related to juiciness perception
(Ventanas et al., 2005) (Paper I).
iii) Surprisingly, the intensity and the persistence of the dynamic perception of
saltiness in Iberian dry-cured hams were significantly affected by IMF but not by the
salt content. Thus the suppression effect of IMF on dynamic perception of saltiness
was more evident than the potential enhancer effect of NaCl content. This could due
to the fact that fat could act as a physico-chemical barrier and hence retard the
diffusion of flavour compounds from the food matrix to the saliva phase (Paper II).
iv) Differences in the IMF between Iberian and Serrano dry-cured hams results in
texture differences particularly for juiciness and hardness. Iberian dry-cured hams was
perceived as less hard and juicer compared to Serrano ones due to its higher IMF
content (Paper III).
v) The lower IMF content of Serrano dry-cured hams samples compared to Iberian
ones led in marked differences in the dynamic perception of flavor. Serrano dry-cured
hams showed a higher persistence and intensity perception of overall flavour, saltiness
and cured flavour. The fat forms a film around the oral mucosa (tongue and palate)
230
GENERAL DISCUSSION
limiting contact between flavour compounds and their receptors and that leads, in
turn, to a lower perception of flavour and taste (Lynch et al., 1993) (Paper III).
2. Influence of salt content on the sensory properties of meat products
Meat itself contains sodium but the amount is less than 100 mg Na per 100 g. The main
source of sodium in meat products is sodium chloride which is added during processing
(Ruusunen & Puolanne, 2005). Specifically dry-cured ham is a meat product in which
the salt is an essential ingredient. Traditionally, sodium chloride is used mixed with
other cured salts as nitrites and nitrates to guarantee the microbiological safety
throughout the whole process (Toldrá, 2003).
Salt has a flavour enhancing effect in meat products, with the perceived saltiness
mainly due to the Na+ (Ruusunen & Puolanne, 2005; Miller & Barthoshuk, 1991).
Moreover one of salt’s main functions in processed meats is the solubilization of the
functional myofibrillar proteins, thus influence the water-holding capacity and texture
of muscle foods (Desmond, 2006).
The reduction of salt intake is one of the prominent dietary recommendations of the
World Health Organization, since its intake is much higher than the needs of the body
and it is associated with significant health problems. Therefore, the decreasing of salt
content in meat products, which are the main source of salt in the diet, is promoted
from the European Union and The Spanish Agency of Consumption, Food Safety and
Nutrition (AECOSAN). The potential sodium chloride reduction depends on aspects
connected with the type of the product, its composition, the type of processing
231
GENERAL DISCUSSION
required and the preparation conditions. These factors determine the type of product
that can be modified and the technological limitations of salt reduction.
The most widely salt reduction approach used is the use of salt substitutes. Potassium
chloride is probably the most common salt substitute used in low or reduced
salt/sodium foods. However, concerns were raised about the possible vulnerability of
certain population sub-groups (including those with Type I diabetes, chronic renal
insufficiency, end stage renal disease, severe heart failure and adrenal insufficiency) to
high potassium load from these salt substitutes. It was also noted that the use of salt
substitutes does not address the need to reduce salt taste thresholds in the
population. On the other hand, the guidelines also state that a potassium-rich diet
blunts the effects of salt on blood pressure and recommend an intake of 4.7 g
potassium /day.
From the sensory point of view, research indicates that 25–40% replacement appears
to be the range at which the flavour impact of KCl is not noticeable, from these levels
some off- flavour such as bitterness and metallic flavor are detected (Desmond, 2006).
An influence on the dynamic flavour and texture perception of dry-cured loins with
different levels of salt and of dry-cured loins with different levels of NaCl replacement,
were found in the present Doctoral Thesis. The following specific effects are
highlighted:
i) When comparing different meat products, dry-cured loins and sausages had a
significantly higher intensity of saltiness and overall flavor compared to pâtés. The
higher salt content in both dry-cured products compared to pâté would have
232
GENERAL DISCUSSION
enhanced the flavor perception in these products by means of the “salting out”
phenomenon (Salles, 2006) (Paper I).
ii) Salt content significantly influenced temporal perception of flavour attributes
evaluated in both Iberian and Serrano dry-cured hams. Using Time-intensity technique,
the intensity of overall flavour in Iberian dry-cured hams significantly increased with
salt content. Moreover, the salt content also promoted the perceived intensity of
cured flavour in Iberian-dry-cured hams as well as in Serrano dry-cured ones. These
results revealed a role of NaCl as enhancer of certain flavour attributes. NaCl is likely to
increase the volatility of the most hydrophobic compound by decreasing the water
molecules available for its solubilisation (Rabe et al., 2003; Salles, 2006). Moreover,
meat proteins are able to bind volatile compounds (Pérez-Juan et al., 2008) and NaCl
reduces this ability by modifying the polarity of surface proteins (Ruusunen et al.,
2001) and by causing protein denaturation (Pérez-Juan et al., 2008) (Paper III).
iii) As expected, Temporal Dominance of Sensation technique revealed that saltiness
presented a significantly higher dominant duration in normal salt dry-cured hams
compared to reduced ones. However dry-cured hams with lower salt content resulted
in a longer dominant perception of the typical cured flavour found in this type of drycured products. This shows a possible masking effect of the saltiness over other
attributes when they are evaluated simultaneously (Paper IV).
iv) Salt content presented a less marked effect on the temporal perception of texture
attributes evaluated in both Iberian and Serrano dry-cured hams compared to the
233
GENERAL DISCUSSION
obtained results for flavour attributes. In fact, only a significant effect of salt content
on the intensity of hardness in Iberian dry-cured hams as found. Moreover Temporal
Dominance of Sensation technique revealed that hardness and fibrousness were
significantly dominant perceptions at the beginning of the evaluation in normal salt
dry-cured hams samples but not in reduced ones. The lower protease activity related
to higher salt levels (Sárraga et al., 1989) would partly explain these results. Moreover
salt is a known pro-oxidant in meat products (Bess et al., 2013) and for that reason it is
plausible that protein oxidation promoted by salt content caused an increase of
hardness and loss of juiciness in dry-cured hams through the loss of protein solubility
and the formation of cross-links between proteins (Fuentes et al., 2010) (Paper III and
IV). This hypothesis, however, was not proven in the present Thesis.
v) A 25% substitution of NaCl by KCl in the formulation of fry-cured loins results in final
products which presented a significant lower Na+ content but also sensory weaknesses
as bitterness and pastiness. However a lower substitution in the formulation (15% and
20%) did not lead to a significant lower Na+ content in the final product.
3. Influence of high hydrostatic pressure treatment (HHP) on the sensory properties
of particular meat products
There is a growing interest in consuming healthy and safe processed meat products. In
this sense, the application of high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) to food processing, which
is an innovative alternative to thermal-treatment or chemical preservatives, has
attracted worldwide attention because apparatus for HHP treatment has become
234
GENERAL DISCUSSION
commercially available. High pressure technology is expected to serve as an alternative
to conventional technologies or to generate a synergetic effect to produce new meat
products, because pressurization at low or moderate temperatures affects
microorganism activity in meat products, thereby increasing the shelf-life while causing
slight changes to the sensory quality. Pressure levels applied for the pasteurization of
meats and meat products, range in an area of 400–600MPa with short processing
times of 3–7 min and at room temperature.
In this Thesis, one the main objectives in relation with the HHP treatment was to
determine its impact on the appearance, odour and tactile texture sensory profile, on
the dynamic sensory perception of flavour and texture and on the instrumental texture
and colour parameters of Iberian and Serrano dry-cured hams. The following specific
effects were found:
i) No significant effect of HHP treatment was found on sensory traits related to
appearance, odour and tactile texture. This could be explained because samples were
whole intact pieces of dry-cured ham of 450 g which could have minimized the
potential effect of HHP on these sensory properties.
ii) The application of dynamic sensory techniques revealed the influence of HHP
treatment particularly on flavour attributes. The overall flavour was perceived as more
intense and persistent in treated dry-cured hams. Moreover, HPP significantly
promoted saltiness intensity perception and persistence in both evaluated dry-cured
hams (Iberian or Serrano). Similar results to saltiness were found for dynamic
perception of cured flavour particularly for Serrano dry-cured hams as treated samples
235
GENERAL DISCUSSION
displayed a longer and higher intensity perception for this attribute compared to
control ones.
iii) Regarding texture attributes, no significant effect of HHP treatment was found on
dynamic perception of juiciness and hardness in any of the evaluated dry-cured hams.
Only fibrousness seemed to be affected by this technology as the persistence of the
maximum intensity was longer in treated samples compared to control ones regardless
the type of dry-cured ham. Moreover, HHP significantly decreased the intensity of
pastiness (AreaTse) in Serrano dry-cured hams. Therefore, HPP treatment could be
considered as an alternative strategy to reduce pastiness in salt-reduced dry-cured
hams in order to obtain healthier food products with a higher consumer acceptance.
iv) Regarding the results of the instrumental colour, HHP caused changes in lightness
(CIE L*-value) and yellowness (CIE b*-value). The significant increase in lightness in
Iberian and Serrano dry-cured hams could be explained by changes in the myofibrillar
component leading to an increase in reflection of light (Fulladosa et al., 2012). In
contrast, no significant changes were observed for redness (CIE a*-value). The
protective action of nitric oxide on myoglobin in cured meat products facilitates the
preservation of the colour of these products (Carlez, Veciana-Nogues & Cheftel, 1995;
Farkas et al., 2002).
4. Technological interest and adequacy of the studied sensory techniques to the
meat industry.
236
GENERAL DISCUSSION
There are assorted sensory tests for food systems and different situations in which
they can be applied. The test to be employed will depend on the objective(s), which
have to be identified before testing begins. Successful sensory testing is driven by
setting clear objectives, developing robust experimental strategy and design and also
applying appropriate sensory techniques and statistical analysis.
We can find two groups between the descriptive sensory tests: static and dynamic
ones. Sensory perception is a dynamic phenomenon that changes during the process
of food consumption (Cliff & Heymann, 1993). While traditional static sensory methods
provide information about the intensity of the sensory perception of an attribute at a
particular moment, dynamic sensory methods provide information about variations in
perception intensity of flavour and texture attributes overtime being to the real
sensory perception during food consumption (Dijksterhuis & Piggott, 2001). Among the
dynamic sensory techniques, the time–intensity method (TI) allows assessing
variations in perception intensity of a particular attribute over time using a sensory
panel trained for this purpose (Cliff & Heymann, 1993). Another dynamic sensory
technique is Temporal dominance of sensations (TDS) which tracks multiple sensory
attributes over time and is able to detect sequences of dominance of sensation (Pineau
et al., 2009).
Meat products derived from Iberian pigs are high quality products with distinctive
sensory properties (Ventanas et al., 2005). The sensory quality of meat products
derived from Iberian pigs has been widely studied using static descriptive techniques
as QDA (Carrapiso et al., 2003, Ruiz et al., 1998; Ventanas et al., 2007). One of the
objectives of the present Thesis was to evaluate the dynamic sensory properties of
Iberian meat products using TI method and to evaluate the additional sensory
237
GENERAL DISCUSSION
information provided in comparison to static methods (Papers I, II and III). The next
objective was to compare the dynamic sensory information provided by two different
dynamic sensory tests as TI and TDS (Paper IV). Temporal dominance of sensations
(TDS) tracks multiple sensory attributes over time and is able to detect sequences of
dominance of sensation. It is well suited to multivariate investigation and is relatively
quick. This is in contrast to traditional TI techniques, which measure intensity of
sensations individually and as if they were perceived independently.
The demand from the food industry of fast and inexpensive sensory methods has led
to the rise in recent years of some quick descriptive sensory techniques allowing
obtaining descriptive profiles of the tested products without long and expensive
training of panel (Varela & Ares, 2012; Valentin et al., 2012). For that reason other
objective of the present Thesis was to apply one of these methodologies to Iberian
meat products in order to evaluate the provided sensory information (Paper V). Flash
Profiling is a flexible method meant to rapidly profile products according to their most
salient sensory attributes. The main results about the studied sensory techniques
were:
i) The TI and QDA methods are very useful for assessing the impact of the physicchemical composition of different meat products on their sensory properties. The TI
method allows a broader study owing to the assorted and valuable parameters
extracted. It notably makes it possible to assess the dynamics of the phenomenon for
example via area under the curve (AreaTse) which give us a general vision of the
overall intensity along all the evaluation process; and the final time (Tend) which give
us information about the time that an attribute is perceive by the panelists (Paper I).
238
GENERAL DISCUSSION
ii) When comparing TI and TDS techniques, the attributes that were reported as
intense by TI did not match with those reported as the most dominant by TDS. This
supports the evidence that TI and TDS methods are not designed for obtaining the
same information. TI is suitable to carefully follow the intensity of one specific
attribute over time. However, when several attributes have to be compared and
recorded over time, the TDS methodology is a better option because the panelists
really have to make a choice when selecting a dominant attribute. According to the
present results, TDS is confirmed as a multi-attribute temporal method that
accounts for interactions among attributes, whereas TI focuses on the evolution of the
intensity of one attribute at a time (Le Révérend et al., 2008; Pineau et al., 2009).
(Paper IV).
iii) The sensory attributes which make the difference between the dry-cured loins with
different NaCl substitution levels by KCl were evident in a quick way with Flash Profile
method. It is a reliable alternative of sensory characterization of dry-cured loins, when
there is not time to develop an exhaustive training of a sensory panel. Moreover the
sensory information obtain by FP technique is consistent and complementary with that
obtained by dynamic sensory techniques as TI and TDS (Paper V).
5. REFERENCES
Bess, K.N., Boler, D.D., Tavárez, M.A., Johnson, H.K., McKeith, F.K., Killefer, J., & Dilger,
A.C. (2013). Texture, lipid oxidation and sensory characteristics of ground pork
patties prepared with commercially available salts. Food Science and
Technology, 50(2), 408–413.
239
GENERAL DISCUSSION
Carlez, T. Veciana-Nogues, J.C. Cheftel (1995). Changes in colour and myoglobin of
minced beef meat due to high pressure processing Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft
und Technologie, 28 (5), 528-538.
Carrapiso A.I., Bonilla F. & García C. (2003). Effect of crossbreeding and rearing system
on sensory characteristics of Iberian ham. Meat Science, 65, 623–629.
Cliff, M. & Heymann, (1993). Development and use of time-intensity methodology for
sensory evaluation: A review. Food Research International, 26, 375-385.
(2006) 188–196.
Dijksterhuis, G.B. & Piggott, J.R. (2001). Dynamic methods of sensory analysis. Trends
in Food Science & Technology, 11(8), 284-290.
Dikeman, M.E. (1987) Fat reduction in animals and the effects on palatability and
consumer acceptance of meat products. Reciprocal Meat Conference. 40:93103.
Farkas J., Hajós G., Szerdahelyi E., Andrássy É., Krommer J. & Mészáros L. (2002).
Protein changes in high hydrostatic pressure pasteurized raw sausage batter.
Proceedings 48th international Congress of meat science and technology, 180181.
subjected to high hydrostatic pressure. Meat Science, 85(3), 506-514.
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GENERAL DISCUSSION
Fulladosa, E., Sala, X., Gou, P., Garriga, M., & Arnau, J. (2012). K-lactate and high
pressure effects on the safety and quality of restructured hams. Meat Science,
91, 56-61.
Goerl, K.F., Eilert, S.J., Mandigo, R.W., Chen, H.Y. & Miller, P.S. (1995). Pork
characteristics as affected by two populations of swine and six crude protein
levels. Journal of Animal Science 73 (12), 3621-3626.
Le Révérend, F. M., Hidrio, C., Fernandes, A., & Aubry V. (2008). Comparison between
temporal dominance of sensations and time intensity results. Food Quality and
Preference, 19 (2), 174–178.
Lopez-Bote, C. J. (1998). Sustained utilization of the Iberian pig breed. Meat Science,
49, S17-S27.
Lynch J., Liu Y.-H., Mela D.J. & MacFie H.J. (1993). A time-intensity study of the effect
of oil mouth coatings on taste perception Chemical Senses, 18 (2), 121–129.
Mayoral, A. I., Dorado, M., Guillen, M. T., Robina, A., Vivo, J. M., Vázquez, C. & Ruiz, J.
(1999). Development of meat and carcass quality characteristics in Iberian pigs
reared outdoors. Meat Science, 52 (3), 315-324.
Miller, I. J., & Barthoshuk, L. M. (1991). Taste perception, taste bud distribution, and
spatial relationship. In T. V. Geychell, R. L. Doty, L. M. Barthoshuk, & J. B. Snow
(Eds.), Smell and taste in health disease (pp. 205–233). New York: Raven Press.
Palumbo, S.A., Komanowsky, M., Metzger, V & Smith, J.L. (1977). Kinetics of pepperoni
drying. Journal of Food Science, 42 (4), 1029-1033.
241
GENERAL DISCUSSION
Pérez-Juan M., Flores M. & Toldrá F. (2008). Effect of pork meat proteins on the
binding of volatile compounds. Food Chemistry, 108, 1226–1233.
Ruiz J, Muriel E, Ventanas J. (2002). The flavor of Iberian ham. In: Toldra F, editor.
Research Advances in The Quality of Meat and Meat Products. Research
Signpost; Trivandrum, India: 289-309.
Ruiz, J., García, C., Díaz, M.C., Cava, R., Tejeda, J.F. & Ventanas, J. (1999). Dry cured
Iberian ham non-volatile components as affected by the length of the curing
process. Food Research International, 32 (9), 643-651.
Ruusunen, M., & Puolanne, E. (2005). Reducing sodium intake from meat products.
Meat Science, 70, 531–541.
Salles C. (2006). Odour–taste interactions in flavour perception. A. Voilley, P. Etiévant
(Eds.), Flavour in food, Woodhead Publishing in Food Science, Technology and
Nutrition, Cambridge, England, 345–368
Toldrá, F. (2003). Norma Europea de Aditivos: Implicaciones de la Reducción de
Nitratos y Nitritos en el Jamón Curado. Proc. Congreso Mundial del Jamón,
Teruel. pp. 129-134.
Valentin D.,Chollet, Lelièvre S. & Abdi H. (2012). Quick and dirty but still pretty good: a
review of new descriptive methods in food science. International Journal of
242
GENERAL DISCUSSION
consumer science. A review of novel methods for product characterization.
Food Research International, 48,893-908.
loins: Influence of crossbreeding and rearing system. Meat Science, 75, 211–
219.
development of high-quality cured products. Recent research in development
in agricultural and food chemistry. Trivandrum, Kerala, India: Research
Singpost, 27–53.
development of high-quality cured products. Recent research in development
in agricultural and food chemistry. Trivandrum, Kerala, India: Research
Singpost, 27–53.
WHO (2008). EU Salt Reduction Framework.
Winger, R.J., & Hagyard, C.J. (1994). In A. M. Pearson, & T. R. Dutson (Eds.), Quality
attributes and their measurement in meat, poultry and fish products, Blackie
Academic & Professional. London, 94.
Wood, J.D. Richardson, R.I. Nute, G.R. Fisher, A.V. Campo, M.M. Kasapidou, E. Sheard,
P.R. & Enser, M. (2003). Effects of fatty acids on meat quality: a review. Meat
Science, 66, 21-32.
243
CONCLUSIONS
CONCLUSIONS
1. The suppressing effect of IMF on the dynamic perception of saltiness in drycured hams was more evident than the potential enhancing effect of NaCl. This
allows a salt content reduction from 5.5 to 3.5% in the final product without
modify dynamic saltiness perception in Iberian dry-cured hams containing IMF
levels between 8 and 16%.
2. Salt reduction in dry-cured hams results in a longer dominant perception of the
typical cured flavour found in this type of dry-cured products.
3. A 25% replacement of NaCl by KCl in the formulation of dry-cured loins results
in final products with a significant lower Na+ content but also impaired sensory
attributes such as increased bitterness and pastiness.
4. The HPP treatment could be considered as a feasible strategy to reduce
pastiness in salt-reduced dry-cured hams in order to obtain healthier food
products with a better consumer acceptance.
5. The treatment of intact vacuum samples (450 g) with HHP (600 MPa) seems to
minimize the impact of this technology on appearance, odour and texture
attributes.
6. TI was a feasible and useful method to assess the dynamic perception of
sensory attributes in cooked and dry-cured meat products. Unlike the static
methods, it provides a more realistic picture of the physiological responses to
food properties.
7. TDS method supplied more valuable information concerning temporal
differences between products since TDS is a descriptive multi-attribute
247
CONCLUSIONS
methodology that deals with the interactions among attributes. Furthermore,
TDS is a less time-consuming method which is also relevant to the food industry
nowadays.
8. Flash profile is a reliable alternative of sensory characterization and
discrimination of dry-cured loins, when there is not time to develop an
exhaustive training of a sensory panel.
248
ANNEX
PAPER 1 ANNEX
Tecnología
Caracterización sensorial de productos
cárnicos derivados del cerdo Ibérico (I):
utilización de técnicas descriptivas estáticas
En este artículo se presenta un trabajo
de caracterización sensorial de productos
cárnicos derivados del cerdo ibérico
–paté, chorizo, salchichón y lomo–
mediante la técnica de análisis sensorial
estática, que ofrece información
de la intensidad de los atributos sensoriales
evaluados en un momento
puntual y preciso.
Laura Lorido, Jesús Ventanas y Sonia Ventanas
Departamento de Producción Animal
y Ciencia de los Alimentos,
Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Extremadura
Avd/ Universidad s/n Cáceres, España
Resumen
Cuatro productos cárnicos derivados del cerdo Ibérico: paté, embutidos picados crudos curados (salchichón y chorizo) y lomo curado, fueron caracterizados
sensorialmente mediante la técnica de análisis sensorial estática, análisis cuantitativo descriptivo (ACD),
que aporta información de la intensidad de los atributos sensoriales evaluados en un momento puntual y
preciso. Para la recopilación de datos se utilizó el software FIZZ (Sensory Analysis and Computer Test Management) (Biosystemes, France, 2002). El ACD reveló que las especias contribuyeron de forma
importante al perfil de olor y flavor de los productos estudiados al ser ingredientes fundamentales en la formulación de este tipo de productos.
Introducción
La carne y los productos cárnicos procedentes de
cerdos ibéricos son muy apreciados por los consumidores españoles, debido a sus particulares características sensoriales de alta calidad. (Ventanas, S.,
Ventanas, J., Ruiz, J., & Estévez, M., 2005). Diferentes factores relacionados con las características de la
materia prima y la peculiaridad de la transformación de
los diferentes productos cárnicos contribuyen directamente a las características sensoriales de estos produc-
tos (Ventanas, Ventanas, Ruiz & Estévez, 2005). El
contenido en grasa intramuscular en el caso del lomo
y el contenido total en grasa en el caso del paté, salchichón y chorizo actúan como un depósito de compuestos precursores que posteriormente se someten a transformaciones que conducen a la formación de
compuestos volátiles. Además, la grasa está estrechamente relacionada con la jugosidad de los productos
curados al ser productos fuertemente deshidratados, ya
eurocarne • Nº 222 • Diciembre 2013
75
Especial tecnología
Tabla 1. Tipo de pruebas sensoriales empleadas para evaluar la calidad
sensorial de productos cárnicos del cerdo ibérico (en el caso del paté y el chorizo no existen referencias previas de ningún estudio sensorial en productos ibéricos)
Producto cárnico
Técnica sensorial
Referencia
Paté (cerdo blanco)
Prueba hedónica
Prueba triangular
Delgado-Pando y col., 2011
Morales-Irigoyen y col., 2012
Salchichón
Prueba triangular
ACD
Benito y col., 2003
Casquete y col., 2011
ACD
ACD
Fernández-Fernández y col., 2005
González-Fernández y col., 2006
ACD
Prueba de preferencia
ACD
Prueba triangular
Ventanas y col., 2007
Ventanas y col., 2007
Ramírez & Cava, 2007
Soto y col., 2008
Chorizo (cerdo blanco)
Lomo
Tabla 2. Atributos seleccionados para el chorizo, salchichón y lomo
Paté
Apariencia
Textura táctil
Olor
Intensidad color
Homogeneidad
Brillo
Lomo
Intensidad color del magro
Color rojo
Homogeneidad color del magro Brillo
Brillo
Veteado
Tamaño vetas
Cohesión emulsión
Untuosidad
Dureza
Cohesión de la loncha
Global
A hígado
A especias*
A carne
Global
A especias*
Global
A curado
A especias*
Dureza
Masticabilidad
Jugosidad
Fibrosidad
Dureza
Maticabilidad
Jugosidad
Fibrosidad
Global
Sabor ácido
Sabor salado
A especias*
Global
Sabor salado
A curado
A especias*
Pastosidad
Textura en boca Adherencia
Granulosidad
Masticabilidad
Flavor
Salchichón/Chorizo
Global
Sabor salado
Sabor umami
A hígado
A especias*
lizada en la evaluación sensorial en
productos derivados del cerdo ibérico como jamón curado (Ruiz, Ventanas, Cava, Timon y García, 1998;
Carrapiso, Bonilla y García, 2003,
Andrés, Cava, Ventanas, Thovar y
Ruiz, 2004) y lomo curado (Ventanas, Ventanas y Ruiz, 2007; Ramírez, y Cava, 2007); su utilización en
embutidos curados como el salchichón es limitada (Casquete, Benito, Martín, Ruiz-Moyano, Hernández & Córdoba, 2011) y en la
evaluación sensorial de chorizo ibérico y paté ibérico inexistente (tabla 1). Estas técnicas aportan información de la intensidad de los
atributos sensoriales evaluados en
un momento puntual y preciso. El
objetivo del presente estudio fue obtener el perfil sensorial descriptivo
de diferentes productos cárnicos derivados del cerdo Ibérico empleando el ACD.
Material y métodos
Muestras
Cuatro productos cárnicos diferentes derivados del cerdo Ibérico
(n=6) fueron adquiridos en un supermercado local, en el caso de los
patés o en una industria cárnica local "Dehesa Serrana", en el caso
del salchichón, del chorizo y del
lomo curado.
Caracterización físico-química
Cada muestra se analizó para determinar la composición química
por triplicado. El contenido de humedad se determinó mediante el
secado de la muestra a 102 °C durante 24 h (AOAC, 2000). El contenido total de proteínas fue analizado con el Método de Kjeldahl (AOAC,
2000). El contenido en grasa se determinó de acuerdo a Folch, Lees, y Sloane Stanley (1957) y el contenido en cloruros mediante el método de Volhard
(AOAC, 2000).
*Olor/Flavor asociado con la pimienta negra en el caso del paté, con especias aromáticas en el caso del salchichón
(nuez moscada, comino, pimienta negra...), con el pimentón en el caso del chorizo, y con la mezcla de adobo en el
lomo curado (pimentón, orégano, ajo...)
que estimula la secreción salivar y contribuye directamente con un efecto lubricante a la jugosidad al formarse una película grasa alrededor de la lengua, los
dientes y otras partes de la boca.
Aunque la utilización de técnicas sensoriales estáticas como el ACD es una herramienta ampliamente uti-
76
Tecnología
Análisis sensorial
Durante la fase de entrenamiento se estableció el protocolo de evaluación de las muestras que incluía la cantidad de muestra a evaluar por atributo así como la forma de
evaluar cada atributo. En el caso del paté el protocolo fue
el siguiente: los descriptores de apariencia, textura táctil y
olor se evaluaron extendiendo el paté de cerdo Ibérico sobre una tostada, y los atributos de flavor y textura en boca
se evaluaron introduciendo el paté en la boca presentado
en una cuchara (figura 1a). En el caso de los embutidos,
las piezas de chorizo, salchichón o lomo, se lonchearon en
el momento del análisis sensorial en lonchas de 2 mm de
espesor. A cada panelista se le presentaba 1 loncha completa para la evaluación de los parámetros relacionados con
Panel
Se empleó un panel de cata formado por once panelistas (siete mujeres y cuatro hombres con edades comprendidas entre los 26 y los 35 años) con amplia experiencia en la evaluación sensorial de productos cárnicos
curados. Todos ellos formaban parte del personal de
la Universidad de Extremadura.
Selección de descriptores
y entrenamiento del panel
Se llevaron a cabo tres sesiones
de 2 horas cada una para la selección y entrenamiento en la evaluación de los atributos que mejor caracterizaban los productos cárnicos
a evaluar: paté, salchichón, chorizo y lomo. Durante el proceso de
selección de los atributos se les presentaba a los panelistas el producto
a evaluar y se les pedía que de forma individual generaran aquellos
descriptores relacionados con la
apariencia, textura táctil, olor, textura en boca y flavor que consideraban que mejor definían los productos. Como ayuda en este proceso
de selección de descriptores, se les
proporcionó una lista de posibles
atributos con sus correspondientes
definiciones basado en bibliografía científica consultada (Briz Escribano, J. & García Faure, R.,
2000; Ruiz Pérez-Cacho, GalánSoldevilla, León Crespo & Molina
Recio, 2005; Sancho, Bota & de
Castro, 1999; Ventanas y col.,
2007). Tras el trabajo individual, se
puso en común la información generada por cada panelista y se discutió la idoneidad de cada atributo. Tras haber alcanzado un
consenso, con la supervisión y ayuda del director de cata se seleccionaron finalmente 18 atributos para
el paté y 15 para el chorizo, salchichón y lomo respectivamente (tabla 2).
The casing company
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Celulósica, Colágeno, Fibrosa y Plásticos
www.viscofan.com Tlf. +34 948 198 444
77
Resultados y discusión
Figura 1. Presentación de las muestras de paté y chorizo
para la evaluación sensorial de los mismos
Composición físico-química
b)
a)
Tabla 3. Composición química proximal de los productos cárnicos
evaluados (paté, embutidos picados curados: salchichón y chorizo;
y lomo curado) Los resultados se expresan como % (media ± desviación típica).
Paté
Humedad
Grasa1
Cloruros
Proteínas
1
56.48 ± 0.82a
25.15 ± 0.88b
1.48 ± 0.10b
14.89 ± 0.85c
Embutidos
picados curados
29.67 ± 0.37c
36.64 ± 1.50a
2.44 ± 0.46a
26.64 ± 0.95b
Lomo curado
p
41.39 ± 1.26b
9.79 ± 1.41c
2.46 ± 0.38a
39.53 ± 1.45a
***
***
**
***
Calculado en forma de contenido en grasa intramuscular (GIM) en los lomos curados.
* P <0,05, ** p <0,01. ***, P <0,001
Letras diferentes en la misma fila indican diferencias significativas entre las medias de p <0,05.
La tabla 3 muestra la composición química de los productos cárnicos estudiados. El paté presento el mayor contenido en
humedad (p<0,05) en comparación con
los productos cárnicos sometidos a un proceso de secado-maduración (embutidos
picados curados y lomo curado). Como
era de esperar, los embutidos picados curados (salchichón y chorizo) tenían el mayor contenido en grasa (p<0,05), seguidos
del paté y el lomo curado. El lomo curado
presento el mayor contenido de proteína
total ya que este producto se elabora utilizando el músculo longissimus dorsi intacto. El contenido en cloruros fue similar en
los productos cárnicos curados (embutidos y lomo) que mostraron concentraciones de sal significativamente más altas en
comparación con el paté. Estos resultados
concuerdan con los de estudios previos realizados en productos cárnicos ibéricos similares (Estévez & Cava, 2004; Martín
Ruiz, Kivikari & Puolanne, 2008; Ramírez
& Cava, 2007).
Análisis cuantitativo descriptivo
la apariencia, el olor y la textura táctil, media loncha para la evaluación de los atributos relacionados con la textura en boca y otra media loncha para evaluar los atributos relacionados con el flavor (figura 1b).
Paté de hígado de cerdo Ibérico
En las figuras 2 (apariencia, textura táctil y olor) y
3 (textura oral y flavor) se presenta el perfil sensorial
del paté de cerdo ibérico. Aunque se han llevado a cabo algunos estudios en los que se ha empleado tanto
análisis sensoriales tipo discriminantes como hedónicos en patés de hígado de cerdo ibérico (Morales-Irigoyen, Severiano-Pérez, Rodríguez-Huezo & Totosaus,
2012; Delgado-Pando, Cofrades, Rodríguez-Salas &
Jiménez-Colmenero, 2011), en la literatura científica
consultada no se ha encontrado ningún estudio donde
se empleen técnicas de análisis sensorial de tipo descriptivo.
En relación a los resultados obtenidos para los atributos de apariencia, los catadores puntuaron las muestras con un color marrón moderado (5,49 ± 0,76 puntos en una escala de 0 a 10), muy homogéneo (7,80 ±
0,25) y con poco brillo (3,11 ± 1,02). En relación a
los resultados del perfil de textura del paté Ibérico los
Análisis cuantitativo descriptivo
Se realizaron un total de tres sesiones para evaluar cada producto cárnico, presentándoles a los catadores dos
muestras por sesión al azar de acuerdo con el diseño del
Cuadrado Latino de Williams. Dichas sesiones tuvieron
lugar en la sala de catas de la Unidad de Tecnología de los
Alimentos de la Facultad de Veterinaria de Cáceres, en cabinas individuales con luz fluorescente blanca. Las muestras se sirvieron en platos de cristal con un vaso de agua
y una tostada sin sal para seguir el protocolo de limpieza de la cavidad bucal entre muestras. La intensidad de
los atributos se puntuó en una escala horizontal no estructurada de 10 cm con los extremos verbales “poco” y
“mucho”. Los datos fueron recogidos a través del software FIZZ (Sensory Analysis and Computer Test Management) (Biosystemes, France, 2002).
78
Tecnología
Embutidos picados crudos curados
catadores puntuaron las muestras con una cohesión
(5,55 ± 0,79) y untuosidad moderadas (5,67 ± 0,81).
Por otra parte, el olor global de los patés fue percibido
como intenso (6,59 ± 0,73) con notas de olor a hígado
notables (4,36 ± 1,18) y en menor medida notas de
olor a carne (2,74 ± 0,72) y a especias (2,26 ± 1,01). En
cuanto a los atributos de textura en boca, el paté se caracterizó como un producto con una pastosidad (4,47
± 0,78) y granularidad moderadas (4,05 ± 0,95), poco
adherente (2,37 ± 1,09) y fácilmente masticable (2,95
± 1,04). Por último, los resultados relativos al perfil
de flavor mostraron un producto con un intenso flavor
global (6,17 ± 0,65), predominando el flavor a hígado (4,49 ± 1,25) y el flavor a especias (4,11 ± 1,29), pero poco salado (3,20 ± 0,61) y con escaso sabor a umami (1,98 ± 0,66). Como era de esperar, las notas a
hígado fueron predominantes tanto el perfil del olor
como del flavor, ya que el ingrediente principal de los
patés fue el hígado de cerdo de acuerdo con el etiquetado del productor.
El perfil sensorial de los embutidos picados crudos
curados (salchichón y chorizo) se presentan en la figura 4 (apariencia, textura táctil y olor) y en la figura 5
(textura en boca y flavor). El color rojo del magro fue valorado por los catadores con puntuaciones moderadas
(5,92 ± 0,23) en el caso del salchichón y más altas en el
chorizo (6,36± 1,25). La homogeneidad de color fue
valorada con puntuaciones más altas en el caso del salchichón (5,49 ± 1,20) que en el chorizo (4,48 ± 1,28 el
chorizo) mientras que el brillo recibió puntuaciones similares en ambos productos (5,24 ± 1,26 el salchichón
y 5,75 ± 1,74 el chorizo). Estos resultados coinciden,
en términos generales, con los descritos previamente
obtenidos en embutidos crudos curados por MartínSánchez, López-Chaves, Sendra, Sayas, Fernández-López & Pérez-Álvarez (2011). En cuanto al perfil de textura táctil, ambos embutidos crudos curados se definen
por una buena cohesión de los diferentes ingredientes
factor de éxito
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Telf.: 972 842 065 · [email protected]
www.industriasfac.com
79
Figura 2. Perfil descriptivo de la apariencia,
textura táctil y olor del paté ibérico
Figura 3. Perfil descriptivo de la textura oral
y flavor del paté ibérico
Figura 4. Perfil descriptivo de la apariencia, textura
táctil y olor de embutidos crudos curados ibéricos
y flavor de embutidos crudos curados ibéricos
Figura 6. Perfil descriptivo de la apariencia,
textura táctil y olor del lomo curado ibérico
y flavor del lomo curado ibérico
80
Tecnología
(6,20 ± 0,69 el salchichón y 5,27 ± 1,49 el chorizo), así
como con una dureza moderada (4,65 ± 0,57 el salchichón y 3,93 ± 0,95 el chorizo). Por otra parte, el olor
global de ambos embutidos crudos curados recibió puntuaciones elevadas (6,89 ± 0,67 en el salchichón y 7,08
± 1,47 en el chorizo), con predominio del olor a especias
(4,84 ± 0,55 el salchichón y 6,28 ± 1,61 el chorizo). Las
especias son uno de los ingredientes fundamentales en
este tipo de productos, siendo la pimienta negra la predominante en el caso del salchichón y el pimentón en el
caso del chorizo, y por lo tanto era de esperar encontrar una importante contribución de éstas en el perfil de
olor de los mismos. Los resultados relativos al perfil de
flavor muestra que el flavor
global de ambos embutidos
es intenso (6,41 ± 0,46 en
el salchichón y 6,63 ± 1,28
el chorizo), debido principalmente a la contribución
del sabor ácido (5,59 ± 0,56
el salchichón y 4,52 ± 0,96
el chorizo), seguido por el
flavor a especias (4,66 ±
0,74 el salchichón y 3,88 ±
1,17 el chorizo). Benito,
Rodríguez, Martín, Aranda
& Córdoba (2003) también
utilizan como atributo sensorial el sabor ácido en embutidos ibéricos curados
analizados mediante una
prueba triangular. El ácido
láctico es el principal ácido
resultante de la fermentación en este tipo de productos cárnicos durante su maduración (Mateo &
Zumalacárregui, 1996; Varnam & Sutherland, 1995)
por lo tanto era de esperar
que tuviera una importante
contribución en el perfil del
flavor de estos productos.
Por otra parte, el sabor salado presentó un bajo impacto considerando las puntuaciones otorgadas por los
panelistas (3,51 ± 0,69 el
salchichón y 3,55 ± 0,65 el
chorizo). En cuanto a los
atributos de textura en boca,
ambos embutidos crudos curados fueron percibidos por
los catadores como jugosos (4,87 ± 0,28 el salchichón y
4,50 ± 1,02 el chorizo), fácilmente masticables (4,05 ±
0,84 el salchichón y 5,04 ± 1,07 el chorizo), poco duros
(3,66 ± 0,41 el salchichón y 3.66 ± 0,72 el chorizo) y poco fibrosos (2,20 ± 0,52 el salchichón y 2,94 ± 0,60 el
chorizo). Sorprendentemente, los embutidos crudos curados estudiados presentaron una baja jugosidad en comparación con los resultados obtenidos por Casquete y
col. (2011) en el ACD de salchichones ibéricos, esto
puede explicarse por diferencias en el contenido en grasa entre sus muestras y las nuestras, sin embargo ellos no
determinaron el contenido en grasa.
81
Lomo ibérico curado
tivo (ACD) en el caso del paté de cerdo ibérico y el chorizo ibérico. Ha quedado de manifiesto la importante
contribución de las especias al perfil sensorial de los
productos evaluados debido a que estas son unos de los
ingredientes fundamentales en este tipo de productos.
La percepción tanto del flavor como de la textura
son fenómenos dinámicos que se modifican durante
el proceso de consumo del alimento y por ello es necesaria la realización de estudios que profundicen en la
percepción temporal y que nos aporten información
complementaria a la del empleo de técnicas estáticas
como es el ACD.
En las figuras 6 (apariencia y olor) y 7 (la textura
en boca y flavor) se presenta el perfil sensorial de los
lomos ibéricos curados. En relación a la apariencia,
los catadores puntuaron las muestras con un color rojo moderado (5,63 ± 0,76) y con escaso brillo (3,36 ±
0,16) y veteado (3,67 ± 1,28). Además, en la superficie de las lonchas de lomo curado evaluadas, predominaban las vetas de grasa de pequeño tamaño (2,45
± 0,58). Ventanas, Ventanas & Ruiz (2007) y Ramírez
& Cava (2007) obtuvieron resultados similares en lomos ibéricos curados para el color rojo y el brillo
mientras que estos autores encontraron puntuaciones
más altas para el atributo de veteado. En este sentido,
Martín, Antequera, Muriel, Pérez-Palacios & Ruiz
(2008) obtuvieron resultados similares a los de este
estudio para el veteado de lomos ibéricos curados.
En cuanto al perfil de olor, el olor a especias (5,43
± 0,55), seguido del olor a curado (4,70 ± 0,45) contribuyeron en gran medida a la percepción global de
olor (5,99 ± 0,66). El predominio del olor a especias
en los lomos curados se debe a que estos son comúnmente adobados con una mezcla de agentes de curado (sal y nitritos) y diferentes especias, pimentón
(Capsicum annuum, L.) y ajo (Allium sativum L.)
principalmente. Un perfil similar fue descrito por
Ventanas y col. (2007), excepto para el olor a especias
ya que estos autores no utilizaron especias en la fabricación de los lomos curados. De acuerdo con el perfil de flavor del lomo ibérico curado, este producto se
caracterizó por un flavor global intenso (5,64 ± 0,69)
atribuido principalmente al flavor a especias (4,32 ±
0,43) y a curado (4,39 ± 0,56). Por otra parte, la persistencia del flavor también recibió unas puntuaciones
moderadas (4,37 ± 0,16). Ventanas y col. (2007) y
Martin y col. (2008) obtuvieron resultados similares
para la intensidad del flavor general, flavor a curado
y persistencia del flavor. Por último, tanto la dureza
(4,96 ± 0,93), la masticabilidad (5,27 ± 0,99), la jugosidad (4,19 ± 0,66) y la fibrosidad (4,56 ± 0,63) fueron valoradas por los catadores con puntuaciones moderadas en comparación con el perf il de textura
obtenido previamente por Ventanas y col. (2007).
Agradecimientos
Laura Lorido da las gracias al Gobierno de Extremadura para su beca FPI (PD10025). Este estudio
fue apoyado por el proyecto titulado "Aplicación de
técnicas sensoriales dinámicas para estudiar la percepción del flavor y de la textura en productos cárnicos derivados del cerdo ibérico" (ACCVII11), financiado por la Universidad de Extremadura y el
proyecto titulado "Optimización y control de la calidad tecnológica, nutricional y organoléptica del jamón serrano e ibérico "(CLASHAM-RTA-201000029-C04-03) financiado por el INIA (Instituto de
Investigaciones Agrarias yAlimentarias). Los autores
agradecen la participación de todos los miembros del
panel sensorial.
Bibliografía
• Andrés, A.I., Cava, R., Ventanas, J., Thovar, V. & Ruiz
J. (2004). Sensory characteristics of Iberian ham: Influence of salt content and processing conditions. Meat Science, 68(1), 45–51.
• AOAC (2000). Official methods of analysis (17th ed.).
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• Benito, M.J., Rodríguez, M., Martín, A., Aranda, E.
& Córdoba, J.J. (2003). Effect of the fungal protease
EPg222 on the sensory characteristics of dry fermented
sausage “salchichón” ripened with commercial starter
cultures. Meat Science, 67 (3), 497–505.
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• Carrapiso, A. I., Bonilla, F. & García, C. (2003). Effect
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Conclusiones
Este estudio puede ser considerado como una primera aproximación a la caracterización sensorial de productos cárnicos derivados del cerdo ibérico, siendo la
primera vez que se aplica un análisis sensorial descrip-
82
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autochthonous starter cultures in the production of “salchichón”, a traditional Iberian dry-fermented sausage, with
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acid in combination with monounsaturated fatty acids on
the meat composition and quality traits of dry-cured loin.
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83
PAPER 2 ANNEX
Investigación
Caracterización sensorial de productos
cárnicos derivados del cerdo Ibérico (II):
utilización de técnicas descriptivas dinámicas
Publicamos la segunda parte del estudio
sobre la caracterización sensorial
de productos cárnicos derivados del cerdo
ibérico. El objetivo de esta segunda
parte del estudio es aplicar una técnica
de evaluación sensorial dinámica (TI)
para evaluar su flavor y su textura.
Resumen
Tres productos cárnicos derivados del cerdo Ibérico:
paté, salchichón y lomo curado fueron caracterizados
sensorialmente sensorialmente mediante la técnica de
análisis sensorial dinámica: tiempo-intensidad (TI), la
cual aportó información de la intensidad de los atributos
sensoriales evaluados a lo largo del tiempo de consumo
de los diferentes productos. Para la recogida de datos
se utilizó el software FIZZ (Sensory Analysis and Com136
eurocarne
Nº 224. Marzo 2014
Laura Lorido, Jesús Ventanas y Sonia Ventanas.
Departamento de Producción animal
y Ciencia de los Alimentos,
Facultad de Veterinaria
Avd/Universidad s.n. Cáceres, España
puter Test Management) (Biosystemes,
France, 2002). La técnica TI se reveló
como una técnica adecuada para evaluar
el impacto de la composición y estructura de los tres productos cárnicos evaluados en la percepción del flavor y la
textura desde una perspectiva dinámica.
Los parámetros TI extraídos de las curvas TI permitieron la detección de claras
diferencias en la percepción sensorial
temporal entre los productos cárnicos
evaluados y proporcionaron una visión
adicional en la percepción sensorial en
comparación con la técnica sensorial estática convencional (ACD).
Introducción
La percepción tanto del flavor como de la textura
son fenómenos dinámicos que se modifican durante
el proceso de consumo del alimento (Dijksterhuis &
Piggott, 2001). Por lo tanto, el uso de técnicas sensoriales dinámicas como el tiempo-intensidad (TI) re-
Investigación
presenta un gran avance en el campo de la evaluación
sensorial de los productos cárnicos y en particular de
los derivados del cerdo ibérico. El análisis sensorial
descriptivo tipo TI permite evaluar las variaciones en
la intensidad de percepción de un atributo concreto a
lo largo del tiempo empleando un panel sensorial entrenado para tal fin. Como resultado se obtienen una
serie de representaciones gráficas (curvas tiempo-intensidad) muy orientativas e intuitivas que aportan información de cómo varía la intensidad en la percepción
del flavor y la textura por los catadores durante el consumo del producto, reflejándose en subidas y descensos
de la intensidad de percepción (Dijksterhuis & Piggott,
2001). Además, se pueden extrapolar a partir de dichas
curvas una serie de parámetros (intensidad máxima,
área total bajo la curva, tiempo final, duración de la
fase de plateau…) que permiten evaluar cuantitativamente esas variaciones o modificaciones temporales.
La técnica TI ha sido aplicada con éxito en gran variedad de alimentos como productos lácteos (Tuorila,
Sommardahl y Hyvönen, 1995; King, Lawler &
Adams, 2000; Silva Cadena & André Bolini, 2011),
chicles (Ovejero-López, Bro & Bredie, 2005; McGowan & Lee, 2006), aderezos para ensaladas (Guinard,
Wee, McSunas & Fritter, 2002) y quesos (Pionnier y
col., 2004), entre otros. Sin embargo, aunque esta metodología se ha aplicado a algunos productos cárnicos
como hamburguesas de carne de cerdo (Reinbach, Toft
y Møller, 2009) y embutidos (Ventanas, Puolanne y
Tuorila, 2010), el conocimiento existente sobre la percepción temporal en los productos cárnicos sigue siendo bastante limitado (Fuentes, Morcuende, Ventanas
y Ventanas, 2013).
El objetivo del presente estudio fue aplicar una técnica de evaluación sensorial dinámica (TI) para evaluar
el flavor y la textura de tres productos cárnicos derivados del cerdo ibérico: paté de hígado, embutidos picados curados y lomos curados.
Material y métodos
Muestras
Tres productos cárnicos diferentes derivados del cerdo Ibérico (n = 6) fueron adquiridos en un supermercado local (patés) en una industria cárnica local "Dehesa Serrana" (embutidos crudos curados: salchichón
y lomo curado).
Análisis sensorial
Panel
Se empleó un panel de cata formado por once panelistas (siete mujeres y cuatro hombres con edades comprendidas entre los 26 y los 35 años) con amplia experiencia en la evaluación sensorial de productos
cárnicos curados. Todos ellos formaban parte del personal de la Universidad de Extremadura.
Selección de descriptores y entrenamiento
del panel
La selección de los atributos de flavor y textura en
boca a evaluar por la técnica TI se hizo en base a los
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Nº 224. Marzo 2014
137
Investigación
Figura 1. Típica curva TI y los parámetros
comúnmente derivados de ella
del proceso de entrenamiento se estableció igualmente
el protocolo de evaluación de las muestras que incluía
la cantidad de muestra a evaluar por atributo así como
la forma de evaluar cada atributo. En el caso del paté
los atributos de flavor se evaluaron introduciendo en
la boca el paté de cerdo Ibérico presentado en una cuchara.
En el caso de los embutidos, las piezas de salchichón
o lomo, se lonchearon en el momento del análisis sensorial en lonchas de 2 mm de espesor. A cada panelista
se le presentaba media loncha para la evaluación de
los atributos relacionados con la textura en boca y otra
media loncha para evaluar los atributos relacionados
con el flavor.
Evaluaciones tiempo-intensidad
(Peyvieux & Dijksterhuis, 2001)
resultados obtenidos previamente del ACD, seleccionando aquellos atributos de mayor interés y que aportaban una mayor información acerca de los diferentes
productos cárnicos a evaluar: paté, salchichón y lomo.
Como los resultados obtenidos en el ACD tanto para
el salchichón como para el chorizo (ambos embutidos
crudos curados picados) fueron similares se seleccionó
el salchichón como representativo de este tipo de productos cárnicos para el análisis TI. En el caso del paté,
en base a la información y opiniones aportadas por los
catadores, decidimos descartar los atributos de textura
en boca para las pruebas de TI. Esto es debido a que
el paté es un producto muy blando, de forma que dificulta la evaluación de los diferentes atributos de textura
a lo largo del tiempo ya que se deshace rápidamente
en la boca.
Finalmente se seleccionaron los siguientes atributos
para el paté: flavor global, sabor salado, flavor a hígado
y flavor a especias. Los atributos seleccionados para el
salchichón fueron los siguientes: flavor global, sabor
salado, sabor acido, flavor picante, flavor rancio, dureza,
masticabilidad, jugosidad y fibrosidad. Con respecto a
los lomos curados los atributos seleccionados fueron:
flavor global, sabor salado, flavor picante; dureza, jugosidad y fibrosidad.
Se llevaron a cabo tres sesiones de 2 horas cada una
para el entrenamiento en la evaluación de los atributos
de flavor y de textura en boca seleccionados. A lo largo
138
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Nº 224. Marzo 2014
Se realizaron un total de 18 sesiones, evaluándose
una muestra por sesión. Las muestras se sirvieron en
platos de cristal codificadas con un vaso de agua y galletas sin sal para consumir entre muestra y muestra.
Las evaluaciones se llevaron a cabo en cabinas individuales con luz fluorescente blanca. Dichas sesiones
tuvieron lugar en la sala de catas de la Unidad de Tecnología de los alimentos de la Facultad de Veterinaria
de Cáceres. El protocolo de evaluación de las muestras
fue el siguiente: los panelistas debían masticar o mantener en el caso del paté durante 15 segundos en la boca, y posteriormente tragar la muestra. Después de tragar la muestra, los panelistas debían seguir la
evaluación hasta que dejaban de percibir el atributo a
evaluar. Durante la evaluación, los panelistas debían
mover el cursor a lo largo de la escala vertical de acuerdo con la intensidad de su percepción. La evaluación
y recogida de los datos de intensidad comenzaba en el
momento en el que los panelistas disponían el cursor
sobre la escala y se detenía automáticamente después
de 120 s (tiempo total de evaluación) o cuando los panelistas ponían el marcador en cero porque no percibían
más el atributo. La intensidad de los atributos se puntuaba en una escala vertical no estructurada de 10 cm
con los extremos verbales “poco” y “mucho”. Los
datos fueron recogidos a través del software FIZZ (Sensory Analysis and Computer Test Management) (Biosystemes, France, 2002).
Análisis de datos
Los datos de las curvas TI individuales de cada uno
de los atributos evaluados fueron analizados y se calcularon las curvas TI medias (resultados de 11 jueces)
Investigación
para cada atributo utilizando el
software FIZZ. Se extrajeron cuatro parámetros TI a partir de las
curvas TI medias: la intensidad
máxima (Imax), el área total bajo
la curva (AreaTse), la duración de
la fase de plato (DurPl) y el tiempo
final (Tend) (figura 1). Los parámetros TI se analizaron mediante
un ANOVA de una vía utilizando
los diferentes atributos como el
factor principal.
Los resultados (media ± desviación) obtenidos mediante la aplicación del análisis sensorial TI en
los diferentes productos cárnicos
estudiados (paté, salchichón y lomo curado) se muestran en las tablas 1, 2 y 3 respectivamente. Las
curvas TI medias (11 panelistas x
6 sesiones) para los atributos de
flavor y textura en boca evaluados
por el panel se muestran en la figura 1.
Paté de hígado de cerdo
Ibérico
En el paté los resultados del análisis TI (tabla 1) muestran que las
Tabla 1. Parámetros TI de los atributos de flavor del paté (medias ± desviación):
intensidad máxima (Imax), área total bajo la curva (AreaTse),
duración de la fase de plato (DurPl) y tiempo final (Tend)
Global
Sabor salado
A hígado
A especias
IMax
6,4 ± 0,44a
4,9 ± 0,54b
5,3 ± 0,53b
4,7 ± 0,41b
AreaTse
74,2 ± 8,68a
50,2 ± 6,71b
60,1 ± 11,93b
55,9 ± 7,84b
DurPl
4,7 ± 0,45
4,4 ± 0,54
4,3 ± 0,80
5,1 ± 0,62
Tend
19,2 ± 1,49
16,1 ± 1,95
17,9 ± 2,62
18,5 ± 1,79
Diferentes letras dentro de la misma columna indica que existen diferencias significativas entre medias a p ≤ 0,05
Tabla 2. Parámetros TI de los atributos de flavor y textura del salchichón
(medias ± desviación): intensidad máxima (Imax), área total bajo la curva
(AreaTse), duración de la fase de plato (DurPl) y tiempo final (Tend)
Imax
AreaTse
DurPl
Tend
7,40 ± 0,21a
5,64 ± 0,50b
5,04 ± 0,32b
7,33 ± 0,47a
127,50 ± 8,87a
79,67 ± 10,33b
83,33 ± 12,19b
130,50 ± 23,47a
9,55 ± 0,80
8,37 ± 0,94
9,70 ± 1,99
8,75 ± 1,11
23,68 ± 1,00ab
20,87 ± 2,18b
22,63 ± 2,58b
26,48 ± 3,53a
Textura oral
Dureza
3.47 ± 0.38c
Masticabilidad 4.37 ± 0.30b
Jugosidad
6.28 ± 0.20a
Fibrosidad
4.57 ± 0.96b
37,33 ± 8,69b
48,50 ± 9,09b
74,17 ± 7,19a
52,67 ± 15,42b
6,08 ± 1.58
6,12 ± 1.96
6,88 ± 1.39
6,05 ± 2.01
15,43 ± 1,05
14,88 ± 0,71
16,10 ± 0,98
15,38 ± 0,73
Flavor
Global
Sabor ácido
Sabor salado
A especias
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Nº 224. Marzo 2014
139
Investigación
pecias fueron mayores por la técnica TI. Probablemente esto se
pueda asociar a que en la técnica
TI el tiempo de permanencia de
la muestra en la boca está fijado
por el director del panel, y es maImax
AreaTse
DurPl
Tend
yor que en el ACD, permitiendo
Flavor
una mayor intensidad de percepGlobal
6,13 ± 0,57a
116,67 ± 13,38a
5,07 ± 1,49
28,58 ± 2,89
ción de los atributos. Por otra parSabor salado
5,06 ± 0,89b
87,17 ± 19,37b 4,55 ± 2,61
25,80 ± 3,53
te, centrándonos en los parámeA especias
5,86 ± 0,36ab
101,00 ± 13,39ab 4,90 ± 1,19
26,98 ± 2,27
tros dinámicos, el flavor
Textura oral
especiado fue el más persistente
Dureza
5,11 ± 0,59a
61,67 ± 14,02a
5,37 ± 0,92
18,87 ± 2,83
(Tend) aunque estas diferencias
Jugosidad
5,28 ± 0,42a
62,33 ± 7,81a
5,33 ± 0,86
20,92 ± 2,63
no fueron significativas en comFibrosidad
4,19 ± 0,29b
44,50 ± 7,06b
5,02 ± 1,08
17,75 ± 2,33
paración con la persistencia del
flavor global y el sabor salado. En
relación con los atributos de textura, la evaluación sensorial dinámayores puntuaciones de Imax y AreaTse se dieron
mica reveló que la jugosidad fue el atributo de textura
para el flavor global (p ≤ 0,05). Entre los otros atributos
que se percibió de forma más intensa (Imax y AreaTse)
de flavor evaluados por el panel, la percepción del flay con una mayor persistencia en boca (Tend). Por el
vor a hígado (Imax y AreaTse) fue de mayor intensidad
contrario, la dureza fue el atributo de textura evaluado
en comparación con la intensidad percibida para el saque presentó una menor intensidad de percepción
bor salado y el flavor a especias, aunque estas diferen(Imax, p ≤ 0,05).
cias no fueron significativas. Estos resultado están de
acuerdo con los obtenidos por medio del ACD, en los
Lomo curado de cerdo ibérico
que el flavor a hígado presento también las mayores
puntuaciones. Esto era de esperar debido a que el híLa evaluación sensorial dinámica de los atributos de
gado de cerdo es uno de los principales ingredientes
textura y flavor del lomo curado (tabla 3) mostró que
en la composición del paté. En el caso de la persistencia
el flavor global fue el atributo de flavor percibido de
(Tend) de los diferentes atributos evaluados aunque no
forma más intensa (Imax y AreaTse; p ≤ 0,05), siendo
existen diferencias significativas, el flavor a especias
el flavor a especias el que contribuyó de forma más
tiende a tener una mayor persistencia a lo largo del
tiempo y por tanto contribuye en mayor medida a la
importante a este flavor global en comparación con el
persistencia global del flavor del producto en la boca
sabor salado. En relación a la percepción dinámica de
en comparación con el sabor salado y el flavor a hígado.
los atributos de textura, la dureza y jugosidad fueron
los atributos que presentaron una mayor intensidad de
Salchichón ibérico
percepción (Imax y AreaTse; p ≤ 0,05) en comparación
con el resto de atributos evaluados. La dureza y la juEn relación a la percepción sensorial dinámica de los
gosidad se consideran como atributos opuestos, pero
atributos de favor y textura del salchichón (tabla 2) el
en el caso de productos secados-madurados con un
flavor global y a especias fueron los atributos que preelevado contenido en grasa intramuscular (GIM) como
sentaron una mayor intensidad (Imax y AreaTse) (p ≤
el lomo curado ibérico (% humedad: 41,39 ± 1,26; %
0,05) en comparación con el resto de atributos de flavor
GIM: 9,79 ± 1,41) pueden condicionar que ambos atrievaluados. Por lo tanto, de acuerdo con estos resultados
butos se percibieran de forma intensa en el mismo proel flavor especiado fue probablemente el que contribuyó
ducto. El alto contenido en GIM en este producto juega
en mayor medida a la percepción global del flavor. Esun papel importante en la jugosidad del mismo ya que
tos resultados coinciden con los obtenidos previamente
estimula la secreción salivar y además da lugar a la
aplicando la técnica descriptiva estática de Análisis
formación de una película grasa en la lengua y la caCuantitativo descriptivo (ACD). Sin embargo, las punvidad bucal potenciando el efecto lubricante de las
tuaciones obtenidas para la intensidad del flavor a esmuestras.
Tabla 3. Parámetros TI de los atributos de flavor y textura del lomo curado
(medias ± desviación): intensidad máxima (Imax), área total bajo la curva (AreaTse),
duración de la fase de plato (DurPl) y tiempo final (Tend)
140
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Nº 224. Marzo 2014
Ciencia y Experiencia
a su servicio
Diferencias en la percepción dinámica sensorial
en productos cárnicos curados de cerdo ibérico
La figura 2 muestra las curvas TI medias para al
menos dos de los tres productos cárnicos evaluados,
atributo por atributo. Las diferencias en el perfil sensorial dinámico de los diferentes productos cárnicos
se pueden atribuir a su diferente composición química,
a la estructura de la matriz cárnica de cada uno de ellos
(músculo entero o carne picada) y al proceso de elaboración (cocción, secado-maduración). A continuación
vamos a discutir las diferencias entre los diferentes
productos cárnicos en los atributos de flavor y textura
en boca.
Flavor
Ambos productos curados, salchichón y lomo, se caracterizan por presentar un flavor global más intenso
(AreaTse, p<0.001) en comparación con el paté (figura
2a). Además, la intensidad máxima de percepción
(Imax) y la duración de la misma (DurPl) fueron mayores para el salchichón (p < 0,001). Además, se encontraron diferencias en la duración total (Tend) del
flavor global entre los tres productos, presentado este
atributo una mayor persistencia en el lomo curado
(28,58 ± 2,89 segundos), seguido del salchichón (23,68
± 10,00 segundos) y, finalmente, en el paté ibérico
(19,2 ± 1,49 segundos) (p < 0,001) .
La percepción dinámica del flavor a especias también
mostró importantes diferencias entre los productos
evaluados como reflejan las curvas TI medias de la figura 2b. El salchichón presentó los parámetros de TI
relacionados con la intensidad de la percepción (Imax
y AreaTse) y la duración de la intensidad máxima
(DurPl) más elevados, seguido del lomo curado y finalmente del paté (p < 0,001). Por último, el flavor a
especias fue más persistente (Tend) en ambos productos
curados, salchichón (26,48 ± 3,53 segundos) y lomo
(26,98 ± 2,27 segundos), en comparación con el paté
(18,5 ± 1,79 segundos) (p < 0,001).
De acuerdo con los resultados de ambos análisis, estático (ACD) y dinámico (TI), el principal contribuyente
al flavor global de los productos cárnicos estudiados
fue el flavor especiado que está vinculado a la presencia
de especias (pimienta negra en el paté, nuez moscada,
comino, pimienta negra en el salchichón, y pimentón,
orégano, ajo, etc. en el lomo curado). Las diferencias
en la intensidad de la percepción del flavor especiado
entre los productos podrían estar relacionadas con diferencias en la cantidad de especias presentes en la
LABORATORIO DE ANÁLISIS Y ASESORAMIENTO TÉCNICO
QUÍMICA, MICROBIOLOGÍA Y GENÉTICA
Laboratorio Autorizado por el Ministerio de Sanidad y MARM
Empresa Colaboradora del Ministerio de Medio Ambiente
Acreditado para el control de Antibióticos y Residuos en Carnes
ANÁLISIS PARA
ASESORÍA EN
• Industria Alimentaria
• Residuos de Acción
Farmacológica
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• Aguas potables
• Vertidos industriales
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Calidad (ISO 9000)
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www.alkemi.es
Investigación
Figura 2. Curvas TI medias para al menos dos de los tres diferentes productos cárnicos estudiados,
atributo por atributo
a) Flavor global
c) Sabor salado
e) Dureza
formulación de productos y por lo tanto en la concentración de estos compuestos en el producto final. Sin
embargo, otros factores relacionados con la estructura
y composición de la matriz también deben tenerse en
consideración ya que estos factores también condicio142
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Nº 224. Marzo 2014
a) Flavor a especias
d) Jugosidad
f) Fibrosidad
nan la migración de los compuestos volátiles desde la
matriz del producto hasta las cavidades oral y nasal
(Taylor, 1998). La estructura de la matriz era muy diferente entre los productos, el paté presentaba una textura blanda tipo emulsión cárnica y por lo tanto se des-
Investigación
hacía rápidamente en la boca de los panelistas y por
el contrario, el lomo curado está conformado por un
musculo íntegro y por tanto de mayor consistencia, lo
que implica un mayor tiempo de masticación de las
muestras y de permanencia de éstas en la boca por
parte de los panelistas. Estas diferencias en la estructura
afectan a la dinámica de retención/liberación de los
compuestos responsables del flavor a transferirse desde
la matriz de la carne a la boca. La desintegración de
la matriz de los productos curados durante una masticación prolongada podría haber condicionado una liberación gradual de los compuestos responsables del
flavor de estos productos, explicando que la percepción
dinámica fuera más lenta pero más persistente. Las diferencias en el contenido en grasa entre productos también podrían haber influido en las diferencias encontradas en la percepción del flavor, condicionada por el
efecto de supresión de la grasa sobre la liberación de
compuestos volátiles (Seuvre, Espinosa Díaz y Voilley, 2002; Carrapiso, 2007; Ventanas y col, 2008).
En este sentido, la cantidad menor de GIM en los
lomos curados (9,79 ± 1,41 %) en comparación con
los otros dos productos (paté 25,15 ± 0,88%; salchichón 36,64 ± 1,50 %) habría dado lugar a una mayor
liberación de compuestos volátiles relacionados con
el flavor a especias en el lomo, lo que podría explicar
en parte la mayor intensidad expresada como área
bajo la curva (AreaTse) y la mayor persistencia
(Tend) de este atributo. Sin embargo, el alto contenido en grasa del paté habría favorecido la formación
de una película de lípidos que recubre la cavidad bucal durante el consumo de la muestra dificultando
la percepción del flavor.
Finalmente, la intensidad máxima (Imax) de percepción del sabor salado (figura 2c), fue similar en los tres
productos evaluados (p > 0,05). Sin embargo, sí se encontraron diferencias significativas en el AreaTse (p <
0,001) y la duración total (Tend) (p < 0,001) del sabor
salado, siendo ambos productos curados los que presentaron una mayor intensidad y persistencia de este atributo
en comparación con el paté, lo que podría estar relacionado con el mayor contenido en NaCl de los productos
curados (salchichón 2,44 ± 0,46%; lomo curado 2,46 ±
0,38%) en comparación con el paté (1,48 ± 0,10%).
Textura
El salchichón fue más jugoso (Imax y AreaTse)
(p < 0,05) en comparación con el lomo curado (figura
2d). Además, el salchichón mostró una mayor duración
de la intensidad máxima de percepción de la jugosidad
(DurPl) (p < 0,05). Estos resultados podrían atribuirse
al mayor contenido en grasa del salchichón en comparación con el lomo curado. Por tanto, el menor contenido de grasa intramuscular del lomo curado conduce
a una menor estimulación de la secreción de saliva,
que está directamente relacionada con la percepción
de jugosidad (Ventanas y col., 2006).
Por el contrario, el lomo curado presentó una mayor
dureza (Imax y AreaTse; p < 0,05). Las diferencias en
la composición química, principalmente relacionadas
con la grasa y el contenido de humedad podrían explicar estos resultados. Por último, no se encontraron
diferencias significativas (p > 0,05) en los parámetros
de TI del atributo fibrosidad entre los dos productos
curados evaluados (figura 2f).
Equipos para la industria cárnica
Ctra. de Olot, 80 • 17174 SANT FELIU DE PALLEROLS • Tf. 972 444 010 • Fax: 972 444 405 • mail: [email protected] • www.blasau.com
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Nº 224. Marzo 2014
143
Investigación
Conclusiones
Este estudio puede considerarse como una primera
aproximación a la aplicación de la técnica TI en diferentes productos cárnicos derivados del cerdo ibérico. La técnica TI se reveló como un método factible, interesante y útil para evaluar la percepción
dinámica de los atributos sensoriales de los productos cárnicos cocidos (paté) y curados (embutidos picados y lomo curado). A diferencia de los métodos
estáticos, la técnica TI ofrece una imagen más realista de las respuestas fisiológicas a las propiedades
de los alimentos. Además, esta técnica permite una
comprensión más profunda de la influencia de la
composición de la matriz y la estructura de los alimentos en la percepción de los atributos a través del
tiempo.
Agradecimientos
Laura Lorido da las gracias al Gobierno de Extremadura para su beca FPI (PD10025). Este estudio
fue apoyado por el proyecto titulado "Aplicación de
técnicas sensoriales dinámicas para estudiar la percepción del flavor y de la textura en productos cárnicos derivados del cerdo ibérico" (ACCVII11), financiado por la Universidad de Extremadura y el
proyecto titulado "Optimización y control de la calidad
tecnológica, nutricional y organoléptica del jamón
serrano e ibérico "(CLASHAM-RTA-2010-00029C04-03) financiado por el INIA (Instituto de Investigaciones Agrarias y Alimentarias). Los autores agradecen la participación de todos los miembros del
panel sensorial.
Bibliografía
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release from sausages. Food Chemistry, 103(2), 396–403.
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Does fat affect the timing of flavour perception? A case
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Analysis of volatile compounds of Iberian dry-cured
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211–219. e
PAPER 3 ANNEX
Investigación
Predicción no destructiva y rápida de la sal:
su aplicación en el jamón curado
Los autores presentan una técnica
no destructiva y rápida, desarrollada
por el Servicio de Innovación y Análisis
de Productos de Origen Animal (SiPA),
para la determinación del contenido
en NaCl en el interior del jamón curado,
a partir de su medida en la grasa externa
mediante un electrodo selectivo de cloruros,
que permita chequear los jamones
antes de salir al mercado.
M. Armenteros1, L. Lorido1, S. Ventanas1, A. Silva1,
M.F. Sánchez2 y J. Ventanas1
1
Servicio de Innovación y Análisis de Productos de Origen
Animal (SiPA)
Anexo Facultad de Veterinaria. Universidad de Extremadura.
Av. de la Universidad, s/n. 10003 Cáceres
2
”El Coto de Galán S.A.”
Av. General Luxán 61. 06420 Castuera (Badajoz)
Introducción
El contenido en sal en el jamón es uno de los factores
más relevantes a la hora de determinar la calidad del
producto final. En la práctica, un elevado número de
piezas sale a la venta con cantidades de sal elevadas
(> 5%), que los consumidores califican como salados;
o muy bajas (< 3%), donde los riesgos de alteración y de
texturas blandas se incrementan (Ventanas, 2012). Además, recientemente hemos constatado que al disminuir
el nivel de sal, tanto en Serrano como Ibérico, dentro
del rango habitual (3-5 %), se reduce el flavor “típico”
(Ventanas et al., 2013). La determinación analítica de
la concentración de sal de la manera convencional, además de destructiva, requiere tiempos largos de análisis.
Es por ello que cualquier técnica más rápida no-destructiva destinada a predecir el contenido en sal en este
tipo de productos supone una gran ventaja a nivel industrial, lo que justifica la necesidad de buscar nuevas
técnicas de carácter no destructivo que permitan predecir el contenido de sal en el producto final. Por ello, el
objetivo del presente trabajo es predecir el contenido
de sal en el interior del jamón a partir de la medida de
68
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Nº 237. Junio 2015
Investigación
Figura 1. Extracción de las muestras y preparación de los loncheados
A. Extracción de las muestras de los jamones curados (n = 30) para la determinación de sal en el interior
(biceps femoris) y en el exterior (grasa subcutánea)
Jamones ibéricos de cebo (n = 30)
Toma de muestras usando un trócar
Muestra obtenida
B. Preparación de los loncheados a partir de la cadera de los jamones de cebo con nivel de sal control
y sal reducida
Loncheado zona
de la cadera
Selección de las
caderas para el
estudio
cloruro sódico (NaCl) en la grasa externa, y desarrollar
una técnica más rápida de análisis mediante el uso de
un electrodo selectivo de cloruros (Cl-ESI). De este modo los productos se pueden chequear antes de salir al
mercado, incluso individualmente, para conocer: si los
jamones tienen el punto óptimo de sal y si determinadas
piezas pueden ser etiquetadas como jamón “reducido
en sal” (-25% del nivel de referencia).
Materiales y métodos
Selección de la materia prima, loncheado
y envasado a vacío
Se procedió a seleccionar una partida de 30 jamones curados de cebo (Ibérico x Duroc), procedentes de
la empresa “Coto de Galán, S.A” con año de elabora-
Paquetes
ción 2010, en los que se evaluó la homogeneidad en
cuanto al peso y características externas de los mismos. El análisis del contenido en sal se realizó en un cilindro extraído del interior de los jamones curados mediante el uso de un trocar, como se indica en la figura
1A. Seguidamente se analizó el nivel de sal en el interior (músculo biceps femoris) y en la grasa externa
(grasa subcutánea) mediante el método oficial de Charpentier-Vohlard (ISO 1841-1:1996). También de la zona interior de los cilindros (biceps femoris), como de la
grasa externa extraídos de los jamones de cebo seleccionados, se utilizó un método más rápido de determinación de la sal dado que en muchos casos la lentitud del método oficial Charpentier-Vohlard, no permite
analizar en una jornada más allá de 8-10 muestras, lo
que supone un inconveniente para la toma de decisiones de las empresas acerca de la comercialización de las
piezas (ver figura 2). Dicho análisis se realizó meeurocarne
Nº 237. Junio 2015
69
Investigación
Figura 2. Determinación de la sal (NaCl) por dos métodos
Método Charpentier-Volhard
10 g de muestra
triturada
Extracción por calentamiento
con etanol (40%, v/v)
Determinación volumétrica
Método rápido mediante Electrodo Selectivo de Cloruros (CI-ISE)
10 g de muestra
triturada
Extracción por sonicación
con etanol (40%, v/v)
diante un electrodo selectivo de cloruros (Cl-ISE) según el método descrito por Armenteros et al., (2014),
que habrá sido evaluado previamente para predecir el
nivel de sal en perniles durante el post-salado. Los resultados fueron muy satisfactorios por el alto coeficiente de correlación encontrado entre ambos métodos analizados (R2 = 0,93**).
Tras obtener los correspondientes valores de sal en
el interior de los jamones (biceps femoris), se observó
que los datos se comportaron siguiendo una distribución normal, en forma de campana de Gauss (ver figura 3A). Por lo que fue posible seleccionar un número suf iciente de piezas para establecer dos grupos
experimentales: jamones de cebo sal-control (n = 9) y jamones de cebo sal-reducida (n = 10), que se identificaron a través del código numérico de 6 cifras que utilizaba la empresa.
La zona de la cadera de estos 19 jamones fue loncheada en las instalaciones de “Coto de Galán, S.A” me70
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Nº 237. Junio 2015
Determinación usando Cl-ISE
diante el empleo de una loncheadora automática Bizerba (Toinca S.L., Segovia, España) y seguidamente, las
muestras fueron envasadas utilizando una envasadora
termoformadora para alimentos (Multivac Packaging
Systems, España S.L). El formato de envasado (paquetes de 90 g envasados al vacío) y la película multicapa
empleada basada en poliéster, cloruro de polivinilideno (PVdC-SARAN) y polietileno (permeabilidad al oxigeno < 9 cm2/m2/ 24 h y al vapor de agua < 4 g/m2 24
h, que son bastante elevadas), fueron los habituales de la
empresa (ver figura 1B).
Análisis composicional
y sensorial de los loncheados
A partir de las muestras de la zona de la cadera se realizaron los análisis composicionales de humedad, cloruro sódico (NaCl) y actividad de agua (Aw), así como
el análisis sensorial. La determinación de humedad se
Investigación
Figura 3. Distribución del nivel de sal en el biceps femoris y correlación con el nivel en grasa subcutánea
A. Distribución normal del nivel de sal (% NaCl en peso)
en el interior (biceps femoris) de los 30 jamones analizados
realizó según el método oficial de la AOAC (AOAC,
2000). El contenido de cloruro sódico se cuantificó
empleando el método oficial de Charpentier-Vohlard
(ISO 1841-1:1996) y la actividad de agua se determinó usando un equipo Labmaster-aw-Novasina
(Neuheimstrasse, Lachen, Suiza).
Las características sensoriales se evaluaron mediante técnicas estáticas aplicando el análisis cuantitativo
descriptivo (AQD) y técnicas dinámicas como la técnica Tiempo-Intensidad (TI) y la técnica “Sensaciones
dominantes temporales” (Temporal Dominance of Sensation-TDS) (Ventanas et al., 2013, Lorido et al., 2015).
B. Correlación con el nivel de sal en la grasa subcutánea
determinada por el método rápido (Cl-ISE)
Para el análisis cuantitativo-descriptivo (AQD) se
utilizó un panel entrenado compuesto por 12 jueces
que evaluaron los atributos de aspecto, textura al tacto y olor de los loncheados. Se analizaron 3 muestras
por sesión en orden aleatorio. Las sesiones de cata se
realizaron en una sala de cata estandarizada con seis cabinas con dotación informática, luz blanca fluorescente y totalmente independientes unas de otras. Para las
evaluaciones sensoriales dinámicas se contó con un
panel previamente entrenado en la técnica TI compuesto por 11 jueces. Sin embargo, para el análisis TDS,
el panel asistió a seis sesiones de entrenamiento de
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71
Investigación
Tabla 1.(1) Caracterización físico-química de los jamones Ibéricos de cebo
de sal-control y sal-reducida en la zona de la cadera, (2) predicción a partir
de la determinación en el músculo “biceps femoris” por perforación
con el trócar y en la grasa externa (grasa subcutánea)
Análisis estadístico
Cebo
Aw (zona cadera)1
Humedad (%) (zona cadera)1
NaCl (%) (zona cadera)1
NaCl (%) (biceps femoris)2
NaCl (%) (grasa externa)2
Control (n = 9)
Reducido (n = 10)
0,81±0,03
40,89±1,69
5,44±0,44a
5,95±0,24a
0,41±0,09a
0,83±0,04
40,92±2,98
4,61±0,39b
3,41±0,64b
0,35±0,03b
a, b: Medias con diferentes letras sobrescritas dentro de la misma fila indican diferencias significativas
entre lotes (p<0,05%).
una hora cada una de ellas, donde se les explicó el concepto de “Sensación dominante”, que es aquella que
llama su atención en un momento determinado, utilizando la analogía de una orquesta de música y diferentes fotografías. Al mismo tiempo, se les entrenó en
el uso informatizado de software Fizz Data (v. 2.40A:
Biosystems, Francia). Tras realizar una sesión de discusión con el panel, se seleccionaron los atributos a
evaluar por ambas técnicas dinámicas: dureza, jugosidad, fibrosidad, sabor salado, flavor a curado y rancio. Las evaluaciones TI de los dos tipos de jamones curado se realizaron en 9 sesiones (2 muestras por sesión)
y las evaluaciones TDS en 6 sesiones (3 muestras por
sesión). Las muestras se presentaron al azar y de for-
Figura 4. Análisis cuantitativo descriptivo (AQD) de
los atributos de aspecto, textura al tacto y olor en los
jamones de cebo normal (CN) y cebo reducido (CR)
Color Grasa
** Curado
Fluidez Grasa
Intensidad
del color rojo
Rancidez
Intensidad General
Veteado
**Untuosidad
del magro
Brillo Magro
Adherencia al tacto
Cebo Normal
72
eurocarne
Nº 237. Junio 2015
Dureza tácl
Cebo Reducido
ma balanceada a los panelistas. Asimismo,
se les facilitó un trozo de manzana y agua
para limpiar la cavidad bucal entre muestras.
Para el análisis estadístico se llevó a cabo un análisis multivariante utilizando el
paquete estadístico SPSS software (V.
18.0).
• Como se aprecia en la figura 3A se observó una alta variabilidad del contenido
en sal, que resulta además sorprendente por tratarse
de jamones de una misma partida; pero hemos de
indicar que es lo habitual en este tipo de producto, lo
que refuerza el interés por conocer el nivel medio
de sal por métodos semidestructivos, mediante la
perforación y análisis de la zona interior del cilindro extraído en piezas “testigo”. Y sobre todo, de su
predicción no destructiva a partir del análisis de la sal
en la grasa externa, ya que en este caso se pueden
obtener los valores “individualizados” de cada pieza.
• Se determinó el contenido de sal en la grasa externa
de los jamones mediante el empleo del electrodo selectivo de cloruros (Cl-ESI) (Armenteros et al.,
2015). Tras el análisis estadístico de los resultados,
Figura 5. Curva Tiempo-Intensidad para el
atributo sabor salado en los jamones de cebo
normal (CN) y cebo reducido (CR)
encontramos una correlación positiva y estadísticamente significativa entre los valores de sal medidos en la grasa externa y
aquellos medidos en el magro en
ambos lotes, obteniéndose una
R2 = 0,97** (ver figura 3B). De
tal manera que, podemos concluir que cuando el contendido
de NaCl aumenta en la grasa externa al mismo tiempo aumenta
en el magro en proporción constante.
• La evaluación mediante el protocolo EVACAL (evaluación de
la calidad) desarrollado por el
SiPA, de los loncheados pertenecientes a los 2 lotes, ha proporcionado resultados consistentes con los encontrados en el
interior del pernil (biceps femoris) sobre la composición y el
análisis sensorial de los jamones
de cebo (Ibéricos x Duroc) estudiados. En la tabla 1 se muestran los resultados de la caracterización físico-química de dos
lotes de jamones de cebo (salcontrol y sal-reducida), donde se
observa cómo la tasa de sal en
los loncheados (que proceden de
la zona de la cadera) sigue presentando diferencias significativas entre ambos lotes; por lo que
la predicción realizada en el cilindro extraído por perforación
de las piezas enteras (biceps femoris) parece correcta para otras
zonas como la cadera.
• En cuanto al análisis sensorial de
los loncheados de los jamones
de sal-control y de sal-reducida,
los catadores evaluaron los atributos de aspecto, olor y textura al
tacto mediante las pruebas sensoriales estáticas (AQD). Así pues,
los jamones de cebo control resultaron presentar mayor olor a
curado y untuosidad al tacto, al
igual que una menor dureza táctil respecto a los jamones de ce-
bo reducido (ver figura 4). Por
otro lado, los atributos de textura y flavor fueron evaluados por
técnicas dinámicas Tiempo-Intensidad (TI). Podemos observar
en la curva TI del sabor salado
(figura 5) que la intensidad máxima (Imax) y el área bajo la curva (AreaTse) del sabor salado
percibida por los catadores tiende a ser menor en los jamones
de cebo reducidos en sal (CR).
• Por último, los resultados de las
pruebas sensoriales dinámicas
que evalúan las sensaciones dominantes en el tiempo (TDS),
muestran un perfil de atributos
dominantes diferentes entre los
jamones con contenido en salcontrol y sal-reducido. En la figura 6 se muestran las curvas
TDS para los jamones de cebo
con contenido en sal-control
(CN) y reducido (CR). Tanto en
los jamones CN como CR los
atributos dominantes al inicio del
consumo fueron los atributos relacionados con la textura, dureza
(hardness) seguida por la fibrosidad (fibrousness). Sin embargo, es de resaltar que el primer
atributo dominante relacionado
con el flavor en el caso de los jamones CN fue el sabor salado
(saltiness), mientras que en el caso de los jamones CR el flavor a
curado (cured flavour). Finalmente después de tragar la muestra el atributo significativamente
dominante en ambos jamones
fue el sabor salado.
Proveedor de líneas completas
MPS • Butina • Durand • KJ • AQUA
3.200
proyectos
en
92 países
Innovación
Mataderos • Recuperación de sangre • Líneas
de despiece y deshuese • Robotización •
Sistemas logísticos • Depuración de aguas
residuales • Servicios postventa Recambios
MPS meat processing systems
Soluciones avanzadas, completas e innovadoras para la industria alimentaria. Especialistas en diseño, ingeniería, fabricación,
instalación y servicio 24 horas/7 días.
Conclusiones
1. Se ha desarrollado un método
rápido, reproducible y fiable de
medida de cloruros en jamón curado mediante el empleo de un
electrodo selectivo de cloruros
(Cl-ISE). Nos permite en menos
tiempo analizar un número de
MPS Spain, S.A.U.
Rafael de Campalans 170, ent. 1a
08903 Hospitalet de Llobregat
Barcelona, España
T: +34 93 298 1550
F: +34 93 298 1556
E: [email protected]
www.mps-group.nl
Investigación
Figura 6. Curvas de la sensación dominante en el tiempo (TDS) de jamones de cebo sal-control (CN)
y sal-reducido (CR)
SAL CONTROL - CEBO (CN)
SAL REDUCIDO - CEBO (CR)
Tragar la muestra
muestras mayor que con el método de CharpentierVohlard con el que presenta una correlación positiva
(R2=0,93**). Ello supone una ventaja para la toma de
decisiones de las empresas acerca de la comercialización de las piezas, al poder conocer previamente su
contenido en sal de una manera individualizada.
2.El contenido de sal en el interior del jamón Ibérico de
cebo puede ser determinado previamente a su consumo mediante el uso de un electrodo selectivo de cloruros, a partir de la medida no destructiva de la sal en
la grasa externa (R2=0,97**).
3.El empleo de la técnica “Sensaciones Dominantes
Temporales” (TDS) en la evaluación sensorial de
los loncheados supone una metodología que aporta
información adicional a la obtenida por otras técnicas dinámicas como la técnica TI y además se
aproxima más a la percepción sensorial de los consumidores, los cuales realmente fijan su atención
en aquellas características sensoriales más sobresalientes del producto. De este modo, se podría evaluar
los efectos sobre la calidad percibida de la tasa de sal
y la eventual reducción de la sal en los jamones curados.
Agradecimientos
Este trabajo fue financiado por el proyecto Innterconecta-Innterbiocured: “Estrategias de reducción de sal
y desarrollo de tecnologías de salazonado y monitorización por bioimpedancia en productos ibéricos para el
mercado exterior” (116/13, 117/13 y 118/13), fondos
FEDER-CDTI.
74
eurocarne
Nº 237. Junio 2015
Tragar la muestra
Bibliografía
• AOAC (2000). Official methods of analysis (17th ed.)
Gaithersburgh, Maryland: Association of Official Analytical Chemists.
• Armenteros, M., Silva, A.,Ventanas, J. (2014). Fast
potentiometric determination of sodium chloride in Iberian dry-cured hams using an ion selective electrode.
2nd International Symposium on Fermented Meat, Valencia, España, pp. 79.
• Armenteros, M., Silva, A., Asensio, M., y Sánchez, M.F.
(2015). Predicción no destructiva del contenido de sal en jamón Ibérico a partir de la medida de cloruros en grasa externa mediante el uso de un electrodo selectivo. VIII Congreso Ciencia y Tecnología de Alimentos/ Congreso Español
de Ingeniería de los Alimentos, Badajoz, España, pp. 20.
• ISO 1841-1 (1996). International organization for standardization. Meat and meat products. Determination of
chloride content; Part 1-Volhard method. Geneva, Swizerland: International Organization for Standarization.
• Lorido, L., Ventanas, J. y Ventanas, S. (2015). Contribution of the temporal dominance of sensation technique to the sensory chracterization of dry-cured ham:
salt content effect. VIII Congreso Mundial del Jamón,
(Toulouse, 25-26 Junio).
• Ventanas, J. (2012). Jamón Iberico y Serrano. Fundamentos de la elaboración y de la Calidad. Edit. MundiPrensa. ISB: 978-84-8476-474-8.
• Ventanas, S.; Lorido, L. y Ventanas, J. (2013). Influencia de la sal y la grasa sobre la calidad sensorial
del jamón. Conferencia invitada VII Congreso Mundial
del jamón (Ourique, Portugal, 28-31, mayo). e
PAPER 4 ANNEX
Food Chemistry 196 (2016) 1310–1314
Food Chemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem
Short communication
Effect of protein oxidation on the impaired quality of dry-cured loins
produced from frozen pork meat
Laura Lorido a, Sonia Ventanas a, Tolga Akcan b, Mario Estévez a,⇑
a
b
IPROCAR Research Institute, University of Extremadura, 10003 Cáceres, Spain
Department of Food Engineering, Pamukkale University, Denizli, Turkey
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 22 May 2015
Received in revised form 14 October 2015
Accepted 19 October 2015
Available online 20 October 2015
Keywords:
Dry-cured loins
Pre-freezing
Texture
Protein oxidation
Protein carbonylation
a b s t r a c t
Dry-cured loins elaborated from frozen (20 °C/20 weeks)/thawed longissimus dorsi muscles (F) were
compared with counterparts elaborated from fresh (unfrozen) muscles (UF) for the extent of protein oxidation (carbonylation and Schiff base formation) and their sensory profile (quantitative–descriptive analysis). All samples had similar moisture, fat and protein contents (p > 0.05). In accordance with previous
studies, freezing meat prior to processing affected the oxidative stability of meat proteins. This chemical
change occurred concomitantly with modifications of the sensory profile of the loins as F-samples
received significantly (p < 0.05) higher scores for rancid and salty flavor, hardness and fibrousness than
UF-counterparts. The formation of cross-links (assessed as Schiff bases) during freezing and the subsequent processing may have contributed to strengthening the meat structure and hence, impairing the
texture properties of dry-cured loins.
Ó 2015 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
1. Introduction
Iberian dry-cured loin is highly appreciated by consumers
because of their unique sensory features. The final quality of Iberian dry-cured loin is a consequence of both the characteristics of
the raw material and the particular processing conditions
(Ventanas, Ventanas, Ruiz, & Estévez, 2005). Owing to the high
commercial value of such a meat product, dry-cured loins have
been object of diverse studies including the influence of crossbreeding, rearing system and feeding background on their sensory
properties (Lorido, Estévez, & Ventanas, 2014; Martin, Antequera,
Muriel, Pérez-Palacios, & Ruiz, 2008; Ventanas, Ventanas, & Ruiz,
2007). Nowadays, using pre-frozen (frozen/thawed) raw material
in the meat industry is a common practise that enables the selection of raw material with similar physicochemical characteristics
to compile and process industrially more homogeneous batches.
It is known, however, that producing cured and ripened meat products from previously frozen material has an impact on the sensory
properties of the final product (Pérez-Palacios, Ruiz, Martín, Barat,
& Antequera, 2011). For this reason, the freezing storage of pork
prior to processing should be short in length and the temperature
as low as possible (Soladoye, Juarez, Aalhus, Shand, & Estévez,
⇑ Corresponding author at: IPROCAR Research Institute, Faculty of Veterinary,
University of Extremadura, 10003 Cáceres, Spain.
E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Estévez).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.10.092
0308-8146/Ó 2015 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
2015). The physical damage by ice crystals to the muscle tissue
and certain biochemical reactions that occur during frozen storage
(i.e. lipid oxidation and proteolysis) are believed to be responsible
for the loss of quality (Grau, Codony, Grimpa, Baucells, & Guardiola,
2001; Pérez-Palacios, Ruiz, Barat, Aristoy, & Antequera, 2010;
Pérez-Palacios et al., 2011). Recent reports state that meat proteins
are also oxidized during frozen storage of meat leading to a large
variety of severe chemical modifications including formation of
protein carbonyls, depletion of thiols and tryptophan and formation of Schiff base structures (Estévez, Ventanas, Heinonen, &
Puolanne, 2011; Utrera, Morcuende, & Estévez, 2014a, 2014b;
Utrera, Parra, & Estévez, 2014). Protein carbonyls such as the
a-amino adipic and c-glutamic semialdehydes (AAS and GGS,
respectively) are commonly used as indicator of protein oxidation
(PROTOX) in food systems and the impact of protein carbonylation
on meat quality and safety is still subject of numerous studies
(Estévez, 2011; Lund, Heinonen, Baron, & Soladoye et al., 2015;
Estévez, 2011). So far, protein carbonylation has been found to contribute to impairing meat protein functionality and has been linked
to loss of water-holding in frozen pork (Estévez et al., 2011; Utrera
& Estévez, 2012). Schiff bases are formed in meat proteins as a
result of a cross linkage between protein carbonyls and amino
groups from alkaline amino acids (Estévez, 2011). To our knowledge, however, it is unknown whether these chemical changes,
occurred during frozen storage of meat, affect particular quality
traits in Iberian dry-cured loins. The present study investigates
L. Lorido et al. / Food Chemistry 196 (2016) 1310–1314
the potential implication of PROTOX on the flavor and texture
deterioration observed in dry-cured loins elaborated from frozen/
thawed raw material. In order to accomplish this objective, drycured loins elaborated from fresh (unfrozen) and frozen/thawed
porcine m. longissimus dorsi (LD) were analyzed for their chemical
composition, protein carbonylation, Schiff bases, thiobarbituric
acid-reactive substances (TBA-RS) and sensory properties.
1311
2.3. Chemical composition and pH measurement
Each sample was analyzed for chemical composition in triplicate. Moisture content was determined by drying the sample at
102 °C for 24 h (AOAC, 2000). Total protein content was analyzed
using the Kjeldahl method (AOAC, 2000). Fat content was determined according to Folch, Lees, and Sloane Stanley (1957) and
chloride content using the Volhard method (AOAC, 2000). Measurement of pH in homogenized samples was carried out with a
portable pH-meter (Crison PH25, Barcelona, Spain).
2. Materials and methods
2.4. Determination of protein carbonyls
2.1. Chemicals
All chemicals were of analytical grade or the highest available
purity. Disodium hydrogen phosphate was purchased from Panreac Química, S.A.U. (Castellar del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain). Sodium
dihydrogen–phosphate monohydrate, sodium chloride, magnesium chloride hexahydrate, hydrochloric acid, trichloroacetic acid
(TCA), sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), sodium acetate, and diethyl
ether were obtained from Merck (Darmstadt, Germany). Ethylene
glycol-bis(2-aminoethylether)-N,N,N0 ,N0 -tetraacetic acid (EGTA),
hexahydrate, 2-(N-morpholino) ethanesulfonic acid (MES) hydrate,
diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA), and 4-aminobenzoic
acid (ABA) were purchased from Sigma–Aldrich Co. (St. Louis,
MO, USA). Acetonitrile (HPLC-grade) was obtained from BioSolve
(Valkenswaard, The Netherlands). Ethanol (denaturated) was purchased from Chem-Lab (Zedelgem, Belgium).
2.2. Processing of dry-cured loins
Twenty muscles LD were randomly obtained from pure-bred
Iberian castrated boars counterparts slaughtered at around 130–
140 kg. After heat deboning (1 h after slaughter) the muscles were
freed from intermuscular fat and connective tissue. The deboned
muscles are allowed to cool for 24 h at +2 °C. After that, fresh loins
were randomly divided into two groups (n = 10 each group). These
fresh loins were already sampled for the analysis of lipid and protein oxidation markers. One set of fresh loins were vacuum-packed
and frozen at 18 °C for 5 months, subsequently thawed by keeping the loins overnight at +4 °C, sampled for lipid and protein oxidation measurements, and immediately processed for the
manufacture of dry-cured loins (F-loins). The length of the freezing
storage
was
selected
according
to
scientific
criteria
(Utrera, Armenteros, Ventanas, Solano, & Estévez, 2012) and to
the common practise at meat processing plants. Other set of fresh
loins were not subjected to such freezing storage and were
employed as such fresh (unfrozen) hams for the immediate manufacture of dry-cured loins (UF-loins). Processing of both, F- and
UF-loins, was carried out at a commercial plant as follows: caudal
part of the muscles LD (25 cm long) were seasoned in a mixing
bowl with a mixture of nitrified salt (2.5%), nitrites (0.7% of the
total salt content) sugar (0.7%) and water (1%) (Percentages refer
to the total meat content unless otherwise noted). Garlic, paprika
and olive oil, which are common ingredients for Iberian drycured loin, were not used to avoid interferences with oxidative
reactions. The loins were kept for 4 days at +4 °C in the dark to
allow the seasoning mixture to penetrate. After that, loins were
stuffed into 10 cm diameter collagen casings using a semiautomatic stuffing machine (AMEBO S.L., Girona, Spain) and held
for 1 month at +4 °C at a relative humidity (RH) of 75–80%. Finally,
loins were ripened for an additional 60 days at 10–16 °C and of 75–
65% RH. Once the processing was completed, loins were subjected
to chemical and sensory analyses (less than 2 weeks).
The a-amino adipic and c-glutamic semialdehydes (AAS and
GGS, respectively) were quantified in dry-cured loins following
the derivatization and high performance liquid chromatography
(HPLC) procedure described by Utrera, Morcuende, RodríguezCarpena, and Estévez (2011). Identification of the derivatized semialdehyde in the fluorescence detector (FLD) chromatograms was
carried out by comparing their retention times with those from a
standard compounds injected and analyzed in the above mentioned conditions. The peaks corresponding to AAS-ABA and GGSABA were manually integrated from FLD chromatograms and the
resulting areas plotted against an ABA standard curve (ranged from
0.1 to 0.5 mM). Results are expressed as nmol carbonyl/mg of
protein.
2.5. Schiff bases measurement
Protein oxidation was also evaluated by measuring the fluorescence emitted by Schiff bases formed in dry-cured loins using fluorescence spectroscopy. Meat samples were ground and
homogenized according to the process described by Armenteros,
Heinonen, Ollilainen, Toldrá, and Estévez (2009). A 1 mL aliquot
of the homogenates was redissolved in 20 mL of the 20 mM
sodium phosphate buffer and then dispensed in a 4 mL quartz
spectrofluorometer cell. Emission spectra of Schiff bases were
recorded from 400 to 500 nm with the excitation wavelength set
at 350 nm (LS 55 Perkin-Elmer luminescence spectrometer, MA,
USA). Excitation and emission slit widths were set at 10 nm and
data were collected at 500 nm/min in both measurements. The
results obtained were expressed as fluorescence intensity units
emitted by protein oxidation products at 450 nm. These values
were corrected according to the protein content of each
dry-cured loin batch by multiplying by a correction factor
(Cf = Pt/Pp), where Pt is the total average of the protein contents
from all meat products and Pp is the mean of the protein content
from each meat product.
2.6. Determination of TBA-RS numbers
TBA-RS were assessed using the method described by Ganhão,
Estévez, and Morcuende (2011). Results were expressed as mg of
malondialdehyde (MDA) per kg of sample.
2.7. Sensory profile analysis
Eleven panellists (six males and five females, aged:
26–54 years) with previous experience in sensory evaluation, participated in the study (training and evaluation sessions). Twenty
dry-cured loins were evaluated by the panel right after processing
using a quantitative–descriptive analysis method (QDA) for 6 different attributes (saltiness, cured flavor, rancid flavor, hardness,
juiciness and fibrousness). Samples were served on glass plates
with a glass of water and a piece of unsalted cracker to follow
the rinsing protocol between samples. Evaluations took place in
1312
individual booths under white fluorescence light. In each session,
four samples were presented to the panellists, with the serving
order of the samples randomized according to the Williams Latin
Square design. Five sessions were carried out in total. The assessors
response were recorder in a non-structured linear scale of 10 cm
between the anchors ‘‘0, low intensity” and ‘‘10, high intensity”.
Data were collected using the FIZZ software, 2.20 C version (Sensory Analysis and Computer Test Management; Biosystemes,
France, 2002).
2.8. Statistical analysis
The effect of processing stages on the extent of lipid and protein
oxidation was studied by an analysis of variance (ANOVA) and a
subsequent Tukey test whenever significant differences were
found (p < 0.05). T-student tests by SPSS for Windows (v. 15.0)
were carried out to study the effect of the raw material (F vs. UF)
sensory properties of dry-cured loins. Differences were considered
significant at p < 0.05. Relationships between chemical and sensory
parameters were calculated using Pearson’s correlation
coefficients.
3.3. Protein oxidation in dry-cured loins
3.1. Chemical composition of dry-cured loins
Table 1 shows the chemical composition of the F and UF-drycured loins. These results agree in general terms with those
reported in a previous study (Lorido et al., 2014) while our loins
had lower moisture and higher lipid content. Chemical composition of dry-cured loins subjected to frozen/thaw process (F-loins)
did not significantly differ (p > 0.05) from the dry-cured loins elaborated from fresh muscles (UF-loins).
3.2. Lipid oxidation in dry-cured loins
In general, low rates of lipid oxidation were observed in drycured loins (UF loins: 0.55 ± 0.06 mg MDA/kg of sample; F loins:
0.63 ± 0.09 mg MDA/kg of sample) (Table 2). According to the present results, pre-freezing did not have a significant impact on the
extent of lipid oxidation in the final products (p > 0.05) while a significant increase was detected in F-loins after frozen storage. It is
generally accepted that muscles rich in glycolytic fibers, such as
LD, are less prone to lipid oxidation than muscles rich in oxidative
ones (Morcuende, Estevez, Ruiz, & Cava, 2003). This effect is usually attributed to the lower amount of phospholipids and myoglobin in glycolytic muscles than in the oxidative counterparts
(Wilson, Pearson, & Shorland, 1976). Also the low lipid oxidation
rate found in the present samples could be attributed to the antioxidant capacity of added nitrites. Nitrite is known to display an
intense antioxidant effect due to the formation of a strong complex
with heme pigments that causes a decrease of the pro-oxidant
Table 1
Chemical composition of dry-cured loins elaborated from UF- and F-LD.
MoistureA
ProteinA
LipidA
ChlorideA
activity of heme iron (Ladikos & Lougovois, 1990). Nitrate can also
stabilize unsaturated lipids located within the membranes
(Ladikos & Lougovois, 1990). Pérez-Palacios, Ruiz, Grau, Flores,
and Antequera (2009) studied the influence of pre-cure freezing
of Iberian hams on lipid oxidation at five different stages of the
elaboration process (initial stage, end of salting, end of postsalting, end of drying and final stage). These authors found significant differences between UF and F Iberian hams for TBA-RS.
Despite these differences, the authors found that the TBA-RS levels
increased from the initial stage to the end of the post-salting, and
fell thereafter until the final stage. This may also be applicable to
the present results as MDA and other TBA-RS have been found to
deplete upon formation during long drying stages due to their
implication in further reactions (Cava, Ruiz, Ventanas, &
Antequera, 1999; Pateiro, Bermúdez, Lorenzo, & Franco, 2015;
Pérez-Palacios et al., 2009). The differences found by these authors
between UF and F hams could be explained due to (i) the characteristics of the ham muscles, (ii) the different storage conditions,
and (iii) the severe and longer elaboration process of dry-cured
hams (approximately 20 months) in comparison with dry-cured
loins.
UF
F
p-Value
38.42 ± 2.90
39.10 ± 2.41
11.07 ± 1.63
2.15 ± 0.41
35.08 ± 1.41
40.46 ± 2.62
13.04 ± 1.84
2.73 ± 0.50
ns
ns
ns
ns
LD: muscle longissimus dorsi.
UF: dry-cured loins elaborated from fresh (unfrozen) material; F: dry-cured loins
elaborated from frozen/thawed material.
p-Value: ns: non-significant.
A
Data expressed as g/100 g of sample.
No significant differences for the extent of protein carbonylation
were found between F-dry-cured loins (1.10 ± 0.21 nmol carbonyls/
mg of sample) and the UF-counterparts (0.93 ± 0.15 nmol
carbonyls/mg of sample) (Table 2). This may not necessarily reflect
the extent of the oxidative damage to proteins in these final products as the concentration of protein carbonyls is known to vary during storage and processing owing to the high reactivity of these
species (Estévez, 2011). In fact, the concentration of these carbonyls
in the intermediate stage for F-loins (freezing/thawing) was higher
than in the final product. Estévez et al. (2011) found a significant
increase of AAS and GGS during the first 2 months of frozen storage
at 18 °C while a significant decrease was detected by the end of
the storage (4 months). According to the authors, those results suggested that AAS and GGS might be involved in condensation reactions with amino groups from neighboring amino acid side chains
to form cross-links via Schiff base formation. In concordance with
this suggestion, significant differences (p < 0.001) in the Schiff bases
content (fluorescence units) were found between F (420 ± 60) and
UF loins (160 ± 29) at the end of processing. Hence, the plausible
onset of protein oxidative reactions during frozen storage and subsequent processing was not reflected as an increase of protein carbonyls but as an accumulation of an end-product of the
carbonylation pathway as described by Utrera and Estévez (2012).
Similar results were reported in a previous experiment in which
cooked hams elaborated from F and UF green hams were analyzed
for the extent of protein carbonylation and concentration of Schiff
bases (Utrera et al., 2012). According to the present results, the formation of these fluorescent condensation products happened during both, the frozen storage and later, during the subsequent
processing. Utrera, Morcuende, and Estévez (2014b) and Utrera,
Parra, et al. (2014) also found concurrent decreases of protein carbonyls and formation of Schiff bases in beef patties subjected to a
frozen storage and a processing subsequent to thawing.
3.4. Sensory profile of dry-cured loins
Flavor and texture properties of Iberian dry-cured loins are
shown in Fig. 1. The panellists detected significant differences in
the texture properties of F- and UF-dry-cured (p < 0.05). In particular, hardness and fibrousness of F-loins received significantly
(p < 0.05) higher scores than those from UF-loins. While the texture of dry-cured products is often related to their composition
1313
Table 2
Protein and lipid oxidation indexes in dry-cured loins elaborated UF- and F-LD.
Processing stage
Protein carbonylsB
Schiff basesC
TBARSD
UF
p-ValueA
F
Fresh
Dry-cured
Fresh
Frozen/thawed
Dry-cured
0.13c ± 0.05
93d ± 13
0.12c ± 0.03
0.93b ± 0.15
160c ± 29
0.55a ± 0.06
0.10c ± 0.03
102d ± 20
0.09c ± 0.02
1.69a ± 0.29
230b ± 39
0.22b ± 0.08
1.10b ± 0.21
420a ± 60
0.63a ± 0.09
ns
⁄⁄⁄
ns
LD: muscle longissimus dorsi.
UF: dry-cured loins elaborated from fresh (unfrozen) material; F: dry-cured loins elaborated from frozen/thawed material.
Different letters between means denote significant differences in post hoc Tukey test (p < 0.05).
A
p-Value in ANOVA: ***p < 0.001; ns: non-significant.
B
Data expressed as nmol carbonyls/mg protein. Carbonyls were calculated as a sum of AAS and GGS quantities.
C
Data expressed as fluorescence arbitrary units.
D
Data expressed as mg MDA/kg sample.
* Fibrousness
Salty flavor ***
10
8
6
4
2
0
Cured flavor
F
UF
**
Juiciness
Rancid flavor
*
Hardness
Fig. 1. Sensory parameters evaluated by QDA in dry-cured loins elaborated from Fand UF-LD. LD: muscle longissimus dorsi, UF: dry-cured loins elaborated from fresh
(unfrozen) material; F: dry-cured loins elaborated from frozen/thawed material.
Significance: *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.
(moisture and intramuscular fat content) and the extent of proteolysis (similar between groups; data not shown), none of these
parameters may explain the aforementioned differences. These differences in texture could derive from the onset of protein oxidation
during the frozen storage and subsequent processing of F-loins.
PROTOX has been reported to increase hardness in meat and processed muscle foods by inducing protein cross-linking formation
(Estévez, 2011). Massive cross-linking between meat protein could
strengthen the myofibril structure, and hence, causing the toughening of the muscle tissue (Lund, Hviid, & Skibsted, 2007). The
timely coincidence between PROTOX, as measured by the formation of Schiff bases, and texture changes has also been reported
in various meat products such as liver pâtés (Estévez & Cava,
2004), frankfurters (Estévez, Ventanas, & Cava, 2005), emulsified
cooked patties (Ganhão, Morcuende, & Estévez, 2010) and boiled
hams (Utrera et al., 2012). On the other hand, no significant differences were found in the juiciness of loins elaborated with fresh and
frozen meat. This attribute could be more influenced by other factors such as the intramuscular fat content than the protein
oxidation.
In the present study F-loins showed higher scores for rancid flavor (p < 0.01) than the UF-counterparts. Several studies have
reported that lipid oxidation occurred during frozen storage leads
to the formation of volatile compounds contributing to flavor perception, particularly rancid attributes (Haugen, Lundby, Wold, &
Veberg, 2006). The lack of differences between treatments for
TBA-RS does not allow a direct implication of lipid oxidation in
the rancidity of our samples. Assuming that the lipid oxidation rate
was similar between groups, the differences in texture between
F- and UF-loins could also have affected the flavor perception.
The interaction between texture and flavor perception has been
previously described in dry-cured meat products since harder
and more fibrous samples would require a longer and more intense
chewing process that, in turn, would lead to a more effective
extraction of flavor compounds (Fuentes, Ventanas, Morcuende,
Estévez, & Ventanas, 2010; Lorido et al., 2014). Similarly, the differences in saltiness could not be explained by the NaCl content
which was found to be similar between treatments. PROTOX could
induce changes in the interaction between Na+ ions and proteins
leaving these ions more accessible leading to an increase of saltiness (Clariana et al., 2011).
3.5. Relationship between chemical composition, oxidative
deterioration and sensory traits
In order to assess the relationship between moisture, chloride
content and lipid/protein oxidation with the loss of quality, Pearson’s correlation coefficients were calculated.
Significant and positive correlations were found between the
amount of Schiff bases and the most texture and flavor studied
attributes (Table 3). The relationship found between protein oxidation (measured here as fluorescent Schiff bases) and the deterioration of texture properties in dry-cured loins is in agreement with
previous reports on a large variety of meat products (Estévez &
Cava, 2006; Estévez et al., 2005; Ganhão et al., 2010; Lund et al.,
2007). The formation of protein cross-links in meat systems has
been recurrently linked to texture deterioration as these structures
have been proposed to strengthen the protein structure in the
muscle tissue and hence, toughen the meat product (Lund et al.,
2011). While protein carbonyls have been proposed as indicators
of PROTOX in meat systems (Estévez, 2011) other advanced oxidation structures such as Schiff bases, may actually play a significant
role on the deterioration of the texture properties of processed
meat products. Amongst the flavor attributes measured in the
dry cured loins, saltiness and rancid flavor significantly (p < 0.05)
correlated with the formation of Schiff bases (Table 3). The chemical mechanisms by which these particular oxidation products
Table 3
Pearson correlations (r) between chemical parameters and protein and lipid oxidation
indexes and sensory traits.
Moisture
Salty flavor
Cured flavor
Rancid
flavor
Hardness
Juiciness
Fibrousness
0.56⁄
0.65⁄
0.61⁄
0.38
0.04
0.42
Chloride
Protein
carbonyls
Schiff
bases
TBARS
0.63⁄
0.72⁄
0.66⁄
0.48
0.36
0.34
0.66⁄
0.77⁄⁄
0.82⁄⁄⁄
0.36
0.46
0.29
0.31
0.19
0.69⁄
0.45
0.36
0.48
0.57⁄
0.06
0.87⁄⁄⁄
0.21
0.04
0.57
Significance: *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01;
***
p < 0.001.
1314
could affect these quality traits may require further investigations.
In the present paper protein oxidation was observed to play a
major role on these unpleasant changes, supporting the connection
between the oxidation events and the loss of quality.
4. Conclusions
This study contributes to shed light on the technological significance of protein oxidation in processed meat products. Using frozen/thawed material for meat processing may lead to products
with undesirable sensory traits and the oxidation of proteins may
contribute to this impairment through different chemical mechanisms. In particular, the formation of cross-links via carbonylation
pathway seems to be a key oxidative damage having an influence
on the quality of the final product.
Acknowledgments
Laura Lorido thanks the Government of Extremadura and the
European Social Fund for the FPI grant (PD10025). Mario Estévez
thanks the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness for
the contract through the ‘‘Ramón y Cajal (RYC-2009-03901)”
program and the support through the project ‘‘Protein oxidation in
frozen meat and dry-cured products: mechanisms, consequences and
development of antioxidant strategies; AGL2010-15134”. The laboratory work of Adriana Villaverde and the scientific advice of Antonio
Silva (SiPA, University of Extremadura) are acknowledged.
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Evaluación sensorial de productos cárnicos derivados del cerdo

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