Background - School of International and Public Affairs

 Girls’ Secondary
Education in Mauritania
Challenges and Opportunities Team for the Preparation of this report:
Project Manager:
Sherif Ayoub Research and writing:
Sherif Ayoub, Rachel Bingham, Karl Brown, Johanna Fine, Nozomi Hashimoto, Ryan Newton and Juliet Young Girls’ Secondary Education in Mauritania: Challenges and Opportunities Acknowledgements We wish to acknowledge many individuals and organizations whose time and effort made this report possible. We are particularly grateful to the Peace Corps staff at the office in Nouakchott for their assistance and guidance throughout the elaboration of this report, particularly Obie Shaw, Peace Corps Country Director; Abderrahmane Bagga, Associate Peace Corps Director for Education; Jessica Dunsmore; Peace Corps GAD Program Volunteer Coordinator. Additionally, we are indebted to the many Volunteer Assistants who contributed significantly to the elaboration of the report, including Scott Eidson, Adam Cummings, Andi Gittleman, Alicia Liebel, Cailin McGough, Amanda Moody, Jennifer Slinkard, and Jordana Spadacini, as well as other Peace Corps Volunteers who assisted us during site visits. We would also like to extend our thanks to Abdoul Sow at the UNICEF office in Nouakchott. Furthermore, we gratefully acknowledge the contribution of the numerous civil servants in the Ministère de l’Enseignement Fondamental et Secondaire (MEFS) and the Secrétariat d’Etat à la Condition Féminine (SECF) who provided crucial insight into the educational environment in Mauritania. We particularly wish to thank all the Mauritanian stakeholders who participated in the many interviews, roundtables, focus groups, and questionnaires. Their input was the basis upon which this report was constructed. Finally, we are grateful for all the support extended to us by the Program in Economic and Political Development of the School of International and Public Affairs (SIPA) at Columbia University. In particular, we wish to thank Professor Leigh Linden, Professor Charles Downs, and Professor Jacqueline Klopp. ii Table of Contents Table of Contents Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... ii
Table of Contents............................................................................................................. iii
Abbreviations..................................................................................................................... vi
Girls’ Secondary Education in Mauritania: Challenges and
Opportunities.............................................................................................1
Introduction ........................................................................................................................1
Background .........................................................................................................................4
Geography ..........................................................................................4
History.................................................................................................4
Methodology.......................................................................................................................5
Why secondary education for girls? ..............................................................................6
Mauritanian stakeholders’ arguments for increasing quantity
and quality of girls’ secondary education......................................6
Gains for individual girls and their families...................................7
The value of education in the Mauritanian context ...................9
Part I: Girls’ Education Environment ....................................................12
Public Schools and Education Policy ........................................................................... 12
Introduction..................................................................................... 12
Background...................................................................................... 14
Analysis............................................................................................. 18
Conclusion....................................................................................... 36
Economic Context.......................................................................................................... 39
Introduction..................................................................................... 39
Background...................................................................................... 40
Analysis............................................................................................. 44
Conclusion....................................................................................... 49
Case Studies .................................................................................... 50
Cultural Context............................................................................................................. 57
Introduction..................................................................................... 57
Background...................................................................................... 57
Analysis............................................................................................. 58
Conclusion....................................................................................... 66
Legal and Regulatory Environment ............................................................................. 68
Introduction..................................................................................... 68
Background...................................................................................... 68
Analysis............................................................................................. 72
Conclusion....................................................................................... 84
iii Girls’ Secondary Education in Mauritania: Challenges and Opportunities Institutional Assessment................................................................................................ 87
Introduction..................................................................................... 87
Background...................................................................................... 87
Analysis............................................................................................. 91
Conclusion..................................................................................... 101
Part II: Program Evaluation .................................................................103
Peace Corps................................................................................................................... 105
Background.................................................................................... 105
Methodology ................................................................................. 108
Analysis of RIMGAD programs ................................................. 108
Girls’ Mentoring Centers............................................................ 111
Mentors’ Workshop .................................................................... 122
Annual Girls’ Education Conference........................................ 134
UNICEF........................................................................................................................... 145
Background.................................................................................... 145
Methodology for Research......................................................... 149
Literature Review......................................................................... 149
Analysis........................................................................................... 151
Conclusion..................................................................................... 167
Part III: Recommendations and Conclusion.......................................171
Recommendations ........................................................................................................ 171
Recommendation 1: Awareness-raising campaigns
about girls’ education .................................................................. 171
Recommendation 2: Increase economic support for poor
families ............................................................................................ 176
Recommendation 3: Improve coordination between
government and other actors.................................................... 178
Recommendation 4: Increase technical assistance to
Government .................................................................................. 181
Recommendation 5: Develop new criteria for affectation .. 183
Recommendation 6: Incorporate gender-awareness
courses into teacher training ..................................................... 185
Recommendation 7: Revise the bac in all subjects
to reflect relevant skills and knowledge .................................. 187
Recommendation 8: Improve UNICEF project support
structure......................................................................................... 189
Overview of recommendations for Peace Corps ................. 191
Recommendation 9: Goal setting for RIMGAD projects..... 193
Recommendation 10: Ensure the sustainability of
Peace Corps projects .................................................................. 195
Recommendation 11: Improve monitoring and
evaluation of RIMGAD................................................................ 197
iv Table of Contents Recommendation 12: Revise project
implementation strategy ............................................................. 198
Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 201
Hopes and reality for secondary education............................ 201
Peace Corps and UNICEF interventions................................. 202
Further areas of research ........................................................... 202
A call for action ............................................................................ 203
v Girls’ Secondary Education in Mauritania: Challenges and Opportunities Abbreviations AEI APC APE APO AGEC AGSP APCD bac Bac LM Bac LO Bac M Bac SN BEP BEPC BT CDHLCPI CEDAW CGE Club EMP CMAP CRC CSLP CSO CSP DEE DEF DES DREN ECPSV EDDI EMP/EVF ENI ENS FDI FTP GAD GDP GEE GMC IGEN IPN IT LDCs Africa Education Initiative Approach par Competences Association des Parents d’Eleves Associate Program Officer (UNICEF) Annual Girls Education Conference Ambassadorʹs Girlsʹ Scholarship Program Associate Peace Corps Director baccalaureate examination Series A: Lettres Modernes Lettres Originales Series C: Mathematics Series D: Sciences Naturales Brevet dʹEnseignment Professionnel Brevet de fin dʹEtudes du Premier Cycle Secondaire Brevet de Technicien Commissariat aux Droits de lʹHomme, à la Lutte Contre la Pauvreté et à lʹInsertion Convention on the Elimination of All Form of Discrimination Against Women Comités des Gestion de l’Education Education en Matière de Population Club Centre Mauritanien d’analyse de Politiques Convention on the Rights of the Child Cadre Stratégique de Lutte Contre la Pauvreté Civil Society Organization Code du Statut Personnel Direction des Examens et de lʹEvaluation Direction Générale de lʹEnseignement Fondamental Direction de lʹEnseignment Fondamentale Direction Régionale de l’Education Nationale Ecoles communautaires propres saines et vertes Education for Development and Democracy Initiative Education en Matière de Population et de Vie Familiale Ecole Normale dʹInstituteurs Ecole Normale Supérieur Foreign Direct Investment Formation Technique et Professionnelle Gender and Development Gross Domestic Product Girls’ Education and Empowerment Program Girlsʹ Mentoring Center Inspection Général de lʹEducation Nationale Institut Pedagogique Nationale Information Technology Least Developed Countries vi Abbreviations MEN MEFS MESRS MoU NGO ONS PCPP PCW PNDSE PPP RIMGAD SECF SPA TMGM UM UN UNDAF UNDP UNESCO UNGEI UNICEF UNF UNFPA US VC WFP Ministère de lʹEducation Nationale Ministère de lʹEnseignement fondamental et secondaire Ministry of Superior Education and Scientific Research Memorandum of Understanding Non‐Governmental Organization Office National de la Statistique Peace Corps Partnership Project Peace Corps Washington Programme National de Développement du Secteur Educatif Purchasing Power Parity Peace Corps Mauritaniaʹs Gender and Development Program Secrétariat dʹEtat à la Condition féminine Small Project Assistance (Peace Corps) baccalaureate examination in technical studies Mauritanian Ougiya United Nations United Nations Development Assistance Framework United Nations Development Programme United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization United Nations Girls’ Education Initiative United Nations Childrenʹs Fund United Nations Foundation United Nations Population Fund United States Volunteer Coordinator World Food Programme vii Girls’ Secondary Education in Mauritania: Challenges and Opportunities Introduction This publication focuses on the key challenges and opportunities that exist in the Islamic Republic of Mauritania, regarding girls’ secondary education, with the objective of increasing girls’ enrollment, retention and completion of the secondary cycle of education. This focus was adopted to build upon Mauritania’s relative success in the primary education domain during the past 15 years. This report outlines and analyzes the salient issues related to the secondary cycle of education for girls. In addition, the publication provides a set of clear and relevant recommendations that will ultimately serve to enhance the effectiveness of the development interventions in the girls’ education sector. In the context of girls’ education, increasing the quantity of girls who achieve a secondary education and improving the quality of the education they receive, would bring many benefits to Mauritanian society. Research from other developing countries demonstrates that educating girls beyond the primary level can contribute to a reduction in child mortality rates and population growth, as well as an increase in economic growth. Furthermore, in considering the benefits of education for girls and their families, women who have continued schooling beyond the primary level earn higher wages and are more likely to promote the education of their children. Perhaps most importantly of all, our research revealed a strong belief among Mauritanian stakeholders that educating girls is inherent to their social values. In an effort to adopt a holistic approach to the analysis of the girls’ secondary education domain in Mauritania, this publication is divided into three parts. The first part explores the contextual dimensions of the girls’ secondary education environment in Mauritania. These dimensions include the Public Schools and Education Policy, Economic Context, Cultural Context, Legal and Regulatory Environment and Institutional Assessment. The Public Schools and Education Policy section analyzes the education system at the primary and secondary levels, focusing on quantity and quality issues, such as curriculum and teacher training. This section addresses the impact of the state of the education system and subsequent reforms on all students’ education, but for girls in particular. 1 Girls’ Secondary Education in Mauritania: Challenges and Opportunities The Economic Context analyzes the microeconomic and macroeconomic factors that have implications for girls’ education. These factors range from the poverty issues at the family level, which create challenges for girls’ education, to the government‐level decisions about training students at the secondary and tertiary levels to fulfill national labor demand. The Cultural Context section analyzes the cultural factors that influence girls’ education through a gender relations framework. Factors that both promote and pose challenges to girls’ education are presented and framed in three main areas: traditional family and community relations; early marriage and maternity; and interpretations of Islam. The Legal and Regulatory Environment section analyzes the legislation that Mauritania has codified that promotes girls’ secondary education. Furthermore, this section explores the possibility of employing extra‐legal alternatives, such as awareness‐raising campaigns, to encourage Mauritanians to adhere to this legislation. The Institutional Assessment analyzes institutional constraints of the major actors in planning and implementing educational interventions to promote girls’ secondary education. This section specifically focuses on issues of management and coordination, both of the Government of Mauritania and donors. The second part of the publication is an evaluation of the interventions of the two largest girls’ education development partners in Mauritania: Peace Corps and UNICEF. These two organizations have been instrumental in advancing girls’ education during the past five years, through their particular functional and geographical focus areas. Peace Corps began its development operations in Mauritania in 1967. Since that time, more than 900 Peace Corps Volunteers (Volunteers) have served in the country in the following sectors: Agro‐Forestry (AgFo), Environmental Education (EE), Small Enterprise Development (SED), Information and Communication Technology (ICT), Health/Water Sanitation and Education/Gender and Development (GAD). 1 One of Peace Corpsʹ main partners in the area of girls’ education is UNICEF. UNICEF has been working in Mauritania for approximately 60 years, and its priorities focus on reconciling poverty reduction strategies with the various reforms in the health and education sectors, particularly as they relate to Mauritanian children. To attain these objectives, UNICEF has established five programs in Mauritania. These programs are Health and Nutrition; Education for All; Promotion of Rights and Special Protection; Support of Local Development and Community Participation; and Social Planning and Monitoring and Evaluation. 2 The third and final part of the publication outlines recommendations for organizations and institutions to improve the various strengths and successes of the girls’ education environment in Mauritania. These recommendations are also intended to support the various institutions and actors in this sector to in address some of the ostensible challenges that hinder the sector’s development. Building on Mauritania’s strengths and recent successes, directly addressing the various challenges facing this important component of Mauritania’s development strategy requires significant and concerted efforts on the part of the Government of Mauritania, 2 Introduction Mauritanian civil society and the numerous development partners (particularly Peace Corps and UNICEF). This publication has been produced in the spirit of this recognition. We sincerely hope that the issues described and analyzed within the various sections of the report, in addition to the numerous recommendations outlined, will serve as a solid base to truly advance the girls’ education sector in Mauritania. 3 Girls’ Secondary Education in Mauritania: Challenges and Opportunities Background Geography
Mauritania is situated at a geographical and cultural crossroads between the Arab world and sub‐Saharan Africa. Its vast territory of more than one million square kilometers is mostly desert and is divided into four ecological zones, the Saharan Zone, the Sahelian Zone, the Senegal River Valley and the Coastal Zone. The Saharan Zone covering the northern two‐thirds of the country is mostly made up of sand and receives little precipitation. The Sahelian Zone extends south of the Saharan Zone until approximately 30 kilometers north of the Senegal River. This zone receives more rain accumulation than the Saharan Zone. 3 The Senegal River Valley is a narrow strip of land extending approximately 30 kilometers north of the Senegal River. The higher rainfall within the valley and the annual flooding of the Senegal River provide a basis for agriculture, which characterizes the valley’s economy and social construct. Finally, the Coastal Zone in Mauritania comprises the 754‐
kilometer Atlantic Ocean coastline and hosts the country’s traditional fishing industry. 4 History
Mauritania has often been described as a bridge linking North Africa to West Africa. However, although the country is a geographical bridge, it also served as the cultural boundary between sedentary farmers of sub‐Saharan Africa and the nomadic Arab‐
Berber herders from North Africa. 5 In the sixteenth century, Mauritania attracted the interest of the Dutch, British and French European powers, because of the gum arabic trade along its southern coast. 6 In the mid‐
nineteenth century, the French Governor of Senegal, Louis Faidherbe, gained control of Mauritania. However, in contrast to other colonies in West Africa, the French policy of assimilation and direct‐rule was never truly applied in Mauritania. Instead, the French relied on local Islamic religious leaders and traditional warrior groups to maintain rule and implement administrative policies. 7 This distant colonial rule contributed to the continued existence of a relatively unchanged and strong tribal structure that continues to dominate Mauritanian affairs. The Islamic Republic of Mauritania became independent on November 28, 1960. In 1961, its first president, Moktar Ould Daddah, assumed power and was reelected in 1966, 1971 and 1976. In 1978, President Daddah was ousted in a coup that led to a number of successive coups, until a 1984 coup brought Colonel Maaouiya Ould Taya to power. In 1991, Colonel Taya implemented a new constitution and legalized opposition parties. He was elected President in the elections of 1992 and subsequently reelected in 1997 and 2003. 8 In August 2005, President Taya was deposed in a bloodless coup by the current military council (CMJD) headed by Colonel Ely Ould Mohamed Vall. Currently, democratic elections are planned for March of 2007. 4 Methodology Methodology The methodology used in this publication included an extensive review of literature on various concepts and theories related to education in general, with a focus on girls’ education, as well as field research conducted in Mauritania during a total period of four weeks in January and March 2006. In conducting field research, we traveled to the capital as well as to regions in urban and rural areas. These regions included the Hodh el‐Gharbi (Aïoun and Kobenni), Adrar (Atar and Tawaz), Gorgol (Kaédi, Lexeiba) and Brakna (Bogué, Thide, Toulde, Magta Lahjar and Sarandougou). In each site, we conducted interviews and focus groups with various stakeholders, such as girl and boy students, parents, teachers, administrators, community leaders, civil society members, mentors, government officials and development professionals. We ensured a diversity in age, ethnicity, social and economic status, and educational and technical background among the stakeholders interviewed. In addition, qualitative surveys in the form of questionnaires were performed with a sample of girls and their parents at various sites across the country to properly evaluate the national education environment, as well as the interventions of Peace Corps within those sites. Finally, we undertook two economic case studies in an effort to better understand the economic constraints for Mauritanian families and the effect of these constraints on their educational choices for their children. 5 Girls’ Secondary Education in Mauritania: Challenges and Opportunities Why secondary education for girls? The early 1980’s and 1990’s witnessed a resurgence of international concern with education in developing countries, on the part of donor agencies and citizens of those countries alike. The early initiatives during this era, such as the Education for All Conference sponsored by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in Jomtien, Thailand, in 1990 focused on the need to expand primary education, as a human right and a means to ending poverty, and both a means and an end to achieving gender equity. In recent years, and in part due to significant successes in expanding primary education in many developing countries, the scope of the international attention has begun to broaden to include secondary education. Research studies inspired by this concern indicate that Mauritania has much to gain by promoting secondary education for girls. Further, there are strong reasons to believe that a coordinated effort by agencies and stakeholders could result in success. Mauritanian stakeholders’ arguments for increasing
quantity and quality of girls’ secondary education
This project was undertaken on two premises, the first of which is that girls in Mauritania, and Mauritanians as a whole, have much to gain by increasing the quantity of girls who are educated and the quality of the education they receive. The second premise is that it is the will of Mauritanians leaders to promote secondary education for girls. Mauritanians’ commitment to promoting girls’ education is reflected in dramatic increases in girls’ enrollment in primary education during the past decade. Moreover, in recent years, Mauritanian individuals, organizations and institutions from several sectors of society have undertaken initiatives to increase the number of girls who enroll in, and complete, the secondary cycle of education. For example, the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education’s (MEFS) comprehensive ten‐year reform strategy, the PNDSE, includes the objective of promoting the schooling of girls at the secondary level. National and regional governing bodies have developed programs to support girls in the secondary cycle in partnership with international development organizations, such as Peace Corps and UNICEF. Perhaps most significantly, the number of girls participating in the secondary cycle has increased dramatically during the past decade, as previously discussed. These initiatives and achievements reflect Mauritania’s will to promote secondary education for girls but do not explain why Mauritanians believe that this endeavor should be a priority. Thus, since the objective of our research is to contribute to educational outcomes that address the intentions and needs of Mauritanians, the foundation of our study is an analysis of why Mauritanians from various sectors of society believe that increasing secondary education for girls is a worthy goal, and what benefits they believe secondary education could, and should, bring to Mauritanian individuals and to their country. 6 Why secondary education for girls? The information we gathered about Mauritanians’ opinions regarding secondary education for girls was based on interviews conducted with Mauritanian stakeholders from multiple sectors, ranging from students and their families to teachers, government ministers, and civil society representatives. In framing the questions, we asked these stakeholders to explain why they considered secondary education to be important for Mauritanian youth, and whether and why secondary education is particularly important for girls. The arguments Mauritanian stakeholders provided in favor of increasing girls’ secondary education can be generally divided into two broad categories. The first category centers on the belief that education for girls will bring specific benefits to the girls themselves and their families, as well as to the Mauritanian society as a whole. The second category is an argument based in values and centered on the premise that the promotion of education is a worthy end in its own right. Some of these arguments are echoed in international discourse about education, but others are specific to the significance of education within Mauritania. Gains for individual girls and their families
In discussing the importance of secondary schooling for girls, many individuals from all sectors of society argued that a higher education was important for girls because it would help them to better care for their families as wives and mothers. Indeed, this was an argument that many girls provided for wanting to continue their education. Several girls we interviewed spoke of specific areas in which education could help them better perform. For example, some girls argued that an education could help them to better manage their households and educate their own children. Others also noted that secondary education provides young women with knowledge about important topics, such as hygiene and ways to avoid disease transmission, which in turn enables them to protect their families’ health. 9 Research from other developing countries supports these assertions that educating more girls at the secondary level bring the aforementioned benefits to girls and their families. Data from 49 countries surveyed in a recent study conducted by the World Bank indicates that under‐five mortality rates are lowest in households in which the mother has achieved a secondary level of education or higher, with significant gains above those households in which the mother has achieved a primary education. 10 Women with a secondary education in developing countries are also more likely to benefit from reproductive health care services 11 and have smaller, healthier families. 12 In addition, raising a mother’s educational level is correlated with a rise in education rates for her children. Cross‐
country studies show that education for women has an even higher correlation with a rise in overall education rates for children than comparable education for men. 13 Many of the stakeholders we interviewed also stated that a secondary education would provide girls with more opportunities to obtain higher paying professions. Interestingly, this was a reason that parents often provided for supporting their daughters’ education, although individuals from many other sectors of society did not provide a similar explanation. Some parents stated that they wanted their daughters to continue their education because it would help them to obtain a job and have a secure future. 14 Other 7 Girls’ Secondary Education in Mauritania: Challenges and Opportunities parents argued that through secondary education, girls could learn to speak English or French, which would qualify them for more lucrative employment. 15 Some parents in the village of Tawaz stated that with an education, girls could do “any kind of work,” citing “teacher” as an example. 16 Evidence from other parts of Africa supports Mauritanians’ assumptions that increasing education levels for girls could improve their prospects as wage earners. Studies from several countries demonstrate that girls’ participation in formal education increases the likelihood of their participation in the labor force. Moreover, each year of schooling girls achieve is correlated with a 20% increase in wages. 17 Women are also more likely than men to invest their earnings in their children’s needs, which also implies that secondary education could enable women to better care for their families. 18 Many of the Mauritanians we interviewed argued that secondary education would empower girls and enable them to make better life decisions. For example, some girl students stated that continuing their education would help them to be “independent.” 19 A teacher in the village of Lexeiba believed that secondary education can help girls to overcome challenges, citing early marriage as an example. 20 Another teacher from that community also noted that with an education, girls could better care for themselves and their families if they divorced or become widows. 21 Some educators argued that secondary education provides students with a better knowledge of their rights and thus the capacity and agency to advocate for those rights. 22 A parent in Selibabi stated that education “kills ignorance … [I]t helps you find a better job, better marriage, everything.” Some girls also argued that education would allow them to be more active participants in society. 23 Agency, independence, and improved decision‐making are all indicators of empowerment, which are an area of interest to education researchers, particularly with respect to the impact that education can have on girls. The concept of empowerment is defined differently by different researchers but share common characteristics, including an improvement in both an understanding of and control over one’s circumstances, 24 which have been found to be important effects of education for girls in developing countries. Moreover, the empowerment girls gain through schooling appears to be a critical factor in enabling them to pass on the benefits of education to their families. For example, not only are women with higher levels of education more knowledgeable about issues such as nutrition and hygiene, but they are also more proactive in applying this knowledge to decisions about their families’ lives. 25 In the same vein, women with a secondary education are also more likely to participate in managing their families’ economic resources, as well as engaging in public life beyond the household. 26 Perhaps the argument Mauritanians evoked most often was that increasing girls’ secondary education would contribute to the country’s development. This argument was provided most often by educational leaders, such as ministry officials, but also noted by stakeholders from other sectors of society. In a focus group of ministry officials, participants commented that an educated citizenry was important for the sustainable development of the country. 27 One father of a girl in secondary school believed that the country would “always remain underdeveloped…if girls’ education was not taken seriously.” 28 Along those lines, some individuals observed that girls comprise more than 8 Why secondary education for girls? half of the population, and that in order for a country to become developed, it is necessary for the majority to be educated to avoid causing a “handicap” for the country. 29 According to a large body of literature, increasing secondary education for all children has indeed been found to promote both economic growth and a rise in individual household wealth. This literature addresses the promotion of economic growth, not necessarily development, which is a more comprehensive and difficult indicator to measure. Studies from other countries indicate that increasing the number of workers with a secondary education contributes to knowledge transfer and to the attraction of foreign direct investment, both of which can contribute to economic growth. 30 Moreover, historically, countries that have balanced the expansion of primary education with the expansion of offerings in secondary and tertiary schooling have achieved the most rapid levels of economic growth. 31 Investing in girls’ education has also been correlated with increasing the percentage of girls who achieve secondary education, which contributes to higher levels of per capita income growth. Returns to investment on secondary girls’ education are significant at 15 to 25% in some developing countries and are generally higher for women, than for men. 32 Conversely, gender inequalities in education are correlated with slower economic growth. 33 The value of education in the Mauritanian context
In addition to the measurable gains that Mauritanians believe secondary schooling for girls would bring to individuals and to their society, many respondents also discussed education within a broader framework of the values that knowledge can bring. In fact, the manner in which respondents framed their discussion of some of the benefits of schooling previously described, such as care for families, revealed much about the significance that they place on education. In this respect, supporting education for girls was part of promoting the values that they believe should characterize their society. Achieving an education was associated with a rise in status and a sense of self‐worth, especially for many girls and their families. Some girls simply argued that it was important to learn and to be intelligent, and that education would allow them to “become something in life”. 34 Others believed that education could improve their self‐confidence. 35 Regarding the rise in status for girls, a ministry official argued that education would allow girls and their families to transcend their backgrounds, implying both an increase in income, but also a rise in social position. 36 Many Mauritanians argued that educating more girls was essential to the nation’s advancement. While the terms they used, such as “development” imply economic growth, broadly framed as they were, they may also implicate a more encompassing framework of social and political development. Similarly, some parents argued that education for all students, including girls was essential to being a “modern” nation. A related argument was that educating girls would enhance Mauritania’s ability to enjoy productive relationships with other countries. 37 Another recurring theme was the importance of being educated to be a “good” woman. For some, education was simply inherent to a being a “good” woman; for example, one parent stated that “being a good woman means being educated.” Another common belief 9 Girls’ Secondary Education in Mauritania: Challenges and Opportunities was that education would support girls in achieving their moral development, such as a parent in Magta Lahjar who said that education would help girls to learn the difference between right and wrong. 38 Similar to the previous argument that educated women often transmit health and educational benefits to their families, some respondents argued that educated women can also better care for the moral development of their families. A ministry official argued that since women play large role in education of children, family as well as the transfer of Mauritanian customs, “the more she is educated, the better.” 39 A girl from Aïoun believed that education would make her a good wife, stating that to have a good marriage one must be well‐educated and have a good character. 40 Finally, many Mauritanians believed that the promotion of education for all children was integral to other core values that they believe their society should reflect. For example, respondents spoke of the access to education as a human right and a matter of justice. 41 In particular, several spoke of education for all as an inherent value of Islam. A ministry official noted that Islam directs everyone to become educated, with no distinction between men and women. 42 Also, one Imam cited an Islamic teaching that all Muslims learn Arabic so that they can read the Koran, as well as a Hadith stating that parents who support their daughter’s education are more likely to go to heaven. 43 A teacher in Tawaz cited the verse in the Koran that commands all Muslims to “Learn!” and noted there is no distinction in this verse between men and women. 44 To say that the individuals we interviewed all believe that there is an inherent value to promoting secondary education for girls is not to say that all Mauritanians agree on precisely what and how long girls should study, nor how schooling should prepare young women for their futures. As we discuss in later sections of this report, Mauritanians from different sectors of society do have different views on girls’ education. These views, in turn, shape the manner in which girls engage with formal schooling, as well as the development of educational institutions. Nonetheless, the extent to which Mauritanians representing distinct backgrounds agree on this general goal, and the confluence in their views on the desirable benefits of education, is a strong reason to believe that future initiatives to support girls’ education will be successful. Moreover, these views indicate the importance of developing educational offerings that reflect Mauritanians’ goals for their society’s future. 1 Peace Corps, History of Peace Corps in the Islamic Republic of Mauritania (Peace Corps: Islamic Republic of Mauritania) <http://www.geocities.com/pcmauritania/pcinrim.htm>. 2 History of Peace Corps in the Islamic Republic of Mauritania. 3 Robert E. Handloff, Mauritania: A Country Study, Federal Research Division (Library of Congress, 1990) <http://www.country‐data.com/frd/cs/mrtoc.html>. 4 Handloff. 5 Handloff. 6 Infoplease Encyclopedia – Mauritania, <http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/A0859541.html>. 7 Handloff. 8 Countries Quest, Mauritania. <http://countriesquest.com/africa/mauritania/history.htm>. 9 Inspector (IGEN), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 10 The World Bank, Expanding Opportunities and Building Competencies for Young People: A New Strategy for Secondary Education (2005) 23. 11 Joan D. DeJaeghere, “Quality Education and Gender Equality,” International Conference on Education, Background Paper for Workshop 1. UNICEF (2004) <www.ibe.unesco.org/International/ICE47/ English/Organisation/Workshops/Workshop1CompENG.pdf 24>. 10 Why secondary education for girls? Barbara Herz and Gene B. Sperling, What Works in Girlsʹ Education: Evidence and Policies from the Developing World (The Council on Foreign Relations: 2004) 4. 13 Herz and Sperling 4. 14 Questionnaires from parents of girls (GMC and non‐GMC). 15 Parent, Kaedi, Focus Group, 20 Mar. 2006. 16 Parent, Lexeiba, Focus Group, 16 Mar. 2006. 17 Eileen Kane, “Girls Education in Africa: What Do We Know About Strategies That Work?” (The World Bank: 2004) 58. 18 Kane 58. 19 Questionnaires from girls who attend the GMCs. 20 Teacher, Lexeiba, Focus Group, 16 Mar. 2006. 21 Teacher, Lexeiba, Focus Group, 16 Mar. 2006. 22 Instructor (ENS), Nouakchott, 15 Mar. 2006. 23 Girl Student, Tawaz, Focus Group, 20 Mar. 2006. 24 Jeanette Moulton, “Formal and Nonformal Education and Empowered Behavior: A Review of the Research Literature.” (USAID: 1997) 13. 25 Moulton 7. 26 Moulton 8. 27 Ministry Official, Nouakchott, Focus Group, 13 Mar. 2006. 28 Questionnaires from parents of girls who attend the GMCs. 29 e.g. Inspector General (IGEN), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 14 Mar. 2006; Inspector (ENS), Nouakchott, Focus Group, 15 Mar. 2006; Teacher, Lexeiba, Focus group, 20 Mar. 2006. 30 Expanding Opportunities and Building Competencies for Young People: A New Strategy for Secondary Education 19. 31 Expanding Opportunities and Building Competencies for Young People: A New Strategy for Secondary Education 18. 32 Herz and Sperling 3. 33 Kane 54. 34 Girl student, Lexeiba, Focus Group, 17 Mar. 2006. 35 Questionnaires from girls who attend the GMCs. 36 DREN, Atar, Personal Interview, 16 Mar. 2006. 37 Teacher, Lexeiba, Focus Group, 17 Mar. 2006. 38 Questionnaires from parents of girls who attend the GMCs. 39 Ministry Official (MEFS), Nouakchott, Coordination Roundtable Discussion, 13 Mar. 2006. 40 Questionnaires from girls who attend the GMCs. 41 Inspector General (IGEN), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 14 Mar. 2006. 42 Official (MEFS), Nouakchott, Coordination Roundtable Focus Group, 13 Mar. 2006. 43 Imam, Nouakchott, Role of Islam in Girls’ Education Roundtable, 13 Mar. 2006. 44 Teacher, Tawaz, Focus Group, 16 Mar. 2006. 12
11 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment Public Schools and Education Policy Introduction
The purpose of this section is to analyze the factors within Mauritaniaʹs state school system that may deter or support girls in enrollment, participation and completion. The framework for this analysis is built on three premises: First, an analysis of the factors that shape the outcomes for girls in secondary schools must be grounded in an understanding of the impact of Mauritaniaʹs secondary system on all students. Both girls and boys are the beneficiaries of opportunities and improvements in the school system, and systemic problems present both girls and boys with significant obstacles in their educational pursuits. Secondly, however, the same educational offerings may affect girls and boys differently. In many instances, girls and boys do not benefit from the same resources to equal degrees, nor are they equally adversely affected by the same challenges. More specifically, while this may not always be the case, girls often benefit less from educational resources and opportunities, and challenges or problems that present themselves in this context pose more significant limitations on their educational opportunities. Additionally, there may be elements of the school system that specifically benefit or disadvantage girls, but have little effect on boys. Thirdly, critical to this study is the balanced consideration of factors that affect both the quantity of girls who achieve a secondary education and the quality of the education they receive. Increasing the numbers of girls who enroll in, and complete, secondary school is critical to realizing the gains that Mauritanian stakeholders desire. Equally important, however, is that when girls participate in school they can acquire knowledge and skills at a sufficiently high standard to contribute to these individual and collective gains. Additionally, in many other contexts, the quality of secondary schools has been found to have a direct influence over the quantity of students who complete the cycle. The belief that schools provide opportunities to improve quality of life and achievement of future goals creates an incentive for many children and their families to continue their formal education. Conversely, the belief that the schools children attend do not offer them real or adequate opportunities to learn will have a negative influence on the demand for schooling for many students and families. 12 Public Schools and Education Policy In the same vein, the objective of this analysis is to create the foundation for programs and reforms that contribute to gender mainstreaming in the school system. An underlying assumption is that support for girls in education can, and must, contribute to programs and reforms, which improve learning outcomes for both boys and girls. This should include the dual goals of equalizing disparities in resources for both girls and boys, and improving the education outcomes for all students. Figure 1: Lycée student In seeking to gain a comprehensive understanding of girls’ experiences and outcomes in the secondary school system, this study of the educational system and policy centers on the following: 1.
2.
3.
4.
An analysis of challenges and resources contributing to the quantity of all students who achieve a secondary education. An analysis of challenges and resources for all students in the secondary cycle in obtaining a high quality education. An analysis of factors that may impact all studentsʹ educational experiences but impact girlsʹ to a different degree than boys’. A focus on those factors that specifically affect girls (although they may have little or no effect on boys). Each subsection of this section focuses on a different broad element of the school system. Subsections are organized as follows: 13 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment 1.
2.
3.
A discussion of the relevance of each element of the school system to the factors identified above, based on a review of research from other developing countries. A description of relevant characteristics of Mauritaniaʹs school system. An analysis of the impact of those factors on all students in the secondary cycle, with a particular focus on girls. As previously mentioned, the purpose of our research will be as a resource for government officials and outside donor agencies seeking to support girls’ enrollment, retention and completion in secondary schools, including both collèges and lycées, which are administered and funded under the auspices of the Ministère de l’Enseignement Fondamentale et Secondaire (MEFS), formerly the Ministère de l’Education Nationale (MEN). * Thus, our study of the school system does not include traditional schools or private secondary schools. In addition, we do not provide a comprehensive examination of state‐
sponsored technical schools (except with respect to some discussion of their relationship to the goals outlined in current major educational reform initiatives), because such an assessment warrants deeper analysis than we can provide in this report. Furthermore, our analysis of the primary and tertiary cycles is limited to the intersection between these sectors and the issues of girlsʹ enrollment, retention and completion in the secondary cycle. Background
History and structure of the school system
Mauritaniaʹs educational system has its roots in two distinct school systems, the legacies of which are evident today. The system of mahadras, commonly referred to as Koranic schools (or as ʺtraditionalʺ schools in contemporary discourse), dates back to the eleventh century. 45 The other system, sometimes referred to as the ʺmodernʺ system, was established during the colonial era by French officials for the training of local administrators. 46 Following independence, Mauritanian leaders established a state‐run system, which reflects the legacies of both the ʺtraditionalʺ and ʺmodernʺ schools. 47 Presently, the structure of the public school system is largely based on the French colonial schools, and is divided into primary schools and two cycles of secondary schools. The content taught at each level incorporates some of the studies in religion and history that are taught in traditional schools. The division of Mauritania’s schools into two linguistic strands also reflects this dual legacy. In the strand commonly referred to as bilingue, students receive instruction in the French medium, with some instruction in other regional languages. In a second strand, students are instructed in the Arabic medium. † This system has begun to change since 1999, when the MEN initiated a series of reforms to unify the two systems. Under this unified system, students in all schools should receive instruction in some subjects in the * With respect to current and future initiatives, this report will refer to this ministry as MEFS. For past initiatives we will refer to the ministry as MEN. † Yet a third strand exists at the primary level, where students in some schools receive instruction in Pulaar, Soninké, or Wolof. PNDSE 11. 14 Public Schools and Education Policy French medium and in others in the Arabic medium. 48 Implementation of this reform is still underway. In addition to the public school system, Mauritania also has an extensive system of traditional schools. Traditional schools are administered independently of Government of Mauritania ministries but work in coordination with government and donor initiatives toward broader educational goals through the Ministère Chargé de la Lutte Contre l’Analphabétisme de l’Orientation Islamique et de lʹEnseignement Original. Children in Mauritania commonly attend traditional schools in the years before they begin primary school. Some students continue to attend only the traditional schools, while others enroll in public schools but continue attending the traditional schools at the same time or during vacation. Students who graduate from traditional secondary schools may elect to take the baccalaureate exam (commonly referred to in discourse as ʺthe bacʺ) in Lettres Originelles, which qualifies students to enroll in the University of Nouakchott to pursue an advanced degree in Islamic studies. In addition, approximately 13% of primary students and 10% of secondary students attend independent private schools, primarily in the urban areas of Nouakchott and Nouadhibou. 49 Since independence, Ministry officials in Mauritania have initiated several reforms to adapt the school system to the changing needs of the country; among the more recent of which were the reforms of 1999 described above. A comprehensive program of reforms initiated in 2001 is particularly relevant to this study. The program, entitled the Programme National de Développement du Secteur Éducatif (PNDSE), was developed by government ministries and development organizations involved in the school system and outlines reforms to be implemented during a ten‐year period. Two developments in Mauritaniaʹs educational sector spurred the creation of the PNDSE. These developments include first, the significant increase in the proportion of Mauritanian children enrolling at the primary level and the first cycle of the secondary level (collège), and second, the profound structural changes in the 1999 reforms. 50 The reform plan is comprehensive, involving multiple government ministries and outside donor agencies. It spans the entire educational system, from preschool to the tertiary level, and includes reforms for public and private schools, as well as mahadras. The implementation of this reform has been underway for five years, and a midterm evaluation of progress was disseminated in 2005. This evaluation demonstrated that several of the reforms are relevant to an analysis of opportunities and challenges for girls in the secondary cycle of education in Mauritaniaʹs public schools. Since many of these reforms are currently being implemented, it is important to note that research for this study was based on observations of a system that may be changing rapidly. Structure of the public school system
Primary
The primary cycle in the Mauritanian school system consists of six years. Generally, students begin this cycle at age six. According to the design of the 1999 reforms, students are to receive instruction in all subjects in the Arabic medium during the first year of primary school and then begin instruction in mathematics, natural sciences and French in the French medium at the beginning of their second year. In addition to these subjects, the primary school curriculum also includes courses in Islam. Students who complete the 15 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment primary cycle receive a Certificat dʹÉtudes Fondamentales, qualifying them to proceed to collège. 51 Secondary: Collège and Lycée
Secondary education in Mauritania is divided into two cycles: collège (the first cycle) and lycée (the second cycle). Collège consists of three years of study. Students who have completed their third year of collège may elect to take the Brevet de fin dʹÉtudes du Premier Cycle Secondaire (BEPC) examination to qualify for entrance into lycée, or they may enter directly into lycée without the examination if they have achieved a satisfactory academic record. 52 The long‐term goal established in the 1999 reforms is for students to receive instruction in literary subjects, such as religion, literature and history, in the Arabic medium, and instruction in mathematics and natural sciences in the French medium. 53 However, this transition is still underway. The upper cycle of the secondary tier, lycée, also consists of three years of instruction. The final year is devoted to preparation for the baccalaureate examination, which qualifies students for entrance into the university. Students who enter academic lycées enroll in one of four academic tracks. Students who prepare for the Series A: Lettres Modernes (Bac LM), Series D: Sciences Naturales (Bac SN) and Series C: Mathematics (Bac M) will all take the same exam, but the grades they receive on each component of the test are weighted differently. The Bac LM gives the greatest weight to components of the test in languages, philosophy and history. For the Bac SN and Bac M, the greatest weight is given to natural sciences and mathematics, respectively. At present, students may take any of these three examinations in either the Arabic or French medium. A fourth examination, Lettres Originelles (bac LO), includes component tests in history, math, natural sciences, French and Arabic, as well as Islamic studies. Students may only take the Bac LO in the Arabic medium. Technical Schools
In 1985, the Government of Mauritania began an initiative to establish secondary schools that offer specialized training. At present, there are four such training establishments, two of which are located in Nouakchott, one in Nouadhibou and one in the Brakna. Technical education is divided into two domains. The first broader field includes bureaucratic and information areas, as well as specialized training programs in secretarial skills and bookkeeping. The second field addresses technical and industrial skills, and offers training in fields such as masonry, civil engineering and sanitation engineering. Studies in each field culminate in the Brevet dʹEnseignement Professionnel (BEP) at the end of the first cycle and the Brevet de Technicien (BT) at the end of the second cycle. 54 In addition, students enrolled in specialized technical education in information technology may take the baccalaureate examination in technical studies (TMGM) after completing the third year in the first cycle in order to qualify for entrance into the university. While technical schools feature prominently in Mauritaniaʹs long‐term educational policy plans, at present, they account for a small proportion of state schools. In the 2003‐04 school year, approximately 1,900 of approximately 78,000 students attending public secondary schools were enrolled in technical schools. 55 Another public institution in the secondary cycle is the Ecole Normale dʹInstituteurs (ENI), a training institute for teachers. Students who wish to train as primary school teachers 16 Public Schools and Education Policy may enroll in this institution upon completion of collège and by passing the BEPC. Students who would like to pursue a career as a secondary school teacher can enter the program upon passing the bac. Tertiary Cycle
The University of Nouakchott is Mauritaniaʹs central institution for higher education. To be admitted to the university, students must pass the bac in one of the five domains described above. The major school of the university is divided into three faculties, the Faculté des Lettres et Sciences Humaines, Faculté des Sciences Juridiques et Economiques, and the Faculté des Sciences et Techniques. In addition to these faculties, a specialized school for the training of teachers, the Ecole Normal Superieur (ENS), exists, which trains secondary school teachers for both the first and second cycle, as well as school inspectors. A third institution within the university is the Centre Supérieur de lʹEnseignement Technique, which offers specialized training programs, as well as training for teachers of technical schools. 56 Girls in the Mauritanian school system
Quantity and quality at the primary level
Mauritania has made some significant strides towards achieving universal primary education in the past decade. Between 1990 and 2000, gross enrollment in primary schools rose from 46.8% to 84.4%, 57 and net enrollment between 1991 and 2002 rose from 35% to 68%. 58 While these figures are encouraging, retention rates reveal that there are still challenges remaining to be addressed at this level. For example, the total national retention rate from the first through sixth years of primary school for the 2003‐04 school year was 40.5%. 59 Thus, while enrollment rates are high, the low retention rates suggest that completion may be a challenge at the primary level. In addition to the overall gains at the primary level, gender parity indicators are strong. In 2003, gross enrollment in primary school for girls was 87%, and net enrollment was 67%, compared to 89% and 68%, respectively for boys. 60 These figures evidence significant gains with respect to overall enrollment for both boys and girls and significant progress towards gender parity during the past twelve years, with girlsʹ gross and net enrollment more than doubling since 1990. As a result of these achievements, in the 2003 Human Development Report, UNDP recognized Mauritania as a strong example of a country that has increased its rate of girls’ enrollment in schools and reduced the disparity in schooling between boys and girls. Secondary education cycle
Enrollment in the secondary cycle has increased dramatically during the past decade, rising by 68% in the 1990s. 61 Differentials in enrollment between boys and girls are relatively slim. In 2002‐2003, 62.4% of girls and 65.4% of boys transitioned from the primary to secondary cycle. However, disparities between girls and boys begin to emerge when considering retention rates. For example, in 2000, the retention rate for boys in the first cycle of secondary school was 76% while for girls it was 69%. Overall enrollment shows greater gender disparity at the secondary level than the primary, with net enrollment rates for girls at 20% and for boys at 25%. 62 Rates of grade repetition between boys and girls show a widening gap between boys and girls from the first to the second cycle of secondary school. At the level of collège, the rate 17 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment of grade repetition was 14% for girls and 13.6% for boys, but in lycée, the level was 16.2% for girls and 12.6% for boys. Overall completion rates reveal even greater disparities; for example, in 2000, in a study of cohort of 1,000 girls who had entered secondary school, only 73 passed the bac. At the tertiary level, young women accounted for only 21% of students in the university in the 2000‐01 academic year. 63 As in the primary cycle, however, trends from the past twelve years also show increases in overall enrollment among all students and rapid gains for girls in particular in the upper levels of education. Furthermore, gross enrollment rates for girls have doubled in both the secondary and tertiary cycles. Several elements of the school system may affect girls’ enrollment, retention and completion of the secondary cycle. The number and location of secondary schools, access to teaching materials, the quality and quantity of teachers, curriculum and teaching methodologies all have an impact on the quantity of girls who are educated and the quality of education they receive. In addition, the comprehensive reforms planned in the PNDSE deserve consideration for the impact they may have on various factors in the school system that have particular significance for girls’ educational outcomes. Analysis
Schools’ resources: capacity, access, infrastructure, and materials
Adequate institutional and material resources are a necessary condition for increasing the numbers of all students who achieve a secondary education in any country. If there are not enough secondary schools to accommodate students who have completed the primary cycle, the number of students who proceed to the secondary cycle will necessarily be limited. Furthermore, capacity constraints may have a significant impact on the quality of education students receive. If the number of students attending a given school exceeds its capacity, this may result in uncomfortably crowded classes, a lower ratio of teachers to students and a dilution of studentsʹ access to teaching materials. When there are few schools, or when schools are concentrated only in urban areas, this also hinders studentsʹ access to secondary schools. This is particularly true of students in rural areas, because traveling long distances to attend the secondary schools creates the additional burden of transportation costs and limits the free time of the students, which they can use to study or perform chores. Access to instructional facilities and materials, ranging from basic resources such as blackboards, desks and chalk, to libraries, laboratories and computers also plays a significant role in schoolsʹ capacity to provide a high quality education. Other basic facilities, such as structurally sound buildings, access to water and latrines, and walls or fencing around school compounds also have a significant effect on studentsʹ health and sense of security, and thus on their ability to learn. More broadly, schoolsʹ infrastructure and teaching materials may influence studentsʹ perceptions of the quality of the education they are receiving, and thus their incentive to continue their schooling. 18 Public Schools and Education Policy Figure 2: Collège students, Atar Each of these factors influences the educational experiences of all secondary students, but some have been found to have disproportionate effects on girls in developing countries. Traveling long distances to and from school may be less safe or less culturally acceptable for girls than for boys 64 and has been found to constitute a greater barrier to education for girls than for boys in other parts of sub‐Saharan Africa and Asia as well. 65 Studies from several countries have found that inadequate access to private latrines is a significant deterrent to girls’ enrollment and attendance. 66 Other infrastructural elements, such as well‐lit roads or walls around school compounds, may also be significant in creating environments that girls and their parents feel are safe and appropriate. 67 According to studies conducted for the development of the PNDSE, capacity constraints pose a challenge to the objective of increasing the number of Mauritanian children who achieve a secondary education, 68 although the degree of impact relative to other factors discussed later in this report, is difficult to determine. In fact, current challenges to capacity are in part an outgrowth of recent achievements in the primary cycle. The rapid growth in the rate of students enrolled in primary school between 1990 and 2000 has put significant demands on Mauritaniaʹs existing secondary schools. As noted above, enrollment at the secondary level has increased dramatically. In response to this growth, policymakers included an objective to rehabilitate classrooms in disrepair and build new classrooms in existing schools and to construct at least 46 new secondary schools as one of the primary goals of the policy reforms in the PNDSE. 69 According to the midterm report on the PNDSE, 45 new secondary schools are either under construction or in the planning stage, although progress on plans for completion of these schools has proceeded at a slower rate than planned. 70 Progress in the establishment of new school facilities 19 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment could have a positive effect on educational outcomes for all students at the secondary level, if appropriately planned and situated. Data on the average distance students must travel to attend secondary schools was not available for this study, but a few indicators show that distance may indeed pose an obstacle for students in the secondary cycle, particularly in rural areas. Only approximately 1% of primary students live more than three kilometers from the nearest primary school in Mauritania. However, given the low ratio of secondary to primary schools, which is approximately one secondary school to 21 primary schools, 71 secondary students are likely to live farther from schools than primary students. The ratio of primary to secondary schools is dramatically higher in the regions of Hodh el‐Charghi (52 to one), Hodh el‐Gharbi (51 to one) and Assaba (41 to one), implying that access is even more difficult in those regions. As in other developing countries, living long distances from schools constitutes a disproportionate barrier for Mauritanian girls in secondary school. A common accommodation for families in this situation is to make arrangements for children who want to continue schooling to reside with relatives who live closer to a school. However, whereas boys may stay with extended family relatives, cultural norms often make it unacceptable for girls to stay with anyone outside the immediate family. 72 One of the reforms identified in the PNDSE is to continue to develop the carte scolaire (school map), which would allow policymakers to identify the regions in which there is the greatest need for more schools or resources to accommodate secondary students. Another proposed strategy, specifically to accommodate girls, is to construct dormitories near secondary schools in some regions. 73 Weaknesses in schoolsʹ infrastructure and a lack of teaching material resources have also been identified as an area for concern by Mauritanian education policymakers. Only 42% of secondary schools have libraries, of which only 70% are in good repair. 74 A lack of laboratories was cited in the PNDSE as an area of particular concern given an anticipated growth in the number of students who will pursue studies in natural sciences, the overall growth in secondary enrollment and the objective of raising the number of students who pass the Bac SN. Access to laboratories has also been found to be a factor that positively influences perceptions of school quality, in particular, by enhancing the relevance of instruction in science. * Ministry officials and educators we interviewed for this study also identified access to laboratories and other teaching materials as a high priority for improving the quality of instruction in secondary schools. 75 Given girlsʹ disproportionately low passing percentages on the Bac SN, 76 improvements in the quality of instructional offerings in sciences may be of particular benefit to them. Textbooks
Textbooks are among the most essential resources to support studentsʹ learning. A lack of access to textbooks has been found to be a disincentive for parents to allow their children to attend school in other African countries, whereas providing textbooks has been found to improve girlsʹ enrollment in schools in both Africa and South Asia. 77 Moreover, the material within the textbooks may also significantly shape educational outcomes, particularly for girls. Several studies from countries in the developing world indicate that images of girls and women in textbooks often emphasize their roles as wives and mothers For a discussion of curriculum relevance, perceptions of quality, and demand for secondary education, please see the section entitled ʺCurriculum and Teaching Methodologyʺ *
20 Public Schools and Education Policy to the exclusion of showing them engaging in educational or professional pursuits. 78 Such images may fail to provide girls with positive examples of the benefits that pursuing an education may bring. Textbooks in Mauritania are published by the Institut Pedagogique Nationale (IPN), an institution that functions under the direction of the MEFS. Textbooks are updated every two to three years. The Inspector General, the institution responsible for evaluating and monitoring schools, also produces some manuals for teachers, as well as the core syllabus for each subject at each level of school. 79 In the evaluation of the school system conducted for the development of the PNDSE, the inadequate quantity of textbooks was identified as a particular challenge at the secondary level. 80 Specifically, insufficient textbooks were printed for full distribution to each student in lycée. 81 Although in many of the classes observed as part of this study, students used textbooks that had been recently published (i.e. within the past five years), some of the teachers interviewed stated that few students at their schools actually had textbooks. 82 In addition, trainers reported mixed experiences in obtaining access to new curriculum materials or information regarding new pedagogical approaches, an issue which could have a significant impact on the programsʹ capacity to promote teaching quality. According to their reports, at present there is no formal system in place for the transmission of the materials developed at the Institut Pedagogique Nationale and the Ecole Nationale Supérieure. 83 A lack of textbooks and a lack of opportunities for teachers in training to use newly developed materials both constitute likely barriers to students in achieving a quality education at the secondary level. Furthermore, Mauritanian educators noted that Mauritanian textbooks tend to present images of boys in roles that emphasize the value of education, while images of girls emphasize traditional roles that do not require a formal education. These images, they argued, fail to provide girls with positive examples of the value of an education. 84 Some initiatives are currently underway to provide new textbooks to schools. The PNDSE includes an objective to develop new textbooks and to ensure that sufficient textbooks are printed for distribution to every student in secondary school. The reform plans do not specify whether gender sensitivity will be one of the considerations in the development of the new materials. Therefore, gender sensitivity in the images used in school textbooks may be an important area to explore in future studies of progress in supporting girls in the secondary cycle. An additional project to develop and disseminate new teaching materials is also being developed by officials at the Inspection Générale de l’Éducation Nationale (IGEN) in coordination with the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA). The IGEN is the MEFS department responsible for the monitoring and evaluation of school staff and for the development of the national curricula. The project is to create materials that will augment instruction at the secondary level with lessons that promote awareness about a variety of social issues, including gender equality (see Box 3: The FUNAP/EMP/EVP program). Teachers
Teachers may be one of the most significant influences on the quality and quantity of students who receive a secondary education. The opportunity to learn in schools with low 21 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment student to teacher ratios and with knowledgeable, skilled teachers increases the possibility that students will enjoy the full benefits that a secondary education can provide. Similar to other factors related to school quality, if parents and students believe that schools are staffed by motivated, competent educators, this may serve as a motivation to continue formal education, and thus, have a positive effect on enrollment and retention of students. For girls, in particular, the opportunity to be taught by female teachers positively correlates with levels of participation and achievement in secondary education. Research from other countries in sub‐Saharan Africa indicate that increasing the percentage of female teachers supports girls’ schooling by enhancing their familiesʹ confidence in the school environment and by providing students with positive female role models. 85 Additionally, when teachers are trained in gender‐sensitive pedagogy and exhibit positive attitudes towards girl studentsʹ capacity to learn, the possibility that girls will succeed in the secondary cycle increases. 86 Figure 3: A female physics teacher, Atar As is the case in developing and developed countries, Mauritania faces challenges in both recruiting and retaining secondary teachers, although it has achieved some notable successes. According to the midterm report on the PNDSE reforms, the overall ratio of students to teachers in public secondary schools grew from 28.1% in the 2002‐3 school year to 29.7% in 2003‐04. This ratio is considerably lower than that of 40%, which is considered to be a minimum standard by some international donor agencies, as well as the target ratio of 33% set by Mauritanian educational leaders in the PNDSE. However, actual class sizes may be much larger. Each class observed for this study exceeded 40 students, which indicates that there may be inequities in the distribution of teachers among subject areas or within regions. 22 Public Schools and Education Policy Instructors at the ENS also reported that recruitment of teachers has been particularly difficult in a few key subject areas, namely science and mathematics. These officials also noted challenges in recruiting candidates qualified to teach English, citing English speakersʹ potential to find higher paying employment options as a possible disincentive to entering the teaching profession. According to the PNDSE, there is also a deficit of candidates qualified to teach their respective subjects in the language medium mandated by the reforms of 1999. Additionally, the growth in demand for secondary education poses a challenge for maintaining the low aggregate average teacher‐student ratio, and policymakers noting the rise in the ratio in the two years cited it as an area for concern. Moreover, according to the midterm report on the PNDSE, another obstacle has been the inadequate number of qualified candidates applying for the national teacher‐training course at the Ecole Normale Supérieure, which may result in a continued rise in teacher‐student ratios in the future. Several stakeholders discussed difficulties in retaining female teachers in particular. For example, one ministry official noted that young female teachers often leave the profession after becoming pregnant. 87 An additional possibility he suggested was that the system of assigning teachers to posts that are far from their familiesʹ homes may contribute to the challenge in hiring and retaining female teachers. Furthermore, a regional director stated that being posted to rural areas may also pose challenges for female teachers, because it may be culturally unacceptable for them to live far from their husbands. 88 This deficit of teachers in key sectors may contribute to some specific areas of difficulty in the secondary school system. The large proportion of schools that do not offer a complete cycle of classes was cited as an important issue in the evaluations conducted for the PNDSE. At the time of that study, 23% of collèges, 50% of lycées and 36% of schools housing both a collège and a lycée did not offer a full program of courses. 89 Similarly, teachers from a secondary school in a rural area stated that they were often expected to teach subjects for which they had not been trained to compensate for vacant teaching posts at their school. 90 Difficulties with recruiting teachers in the field of science may be among the factors contributing to the low passing rate of public school students taking the Bac D, in comparison to the other four bac examinations. Both of these challenges have a negative impact on male and female secondary students, but may harm girls in areas in which they are already disadvantaged. An additional disparity is in the percentage of female teachers in the secondary cycle, in comparison with their male counterparts. Despite the high aggregate student‐teacher ratio in the secondary cycle, the percentage of female teachers is well below parity. In the 2003‐04 academic year, only 12.6% of Mauritaniaʹs 2,728 secondary school teachers were women. 91 The PNDSE identified the proportion of female teachers as weak, 92 but it did not include plans to raise the percentage of female teachers among its reform objectives. One barrier to achieving gender parity among secondary school teachers is the relatively low percentage of women who have completed a level of education to qualify for training programs. In the 2000‐01 academic year, only 21% of women in the tertiary cycle in Mauritania were women. 93 Several educators and ministry officials interviewed for this study argued that increasing the number of female teachers would also have a positive impact on girls’ participation in 23 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment the secondary cycle. One former teacher claimed that female teachers could provide support and encouragement to students in the pursuit of their goals. Male teachers are less accessible to girl students in this capacity because of cultural norms discouraging interactions between different sexes. 94 A ministry official interviewed also posited that female teachers could serve as valuable models for all students regarding womenʹs capability and intelligence. 95 However, female instructors at the ENS also reported that studentsʹ parents occasionally expressed concern that female teachers would be less capable of managing studentsʹ behavior in class. Additionally, parents were concerned with female teachersʹ reputations and the influence they might have over their daughtersʹ attitudes or morality. Several challenges may exist within and beyond the school system to recruiting and retaining more female teachers, as well as developing community support for these women, which may be an area of intervention that would have advantageous effects on girls in the secondary cycle. Box 1: The Affectation System
Teachers in Mauritania are assigned to posts by upper-level ministry officials according to a policy known as
affectation. This system is likely a legacy of the French colonial policy for civil servants and administrators,
which maintained that citizens should not govern in their native regions, because they will encounter difficulty
in governing members of their own community. This policy was extended to include teaching posts as well.
Most of the individuals interviewed argue that the current purpose of the policy is to ensure that all teaching
posts are filled, including those in remote areas that are considered less desirable.
Prior to the beginning of decentralization, all candidates who became eligible to teach in a given year were
assigned to posts by officials in the MEFS in Nouakchott. More recently, this process has been devolved to
the regional level. According to the new system, central ministry officials assign a group of new candidates to
a region, selecting the size of the group based on the needs for teachers in that region. The DREN (Direction
Regionale de l’Éducation Nationale), which is the office responsible for oversight of all schools at the regional
level, then assigns each candidate to a specific post. 96 Each year, teachers and new candidates may submit a
request form to the central ministry office, requesting assignment to a specific location. This office can take
the request into consideration according to its discretion. In practice, however, procedures for placement do
not provide clear guidelines for selection, nor do they appear to be implemented consistently. *
The benefit of affectation most often cited by those we interviewed was that it ensured that schools in the
least resourced communities (which are often the posts least desired by teachers) are staffed. 97 Some
officials also argued that the flexibility they enjoy in assigning teachers to posts is beneficial, because it gives
them more opportunity to exercise their judgment in meeting the needs of both teachers and schools. For
example, one official commented that he could accommodate teachers by posting them closer to their
homes in times of family crisis. 98
However, in general, those interviewed expressed the belief that the affectation system created more
problems than benefits for many involved in this system. Individuals from several sectors of the education
system argued that posting teachers far from their homes was a significant cause of the high rates of attrition
and absenteeism among teachers, because teachers often have to leave their posts to fulfill family
responsibilities in other regions. 99 Additionally, some argued that placing teachers in regions far from their
homes is also detrimental to the quality of teaching because it diminishes teachers' morale.
The guidelines for, and practices of, placing teachers is also a source of controversy. Some teachers
expressed frustration with the lack of transparency in decisions concerning which teachers were granted the
posts they requested. For example, one teacher presented the example of a teacher who was granted a
highly desirable post, while another teacher with more experience was denied the same post. Another
teacher expressed disappointment that he was removed from a teaching post to fill another position. 100
Several of those we interviewed made this argument. E.g. Teacher, Atar, Personal Interview, 17 Mar. 2006. *
24 Public Schools and Education Policy The practice of affectation may serve as particular deterrent for Mauritanian women to enter the teaching
profession. Since cultural norms discourage women from living far from their families, the practice of posting
women far from their homes conflicts with the responsibilities they may have to their families. These same
obstacles also exist for male teachers but may have a disproportionate effect on females in this profession.
Teacher training
New secondary school teachers enter the education system through one of two tracks, the full training program offered at the Ecole Normale Supérieure (ENS), or the accelerated programs offered when there are not enough qualified candidates to fill open teaching posts. The full‐length training programs for both teachers of collège and lycée consist of two years of instruction. To qualify for the training program for collège teachers, candidates must have completed two years of university. To qualify for the program for lycée teachers, candidates must have completed four years of university. During the first year of both training programs, teachers study their subject of instruction. During the second year, candidates learn pedagogical theories related to their subject of instruction, teaching methodology and practical training. The training program was recently expanded from one year, and according to teacher trainers, the expansion of the program occurred in response to requests by teachers for more training. 101 An accelerated program is implemented when the number of new teaching candidates is not sufficient to fill vacant teaching posts. The accelerated program is a shorter training that lasts 45 days. 102 The full‐length teacher training program appears to be effective in supporting the development of a high quality teaching staff. However, there may also be opportunities to make the program stronger with respect to promoting gender equity. The teacher trainers interviewed for this study expressed a strong commitment to increasing support for girl secondary students as well as to supporting women in pursuing careers as secondary school teachers. (Indeed, several of the instructors we interviewed at the ENS were women). A natural outgrowth of this may be their promotion of similar attitudes among new teaching candidates. Moreover, the teaching methodologies taught in the training program include methods, such as small group instruction, which may be more favorable to girls, given a cultural tendency of girls to be shy in speaking in front of classmates. However, according to the instructors interviewed from the ENS, the teacher training program does not currently include specific courses or instruction in issues of gender awareness. 103 As a result, teachers entering the profession lack the opportunity to learn teaching methodologies or pedagogical concepts that will help them to support their female students. Management, monitoring and support
Assessing the professional competency of an individual teacher is a challenging task, because many factors may mitigate a teachersʹ ability to impart knowledge and skills to students beyond his or her own professional capacity and actions. However, some basic aspects of job performance, such as regular attendance and preparation of lessons, may serve as basic indicators of quality. In addition, although not an empirical evaluation of their competence, studentsʹ and parentsʹ perceptions of teachers are an important indicator of their quality in that, this assessment may be relevant to studentsʹ decision to continue to pursue their education. 25 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment Data on general teacher attendance in secondary schools was not available for this study, but several individuals interviewed for this study identified teacher absenteeism as a problem. Parents and girl students listed teacher absenteeism as among the characteristics of ʺbadʺ teachers, although they did not cite teacher absenteeism as a specific factor in deciding whether they would continue schooling. However, for several reasons, this factor may warrant further investigation. In particular, parentsʹ confidence that their daughters’ schools are stable, well‐supervised environments may be critical to their decision to allow their daughters to continue their formal schooling. Two educational leaders (a ministry official and a school director) interviewed for this study stated that female teachers tend to be absent more often than male teachers. 104 The causes for absenteeism cited were similar to those for attrition, namely that family responsibilities often drew women away from their teaching responsibilities, and that this was exacerbated by the demands of traveling long distances for women who were assigned to posts far from their families. The school director we interviewed cited the example of a teacher at his school who had recently requested a leave of absence to help her daughter with a new baby. 105 Higher rates of absenteeism among women teachers may be both a cause and a symptom of barriers to achieving gender parity among teachers, and thus to providing more support for girls in secondary school. If regional or school directors believe that female teachers are less likely than males to provide a high quality of teaching, they may discourage women from working in their schools. However, if female teachers face significant challenges in balancing their professional and family responsibilities, this may indicate that there are missed opportunities within the school system to provide them with adequate support in their work. Indeed, stakeholders we interviewed for this study discussed the complex intersection of cultural norms and the demands of the teaching profession. One ministry official noted that the creation of a different system of assigning female teachers to posts, or to the management of teachers, in order to help accommodate their family responsibilities, has been proposed. 106 However, some female instructors at the ENS expressed frustration over the differential treatment they believe female teachers experience, such as the assignment of fewer teaching hours because they are perceived as ʺweakerʺ than men. These discrepancies in perspective may indicate challenges in increasing the numbers of female secondary school teachers, such as the difficulty of developing supportive and equitable criteria for assignment and monitoring. Inspection
Secondary school teachers are monitored by the directors of their schools and by inspectors from the office of the Inspection Générale de lʹÉducation Nationale (IGEN). School directors are responsible for maintaining records of student and teacher attendance, as well as a cahier du texte documenting visits from the inspector. * When problems, such as excessive absence, arise with specific teachers, directors can report these grievances to the Lycée Director, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, Mar. 15, 2006; The cahiers du texte may be reviewed by the Inspector General, as a means of evaluating a director’s performance. *
26 Public Schools and Education Policy Direction Regionale de l’Education Nationale (DREN) office. The DREN then has the discretion to suspend the salary of a teacher who has been excessively absent. While inspection for primary schools are overseen at the DREN level, the inspectors responsible for monitoring secondary schools in Mauritania are located at the IGEN office in Nouakchott. By one respondentʹs estimate, there are approximately two hundred inspectors responsible for the oversight of nearly 3,000 secondary school teachers, a ratio that one interviewee described as a serious deficit. 107 In terms of recruitment, inspectors are drawn from the ranks of secondary teachers and undergo a training session at the Ecole Normale Superieur (ENS), during which they specialize in the oversight of teachers in specific subjects. According to the formal structure of the inspection system, each inspector is assigned a caseload of schools, each of which he or she should visit at least three times during the course of the school year. The first two visits should provide feedback to the teachers in these schools, and the inspector should evaluate the teachers in the final visit. Inspectors use a standardized form to give feedback, and the criteria for evaluation include whether or not a teacher is covering the material on the standard syllabus for the course in a timely manner. 108 In addition to monitoring and evaluating teachers, providing professional development support and developing and disseminating new teaching materials have also become both formal programs and informal practices of the IGEN. Since 1990, the IGEN has worked with the support of UNFPA on a program entitled Education en Matière de Population et de Vie Familiale (EMP/EVF) to develop activities to promote awareness about social, environmental and health‐related issues in the classroom (further details of the program below). A major component of the program is the development of curriculum materials and the dissemination of those materials accompanied by in‐service training seminars, both conducted by the inspectors. A former inspector stated that he provided constructive feedback and suggestions for teaching strategies to the teachers whom he monitored and occasionally taught demonstration lessons to support their ongoing development, if they desired. However, this type of support is not part of the official responsibilities of inspectors. 109 Evidence from interviews indicates that, in practice, schools in Nouakchott have considerably more contact with inspectors than do those in rural areas. Inspectors described conducting visits to schools in Nouakchott that were sufficiently frequent to allow them to develop working relationships with individual teachers. 110 Some school staff in Nouakchott also commented that inspectorsʹ visits have become even more frequent in the past year. 111 In contrast, school administrators in communities outside Nouakchott stated that inspectors rarely visited their schools. Inspectors at the IGEN office, too, stated that they often encountered obstacles in traveling to outlying districts, and that frequently the first visits did not occur until late in the school year. Ultimately, this unequal allocation of service from the IGEN office may contribute to regional disparities in teacher quality. Some evidence from interviews also indicates that not incorporating teacher training and development into inspectorsʹ regular responsibilities constitutes a missed opportunity to improve teacher quality. For example, one teacher stated that he would appreciate constructive feedback from inspectors’ class visits, because it would help him to improve. 27 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment Curriculum and teaching methodology
The secondary level curriculum is relevant to two aspects of the gender equality analysis for education in Mauritania. First, the extent to which the content and skills students learn are relevant to their needs, goals and quality of life after school is a significant factor in the quality of education they receive. In turn, studentsʹ and their families’ perception of the benefit of the material they study in secondary school can positively or negatively affect their decision to attend school. Given the large variation in learning styles, interests and needs of each child, uniform generalizations about the type of curriculum that best suits the needs and goals of secondary school students are impossible to make. However, a few characteristics can contribute to or detract from curricular relevance for students in general, and for girls in particular. According to many researchers, curricula which are heavily geared towards rote memorization of facts and abstract, de‐contextualized concepts tend to be less relevant to secondary students than 112 curricula that incorporate the development of problem‐solving and communication skills. 113 Opportunities to study health, nutrition or personal budgeting may also be particularly relevant to girls who anticipate being wives and mothers in their future lives. Box 2: Curriculum in secondary school
Standard syllabi for each course of study in Mauritania's secondary schools are developed and disseminated
by the IGEN office. Syllabi currently in use for each course were developed between 1995 and 1999,
depending on the course. The IGEN department is currently developing new syllabi for each course, some of
which will reflect the Approche par Compétences (APC) method that has been introduced at the primary level
(see Box 4). 114 The standard curriculum for collège includes courses in Arabic, French, English, Natural
Sciences, History and Geography, Philosophy and Mathematics.
The history curriculum is intended for instruction in all six years of the secondary cycle. Topics of study are
focused on events in North Africa, the Middle East and the Mediterranean. The curriculum is structured
chronologically, beginning with discussion of the ancient civilizations in the first year of collège, and
culminating with issues related to decolonization following World War II in the last year of lycée..
The geography curriculum is intended for instruction in all six years of the secondary cycle. The curriculum
for collège includes instruction in both physical and human geography on each continent. At the lycée level,
the topics include studies of climatology, tectonics, contemporary population issues, urbanization and
additional studies of each major geographic region of the globe.
The philosophy curriculum is intended for instruction in the fifth and sixth year of the secondary cycle (i.e.
the final two years of lycée). Topics include the history of philosophy, logic, the scientific method, morality,
theories of knowledge and personality, political philosophy and the philosophy of Islam.
The natural science curriculum includes instruction in all six years of the secondary cycle. At the collège
level, it includes animal and plant physiology, taxonomy, ecology and human biology. At the lycée level, the
curriculum includes geography, cellular biology, ecology, further studies of plant, animal and human biology,
genetics, geology, evolution and contemporary environmental problems.
The physical science curriculum begins at the third year of the secondary cycle (i.e. the final year of
collège), and continues into the sixth year. Each year includes studies in chemistry and physics.
The mathematics curriculum also includes instruction in all six years of the secondary cycle. The course
for each year of the secondary cycle includes both numerical functions and geometry. Topics covered in
collège include algebra and geometry. In lycée, topics include trigonometry, statistics and probability.
28 Public Schools and Education Policy There are two French curricula currently included in the Recueil des Programmes Scolaires de l'Enseignement
Secondaire, one for students who attend Arabic medium high schools and one for students who attend
bilingual medium schools. The curriculum for students attending Arabic medium high schools focuses on
vocabulary and syntax at the collège level. At the lycée level, instruction focuses on themes drawn from the
literature of France, the Maghreb and Francophone Africa. The curriculum for students attending the bilingual
medium schools focuses on the development of written and oral skills in collège. At the lycée level, the focus
is also on literature from the Francophone tradition.
The English curriculum also spans all six years of the secondary cycle. The emphasis is on the development
of written, oral and reading comprehension skills, with a focus on syntax, grammar and vocabulary.
Two factors pose challenges to drawing strong conclusions about the relevance and utility of Mauritaniaʹs secondary school curriculum, for students in general and for girls in particular. The first is the fact that how the content is taught is of at least as much significance as what is taught. Instruction in any of the major academic topics identified above could emphasize memorization of facts and de‐contextualized concepts, or it could be structured to help students develop practical skills and a meaningful and productive understanding of their social and physical environment. For example, teaching strategies that encourage students to articulate critical arguments about social issues in history classes, apply mathematical skills to budgeting exercises or conduct laboratory experiments may help students to develop higher order thinking capacities and practical skills, as well as to recognize the relationship between topics studied in class and other issues relevant to their current experiences or future goals. A second factor mitigating the relevance of the curriculum is the likelihood that there is significant variation in what content is actually taught in the lycées throughout the country. In schools encountering fundamental difficulties, such as low teacher attendance or incomplete programs of courses, students may lack access to certain topics altogether. In schools with small classes and access to laboratories, teachers may be able to employ strategies that engage students in critical reflection or in the process of experimentation, whereas in under‐resourced schools, using these strategies is much more difficult. Much depends, too, on the attitudes and philosophies of individual teachers and school directors, as well as their own choices in how to approach subject matter in their classes. Bearing these caveats in mind, the content of the syllabi could present both opportunities and challenges to enhancing the relevance of instruction in the secondary curriculum. For example, the natural sciences curriculum includes several opportunities for students to learn about health and environmental issues. Math and language classes provide students with practical skills that may be applicable to personal management or useful in the labor force. Since the curriculum is intended to prepare students for the baccalaureate examination, it is also relevant to the expressed goals of most secondary school students to proceed to the tertiary level. Other topics that might be productive in helping students to develop critical thinking skills or develop civic and social awareness may be incorporated into studies of history, literature or science, but are not explicitly emphasized in the syllabi. A few additional factors observed in this study may present challenges to enhancing the relevance of the curriculum. As noted above, the lack of access to laboratories is a serious obstacle to the study of science through experimentation. This is exacerbated by the fact that science teachers‐in‐training do not have opportunities to practice teaching methods for using laboratories and experimentation, because there is not currently a functional laboratory at the ENS. 115 Furthermore, low ratios of teachers to students, and large class 29 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment sizes also make instruction methods that emphasize active learning and student participation more difficult to implement. For example, one teacher trainer observed that a large class size is an obstacle for language teachers to using methodologies emphasizing discussion and dialogue. 116 Pressure to prepare students for the baccalaureate examination, too, may be an incentive for teachers to emphasize memorization and breadth of content coverage. Box 3: The FUNAP/EMP/EVP program
The Inspector General is currently developing a new education program with the support of UNFPA, which
may be relevant to many aspects of our aforementioned findings. The goal of the program is to promote
awareness of health and social issues by integrating topics related to population, health and decision-making
into instruction in the regular curriculum. To this end, program developers have created teachers’ manuals
for each of the core disciplines taught at the secondary level. The manuals include background information
for teachers in seven domaines: family life and responsible parenting, responsible sexual behavior and
reproductive health, violence against women, equality and equity between the sexes, rational use of
resources and protection of the environment, social and economic development and life-skills competencies.
An additional component of the program is to establish student-led awareness raising organizations (Clubs
Education en Matière de Population (EMP)), which will develop creative activities to promote awareness of the
seven domaines.
These programs could have a positive effect on demand for education among all students in general, and girls
in particular, by enhancing the relevance of the curriculum. The activities and strategies provide students with
additional knowledge about issues of relevance to their immediate concerns, as well as opportunities to
develop connections between those issues and the other topics they study in classes. Furthermore, since the
program is designed to promote equality and equity between the sexes, its implementation may have a
positive effect on creating a classroom environment supportive of girls' learning by promoting awareness of
gender issues for boys, girls and teachers. Another auspicious sign for the program's successful adoption is
the plan to disseminate materials widely and to provide teachers with training in their implementation.
Significantly, the program does not seek to alter the existing curriculum, but rather to integrate new content
into the subjects to be taught. Additionally, there are no plans to alter the bac in order to assess students'
knowledge of these topics. Rather, some officials involved in the development of the program argued that its
implementation would enhance students' performance on the bac. While the relevance of material tested on
the bac itself may be an area for further investigation, efforts to incorporate material into the existing
frameworks may enhance the likelihood that it is accepted and implemented by teachers. Research in other
African countries has shown that even when stakeholders perceive the content tested in high stakes
examinations to be irrelevant, they may be reluctant to make significant changes to curriculum content or
the examinations themselves. 117
National tests
A heavy emphasis on preparation for high‐stakes tests that determine entrance into university, like the bac, is the hallmark of many secondary school systems throughout the world. Researchers believe that such tests have several effects on the quality of, and demand for, secondary education. One effect may be a focus on instruction in topics that will appear on the exam at the expense of topics that will provide students with skills and knowledge that will be useful to them in employment or other aspects of their lives. 118 In many countries, another effect is the development of a ʺshadowʺ education system of private tutoring for students preparing for the examinations. Standardized examinations can also create disproportionate barriers for girls in secondary education. As girls in some developing regions, including sub‐Saharan Africa, tend to receive lower scores on average on examinations, ʺgate‐keepingʺ examinations, which determine passage from one cycle to the next, may serve to limit their educational options. 119 The Brevet de fin d’Etudes du Premier Cycle Secondaire (BEPC)
As noted above, both cycles of secondary schooling in Mauritania culminate in an examination, which is the BEPC at the end of the regular program of studies at the collège 30 Public Schools and Education Policy level, and one of four bac examinations at the end of lycée. * The BEPC examination includes testing in five subjects, Arabic, French, history and geography, math, natural sciences and Islamic education. Students may take the test in either the Arabic or the French medium. The BEPC is not required for entrance into lycée. As a result, in the past, many students completing collège opt not to take the BEPC examination. However, because the BEPC is required for entrance into newly developing professional and technical programs, as previously mentioned, there has recently been a rise in the number of candidates who sit for the examination. 120 Girls comprise approximately 57% of 21,887 students who took the BEPC in 2004. However, whereas 27% of boys taking the BEPC passed the examination, only 18% of girls passed. 121 Since passing the BEPC is not required for entrance into the next cycle of schooling, it does not currently constitute a barrier to education for girls. However, if tracking students into vocational education at the secondary level becomes a more common practice (as is planned in the PNDSE), and if girlsʹ disproportionately low passing rates persist, this could contribute to gender disparities in the levels of enrollment, retention and completion of secondary education. The Baccalaureate exam
Mauritanian students must apply in advance to take the bac, and they sit for the examination in Nouakchott. Students may take this exam in one of four areas at the end of the third year of lycée. The tests for the Bac LM, Bac SN and Bac M series include the same components: Arabic, French, English, philosophy, history and geography, natural sciences, physics and chemistry, and math. However, each of these components is assigned a different weight. Students may take the LM, SN, and M series tests in either Arabic or French. A fourth baccalaureate examination is in Lettres Originelles and focuses on topics related to Islamic studies and traditions (including Islamic Rights, the Koran and Hadiths, and Islamic Thought), in addition to math, natural sciences, history and geography, Arabic and French. The Bac O is offered only in Arabic. Finally, there is an additional bac offered in technical studies, which includes component tests in both academic and technical fields. Students may take the technical bac in either French or Arabic. The majority of candidates for the bac sit for the SN series, 23% sit for the Bac LM, 14% sit for the Bac LO and 7% sit for the Bac M. 122 Girls account for 41% of all students who sit for the bac, and there is considerable variation in the percentage of girls who take the bac in each of the four fields. Girls comprise a slightly larger percentage of all candidates for the Bac O (52%), but only 25% of all candidates for the Bac M. For the Bac LM, 42.5% of candidates are girls, and 41% of the candidates for the Bac SN are girls. Overall, only 25.4% of all candidates who pass the bac are girls. This differential is even more pronounced by subject area. Only 15% of those who pass the Bac M are girls, whereas 43.7% of those who pass the Bac LO are girls. 123 Mauritanians from multiple sectors of society interviewed for this study overwhelmingly expressed the belief that the purpose of attending lycée is primarily, or exclusively, to prepare for the bac and transition to the tertiary level. In fact, some individuals A fifth bac exam, the Techniques mathématiques génie mécanique (TMGM), is open to students who have completed the third year of the first cycle of specialized technical secondary school. Presentation des Resultats des Examens Nationaux 2005 6. *
31 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment interviewed stated that there was no value to having attended school for students who failed the bac. For example, one male student stated that a student who has attended lycée but does not pass the bac has wasted his time. 124 This attitude is also echoed in analyses of the secondary education system that use passing rates on the bac as the sole indicator of success, such as those conducted for the PNDSE. These analyses calculate the returns to investment in education by comparing the total numbers of years all students spend in secondary schools to the number of students who pass the bac. 125 Indeed, the role of lycées solely as preparation for the tertiary level is increasingly manifest as policy. The long‐
term reforms outlined in the PNDSE include a plan to restrict the number of students who attend lycée and track other graduates of collège into new technical schools which are being developed as part of the secondary level of the secondary cycle (described below). This emphasis on test preparation at the second cycle of secondary education may have several implications for girl students. One possibility is that a demand to prepare students for the bac might discourage teachers and curriculum developers from introducing instruction in other relevant content and skills in their subjects. At present, however, teachers are not formally evaluated on the basis of their studentsʹ performance on examinations, so there is no material incentive to emphasizing only activities geared towards test preparation. Nevertheless, teachers are evaluated on the basis of their timely adherence to a standard curriculum sequence. Moreover, the general concern with preparation expressed by all stakeholders in the education system is likely to be a strong influence in teachersʹ instructional choices. The project EMP/EVP (see Box 3) initiative does reveal considerable willingness by educators to introduce new content and concepts into the existing curricula, at least at the central level. Nonetheless, developers of those materials maintained that they would further support students in preparing for the bac, and among those interviewed, none suggested that the bac itself should be changed to reflect new content or skills. Another possibility considered in this research is that the emphasis on testing, coupled with the perception that the sole purpose of secondary education is to gain entrance into the university, may have a polarizing effect on girlsʹ demand for secondary education in general. If secondary school studentsʹ families believe that their children are likely to pass the bac, they may invest more resources in supporting them in continuing their education. Conversely, the belief that the students are unlikely to pass the bac may be a disincentive to continuing school, particularly if they believe that secondary education does not provide any other benefit other than the opportunity to attend the university. Such predictions might also have a disproportionately negative effect on girls, because girls often receive lower scores than boys on both the BEPC and the bac. However, exploring this possibility in interviews with students and parents revealed a cultural variable that mitigates conclusions, which was parentsʹ and studentsʹ tendency to avoid verbalizing predictions around the future. When asked whether they expected their children to succeed on the bac, the consistent response was ʺinshallahʺ (God willing). However, some evidence from interviews indicated that parents engage to some extent, in a calculation of the likelihood that their daughters will succeed in school. For example, one former teacher noted that parents of her female students sometimes consulted her to ask if their daughters should continue their studies. 126 This indicates that some prediction 32 Public Schools and Education Policy of the likelihood of their daughtersʹ success factors into choices about her educational future. Teaching methodologies
The methodologies teachers employ can have a significant impact on the quality of education for all students. In general, reliance on lecture and memorization (such as copying from the board), and an emphasis on de‐contextualized knowledge and concepts may not provide students with opportunities to develop cognitive skills that are of use for the working world. 127 Teaching methods that privilege behavior that is more typical of, or accepted for, boys than girls in a given society could also contribute to educational disparities along gender lines. Evidence gathered for this study does not provide a comprehensive summary of teaching methods employed by secondary school teachers, but it does indicate notable trends towards an emphasis on strategies to help students develop cognitive skills. The teacher training programs at the ENS include instruction in a variety of teaching strategies, such as approaches that employ listening, communication and small group instruction. The Approche par Compétences, which emphasizes teaching for the purpose of supporting students in developing competencies in various subjects, has been widely adopted at the primary level and will soon be introduced as the standard of instruction at the secondary level (See Box 4). In practice, it is likely that some variation exists in the methodologies that teachers implement in the classroom. In secondary classes observed for this study, most teachers based their lessons on lectures and teacher‐centered question and answer styled discussions, some of which emphasized the use of higher‐order thinking skills, and some of which emphasized recalling information from memory. Some students interviewed reported that teachers whom they considered ʺbadʺ instructed them by writing notes on the board that they were required to copy and translate. 128 Of course, teachersʹ own beliefs about what type of methodology is best for instructing their students is likely to shape their choice of lesson styles. Those we interviewed did not discuss their opinions about teaching strategies directly. However, instructors at the ENS observed that methods such as small group instruction and discussions are more difficult to employ than are teacher‐
centered methods. 129 Some teachers also commented that they felt they had not received sufficient training in the new methods they were expected to employ. Thus, even for teachers interested in diversifying their lesson strategies to accommodate the needs of different students, factors other than their own attitudes towards methodology may be more significant in determining how they teach. Teacher‐centered discussions, in which teachers ask questions and elicit answers from the entire class, appears to be a common practice in Mauritanian classrooms and may compromise girlsʹ participation in learning activities. Teacher trainers noted that Mauritanian girls tend to be ʺshy,ʺ and thus, less likely to volunteer answers to questions posed by the teacher. However, the relative rate of participation of boys and girls in the classes observed for this study varied significantly. In some classes, girls volunteered answers to teachersʹ questions with almost equal frequency in relation to the boys in the class, while in other classes, participation was heavily skewed towards boys. Notably, in classes at a public 33 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment school exclusively for girls, girls were considerably more active in volunteering to answer questions than in other schools, despite the fact that the teaching strategies employed in both contexts were similar in many respects. Just as girls may behave differently in different contexts, no single teaching strategy is necessarily beneficial or detrimental for all girls. Nonetheless, more opportunities to employ different teaching methods could have a positive effect on girls’ learning and performance in the secondary sector. Box 4: The Approche par Compétences
Another reform to teaching practices that may impact educational outcomes for girls is the widespread
adoption of the Approche par Compétences (APC) teaching method. The APC method, which emphasizes the
development of competencies as the objective of education, was adopted by the MEN for implementation
throughout the primary school system in 2001. Since then, it has been adopted centrally as the foundation
for teaching methods at the primary level. In the APC method, competences, or competencies, are the
objectives of instruction in each subject. They are divided into subcategories of knowledge, capability (savoir
faire), and attitudes (comportements). Students are to be evaluated on their mastery of competencies, rather
than on their memorization of facts. The IPN has developed new teaching manuals with activities reflecting
the APC. More recently, the APC has been introduced at the collège level, with the development of further
teaching manuals for classes at that level. The IGEN has also implemented some in-service teacher trainings
in this method.
By design, the Approche par Compétences could have a positive effect on demand for secondary education for
all students, because it emphasizes the development of usable skills more than abstracted knowledge of
information and concepts. An additional auspicious sign for the successful adoption of this method is the
consistency with which it has been promoted during a long period of time. All educators asked about the
Approche par Compétences for this study were familiar with the method and its underlying principals.
However, a risk to the success of this program was teachers' perception that the training they had received
was insufficient. 130 In addition, the midyear report noted that the simultaneous efforts to introduce the
Approche par Compétences and implement other reforms, may pose a risk to its effectiveness. 131 As with any
other reform in teaching methodology, factors related to implementation will likely be as significant as design
in determining its impact on the quality of education.
PNDSE: 2001/2010
The comprehensive strategic plan for Mauritaniaʹs education system, the PNDSE, includes new programs at each level that may influence girlsʹ enrollment, retention and completion of the secondary cycle. This section has included discussion of the potential impact of some of these new programs and projects on girls in the secondary cycle with respect to specific sectors of the school system. In addition to these areas, a few specific elements of the reforms planned for the secondary cycle warrant examination for their possible impact on girls. The categories of reform for secondary education outlined in the PNDSE are divided into four umbrella categories: Educational Offerings, Quality of Teaching, Equity and Administrative Management. Specific goals under the category of Educational Offerings include the construction of new schools, recruitment of teachers, improvement of existing classrooms and infrastructure, and recruitment of more secondary school teachers. Regarding the Quality of Teaching category, improvements in the training program for teachers and inspectors, and restructuring of administration at the regional level, were among the goals identified. Campaigns to raise awareness about the importance of girls’ secondary education were among the goals in the Equity category, in addition to the revision of criteria for distributing scholarships and ensuring that secondary schools offer full cycles of course offerings. With respect to Administrative Management, improvement of the system of assigning teachers to posts and development of a new system to regulate the flow of students in the secondary cycle were two objectives listed. 34 Public Schools and Education Policy Regulation of flux in second cycle
The final objective of regulating the flow of students in the secondary cycle may have significant implications for girls’ in the secondary cycle. The objective includes a plan to decrease the number of students who attend lycée, in order to select only students who have achieved an appropriate level of education to begin to prepare for the bac. 132 A corollary objective is to construct more technical schools for students who complete collège but do not proceed to lycée. 133 This objective, if realized without further attention to gender equality issues, may pose a risk to girls’ enrollment in the upper tier of secondary education. A specific objective to develop criteria by which students will be selected for entrance into lycée was included in the PNDSE, but has not yet been implemented. If entrance is based on scores on the Brevet dʹEtudes, girls’ tendency to receive lower scores will disproportionately restrict their access to this tier. Moreover, studies of schooling in other parts of the developing world have shown that tracking students into vocational education at the secondary level can pose several risks for girls. 134 Lack of funding and planning for vocational and technical programs in some countries has had the effect of restricting the number of courses offered for adolescent girls. The fact that girls accounted for only 26% of the 1,902 students enrolled in public technical schools in 2003, a lower proportion than that of girls attending regular secondary schools, may indicate future challenges in developing a technical program that provides equal opportunities for girls. 135 Another area worthy of further exploration is whether the technical programs offered are equally appropriate for girls and boys given existing cultural norms concerning work for women. Currently, the majority of technical programs offered are for specialties in construction, industrial and mechanical training, which may be less likely to attract female candidates. Promotion of secondary schooling for girls
The goal in the PNDSE to promote secondary schooling for girls also warrants further discussion. Specific interventions described include a plan for an awareness‐raising campaign about the importance of education for girls, the development of community dormitories and the establishment of canteens to provide meals. In addition, the proposal notes that plans to implement general improvements in secondary schools in areas where girls comprise a disproportionately low percentage of students should improve educational disparities in those regions. 136 Achievement of gender parity in enrollment at the first cycle of secondary school is also included as an indicator for the achievement of the objective of equity. 137 According to the midterm report on the PNDSE, among the objectives for this program that have been realized are the development of a manual on schooling for girls, the training of 233 teachers in the avoidance of negative attitudes, behaviors and “discriminatory stereotypes” and the identification of sites on which to construct community dormitories. 138 The inclusion of these objectives in Mauritaniaʹs national strategic plan for education demonstrates educational leadersʹ will to support girls in the secondary cycle of education. The specific indicators and projects outlined in the PNDSE and the progress towards these goals thus far are also evidence of the ongoing commitment to increasing the number of girls who achieve a secondary education and the quality of the education they receive. Many of the reforms proposed focus on targeted projects that will directly 35 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment support girls or address challenges they face. Yet further attention to gender issues with respect to other reforms planned to improve and expand the school system may result in additional enduring benefits for both boys and girls in the secondary cycle. Several aspects of effective practices for systematizing support for girls in education are apparent in other aspects of the reforms recommended in the PNDSE, such as the efforts to develop efficient management systems and establish learning processes (such as the midterm report on the PNDSE). Among the areas that could be further explored are choices about how and where to develop school capacity and infrastructure; development of new teaching materials; approaches to teacher recruitment, training, and management; the emphasis on testing; and the streaming of students into various tracks of education. Further attention to how these broader systemic issues may be reformed to reflect best practices in girls’ education may augment the effects of targeted reforms and be beneficial for all students in the secondary cycle. Conclusion
The causes of the disparities between girls’ and boys’ achievement do not only exist within the school system itself, rather, other social factors also contribute to the challenges Mauritanian girls face in their pursuit of higher education. Nonetheless, there remain many opportunities within the school system to better support girls in the secondary level. Improvements in capacity, material and human resources, and attention to curriculum could improve the educational offerings for girls in the secondary cycle. In addition, careful attention to the development of the PNDSE initiatives already underway could improve the likelihood that girls will benefit from future reforms. These changes alone may not be sufficient, but their positive effects may complement programs and reforms from other sectors in achieving the goal of increasing the number of girls who achieve a high quality secondary education. Ministère de l’Education Nationale and Ministère des Affaires Economiques et du Développement, Programme national de développement du secteur éducatif 2001/2010 (PNDSE) Tome 1: Diagnostic et Strategie (Nouakchott: 2001) 11. 46 Houeïbib, Cheikh Abdallahi, Education en Mauritanie. Nouakchott, Office Nationale de la statistique. 1995. 28. 47 PNDSE 11. 48 PNDSE 11. 49 Ministère de lʹEducation Nationale, Direction de la Reforme et la Prospective, Annuaire Statistique 2003/2004: Enseignmente Fondamental et Secondaire. 50 PNDSE 7. 51 PNDSE 12. 52 PNDSE 11. 53 PNDSE 11. 54 Presentation des resultats des examens nationaux 11. 55 Annuaire Statistique 2003/2004. 56 PNDSE 12. 57 Agence de Group Développement des Nations Unies en Mauritanie, Rapport sur le progres de mis en œuvre des Objectifs de Développment du Millénaire du Mauritanie (2002) 12. 58 UNICEF, Human Development Report, Country Sheet: Mauritania. 59 Annuaire Statistique 2003/2004. 60 UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Statistics in Brief. Education in Mauritania. (2005) http://www.uis.unesco.org/profiles/EN/EDU/ 61 PNDSE 37. 45
36 Public Schools and Education Policy UNESCO Institute for Statistics. CMAP, Diagnostic‐Bilan de la situation de la femme en Mauritanie (Jun. 2003) 19. 64 UNESCO, ʹScaling Upʹ Good Practices in Girls Education 29. 65 Herz and Sperling 55. 66 DeJaeghere 9. 67 UNESCO, ʹScaling Upʹ Good Practices in Girls Education 29. 68 PNDSE 37. 69 PNDSE 37. 70 Revue a mi‐parcours du PNDSE 39. 71 Annuaire Statistique 2003‐04. 72 Peace Corps Volunteer, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 18 January 2006. 73 PNDSE 139. 74 Annuaire Statistique 2003‐04. 75 Ministry Official (IGEN), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 14 Mar. 2005. 76 Annuaire Statistique 2003‐04. 77 Herz and Sperling 73. 78 Herz and Sperling 64. 79 Recueil des Programmes Scolaires de l’Enseignement Secondaire. Ministère de l’Education nationale, Inspecteur General de l’Enseignement Secondaire et Technique. 1999. 80 PNDSE 40. 81 PNDSE 40. 82 Peace Corps Volunteer, Kaedi, E‐mail to Juliet Young, Mar. 2006. 83 Instructor (ENS), Nouakchott, Focus Group, 15 Mar. 2006. 84 Instructor (ENS), Nouakchott, Focus Group, 15 Mar. 2006. 85 Herz and Sperling 67. 86 DeJaeghere 7. 87 Ministry Official (DES), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 14 Mar. 2006. 88 DREN, Kaedi, Personal Interview, 20 Mar. 2006. 89 PNDSE 37. Dates for those figures are not cited. 90 Teacher, Lexeiba, Focus Group, 17 Mar. 2006. 91 Annuaire Statistique 2003/2004. 92 PNDSE 39. 93 CMAP, Diagnostic‐Bilan de la situation de la femme en Mauritanie (Jun. 2003) 19. 94 Instructor (ENS), Nouakchott, Focus Group, 15 Mar. 2006 95 Ministry Official (DES), Nouakchott, 14 Mar. 2006 96 Ministry Official (DES), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 14 Mar. 2006 97 E.g. DREN, Atar, Personal Interview, 16 Mar. 2006. 98 Ministry Official (DES), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 14 Mar. 2006. 99 E.g. Lycée Director, Kaedi, Personal Interview, 20 Mar. 2006. 100 Teacher, Atar, Personal Interview, 16 March 2006 101 Instructors (ENS), Focus group, 15 Mar. 2006. 102 Secondary School Teacher, Atar, Personal Interview, 17 Mar. 2006. Data on the proportion of teachers who have received a full program of training was not available for this study. 103 Instructor (ENS), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 104 MEFS Official (DES), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 14 Mar. 2006; Lycée Director, Kaedi, Personal Interview, 105 Lycée Director, Kaedi, Personal Interview, 20 Mar. 2006. 106 Ministry Official (DES), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 14 Mar. 2006. 107 Former Inspector (IGEN), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, Mar. 23, 2006. 108 Fiche de Rapport d’Inspection, République Islamique de Mauritanie, Ministère de l’Enseignement Fondamental et Secondaire, Inspection General de l’Education Nationale. 109 Former Inspector (IGEN), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, Mar. 23, 2006. 110 Former Inspector (IGEN), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, Mar. 23, 2006. 111 Lycée Director, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, Mar. 15, 2006. 112 The World Bank, Expanding Opportunities and Building Competencies for Young People: A New Strategy for Secondary Education. 72. 113 Herz and Sperling 71. 62
63
37 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment Ministry Official (MEFS), Nouakchott, Personal Interview 22 March 2006 Teacher Trainer (ENS), Nouakchott, Focus Group, 22 Mar. 2006. 116 Teacher Trainer (ENS), Nouakchott, Focus Group, 15 Mar. 2006. 117 Nicola Ansel, ʺSecondary Education Reform in Lesotho and Zimbabwe and the Needs of Rural Girls: pronouncements, policy and practice,ʺ Comparative Education 38 (2002) 91–112. 118 Ansel 98. 119 DeJaeghere, 4. 120 Presentation des Resultats des Examens Nationaux 2005 6. 121 Presentation des Resultats des Examens Nationaux 2005 6. 122 Presentation des Resultats des Examens Nationaux 2005 12. 123 Presentation des Resultats des Examens Nationaux 2005 15 124 Lycée student, Atar, Personal Interview, 16 Mar. 2006. 125 PNDSE 40. 126 Instructor (ENS), Nouakchott, Focus Group, 15 Mar. 2006 127 The World Bank, Expanding Opportunities and Building Competencies for Young People: A New Strategy for Secondary Education.78. 128 Questionnaires for parents of girls (GMC and non GMC). 129 Instructor (ENS), Nouakchott, Focus Group, 14 March 2006 130 Teacher, Atar, Personal Interview, 15 March 2006 131 Revue a mi‐parcours du PNDSE 86. 132 PNDSE 143. 133 PNDSE 143. 134 Quality education and gender equality 5. 135 Annuaire Statistique 2003‐04. 136 PNDSE 138. 137 PNDSE 130. 138 Revue a mi‐parcours du PNDSE 40 114
115
38 Economic Context Introduction
Economic factors are crucial driving forces behind education decisions in Mauritania. In this section, the economics of girls’ education in Mauritania will be analyzed with regard to the economic incentives that lie behind education choices, the economic constraints that people face when making choices about education and the types of workers that the Mauritanian educational system is training. Additionally, this section will consider the impact of education on Mauritania’s economic growth and analyze how education fits into Mauritania’s national development strategy. Economic factors play an important role at multiple levels of Mauritanian society, particularly in regard to individual decisions made by a girl and her family, choices about infrastructure at the regional level, national level education plans and national growth and development strategies. Thus, we have divided our study of the economic environment as it relates to education in Mauritania into two different but intersecting vantage points: the microeconomic and the macroeconomic. The microeconomic viewpoint addresses decisions about education made at the local level by individuals and their families. For example, the decision to purchase private tutoring lessons for a girl so that she can pass the bac or the decision to pay for transport and lodging in a distant town so that a girl can attend school are both choices that have underlying economic constraints and incentives. The macroeconomic viewpoint addresses decisions made by institutions and the government at the regional and national level, which have an impact on individual education choices. This perspective includes decisions about where to build new schools, how many new teachers to train, what national resources to develop and what industries to promote. Within each of these vantage points, we analyzed both the demand and supply of education services, as well as the impact of education on individuals, institutions and the country as a whole. At the microeconomic level, demand includes the number of students registering for a particular grade; the willingness and ability to pay for school fees, uniforms, books, and transport; and the specific type of education requested. The supply of education services includes teachers, schools, libraries, cafeterias, subsidized transport, scholarships, textbooks and tutoring services. At the macroeconomic level, the demand for education services derives from the economic imperatives of Mauritania and the need for skilled workers. Skilled workers are necessary to fill jobs, and the demand for education at a national and regional level comes from the private sector (both domestic and international) and the public sector. The supply of education services at the macroeconomic level is the output of the various secondary schools, technical colleges and higher education institutions. Thus, the 39 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment macroeconomic level analysis is primarily concerned with the production of skilled workers and the relationship between education and employment. This section will first provide an overview of the economic environment and subsequently analyze the economic issues surrounding girls’ education in Mauritania. Background
Environment and population
Mauritaniaʹs total land area is more than one million square kilometers, making it one of the larger African countries in terms of land mass. Mauritania is also one of the most sparsely populated countries in the world, with a population of around three million and a population density of 2.3 people per square kilometer. 139 Mauritania is located in a strategic geographical location, at the crossroads of North Africa and Sub‐Saharan Africa. It is also the closest tropical destination to Europe, allowing a potential for increased agricultural exports. The Saharan Desert covers two thirds of Mauritaniaʹs land mass, and approximately half of the population depends on agriculture, livestock and fishing for their livelihoods. 140 Recurrent droughts in the 1970s and 1980s caused nomadic populations to migrate towards the urban areas. To illustrate the dramatic pace of urbanization, the percentage of the population living in urban areas was 53% in 1998, as opposed to 41% ten years earlier. 141 Natural resources
Mauritania is a country rich in natural resources. The fish stocks in Mauritaniaʹs territorial waters are among the richest and most diverse in the world, with a potential annual catch of 1.5 million tons. Mauritania also has rich mineral deposits of iron, gold, copper, gypsum and hydrocarbons. Currently, mining and fishing are Mauritaniaʹs major export industries. These two industries account for 95% of the export sector. Other natural resources being explored include deep offshore petroleum, gold, diamonds, copper and gypsum. 142 Production of oil began in February 2006 at the Chinguetti oil field in the Atlantic Ocean south‐west of Nouakchott. 143 The impact of this site (which has a maximum production of 75,000 barrels per day) and future sites currently under development is expected to be significant. The Centre Mauritanien d’Analyse de Politiques (CMAP) estimates that the average GNP growth rate from 2006‐2010 will be 12.7%, largely due to growth in the petroleum sector, which is expected to account for 29% of GDP during this time period. 144 40 Economic Context Figure 1: Schematic of Berge Helene, offshore drilling platform for the Chinguetti project [http://www.offshore‐
technology.com/projects/Chinguetti/images/6_chinguetti.jpg] Other sectors
Aside from the natural resource sector, other sectors of the economy present opportunities for growth in Mauritania. According to CMAP, there is a potential for growth in the exportation of rice and other irrigated crops, meat products, milk, leather, and animal feed. There are also opportunities for expansion of cultural tourism, which Mauritania has focused on through direct charter flights to Atar for the “desert” experience. Evidence of demand is illustrated by the number of tourists arriving by charter, which has grown from 2,000 in 1997 to 12,000 in 2004. Furthermore, there is potential for the expansion of this sector through the development of existing infrastructure and the opening of new areas to tourism, such as the desert regions of Tagant and Hodh. 145 Trade and investment
Liberalization policies undertaken in Mauritania during the past decade have opened the import markets to a significant degree. In addition, since Mauritania is one of the 50 least developed countries (LDCs), it benefits from free access to European markets and some customs exemptions in the United States. Mauritania’s primary export markets are the European Union, which accounted for 76% of exports in 2001, and Asia, which accounted for 12% of exports in 2001. Trade within Africa represented only 4% of Mauritania’s export market in 2001. Currently, France is the largest trading partner with Mauritania, accounting for 25% of all exports. The European Union provides the majority of import goods, ranging from 55‐64% of imports. France accounts for one third of this amount. 146 In 2003, Mauritania received USD 214 million in foreign direct investment (FDI), representing 19% of the gross domestic product (GDP). The majority of this investment was in the petroleum sector (89%), with the balance in other sectors such as telecom, which was deregulated and opened to competition from Morocco and Tunisia. 147 Exports accounted for 34% of the GDP in 2002, with the majority coming from the mining and fishing exports. While petroleum will now be added to the export portfolio, the lack of 41 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment diversification of exports is a risk to the economic development of Mauritania. This makes it vulnerable to external shocks from world commodity prices. 148 Economic indicators
The average annual growth of real GDP has been 4.5% for the past three years, will reach five to six percent in 2005 and is expected to be 12.7% from 2006‐2010 due to petroleum sector growth. 149 GDP per capita in purchasing power parity (PPP) in 2003 was estimated at USD 1,766. 150 Average savings from 1990‐2002 was 8.1% of GDP, but savings rates have fallen in recent years to 2.5% in 2002. This weak savings rate makes Mauritania very dependent on external investment and aid to finance development. 151 Labor force
There are important gender disparities in the participation and unemployment statistics in Mauritania. A recent study found that among the active age population (15 to 65 years old), 82% of men were participating in the labor market, either employed or searching for employment, compared to 39% of women. Unemployment is also significant, with 31.2% of the labor force unemployed in 2004. For women, unemployment has worsened in the past few years, increasing from 33.9% in 2000 to 46.9% in 2004. 152 For women from age 15 to 24, the situation is even worse because unemployment for this age is 69%, compared to 50% for men of the same age. Since these unemployment numbers decrease as the age increases, this suggests that young women in particular have difficulty finding work (Figure 5). 153 Their participation rate also decreases as age increases, which suggests that they are more likely to look for work when they are younger (Figure 4). The informal sector, including artisans, small farmers, producers and non‐registered businesses, accounts for 84% of employment overall. 154 Therefore, the informal sector dominates the economy in raw numbers of workers. However, this sector is generally not taxed or regulated to the same extent as other parts of the economy. Labor Force Participation
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70
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30
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Figure 4: Labor Force Participation Figures from EPCV 2004 [CMAP p. 19] 42 Economic Context Unemployment
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Figure 5: Unemployment figures from EPCV 2004 [CMAP p. 19] Poverty
In 2000, approximately 46% of Mauritanians lived below the poverty line of 67,316 UM per person. 155 A recent study on the determinants of poverty in Mauritania revealed that poverty in Mauritania is primarily a rural phenomenon, and that the incidence of poverty is much lower in the urban areas. The higher incidence of rural poverty may be another motivation for the migration to urban centers that has occurred during the past 20 years. This study also found several links between poverty and education, as well as differential effects of education depending on whether the family was living in a rural or urban area. 156 For example, in rural areas, both the lack of education at the primary level and the large number of dependents tend to push families below the poverty line. For those working in agriculture in rural areas, the effect of a Koranic education on the head of household in a rural area has a strong positive effect, a fact the authors find is in line with other studies on the value of basic education to agricultural productivity. However, for rural wage earners, having a modern secondary education did not have a large effect on living standards. This may be related to the type of work done by rural wage earners, such as paid farm labor, which does not benefit as much from formal secondary education. Finally, formal secondary education in urban areas has a strong correlation with improved living standards, presumably because the jobs available in urban areas benefit from a secondary education. 157 These results suggest that differential returns to education in urban or rural areas may lead families to different educational choices. There is also an important gender dimension to poverty in Mauritania. Men, rather than women, often migrate to urban areas for work, which has led to a feminization of the rural areas (Figure 6). This concentration of women in rural areas may contribute to the increased poverty of female‐led households. According to a 2000 report, 37.4% of female‐
headed households were either poor or extremely poor, whereas female‐led households 43 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment represented only 20.5% of households overall. 158 There are a number of other factors which could contribute to the increased relative poverty of women, among them differing levels of education and different availability of work for men and women. Feminization of Rural Areas
65.00%
Men
Women
Percentage of population
60.00%
55.00%
50.00%
45.00%
40.00%
35.00%
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Figure 6: Rural areas are increasingly feminized [UN, Mauritania CCA, p. 13] Analysis
Microeconomic perspective
Poverty, domestic chores, marriage and employment possibilities affect the demand for education services for girls at the microeconomic level. Poverty and education choices
Our respondents often cited poverty as having a significant negative effect on schooling choices. Direct costs of schooling are usually borne entirely by the families. For very poor families, even relatively minor expenses such as pens and notebooks, which range from 50 to 200 UM, can present financial difficulties, especially if they are recurrent. Particularly for primary school children, school supplies are easily lost or misplaced, causing additional expense to the family, which must purchase them again for their children to continue school. Other costs include transport, which can be free if the child lives within walking distance, or can range from 10 UM per ride to 2,000 UM per month, depending on the distance traveled. If the child cannot return home for meals, or must stay overnight, lodging and food costs can add up to a significant amount. The costs of transport, lodging and food for very poor rural families to send their children to collège or lycée in the city are sometimes so large that the family cannot afford to pay 44 Economic Context them, even if the family recognizes the value of education. A number of studies on poverty and education choices have come to the similar conclusion that longer‐term investments in education will not be made unless the returns to education investments are perceived to have more value than the short‐term demands for consumption. 159 For very poor families, this can mean choosing between eating and purchasing school supplies. Private tutoring is also a significant expense and can range from 1,000 to 4,000 UM per month. Many Mauritanians agreed that private tutoring is required in order to pass the bac, but its high cost prevents poorer families from using private tutors. Furthermore, the environment of learning, such as the availability of light to study at night, is often worse in rural areas and among the poor. Several of our respondents stated that the difficulty for poor families to pay for candles or lamps to allow for reading at night could have a negative impact on a student’s ability to study. The dynamics of poverty must also be taken into account. A family can live at a very low income level yet still afford to send their children to school. However, a sudden shock, such as loss of employment, death or injury of a family member, or loss of crops or livestock, can push the family into debt and force them to withdraw their children from school, in order to save money on schooling costs and perhaps earn money through their children’s labor. A study conducted in the Middle East demonstrated that poor families subject to economic shocks were more likely to pull their children out of school. 160 In contrast, families that had access to credit were able to withstand the shocks and keep their children in school. These findings suggest that credit provision to the poor is a possible policy target for improving retention. There are also important gender differentials in the effect of poverty on education choices. Girls are often seen as the “jewel” of the family. Thus, they must be properly dressed in order to represent the family in public. The costs for veils and other clothing for girls can be significant and can tax the resources of poor families. Similar social pressures regarding appearance do not exist for boys. In addition, there is an intersection of poverty, limited choices and gender bias. Families that are relatively wealthy can afford to send all of their children to school. However, families that are poor may be forced to choose between sending their boys or girls to school. While many of our respondents stated that they would send boys and girls equally to school, others stated that in reality, if a choice had to be made between sending a boy or a girl, the boy would usually be chosen. 161 This is probably because boys are perceived as having better opportunities in the job market and the ability to make more money than girls. Therefore, if the family must make a choice, they opt to choose the child with the best chance of economic success. Al‐Qudsi’s study in the Middle East also found that at low levels of income, a gender bias in schooling choices was apparent. However, raising a family’s income was able to overcome this bias. 162 The low enrollment and retention figures for girls discussed in the Education section can be at least partially explained by this dynamic, since education choices are often a family decision. Poverty also has an intergenerational effect on education choices. In general, parents who are not educated are less likely to educate their children. These children in turn will grow 45 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment up without a strong education, will probably be as poor as their parents and will then raise the next generation without education. 163 Domestic chores
For some families, especially families who do not have domestic help, there is a high opportunity cost of sending girls to school. Girls are traditionally responsible for many chores, and when they attend school, either these chores will have to be done by someone else, or the girl will have to continue doing her chores in addition to her school work. This imposes an economic cost on the family because instead of engaging in income‐producing labor, other family members, usually adult women, must help do the housework. Since many mothers engage in income‐producing activities in the home, having their daughters help them with chores can be seen as a rational allocation of resources to maximize family welfare. The requirements for household chores are generally not as stringent for boys, however. Most of our interviews confirmed that boys had more time to study because they were not busy doing chores, so there is a clear gender differential. There are also important differences between different ethnic groups and between rural and urban families with respect to the chores girls are expected to do. For example, traditionally Maur girls have fewer chores to do than Black African girls. One boy we interviewed in Atar stated that his sisters had no chores at all, because his family had domestic help who would do the housework. 164 There is also large variation within a given region. For example, in a focus group of girls in Kaédi, one girl claimed that she had only ten minutes of chores every day, while another had to wake up, sweep the house, clean up, make tea, go to school, then return in the evening, water the garden, make dinner and wash the dishes. 165 In some cases, girls are required to return to their homes at noon to prepare lunch, which can be a problem if they live far away from school, and can contribute to increased tardiness. The connection between housework productivity and education is also worthy of exploration. Sharp et al. studied the relationship of womenʹs housework productivity to education levels. Their study found that increases in education can actually decrease productivity through what they termed the “morale” effect. Basically, as women become more educated, the work they do in the house becomes less fulfilling and they become less efficient at it. 166 Although the Sharp study was conducted in the United States, a similar dynamic may occur in Mauritania. Families may be less willing to educate their daughters because they fear that educated girls will be less effective in their housework or less willing to stay at home and instead seek work outside the home. Several of our interviews supported this conclusion. Some Mauritanians view women working outside the home negatively and see education for girls as problematic because it means the girl will not stay in the home. 167 However, the main effect of domestic chores on education choices seems to be indirect, in that chores detract from time that could otherwise be spent studying. Therefore, since girls do not have as much time to dedicate to their studies as boys, they do not enjoy the same success as boys in school. This relatively poorer performance in turn discourages girls from continuing their studies. 46 Economic Context Marriage
Marriage is an important institution with economic implications in that girls may leave school early when they marry or start to have children. Once a girl marries, any income she earns will mostly go to her new family. However, a compensatory payment, the dowry, is given by the husbandʹs family to the wife’s family. In addition, the “marriagability” of girls may be affected positively or negatively depending on their education level and the education level of their prospective husband. For example, a focus group of boys in Magta Lahjar who had dropped out of school mostly agreed that they preferred an uneducated wife, so that she would remain in the home and not demand too many things. 168 In contrast, a boy who was studying for the terminale thought that women should be educated. 169 Most respondents seemed to view marriage as a form of insurance for a girl, such that once she is married, she will be taken care of by the husband. At the same time, many respondents viewed education for girls as providing financial independence, such that in the case of separation or divorce, a woman would be able to support herself and her family. 170 The cultural aspects of marriage are discussed further in the Cultural Context section. Employment
An assessment of the prospects for a job is clearly an important part of the education decision, but there seems to be a disconnect between hopes and reality on the part of many of the respondents. Almost all of the secondary school age respondents planned on passing the bac and continuing their studies at the university level. However, only 15 to 20% of students will pass the bac in any given year, and only 25% of those passing the bac are women. 171 Many of the girls we interviewed planned on becoming lawyers, government employees, doctors, journalists, or pursuing other professions that require advanced degrees, even though their chances of getting these posts are slim. This is especially true for girls, given the extremely high unemployment rates for young women discussed above. There does not seem to be a conscious planning for other options or possibilities aside from the bac. One student summarized the conclusion many seem to draw from this reality, “[if] you don’t have the bac, you are nothing.” 172 One possible effect of this disconnect is a lack of options and direction after the last year of lycée for those who do not pass the bac. Again, the high unemployment rates for young people seem to suggest that either the educational system is not preparing them for the job market, or the job market itself is saturated (Figure 5). There is also a strong difference in the preferences of secondary school students for passing the bac and the national government policy objectives. The plan articulated in the PNDSE is to simultaneously increase enrollment in the first cycle of secondary school, while limiting the number of students continuing through the second cycle to 5,000 per year. 173 Those who stop at the first cycle are to be directed to professional schools, an option that none of our respondents mentioned. Therefore, the disconnect between the government policy and the desires of the students is clear on this point. This policy will be discussed further in the macroeconomic section below. Macroeconomic perspective
Demand for educated workers
The Mauritanian economy has been growing at fairly high rates of approximately four percent for the past five years. However, according to many respondents, the education 47 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment system is not preparing Mauritanians for the jobs required by growing industries. A recent plan by UNDP for industrialization in Mauritania suggested the creation of a new, parallel schooling system that would compete with the government education system and provide specific technical training at the lycée level to help in Mauritaniaʹs industrialization. 174 In discussions with foreign investor groups in Mauritania, they also noted that there are not enough skilled workers in Mauritania, and the education system needs to be changed to adapt to the needs of business. In our discussion with MEFS officials, they stated that the trades currently lacking in Mauritania are not lawyers and economists, but plumbers, masons, carpenters, electricians and other technical trades. These professions are currently filled to a large degree by immigrants from Mali, Senegal, Morocco and Tunisia. 175 In informal interviews with Mauritanians, many indicated that these jobs are not necessarily viewed as desirable jobs. Therefore, a disconnect exists between the sorts of jobs Mauritanians want to do and the sorts of jobs that are currently needed. Supply of education services
The Mauritanian government is aware of the importance of the training of skilled workers and is addressing this as part of the PNDSE. As mentioned above, one key aspect of this plan is channeling students at the first cycle of secondary into technical and professional schools rather than towards the second cycle of secondary education. 176 The plan is to reduce the number of students passing into the second cycle from 8,000 to 5,000 students, and to continue to improve the quality of the second cycle through administrative support and decreases in the teacher‐student ratio (from 23 to 16), along with an increased focus on math and science instruction. 177 According to one respondent, the reasoning behind this change is a focus on quality versus quantity. 178 In addition, for the economic development of the country it is seen as important to increase the number of workers in the skilled trades, such as plumbers, masons, carpenters, electricians and secretaries, rather than to create too many students with advanced diplomas in economics or law, for whom there are limited job opportunities. Training Mauritanians to replace the foreign workers that currently perform these jobs is seen as important for economic growth. As part of this strategy, new collèges are to be built and more teachers trained for the first cycle. By 2010, the goal is to increase the number of entrants in the first year of secondary school from 17,000 to 35,000 students. As previously mentioned, the flux into the second cycle is to be limited from 8,000 to 5,000 students. 179 Those who do not pass into the second cycle are supposed to be absorbed by the technical and professional training schools. In terms of technical and professional training, the capacity of the institutes responsible for Professional and Technical Training (FTP) is to be increased from 2,500 to 5,000 students per year. 180 There are several potential problems with this plan that merit further study. As discussed above, Mauritanians, and especially secondary school students, do not today appear to demonstrate much interest in the professional training offered. Rather, they are focused on attempting to complete the bac and thus finish the second cycle of secondary school. In addition, the capacity of the FTP and the secondary cycle as planned neglects a large number of students. If the government achieves its goals in 2010, a cohort of 35,000 students entering the first year of secondary will be reduced to 5,000 for the second cycle. 48 Economic Context Of the remaining 30,000, some will perhaps drop out before completing their brevet, the FTPs will account for 5,000 students, the institutes of teaching (ENS) can account for others, and private training institutions can absorb some of the excess students. However, this distribution still neglects thousands of students every year, who have perhaps completed the brevet but have not received training in practical job skills. One new direction that could be envisaged is training in entrepreneurship and small business development. There are currently a number of initiatives in Mauritania that encourage entrepreneurship, but there is not a national‐level plan to train and encourage entrepreneurs in parallel with the technical and professional training already offered. Impact of education
In addressing the impact of education on economic growth, Sharmistha and Grabowski, in a study of India, find the surprising result that increasing secondary education for women has a strong correlation with increased growth, whereas increasing secondary education for men does not yield the same result. One possible interpretation is that once a country has a certain stock of educated males, educating additional boys does not have a huge impact on the economy. However, if girls are not currently participating in the economy to the same degree, educating them can have a larger effect. Also, girls and boys play different roles as men and women, and therefore, a complementary effect may occur. The policy implication of this study for Mauritania is that promoting the education of girls at the secondary level may be necessary in order to continue the positive economic growth that has occurred during the past few years. Many of our respondents, in discussing the importance of girls’ education, arrived at the conclusion that training girls is important for the economic growth of the country, because they comprise more than half of the population. Conclusion
Individual decisions by girls are highly mediated by their parentsʹ choices, both for economic and cultural reasons. Thus, in analyzing economic choices, we need to consider the economic constraints and decisions of the household, and not just the choices of the individual students. Several respondents pointed to a lack of understanding of the value of education, the previously mentioned ʺcrise de conscience,ʺ such that a significant change in many Mauritanians’ mentality around this issue is necessary. It is possible that economic concerns underlie at least some of this attitude about education, especially for girls, because if the future value of an education is perceived as lower than the current cost, parents will choose not to educate their children. However, in our interviews with parents, we did not encounter negative attitudes towards education, and many people stated that the change in consciousness has already happened to a large extent, and people now recognize the value of girlsʹ education. This change in attitude is likely part of larger changes occurring in Mauritanian society due to increased urbanization, modernization, international media penetration, greater contact with the rest of the world and other effects of globalization. Yet in spite of positive attitudes regarding the value of education, there remains a disconnect between the government’s plans for limiting access to the secondary cycle and 49 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment the opportunities for work for those who finish collège. It seems that there is a potential for a large number of students to be overlooked, such as those holding a brevet but not able or willing to attend the technical schools because of distance, cost or interest. Case Studies
In order to contextualize the statistics and decisions regarding poverty, economics and education, we conducted two detailed interviews of Mauritanian families with school‐
aged children. The following case studies illustrate the economic constraints faced by these families and highlight the importance of economic factors in education decisions. The two case studies were conducted in Atar and Kaédi. Case Study of Brahim Slayma
In Atar, we interviewed the family of a GMC and AGEC attendee who is well known by the GMC staff. The Peace Corps volunteers thought that her family would be a good representative of families who may face economic difficulties. The daughter, Dweida, is currently in the last year of lycée and is studying for the Bac D (science). She hopes to be a doctor. The interview was conducted on March 16, 2006, outside of his house in Atar, sitting on a mat surrounded by his children while drinking tea, a Mauritanian custom of hospitality. Income and assets
Brahim Slayma is the head of a household that totals ten people. He currently works as a guardian at the girlsʹ collège in Atar. His wife, who was not present for the interview, works in the informal sector, selling bracelets in the market that she makes herself. During the summer months when school is not in session, he undertakes additional work to earn money. He did not specify the nature of this work, and it seemed to be opportunistic, i.e. he did not have a fixed plan for what he would do each year. This couple has a daughter working in an embassy overseas who occasionally sends remittances back to the family. They also have a son in Nouakchott, but Brahim stated that his son does not send money because he has a family of his own for which he must provide. After some discussion amongst the other family members, Brahim estimated the family’s monthly income from all sources to be approximately 30,000 to 40,000 UM per month. His salary accounts for approximately 20,000 UM per month. On a daily basis, from market activities and other non‐specified activities, he estimated the family could collect from 500 to 1,000 UM, and they are only able to survive by gathering money from various sources. Given that his wife works in the market, this sort of uncertainty about income is typical. Other interviews with women working in the informal sector confirmed that the nature of the market is such that the earnings are not reliable and can vary to a great degree. 181 The daughter who sends money sends remittances every three, four, five or even six months, in amounts that range from 60,000 to 100,000 UM. These remittances appear to be hard to predict, because they are based on the economic situation of the daughter and her own expenses. The daughter presumably has a regular salary since she is employed by the government. 50 Economic Context We did not ask them directly about assets, but we do know that the house they live in is provided by the government as part of Brahim’s job. It is not clear if he has other land or real estate holdings. Given his description of the family’s income, it seems unlikely that he has other productive assets, such as livestock, farmland or machinery. Savings
At the current level of income and expenditure, the family is not able to save any money. Brahim said that categorically he is able to save zero UM per month. The macroeconomic indicators support this claim. Research from CMAP indicates that the gross national savings rate in Mauritania fell from 11.8% in 2001 to 2.5% in 2002. 182 Brahim only recently opened a bank account since his salary is now automatically deposited at the bank’s local branch. However, he does not use the bank account for savings; instead, he withdraws almost all of the money once it arrives and uses it to purchase food and supplies in bulk for the family. Expenses
Brahim estimated that the average monthly cost associated with schooling for his children is 20,000 UM per month. This includes pens, books, notebooks, bags, clothing and food for school. Since the family lives in Atar, the children are able to walk to school and, therefore, the family does not incur any transport fees. Due to cultural norms about the inappropriateness of asking exactly how many school age children are in the household, we estimated based on observation that at least five children are currently in school, which would cost the family 4,000 UM per month per child. We can roughly estimate probable expenses as follows: Table 1: Schooling cost estimates Item
Cost
Number/ month
Monthly Total
Lecture book 1500 0.3 450 Notebook 500‐800 0.5 400 Pen 50 2 100 Food/snacks 50 20 1000 Clothes 1000 1 1000 Bag 500 0.3 150 Shoes 500 0.3 150 Cosmetics (braiding, etc) ? ? ? Total ‐‐ ‐‐ 3250 The item costs are based on data from another interview, but the amount of each item needed per month was estimated by the authors. 183 From the case study conducted in Kaédi, we learned that the younger children tend to lose their school materials, so they are constantly in need of new pens, notebooks, lecture books, and so on, which increases the family’s costs of schooling the children. This exercise demonstrates that Brahim’s estimate of 20,000 UM per month for all of the children, while high, is not totally unreasonable and probably not far from actual outlays. However, this data does contrast 51 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment with a recent study by the National Statistical Office (ONS) which indicated that Mauritanians dedicate approximately 1% of their consumption to education expenses. This differential can probably be explained by differing definitions of an education expense. 184 For example, purchasing proper clothing and food for the children may be considered as an education expense for Brahim but not for the ONS. The other major expenses of the family include rice, oil, water, tea and other consumables. As an example, they regularly purchase large sacks of rice for 9,700 UM, which last them slightly more than one month. One interesting differential between this family and the case study in Kaédi is that this family is able to purchase items in bulk because the whole salary arrives at once, whereas the other family must purchase in smaller quantities, and thus pay higher unit prices. Guests are a seasonal expense for this family. When the rains come, the weather cools, or the date harvest occurs, relatives often stay with the family for a period of a few days or even a few weeks. During this time, the family’s expenses increase because they are expected to feed the guests, according to Mauritanian tradition. Finally, some relatives ask for money, and these loans or gifts also absorb some of their income. The lodging and utility expenses of this family are very low, since Brahim has housing thanks to his job, and the water is also provided. In fact, his only expense for utilities is electricity. We asked the family about economic shocks, and they pointed out that ʺhappyʺ events such as weddings or childbirth are very expensive. They have also experienced negative shocks in the past, including the recent illness of the mother, who had to be sent to the hospital in Nouakchott. They told us the total cost of this illness was 300,000 UM. However, they did not specify how this money was spent or how they were able to afford this treatment. Education preferences
We asked Brahim about his preferences in spending, and he stated that his first priority was his children. Ensuring that the children’s needs were fulfilled in order to continue their schooling was the first priority, even before food purchases for the family, which were ranked second. This is demonstrated by the fact that his daughter is planning to complete the secondary cycle, and he plans to offer the same education to his other children. Programs
We concluded the interview by asking Brahim about government programs that could assist people in their situation. We proposed two alternatives: 1) a program similar to PROGRESA, where the government provides grants in exchange for monitored school attendance and health check‐ups, and 2) a revenue‐generating activity, such as a machine for grinding grain, or a sewing machine, loaned by the government that the family could use to earn additional income. 185 At first, Brahim preferred the cash grant because he reasoned that he would not know how to use the machine. When we suggested that training in the use of the machine would be included, he changed his mind and stated that learning a revenue‐generating activity was a much better idea, because he could make much more money than the grant amount by working harder. 52 Economic Context Analysis
The ONS analysis from 2000 places the poverty line at 67,316 UM per year per person, and the extreme poverty line at 50,897 UM per year per person. 186 Given these numbers, and without adjusting for regional differences in the cost of living, Brahimʹs household of ten people would be considered as living below the extreme poverty line, because their annual income per person is 40,000*12/10 = 48,000 UM per year per person. It is possible that he underestimated his income or overlooked some potential sources, but the family is likely to be among the poorer sector of the population. Nonetheless, this family is able to provide for its needs and to afford the necessary costs of education, perhaps due to the remittances from the daughter. In addition, the free housing and utilities provided in kind by Brahim’s job are not included in their income figures, so the family’s practical income is likely higher. However, due to the nature of their income and the inability to save, this family is at risk for future economic shocks. These shocks, such as loss of employment by the father, another sickness or injury of a family member, loss of employment by the daughter who provides remittances or other unpredictable events could force the family to borrow money in order to provide for their basic needs. In this case, pulling the children out of school in order to save and eventually earn money may look to be a rational choice. Case Study of Salif Keita & Coumba Oumar
Figure 7: Coumba and two of her children The family we interviewed in Kaédi is the host family for Peace Corps Volunteer Jennifer Slinkard. This family does not currently have any secondary school aged girls, but it does have two boys of secondary school age and will have girls in that age range in five to ten years. The interview was conducted on March 21, 2006, in their house in Kaédi. 53 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment Income and assets
Salif Keita is the head of a household that totals nine people, including three adults and six children. He is currently unemployed but earns money through freelance construction and carpentry work. His wife Coumba works in the informal sector, selling tie‐dyed boubous, a traditional dress for women, that she makes at home in the market. Coumba is a Soninke, and tie‐dying is a traditional craft in which Soninke and Pulaar women participate. Salif has a number of children from a previous marriage, and they will occasionally remit money back to him. One of his daughters is in France and sends money regularly, perhaps 20,000 UM every few months, and his son working in Nouakchott as a mechanic also sends 10,000 UM or 15,000 UM from time to time. They estimated that their monthly income from all sources is approximately 20,000 to 30,000 UM per month on average. Salif will occasionally accept a job and earn 15,000 to 20,000 UM, and his wife sells boubous for a price of approximately 5,000 UM a piece. The number of boubous that she sells in a given month was unclear, but she can produce a new one every couple of days to take to the market. Again, the nature of market work is not reliable and can be variable. In terms of assets, they own the land and the house that they have built for their family. They have also recently invested in some livestock, in the form of two adult goats. The family also owns some farmland, but it is currently not being cultivated, probably because of the lack of time or energy. Economic history
This family has a special economic history that is significantly tied to the events of April 1989 in Mauritania, when ethnic tensions intensified. During this time period, Salif was deported to Senegal, where he remained for five years before he was permitted to return to Mauritania. When he returned, he no longer had a job, and he has been unable to find steady employment since this time. Thus, for Salif, the events of 1989 were a watershed moment that pushed his family from a situation of relative comfort into a situation that is much more precarious. Before he was deported, Salif had a good job with a construction firm and was considered the ʺright hand manʺ of his boss. As a foreman on construction projects, he traveled throughout Mauritania building dams, bridges, water towers and similar infrastructure. At that time, he claims he was earning approximately 90,000 UM per month. The family had a small herd of sheep, cultivated their land and used it for self‐consumption and the feeding of the animals, and Salif had purchased several other houses and pieces of real estate as investments. When Salif had this job, he clearly had disposable income that he used to invest. Savings
Currently, this family is unable to save any money. However, as previously mentioned, when Salif was earning a higher salary, the family was able to save, as well as invest the money in the construction of their house, livestock, land and other real estate. Expenses
The main expenses for the family are food for the house and school expenses for the children. There are three children in primary school, and at least once a week, one of the 54 Economic Context children will lose a school supply that will have to be repurchased. He estimated that they spend 1,000 UM per day on various minor expenses. Unlike the family in Atar, this family is no longer able to afford to purchase in bulk. Instead, they purchase most of their food in small quantities. The fact that they do this, even though they pay a higher price, is evidence of their inability to save even enough to purchase a larger sack of rice. Education preferences
Both parents agreed that education is important, in order for an individual to be self‐
sufficient. They stated that in past generations, education was not important for many Mauritanians, because they only needed to know how to cultivate. However, in order to work in a good trade in current times, people must be educated. Programs
As with the previous family, we described two possible programs, one based on cash grants and one based on teaching the family a revenue‐generating activity. Both families immediately preferred the revenue‐generating activity and suggested the types of machines that would be useful to them. For example, they proposed receiving a mill for millet and other grains which could be used at all times of the year, instead of a mill for rice, which is only valid at one time in the year. Analysis
This family seems to be in a more precarious position than the family studied in Atar. The only regular source of income seems to be the tie‐dye work that Coumba performs. Salif works in construction, but his employment is interim and transient. The loss of his job after the events of 1989 still disturbs the family. They have sold their sheep, houses, and land, and depleted the rest of their savings. The aforementioned buffers they had created during times of higher income have almost all been consumed. Additionally, they still have three children in primary school, two of whom are girls. If either parent becomes sick or is unable to continue working, the family will not have any savings to sustain the shock, and the children may be forced to leave school. United Nations, UNCTAD‐ICC, An Investment Guide To Mauritania: Opportunities and conditions (Geneva: United Nations, Mar. 2004) 7. 140 United Nations, Investment Guide 19. 141 Ministère de l’Education Nationale and Ministère des Affaires Economiques et du Développement, Programme national de développement du secteur éducatif 2001/2010 (PNDSE) Tome 1: Diagnostic et Strategie (Nouakchott: 2001) 17. 142 United Nations, Investment Guide 13, 36‐38. 143 Woodside, “Chinguetti project produces first oil,” 24 Feb. 2006 <http://www.woodside.com.au/Investors/News+2006/February/20060225+Chinguetti+First+Oil+%28English%29.htm>. 144 CMAP, Eléments dʹanalyses de la croissance économique en Mauritanie (Nouakchott: Aug. 2005) 51. 145 CMAP 67‐68. 146 United Nations, Investment Guide 14. 147 CMAP 14. 148 CMAP 15–16. 149 CMAP 22, 51. 150 UNDP, Human Development Report 2005 International cooperation at a crossroads: Aid, trade and security in an unequal world (New York: UNDP 2005) 221. 151 CMAP 15. 152 CMAP 18. 139
55 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment CMAP 19. United Nations, Investment Guide 19. 155 CMAP 17. 156 Harold Coulombe and Andrew McKay, “Modeling Determinants of Poverty in Mauritania,” World Development 24.6(1996):1015‐1031. 157 Coulombe and McKay. 158 ONS, Profil de la Pauvreté en Mauritanie (Nouakchott: Apr. 2002) 64. 159 Nancy Birdsall, Thomas C. Pinckney and Richard H. Sabot, Why Low Inequality Spurs Growth: Savings And Investment By The Poor (Inter‐American Development Bank Working Paper 327: Mar. 1996) 8. 160Sulayman S. Al‐Qudsi, “Family background, school enrollments and wastage: evidence from Arab countries,” Economics of Education Review 22.6(December 2003) 567‐580. 161 Mothers, Tawaz, Focus group, 16 Mar. 2006. 162 Al‐Qudsi 575. 163 Al‐Qudsi 579. 164 Male student, Atar, Personal Interview, 16 Mar. 2006. 165 Female students, Kaedi, Focus Group, 19 Mar. 2006. 166 David C. Sharp, Julia A. Heath, William T. Smith and David S. Knowlton, “But can she cook? Women’s education and housework productivity,” Economics of Education Review 23.6 (December 2004) 605‐614. 167 Teachers, Lexeiba, Focus Group, 20 Mar. 2006. 168 Male drop‐outs, Magta Lahjar, Focus Groups, 20 Mar. 2006. 169 Male student, Atar, Personal Interview, 16 Mar. 2006. 170 MEFS Official (LCVS), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 171 Ministère de LʹEducation Nationale, Direction des Examens et de lʹévaluation, Presentation des resultats des examens nationaux 2005 (Sep. 2005) 15. 172 Male student, Atar, Personal Interview, 16 Mar. 2006. 173 PNDSE 73. 174 Daniel Lachat, Isselmou Ould Kébad and Ismail Ould Sadegh, Éléments d’une stratégie Nationale d’industrialisation pour la Mauritanie à l’horizon 2015 (UNDP: Dec. 2002) 65. 175 MEFS Official (PF ES), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. 176 PNDSE 73. 177 PNDSE 62. 178 MEFS Official (PF ES), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. 179 PNDSE 143. 180 PNDSE 153. 181 Teacher, Kaedi, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. 182 CMAP 15. 183 Primary school directors, Thide, Focus Group, 17 Mar. 2006. 184 ONS (2002) 13. 185 PROGRESA program description website, <http://www.ifpri.org/themes/progresa.htm>. 186 ONS (2002) 16. 153
154
56 Cultural Context Introduction
The cultural context for girls’ education in Mauritania will be analyzed using a gender and development perspective, with the understanding that gender relations are a social construct that do not assume innate differences between men and women. This analysis will explore gender relations rather than gender roles in order to capture the changing dynamics between men and women in Mauritania where the positions of men and women are not static. This form of analysis, which will examine rural/urban and North/South disparities, is appropriate given the effects of urbanization and development on social relations in Mauritania. This study will consider gender relations within marriage and the family to better understand the cultural context for girls’ education in Mauritania. Also, when analyzing gender relations in Mauritania, the discourse of the veil, which has been emphasized in Western feminist discourse 187, is not relevant to Mauritanian society. The veil, or melehfa, that Maur women wear in Mauritania is categorized differently from the hijab or burka worn by other Muslim women, which are considered more austere. 188 The melehfa is very colorful, and the neck and skin are visible. Also, Black African women wear colorful and patterned boubous, which reveal the entire neck, collar bone and the top of the back. For both Maur and Black African women, the importance of covering one’s head remains central to their style of dress, with less austerity in the rest of the clothing. Therefore, when considering the position of Mauritanian women, family dynamics in the household and opportunities for women are a more important focus than an analysis based on a discourse surrounding the veil. 189 Furthermore, like gender, ethnic identity will be considered as a social, not innate, identity, which contributes to the variation within the cultural context surrounding girls’ education in Mauritania and intersects with socio‐cultural and religious factors. Although all Mauritanians share a common Muslim identity, the various ethnic groups account for cultural differences throughout the country, particularly between the northern and southern regions. This report recognizes culture as a dynamic construct, which implies changes in behavior and norms over time in relation to girls’ education. This section will first provide a demographic overview of Mauritania, followed by an analysis of the cultural dynamics in Mauritanian society that have implications for promoting or posing challenges to girls’ education. Background
Mauritania is presently estimated to have more than three million habitants, with an annual population growth rate of 2.9%. 190 Mauritania’s population is mainly comprised of White Maurs, Black Maurs and Black Africans. The White Maurs are traditionally of Arab 57 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment and Berber decent, while the Black Maurs are of African decent but have historically identified with the Arab culture for various social reasons. Within the Black African population, four ethnic groups exist: Pulaar, Wolof, Soninke and Bambara. 191 Hassaniya Arabic is the official language, although Black Africans also speak other languages such as Pulaar, Wolof and Soninke. In addition, French is taught in schools and is used within the professional circles in Nouakchott, and other regional capitals. Unifying the different ethnic groups is an identification with Islam, since the country is 100% Muslim. However, the culture and tradition of Maur society is still largely influenced by Berber, pre‐Islamic culture. The influence of the pre‐Islamic Berber culture can be seen in the dynamics between men and women in Maur society, which later intersected with interpretations of Islam. At the time of the arrival of the Berbers in Mauritania, the existing Black African inhabitants migrated south toward the Senegal River. 192 Additionally, the following relevant demographics characterize Mauritania: •
•
56.4% of the population is under the age of 19. Approximately 50% of this population is female. 193 58% of the population currently resides in urban settings in comparison to 3.5% in urban areas in 1960, 23% in 1977 and 39.4% in 1988. 194 Analysis
This analysis explores different cultural factors that promote or pose obstacles for girls’ education. Three main areas of analysis will be addressed, which include traditional family and community relations, early marriage and maternity and interpretations of Islam. Traditional family and community relations
Background
“Ce sur quoi la tresse a passé la nuit, la barbe y sera au matin” (What the braids (i.e. woman) decide at night is what the beard (i.e. man) will carry out the next day). 195 ‐‐ Hassaniya proverb In both Maur and Black African contexts, the extended family and community play a dominant role in girls’ actions and decisions, because Mauritanian society in general is not individualistic. However, the nature of these decisions is different in the two contexts. As fluid social constructs, gender and family relations in Mauritania have been changing over time, which is evident in girls’ increased access to school, women’s increased presence in the workplace and the promotion of greater women’s rights. The gender relations are different for Maur (North) and Black African (South) communities, despite their common religion, as a result of their distinct cultural backgrounds. Simard draws a distinction mainly between Maur and Black African women in her book on Mauritanian women. 196 Unlike other Islamic societies, the position of Maur women in particular is distinct, because they hold more power with respect to 58 Cultural Context other women within Mauritania (from other ethnic groups) and other countries in the region. They are not expected to work as much in the household, and as sanctioned by Sharia law, Maur women do not have to contribute any earnings or savings to the family income. In contrast, Black African women are expected to do more housework and contribute income to the family. In reality, since many Mauritanians are confronted with difficult economic situations, many Maur women also are working outside of the household and contributing their earnings to their families. Simard attributes this difference between Maur and Black African women, and between Maur women and women in other Islamic societies, to the matriarchal legacy of the Berber tribal systems, and to the adoption of an ethical view of Islam in Mauritania. 197 Regarding ethical views of Islam, Leila Ahmed distinguishes between certain practices within Islam that were accepted as a dominant ideology, and practices that have been less emphasized. 198 The patriarchal dominant ideology promulgated in the Abbasid society included practices of seclusion, veiling and polygamy. This ideology downplayed the ethical and “spiritual egalitarianism” of Islam, which focuses on the equality of the sexes and the importance of educating both men and women. 199 An ethical perspective of Islam views the practices accepted as the dominant ideology as appropriate to the particular, historical context of the Prophet, but not necessarily directly applicable to current times. 200 Therefore, in this context, Mauritania’s adherence to a more ethical view of Islam permits a relatively more equal relationship between men and women. Regarding marriage, an important manifestation of gender relations to consider, Maur women generally demand monogamy and receive it, while women in Black African cultures often have polygamous relationships. However, although Islam is interpreted to permit polygamy, this practice is not obligatory and comes with conditions and restrictions to the husband, in addition to rights for the wives. 201 Although according to Islam divorce is discouraged, this practice is not uncommon among Maur couples in Mauritania, and the divorce rate is approximately 37%. 202 In Maur society, divorced women are not ostracized but in fact perceived as more desirable and respected. 203 Remarriage is permitted and actually encouraged – anecdotally, it is said that a beautiful woman must marry three times in her life. 204 According to the interpretations of Islam provided in a girls’ focus group, men ultimately have the formal power to divorce, although this process can be informally initiated by the wife if, for example, she leaves the household. 205 However, when a Maur woman divorces, she is not expected to reimburse the husband’s family for the dowry, as Islamic interpretation usually requires. Furthermore, Maur women retain their maiden name, even when married. Additionally, an expectation assimilated into the dominant ideology of Islamic practice, that of a wife not contradicting her husband, is not practiced in Maur society. In fact, Maur women often express their opinion in public and can contradict their husbands, which is not always the case for Black Africans. Furthermore, in regard to housework, women in Black African families generally perform more domestic work than women in Maur families. Specifically, girls are expected to perform more domestic chores in the household. 206 In Maur culture, however, women often hire domestic help, and consequently, the children in the family do not need to provide much assistance with domestic work. Also, some respondents remarked that 59 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment Soninke, Pulaar, and Wolof families tend to have more children than Maur families, and therefore, since they have a larger family size, these families require more assistance to perform the household chores. 207 Although women in Mauritania, especially Maur women, hold a relatively large amount of power in the household as compared to other Islamic countries, there are still some prohibited practices common to other Islamic societies and consistent with Sharia law. For instance, women in Mauritania do not attend mosques with men; they are discouraged from shaking hands with male strangers; they traditionally do not travel alone; they cannot practice religion during menstruation and they cannot hold the position of “wali” or judge. 208 Analysis and Implications
The different family and community relations in Maur and Black African cultures have implications for girls’ education and the extent to which girls pursue their studies. If a family has the financial resources, it will send a girl to school, because in general, girls’ education is valued as is boys’. However, the children are also a resource for the family, and they often have to stay home to help with the economic activity of the family. Girls, especially in Black African contexts, are usually the children who are kept at home to help with domestic work. However, in some regions and sectors, such as herding, boys are actually kept at home to assist the family. Generally, if a family has limited resources to send children to school, the boys will be the first to attend school, while the girls will stay at home to help with domestic chores and childrearing, especially in the Black African context. Furthermore, families may prefer to send their sons to school, rather than their daughters, because they will directly experience the returns from any economic gain as a result of education. Traditionally, the father must provide for his daughter, and the husband must provide for his wife. While sons’ returns to education will later help the family through increased income, the girl will marry and any contributions she makes will primarily be for the new immediate family, i.e. her husband and children. Thus, families do not often see the returns on girls’ education as compared to that of boys. Instead, families prefer to marry their daughters to relieve the economic burden on the family and to receive a dowry from the new husband, which is non‐reimbursable in the case of a divorce in Maur culture. However, in exceptional emergency circumstances, the wife’s family could receive additional income from the new husband, which will serve as a financial safety net. 209 Furthermore, although women, especially in Maur society, have a relatively powerful position within the household, families may feel uneasy about unmarried girls traveling independently. When supply‐side obstacles, such as the lack of schools or transportation in a village are present in pursuing a secondary education, girls will likely be unable to continue their studies. This convention, as well as the cost of transportation to schools in neighboring villages, present challenges for girls’ secondary education, which are further explored below. 60 Cultural Context Early marriage and maternity
Background
Early marriage and maternity are traditional practices in Mauritania that pose an obstacle for continued girls’ education. In rural areas, girls marry as young as 11 or 12 years of age, while in urban areas, girls tend to not marry until 18 years of age or older. Overall, 28% of women between the ages of 15 and 19 are married and more than 50% of women between the ages of 20 and 24 are married. According to the EDSM 210, one in five girls between the ages of 15 and 24 who dropped out of school did so for reasons linked to marriage. 211 However, the EDSM also shows that the median age for the first marriage of women is declining, especially in the urban context. Women from older generations (ages 40 and 44 at the time of the survey) were married at the age of 15.7, while l9 years was the average age of marriage for women of more recent generations. 212 In Mauritania, girls are generally raised to understand that marriage in a major priority in their lives, and education is a secondary priority. 213 Families prefer to marry their daughters when they reach puberty to prevent them from interacting excessively with boys. One respondent remarked that if a girl does marry at a young age, she is perceived as undesirable and forgotten, and her family will be marginalized in the community. 214 Therefore, parents may prefer to marry their daughters at a young age, rather than take the risk that they will never marry. In Mauritania, marriage occurs in two parts: the first is the religious rite of marriage, or the signing of the marriage contract, which can occur at any age and does not require consummation. 215 The second part of the marriage process is the consummation of the marriage. 216 However, according to some respondents, a girl can consummate the marriage as soon as she reaches puberty. 217 While some girls continue their studies after marrying, this pursuit depends on the support they receive from their husbands and families, and the inclusion of the ability to continue education after marriage in the marriage contract. If girls are able to continue with their studies while married, then early maternity, not marriage, becomes the challenge for continuing their education. Women are often expected to start bearing children soon after the marriage is consummated, 218 which poses obstacles to their ability to pursue an education, since taking care of children while attending school can be extremely burdensome. Although some focus group participants 219 mentioned that mothers can return to school after having a child, multiple pregnancies are common, and contraception, while not considered forbidden, is negatively perceived. 220 Even if a marriage contract stipulates that a girl will continue her studies while married, if she becomes pregnant, continuing in school becomes a challenge. 221 However, many respondents agreed that girls actually enjoy school more than boys and are better behaved. 222 Adely’s work on girls’ education in Jordan notes the importance of the social space that school provides for girls. Attending school offers girls the opportunity to interact with peers in a social milieu that is different from the household, where they can present and discuss new ideas. 223 This interaction with new ideas may cause them, for example, to learn about and pursue educational opportunities to which 61 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment they are not exposed in the home. Boys, on the other hand, can traditionally participate in more social spaces outside of the home and school. Furthermore, due to the importance of the family in decision‐making, as previously noted, if parents want their daughter to marry, she will usually oblige even if she must drop out of school. Also, school authorities will also seldom interfere in these family decisions about marriage. 224 Therefore, marriage is often considered as a important and necessary step in a girl’s life. In addition to the basic socioeconomic constraints of the family, girls also feel pressure to have an attractive appearance when they attend school, which are pressures not faced by boys. According to a UNFPA official 225, one girl did not attend a conference promoting girls’ education because she did not have a new veil. Women leaders 226 and boys 227 in two distinct focus groups also mentioned this pressure for girls to have new veils and accessories, and that the high cost of these items – up to 20,000 UM per month – posed a significant deterrent to girls’ education for families experiencing economic difficulties. Analysis and Implications
An analysis of the results of the EDSM regarding early marriage shows an important, positive correlation between a woman’s level of education and her marriage age. 228 Women who have completed secondary education or higher marry three years later, on average at the age of 21.6, than women who have only received primary education. These women marry at the age 18.5 years on average. Also, among the women who married before the age of 15, approximately 77% had no education or only a Koranic education. These results imply that as girls receive more education; their decisions to get married are increasingly delayed. In addition to the supply‐side needs for more schools and better infrastructure, the demand for education must increase in order to encourage girls to continue their studies and delay their marriage age. An SECF official identified a “crise de conscience” (“crisis of consciousness”) affecting parents, communities, school administration and teachers regarding the importance of education and the need to monitor its quality and effectiveness. 229 Generally speaking, communities are minimally involved in their children’s education. Parents rarely follow their children’s progress in school or hold teachers accountable for the quality of education their children receive. Also, teacher attendance and teaching quality are infrequently monitored by the Ministry of Education Inspectors and the school administration. Furthermore, families tend to view girls’ education as a way for a girl to pass time until she gets married. According to a high school teacher, girls’ futures are not as culturally linked to education, but instead to marriage and raising a family. 230 With the school system and parents underestimating the value of girls’ education, girls are less likely to recognize the possible returns of education and continue with their education. The demand for education can be promoted through targeted and effective awareness‐raising campaigns, which are further discussed in the Legal section. 62 Cultural Context Tradition and interpretations of Islam
Background
In Mauritania, Islam is incredibly important in people’s daily life and decisions. When making decisions about marriage and education, for example, families often consult Imams for guidance about the practices that are permitted or forbidden by Islam. 231 These actions attributed to Islam are in fact explained interpretations of Islam that have been shaped with and by tradition. These interpretations of Islam and Sharia, Islamic law, are important factors in understanding Mauritanian culture and girls’ access to education, Although all of our respondents agreed that Islam is compatible with education and actively encourages it, the extent to which this occurs ultimately depends on the link between different interpretations of Islam and tradition, which are not always in conformity. 232 Family decisions about whether or not to send a girl to school vary widely, and interpretations of Islam are just one component of these decisions. Ahmed and Simard argue that a more ethical and egalitarian interpretation of Islam is promoted in Mauritania, because boys and girls study together in school, and women, especially Maurs, have societal power in public and in the family. In any case, interpretations of Islam cannot be generalized, and the potential interpretative differences between practices and beliefs must be considered at the local level and across regions. Analysis and Implications
Different interpretations of Islam and tradition have important implications for girls’ education. The following are arguments from different respondents used to explain how and when the intersection of interpretations of Islam and tradition promotes or creates obstacles to girls’ education, especially at the secondary level. The first section discusses factors that are conducive to girls’ education, and the second section discusses factors that are not conducive to girls’ education. The overlap of these arguments helps to further understand the complexity of opportunities and challenges that Mauritanian girls face in their education, and to identify areas that effective awareness‐raising campaigns could be implemented. Factors conducive to girls’ education:
Men and women alike should pursue knowledge According to a prominent Imam in Nouakchott, a Hadith * asserts that the quest for knowledge is a mandate for all Muslims regardless of sex, and Sharia maintains that education should continue until all members of society reach adulthood, which occurs at the age of 18 years. 233 The Imam remarked that Islam recognizes that different time periods exist, which are accompanied by changing customs and traditions, and that Islamic experts must interpret these traditions with regard to Islam. For example, in historical times, a woman was only expected to be able to write and read the Koran, which was still consistent with the need in Islam for women to pursue knowledge. In current times, this quest for knowledge supported by Islam can be achieved through the modern or Koranic schools, and families decide on which school they will enroll their children, and the period of time they will allow them to study, according to their own Traditions relating to the sayings and doings of the Islamic prophet Muhammed. *
63 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment interpretations of tradition and religion. The compatibility of Islam and education is firmly established but the implications for girls’ education are ultimately determined by interpretations of religion and tradition. Marriage age: 18 years This Imam interpreted Islam to hold that the ideal age for marriage is 18 years or older because at this age a woman is responsible and mature and can therefore enter the institution of marriage. 234 If more Imams were to promote this message, families and communities may delay early marriage and encourage girls to continue in school. However, this imam also noted that according to Islam, a girl can marry before she has attained the age of majority in acceptable in certain instances, where she must marry because of necessity. 235 For example, marrying at an early age is acceptable when the girl is poor and has no guardian, and she must choose between marrying at a young age or being susceptible to vice. In this case, marrying early is a preferable option for the girl. Both parties must agree to the marriage Furthermore, according to this Imam, a Hadith declares that both the man and the woman must agree to a marriage, such that if a girl does not want to get married, she can refuse to do so. 236 A guardian may decide that a girl should marry before the age of 18, but this imam claimed that the girl can revoke this decision once she reaches the age of 18. However, as revealed in a focus group with girls aged from 12 to 22 years, many girls recognize that they can choose not to marry a suitor, but out of love for their parents, they often act in accordance with their parents’ wishes. 237 Thus, it is unlikely that a girl would revoke a marriage, as the Imam argued, because of the importance of the family in decision‐making. Therefore, girls who prefer not to marry early may nevertheless marry against their wish, which contributes to challenges in completing their education. Although girls who participated in our focus group were aware that both parties must agree to the marriage, this Islamic interpretation may not be a helpful argument for discouraging early marriage in order to promote girls’ education because of the importance and sensitivity of family decisions. Women’s financial independence Sharia and interpretations of the Koran provide every woman with the “right to contract, to conduct business, to earn and possess property independently”, so that marriage has no effect on her property or earnings. 238 This interpretation of Islam guarantees Mauritanian women a separate financial status, which is a right often demanded by Western feminists but that is already secured in the Muslim context. As previously mentioned, women are not obligated nor religiously expected, to contribute their income to the family. Financial independence is a key to a woman’s liberation and development, as confirmed in an interview with a UNFPA official in Nouakchott 239 and by a group of working women. 240 If women have their own income, then they are insured in the event of a crisis or emergency. Thus, if girls recognize that they can pursue productive labor opportunities to become financially independent, then they may be motivated to continue their education, in order to gain the necessary skills to access these opportunities. Forbidden to take action that is immoral or harmful to one’s health Interpretations of Islam forbid believers to do take any action that could hurt someone or oneself, or is immoral. 241 Therefore, while early marriage without consummation is not 64 Cultural Context necessarily physically harmful to a girls’ health, maternity before a girl has reached puberty can be. Early marriage and maternity could be delayed and girls’ education promoted, if awareness‐raising focuses on this interpretation of Islam. Factors not conducive to girls’ education
Unmarried girls 15 years or older cannot travel alone According to the director of a primary school, who is sensitized on the importance of girls’ education and works to promote it in his community, Islam says that an unmarried girl who is older than 15 is still the responsibility of her family and cannot travel alone until she is married. 242 Since a girl of this age has most likely reached puberty, forbidding her to travel alone is a way of protecting her virtuosity until she is married. Furthermore, this school director interpreted traveling alone to mean traveling to another town, and a primary school teacher with whom we spoke believed that girls should not leave the household alone, unless they are going to school. 243 Furthermore, these differences have implications for girls’ participation in extra‐curricular activities after school, such as school clubs and private tutoring. This interpretation of Islam regarding girls’ traveling alone is relevant because many villages do not have all the educational cycles, and girls must travel to neighboring villages in order to continue their education. For example, in the Hodh el‐Gharbi region, there are only a handful of secondary schools for more than 100 primary schools in the surrounding villages. 244 Boys, however, are allowed to travel to neighboring towns to attend higher education cycles. When an unmarried girl wants to transition to a higher level of education, she often needs to travel to a neighboring village, or to the capital, if she wishes to enroll in the university. Unless a close family member can move with her or host her, which is rare because of logistical and financial constraints, she will not be able to continue her studies because of this interpretation of Islam and tradition. Girls can marry and consummate the marriage once they reach puberty The Code du Statut Personnel establishes a minimum age for marriage at 18 years, and this law has been pronounced to be in accordance with Sharia. However, even if people are aware of this law, many of our respondents agreed that this law is neither followed nor enforced. Because Islam is interpreted by most to maintain that marriage can occur and be consummated once the two partners have reached puberty, marriage before the age of 18 between two people who have reached puberty is not perceived negatively. * According to a Mauritanian woman, the law sets 18 as the minimum age for marriage with the assumption that most women will have reached puberty by that age, and if they have not, then they will be considered of marriageable age by the law. 245 Thus, many families allow their daughters to marry once they reach puberty. However, once the marriage is consummated, which is not necessarily at the same time as the signing of the marriage contract, girls are expected to start having children. 246 As previously noted, having children poses a serious challenge to girls in continuing their * Note that a prominent Imam with whom we spoke interpreted Islam to say that 18 years is the ideal age for marriage. 65 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment education. However, the Imam who was previously cited stated that using contraception to delay having children while the woman is pursuing her education is a legitimate form of birth control. Specifically, condoms, or other non permanent methods, are the only permissible means of contraception. 247 The debate surrounding contraception is controversial, so discussions on delaying the consummation of the marriage should also be addressed. Thus, since early marriage itself is not necessarily the main challenge for girls’ continuing their education, especially if continued education is stipulated in the marriage contract, girls need to be sensitized about delaying pregnancy for the duration of their secondary level studies, which would most likely increase retention rates for girls. Conclusion
This analysis contextualizes the environment of girls’ education from a cultural perspective and within a gender relations framework. The three main areas of Mauritanian culture that have the largest implications for girls’ education include traditional family and community relations; early marriage and maternity; and traditions and interpretations of Islam. Differences among ethnic groups in the North and South, as well as differences between urban and rural contexts, are discussed. When making policy recommendations for girls’ education, this cultural context, which takes into account the intersection of religious interpretation and tradition and the nature of gender relations in Mauritania, should be considered for realistic, appropriate and feasible interventions. Leila Ahmed, Women and Gender in Islam (New Haven: Yale UP, 1992) 163‐66. Gisèle Simard, Petites commerçantes de Mauritanie: Voiles, perles et henné (Paris: ACCT and Karthala Editions, 1996) 119. 189 FLM Representative, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 23 Mar. 2006. 190 U.S. Census Bureau, International Data Base. (Apr. 2005) <http://www.census.gov/cgi‐bin/ipc/idbsum.pl?cty=MR>. 191 U.S. Department of State, Bureau of African Affairs, Background Note: Mauritania (Feb. 2006) <http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5467.htm> 192 Library of Congress, “Changing Social Patterns,” A Country Study: Mauritania. 193 U.S. Census Bureau. 194 Rapport National DHDP 29. 195 Simard 82. 196 Simard 66. 197 Simard 79, 81. 198 Ahmed 62, 67. 199 Ahmed 67. 200 Ahmed 66. 201 Condition Feminine Representative, Aleg, Personal Interview, 20 Mar. 2006. 202 Simard 82. 203 Simard 86. 204 Women’s Rights Activist, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 14 Mar. 2006. 205 Girl, Magta Lahjar, Focus Group, 19 Mar. 2006. 206 Peace Corps Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 16 Jan. 2006. 207 Peace Corps Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 8 Jan. 2006. 187
188
66 Cultural Context Simard 78. Peace Corps Volunteer, E‐mail to Ryan Newton, 2 Mar. 2006. 210 Demographic Study on Health – Mauritania, 2000‐01. 211 UNICEF, Enfants et Femmes de Mauritanie 208. 212 EDSM, as cited in SECF, “Evaluation of the institution of the Recommendations of the Plan of Action of Beijing by the government of Mauritania, Beijing + 10” (Apr. 2004) 27. 213 Peace Corps Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 16 Jan. 2006. 214 Parent, Kaedi, Focus Group, 20 Mar. 2006. 215 Consular Officer, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 14 Mar. 2006; Imam, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 216 Consular Officer, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 14 Mar. 2006. 217 Consular Officer, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 14 Mar. 2006. 218 Girls, Magta Lahjar, Focus Group, 19 Mar. 2006. 219 Educational Leaders, Magta Lahjar, Focus Group, 19 Mar. 2006. 220 Condition Feminine Representative, Aleg, Personal Interview, 20 Mar. 2006. 221 Primary School Director, Magta Lahjar, Focus Group, 19 Mar. 2006. 222 High School Teacher, Magta Lahjar, Focus Group, 19 Mar. 2006. 223 Fida Adely, “The Mixed Effects of Schooling for High School Girls in Jordan: The Case of Tel Yahya,” Comparative Education 48.4 (2004): 373. 224 Association of APEs of Bogué, Focus Group, 16 Mar. 2006; Primary School Teacher, Magta Lahjar, Focus Group, 19 Mar. 2006. 225 UNFPA Official 2, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. 226 Women Leaders, Magta Lahjar, Focus Group, 19 Mar. 2006. 227 Boys, Magta Lahjar, Focus Group, 20 Mar. 2006. 228 EDSM, Beijing + 10, 27. 229 Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 16 Jan. 2006. 230 Educational Leader, Magta Lahjar, Focus Group, 19 Mar. 2006. 231 Primary school teacher, Magta Lahjar, Focus Group, 19 Mar. 2006; Teacher trainer, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 1006. 232 Imam, Nouakchott, Roundtable Discussion, 13 Mar. 2006. 233 Imam, Nouakchott, Roundtable Discussion, 13 Mar. 2006. 234 Imam, Nouakchott, Roundtable Discussion, 13 Mar. 2006. 235 Imam, Nouakchott, Roundtable Discussion, 13 Mar. 2006. 236 Civil Society, Nouakchott, Focus Group, 15 Mar. 2006. 237 Girls, Magta Lahjar, Focus Group, 19 Mar. 2006. 238 Dr. Lois Lamya’ al Faruqi, “Islamic Traditions and the Feminist Movement: Confrontation or Cooperation?” <http://www.jannah.org/sisters/feminism.html> 239 UNFPA Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. 240 Women Leaders, Magta Lahjar, Focus Group, 19 Mar. 2006. 241 Girls, Magta Lahjar, Focus Group, 19 Mar. 2006. 242 Educational Leaders, Magta Lahjar, Focus Group, 19 Mar. 2006. 243 Women Leaders, Magta Lahjar, Focus Group, 19 Mar. 2006. 244 Teacher, Kobenni, Focus Group, 14 Jan. 2006. 245 Consular Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 14 Mar. 2006. 246 Girls, Magta Lahjar, Focus Group, 19 Mar. 2006. 247 Imam, Nouakchott, Focus Group and Roundtable Discussion, 13 and 15 Mar. 2006. 208
209
67 Legal and Regulatory Environment Introduction
In the legal and regulatory arena, Mauritania has demonstrated a significant commitment to encouraging girls’ education by adopting the Code du Statut Personnel (CSP), and a law mandating fundamental education for all children between the ages of six and fourteen. This section will first briefly discuss the Mauritanian legal system and explore the significance of the CSP and compulsory education law in the context of girls’ education. Subsequently, it will analyze the relationship that Mauritanians have to the law as a determinant of their behavior, and present extra‐legal measures, in the form of awareness‐raising campaigns, that can encourage the conformity of Mauritanians’ behavior with the aforementioned legislation. Background
International commitments
Regarding international commitments, Mauritania is a signatory to the International Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD), ratified on December 13, 1998; the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), ratified on November 17,2004; the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), ratified on November 17, 2004; the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), ratified in May 16, 1991; and the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), ratified in May 10, 2001. More specifically, the CRC Article 28 guarantees all children a right to education, and Article 29 enumerates the aims of this education. The ICESCR Article 13 recognizes the right of all people to education. The CEDAW Article 10 guarantees an equal right to education for men and women. However, Mauritania has entered reservations to these covenants to the extent that they conflict with interpretations of Sharia, or Islamic law. In addition, Mauritania ratified the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (Banjul Charter) on June 14, 1986. Article 17.1 of this charter guarantees a right to education for every individual. Mauritania also ratified the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa on September 21, 2005. Article 12 of the covenant elaborates the right to education for women. Furthermore, on the same day, it ratified the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child. Article 11 of this covenant addresses a child’s right to education. Mauritania’s legal system
Mauritania is a Social Islamic Republic 248 and the Constitution recognizes that Islam, as responsive to the “exigencies of the modern world,” is the sole source of law. 249 Therefore, Mauritania applies Islamic law, or Sharia, to matters of personal and private law. 250 This body of law is from the Malekite school of the Sunni sect of Islam. 251 68 Legal and Regulatory Environment According to Article 1, paragraph 2 of the Mauritanian Constitution, adopted in 1991, men and women are equal before the law. Mauritania’s constitution does not explicitly include a right to education, although it proclaims a guarantee for social and economic rights. According to the International Convention on Social and Economic Rights, the right to education is a social and economic right. 252 Mauritania’s court system is an Islamic‐oriented system, and consists of a High Court, Supreme Court, Cour d’Appel, Cours Criminelles, Tribunaux de Travail, and smaller tribunals in the provinces. The High Court of Justice hears cases of government officials involved in high treason, and the legislature elects the members of this court. The Supreme Court sits in Nouakchott, and is the final appellate court in the country. It is composed of the administrative, civil and commercial, social and penal chambers. Under this court is the Cour d’Appel, which is also seated in Nouakchott. The Cours Criminelles, or criminal courts, are located in the provinces. The Islamic courts, the Tribunaux de Wilayas and Tribunaux de Moughata, have jurisdiction over civil and criminal cases of first instance, and are in the provinces as well. The Tribunaux de Travail is a distinct jurisdiction for labor disputes. 253 According to Simard, only men can be judges in Mauritania’s judicial system. 254 Figure 8: Court in Nouakchott Code du Statut Personnel
Background of legislation
The Code du Statut Personnel is part of Mauritania’s civil code and was passed by Parliament in 2001. 255 The CSP serves the function of a family code, and secures rights for women in the areas of marriage, divorce, inheritance, and guardianship of their children. It is specifically relevant to the issue of girls’ education because it sets the minimum age of marriage at 18 years, and gives women the right to stipulate they will be able to continue to pursue their education, in their marriage contracts. 256 Although the adoption of this code followed Mauritania’s ratification of CEDAW in 2001, its adoption had been advocated since just after Mauritania achieved independence at the grassroots level by civil society members. 257 Many Mauritanians sought to codify Sharia law in regard to family law in order to provide an authoritative legal basis and written reference for judges in vindicating the rights of Mauritanian women and children. 258 In the preparation of the CSP, the Minister of Justice created a commission that conducted widespread consultations with all sectors of society, including doctors, Muslim scholars, religious leaders, professors, women’s rights activists, feminists, and sociologists. Ultimately, this Commission drafted a text of the code, which was approved by the High 69 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment Islamic Council (Haut Conseil Islamique) as consistent with Sharia law. * Subsequently, it was adopted by the Council of Ministers, sent to the Parliament for debate, and adopted by this body as well. 259 This process indicated that the CSP has broad‐based support and has been endowed with legitimacy from government actors, religious leaders, and civil society. Furthermore, one of the axes of the National Strategy for the Promotion of Women is to apply this Code. 260 Significance for girls’ education
Early marriage
The CSP is extremely important in the context of girls’ education because, as discussed in the cultural section, early marriage † is one of the major reasons that there is a weak retention rate of girls at the secondary level of education. 261 The CSP establishes the minimum age of marriage to be 18 years, the age of majority. ‡ Therefore, prohibiting children to marry before they have reached the age of majority will counteract one of the primary obstacles to girls’ education and provide an incentive for girls to complete the secondary cycle. Marriage contract
Furthermore, according to Article 28 of the CSP, when a couple is in the process of drafting their marriage contract, the future wife has the right to include a clause stating that her husband cannot prevent her from pursuing her studies or from working. 262 Therefore, the CSP recognizes the importance of education for women. As previously mentioned in the cultural section, the goal in life for many women is to be married, and many subsequently drop out of school as a result of their domestic duties or because they become pregnant. However, Article 28 recognizes that education and marriage are not mutually exclusive goals. Rather, this provision empowers women to negotiate the terms of their marriage and recognizes education as an important attribute for all women, married or single. Furthermore, it denotes the commitment of the Mauritanian government to promote girls’ education, by providing them with a legal means to ensure that they can continue their pursuit of education. Therefore, this code helps to dispel the notion that once a woman is married, she should not pursue her education. Instead, the CSP empowers women to use education as a tool around which marriage can be negotiated. Additionally, in a society where men generally hold positions of power, this provision enables women to exercise agency in determining the conditions of their marriage, and ability to actively participate in social spaces outside the home, once they have entered this institution. * According to Article 94 of the Mauritanian Constitution, the High Islamic Council is a consultative body to the President. It is composed of five members, who are appointed by the President of the Republic. This Council meets at the request of the President. † Marriage before a girl reaches the age of majority, which is 18. ‡ Article 6 also states that an incompetent person can be married if his or her guardian sees an evident interest to do so. Although the CSP does not elaborate an acceptable for an “evident interest,” people with whom we discussed this statute stated that the statute has been accepted as setting the marriage age at 18 years and this additional clause has not received much attention (Irabiha, Mar. 14, 2006). 70 Legal and Regulatory Environment Figure 9: Maur Women Compulsory education law
Background of legislation
The compulsory education law adopted by the Parliament in 2001 mandates primary education for children of both sexes from the ages of six to fourteen, or for at least six years. 263 This education can be sought in public or private schools, mahadras or any other registered education establishment. According to Article 10 of this law, failure to enroll a child in school without a compelling reason is punishable by a fine of 10,000 to 30,000 UM. In the case of recidivism, the fine is 50,000 to 100,000 UM. Unlike, the CSP, most of the people with whom we spoke advanced the idea that the passage of this law was not the result of a grassroots effort, but rather, it was proposed by donors proposed, and adopted in reaction to donor pressure to conform with the Conventions on the Rights of the Child (CRC). 264 One respondent, however, maintained that the Ministry of Education proposed and adopted the law in order to encourage children to go to school. 265 Therefore, the top‐down method by which this law was adopted, rather than in response to popular sentiment like the CSP, may compromise the its effectiveness or legitimacy. Significance for girls’ secondary education
Nevertheless, this law is significant in the context of girls’ education, although it does not address secondary education, because it illustrates the recognition by the Mauritanian government that the education of both sexes is necessary. Specifically, in light of the “crise de consciousness” that was previously mentioned in the cultural section, this law, could work to changing the mentality of those who are unaware of the importance of education, and resist engaging in their children’s education. Furthermore, although Mauritania has attained virtual gender parity at the primary level, a law compelling education, through which people become more aware of the importance of education, could impact secondary enrollment. Recognizing education as a fundamental attribute for boys and girls alike, as well as for society, may cause families to encourage their children to continue their pursuit of education upon completion of primary school. Therefore, signaling the importance of education through law could result in a domino effect whereby parents allow their children to continue with secondary schooling once they have completed the primary cycle. 71 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment Analysis
Although these laws hold tremendous importance in the Mauritanian context, throughout our field research, we sought to determine the level of adherence to and effect of these laws on the general population in increasing secondary girls’ education. Rule of Law
People unaware of the laws
One major problem that we confronted in determining the effectiveness of the CSP and compulsory education law was that the majority of respondents interviewed were unaware of the existence of this legislation, particularly in the rural communities. A SECF official stated that the majority of Mauritanians are not familiar with these laws. 266 In Tidjikja, the host family of one of the Peace Corps Volunteers had never heard of the CSP, or the compulsory education law. 267 A mentor at the GMC in Atar stated that she had never heard of the CSP until she came to the Center. 268 In Lexeiba, a group of teachers had never heard of any law prohibiting marriage before people reach the age of majority. 269 When informed then about this law, they commented that most Mauritanians do not know the state’s laws. 270 Similarly, respondents in Magta Lahjar stated that people do not know this law. 271 In fact, of the focus groups conducted in rural areas, the only people who had heard of the CSP were women in Tawaz, one of which had been trained by the SECF regarding the subject matter of the CSP.272 The other women said that they had heard about the CSP on the radio. Interestingly, when we asked these women if they knew about women’s rights, they did not mention the CSP. They only referred to the CSP when we specifically asked if they knew about its contents. Furthermore, they added that most people do not know about the CSP, and those who do know about its contents only follow it because it is in compliance with Sharia law. Since most Mauritanians with whom we spoke indicated that they have no knowledge of these laws, they obviously do not adhere to them, rendering the laws ineffective to some extent. People not compelled by the law
Another major problem regarding the effectiveness of these laws was that many Mauritanians generally do not adhere to law as a determinant of their behavior. Many respondents indicated that for many Mauritanians, law is an abstract concept with which they cannot interact in their daily lives. Tribal networks or religious ties are most significant determinants of behavior because they have a greater influence on the lives of Mauritanians on a daily basis. Therefore, many Mauritanians may not feel compelled to follow the dictates of the state, particularly in rural areas, because they do not interact with it on a consistent basis. For example, in the rural community of Atar, a SECF regional representative was asked about how she explains to the local communities that early marriage should not be accepted. Although SECF regional representatives are charged with raising awareness about the contents of the CSP, the regional representative did not invoke this law in her explanation of why early marriages should be prohibited. 273 Rather, she began by explaining that early marriage could be detrimental to the health of the young girl because she will most likely get pregnant shortly after marriage. Similar to the focus group in Tawaz, the SECF representative only mentioned the CSP when 72 Legal and Regulatory Environment specifically asked about its contents. This anecdote illustrates that the laws in area may not be perceived as relevant by many Mauritanians in governing their social interactions. Ultimately, Mauritanians act more in accordance with the dictates of the tribe or religion to which they belong, rather than the laws of the state. Tribal networks
Tribal solidarity exists at the political, juridical and economic level in Mauritania. 274 The Mauritanian state is young, and in Mauritania’s nomadic history, the land was ruled by tribes, which exercised ownership over certain areas. In Mauritanian Maur culture, there are three general groupings of tribes: Religious leaders (Marabouts), Warriors, and Tribes serving both religious leaders and warriors. Within these groupings are a multitude of smaller tribes that are organized hierarchically. Tribal identity and affiliation usually comes before the national identification as a “Mauritanian.” 275 In Mauritania, the tribe provides informal social services to its members. For example, the tribe takes care of its members when they are sick, unemployed, experience injustice or are uneducated. 276 As one respondent described, each month, every working male member of a tribe pays money into a cash fund that is used to aid people in need, particularly those who have medical emergencies. 277 Although the influence of tribe is greatest in rural areas, and may be starting to wither among people who live in big cities, 278 its role in providing social services to its members is still a part of daily life for many Mauritanians. Conversely, the state cannot yet offer this network of support to the majority of Mauritanians, and therefore does not as directly impact their lives on a day‐
to‐day basis. 279 For this reason, many Mauritanians’ behavior concurs with the traditions and norms of their tribe, rather than the laws of the state. Religion
Similarly, as mentioned in the cultural section, many Mauritanians act in accordance with Sharia, the laws of Islam. They learn about these laws from local religious leaders within their community who they see on a regular basis. Thus, religion and tribal traditions play an important role in the daily lives of many Mauritanians, particularly those living in rural areas where illiteracy and the prevalence of poverty is particularly pronounced, and the institutions of the state may be less visible. Furthermore, one teacher remarked that Mauritanians experience difficulty in orienting themselves between Islam and the law of the state, and largely for this reason they are unaware of and do not follow the state’s laws. 280 Again, Mauritanians act in accordance with the norms and traditions of their tribe, as well as religious obligations, rather than the letter of the law. 73 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment Figure 10: Chinguetti Mosque Law v. reality
Therefore, most Mauritanians follow accepted interpretations of Islam and traditional norms regarding early marriage and the formation of the marriage contract, and enrolling their children in primary school. In regard to early marriage, as discussed in the cultural section, many respondents had mixed opinions about whether or not Islam permitted early marriage. Many attributed the acceptance and prevalence of early marriage to traditional views and economic necessities, but others maintained that Islam permitted this practice. 281 Regarding mandatory education for girls at the primary level, as developed in the cultural section, many respondents indicated that while tradition encourages girls not to go to school, Islam encourages, and even mandates girls’ education. Ultimately, in the Mauritanian context, social norms, traditions and religious obligations are more important determinants of behavior than the rule of law. Additionally, some respondents stated that people do not adhere to these laws because of logistical or economic constraints. For example, regarding the early marriage law, as previously mentioned in the economic section, many parents marry their daughters because they cannot afford to provide for them economically. Furthermore, regarding adherence to the compulsory education law, the challenge for many Mauritanians in adhering to this law, is that their access to schools is inadequate. Therefore, parents who are otherwise willing to send their children to school cannot do so because there is not an adequate access to or supply of schools, as previously mentioned in the Public Schools and Education Policy section. 282 74 Legal and Regulatory Environment Figure 11: Mauritanian children Extra-Legal alternatives
Since many Mauritanians are not aware of the content of the CSP and the compulsory education law, and in many cases do not necessarily understand the relevance of these laws to their way of life, extra‐legal measures, such as awareness‐raising campaigns, appear to be an appropriate method for encouraging Mauritanians’ behavior to conform to the principles elaborated in these regulations, rather than direct enforcement by state officials. Enforcement of these laws may be an inappropriate avenue to pursue because many communities are still unaware of these laws, and furthermore, they have not embraced the principles codified therein. Although according to Article 17 of the Constitution, all Mauritanians have a duty to know the law, and ignorance of these laws is not a defense to punishment, 283 many legal scholars have maintained that enforcing laws in a community that has no knowledge of certain regulations and whose norms have not embraced the principles codified in the regulations, is an ineffective means of compelling people’s behavior to conform with law. * For example, the SECF has taken measures to apply the CSP, but they have not yielded the desired effect. In order to enforce the CSP, the SECF has established family arbitration centers (Tribunaux des Litiges Familiaux), in order to arbitrate disputes that arise between couples in the areas of family law covered by the CSP. Men or women can bring these disputes to the SECF representative, who will try to help the parties come to a resolution in accordance with the CSP. 284 If this strategy fails, the representative will then refer the parties to a judge or a tribunal. However, many respondents and SECF representatives reported that this arbitration mechanism is underutilized, because Mauritanian traditions demand that family disputes are settled by family members. Therefore, people are reluctant to bring their disputes before a SECF representative, who is not part of the family. This reluctance to pursue the enforcement measures proscribed by the CSP illustrates that the principles therein have not been accepted by many Mauritanian communities. * Sunstein maintains that government action in enforcement of a law is only firm if “all or almost all people support it as a means of solving a collective action problem.” The government should not inculcate norms that cannot be supported and evaluated publicly, because citizens could conclude that even good norms make no sense if they are mandated. 948. 75 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment Therefore, enforcing these statues, and imposing penalties on those parents who do not send their girls to school or who allow them to marry early, does not appear to be an effective way of inducing parents to enroll their girls in school. These norms need to be accepted by the community before outliers can be punished for not adhering to them. In order to encourage a modification in norms that embraces these concepts, extra‐legal measures, such as awareness‐raising campaigns, appear to be an appropriate initiative. Theory
A culturally appropriate awareness‐raising campaign can help promote compliance with legislation by providing information about its existence, its importance and its ability to maximize the overall welfare of the entire community. As previously mentioned, Mauritanians generally behave in accordance with their traditions and religious customs. However, these traditions and interpretations of Islam are dynamic and constantly changing, discarding and embracing new norms in response to the evolution of the modern world. 285 Therefore, a campaign designed to sensitize people around certain issues could impact the dynamism of these norms, and influence change in people’s behavior. Initiating a campaign to raise awareness about these laws, as well as other obstacles to girls’ secondary education, could be an effective method to change the mentality of Mauritanians in this context. A large body of law and economics literature has analyzed the ability of actors to influence norms in order to bring them into compliance with social regulation. According to Sunstein, norms are “social attitudes of approval or disapproval, specifying what ought to be done and what ought not to be done.” 286 Their function is to facilitate coordination by members of a community, and “establish commitments to particular ways of acting in common social situations. 287 Norms constantly change and adapt to different situations. The government, or other actors in society, can provide information to a community in order to signal a change in norms. Specifically, a transition in norms may occur when an actor, the “norm entrepreneur,” collects and disseminates information about the new norm, in order to ensure that “norm suppliers,” those who will embrace this new norm, view the status quo as inferior, and will be willing to assume or subsidize the transition costs to the group of converting to a new norm. According to Clayton, the end result of this competition between norms will be that the socially optimal norm will be perceived and accepted. 288 One difficulty in the ability of society to adopt a new norm is that information about the new norm can be costly to attain and to disseminate. 289 Therefore, information about a norm may be undersupplied, unless institutions are willing to assume the costs of supplying information to a community about a new norm. 290 Governments often assume this “transition cost” and play the role of norm entrepreneur by encouraging people to act in certain way, through the use of awareness‐raising campaigns, or persuasion, a “self‐
conscious effort to alter attitudes and choices.” 291 This persuasion is carried out through the use of rhetoric and vivid images in order to persuade people to choose a certain course of action. 292 Sunstein suggests that this method can be particularly effective when the norm entrepreneur is trusted by the community, such that the community is willing to embrace the change in behavior that the entrepreneur suggests. Furthermore, the methods of 76 Legal and Regulatory Environment persuasion used to transmit messages must be appropriate to the culture and context. In this area, Sunstein notes that the framing of information is essential to the effectiveness of the persuasion. 293 Although governments typically play the function of norm entrepreneur, this role can be played by other actors in society, as long as they are able to ensure that the community recognizes the superiority of the new norm and is willing to adopt it, in lieu of the older norm. 294 Thus, this literature suggests that if information about a practice is disseminated by an appropriate actor in a culturally appropriate context and manner, in which the benefit to the community of adopting this practice is sufficiently highlighted, the community’s traditions and practices will ultimately embrace this new norm. Therefore, awareness‐
raising campaigns could help to encourage compliance with the minimum marriage age and compulsory schooling legislation, and affect a transition in norms in Mauritanian communities, which place a greater emphasis on secondary education for girls. Awareness-raising campaigns
Many major Mauritanian actors, including the SECF, UN agencies, and NGOs, have used awareness‐raising campaigns to inform people about various topics and affect their behavior in certain areas. The SECF is the government ministry dedicated to promoting the status of women in Mauritania, and it is one of the primary actors in this area. This ministry is transversal in character, meaning that it collaborates with all other government ministries in order to integrate gender concerns into their work. The SECF also works to “promote and expand the knowledge of the rights and obligations of women and the rights of children.” 295 Therefore, this agency has been instrumental in initiating awareness‐raising campaigns related to girls’ education. In the area of legislation, a number of awareness‐raising campaigns have occurred regarding the CSP. These campaigns began approximately five years ago, when this legislation was adopted, and SECF has played a large role in these campaigns. 296 Furthermore, SECF is in the process of developing an awareness‐raising campaign about the compulsory education law, in partnership with the Ministry of Economic Affairs and Development and the African Development Bank. 297 Currently, the SECF is working to develop clear terms of reference regarding this campaign, and identify the regions in which to launch it. 298 Generally, the SECF carries out its awareness‐raising campaigns in conjunction with UN agencies and other NGOs because of budgetary and human resource constraints, which will be further explored later in this report. 299 For a case study regarding the awareness‐
raising campaign the SECF initiated on the CSP, and the intended campaign on the compulsory education law, please see Box 5. 77 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment Box 5: SECF Awareness-Raising Campaigns
Donor
The awareness-raising campaigns initiated by the SECF are generally determined by the availability of funds
and donors. 300 From 1999 to 2002, the World Bank provided funding to the SECF to launch an awarenessraising campaign for the promotion of women’s status. The promotion of the CSP was a component of this
campaign. 301 The SECF also partnered with various UN agencies, such as UNFPA and UNICEF at the local
level to carry out this campaign. 302
How subjects are targeted
The subjects identified as those around which awareness-raising campaigns are to be initiated are generally
identified by the SECF office in Nouakchott, although one SECF stated that she develops her own annual
action plan and programming. 303 Regarding the awareness-raising campaign about the promotion of women’s
status, this campaign targeted the following subjects: the importance of girls’ primary education, illiteracy,
female genital mutilation, early marriage, and reproductive health. 304
SECF targeted this awareness-raising campaign, particularly the component of discouraging early marriage, to
women. According to one SECF regional representative, the rationale for targeting only women about the
problems with early marriage is that mothers are closer to their daughters than fathers, and ultimately,
mothers will make the determination regarding the marriage of their daughters. 305
How regions are targeted
In determining regions in which to intervene to sensitize the population about the CSP and the compulsory
education law, one SECF official stated that SECF targets “areas of resistance.” Often, they rely on statistical
information to determine these areas. For example, in regard to the anticipated awareness-raising campaign
regarding the compulsory education law, they will consult statistics and target the regions where the
deficiencies in education are the largest. 306
For the awareness-raising campaign regarding the CSP, five regions were selected because they are
traditionally the most conservative regions in Mauritania, where poverty is acute, the level of education is
low, and the illiteracy rate is high. These regions were: Guidimakha, Assaba, Brakna, Hodh-Gharbi, and
Gorgol. 307
Campaign Design
Once the SECF has targeted the regions where it wants to launch an awareness-raising campaign, it enters
these areas, and during a period of approximately two to two and a half months, identifies key actors in the
community, the perceptions held by community members, the types of information needed, and develops
arguments and catch phrases to use in the awareness-raising campaign. It then formulates the information
that it will disseminate to the people in the region.
Regarding awareness-raising around legislation, SECF did not sensitize people about the exact text of the
CSP, but rather, the sense of the law, making sure to highlight the advantages that it can bring to women,
their family, and to society as a whole. 308
The campaign is then piloted in a small area so that they can determine how people have understood the
messages and reacted. Ultimately, the program is expanded to multiple regions. 309
Regarding the awareness-raising campaign about the promotion of women, SECF regional representatives
collaborated with various agencies, such as UNFPA and UNICEF to conduct a five-day workshop about the
issues identified. 310 One day was dedicated to sensitizing women about the CSP, while the other days were
each dedicated to sensitizing women on each of the other topics targeted by the campaign. At the end of the
training, cassettes were distributed to each woman, containing information about the topics covered during
the conference. 311 SECF heavily relies on this form of media in transmitting messages that it identifies as
important for its awareness-raising campaigns. 312
For women in rural villages, such as Tawaz, the SECF selected representatives from their communities to
attend trainings which were held in regional capital and urban areas. For example, three women were
selected from each wilaya in the Adrar region to go to Atar and attend the training workshop, where a total
of 35 women received training. 313
According to one woman who attended this workshop, at the end of the training period, each woman was
given an “animation guide” regarding important provisions in the Code. 314 Each woman was then assigned to
certain quartiers in her village, and instructed to provide training to women in these areas about the contents
of the workshop for approximately a month to month and a half. 315
78 Legal and Regulatory Environment Furthermore, as part of this awareness-raising campaign, a national SECF member worked to sensitize Ulama
(religious scholars) and the community of imams about the CSP, so they would be able to sensitize others. 316
Many officials noted that one of the most compelling reasons that they invoked to explain why girls should
refrain from marrying early is that early marriage often leads to pregnancy at a young age, which causes
health problems for many girls and is detrimental to society because it will bring a baby boom. 317 Therefore,
rather than maintaining a family size of three to four, the families will grow to the size of 10 to 12 people,
which will cause economic strains for the family. 318
Impact & Evaluation
SECF has conducted monitoring and evaluation of these awareness-raising campaigns, although their ability to
do so has been limited by insufficient funding. (see institutional section) 319 In fact, a major problem for SECF
has been the lack of an adequate budget for initiating and sustaining awareness-raising campaigns. 320
Therefore, we were unable to secure quantitative data on the impact of these campaigns, but discussed the
outcomes of these campaigns with officials and community members.
In Atar, a few months after the training workshop, SECF traveled for two to three months, and visited each
location where women had been trained, in order to conduct evaluations. 321 According to one woman, SECF
returned to her village a total of three times to determine if the community was adequately sensitized about
the CSP. The SECF representatives organized various community members into a group and instructed the
women they had trained to be silent while they asked the community members questions about the Code. 322
If the SECF representatives determined that the community had a general knowledge about the CSP, the
trainers received a radio and cassettes with information about the Code. 323
The regional representative reported that this training was successful, particularly in regard to the idea that
girls should not marry before they reach the age of 18. 324 However, according to one SECF official, this
awareness-raising campaign has not been effective because sensitizing people about laws is more challenging
than sensitizing people about hygiene or health. For people in communities where the majority of the
population is illiterate, people do not understand the modalities of law. They hear the words of the campaign,
but they do not understand its underlying reasons and justifications. 325
In regard to the compulsory education awareness-raising campaign, SECF plans to evaluate its impact by
analyzing the inscription of students in school. According to one SECF official, an increase in the enrollment
rate of students at the primary level will be an indicator of the success of the campaign. 326
Awareness-raising campaigns best practices
Although SECF is the primary government actor in raising awareness around women’s issues, many Mauritanian organizations have begun to employ awareness‐raising campaigns not only to promote adherence to legislation related to girls’ education, but also to influence norms about a variety of social practices that impact this area. Therefore, an awareness‐raising campaign, if appropriately designed, would be instrumental not only in encouraging compliance with the CSP and compulsory education legislation, but also in combating traditions and beliefs that pose obstacles to the advancement of girls’ secondary education. Throughout our interviews, we spoke with many UN agencies, officials and civil society organizations that participated in other awareness‐raising campaigns concerning issues such as AIDS, and reproductive health. In discussing with these individuals and other Mauritanians, they shared with us their opinions regarding effective practices in conducting culturally appropriate awareness‐raising campaigns that have been successful in changing people’s behavior. The following is a summary and analysis of these findings. Disseminator of information
The first issue that arises in creating an awareness‐raising campaign is identifying an appropriate actor to be the “norm entrepreneur” who will signal to a community the need for a transition in norms. In order for an awareness‐raising campaign to be effective in 79 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment causing this transition, the norm entrepreneur must be trusted by the surrounding community. 327 Religious / Tribal leaders In this vein, virtually all the respondents agreed that using religious leaders to promote changes in norms and disseminate information about appropriate behavior and practices is essential because Mauritanians trust religious leaders, such as Imams and Ulama, and perceive them to be the leaders of their community. As previously mentioned, Mauritanians adhere to religious law and look to their religious leaders for the interpretation of this law, and how to appropriately behave in accordance with it. Therefore, Mauritanians are likely to respond to the behavior that these religious leaders recommend. 328 Similarly, respondents indicated that Mauritanians trust and consider notables and village chiefs as community leaders. They are therefore likely to adjust their behavior to be in accordance with the recommendations of these leaders as well. 329 Doctors Furthermore, doctors may be appropriate actors in signaling behavior to Mauritanians. Many NGOs, and UN and government agencies have used doctors to speak to the public about their health, in numerous awareness‐raising campaigns, on the topics of AIDS, forced feeding and early marriage. 330 Mauritanians trust doctors as a credible source that provides them with information to maintain their health and that of their community. Therefore, a doctor is an effective norm entrepreneur who can signal the detriment to one’s health of adhering to certain norms. Teachers Teachers in schools and informal education programs play an important role as educators and can influence the values and beliefs of the children that they teach. They are therefore well situated to play the role of norm entrepreneur. Many of the teachers interviewed expressed the sentiment that they would like to carry out awareness‐raising in their classrooms, but they are not adequately trained to do so. Moreover, a relevant obstacle to the ability of teachers to play this role is that they are forbidden from incorporating documents, such as newspaper articles, into their lessons if they are not part of the national curricular program. Therefore, as one teacher suggested, if the state provided training, resources and information on awareness‐raising campaigns to the teachers, they could play an instrumental role in encouraging norm transition. 331 Community targeted
Another crucial element of an awareness‐raising campaign is to identify the norm suppliers. The norm suppliers are those people whose behavior is targeted by the awareness‐campaign, in order to affect a change in their behavior and norms. 332 Parents Many respondents stated that in initiating an awareness‐raising campaign that includes sensitization about girls’ education, or the role of girls in society, parents must be the primary targets of this campaign. Parents are the most important people in a girls’ life, and therefore, they must understand the issues that will be pertinent to their daughters. 333 Therefore, changing the perception of parents so that they understand the importance of education and are able to see their girls as professionals is instrumental in securing access to education for girls. Put differently, parents must understand the importance of girls’ 80 Legal and Regulatory Environment education in order for them to support their daughters in this pursuit. 334 If parents do not understand and agree with opportunities that their daughters pursue, they will prevent them from making these changes in their lives. 335 Additionally, respondents stated that campaigns regarding girls’ education must be specifically targeted to mothers because women often make the decisions concerning the future of their children. One respondent remarked that even if the father decided to send girls to school, the mother can block the decision. 336 As previously mentioned as well, particularly in Maur societies, the decisions that concern children’s education and marriage are made by the woman in the household. 337 Girls and boys Aside from parents, respondents also suggested that girls must be sensitized about and understand their role in society in order to pursue an education, and ultimately be successful in their future. 338 However, although awareness‐raising campaigns regarding girls’ roles should be targeted to girls since they are the direct beneficiaries of such campaigns, boys must also be exposed to the messages transmitted through these campaigns. Ultimately, social change depends on the interaction between genders, and in order to change social norms, both sexes must understand the need for a norm transition. Furthermore, as one respondent noted, the children of today, both boys and girls, will be the parents of tomorrow, and for this reason, they must understand the importance of education so that they can impart this value to their children. 339 Men and women In a similar vein, for a transition in norms to be truly internalized by a society, the majority of members must subscribe to it. Therefore, awareness‐raising campaigns, while specifically targeting certain groups that will most immediately and directly benefit from the norm transition, should, if possible, incorporate messages that have relevance to society at large, including men and women in various sectors. Means of Transmission
Once the norm entrepreneur and norm suppliers are identified, the next step is to determine how to effectively disseminate the messages of an awareness‐raising campaign to the identified norm suppliers. Islam In the Mauritanian context, many respondents noted that recommendations for behavior that are linked to and supported by interpretations of Islam are taken seriously by Mauritanians. 340 Therefore, people must believe that Islam sanctions certain behavior in order to adopt it. TV, radio, films Disseminating messages through medium such as television, radio and film are an effective method for reaching a large number of Mauritanians, who rely on these sources for information. Specifically, these means of transmission can reach a large segment of the population because they employ visual and oral methods of learning, which are accessible to the illiterate population within Mauritania. 341 Furthermore, through the use of visual depictions, the information provider can enact images of women engaging in the desired behavior to illustrate that it is indeed feasible and attainable. For example, many 81 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment respondents suggested airing images of women giving speeches and participating in society as professionals, in order to change the mentality of the public that women cannot function in this sphere. 342 Public transport Another useful method of transmitting awareness‐raising messages would be to use public transportation to sensitize people. Many Mauritanians use public taxis as a method of transit, and during these taxi rides, the chauffeur often listens to the radio. Therefore, a useful method of transmitting awareness‐raising messages would be to provide taxi drivers with cassettes containing awareness‐raising material, or have these drivers listen to a radio station that broadcasts these messages in an attractive manner, such as, through music. Furthermore, the people that use this transport may then disseminate the messages they have heard to their friends and family upon reaching their destination, which will have a multiplier effect in raising awareness throughout the community. 343 Conferences Another important method for transmitting information is through conferences, where people are able to see and connect with the person who is disseminating information to them. 344 Although awareness‐raising messages may be communicated over the radio, some people may not trust these messages because they are not familiar with their source. Therefore, providing an opportunity for people to attend a conference and see an authoritative figure speak to them about certain behavior will have an effective impact. One woman commented that at conferences, the use of flipcharts and visual images such as slides are effective, particularly for illiterate members of the community. 345 Teachers speaking in classrooms Some teachers expressed their view that the classroom was an appropriate forum for sensitization about the role of girls in society, and suggested that ten to fifteen minutes during a lesson could be spent on sensitizing their students. 346 One teacher stated that by presenting ideas in the classroom, little by little, the students will begin to internalize them. Furthermore, by using the classroom as a medium of transmission, both boys and girls will be sensitized to this information. Therefore, a larger portion of society will be able to benefit from the awareness‐raising campaign. Some of the teachers interviewed used the classroom to signal appropriate social behavior to their students. One teacher commented that he took some of his classroom time to discuss the importance of refraining from early marriage with his students. One of his students had recently been married at an early age, and shortly thereafter dropped out of school. He used this event to discuss with the remaining students the dangers of early marriage and encouraged them to speak to their parents about this issue. 347 Interestingly, in another interview, girls from this school mentioned that their French professor had told them that a girl should not marry before she is 18 years old. 348 This anecdote illustrates that the classroom could be an appropriate forum for transmitting messages about social behavior that hopefully, will have the desired effect of shifting social norms. Similarly, another teacher stated that she speaks with her students about female genital mutilation and informs them that this practice is not required by Islam. 349 The teachers remarked that although in class they do not have a significant amount of disposable time, making a small digression is possible. 82 Legal and Regulatory Environment School clubs School clubs could be another useful forum for sensitizing students. One respondent discussed a successful awareness‐raising campaign that he conducted with school clubs around the topic of family planning and reproductive health. He explained that the student clubs were important in raising awareness about condom usage and the health and economic implications of early pregnancy and large family size. Ultimately, he determined that the awareness‐raising campaign was successful, because from the beginning of the campaign to its conclusion, the number of children that students reportedly desired dropped from five or six to three. 350 The decrease in the desired family size of these students signaled their internalization of the risks and dangers that a large family can pose. Girls’ Mentoring Centers Furthermore, like the school club, the Girls’ Mentoring Centers, which have been launched by the Peace Corps, could use the informal setting that they have created to play a similar sensitization function. An additional benefit of each of these settings is that students who are exposed to sensitization campaigns, or receive training in a certain area may share this information with their peers and thereby, raise further awareness on the subject. 351 According to Clayton, this “gossip” function is a useful tool in disseminating information to change social norms. 352 Frequency
Sustained frequency of an awareness‐raising campaign is important to ensure that its message has been internalized by the population, and that they are continually reminded of its relevance. However, ensuring that awareness‐raising campaigns occur on a recurrent basis is a challenge in the Mauritanian context, largely due to the budgetary constraints that actors who initiate these campaigns face. As previously mentioned, the SECF, a primary actor in this area, lacks an adequate budget to sustain their awareness‐
raising efforts. Similarly, many NGOs do not have a constant source of funding, and therefore, must constantly search for donors to support their activities. The result of this situation is that they often cannot indefinitely continue their awareness‐raising activities. Although the literature in this area does not recommend an ideal period of time during which to conduct these campaigns, many respondents indicated that “refresher courses” about the material they learned were necessary. 353 Therefore, employing methods of message transmission that require only a one time commitment of resources could be useful. For example, broadcasting messages on television, or using cassette tapes to disseminate messages may be particularly effective means to sustain the frequency of these campaigns. Monitoring and evaluation
Lastly, as with any project, monitoring and evaluation is necessary in order to determine the impact of an awareness‐raising campaign. However, this methodology is fairly new to the Mauritanian context. 354 SECF has attempted to monitor and evaluate the impact of the awareness‐raising campaigns they have conduct in various communities through follow‐
up fields missions during which they interview members of the community about their understanding of the information disseminated. However, as previously mentioned, a persistent obstacle to the effectiveness of many monitoring and evaluation projects is the lack of funding to undertake these follow‐up projects. Recognizing this weakness, one of 83 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment the major axes of the National Strategy for the Promotion of Women is to improve monitoring and evaluation techniques as they relate to the promotion of women’s issues. Therefore, further awareness‐raising campaigns can benefit from this enhanced capacity. Conclusion
Ultimately, our research revealed that most Mauritanians’ behavior does not conform to laws mandated by the state, but rather, they adhere to appropriate behavior as indicated by religious leaders and tribal networks. Therefore, although the Code du Statut Personnel and the compulsory education law are extremely relevant in the Mauritanian context to promoting girls’ education, the principles codified in this legislation should be promoted through extra‐legal means, such as awareness‐raising campaigns. Currently, awareness‐
raising campaigns are used by many agencies in Mauritania to promote culturally appropriate change in social norms, and have experienced success in their undertakings. Thus, an awareness‐raising campaign is an appropriate medium for encouraging girls to delay marriage, secure a right to pursue education in their marriage contracts, and complete primary school with the hopes of transitioning to secondary. Furthermore, an appropriately designed awareness‐raising campaign has the potential to encourage social behavior that will promote girls’ education in Mauritanian society. Article 1.3. Preamble to Constitution. 250 Thomas H. Reynolds and Arturo A. Flores, Foreign Law: Current Sources of Codes and Basic Legislation in Jurisdictions of the World (Littleton, CO: F.B. Rothman, 1989), <http://www.foreignlawguide.com/>. 251 Reynolds & Flores. 252 International Convention on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. 253 Reynolds & Flores. 254 Simard 78. 255 loi 052 du 19 juillet 2001. 256 Article 6. 257 NGO Representative, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 14 Mar. 2006. 258 SECF Official 3, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 259 SECF Official 3, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 260 National Strategy for the Promotion of Women, SECF, 2005‐2008. 261 UNICEF, “Enfants et Femmes de Mauritanie: Analyse de la Situation,” (2005) 208. 262 CSP, Article 28. 263 loi no. 2001/054. 264 SECF Official 3, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 265 SECF Official 1 (IEC), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 266 SECF Official 1 (IEC), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 267 Amanda Moody interview with her host family Juman and Fatimetou, Tidjikja, Personal Interview, 19 Mar. 2006. 268 GMC Mentor, Atar, Personal Interview, 17 Mar. 2006. 269 Teachers, Lexeiba, Focus Group, 20 Mar. 2006. 270 Teachers, Lexeiba, Focus Group, 20 Mar. 2006. 271 Black African Affectated Teachers and NGO Workers Focus Group, Magta Lahjar, Personal Interview, 19 Mar. 2006. 272 Mothers Focus Group, Tawaz, Personal Interview, 16 Mar. 2006. 273 SECF Regional Representative, Atar, Personal Interview, 17 Mar. 2006. 274 Legal Aid to SECF, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 275 Mauritanian Woman, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 14 Mar. 2006. 276 UNFPA Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 277 Consular Officer for US Embassy, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 14 Mar. 2006. 248
249
84 Legal and Regulatory Environment SECF Official 3, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. UNFPA Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. 280 Teacher, Lexeiba, Focus Group, 20 Mar. 2006. 281 SECF Regional Representative, Aleg, Personal Interview, 19 Mar. 2006. 282 Role of Islam in Girls’ Education in Mauritania Roundtable, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 13 Mar. 2006. 283 Article 17, Constitution of Mauritania, 1991. 284 SECF Region Representative, Atar, Personal Interview, 17 Mar. 2006. 285 Imam, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 13 Mar. 2006. 286 Cass Sunstein, “Social Norms and Social Roles,” Columbia Law Review (May 1996) 914. 287 Clayton P. Gillette, “Lock‐In Effects in Law and Norms,” Boston University Law Review (Jun. 1998) 834. 288 Gillette 839. 289 Gillette 837. 290 Gillette 837. 291 Sunstein 949. 292 Sunstien 949. 293 Sunstein 949. 294 Gillete 840. 295 Islamic Republic of Mauritania, Secretary of State for the Condition of Women, “Evaluation of the institution of the Recommendation of the Plan of Action of Beijing by the government of Mauritania, Beijing + 10,” 10. 296 SECF Official 1 (IEC), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 297 SECF Official 1 (IEC), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 298 SECF Official 1 (IEC), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 299 SECF Official 1 (IEC), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 300 SECF Regional Representative, Aleg, Personal Interview, 19 Mar. 2006. 301 SECF Official 1 (IEC), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 302 SECF Regional Representative, Aleg, Personal Interview, 19 Mar. 2006. 303 SECF Regional Representative, Aleg, Personal Interview, 19 Mar. 2006. 304 SECF Representative, SECF Roundtable, Nouakchott, Personal Interview 13 Mar. 2006. 305 SECF Regional Representative, Atar, Personal Interview, 17 Mar. 2006. 306 SECF Official 1 (IEC), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 307 SECF Representative, SECF Roundtable, Mar. 13, 2006 308 SECF Official 1 (IEC), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 309 SECF Official 1 (IEC), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 310 SECF Regional Representative, Aleg, Personal Interview, 19 Mar. 2006. 311 SECF Regional Representative, Aleg, Personal Interview, 19 Mar. 2006. 312 SECF Official 1 (IEC), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 313 SECF Regional Representative, Atar, Personal Interview, 17 Mar. 2006. 314 SECF Regional Representative, Atar, Personal Interview, 17 Mar. 2006. 315 Mothers Focus Group, Tawaz, Personal Interview, 16 Mar. 2006. 316 SECF Official 1 (IEC), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 317 SECF Regional Representative, Aleg, Personal Interview, 19 Mar. 2006; MEFS Official (PF ES), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. 318 MEFS Official (PF ES), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. 319 SECF Roundtable, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 13 Mar. 2006. 320 SECF Regional Representative, Aleg, Personal Interview, 19 Mar. 2006. 321 SECF Regional Representative, Atar, Personal Interview, 17 Mar. 2006. 322 Mothers Focus Group, Tawaz, Personal Interview, 16 Mar. 2006. 323 Mothers Focus Group, Tawaz, Personal Interview, 16 Mar. 2006. 324 SECF Regional Representative, Atar, Personal Interview, 17 Mar. 2006. 325 SECF Official 1 (IEC), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 326 SECF Official 1 (IEC), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 327 Sunstein. 328 Ministry Official (IGEN), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 14 Mar. 2006; SECF Regional Representative, Aleg, Personal Interview, 19 Mar. 2006. 329 Kowaral representative, Kaedi, Personal Interview, 19 Mar. 2006. 330 SECF Regional Representative, Atar, Personal Interview, 17 Mar. 2006. 278
279
85 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment Black African Teachers and NGO Workers, Magta Lahjar, Focus Group, 19 Mar. 2006. Gilette. 333 Teachers, Lexeiba, Focus Group, 20 Mar. 2006. 334 Teachers, Lexeiba, Focus Group, 20 Mar. 2006. 335 UNDP Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 336 UNDP Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 337 Ministry Officials (IGEN), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. 338 Teachers, Lexeiba, Focus Group, 20 Mar. 2006; Black African Teachers and NGO Workers, Magta Lahjar, Focus Group, 19 Mar. 2006. 339 Ministry of Education charge with the Project for the Fight Against HIV/AIDS, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 340 MEFS Official (LCVS), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 341 MEFS Official (LCVS), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 342 Role of Islam in Girls’ Education Roundtable, Nouakchott, Focus Group, 13 Mar. 2006. 343 SECF Official 1 (IEC), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 344 Ministry Official (DEE), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006; Teachers, Lexeiba, Focus Group, 20 Mar. 2006. 345 Kowaral representative, Kaedi, Personal Interview, 19 Mar. 2006. 346 Teachers, Lexeiba, Focus Group, 20 Mar. 2006. 347 Teacher, Lexeiba, Focus Group, 20 Mar. 2006. 348 Potential GMC Girls, Lexeiba, Focus Group, Mar. 20, 2006. 349 Teacher, Lexeiba, Focus Group, 20 Mar. 2006. 350 Ministry Official (IGEN), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 14 Mar. 2006. 351 MEFS Official (LCVS), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 352 Gillette. 353 Mothers, Tawaz, Focus Group, 16 Mar. 2006. 354 SECF, National Strategy for the Promotion of Women 2005–2008. 331
332
86 Institutional Assessment Introduction
As previously mentioned, Mauritania has witnessed remarkable progress in the area of education in the past decade, particularly in enrollment status and gender parity at the primary level. Behind these encouraging facts, however, is the concern that the current capacity of the Government of Mauritania and its coordination with development partners is not sufficient to sustain the rapid expansion of the sector and complete the ambitious policy plan for education reform (PNDSE). Indeed, several Ministry officials stated that as a result of the limited implementation capacity, the annual action plan of the Ministry is often postponed or scaled down. 355 Capacity development is a challenge for the education sector as a whole, and while good policy plans exist, they are only valuable if sufficiently implemented. This section first identifies the major actors in girls’ secondary education in Mauritania. Subsequently, it examines the institutional capacity of each actor with regard to the current status of operations, the major constraints and the impact of these constraints on girls’ education. The analysis focuses on the major actors in the government of Mauritania, namely the MEFS * and SECF, and development agencies such as Peace Corps, UNICEF, UNDP and the World Bank (the Bank). Background
Literature on institutions
According to the World Bank, institutions are “formal and informal rules and their enforcement mechanisms that shape the behavior of individuals and organizations in society.” 356 This definition demonstrates that unlike organizations, which are the substance of groups of people, institutions are the mechanisms by which organizations work, such as rules, regulations and incentives. The Bank considers institutions one of the most important factors of development, because institutions “determine the efficiency and exercise of both markets and organizations, public or private.” 357 A study by the Bank analyzed Latin America and Caribbean islands and identified several typical institutional challenges, such as the asymmetric share of information between the government and households, insufficient participation of direct stakeholders like parents in the policy‐making process and the slow evolution of the school system. Based on this analysis, the Bank elaborated several policy reforms, such as broader social participation to reflect the voices of direct stakeholders in the policies, decentralization of * The Ministry of Fundamental and Secondary Education was originally the Ministry of National Education. The organizational structure changed in 2005, thus we will use its old name (MEN) when we refer the issues before its structural change, whereas when we refer to current or future issues, we will use MEFS. 87 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment school management to the school level to enhance its efficiency and relevance, and improvement of the accountability and social responsibility of the system. 358 In the case of Mauritania, reforms similar to the Bank’s recommendations, such as decentralization, are already in process. While some recommendations from the Bank’s study may not be relevant due to socio‐cultural differences, this analytical background will be applied where appropriate. Figure 12: Ministère de lʹEnseignement Fondamental et Secondaire [Government website] Government agencies
Ministère de l'Enseignement Fondamental et Secondaire
The Ministry of Fundamental and Secondary Education (MEFS) is responsible for the supply of education services at the primary and secondary school levels. Its responsibilities include the provision of school infrastructure; public servants and teachers’ employment, training and management; financial management; development of school curriculum and textbooks with consideration of the socio‐cultural context of the country; and development of the national educational policy plan. 359 In terms of resources, the MEFS is allocated approximately 20% of the national budget, which was equivalent to 9.372 million UM in 1998. 360 The Ministry has a total of 23,000 public servants, among which approximately 700 are high‐level Ministry officials. It is important to note that approximately 75% of all national public servants work for the MEFS. 361 The structure of the Ministry is based on two line departments and six functional departments therein, as well as some independent institutions that are closely linked to the Ministry. 88 Institutional Assessment Table 2: Main departments of the MEFS Two Sub-sectoral Departments
Functions
La Direction Générale de lʹEnseignement Fondamental (DEF) Operation and project implementation at the primary level La Direction Générale de lʹEnseignement Secondaire (DES) Operation and project implementation at the secondary level Six Functional Departments
Functions
La Direction de la Réforme et de la Prospective (DRP) Research and control of reform‐related activities La Direction des Examens et de lʹEvaluation (DEE) Develop and implement evaluations, as well as administer national exams. La Direction des Ressources Humaines (DRH) Human resources management La Direction Financière et des Infrastructures scolaires (DFI) Financial management of the sector, preparation of budgets and follow up on expenditures. La Direction de la Promotion de lʹEnseignement Privé (DPE) Develop education services by private actors La Direction des Cantines Scolaires et de lʹEducation Sanitaire et Nutritionnelle (DCSESN) Assist projects for school meals, school sanitation and nutrition Ministre de l'Enseignement Supérieur et de la Recherche Scientifique
The Ministère de l’Enseignement Supérieur et de la Recherche Scientifique (MESRS) is charged with the supply of education services at the tertiary level, as well as technical and vocational education. The MEFS and MESRS were originally two departments under the Ministry of National Education (MEN), but were separated in the political reform which followed the establishment of the new government in August 2005. 362 Figure 13: Le Secrétariat d’Etat à la Condition Féminine [Government Website] Le Secrétariat d’Etat à la Condition Féminine
Le Secrétariat d’Etat à la Condition Féminine was established in 1992 as part of an initiative by the Government of Mauritania to fully integrate a gender dimension into its national development policy. 363 The SECF’s mission is to “ensure the promotion of the women of Mauritania and their full economic and social participation,” in compliance with Islamic values, social realities and the demands of modern life. 364 In particular, SECF focuses on demand‐side interventions in the education sector, such as increasing communities’ awareness on women’s issues. The SECF is supposed to collaborate closely with the MEFS in developing and implementing education programs. Major development agencies
In the area of girls’ education, numerous development organizations serve as development partners of the government agencies. The major donors in this context include Peace Corps, UNICEF, the World Bank, the Islamic Development Bank, the African Development Bank, UNDP, UNESCO, UNFPA and the World Food Programme (WFP). Some bilateral donors, such as France and Japan, also operate several 89 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment development projects on the ground. Table 3 below describes the different areas of intervention for these actors. Table 3: The major donors’ mandate and area of activities related to girls’ education Peace Corps
UNDP
UNFPA
‐Building local capacity Mandate related to girls’ education ‐ Increasing demand for education ‐ Improvement of living standards ‐ Network ‐Supporting girlsʹ building for development formal and informal education ‐ Girlsʹ Mentoring Centers Major areas of activities ‐ Annual girlsʹ Conference UNICEF
‐ Promoting the right ‐ Protection of to enjoy a life of health childrenʹs rights and equal opportunity
‐ Support children’s ‐ Promoting woman’s basic needs and dignity and respect their opportunities to reach their full ‐ HIV/AIDS potential. prevention ‐ HIV/AIDS education ‐ Media campaign on the Code du Statut Personnel ‐ Donor coordination ‐Mentoring Workshop ‐ Curriculum development The World
Bank
‐ Poverty reduction ‐ Improvement of living standards ‐ Teacher training ‐ Community based approach for school environment and girls’ enrollment ‐ Enhancing pedagogic management capacity ‐ Increasing access Civil society
As previously mentioned, the World Bank noted the lack of participation of civil society as one of the main issues for the education sector. 365 According to the Bank, although students and their parents are the principle agents in the sector, they are often not provided with adequate opportunities to have their voice heard with respect to school operations and policy decisions. Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) can play an important role by delivering the voice of the numerous stakeholders in the education sector to the policy‐makers. CSOs in the education sector do not currently have a strong presence in Mauritania. Although many local NGOs work in the area of girls’ education, most of them function on a small scale. However, community organizations, such as Association des Parents d’Elèves (Parent Associations or APEs) and Comités des Gestion de l’Education (Education Management Committees or CGEs) are increasingly developing and organizing themselves as well, which should deepen the community participation in the supply of education services. The weak presence of CSOs in Mauritania is partially explained by their limited capacity and lack of coordination channels with the government and development agencies. These challenges impede CSOs from fully participating in the government’s policy planning and implementation processes. Although the government has attempted to involve more CSOs, such as APEs and religious leaders, in these processes, the lack of coordination among CSOs and their weak institutional structure impedes centrally‐planned development projects from adequately responding to the community’s actual needs. For example, grassroots organizations are often poorly funded and sometimes lack sufficient human resources and professional skills. In fact, in Mauritania, many of the Non‐
Governmental Organizations (NGOs) are operated by only a few people. Despite these 90 Institutional Assessment challenges, however, CSOs have great potential to contribute to the development of the education sector by complementing government policy with communities’ perspectives. Analysis
Management
Box 6: PNDSE management reform plans
PNDSE is the most fundamental development strategy of the education sector. (For more details, see the
Educational Policy section.)
Goals:
To establish an output-based management system with clear timelines, advanced management techniques and
an effective evaluation system.
Reform areas:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Information system development
Introduction of quantified operational plans
Development of operational manuals
Systematic donor coordination
Systematic and standardized administrative operations
Private sector development
Systematized and standardized human resources management
Decentralization of financial management 366
Information system
Background
The PNDSE mentions that its goal in the area of administrative management is to enhance the capacity of policy analysis and thereby to develop result‐based management practices. 367 A functioning information system is crucial to achieving this goal, because it is necessary to provide current and accurate information to Ministry officials, which they can consult as a basis for policy design and interventions. As such, the PNDSE recognized in 1999 that the development of an information system should be prioritized. 368 The MEFS has already developed several information systems that compile education‐
related statistics. The statistics are gathered at the regional level and sent to the capital, where they are entered into the central database that is shared with Ministry officials. Additional sharing of information typically occurs through the Ministry’s internal information system and through the annual summary report of statistics that is distributed to the entire Ministry by the DRP. Notably, since 1998, the Ministry has disaggregated all the educational data by gender for purposes of gender information gathering and analysis. 369 Issues
One of the greatest challenges remaining for the Ministry is to unify its existing information systems. Currently, each department operates its own information system, and, therefore, the data is maintained separately in each department. This separation of data has serious implications for education policy development and implementation, because issues that relate to multiple levels or multiple departments, such as the issue of 91 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment transition or reconciling the quality and quantity of education, need to be analyzed using statistics from several of these departments. For example, the DES only collects data related to the secondary level and thus does not have daily access to data from the primary or tertiary level. Furthermore, all the evaluation and exam‐related statistics, such as students’ test scores, are managed by the Direction des Examens et de lʹEvaluation (DEE), which is not located in the same building as the other MEFS departments. * Thus, the current system is most likely to result in inefficient data‐gathering or policy analysis based on incomplete or outdated statistics. The Ministry is currently planning to develop an overarching system and is working on the design of the new system. Even if all the statistics were available with a unified system, data accuracy is another issue of concern. Since data collection relies on the self‐reporting of each school and local officials, one can assume that self‐reporting bias exists. In fact, one Ministry official stated that often schools do not take seriously the statistics that they report, making monitoring and evaluation of their progress very difficult. 370 Inaccurate data ultimately leads to inappropriate policy analysis and interventions; thus, another issue that should be addressed is enhancing the monitoring and inspection system. In addition, the MEFS must develop a process to rigorously analyze the compiled statistics and identify issues and policy priorities. Currently, the Ministry does not have an adequate institutional mechanism to support this process. In fact, as will be described in the human resources management section below, there is no training program for Ministry officials specifically addressing the areas of statistics or policy analysis. In order to take advantage of the extant information system and achieve the goal of results‐
oriented management, the Ministry must train its employees in how to analyze the data that they compile for use in the policy planning process. Human resources management
Background
Strong human resources management is necessary in order to retain and develop qualified personnel and maintain their motivation, which in turn affects how policies are developed and implemented. 371 As described above, the MEFS has approximately 23,000 public servants, including 700 high‐level Ministry officials. 372 The majority of the high‐
level officials started their careers as teachers in the public school system and were later promoted within the Ministry. Although the Ministry has been successful to date in acquiring well‐qualified officials, its rapid expansion and the implementation of its decentralization policy will require a larger number of qualified personnel in the future in order to support the sector, both at the central and regional levels. Issues
One potential method for the Ministry to further develop in this area is to open the recruitment in its administrative functions to candidates outside of the education sector. While the current system of recruitment among teachers has its benefits, since the candidates are all familiar with the Ministry’s system, this system also limits the number of potential administrative candidates and therefore may hinder the rapid expansion of * DEE issues an annual summary of evaluation data, thus some aggregated information is available with their leaflet. 92 Institutional Assessment the sector. Additionally, outside professionals may bring diversity and other professional skills to the Ministry, which would stimulate the current institutional mechanisms. Training is another important component of human resources management. Currently, there is no systematized training program for individuals who are promoted to administrative functions at the Ministry, because the Ministry assumes that they have an adequate understanding of its administrative system. 373 However, the skills and knowledge required as a policy‐maker are much broader than those for a school administrator or inspector, and therefore a series of training programs should be developed to assist in the quick adaptation to new responsibilities. Furthermore, the recent expansion of the sector and policy reforms is forcing officials to quickly adapt to the changing status of their job environment. Therefore, in order to maintain their operational level, MEFS officials should receive periodic training in job skills such as information technology (IT). Training in management and IT skills is of particular importance, because several Ministry officials mentioned the need of technical support in these areas. 374 Other skills such as policy planning, leadership, communication skills to negotiate effectively with donors and other ministries, financial management skills for effective budget elaboration and control, and human resources management were also mentioned as potential important training areas. 375 In order to realize these training programs, donor agencies can support the MEFS with technical and financial assistance. Currently, assistance for capacity development by donors is provided in the form of an occasional advisory service in program development and project operations. However, greater support with strategic and long‐term assistance is desirable in order to build ministerial capacity. 376 Yet, the provision of training cannot improve the efficiency of Ministry operations unless the content of the training is fully disseminated among and internalized by Ministry officials and applied to their daily functions. 377 Thus, a strategic selection of officials to participate in the training program and follow‐up mechanisms are necessary both for donors and for the Ministry to ensure the training’s effectiveness. At the regional level, trainings for the DRENs have been developed concurrently with the promotion of the decentralization policy. However, all of the DRENs have not participated in the same trainings, due to their distinct professional backgrounds and the timing of their posting in their current positions. According to one official at the DREN office, DRENs who were formerly lycée directors and those who were formerly inspectors received different types of trainings. Supplementary trainings to provide DRENs with a uniform skill set are not available. 378 Therefore, an administrative system to systematically monitor the training received by the various personnel and ensure consistency among them is important to guarantee the effectiveness of the trainings. Financial constraints
Ministère de l'Enseignement Fondamental et Secondaire
The national budget for the education sector has been forecasted to increase by 18.5% annually. 379 Of the sectoral budget, 51% was allocated to primary education and 27.5% to secondary education in 2004. 380 The Government of Mauritania finances 58% of the sector budget, followed by the World Bank, the Islamic Development Bank, the African Development Bank, Coopération Francaise and UNICEF. 381 The budget allocation to 93 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment investment has been constantly increasing from 17% in 2000 to 46% in 2004, which supports the rapid expansion of the sector and the action plans of the PNDSE. 382 An issue of concern is that a significant gap exists between the identified education budget and actual expenditure. For example, in 2003, MEFS submitted a budget of USD 45.675 million in order to undertake 152 projects. However, this Ministry only spent USD 26.25 million in implementing 86 projects, which represented 57.5% of its identified budget. 383 The reason for this disconnect between the forecasted and actual budget is unclear, but may have been the result of a lack of financial resources or other administrative constraints. However, these financial problems cause challenges for the education sector as a whole. Secrétariat d’Etat à la Condition Féminine
Many respondents at the SECF stated that the Secrétariat suffers from a lack of financial resources. For example, the majority of its funds for investment in infrastructure, such as school buildings, as well as project operations are from non‐state resources, which renders their financial stability very fragile. 384 Also, the current budget size is not sufficient to support their activities at the regional level. 385 Furthermore, the SECF regional offices suffer from additional institutional constraints, in their staffing and access to resources. SECF regional offices typically have only one or two staff members, who often do not have a diplôme or formal education, and therefore encounter difficulties in designing and implementing their projects. 386 Some representatives do not have office space and do not own vehicles, which limits their capacity to properly administer projects in their regional domain. 387 These constraints limit the presence of SECF on the ground, which, in turn, prevents the regional representatives from fully integrating into the communities and sufficiently implementing, monitoring and expanding project activities, despite their proven effectiveness. Thus, increasing the budget size of the SECF is one of the most important means for enhancing the project operations on the ground. * Coordination
Inter-departmental coordination of the MEFS
Background
Coordination among the different departments of the MEFS is important to avoid overlaps or omission of tasks. Although a documented definition and mandate exists for each department, which shows the principal division of responsibilities among them, this document is too general and abstract to directly apply to daily operations. Thus, the clarification of tasks among the officials in each department is essential. There are two types of coordination among the MEFS departments, which are the Comité du pilotage and operational meetings with focal points from each department. The Comité du pilotage is the overarching body of the Ministry that is responsible for making preliminary decisions before submitting them to the Minister, as well as for problem‐
According to our respondent the SECF has applied for additional budget to enhance its regional capacity for several years, yet not achieved it. SECF Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. *
94 Institutional Assessment solving among departments. The issues that the committee handles are typically high‐
level issues, whereas the other type of coordination, such as inter‐departmental meetings among focal points, focuses on daily operations. Focal persons for each department are usually selected based on their experiences and understanding of the administrative system, and the meetings are convened as needed. This type of coordination is typical when more than one department jointly operates a project. 388 Box 7: Focal point—roles and realities
One official at the MEFS stated that he often experiences difficulties in coordinating with other departments
in this Ministry. For example, although each MEFS department has a focal point who communicates with the
appointed focal point for other departments, often information about the activities of other MEFS
departments is not transmitted by the designated focal point to officials from his or her department. This
official therefore suggested that the Ministry develop a more structured system for information sharing and
coordination among its departments. 389
Furthermore, an official from the SECF highlighted additional difficulties in coordinating with other agencies.
When an SECF official sends e-mails to donors and government officials about their joint projects, asking for
input, he or she rarely receives a response from government officials. 390 These coordination problems reveal
information about the institutional culture of the Government of Mauritania and their difficulties in
coordinating among its ministries. Preferring to focus on one’s own responsibilities at the expense of
collaborative activities impedes coordination, and unless this modus operandi changes, the systems and
regulations for coordination will not be ineffective.
Issues
Many Ministry officials noted that coordination among different departments is challenging. One major challenge is that coordination does not occur on a consistent basis at the operational level, but rather occurs in response to a perceived discrete need to do so. This need‐based approach is sufficient when the need is clearly identified, which is the case when several departments undertake joint projects. However, unless a clearly identified need for coordination exists and an official proactively facilitates coordination, there is no opportunity to exchange information and opinions. Since coordinating multiple persons to assemble and discuss a specified topic is fundamentally time‐
consuming, need‐based coordination, compared with structural and periodical coordination, requires more incentive to do so, which may discourage the Ministry officials from coordinating closely. One example of coordination issues identified during our interviews is the lack of official coordination between the Institut Pédagogique National (IPN), which produces new teaching materials, and the Ecole Normale Supérieure (ENS), which conducts teacher training. 391 This lack of coordination poses an obstacle to consistently implementing the targeted curriculum reform for the education system. This, in turn, may reduce the effectiveness of efforts to increase the relevance and quality of secondary school. Central–Regional coordination and decentralization policy
Background
There are 14 regions in Mauritania, each of which has a Direction Regionale de l’Education Nationale (DREN), who is appointed by the central government as the regional representative of the MEFS. The DRENs supervise primary and secondary schools in their assigned regions; monitor school operations; allocate and monitor the budget for each school; post teachers within the region; develop and execute projects in the regions; and address various school issues. 392 The DREN is also a pedagogic advisor to the Wali, which 95 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment is the regional executive body. Thus, in principle, the Wali should consult with the DREN regarding any educational issues. 393 However, the DRENs do not have complete autonomy. The central government allocates resources to the DRENs, supervises them, checks and authorizes their annual action plans and budgets, allocates teachers for regional postings, undertakes construction projects and develops and distributes curricula and teaching materials. In the current policy reform, decentralization is one of the main areas of focus for the MEFS. 394 The rationale of this policy is that by decentralizing MEFS responsibilities in policy planning and implementation to regional bodies, the needs of the local communities will ultimately be more directly reflected in the policy plans for the education sector, and the policies will be implemented in a way that is better adapted to the local context. Also, by transferring its executive power to a locally‐elected body, transparency and accountability of the policy‐makers are expected to improve. Thus, the ultimate objectives of the decentralization policy are increased effectiveness and good governance. However, the areas of planning and implementation that have currently been realized are the transfer of tasks from the central level to its regional representatives, which is called “deconcentration” by the Ministry. In essence, the Ministry treats the deconcentration policy as a step towards decentralization, in which the decision‐making power is fully transferred to locally‐elected bodies, not to the centrally‐appointed officials. Issues
Capacity constraints at the regional level are one of the most serious challenges to the implementation of the deconcentration policy. Aside from the fact that the DRENs have to adopt their new responsibilities quickly and flexibly, training for DREN officials regarding their new responsibilities is not adequately provided, as previously discussed. Another challenge of the deconcentration policy is the maintenance of sufficient communication and monitoring between the central and regional offices. Although monitoring systems, such as mid‐year missions, end‐of‐year annual reports and action plans, and financial inspections, exist, the central government has noted that a reliance on this periodic document‐based monitoring is not sufficient for them to promptly identify problems at the regional level and thereby provide adequate support. 395 For example, one Ministry official stated that although these reports identify problems, such as project implementation delays, the root causes of the delays are often too complicated to discern from the documents. 396 Thus, without further analysis, the central office could misjudge the situation and fail to address fundamental issues, which are closely associated with the particular constraints to policy actions. Currently, in order to enhance the communication between the central‐level and the DRENs, the DRENs are encouraged to directly report to the Secretary General or to the MEFS Minister every few days or at least once a month. 397 Another challenge is that the central government manages several areas that the regional offices should more appropriately control because they have access to more information on particular issues. For example, a carte scolaire, which is a school‐mapping system, is maintained in the DREN office, but the MEFS in Nouakchott determines school constructions sites. 398 Although for the carte scolaire, the DRENʹs office collaborates with 96 Institutional Assessment the central‐level inspectors to identify the needs of school construction, in some cases the decisions made at the central level are not the most appropriate according to local administrators. 399 Since the local situation tends to change quickly, due to the nomadic life style and other factors, either closer collaboration between the central and regional offices or a complete transfer of the responsibility to the regional level is recommended. Box 8: Policy-making process—an example of decentralization and
coordination
As part of the reform outcomes, the annual action plan of the MEFS is currently developed through a
bottom-up approach. It is first developed at the regional level and subsequently examined and compiled by
the central government. This process is quite complex, because each DREN initially develops the regions’
action plan based on the evaluation of the previous year. The plan is then examined by the IGEN office,
which is in charge of inspection. Finally, the DRP, which is in charge of coordination for the entire Ministry,
compiles and internally finalizes the action plans from the regions and from the central departments. This
action plan is further presented to other related Ministries and donor agencies. At this stage, the SECF also
joins the process to check the plan from a gender perspective. 400
Inter-Ministry coordination
Background
As previously discussed, the MEFS and SECF both have responsibilities in the area of girls’ education. MEFS is in charge of supply‐side interventions concerning teachers, curriculum and schools, whereas SECF focuses on the demand side of education services, which revolve around cultivating a favorable societal perception of education in order to increase education demand. The coordination between the two Ministries is therefore crucial, because they should work towards the same goal of promoting girls’ education in a complementary fashion. For example, although the supply of education services, such as school facilities and teachers may be sufficient, if the demand for education is weak, the final goal of universal education cannot be achieved. Thus, these issues must be analyzed from both the supply and demand‐side perspectives. Currently, the two institutions primarily coordinate in three areas. At the policy planning level, coordination occurs through a joint committee, which is called the committee of coordination. This committee consists of officials from the Ministry of Health and Social Affairs, the Ministry of Public Function, the Ministry of Finance, the Ministry of Economic Affairs and Development, the Ministry of Literacy, Islamic Affairs and Original Education, SECF and civil society members. The committee meets annually to examine the annual evaluation and action plan. 401 At the project level, the MEFS and SECF coordinate on joint projects through the focal persons who arrange meetings based on their needs in the same fashion as the inter‐
department coordination within the MESF. Furthermore, an initiative to form a “gender group” started in 2005. This group is composed of technical level officials who exchange views and opinions periodically. In this gender group, focal points of related ministries meet every three months. 402 Issues
The current division of responsibility between the MEFS and SECF is clear, but additional flexible coordination would permit more functional interventions to complement each other’s strengths and weaknesses. For example, as described in the financial constraint 97 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment section, SECF has a limited presence at the regional level, which could be effectively complemented by the DREN offices of the MEFS. Also, effective awareness‐raising campaigns launched by SECF could be extended to teachers and school administrators, who are the responsibility of the MEFS. Thus, close coordination and flexible exchanges of expertise, rather than independent and separate planning and project operations, will enable these ministries to more effectively address issues related to girls’ education. Similar to inter‐departmental coordination, another challenge of inter‐ministry coordination is the lack of structural coordination at the operational level. Current coordination relies on need‐based meetings by focal persons, which, as previously discussed, does not ensure sufficient and prompt information sharing and the necessary exchange of opinions. One example raised by a respondent was that in one instance, both the MEFS and SECF conducted a mission visit to a region at the same time, a problem that could have easily been avoided through closer coordination. 403 The human factor is also important in coordination. An intense job environment discourages officials to create time for coordination, which is usually more time‐
consuming than independent work. The frequent transfer of government officials, which often occurs at the MEFS due to its reform process, also makes coordination difficult. Several respondents noted that this change in personnel is not accompanied by sufficient transition processes, which suggests that many inter‐governmental issues discussed with the previous employee in a given position are forgotten. 404 Finally, coordination at the regional level is particularly challenging. The level of coordination varies from region to region, largely depending on the capacity of the SECF offices and the needs of the SECF and DRENs. For example, in a region with only one representative in the SECF regional office, collaboration between the DREN office and the SECF representative rarely occurs. 405 In other regions, coordination may occur only for particular interventions such as an annual girls’ celebration. 406 In yet other regions, the DREN office and SECF regional office may coordinate to implement joint projects. 407 Thus, capacity limitations pose challenges to local‐level coordination. Inter‐governmental coordination at the regional level is also challenging due to the separate chains of command of each institution. The regional representatives follow the action plan and orders from their headquarters, which leaves little flexibility for them to explore regional coordination with other institutions. As a result, close coordination typically occurs only when there is a joint project between them, which has been designed in Nouakchott. It is expected that closer coordination at the regional level will be developed along with the promotion of decentralization, which would enable more flexible operations. Donor-government and inter-donor coordination
Background
Development experts have paid increasing attention to donor‐government coordination. For example, Harvey Smith argues that coordination is crucial to ensure the national ownership and local appropriateness of projects, thereby enhancing the efficiency and sustainability of the projects. 408 Current major areas of donor integration with the Government of Mauritania include mid‐year and mid‐project reviews, annual reviews, occasional reports and joint projects. 409 Both the MEFS and SECF define each donor’s role 98 Institutional Assessment and responsibility in an official document called the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU). Within the MEFS, the DRP is specifically in charge of developing the various MoUs, as well as coordinating with donor agencies. It is important to note that while donor‐government coordination is important for project effectiveness, inter‐donor coordination is also important to eliminate intervention overlap and to ensure that each donor intervention is coherent and effective. Thus, inter‐donor coordination helps donors to reinforce each other’s work. In Mauritania, inter‐donor coordination on girls’ education has developed significantly in the past few years. The PNDSE successfully functions as the grand design of the sector, which ensures that donors are coherent with the national policy. 410 Additionally, the Eduquer les Adolescents project, which is funded by the United Nations Fund (UNF), developed an operational structure for multiple donor coordination, such as a joint country assessment, joint country assistance plan, joint sector review, and monthly meetings to review and solve issues of project activities. * Currently, five development agencies (UNDP, UNICEF, UNFPA, WHO and ORC) are jointly operating the project with MEFS and SECF (Box 9). Box 9: Project Eduquer les Adolescents
The Eduquer les Adolescents project is the first project around which multiple donors have coordinated
together in the area of girls’ education. Since the UNF requires donor coordination as a condition of funding,
this project served as a catalyst for UN agencies to come together and to jointly develop and operate several
projects, which are designed to be coherent.
Sub Project 411
Lead Agency
A Financial support for educating girls of families in need UNDP B Support the creation and management of boarding houses UNICEF C Support in improving secondary school infrastructure WHO D Support in social mobilization in favor of girls’ education at the regional level UNICEF E Support in reinforcing teacher competencies UNICEF F Support in improving school life UNFPA G Support in improving the success of girls in school UNICEF H Support in improving the relevance of the content of education UNFPA I Mid‐term and Final Evaluation UNICEF J Monitoring and coordination ORC Using the successful foundation for inter‐agency coordination spurred by the UNF, many donors agencies will continue to collaborate through the United Nations Girls’ Education Initiative (UNGEI), which will continue to fund girls’ education. UNGEI is a global initiative, which was launched in 2000, and implemented in Mauritania in 2006. 412 * The UNF has a policy that it only funds projects that involve more than one development agencies. UNDP Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 99 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment Issues
The current developments in inter‐donor coordination are encouraging and should be further promoted to enhance their impact. Several issues can be addressed to enhance this coordination. First, a sustained level of commitment on behalf of each donor in executing the joint action plan is crucial. One respondent noted that some development agencies’ commitment to a plan dwindles when the situation changes, especially if the project will be more challenging than initially anticipated. Some donors even decrease the scale of intervention or withdraw from the project if they perceive it as difficult. This lack of support negatively affects the other projects operated by the government or other agencies. 413 Related to this, another issue is to develop a longer‐term and more comprehensive framework of donor coordination. The current donor coordination that occurred under the auspices of the UNF project expired in early 2006 and was limited to five UN agencies. Due to this expiration, donors are currently attempting to shift the coordinating structure to the United Nations Development Assistance Framework (UNDAF), which is a framework to encourage coordination among development related UN agencies working in developing countries. 414 It is also important to include major donors such as the World Bank and the Islamic Development Bank in the donor coordination framework. To achieve this more comprehensive framework, MoUs could be developed jointly to clarify the different roles and responsibilities of each donor. Although joint project documents exist with detailed joint collaboration for donors, these documents currently lack long‐term and sector‐wide scope. Developing a joint MoU is important to ensure that donors agree on their responsibilities regarding functional and geographic areas of intervention so that development projects are coherent and not overlapping. Additionally, closer coordination among donors should not only occur at the policy‐
making level, but must also transpire at the operational level, in order to develop a comprehensive coordination and intervention strategy. For example, information sharing among donors about the status of their operations will be valuable in designing interventions to reinforce each donor’s project, and will allow donors an opportunity to learn from each other’s experiences on the ground. Financial coordination is another area of potential collaboration, which will ensure a projects’ stability regardless of the lead donor’s funding situation. Currently, the distinct operational systems of each donor impose an administrative burden on the government, because each donor has its own system of documentation, policies and operational processes. As a result, when government officials work with many donors, they have to adopt and conform to multiple rules and requirements simultaneously. The donor community should be aware that these different internal requirements for each agency severely strain the already low administrative capacity of the government. Although operational systems for donors are often determined by guidelines from their own headquarters and therefore change occurs slowly, opportunities for improvement, which will reduce the burden on the administrative capacity of the government, still exist. 100 Institutional Assessment Furthermore, recognizing opportunities and potential areas for Peace Corps to coordinate with other donors is important. Peace Corps has worked relatively independently from the other donors in Mauritania, but its strong regional presence is a unique strength that can be used to complement other donor initiatives at the grassroots level. Peace Corps Volunteers generally live in regional capitals and semi‐rural areas and are thus familiar with the local socio‐cultural Mauritanian context. Many of them are also trained as teachers and/or trainers. Thus, they can complement the weak presence of other agencies in the local areas by supporting them to implement project operations, especially in the areas of follow‐up and training. Conclusion
Institutions define the efficiencies and behaviors of organizations. Despite good policy plans, institutional arrangements may impede implementation by limiting an organization’s capacity. By reforming its institutional arrangements, Mauritania can make further progress in the education sector in general and in promoting girls’ education in particular. Specifically, our research found that closer coordination, both within the government and among the donor agencies; training programs for Ministry personnel; enhancing local administrative capacity; and promotion of further decentralization are areas for potential improvement. Although institutional reform may often take time to achieve and requires strong political will, the Government of Mauritania and donor agencies should continue to rigorously analyze the institutional framework and focus their efforts towards achieving more effective interventions in the education sector in order to ultimately realize their stated objectives. MEFS Official (DES), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. Shahid Javed Burki and Guillermo E. Perry, “Beyond the Washington consensus: institutions matter” (The World Bank: 1998) 11. 357 Burki and Perry 15. 358 Burki and Perry 96. 359 SECF Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006; Journal official de la Republique Islamique de Mauritanie, (Mar. 2003) 1043. 360 UNICEF. “Analyse de la situation de l’enfant et de la femme en Mauritanie 2003.” (2003) 150. 361 MEFS Official (DRH), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 21 Mar. 2006. 362 UNF Progress Report 2005, 1. 363 SECF, “Evaluation of the institution of the Recommendations of the Plan of Action Of Beijing by the Government of Mauritania.” 6. 364 SECF 6. 365 The World Bank (1998) 96. 366 PNDSE 65–67, 165–167. 367 PNDSE 165, 171. 368 PNDSE 172. 369 MEFS Official (DEE), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 370 MEFS Official (IGEN), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 13 Mar. 2006. 371 World Bank, Technical Assistance Handbook, 47. 372 MEFS Official (DRH), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 21 Mar. 2006. 373 MEFS Official (DRH), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 21 Mar. 2006. 374 MEFS Officials (DRH and DES), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 21 and 22 Mar. 2006. 375 MEFS Official (DES), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 21 Mar. 2006. 355
356
101 Part I: Girls’ Education Environment 376 MEFS Official (DRH), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 21 Mar. 2006; World Bank Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 21 Mar. 2006. 377 MEFS Official (DES), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. 378 MEFS Official (DREN), Selibabi, Personal Interview, 6 Mar. 2006. 379 UNICEF, Analyse de la situation de l’enfant et de la femme en Mauritanie 2003. 151. 380 UNICEF, Analyse 152. 381 UNICEF, Analyse 153. The statistics are from 2002/2003. 382 UNICEF, Analyse 153. 383 UNICEF, Analyse 153. 384 SECF Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 385 SECF Official, Aïoun, Personal Interview, 22 Jan. 2006. 386 SECF Official, Aïoun, Personal Interview, 22 Jan. 2006. 387 SECF Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 20 Mar. 2006. 388 MEFS Official (DES), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006; MEFS Official (DRP), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 13 Mar. 2006. 389 MEFS Official (DES), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. 390 SECF Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 391 MEFS Officials (ENS), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. 392 MEFS Official (DREN), Atar, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 16 Mar. 2006. 393 MEFS Official (DREN), Atar, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 16 Mar. 2006. 394 PNDSE 67. 395 MEFS Official (DRP), Nouakchott, Personal Interview 22. Mar. 2006. 396 MEFS Official (DRP), Nouakchott, Personal Interview 22. Mar. 2006. 397 MEFS Official (DREN), Selibabi, Personal Interview, 6 Mar. 2006. 398 MEFS Official (DREN), Personal Interview, 16 Mar. 2006. 399 MEFS Official (DREN) , Personal Interview, 16 Mar. 2006. 400 MEFS Official (DRP) 2, Nouakchott, Personal interview, 14 Mar. 2006. 401 MEFS Official (DRP) 2, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 14 Mar. 2006. 402 SECF Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 403 SECF Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 404 SECF Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006; UNDP Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 405 SECF Official, Aïoun, Personal Interview, 13 Jan. 2006. 406 SECF Official, Atar, Personal Interview, 17 Mar. 2006. 407 SECF Officials, Aleg and Kaedi, Personal Interview, 20 Mar. 2006. 408 Harvey Smith, “Ownership and capacity: Do current donor approaches help or hinder the achievement of international and national targets for education?” International Journal of Educational Development 25.4 (2005) 445‐455; The World Bank, “An operational approach to assessing country ownership of poverty reduction strategies” (The World Bank: 2005). 409 MEFS Official (DES), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. 410 UNICEF Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 21 Mar. 2006; World Bank Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 21 Mar. 2006. 411 UNF Progress report 2005. 412 UNICEF Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. 413 MEFS Official (DES), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. 414 UNDP Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006; UNICEF Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 21 Mar. 2006. 102 Part II: Program Evaluation As outlined in the various sections of the report, Mauritaniansʹ commitment to promoting secondary education for girls appears to be strong. Our findings in Section I of this report demonstrate that girls’ secondary education in the Mauritanian context is important in three significant ways. First and foremost, Mauritanians notes that the personal benefits achieved by girls’ education are transferred to the community as a whole. For example, in Mauritania, women are responsible for the health and physical well‐being of the family, and thus a more educated woman has a multiplier affect on the community, whereby children are healthier, better cared for and more likely to pursue their education. Second, many respondents believe that promoting education is consistent with national values. Third, respondents reiterated numerous times that girls and their families benefit in myriad personal ways from girls’ achievement of a secondary education. For example, a girls’ education improves a woman’s ability to secure employment and may also help her to advocate for herself. As described in the Girls’ Education Environment section of this report, girls’ access to these benefits is challenged and supported by the education, economic, cultural, legal and institutional context of Mauritania. Throughout the past 15 years, the Mauritanian government has attempted to reduce these challenges and increase opportunities for girls’ to achieve an education. More recently, the government has partnered with donor organizations to assure that the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that Mauritanians perceive as desirable goals of education are achieved for adolescent girls. Two such donors are currently engaged in comprehensive interventions that have the flexibility and resources to accommodate girls’ needs in learning beyond the classroom and support the government’s initiatives in raising gender awareness in the classroom, Peace Corps Mauritania and UNICEF. Peace Corps Mauritania intervenes in raising gender awareness through its Gender and Development program (RIMGAD). This program is responsible for implementing three projects, one of which is ongoing and two of which are annual. The Girls Mentoring Centers (GMCs) are venues in which collège and lycée aged girls are provided with a learning environment uniquely suited to their particular educational and professional needs. The two annual projects are the Mentors’ Workshop and the Annual Girls’ Education Conference (AGEC). The Mentors’ Workshop trains mentoring representatives from the Girls’ Mentoring Centers. The AGEC brings collège and lycée aged girls to Nouakchott for a week of educational and professional learning. UNICEF in Mauritania contributes to advancing the Mauritanian government’s education reforms through several projects, two of which have an important impact on girls’ education, Ecoles communautaires propres saines et vertes (ECPSV) Schools and Mini‐buses. The ECPSV school approach is implemented in both modern and Koranic schools and aims to promote a better learning environment through increased community participation and awareness about hygiene and the environment. The Mini‐bus project 103 Part II: Program Evaluation has also adopted a community‐based approach in immediately increasing the access of students, especially girls, to secondary level schooling through the provision of mini‐bus transportation. Both projects are sustained by the communities in which they are located, through revenue‐generating activities selected by the community members. The following section is dedicated to an evaluation of Peace Corps Mauritania and UNICEF interventions listed above. Each donor evaluation will include a background on the project including its history and current project framework, a description of the methodology used in data collection and an analysis of the project. The analysis of the projects is the most comprehensive section of the evaluation and addresses the relevance of the project both to girls’ education in Mauritania and to the donors’ overall goals and objectives for the project, the feasibility that the project will attain its stated objectives, the impact of the project on its beneficiaries and finally, the sustainability of the project and its effects in the long‐run. 104 Peace Corps Peace Corps Background
Peace Corps Mauritania’s GAD program (RIMGAD) is an Agency Initiative that is currently implemented across the five sectors, education, agroforestry, community health/water sanitation and small enterprise development, within Peace Corps Mauritania. Peace Corps Volunteers (Volunteers) in all sectors help to plan and to implement GAD projects, as they have since the program began informally as a Volunteer‐led initiative in 1996. 415 In early 2000, RIMGAD’s activities expanded significantly when it secured funding from President Clinton’s Education for Development and Democracy Initiative (EDDI). 416 This USAID funded initiative sought to improve the level and quality of education in Africa in order to align the African educational systems with the needs of the 21st Century. 417 In Mauritania, EDDI funding allowed the establishment of 12 Girls’ Mentoring Centers (GMCs) throughout the country. * When this funding stopped in 2003, RIMGAD looked to the DES, SECF and UNICEF for financial assistance. RIMGAD reached an agreement with UNICEF, whereby it annually earmarked funds allocated to the DES for RIMGAD projects. 418 The Peace Corps–UNICEF partnership continued until the summer of 2005, when UNICEF’s assistant program officer for education left Mauritania to accept another post. 419 Consequently, RIMGAD again needed to secure funding to support its growing number of projects, and applied for support from the Africa Education Initiative (AEI) through the Ambassador’s Girls’ Scholarship Program (AGSP). AEI is the Bush Administration’s version of Clinton’s EDDI, and it focuses on increasing access to quality basic education in Africa through scholarships, textbooks and teacher training programs. 420 The AGSP is one of AEI’s primary programs, and it seeks to increase the percentage of girls in primary and secondary school through scholarships. In Mauritania, however, public education is free and there is no USAID presence to administer this program. Thus, the United States Ambassador to Mauritania elected to use AGSP funding to support Peace Corps’ RIMGAD projects, and funding began in June 2005. 421 All RIMGAD projects are currently funded through AGSP with the exception of a few individual volunteer projects that use Peace Corps Partnership Project (PCPP) funds from Peace Corps Washington. Box 10: RIMGAD Mission
1. To encourage and assist in the development of projects that are focused in the domain of GAD,
concentrating especially on girls’ education and development.
2. To furnish information and maintain contact with local and international organizations.
3. To create culturally appropriate and relevant activities and programs for girls in Mauritania in collaboration
with Mauritanian partner organizations, volunteers and counterparts. 422
Peace Corps 1 and 2, E‐mail to Racey Bingham, 5 Apr. 2006. The small grants program makes small amounts of money (less than 5000 USD) available for Peace Corps Volunteers to carry out one‐time projects in their sites. *
105 Part II: Program Evaluation RIMGAD project framework
The structure of the RIMGAD program is multi‐tiered. At the global level, programmatic support and guidance comes from the Women in Development/Gender and Development Coordinator at Peace Corps Headquarters in Washington, who assists GAD initiatives world‐wide and monitors them through an annual Agency Initiative Report submitted by each GAD program. 423 Nationally, RIMGAD is primarily coordinated and managed by the Associate Peace Corps Director (APCD) for Education and the GAD Program Volunteer Coordinator (VC). The APCD for Education is the official representative of RIMGAD for Peace Corps Mauritania. He is responsible for reporting to Peace Corps Washington, for GAD volunteer support, for coordination with RIMGAD partners and for the overall guidance of RIMGAD as a whole. The VC, who is typically a third year Peace Corps volunteer, assists the APCD in all of these activities, and is also responsible for managing the AGSF budget including allocating and accounting for disbursements to volunteers, completing monthly activity reports, assisting in the pre‐service training for new GAD volunteers, organizing and facilitating the Annual Girls’ Education Conference (AGEC), and monitoring the progress of GMCs. 424 In addition to the APCD and the VC, a GAD Committee exists, which works to identify and recognize the social constructs that define gender relations, as well as plan and implement GAD events in coordination with RIMGAD partners. 425 Ideally, this committee should consist of the Country Director, the APCD for Education, the Volunteer Coordinator, the Small Project Assistance (SPA) coordinator, and a part time GAD Assistant. However, for the past year and a half the GAD Assistant position, which is normally filled by a Mauritanian, has been empty, which has increased the administrative burden on the GAD Committee members, and thus decreased their availability to monitor and develop coherent program visions and long‐term strategies. In the past, the GAD assistant was a vital part of the RIMGAD team, bringing a Mauritanian perspective to gender projects and strengthening ties to RIMGAD’s Mauritanian partners. While these nationally based actors manage the program, Volunteers from all sectors of Peace Corps Mauritania implement the projects. There is a growing number of Volunteers designated as GAD Volunteers, who are formally assigned to work in the Education Sector as English teachers, but have reduced teaching hours so that they can focus on GAD activities. 426 In each region without a designated GAD volunteer, the Volunteers in the region elect a representative to act as the GAD focal point and to manage the GMCs. 427 These GAD Volunteers struggle to balance the work for which they are responsible in their primary sector as well as their GAD projects. 428 Thus, the quality of all GAD projects depends directly on the willingness of volunteers in other sectors to prioritize GAD projects. 106 Peace Corps Figure 14: RIMGAD Organizational Chart As with all Peace Corps programs, RIMGAD coordinates its projects with Mauritanian government ministries. Peace Corps works with the MEFS and SECF for RIMGAD projects. At the national level, Peace Corps staff collaborates directly with the Director of Women’s Promotion at the SECF and the Chef de Service at the MEFS regarding all official issues such as the posting of GAD volunteers and any formal agreements between RIMGAD and the Mauritanian government. At the regional level, the DRENs (Direction Régionale de l’Education Nationale) are the official liaisons between Volunteers working on RIMGAD projects and the MEFS. They are responsible for encouraging teachers and school directors in supporting the work of Volunteers. In addition to the DRENs, the regional representatives from the SECF also collaborate with Volunteers on GAD projects. In a number of sites, such as Kiffa and Atar, the SECF offices house the GMCs and, as GMC hosts, provide the GMCs with water and electricity. Beyond providing these material resources, the regional representatives’ level of engagement varies according to their interest in collaborating with Volunteers. 429 Additionally, lycée directors play a similar role. As the host of a GMC, a lycée director is responsible for encouraging teachers to tutor in the Center, and may also be able to play a vital role in using MEFS funding to pay these professors for their extra hours of tutoring at the GMC. * * The option to pay teachers for extra hours of tutelage at the GMCs will be discussed below in the GMC Analysis. 107 Part II: Program Evaluation These official partners are essential to the institutional stability of RIMGAD programs. Furthermore, GAD Volunteer counterparts, who are designated by Peace Corps to work alongside the Volunteers, are central to the daily management of RIMGAD projects. Methodology
Peace Corps proposed the aforementioned three projects for analysis for two reasons. First, the projects have significant potential to impact the promotion of girls’ secondary education. Secondly, since Peace Corps expends a significant amount of RIMGAD’s budget on these projects, it wanted to evaluate their effectiveness and opportunities for improvement. A large emphasis is placed on the GMCs since they are the crux of the GAD initiative and its primary vehicle of localizing its activities. As mentioned in the methodology section in the beginning of the report, the majority of the information in this report comes from interviews, focus groups, questionnaires and a stakeholders’ conference conducted during a period of four weeks. We made concerted efforts to interview Mauritanians of all ages, social and economic statuses and major ethnicities. We paid particular attention to covering a diversity of locations, as well, and visited rural and urban sites in the northern, southern and eastern regions of the country. In addition, a noteworthy source of information for this report was the internal documents made available to the authors by Peace Corps Mauritania staff. These documents included Volunteer project reports, annual reports, project documentation and country reports submitted to Peace Corps Washington. Analysis of RIMGAD programs
Relevance of RIMGAD to educational context
The analysis of any program in Mauritania that purports to encourage secondary education for girls’ must include a general discussion of the linkages between that particular program and educational context in Mauritania, and the RIMGAD has a unique relationship with this context. RIMGAD offers support and training for teachers, a progressive non‐formal curriculum for girls, an interactive class structure that encourages creativity and independent thinking, all of which are aspects of the current educational policy in Mauritania. Furthermore, RIMGAD’s projects transfer life skills to its participants and prepare them in a variety of ways for employment. Every aspect of RIMGAD projects take into consideration the unique cultural context of Mauritania and the issues this puts on the learning environment for secondary school age girls. These projects also provide an ideal opportunity to raise awareness about the importance of girls’ secondary education, and disseminate information to combat the obstacles to enrollment, retention and completion that many girls face. Respondents identified many areas in which the projects undertaken by RIMGAD could provide a space for increasing the awareness of communities regarding issues relevant to the promotion of girls’ education, such as, human rights, the Code du Statut Personnel, early marriage, reproductive health, forced feeding, female genital mutilation and hygiene. 108 Peace Corps Clarity of objectives
The many links between RIMGAD and the general educational context are clear. However, the mission and goals of RIMGAD do not explicitly indicate the promotion of girls’ education is the top priority, among other objectives. For example, the RIMGAD mission (Box 10: RIMGAD Mission) accords girls’ education programs and development programs for girls, which are not necessarily related to education, the same priority. The emphasis of RIMGAD’s mission is on mainstreaming gender in Peace Corps activities, not promoting enrollment, retention and completion of girls’ in secondary education. Similarly, the only quantifiable goals for the RIMGAD program, which are found in Goal Three of the new Education Project Plan and guide the work of all Volunteers who facilitate RIMGAD projects (Box 11), do not directly target girls’ secondary education. Goal Three places the objective of increasing the number of GMCs on the same level as increasing “services provided to the girls and women” in the community. 430 Thus, the structure of these stated goals does not establish a clear direction for the program. To the outside observer, and potentially RIMGAD’s own Volunteers and partners, it is not clear whether RIMGAD’s priority is improving opportunities in girls’ education or promoting gender conscious development. This priority must be clearly articulated if RIMGAD’s projects seek to achieve the same long‐term goal. If the Peace Corps intends for the priorities to be equally emphasized, the RIMGAD program goals should balance the promotion of girls’ education with gender conscious development. Box 11: RIMGAD Goal within Education Project Plan
Goal 3: The numbers of Girls Mentoring Centers will increase and the services provided to the girls and
women in communities will improve.
Development of RIMGAD goals
Our research indicates that one possible source of this lack of clarity is the method through which Peace Corps developed these goals. The RIMGAD Mission and the RIMGAD Goal in the Education Project Plan were generated at different times to serve separate purposes. Peace Corps included the RIMGAD Mission in its proposal to the United States Ambassador for AGSP funds. The APCD for Education and a Project Evaluation Specialist from Peace Corps Washington added Goal Three to the Education Project Plan after an Education Sector Project Evaluation in late 2005. 431 These separate events predictably produced goals for RIMGAD that are distinct in nature, although similar in theme. This haphazard method of articulating goals may affect Volunteers’ and Peace Corps’ partners’ awareness of the goals and objectives of RIMGAD. The managers and planners of RIMGAD projects must have a conscious and consistent awareness of RIMGAD’s long‐
term goals. A weak understanding of these goals will dilute the impact of the current RIMGAD projects because different partners and Volunteers will have different short‐
term priorities. Therefore, it is in Peace Corps Mauritania’s best interest to compile the goals and objectives of each RIMGAD project into one document that offers a clear direction for the RIMGAD program. Subsequently, the articulation of these goals must be followed by a concerted public relations campaign to raise stakeholder awareness of the goals. 109 Part II: Program Evaluation Feasibility of RIMGAD reaching its objectives
The largest and most concrete obstacle to RIMGAD’s ability to attain its objectives is the uncertainty of its current funding. As described in the introduction to this section, financing sources have changed multiple times during the past eight years. Peace Corps staff and Volunteers expect this uncertainty to continue in the future. 432 They witnessed the negative side of powerful Presidential Initiatives with the termination of the EDDI funding at the end of 2002. President Bush’s term in office is coming to a close, and his Africa Education Initiative may end as well, and with it the Ambassador’s Girls’ Scholarship Fund. Therefore, RIMGAD may have to again turn to a multilateral donor, such as UNICEF, for financial support. Alternatively, it could seek funding from one of the many international donors currently supporting girls’ education worldwide. 433 Impact of RIMGAD on girls’ secondary education
RIMGAD’s most significant impact on girls’ secondary education is the sheer number of activities that it has developed and implemented since it began in 1999, which target girls and their teachers in order to enhance girls’ personal and academic enrichment. For example, places for girls to study outside of school in a group with structured assistance did not exist prior to the GMCs; primary school girls were rarely, if ever, permitted to attend secondary school classes; teachers never previously received training in gender equity; and many girls who dreamed of becoming professional women had never seen a computer. While these advances are extremely important, the impact of RIMGAD’s programs, beyond their initial novelty, has yet to be determined. In order to evaluate the impact of this program, the following programmatic features are necessary: first, the program must have concrete and quantifiable objectives. Second, it must have effective monitoring and evaluation tools that are appropriate for use by project managers. Third, it must prioritize this monitoring and evaluation so that it happens regularly. Monitoring and evaluation of objectives.
Formal methods of monitoring activities include the Project Status Report and the Agency Initiative Report, which are submitted by the APCD to Peace Corps Headquarters in Washington D.C. annually, and monthly reports by the VC to the funders of the AGSP. Formal methods for volunteers to report on their projects include GMC Quarterly Reports, Sector Quarterly Reports and Project Reports required for all small grants, which are submitted to the GAD Committee via the Volunteer Coordinator. 434 The most quantitative method of evaluation of RIMGAD’s impact exists in section three of the Project Status Report where the APCD describes the activities and outcomes that were implemented under each objective. 435 Despite the existence of these monitoring tools there is agreement among Volunteers and Peace Corps staff that these reports are not sufficient, and that methods for evaluating RIMGAD’s impact must be developed. 436 Towards this aim, a group of Volunteers compiled the experiences of the GMC Managers to create the “Girls Mentoring Center Ideabook,” which contains the best practices and activities currently implemented at GMCs. Unfortunately, none of the best practices include monitoring and evaluation, and by their own admission, “Volunteers are still in the process of deciding how the success of a Center can be best evaluated.” 437 110 Peace Corps This Ideabook is an excellent beginning to a formalized means of recording the lessons learned and best practices from year to year. It is essential to the continuity and improvement of RIMGAD, because it provides future volunteers with baseline data from which to measure their progress. However, this book only covers one RIMGAD project, and there are many other projects, the sum of which will reveal the impact that RIMGAD has on the promotion of girls’ secondary education. Peace Corps must direct some of its energy towards creating a comprehensive annual evaluation report, similar to the sector reports, to begin analyzing the concrete accomplishments of RIMGAD projects. Sustainability
There are a plethora of definitions of sustainability in development. In this evaluation of Peace Corps’ RIMGAD program we have used the following definition: “Sustainability. The final test of an effective project is whether it can go on delivering benefits after external assistance has been withdrawn. Here it is important to avoid a common mistake among development workers—it is not projects which should be sustained but their achievements.” 438 In the current RIMGAD context, Peace Corps staff agrees that sustainability cannot be perceived as a single endpoint, but must be seen as a continuum. For example, RIMGAD’s first step on this continuum was the establishment of a significant number of unique projects. Now that these projects have been established and are in high demand from the communities, Peace Corps has started to focus its efforts on their transfer to community ownership, which is especially necessary considering the temporary nature of current funding. Finally, the transfer of ownership requires establishing mechanisms that offer community members, project beneficiaries and the MEFS and SECF partners greater responsibility in the planning and management of RIMGAD projects. Evidently, RIMGAD is consciously progressing on this continuum towards sustainability, but our research shows that there are a number of ways that they can improve current practices to ensure greater short‐term and long‐term sustainability. These improvements are discussed below in the analysis of the Girls’ Mentoring Centers, the Mentors’ Workshops and the Annual Girls’ Education Conference. Girls’ Mentoring Centers
Project overview and background
The concept for Girls’ Mentoring Centers (GMC) was developed at the Annual Girlsʹ Education Conference (AGEC) in 2000, a conference convened to better understand the needs and ambitions of girls in the secondary cycle of education. 439 In evaluation forms from that conference, girls who attended expressed the desire to have more opportunities closer to home in which to interact with other girls, and to interact with professional women who could serve as role models. 440 Using these as a foundation, Peace Corps Volunteers, in collaboration with representatives from the SECF and the MEFS, established GMCs to be funded by EDDI. 441 The project was approved, and implementation began the same year. 111 Part II: Program Evaluation As of March 2005, Peace Corps operates 14 GMCs in Mauritania, with the support of partner organizations and local community members, who contribute to activities in the Centers. 442 Nine of these GMCs are located in the regional capitals of Tidjikja, Atar and Nouadhibou in the North, Kiffa and Aïoun in the East, and Aleg, Kaédi, Selibabi and Rosso in the South. Four GMCs are located in the departmental capitals of Ma’al, Bogué, Bababé and Magta Lahjar. Peace Corps is also planning on opening two rural GMCs in 2006. Five of the existing GMCs are located on the grounds of local lycées or collèges, five are located in spaces donated by local antennae of the SECF, and three are in rooms on the compound of the Mayorʹs office. 443 GMCs are selective institutions, serving only girls who have been granted membership status by the GMC manager. 444 Some Centers select girls on the basis of class rank; some admit those who show interest and sustain their attendance at the Center; while many others use an essay contest to choose members. 445 Centers serve girls at a variety of grade levels within the secondary cycle, some serving only students in lycée, and some serving girls in both collège and lycée. Currently, these Centers are serving approximately 700 girls, ranging in size from 16 to 85 girls per Center. 446 The activities offered for girls at the Centers also vary, but generally include support for formal education, such as tutoring activities, and informal education activities. Most Centers are equipped with computers provided by the initial EDDI funding. As mentioned above, all GMCs are managed by Peace Corps Volunteers who are either elected by the Volunteers in that region or recruited by Peace Corps to do so. GMC managers generally facilitate many of the activities offered at the Centers, alongside mentors recruited and trained from the local community, and teachers who offer tutoring and other training. 447 Theory
Informal education and educational support beyond school is increasingly understood as having a positive effect on girls in the secondary cycle. The types of programs that fall under the broader rubric of informal education vary widely, and include training adults in microfinance, small business management, literacy projects for school dropouts, and tutoring. Indeed, because the nature and objectives of non‐formal education programs are so diverse, their impact is more difficult to evaluate than formal education programs. However, research and experiences indicate that such support may offer important contributions to girls’ wellbeing. Among the positive contributions that such programs have been found to make are an increase in girls’ and womenʹs empowerment, an increase in their participation in social and civic institutions, and a rise in economic and health indicators. 448 Relevant literature also indicates that the GMCs reflect one of the strategies recommended for improving education for girls, which is to create and adapt strategies to the specific needs of girls in the specific context of their country. 449 The characteristics of the GMCs and the activities they offer also reflect good practices recommended by donor agencies, such as providing girls an opportunity to interact with culturally appropriate role models, and developing connections between formal learning and economic and health issues. 450 112 Peace Corps Figure 15: Girls and Volunteer at GMC, Kaédi Project analysis
Relevance
The capacity of the GMCs to support girls’ learning in general was evident throughout our research. For example, tutoring outside of school, which occurs in many GMCs, is likely a significant factor in girls’ educational success. Our interviews revealed that participation in outside tutoring was high among students who intended to pass the bac and among the better students who are GMC members. 451 Participation in GMC activities may also increase girls’ confidence, by teaching them skills that will contribute to their educational success (e.g. speaking and volunteering answers more often in class). This increased confidence seems also to come from learning professional skills such as public speaking, computer literacy, and letter writing. The Centers also provide access to role models (local mentors and Peace Corps Volunteers), which may help to engage girls in their formal studies. However, despite the learning support the GMCs provide members, the precise relationship between the GMCs and educational outcomes in the secondary cycle in Mauritania is less clear due to the variety in the goals and objectives listed below. 113 Part II: Program Evaluation Box 12: GMC Goals
VAD
•
•
•
To contribute to advancing girls' schooling and education as set out in the Ministry of Education
strategic plan.
To give girls the opportunity to do more outside of the formal classroom setting.
To provide girls with a relaxed setting to do more work with a view to better their academic
performance and acquire new skills. 452
Education Project Framework 453
Goal: The number of Girls Mentoring Centers will increase and the services provided to the girls and women
in communities will improve.
Objective 1: By the end of the school year 2012-2013, 12 Volunteers and their Counterparts will have
participated in the establishment of at least 12 new GMCs.
Objective 2: By the end of the school year, 2012-2013, 54 Volunteers and their Counterparts will have
introduced at least 3,000 girls to computer literacy, word processing, and data processing in the GMC.
Objective 3: By the end of the 2012-2013 school year, 25 volunteers will have identified and trained 50 GMC
managers.
Objective 4: By the end of the 2012-2013 school year, 25 Volunteers and their partner organizations will
have developed evaluation methods to determine the impact of the GMCs.
Goals stated in the Initial Proposal to the Ambassador. 454
Goal: The goal of the GMCs is to increase the number of girls who attend school and retain the girls who are
currently in attendance, as well as encourage their interest in continuing education.
Objectives:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Create a local community support for female students and girls’ education.
Recognize girls who achieve in school as part of an elite club and give them a heightened sense of self
worth.
Increase academic standing of participants through study groups, teacher workshops, private tutoring,
and educational and technological resources.
Create an inviting, positive, quiet, and encouraging environment that promotes educational growth and
achievement.
Provide a forum to discuss the difficulties faced by local professional women and to explore options in
education, including higher learning and professional fields.
Increase the level of girls’ confidence through life skills trainings, computer proficiency, organized
sports, and special interest activities.
Consistency and clarity of objectives
Peace Corpsʹ goals for the GMCs are a subset of the broader set of goals for the GAD program. Goals and objectives specific to the GMCs are outlined in several Peace Corps documents. These documents include the Initial Proposal to the United States (US) Ambassador for AEI funding in 2005, the Volunteer Assignment Description (VAD), and the recently drafted Education Project Framework. Each of these documents was developed at a different time and for different purposes, which explains some of the differences between them. The proposal to the Ambassador was developed as an application for funding. Thus, the goals and objectives therein also reflected those of the AEI program, which was administered by the US Embassy. 455 The VAD is developed by the APCD for Education, and the GMC goal listed in the VAD is only one of many, and thus very general in scope. 456 As discussed in the RIMGAD section, the new Education Project Framework goal for the GMCs was added after an Education Project Evaluation in late 2005 as a result of site visits that revealed the extent of GMC activities and the need for a concrete goal. The various goals of the GMCs, as they are defined in these 114 Peace Corps documents, are not contradictory, but they are somewhat unclear and inconsistent both between and within documents. Peace Corps should clarify the RIMGAD goals and objectives, which will improve the ability to develop indicators and concrete monitoring and evaluation tools. Our research revealed that there are three significant inconsistencies in the goals and objectives that Peace Corps should address as goal setting for this program progresses. First, it is unclear whether the priority of GMCs is to promote girls’ participation in formal education, or whether they are intended as a venue for informal learning or maybe even a strategy of both types of learning outcomes. The goal for the GMCs defined in the proposal to the Ambassador specifies that they are to promote attendance and retention in school, yet only one of its objectives addresses this formal education goal directly. 457 The remaining objectives refer to informal activities, such as ʺlife skills trainings, computer proficiency,ʺ or opportunities to learn through discussions with professional women. 458 In the draft Education Project Framework, the objective targeting learning outcomes for GMC members focuses on computer literacy, an informal learning objective. 459 These objectives promoting formal educational outcomes and informal learning, respectively, are not mutually exclusive. Activities at the GMCs can and do intervene in both areas, and this overlap has a complementary effect. However, the implication of a lack of clarity is that the sum of all the activities may not result in the desired outcomes in either area. The second area that lacks clarity is the character of desired outcomes, since the goals for the GMCs address institutional, behavioral and educational outcomes. Therefore, the objectives in all three documents focus on very different categories of outcomes. Many of the objectives emphasize the characteristics of the GMCs as an institution. For example, one objective in the draft Education Project Framework includes measurable outcomes of staff trained to work in the GMCs. However, some objectives are directed to promoting affective or psychosocial outcomes, such as heightened self‐worth, increased confidence, and interest in schooling. A final strain of outcomes is visible in the proposal to the Ambassador, which seeks to increase enrollment, retention, and academic standing of GMC members. These are the objectives related directly to supporting girls in formal education. 460 Finally, a third area of these goals that lacks clarity is whether the GMCs’ priority is to serve girls who are the most at risk of discontinuing their education, or whether to improve the performance of those who are already engaged in education. Some goals clearly imply a focus on girls succeeding in formal education by seeking to recognize girls who have high achievement in education. 461 However, other goals emphasize simply increasing “services provided to girls and women in communities.” 462 If the ultimate goal of the GMCs is to provide services for high‐achieving girls, this must be clear in the goals and objectives. Furthermore, if high‐achieving girls are the priority clientele of the GMCs, Peace Corps must explicitly indicate how this goal intersects with broader goals with respect to gender and development, and education. Given our research it seems both important and possible for both these populations to be targeted. However, in order to maximize the impact of the GMCs, a balance must be struck and the goals and objectives clearly defined for both project participants and those who assist in GMCs. 115 Part II: Program Evaluation Understanding of objectives
The effect of this lack of clarity is demonstrated in the diversity of understanding among those implementing and benefiting from the GMCs. As with the overall RIMGAD goals, a weak understanding of the GMC goals will reduce the impact of the GMCs because GMC managers, mentors, hosts and government partners will have different short‐term priorities. The APCD for Education and the VC confirmed that the objectives described in the documents above reflect the current objectives for the GMCs. 463 They also mentioned that in developing these goals they framed the objectives of the GMCs broadly. The central goal of increasing enrollment, retention, and completion of girls at the secondary cycle should be uniform across all Centers, but the means to achieve this objective should be flexible to accommodate different needs in different locations. 464 This clarity of purpose, however, was weakly reflected in interviews with GMC managers and community members. For example, there is a wide variation in the balance between formal and informal educational activities at the Centers. 465 Furthermore, only one GMC manager interviewed prioritized objectives related to building the capacity of the local community to manage activities in the GMCs. 466 It seems that Volunteers are guided in their implementation of the GMCs more by the availability of local resources than by the overall educational goals of RIMGAD. 467 While this is not surprising, and does not reflect internal contradiction, Volunteers’ inclusion of multiple elements (formal educational outcomes, affective outcomes, and development of institutions) without a focus on a long‐term goal makes a solid framework for monitoring and evaluation of the overall program difficult to establish. In contrast, this study found that community members often lack specific knowledge of the goals of the GMCs. Parents of girls who do not attend the GMCs knew the Centers existed, but were only aware of its informal activities such as tie dying, sewing and computer literacy. 468 Community members involved in the GMCs also have a weak understanding of the goals of these Centers. One Lycée Director who currently works on a campus which hosts a GMC, described the role of the GMC as ʺimportant,ʺ but did not specify what the purpose of the Center is. His subsequent comments demonstrated that he was aware of non‐formal learning activities, but not those related directly to supporting formal activities. 469 The parents of girls who attend the GMCs were all aware that these Centers were meant to help their daughters learn, but nearly a quarter of those interviewed did not know about the activities offered at the Center. 470 Despite their weak understanding of the exact goals and objectives of the GMCs, stakeholders provided a variety of suggestions with respect to the purpose that the GMCs should serve. Some contended that the Centers should be open to more girls who are at a lower level of performance. 471 In a focus group of teachers, some argued that the Center should target girls who have dropped out of school, while others argued that the Center should serve girls who are succeeding in their education because this could inspire other girls to pursue their education. 472 It is important for Peace Corps to take into consideration these suggestions because they indicate the specific needs of their host communities. 116 Peace Corps Feasibility
The two factors that currently advance the GMCs’ progress towards their stated goals are the location (i.e., host of the Center) and the level of engagement of the community. However, these factors are constrained by a number of challenges that arise in the implementation of the GMCs such as the time available for Volunteers to work in the GMCs, the challenge of attracting teachers to tutor in the Centers, and the difficulty of identifying and training community mentors to manage the Centers. As mentioned in the introduction, the 14 GMCs are either hosted by the MEFS, the SECF or Mayors, and are thus located in lycées, SECF units or Mayors’ offices. These hosts have contributed the critical resources of space and electricity, as well as legitimacy to the GMCs. The staff of these institutions also provides active support to varying degrees. For example, school personnel support the Centersʹ maintenance of a safe, appropriate environment. 473 GMC managers reported that the location of their Centers contributed to their ability to engage girls in their activities. 474 Centers that are centrally located in communities, or located on the grounds of lycées, facilitate the communityʹs awareness of the GMC program. Accessibility of the Centers to the homes of the girls who are members can also play an important role, especially in light of cultural norms discouraging girls from traveling long distances unaccompanied or after dark. In addition, individuals from the local community have become active and engaged in contributing to activities. GMC managers have experienced varying degrees of success in recruiting and engaging mentors, ranging from one GMC at which only one community member is regularly engaged, to another at which six mentors regularly conduct activities independently. 475 Local teachers also contribute to activities at the Center, in particular by providing tutoring to girls in their academic subjects. The interest of the girls and the support of their families in allowing or encouraging them to participate in GMC activities is perhaps the most important resource for the Centers. However, GMC managers have also encountered several challenges in the oversight and facilitation of GMC activities. One of the greatest challenges to the implementation of this project identified by GMC managers is the time commitment. As noted above, volunteers who serve as managers of GMCs are drawn from all five sectors of the Peace Corps, and have substantial time commitments to these programs. The GMC managers interviewed estimate that they spend ten to fifteen hours per week working on projects related to the Centerʹs operation. 476 Given the additional responsibilities Volunteers carry from their sector assignments, they do not have the time to conduct sufficient community outreach and awareness‐raising among parents because the majority of time they spend is directly involved in facilitating activities for the girls. 477 GMC managers also reported difficulties in recruiting teachers to volunteer as tutors at the Centers. Teachers carry a heavy work load as part of their professional responsibilities, and many may also supplement their income by serving as private tutors, working at private schools, or engaging in small enterprise activities. Two Peace Corps staff also identified a lack of volunteerism as a barrier to engaging teachers (and other local community members) in GMC programs. 478 Volunteers have been resourceful in developing strategies to engage teachers, such as identifying teachers who are popular among students and offering to tutor computer lessons in exchange for their time; 479 117 Part II: Program Evaluation however, the burden of additional responsibilities and opportunities to earn money prove to be powerful disincentives in many cases. Finally, the challenge of finding and keeping mentors is most likely the greatest faced by GMC managers and RIMGAD staff. The feasibility of the GMCs in reaching the long‐term goal of community ownership depends in part on the mentors’ sustained involvement. Since Volunteers began to seek out mentors for the Centers, they have encountered enormous difficulty in finding not only qualified women, but women who are willing to dedicate their time. This is a complex issue that will be further discussed in the Mentors’ Workshop section. Impact
Peace Corps’ knowledge of the GMCs’ impact on girls and the communities that host them is crucial to determining the future direction of the project. The GAD Committee is aware of this fact, and is exploring concrete ways to improve their ability to evaluate the GMCs’ impact because currently only a subjective and qualitative estimation of their impact is possible. Monitoring and evaluation
Similar to the overall RIMGAD program, a significant challenge to assessing the impact of the GMCs is the lack of indicators and formal monitoring practices. Our research indicates that this challenge is particularly acute because of the lack of clarity in objectives, which do not provide a strong foundation for the development of clear indicators. Currently, there are few mechanisms for monitoring the activities of the GMCs. They include, as previously mentioned, GMC reports and small grant project reports submitted quarterly to the VC and the APCD for Education. Within the Centers, Volunteers maintain extensive records on girls’ attendance, activities carried out, community members who have helped with activities and notes about big events such as Women’s Day on March 8th. 480 However, these reports are more a list of activities than an actual evaluation of their impact. The only observed evaluation method regarding the impact of GMC activities is currently done by the GMC manager in Magta Lahjar, who administers weekly oral quizzes to GMC members on topics they have learned from classes at the Center. 481 In terms of grade monitoring, GMC managers do not keep records of the girlsʹ grades because many lack the confidence that grades are an accurate reflection of the girls’ true educational achievements. Others are uncomfortable collecting the girls’ grades because they do not feel it is culturally appropriate to do so, and they do not want the girls’ to feel judged at the Centers. 482 In general, these approaches to internal monitoring emphasize learning outcomes, but do not provide an evaluation of the impact of GMCs on formal educational outcomes. While Volunteers do suggest collecting other data related to girls’ performance at the Center through conversations or observations of the girls’ behavior, this method lacks objectivity and risks significant inconsistency in application across Centers. 483 An additional critical deficit in evaluation practices is the lack of longitudinal data on ʺalumnaeʺ of the GMCs. Currently, there is no method of tracking GMC members’ progress after they leave the 118 Peace Corps Centers. It is not known whether they complete lycée, pursue tertiary education or trade school, or join the work force. RIMGAD should investigate the methods used by Peace Corps Togo’s Girls’ Education and Empowerment (GEE) Program for monitoring and evaluation. They have found ways to monitor the girls’ grades, drop out and enrollment rates in a culturally sensitive manner, as well as the numbers of Girls’ Clubs and peer mentoring clubs that have been created in Volunteer sites. They also have been working with the same girls’ since the program began in 1999, and they have seen how the attitude of these girls’ has changed. Some of the girls’ with whom they worked have become Volunteer Counterparts, and are themselves organizing the activities of the clubs. 484 Impact on GMC members and host communities
Without access to girls’ academic records, it is not possible to determine conclusively the impact of the GMCs on the formal educational achievements of the girls who participate in the program. The difficulty of drawing conclusions is compounded by the fact that the program selects girls on the basis of achievement and/or motivation. This method poses challenges to determining whether improvements in girlsʹ learning or performance are the result of the GMC interventions or the girls’ own work. One GMC manager reported that she could not determine the effects of the program on studentsʹ school performance because the members are already the top students in their class. 485 One subjective measure of the impact is GMC membersʹ own reports of the impact of the program on their academic performance. Some girls reported direct effects from project activities, such as better grades in English, history, and French. Girls at one Center reported that activities to promote awareness about health had helped them in their biology and science class. 486 Some stated that they know more than their peers in subjects that are studied at the GMCs. Girls from the GMC in Aïoun, where there is no time spent on school work, noted that they were able to develop friendships with older students through the Center, which helped them in school because they were able to learn from these older students about how to improve their studies. 487 The impact on GMC members’ non‐formal learning outcomes was more difficult to measure than formal outcomes because participantsʹ had difficulty explaining how the information they learned at the GMC helped them outside of school. They reported that they could now use the internet café, and that they knew about good health practices relating to hygiene and the use of anti‐mosquito soap, yet they were unable to express how these new skills would assist them in the future. 488 One subjective indicator of the impact of non‐formal learning on GMC members is from their own reports. In questionnaire responses, several girls stated that participation in the Center has improved their self confidence. 489 These responses also correlated with the informal assessments of GMC managers, who reported that they could see improvements in membersʹ confidence as evidenced by their increased participation in activities. 490 Thus, it is possible to estimate that the GMC experience does have an impact on girls’ attitudes and psychosocial gains. A second subjective indicator of impact is the community’s awareness of the Centers. Although communities may have a weak understanding of the overall goals of the GMCs, 119 Part II: Program Evaluation as described above, they are most certainly aware of the existence of these Centers. In fact, probably the most important indicator of awareness is the sustained demand for GMC membership from girls in the community. However, this demand for GMC services is relatively uninformed. Some parents stated that they did not know what their daughters do at the Center, and none of these parents were aware that there were community mentors working at the Centers. 491 In addition, community members were generally more aware of informal education activities than formal ones. RIMGAD staff and Volunteers should be fully aware of the extent of this uninformed demand, and they must take steps to improve the level of community awareness, which will, in turn, increase the sustainability of the GMCs and their effects. Sustainability
The development of strategies for the sustainability of the GMCs is arguably the most difficult task faced by the RIMGAD program. The difficulty arises from the need to create community ownership of these unique dynamic institutions that are, as described above, still in the process of establishing the priority of their short‐term and long‐term objectives. Peace Corps Mauritania recognizes that neither these Centers, nor the effects of these Centers, can be sustained without the presence of Volunteers. Therefore, RIMGAD is simultaneously beginning to cultivate an institutional base for these GMCs within the Mauritanian government and emphasizing the need for GMC managers to prioritize efforts to improve community ownership of the Centers. For example, last year Peace Corps and the SECF began discussing the possibility of establishing a joint MoU to formalize the relationship between RIMGAD Volunteers and the SECF. According to the MoU, RIMGAD Volunteers would be posted directly to the SECF offices in the regional capitals. The agreement indicates that these Volunteers will be responsible for assisting the SECF at the Centres de Promotion Féminine and for managing the GMCs. 492 There will also be one or two RIMGAD Volunteers posted in Nouakchott to help the SECF with field support, programming and training. 493 It is important to note that this MoU outlines responsibilities for future Volunteers that require a full‐time employment commitment, which implies that these Volunteers will no longer be required to teach English in addition to performing their RIMGAD responsibilities. 494 The APCD for Education remarked that a MoU of this nature would have numerous benefits for both Peace Corps and the SECF. For example, MoU could clarify the SECF’s role in collaborating with Peace Corps, improve the structure and focus in RIMGAD Volunteers’ activities and improve the quality of collaboration between the GMCs and the communities in which they operate. 495 If the goal of GMCs is to support informal learning, regional SECF representatives may be well‐positioned to do so. For example, they are more likely to have access to human resources of individuals who are involved in the development of microfinance. Conversely, they may lack direct access to teachers, who have immediate knowledge of the curriculum or the bac, and could be more effective in supporting formal learning. Unfortunately, this MoU has yet to be signed because of the recent shuffling of Ministers and ministry personnel since the change in government in August 2005. 496 In the search for a long‐term solution to the sustainability of the GMCs, Peace Corps must consider how the regional SECF antennae’s financial and material constraints could pose 120 Peace Corps an obstacle to the organizationʹs capacity to undertake some of the responsibilities that are necessary to the effective operation of the GMCs. The regional SECF offices have an annual budget of 200,000 UM (roughly USD 730 ) and no means of transportation. These constraints will pose difficulties for the SECF to support the maintenance of the Centers’ computers, equipment and materials over time, and will also prevent them from offering tutors or mentors any remuneration for the time they spent working at the GMCs. Given the SECF’s resource constraints, Peace Corps should continue the discussions which began last year with the DRENs for a parallel agreement. The APCD for Education has suggested to the DRENs that they permit the use of already existing funds for compensation to the teachers who are tutoring at the GMCs. This would be done through the Horaire Supplémentaire (overtime) program that is part of each DREN’s annual budget, and must be used to pay teachers who agree to offer extra classes for students. The DRENs have been receptive to this idea, and the APCD for Education is currently working to bring the issue to the attention of the DES in Nouakchott. His goal is to streamline and formalize this arrangement so that school directors have the authority to instruct teachers to tutor at the GMCs. 497 It is very important in this arrangement, however, for the school directors to carefully select the teachers that will be assigned as tutors, because they should have a good rapport with the GMC members and support the goals of the GMCs. 498 By improving the continuity of tutors at the Centers, this agreement would increase the GMC’s focus on formal education outcomes since lycée directors are better positioned than the regional SECF representatives to support and monitor formal learning. In addition, several ministry officials and local educational leaders recognized the need for additional training for teachers, which could easily be facilitated by Volunteers for the tutors, and eventually with the tutors for other teachers. 499 The weaknesses of this agreement, however, similar to those with the SECF, are that the financial burden and workload on teachers and administrators may pose a challenge to adding further activities and responsibilities. The implementation of these formalized agreements is an essential component to realizing the long‐term goal of transferring GMC ownership to Mauritanians. However, Peace Corps must also consider that in the long‐run these two agreements will not sufficiently ensure the sustainability of the Centers. Our research suggests two possible arrangements in the future. The first would involve institutionalizing each GMC according to its location and current host. For example, the long‐term strategic plan for a GMC currently hosted by the SECF should be to institutionalize it as a SECF institution, managed, supported and maintained by the SECF with the help of Volunteers. This solution takes into consideration the diversity of needs and resources that are available in each GMC site, and truly decentralizes these Centers so that they are able to develop according to the local context of each community. However, in sites where the Mayors’ office or the SECF is the host, this arrangement may be likely to emphasize the non‐
formal elements of the GMCs focusing on professional and personal skills, not achievement in formal education. The financial resources of the Mayors’ offices and the SECF may also be a constraint in this long‐term arrangement. The second solution involves the institutionalization of the GMCs as part of the MEFS. Our suggestion is that MEFS could affectate teachers to the GMCs to fill positions as the 121 Part II: Program Evaluation administrators and managers of the Centers. This would create a financial and administrative safety net for the Centers in that they would be incorporated into the MEFS budgetary and personnel system and would not lack institutional support. The expertise of the teachers would also ensure the academic component within the GMCs. However, the quality of the teachers is an issue of concern. It is not evident that as graduates of ENS (Ecole Normale Supérieure) they would be able to train the other tutors and mentors in the Center, or their peers in the lycées and collèges. In conclusion, Peace Corps has a number of options available to ensure the sustainability of the GMCs, but all of these depend on the construction of a foundation for the transfer of ownership. This foundation can begin with the parallel agreements discussed above. A more clearly defined relationship with the national and local institutions will also facilitate the development and alignment of project objectives with stakeholders’ goals for girls in their community. Mentors’ Workshop
Project overview and background
The Mentors’ Workshop is an annual workshop during which Volunteers, or another designated instructor train the mentoring representatives (mentors) that work in the GMCs. This workshop brings together former, current and future mentors and PCVs from all over the country to share their experiences about working in the GMCs, assess and evaluate GMC activities, collaborate in planning activities for the upcoming year, and receive training in computer skills and counseling, in order to strengthen their skills in mentoring young women. 500 Furthermore, at this workshop professional women and religious leaders often speak to the mentors and Volunteers about the importance of education, and relay to them their experiences regarding secondary education. 501 Peace Corps’ GAD Committee developed the idea for the Mentors’ Workshop in 2003. The Peace Corps had been invited to mentoring workshops for community members and parents sponsored by the SECF and decided to incorporate similar workshops into the GAD programs in order to train the mentors working at the GMCs. 502 In 2004, and 2005, the Mentors’ Workshops occurred in Nouakchott, and 30 mentors received training at the 2005 Workshop. 503 In 2006, Mentors’ Workshops were held regionally at the GMCs in Atar, Kiffa, and Bogué, during the last weekend of February or the first weekend of March. The Mentors’ Workshop held in Atar included Volunteers from Atar and Rosso, and mentors from Atar and Nouadhibou. * The Mentors’ Workshop held in Kiffa included Volunteers and mentors from the Magta Lahjar, Tidjikja, Kiffa and Aïoun GMCs. The Mentors’ Workshop held in Bogué included Volunteers and mentors from the Aleg, Bogué, Kaédi, and Lexeiba GMCs. Currently, the Selibabi GMC does not have any mentors. Forty mentors were trained at the 2006 Workshop. 504 The mentors from Rosso were unable to attend the workshop. *
122 Peace Corps Theory and literature review
Mentoring can be understood as “a personal enhancement strategy through which one person facilitates the development of another by sharing known resources, expertise, values, skills, perspectives attitudes and proficiencies.” 505 Thus, a mentor often serves as a role model to enhance the personal development of an individual. There is a veritable lack of literature on the effects that mentoring of girls’ has on their ability to succeed in secondary education. 506 Experiences in using mentoring to support girls’ in succeeding in their pursuit of secondary education are best documented by NGOs implementing girls’ education projects. For example, The Academy for Educational Development has discovered through its Strategies for Advancing Girls’ Education Project that stakeholder communities recognize mentoring of school age girls by community members as a sustainable and dynamic way in which communities can support and improve girls’ education. 507 USAID considers community mentoring as a “basic model” of its successful projects. 508 The World Bank suggests that identifying culturally accepted, educated role models is a solution to the cultural problem regarding concerns about the necessity and utility of education. 509 Analysis
Relevance
As previously discussed, the objectives for the Mentors’ Workshop are articulated in the Education Project Plan, Objective 3. Within this Objective, the Principle Activity and Desired Change(s) 3.2 and 3.3, relate specifically to the Mentors’ Workshop (Box 13). Box 13: Education Project Plan Details
3.2 Principal Activity
By the end of the school year, 2012-2013, 54 Volunteers and their Counterparts will have introduced at least
3,000 girls to computer literacy, word processing, and data processing in the Girls Mentoring Centers.
3.2 Desired Change(s)
•
1,500 (20%) of the girls trained will be skilled in the use of basic computer techniques.
3.3 Principal Activity
By the end of the 2012-2013 school year, 25 volunteers will have identified and trained 50 GMC managers.
3.3 Desired Change(s)
•
•
75% of the managers will have acquired skills in management
20% will effectively manage centers after the departure of the PCV. 510
Thus, as to be expected, the goals of the Mentors’ Workshop are specific to the event itself, and focus on increasing the ability of mentors to teach computer literacy to the girls who attend the centers, and develop their own managerial skills. However, the objectives of the Mentors’ Workshop, while aimed at cultivating the teaching capacity of the mentors, lack a direct link to the capacity building and skills transfer that would be necessary for mentors to take ownership of the GMCs. Furthermore, the specific objectives of the workshop lack uniformity between the national and regional workshops, and the workshops conducted in Atar, Bogué and Kiffa. 123 Part II: Program Evaluation They are, however, also relevant to the needs of girls pursuing secondary education. In particular, Principal Activity 3.2 is relevant because training mentors to teach girls in computer literacy will provide girls with an important practical skill that may encourage them to continue with their education and pursue a career. Similarly, Principal Activity 3.3 does not directly encourage girls’ secondary education, rather it encourages the community to assume the function of supporting girls’ education by giving the management of the GMCs to the community via the mentors. A significant weakness of the Mentors’ Workshop’s goals is that they focus only on managerial and computer literacy skills for mentors, and do not address the role that mentors should play at the GMCs. Furthermore, these goals are somewhat contradictory given the role envisioned by GAD for the GMCs. As previously mentioned the goals for the GMCs are much broader than creating a space where girls receive training in computer literacy. Therefore, if management of the GMCs will ultimately be turned over to the mentors, the objectives of the Mentors’ Workshop must adequately reflect this long‐term goal, and articulate an intended role for the mentors to play. The current objectives suggest that the only role for the mentors to play is in training girls in computer literacy. Therefore, the objectives must address the steps between training girls in computer literacy and assuming management of the GMCs. For example, although each workshop conducted an activity related to developing the capacity of mentors to lead lessons at the GMCs, only the 2005 Mentors’ Workshop focused on computer literacy skills that are necessary to achieve Principle Activity 3.2, Objective 3.2. In 2005, during the second day of the Mentors’ Workshop, the mentors attended a session called “Women and IT,” followed by a visit to the IT center at the Palais de Congrès. During this session the mentors learned basic computer competency skills such as how to use MS Word, MS Excel, e‐mail, as well as navigation of the Internet. However, the objectives of this conference, while they include training for mentors to teach computer courses in the GMCs, they do not specify quantifiable indicators that will specify if these courses are supporting the achievement of Objective 3.2. Therefore, a large disconnect exists between the goals that the education sector has identified for the mentors in regard to their teaching capacity, and the objectives of the Mentors’ Workshop. Furthermore, none of the workshops provided training for the mentors in management skills, in order to achieve Principal Activity 3.3 / Desired Change 3.3. Some of the workshops broached the subject of mentors assuming responsibility for the GMCs, but did not offer the capacity building that the mentors would need to make ownership of the GMCs a reality. In Bogué, the mentors brainstormed action plans for making their GMCs sustainable without the future support of Peace Corps. 511 The PCVs reported that this session helped the mentors to realize that they are capable of managing the centers themselves. Similarly, at the Kiffa Workshop, the mentors and Volunteers discussed how the Volunteers can better support the mentors in taking greater ownership of the GMCs. Lastly, the mentors at the 2005 Mentors’ Workshop were asked to respond to the question of how the GMCs can become sustainable. 512 They responded that the Volunteers should help to develop the capacity of the mentors, people should be identified by the MEN and 124 Peace Corps SECF, and they should receive training on how to do so. 513 However, these discussions were unaccompanied by a training in management techniques or skills. 514 Thus, Principal Activity and Desired Change 3.2 and 3.3 are not sufficiently addressed by the current format of the Mentors’ Workshop. Since the Mentors’ Workshop is the primary opportunity for training mentors, training in management must play a larger role in this workshop in order to attain sustainability of the GMCs. Furthermore, another problem with this objective is that it does not incorporate relevant indicators and evaluative methods aimed at determining the effectiveness of achieving the Principle Activity in 3.3. A final aspect of analysis of the Mentors’ Workshop goals highlights the inter‐workshop disparity in goals. There is a large disconnect between the goals and objectives of the Mentors’ Workshops and Principal Activity / Desired Change 3.2 and 3.3. This disconnect is compounded by the disparate goals that exist among the various Mentors’ Workshops that Peace Corps has conducted during the past three years (Box 14). For example, at the national level, the objectives of the 2005 Mentors’ Workshop were broader than those of the regional conferences held in 2006. Notable differences between these conferences were the evaluation of the GAD program, the training in computer skills and the introduction to the “Gender Approach” framework, all of which only occurred at the national conference. The regional workshops did not include any of these components. Furthermore, the objectives of each regional workshop, and their activities varied significantly in the scope of the material that they sought to address. While the objectives in Atar focused only on analyzing the activities of the GMCs and the role of the mentors therein, the goals of the Bogué and Kiffa workshops sought to develop the teaching capacity of the mentors, and encourage them to play a larger role in the management of the GMCs, in order to sustain the work of the centers. Therefore, the goals of the Bogué and Kiffa workshops were more focused on the long‐term impact that the mentors could have in the GMCs, as contrasted with the goals of the Atar workshop, which focused on an analysis of the current activities at the GMCs. 125 Part II: Program Evaluation Box 14: Goals from Past Mentor Workshops
National Goals (Goals from Mentors’ Workshop Report, February 15-17, 2005)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Explain a “Gender Approach” to education.
Evaluate Gender and Development program.
Evaluate the program of the Girls’ Mentoring Centers.
Make suggestions for the upcoming year and establish action plans.
Share experiences among mentors in different regions, different Centers and different cultures.
Reinforce the aptitudes of the mentors in tutoring and working with girls, and specifically with girls’
education.
Give specific and improved computer instruction to the mentors so that they, in turn, can teach
computer classes in the regions.
Empower the mentors to take ownership of the Girls’ Mentoring Centers and the girls’ education
programs that they promote so that their success becomes a priority in the community.
Atar:
•
•
Define and discuss the role and importance of Mauritanian mentors at the GMC, by conveying their
centrality to the center and importance as role models to the girls.
Analyze with the mentors the GMC and its activities.
Bogué:
•
•
•
Train Mauritanian mentors to facilitate lessons and activities for the GMCs.
Encourage the mentors to play a larger role in the management of the centers
Allow for information sharing between various GMCs.
Kiffa:
•
“Find suitable mentors who could help to sustain the nation’s GMC’s and to educate them in the
practices of the GMC’s in a manner that would significantly benefit the PCV’s and the current members
of their respective GMC’s.”
The lack of uniformity in the goals of each workshop illustrates the distinct needs that the mentors from each region have. These needs may be indicative of the engagement of the mentors in the work of the GMCs in each region. For example, present at the Kiffa workshop was a mentor from Magta Lahjar who has played an extremely active role in the opening, curriculum development and management of the GMC. In Kiffa, the goals of the Mentors’ Workshop focused more on the long‐term strategy for the GMCs, rather than training in teaching. Conversely, at the Atar workshop, where the objectives were more narrowly defined than those of Bogué or Kiffa, one of the mentors in attendance had only been working with the GMC for five months. 515 Therefore, it is possible that the goals of the workshop were more appropriately geared to developing the teaching capacity of the mentors, rather than addressing their long‐term role in the GMCs. This disparity in goals is also relevant in determining whether the Mentors’ Workshop should be held at the national or regional level in the future. As previously mentioned, given the disparity of goals, which indicates the distinct needs that must be addressed by each region, Peace Corps must determine whether smaller, regional workshops are the best way to cultivate mentors, or whether a national workshop, with a uniform set of goals that may or may not be applicable to each GMC is the best way to continue with the Mentors’ Workshop in the future. The Mentors’ Workshop has become a regional workshop for a number of reasons. One of the primary reasons that the GAD Program held workshops at the regional level in 2006, was in response to feedback from Volunteers that they were not engaged by the 2005 national workshop because it was tailored exclusively to the training of the mentors and conducted in a language, often Hassaniya, in which they lacked familiarity. 516 Regional 126 Peace Corps Conferences, they felt were a better way to train mentors in issues relevant to the needs of the GMCs at the regional level. Furthermore, holding the workshops at a regional level reduces language barriers by allowing for the grouping of GMCs whose members speak a common language, permit workshops to be held in the actual centers, and reduce transportation time for participants that are located far from the capital. 517 Following the 2006 conference, many Volunteers confirmed their preference for the regional conferences over a national workshop. The regional conferences, which assembled a smaller amount of people than the national conference, created an environment more conducive to active discourse and presented all representatives who were present with the opportunity to contribute and participate. 518 Additionally, mentors from Bogué conference agreed that the small group environment was beneficial to them, and provided them with the opportunity to fully participate in the lessons and ask questions. 519 Thus, the Volunteers from this conference recommended that GAD adopt a regional model for the future of the Mentors’ Workshop. However, mentors prefer a national workshop assembling all of the mentors from the various GMCs in Nouakchott. Although each region may encounter distinct challenges at their GMCs, the exchange of ideas and sharing best practices of the GMCs at the national level would be relevant to all of the GMCs. One mentor stated that an effective practice that works in Atar, should also work in Kaédi, and even in America. Furthermore, in order to ensure the large number of people who would attend a national conference could contribute, a sample of five or six people at the conference should be asked to present their ideas regarding the GMCs. The conference participants would then select the best ideas from those presented for implementation at the GMCs. 520 Allowing these regional workshops to continue may comprise the uniformity of the program, but ultimately, in accordance with the GAD objectives, if the Peace Corps seeks to transfer ownership of the GMCs to the mentors, then in this way, the goals of these workshops can be better tailored to the needs of the regional areas, rather than grouping everybody together at the national level. Therefore, if the ultimate goal is encouraging ownership of the GMCs, then allowing the regions to articulate their own goals to address that will be useful to the specific mentors may be the most appropriate option to pursue. Simultaneously, it is important to recognize that consistency among the goals and objectives of the workshops is critical, and holding a workshop at the national level would ensure consistency in the training that is offered to each mentor, and would allow them to share and circulate ideas for activities of the GMC and its future. However, given that the workshops held at the regional level provide an opportunity for tailoring the activities and trainings to the specific needs of the GMCs in the region, a possible solution could be to have one national workshop per year followed by multiple regional workshops. Feasibility
The feasibility of the Mentors’ Workshops in attaining its objectives depends on the availability of quality mentors who are willing to volunteer at the GMCs, the capacity of the Volunteers to train mentors, as well as the timing and location of the conference. 127 Part II: Program Evaluation Development of mentors as role models/ capacity building of mentors
A concern that arises in the context of the Mentors’ Workshop is how to identify and develop the capacity of the mentors who will serve as strong role models for the girls at the GMCs, and ultimately assume ownership of the centers. Currently, GAD has no official process for the selection for mentors. The Volunteers that work in GMCs select the mentors on an ad‐hoc basis. For example, one mentor at the Kaédi GMC is the host mother of a Volunteer. 521 Thus, in order to ensure the feasibility of the Mentors’ Workshop, GAD must identify characteristics that are important for an effective mentor, before it focuses on developing the capacity of these individuals through the workshop. Our research indicates that at the very least the mentors must have a skill set including literacy in French and/or Arabic, and the local dialect, numeracy and management skills. Without these skills, the mentors will be unable to effectively and independently manage the GMCs. It is also important to include in this list of characteristics those that have been proven to be characteristics of mentors who are serious about participating in the GMCs and do not quit. For example, one crucial characteristic for mentors is that they have a sense of volunteerism and are willing to donate their time to work at the GMCs as mentors. Currently, all of the women who work at the GMCs share this characteristic, as well as a belief in the necessity of girls’ education. One mentor stated that she works at the GMC because everybody should have a chance to learn. 522 She had nothing, but now she is intelligent and wants to share this with others. 523 Another mentor remarked that she volunteers at the GMCs because she has free time and wants to help the girls. 524 A second criterion of a good mentor may be the level of her economic needs, and how these needs affect her availability to work at the GMC. That is, a unifying characteristic among the mentors interviewed was that all but one woman is married and they all rely primarily upon their husbands for economic support. One mentor from Kaédi primarily took care of her children and occasionally sold clothes that she had tie‐dyed in the market. 525 The other mentor in Kaédi worked part‐time at a local NGO and worked part‐
time at the GMC as well. One of the mentors from Atar was unemployed and working at the GMC while searching for a job. 526 When questioned about whether she would continue to work as a mentor after obtaining a job, she responded that if she were able to secure employment in Atar, she would like to spend her spare time working at the GMC. 527 Lastly, the mentor at the Magta Lahjar GMC was single, and although she volunteers a large portion of her time at the GMC, she also offers computer classes to paying customers. 528 She charges the customers 2,500 UM for 10 hours of computer lessons per month. This mentor then keeps 90% of the fee for herself and donates 10% to the GMC. 529 The profile of these mentors suggests that for many, their ability to participate in the center and the Mentors’ Workshop is determined by their economic needs. Finally, it is unclear whether criteria for the selection of mentors as role models should consider the level of education of the mentor herself. Someone who has not completed or partially completed the secondary cycle, may still have valuable professional advice to offer the girls, but it is not clear how much they will be able to assist the girls in their studies. Conversely, a mentor who has completed secondary education, but who has never had a job may also not have the characteristics of a good mentor. Many of the respondents interviewed suggested that educational background at the secondary level and employment experience are not necessary criterion for identifying mentors. The Kiffa 128 Peace Corps 2006 Workshop Report noted that while these characteristics are relevant to the selection of a mentor, these are not dispositive criterion. 530 Furthermore, girls from the Magta Lahjar GMC identified their mentor as a strong role model despite the fact that she did not pass her bac. 531 Thus, the Peace Corps must articulate the criteria that will guide the process of their selection of mentors, in order for them to be successful. Volunteers must evaluate their chosen mentors for these two criteria, taking into consideration the particular needs of the GMC to determine the importance of a mentor’s educational level or professional experience. If they fail to do this, the feasibility of the goals of Mentors’ Workshop, as well as the overall prospect of sustainability of the GMCs by the mentors will be jeopardized. The Mentors’ Workshop can only achieve its goals in developing the capacity of the mentors and preparing them to assume ownership of the GMCs, if it is ensured of the participation of the mentors. Challenges in finding suitable mentors
Volunteers face numerous challenges not only in identifying mentors, but also in enticing them to stay at the GMCs. One such challenge is the identification of appropriate mentors within their community who are not only qualified to participate, but also willing to do so without compensation. Volunteers have asked mothers and older sisters of GMC members, as well as their own host mothers to be mentors for the GMCs. Reportedly, family members of girls attending the GMC are useful mentors because they have a personal stake in the GMCs since a member of their family is reaping the benefits of this program. 532 However, the sector in which each Volunteer works may contribute to their ability to target quality mentors. For example, many of the GMC managers are Education Volunteers, and they may not know many adults in their community, or they may only know those with school age children. Therefore, in identifying mentors for the GMCs, Education Volunteers have to rely on their limited personal network, and the network of the school administration in identifying mentors. Conversely, a Volunteer in the SED sector may know many more adults that could be potential mentors. For example, in Magta Lahjar the SED Volunteer works closely with women’s cooperatives and local NGOs in this village, and she asked these NGOs to recommend animatrices as mentors for the GMCs. These animatrices posses many attributes that would be valuable in a mentor, such as language ability, and comfort presenting in front of a large group of people. 533 Therefore, it may be beneficial for Peace Corps to seek out these animatrices in all GMC sites. Timing
Duration The appropriate duration of the Mentors’ Workshop is another issue to be determined for the future of this project. The 2004 and 2005 Mentors’ Workshops lasted for a period of three days, while the 2006 workshop transpired for two days only. The respondents interviewed stated that this workshop, which lasted for two days from 10:00 AM until 4:00 PM was a sufficient, if not slightly excessive. 534 Therefore, Peace Corps must establish an appropriate balance between the duration of the workshop and the topics covered therein. 129 Part II: Program Evaluation Time of year Another issue regarding the Mentor’s Workshop concerns the time of year during which the workshop is held. The 2006 workshops were held the last weekend of February or the first weekend of March in order to coincide with International Women’s Day, which is March 8. 535 More appropriate, however, may be to hold the Mentors’ Workshops to coincide with the beginning of the year to have a motivating effect on the mentors by encouraging them to be creative in planning and preparing for the incoming class of GMC girls. Holding the workshop at the time period when it is presently held may not encourage this motivation because the tone has already been set for the functioning of the GMCs. However, one difficulty in conducting the workshop before the GMCs have opened for the year is that new mentors may not have a context in which to understand the trainings provided at the workshop. Furthermore, Volunteers and mentors alike may be distracted by their preparations to open the GMCs again. Therefore, an alternate possibility could be to hold the workshop a few weeks after the GMC has reopened. At this time of year, the new mentors will have been exposed to the functioning of the GMC, and the Volunteers and other mentors will no longer be distracted by their preparations to open the center. Yet, the precedent for the functioning of the GMC may not yet have been determined, and there may be space for flexibility and creativity in the implementation of programs and activities. Impact
As previously mentioned, a pervasive difficulty in the RIMGAD program is the lack of monitoring and evaluation methods to assess the impact of the GAD program. This challenge is also present in relation to the Mentors’ Workshop. The only indicators that exist for evaluating the impact of this conference are stated in Principal Activities and Desired Changes 3.2 and 3.3. However, GAD has not developed an evaluation mechanism to determine if the Mentors’ Workshop has helped to realize these objectives. Furthermore, no monitoring mechanism exists in this area as well. Thus, GAD has relied on formal feedback, in the form of workshop reports, and informal feedback from the Volunteers and mentors to assess the impact of the Mentors’ Workshop. Much of this feedback has focused on the content of the Workshop in measuring its success and impact upon the mentoring capacity of the participants. Effective practices
Presentation by Imam The 2005 Mentors’ Workshop, the Kiffa 2006 and the Bogué 2006 Workshop began with a presentation from a local Imam regarding the important of girls’ education and the role of mentors in Islam. The introduction by the Imam motivated the women to engage in the workshop because he reinforced to them that working to improve girls’ education is in accordance with the tenets of Islam. 536 Therefore, beginning the workshop with a presentation by an Imam regarding Islam and girls’ education is an effective way to set the tone for an engaging workshop. Non‐traditional teaching methods Many Volunteers remarked that they had to cover a large amount of material for each workshop, and that non‐traditional teaching methods were useful in sustaining the 130 Peace Corps attention of the mentors. Some Volunteers cited the use of non‐traditional methods such as role‐play, songs, games, flash cards, flipcharts, stories and drawings as effective and informative materials for teaching and training that should be used in future sessions. 537 Additionally, Volunteers reported that the mentors appreciated interactive presentations and discussions. Volunteers from the Kiffa Workshop noted that in their workshop they created opportunities for free, open discussions during which the mentors were able to share ideas with each other and answer questions for each other. They contrasted this approach to a methodology where a Volunteer presented information to mentors and then fielded questions from the audience that were specifically directed to the presenter. This type of exchange could also be extremely beneficial in encouraging and motivating the mentors to assume ownership of their centers. The recognition that their peers can provide answers to their own questions, and they need not rely on the information of PCVs, is important for the empowerment and understanding of the mentors that they can conduct these centers without the guidance of Peace Corps. Ineffective practices
Although the workshops were successful in many aspects, a number of the workshops encountered difficulties in the form of repetitive topics or logistical problems which challenged the overall impact of these conferences. Repetitiveness of training Although Mentors’ Workshops covered a variety of topics related to developing the capacity of mentors, the overlapping subject matter of many of these themes led many participants to perceive the Workshop as repetitive. The topics addressed in the Atar 2006 Workshop touched on various topics related to the role of the mentors at the GMCs, such as defining the role of a mentor and defining the role of a facilitator. These discussions, although distinct, often contained overlapping issues, and ultimately, appeared to be repetitive. 538 One mentor noted this problem. When asked what topics were covered at the workshop, she responded that the mentors discussed the center and learned the problems about which many girls need to talk. 539 This response illustrates that although the Atar workshop addressed the various aforementioned topics, this mentor had difficulty distinguishing between the content of the discrete subjects. Ultimately, her perception of the workshop was that it addressed only two major themes. This reflects the sentiment expressed by some participants that the same subjects were discussed “over and over again.” 540 This repetition could be dangerous for the success of the workshop if the mentors feel their time is not being efficiently spent, and they are not adequately engaged, but rather continue to discuss the same topics in the workshop. Furthermore, this repetitiveness poses a particular problem for women who attended Mentors’ Workshops in previous years and were exposed to the same training. Given the annual nature of the workshop, in order to keep attendance and interest high, future workshops must strike a delicate balance between presenting new information to mentors that have previously attended workshops, from which all participants can benefit, and ensuring that new mentors receive adequate training. 131 Part II: Program Evaluation Lack of translation services Another obstacle confronted by some workshop participants was the lack of adequate translation between the mentors and the Volunteers. Specifically, the Kiffa workshop encountered this problem. The participants of this workshop had to rely on a PCV to translate between French and Hassaniya for both the Volunteers and the mentors. 541 The primary difficulty that this group experienced in translation was that the Volunteer translating only had a basic level of Hassaniya, and therefore could not adequately translate others’ comments and thoughts so that all workshop participants could reap the full benefits of the suggestions and discussion that occurred. The lack of competent translation services could compromise the credibility of the workshop, because the mentors are asked to travel long distances to attend a workshop in which they cannot meaningfully partake. 542 Therefore, Peace Corps must consider possibilities for translation in future conferences. Lack of presence of Peace Corps representative Many respondents also expressed frustration that a Peace Corps national representative who has a background in the functioning of the GMCs was not present at the Workshop to answer mentors’ questions. The presence of a national Peace Corps representative would represent to the mentors that the workshop is important to Peace Corps, and this could increase their willingness to participate in the workshop and the GMC. Sustainability
One of the major goals of GAD in terms of sustainability of the GMCs is to transition the management of the GMCs to the local community. The mentors will be directly responsible for managing these centers for the benefit of their communities. 543 Thus, an important aspect of the Mentors’ Workshop is to begin to prepare the mentors for this transition of power from a Peace Corps program to one that they direct and manage. However, not all of the Mentors’ Workshops adequately addressed this aim. In the 2005 workshop, one of the goals, as previously mentioned, was to “empower the mentors to take ownership of the Girls’ Mentoring Centers and the girls’ education programs.” In 2006, the only workshop that specifically raised this issue was the Kiffa Mentors’ Workshop, 544 although the Bogué workshop sought to encourage the mentors to play a larger role in the management of the centers. 545 Strategies for transition
Formally discussing opportunities for management of the GMCs by the Volunteers was reportedly an effective method of gauging the interest of the mentors in managing the GMCs, and causing them to start thinking seriously about this opportunity, its feasibility and implications. The Volunteers from the Kiffa Mentors’ Workshop reported that discussing the opportunities for the mentors to assume management of the GMC yielded positive results. The Kiffa Workshop held a session about how the Volunteers can support the mentors in taking greater ownership and responsibility for the GMCs, which led to a discussion about the expectations that Volunteers had of mentors, and the expectations that mentors had of Volunteers. Ultimately, the mentors and Volunteers brainstormed methods to enable this transition of control in a slow but consistent manner. One suggestion from this discussion was that the Volunteers permit mentors to open the GMC when they are out of town. Another suggestion was that the Volunteers provide the mentors with a key to the center. 546 These suggestions provide an opportunity for a slow 132 Peace Corps transition of power from the Volunteers to the mentors to occur. By following these suggestions, the Volunteers can support and supervise the mentors in the management of the center, while at the same time providing them with the opportunity to practice the managing the GMCs. Thus, Peace Corps should seek other opportunities to encourage this slow and supervised transition of the management of the GMCs from the Volunteers to the local community. Skills needed/building capacity
However, in order to ultimately enable the sustainability of the GMCs by the local community, the topics discussed in the Mentors’ Workshop should better prepare mentors to manage the centers independently. Many of the skills that are crucial for the management of a program such as the GMCs are not addressed by the Mentors’ Workshop. For example, in order to manage the center, mentors will need a background in financial management, targeting funding sources, and grant writing. Additionally, the Workshop could include the preparation of an action plan, with input from both Volunteers and mentors, regarding the transition of control of the GMCs from the Volunteers to the mentors. 547 Training in these skills, however, is not currently provided by the Mentors’ Workshop. Furthermore, an important component in preparing for the sustainability of the GMCs is to engage the local community, which is currently not addressed by the Mentors’ Workshop. The role of the mentor is extremely important in this respect since she will assume the responsibility for the management of the centers, and is therefore the representative to the community for this project. Therefore, the involvement of the mentor in community mobilization and the local community’s understanding of her role at the GMCs is crucial. To illustrate, many of the reports and questionnaires indicated that local community members were unaware of the position of the mentor at each center. Among the parents surveyed of girls who do and do not attend the GMCs, the parents only referenced the role of the mentors in connection with the Magta Lahjar GMC. 548 Although in Bogué many mothers reported that they heard about the GMCs because the mentor at this center informed them of its existence, generally, most parents were only aware of the “white people” working at the GMCs. 549 This lack of awareness of the role of the mentors at the GMCs may pose obstacles to the transition of the management of the GMCs to local communities. The perception of the GMCs as being run by “white people,” not members of the local community, illustrates that the community does not see itself as playing a role in these centers. Since the mentor is in essence the representative for the GMCs to the local community, she must play a larger role in developing community awareness about the GMCs, and her role therein, in order to prepare for the sustainability of this project. Thus, both the Peace Corps and the mentors must use the Mentors’ Workshop to develop and train the mentors in effective ways of engaging and sensitizing the local community about the activities of the GMCs and the role that they can play in these centers. 133 Part II: Program Evaluation Conclusion
Although mentors work and learn from Volunteers year round, the Mentors’ Workshop provides the best opportunity for mentors to effectively gain skills that will enhance their capacity to manage the GMCs. Our research indicates that the Peace Corps is still discovering the best strategy for increasing the impact and relevance of this workshop, because the workshop’s goals and the mentorsʹ needs have changed significantly since it began. This has resulted in a set of regional conference objectives, which lack uniformity. The diversity of needs and resources in each of the GMC communities does necessitate some level of diversity in goals, but the overall objectives of the Mentors’ Workshop must also simultaneously reflect the long‐term goal of transferring the management of the centers to the mentors. Our recommendations for how Peace Corps should adapt the implementation of the Workshop to achieve a sustainable transfer of management are outlined in the recommendations section. Annual Girls’ Education Conference
Project overview and background
The Annual Girls’ Education Conference (AGEC) is a high‐profile annual event organized in Nouakchott by Peace Corps in cooperation with the MEFS, SECF and UNICEF. For this event, girls from the interior are escorted to Nouakchott for a week to visit universities, hospitals, workplaces, and meet professional women from various fields. The following analysis briefly reviews the history of the AGEC and the successes of past girls’ conferences in the United States, and subsequently analyzes the relevance, feasibility, impact and sustainability of the conference, by connecting the AGEC to the broader goals of Peace Corps and the Government of Mauritania with respect to girls’ education. The AGEC evolved from the first two RIMGAD projects started in 1996, which were the Take Your Daughters to Work Day and Big Sister/Little Sister program. These two projects occurred in the regional capitals, and were originally funded by PCPP funds or Volunteers’ own contributions. Take Your Daughters to Work Day introduced girls at the secondary school level to professional women in their communities, and the girls shadowed these women during a day of work. Similarly, Big Sister/Little Sister sought to expose girls at the primary school level to the experiences of girls’ education at the secondary level. Volunteers accompanied girls living in villages to the regional capital where they spent two to three days shadowing girls enrolling collège and lycée. 550 In 2000, Take Your Daughters to Work Day was replaced by the first Annual Girls Education Conference held in Nouakchott. The design of the conference retained the essential aspects of Take your Daughters to Work Day by allowing the girls to reside with and shadow professional women in Nouakchott, and by presenting other professional women to speak to the girls. This conference also drew on the experiences of Big Sister/Little Sister by transporting girls from the interior to the national capital of Nouakchott. In 2005, more than 60 female students from Aïoun, Aleg, Atar, Bababé, Bogué, Kaédi, Maal, Magta Lahjar, Nouakchott, Nouadhibou, Rosso, Selibabi and Tidjikja attended the conference, which addressed the theme of “Information and Communication Technology.” 551 Three girls were chosen from each GMC to participate in 134 Peace Corps the conference. The opening of the conference was well publicized and attended by Ministers and other notables, and the conference was covered extensively by the local media. The 2005 conference included activities such as: 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
A tour of the University of Nouakchott A tour of the National HIV/AIDS Ambulant Treatment Center run by the Red Cross A discussion on women and new technologies and a documentary on two influential Mauritanian women Informal debates and discussions on the obstacles to girls’ education in Mauritania and women’s rights in Mauritania A tour of the Mauritanian Television Studios An afternoon at the beach, including environmental education lessons and activities. 552 Theory and literature review
The history of youth conferences worldwide is challenging to trace, but there is ample documentation that by the 1920s in the United States, youth conferences for young farm workers, factory workers and students were being organized at the regional and national level. One report from a young women’s industrial conference describes a number of benefits of these conferences, including interacting with workers from different industries, group discussions of common problems, lectures on topics of interest, and planning and management of the conference by the girls themselves. Most importantly, the conference stimulated “groups of girls all over the country to take their place as part of the ‘public’ for the study and the resolution of their own problems.” 553 This description evokes several themes relevant to our discussion of the AGEC and mirrors some of the activities of the AGEC itself. First, an exchange of views amongst girls who are peers, from diverse backgrounds leads to an expansion of their vision. Second, the girls gain a special sort of education that comes from planning and organizing activities by themselves. 554 Finally, the girls become part of the “public” by discussing and studying their own problems. 555 Many of these ideas emerged in the discussions with our respondents about the AGEC. Another useful concept in studying the AGEC is the idea and importance of non‐formal education. Studies of the 4‐H program in the United States have focused on the benefits of non‐formal education and its differentiation from a formal educational model. From the outset, 4‐H was targeted the education of youth, and conferences and meetings were part of that education. Stephen Russell argues that the non‐formal nature of the learning done within 4‐H, through club activities, meetings, and conferences, is a key part of its success in influencing youth development. 556 For Russell, the important aspects of non‐formal education are personal choice of subject matter, experiential learning and the development of personal relationships. 557 Once again, at least some of these aspects exist to some degree within the AGEC, while others could be further developed. Analysis
Our analysis of the AGEC examines the stated goals of the conference and how they relate to larger Peace Corps and government plans. We also consider how the planning and activities of the conference might achieve those goals. 135 Part II: Program Evaluation Box 15: AGEC Goals
1. “To promote girls education with a better potential for transition, retention, and continuity by inspiring
female students…[and demonstrating] that it is possible for women to study, to become a mother, and to
work.” 558
2. “To encourage and motivate girls to continue their studies and pursue educational opportunities after
secondary school.” 559
The AGEC has a different theme every year, which is chosen by the VC and the GAD committee in
consultation with SECF and other partners. In choosing the theme, these actors consult the conference
feedback from the previous year and consider topics of interest in Mauritania at the time. 560
Relevance of goals
The two goals stated in Box 15 relate to the larger goal of promoting girls’ education and development, but with a particular focus on individual demand for education. The assumption behind the goals of the AGEC is that by increasing girls’ individual demand for education and demonstrating to them the possibilities open to professional women in Nouakchott, this will enhance their transition, retention and completion. The important issues to consider in understanding the relationship between demand and retention are the effects of girls’ demand on education choices, and the amount of power that girls have in negotiating decisions about education within their families. Our research suggests that in general girls’ attitudes are not a crucial influence on educational choices. Educational choices in Mauritania are generally not made through the negotiation of individual demands, but rather, they are formulated by balancing the needs of the family. Girls’ demand for education
As Part I of this report has discussed, there are a number of obstacles to girls’ education, among them early marriage, pregnancy, poverty, and the capacity of the educational system. Among all of our respondents, only girls who had attended the AGEC saw girls’ attitudes (and thus, individual demand) as a primary obstacle to education. 561 However, these AGEC attendees were all extremely motivated girls with supportive families and may not be a representative sample. In contrast, another focus group of girls who had dropped out listed several reasons why, which included pregnancy, the family wanting their daughter to attend Koranic school and leaving school to work in the household. 562 None of the reasons cited by these girls for dropping out of school indicated that they left because of low demand for education. This is not meant to suggest that girls’ demand for education does not matter. If girls are treated as active agents who bargain for their own preferences, then a focus on their individual demand is relevant. However, we also need to see them as part of a larger context that surrounds them and conditions their actions and choices. Thus, rather than focusing solely on demand for education, it is important to work on removing obstacles that prevent girls from fulfilling this demand. The AGEC programming does acknowledge the general Mauritanian context and obstacles to education, as evidenced by the care taken to choose host families, provide chaperones, and reassure the families that their girls will be safe, as well as the discussions held at the conference regarding obstacles to girls’ education and women’s rights. Nonetheless, the concern with the larger environment of girls’ education and development is not reflected in the top level goals for the conference. The goals focus more on inspiring and empowering girls than on tackling the obstacles they face to pursuing their education. 136 Peace Corps Thus, the relevance of the goals of the AGEC to the overall goals of Peace Corps with respect to girls’ education is too narrowly focused on achieving a particular impact in the area of demand by the girls, and may benefit from a broader focus on other obstacles to girls’ education. Please refer to the recommendations section for further discussion of this possibility. Professional career focus
Aside from the relation of the AGEC goals to the wider girls’ education context, we noted that while the goals listed above seem very similar, they imply different types of programming. Encouraging girls to continue their studies is more of a theoretical goal, based on demonstrating the long‐term value of an education, whereas demonstrating the possibility of balancing career and family is a more practical objective. Discussions with our respondents suggested that the conference programming is able to successfully balance these two tasks, but this dual focus should be further elaborated by RIMGAD in the planning of future conferences. In addition, the twin goals of encouraging girls to pursue educational opportunities after secondary school and learning to balance professional and family life favor a particular career path which is unfortunately not available to most Mauritanian girls. The idea of showing how one can “become a mother, and to work” valorizes a certain type of work, namely wage labor outside the home. 563 The implication is that girls do not need to learn how to do housework or agricultural work and be a mother at the same time; presumably, they can already carry out these functions. Rather, they must learn how one can work in an office and still fulfill family responsibilities. This is clearly stated in the Conference’s Annual Report: “The objective of this ‘host family’ environment is to allow the girls to see that there are professional women in Nouakchott who hold important jobs within Ministries and organizations and schools and private corporations that are, at the same time, mothers and wives.” 564 Unfortunately, the reality of Mauritania limits the possibilities for girls to pursue similar opportunities. For example, of approximately 20,000 students who start the first year of public collège, only 8,000 will continue to the first year of lycée. According to the PNDSE, the number of students entering lycée is to be reduced to 5,000 during the next few years, as part of a focus on quality over quantity in the education system. 565 Of the students who do enter the secondary cycle, perhaps 85% (6,800) or less will continue to terminale and present themselves for the bac, and only 10 to 20% will pass this examination in a given year. 566 Thus, out of a total of 20,000 students who began secondary school, approximately 1,500 will have the chance to proceed to university. By these rough calculations, the odds of a randomly selected girl in secondary school proceeding to university are less than one in 12 (7.5%). By way of comparison, 85% of students in the United States will complete high school, and of those at least 65% will continue on to college. 567 In Mauritania, a small minority of students are afforded this opportunity. Therefore, the focus of the AGEC goals and programming on certain professional careers, many of which require a university education, may present a set of unrealistic options to the girls who attend the conference, and the friends with whom they share their experiences. The feedback from Volunteers also supports this assertion, because many suggested that the dreams of these girls to pass the bac and attend university were somewhat unlikely given their performance in school. 568 137 Part II: Program Evaluation Thus, a larger issue that merits further reflection by Peace Corps and its partners is the identification of the overall goal in promotion of girls’ education. They must determine whether their ultimate goal is to raise the educational level of all girls as equitably as possible, or to provide skills and encouragement to the most promising. These goals do not need to be contradictory, but the way they are currently articulated is unclear. The goals of the conference as stated seem to focus on encouraging girls to attain post‐
secondary education, rather than finding a way to improve the quality of and access to secondary education in general. Development of goals
Finally, the goals and themes of the AGEC seem to be determined in a top‐down fashion, rather than by the participants. The agenda and topics of discussion are determined mostly by Peace Corps, in consultation with Ministries and other partners, but without much consultation with the girls themselves. This is problematic because the goals of the conference should be aligned with the goals of the communities as much as possible. Some community input is used in the planning, for example, past conference results are consulted when determining new programming and themes, and surveys were used in 2005 to understand girls’ familiarity with ICT to help direct the ICT theme of the conference. 569 Nonetheless, the planning of the AGEC suggests that it is oriented as a conference for the girls, but not with them. They experience the activities at the conference, but they do not have ownership over the content. This disconnect may pose problems for the impact and sustainability of the conference because if girls do not have a sense of ownership of the conference, they will not actively participate in its continuation over time. Feasibility
In considering the feasibility of the AGEC, the major concern to address is the likelihood of the conference to achieve the aforementioned goals. The programming of the AGEC is likely to achieve the goals discussed above, but in a limited fashion. The illustration of how to balance professional life and family life is provided by the experience of living with the host mother. The promotion of retention is supported by the tantalizing images and possibilities the girls experience while in Nouakchott. Therefore, if their family circumstances permit, attendees will probably remain in school. However, the biggest hurdle to the larger achievement of the stated goals is the limited reach of the conference. Currently, assuming this conference functions as planned, it will send a cohort of 60 girls every year to the University in Nouakchott, where they will represent five to ten percent of women entering the University that year. However, these 60 girls only represent 0.2% of all secondary school girls in Mauritania. Discussions with Peace Corps indicated that increasing the scope of the conference using the current format would be a challenge. Furthermore, as will be discussed below, the impacts of the conference beyond the girls who attended it was minimal. Thus, the current design of the AGEC is likely to achieve its goals, but only on a small scale. Another contributing factor to the limited reach of the conference is the selection process. Volunteers select the girls who will attend the conference, either through an essay contest or attendance and behavior records. 570 Therefore, the girls who are selected for the conference are not necessarily seen as delegates or representatives of the GMC or the community, but rather as independent winners who have the chance to go to the capital city. This process impacts the reach of the conference because girls who are chosen in this 138 Peace Corps manner are less likely to feel responsibility to act on behalf of their peers or share data and findings from the conference with them, which reduces the impact of a trickle‐down effect. In addition, in the case of the essay contest, the Volunteers are likely to select girls whose essays best describe their reasons for wanting to attend the conference, and therefore, it is possible that the girls who are already most convinced of the value of education are the ones sent to the conference. Thus, the selection method does not impose any responsibility on girls who attend the conference since their peers are not involved in deciding who is sent. The selection method may also fail to identify the girls who are most in need of the attitude adjustment towards education, which the conference can provide. Thus, the selection method should be considered in the context of the higher‐
level goals of educational promotion. Alternate selection models will be explored in the recommendations section. Impact
Girls who attended
The impact of the AGEC, based on our interviews and questionnaires, in some cases surpassed its stated goals. Two girls interviewed in Kaédi affirmed that the professional women they met at the AGEC had a significant impact on them because they encouraged them to continue their studies. They believed that the conference could give girls courage to fight against the obstacles that prevent them from completing their education. 571 Other attendees interviewed in Atar were more affected by the particular skills or information they learned, such as digital photography and photo manipulation, or information on AIDS. 572 The responses from the questionnaires also suggested that the conference inspired them, gave them courage, showed them what women were able to do, and motivated them to try to continue their studies at the university level. Another success of the conference that was highlighted by some of our respondents was the interactions with girls from different regions. One girl from Atar met girls from Kaédi and Nouadhibou and is still in touch with them via telephone. She remarked that life was so different in different cities, but this did not seem to be a barrier to understanding of issues, but rather a bridge that formed friendships. 573 These connections can also lead to better problem solving. As discussed above, the literature on conferences and non‐formal learning underlines the importance of peer‐to‐peer learning and sharing of experiences by people from different backgrounds. Thus, the impact of these informal friendships should not be underestimated, and should even be promoted to an even greater extent as an explicit goal of the conference. The long‐term impact of the conference is more difficult to measure, since there is no structure in place to keep track of former conference participants. Girls who did not attend
The impact of the conference on girls who did not attend was minimal. Most girls who did not attend perceived the conference as a chance to go to the beach and visit Nouakchott. Some of the questionnaires suggested that attendees focused more on the “downtime” activities in their descriptions to their friends, rather than the educational activities they had experienced, which explains the impressions of the girls who did not go. 574 While some girls who attended the conference shared their experiences with 139 Part II: Program Evaluation friends, this information sharing was not formalized and only those close to the attendees learned of its impact on them. Peace Corps and the Government
The national visibility of the conference is definitely useful to Peace Corps. When asked about the importance of the media coverage and visibility of the conference versus the impact on individual girls, both key Peace Corps respondents stated that the visibility and media coverage were equally important, if not sometimes more important, than the individual impact on the girls. The national visibility of the conference gives Peace Corps the opportunity to highlight important issues, publicize its programs, and use the outcomes of the conference to influence the government. The government also reacts to the conference by sending its Ministers to attend, and is happy to be seen as promoting girls’ education on the national scene. In this sense, the conference, and the national visibility in the media, does have an impact on Peace Corps and ultimately, on government policy. However, one respondent stated that sometimes the strong focus on visibility can be to the detriment of programming for the girls: “I also think that the conference could be improved by cutting down on some of the protocol, or some of the formalities, so that the girls could make the most of their time in Nouakchott and learn more while they are here.” 575 Thus, the planning of the conference must acknowledge these two impact areas and balance the macro‐level effects on government policy with the micro‐level effects on girls. Sustainability
As previously stated in the RIMGAD section of this evaluation, analysis of sustainability should not focus on the project to be sustained but on the ability of its achievements to last beyond the withdrawal of or decrease in external assistance. Currently, the effects of the AGEC are unlikely to be sustained beyond a reduction in or complete withdrawal of Peace Corps support because there is no ownership of the process by the parties involved, specifically by the girls of the GMCs. Three previously discussed aspects of ownership are lacking from this project. First, planning for the conference occurs in a top‐down manner, such that the girls themselves do not have any ownership of the thematic direction of the conference or of the activities and issues addressed. Second, the selection of girls for the conference is done by Volunteers, rather than by a process of delegation in which GMC members elect conference participants themselves. Selection of the girls by the Volunteers may tend to alienate those who are not selected, and make those who are selected less beholden to their classmates. Finally, those who attend the AGEC are not required to report to the girls in the Center or their communities, about their activities at the AGEC, and therefore, the benefits of the conference do not extend beyond the participants. Thus, the conference has little impact on the larger community, and specifically, girls who did not attend the conference. Follow‐up activities to discuss the conference and its effect on participants are currently ad‐hoc and informal, which presents only a weak opportunity for the effects of the conference to be sustained in the community. In this domain, RIMGAD can learn from Peace Corps Benin’s well‐established Take Your Daughters to Work Conference. This national conference occurs annually, but recently implemented small, decentralized workshops that occur at the regional level following 140 Peace Corps the national conference. These decentralized mini‐workshops are organized by girls and their mentors, and allow the girls to spread their new knowledge to their communities. 576 Furthermore, the planning and coordination of the AGEC requires both strong regional representation for the selection of candidates and a strong central presence in Nouakchott in order to schedule speakers, arrange for host mothers, and plan activities. Thus, institutional sustainability of the conference is low because there are not many institutions within Mauritania with Peace Corps’ capacity to financially and technically support such a conference. Conclusion
The AGEC today has a strong impact on the girls who attend, but several critiques were leveled against it. First, the goals of the program, which target individual demand and focus on demonstrating “professional” careers, may only be relevant to a minority of students. Second, the small number of girls that attend the conference each year limits the impact. Third, there is little community ownership of the conference. Fourth, both the sustainability of the effects of the conference as well as the long‐term sustainability of the institution are likely to be limited. The recommendations section below will propose solutions to each of these issues. We envision the AGEC as becoming the top of a pyramid of projects, conferences, school clubs and groups. By retargeting its goals, adjusting the planning and programming, and widening the reach, the AGEC can have a much larger impact on the education of girls. Peace Corps 1 and 2, E‐mail to Racey Bingham, 5 Apr. 2006. Peace Corps 2, E‐mail to Racey Bingham, 5 Apr. 2006. 417 USAID Senegal, Annual Program Statement (May 2000), <http://www.usaid.gov/procurement_bus_opp/procurement/annual_pstatements/eddi.html>. 418 Peace Corps 1 and 2, E‐mail to Racey Bingham, 5 Apr. 2006. 419 Associate Program Officer (UNICEF), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006; Peace Corps 1, E‐mail to Racey Bingham, 5 Apr. 2006. 420 USAID, “Africa Education Initiative (AEI),” (20 Apr. 2006) <http://www.usaid.gov/locations/sub‐
saharan_africa/initiatives/aei.html>. 421 Peace Corps 1, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 14 Mar. 2006. 422 Peace Corps, “Initial Proposal to the Ambassador” (2005). 423 Peace Corps, “Africa Team Handout,” no date; and Peace Corps, GAD Agency Initiative Report (2005). 424 Peace Corps 2, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 14 Mar. 2006. 425 “Initial Proposal to the Ambassador”; Peace Corps 1, E‐mail to Racey Bingham, 5 Apr. 2006. 426 Peace Corps 1, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 14 Mar 2006. 427 “Initial Proposal to the Ambassador.” 428 GMC Managers, Nouakchott, Focus Group, 14 Mar. 2006. 429 SECF Regional Representative 2, Atar, Personal Interview, 17 Mar.2006; SECF Regional Representative 1, Kaedi, Personal Interview, 20 Mar. 2006. 430 Peace Corps, “Education Project Framework” (2005). 431 Peace Corps 1, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 14 Mar. 2006. 432 Peace Corps 1, E‐mail to Racey Bingham, 5 Apr. 2006. 433 Peace Corps 1, E‐mail to Racey Bingham, 5 Apr. 2006. 434 Peace Corps 1, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 14 Mar. 2006. 435 Peace Corps, “Project Status Report Education 2005”. 436 Peace Corps, Girls’ Mentoring Center Ideabook (Jan. 2006) 24. 437 Girls’ Mentoring Center Ideabook 24. 438 Alec Fyfe, Child Labour: A guide to project design ILO (Geneva: 1993) 17. 439 “Initial Proposal to the Ambassador” 1. 415
416
141 Part II: Program Evaluation “Initial Proposal to the Ambassador” 2. “Initial Proposal to the Ambassador” 1. 442 Peace Corps 2, E‐mail to Juliet Young, 12 Apr. 2006. 443 Girls’ Mentoring Center Ideabook 4; Peace Corps 1, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 9 Jan. 2006. 444 Girls’ Mentoring Center Ideabook 4. 445 Girls’ Mentoring Center Ideabook 5. 446 Girls’ Mentoring Center Ideabook 4; Jessica Dunsmore e‐mail 5 May 2006. 447 Girls’ Mentoring Center Ideabook 4. 448 Jeanne Moulton, “Formal and nonformal education and empowered behavior; a review of the research literature” (Apr. 1997) 12. 449 UNICEF, “Accelerating Progress in Girls’ Education,” (2005) 23. 450 Eileen Kane, ʺGirls Education in Africa: What do we know about strategies that work?ʺ The World Bank (2004). 451 Questionnaires from girls who attend the GMCs. 452 Peace Corps, Volunteer Assignment Description (2006) 3‐4. 453 Peace Corps, Education Project Framework (2005) 4. 454 Peace Corps, “Initial Proposal to the Ambassador” (2005) 1. 455 Peace Corps 2, E‐mail to Racey Bingham, 5 Apr. 2006. 456 Volunteer Assignment Description 3–4. 457 “Initial Proposal to the Ambassador.” 458 “Initial Proposal to the Ambassador.” 459 Education Project Framework. 460 “Initial Proposal to the Ambassador” 2. 461 “Initial Proposal to the Ambassador” 2. 462 Education Project Framework 3–4. 463 Peace Corps 1 and 2, E‐mail to Racey Bingham, 5 Apr. 2006. 464 Peace Corps 2, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 14 Mar. 2006. 465 Girls’ Mentoring Center Ideabook 4. 466 Peace Corps Volunteer 1, E‐mail to Juliet Young, 9 Apr. 2006. 467 GMC Managers, Nouakchott, Focus Group, 14 Mar. 2006. 468 Questionnaires from parents of girls who do not attend the GMCs. 469 Lycée Director, Kaedi, Personal Interview, 21 Mar. 2006 470 Questionnaires from parents of girls who attend the GMCs. 471 Lycée Director, Kaedi, Personal Interview, 21 Mar. 2006 472 Teachers, Lexeiba, Focus group, 20 Mar. 2006 473 Girls’ Mentoring Center Ideabook 22. 474 Peace Corps Volunteers, Nouakchott, Focus Group, 14 Mar. 2006. 475 Peace Corps Volunteer 1, E‐mail to Juliet Young, 9 Apr. 2006; Peace Corps Volunteer 2, E‐mail to Juliet Young, 11 Apr. 2006. 476 Peace Corps 2, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 14 Mar. 2006. 477 Peace Corps Volunteer 1, E‐mail to Juliet Young, 9 Apr. 2006. 478 Peace Corps 1, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 14 Mar. 2006; Peace Corps Volunteer 1, E‐mail to Juliet Young, 9 Apr. 2006. 479 Girls’ Mentoring Center Ideabook 4. 480 Girls’ Mentoring Center Ideabook 23. 481 Peace Corps Volunteers, Nouakchott, Focus Group, 14 Mar. 2006. 482 Peace Corps Volunteers, Nouakchott, Focus Group, 14 Mar. 2006. 483 Peace Corps Volunteers, Nouakchott, Focus Group, 14 Mar. 2006. 484 APCD Girlsʹ Education and Empowerment Program, Peace Corps Togo, Personal Interview, 23 Mar. 2006. 485 Peace Corps Volunteers, Nouakchott, Focus Group, 14 Mar. 2006. 486 Peace Corps Volunteers, Nouakchott, Focus Group, 14 Mar. 2006. 487 Questionnaires from girls who attend the GMCs. 488 Questionnaires from girls who attend the GMCs. 489 Questionnaires from girls who attend the GMCs. 490 Peace Corps Volunteers, Nouakchott, Focus Group, 14 Mar. 2006. 491 Questionnaires from parents of girls who attend the GMCs. 492 Peace Corps 2, E‐mail to Racey Bingham, 19 Apr. 2006. 440
441
142 Peace Corps Peace Corps 2, E‐mail to Racey Bingham, 19 Apr. 2006. Peace Corps 2, E‐mail to Racey Bingham, 19 Apr. 2006. 495 Peace Corps 2, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 14 Mar. 2006. 496 Peace Corps 2, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 14 Mar. 2006. 497 Peace Corps 1, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 14 Mar. 2006. 498 Peace Corps 1, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 14 Mar. 2006; Peace Corps Volunteers, Nouakchott, Focus Group, 14 Mar. 2006. 499 Local Administrator, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 15 Mar. 2006. 500 Peace Corps, “Initial Proposal to the Ambassador” (2005). 501 “Initial Proposal to the Ambassador.” 502 Peace Corps 2, E‐mail to Johanna Fine, 1 May 2006. 503Peace Corps 2, E‐mail to Johanna Fine, 1 May 2006. 504 Peace Corps 2, E‐mail to Johanna Fine, 1 May 2006. 505 “Benefits of Mentoring,” Triple Creek Associates, Inc., 3. 506 Eileen Kane, ʺGirls Education in Africa: What Do We Know About Strategies That Work?ʺ (The World Bank: 2004). 507 Debra Schuman, “Strategies that Succeed: Stories from the SAGE Project: Community Action Planning: Women in Mali Want Girls’ Mentoring.” Academy for Educational Development (Washington, DC), <www.sage.aed.org>. 508 Richard Dye et al, Evaluation of USAID Basic Education Program and Assessment of Future Programming Priorities in Education in Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan (USAID: Jun. 2005) 10. 509 Kane. 510 Peace Corps, Education Project Framework for Peace Corps Mauritania, Objective 3.2. 511 Peace Corps Volunteers, “Bogué Mentors’ Workshop Report,” (2006). 512 “2005 Mentors’ Workshop Report.” 513“ 2005 Mentors’ Workshop Report.” 514 “2006 Bogué Mentors’ Workshop Report.” 515 GMC Mentor 1, Atar, Personal Interview, 17 Mar. 2005. 516 Peace Corps 2, E‐Mail to Johanna Fine, 517 Peace Corps 2, E‐Mail to Johanna Fine, DATE 518 Peace Corps Volunteers, “Kiffa Mentors’ Report,” (2006). 519 Peace Corps Volunteers, “Bogué Mentors’ Workshop Report,” (2006). 520 GMC Mentor 1, Atar, Personal Interview, 17 Mar. 2005 521 Host Mother, Kaedi, March 2005 522 GMC Mentor 1, Atar, Personal Interview, 17 Mar. 17, 2005. 523 GMC Mentor 1, Atar, Personal Interview, 17 Mar. 17, 2005. 524 GMC Mentor 3, Lexeiba, Personal Interview, 20 Mar. 2006. 525 Host Mother, Kaedi, March 2005 526 GMC Mentor 1, Atar, Personal Interview, 17 Mar. 2006. 527 GMC Mentor 1, Atar, Personal Interview, 17 Mar. 2006. 528 GMC Mentor 2, Magta Lahjar, Personal Interview, 20 Mar. 2006. 529 GMC Mentor 2, Magta Lahjar, Personal Interview, 20 Mar. 2006. 530 Peace Corps Volunteers, “Kiffa Mentors’ Workshop Report,” (2006). 531 Questionaires from girls who attend the GMCs. 532 Girls’ Mentoring Center Ideabook. 533 Girls’ Mentoring Center Ideabook. 534 GMC Mentor 1, Atar, Personal Interview, 17 Mar. 2006. 535 Peace Corps 2, E‐mail to Johanna Fine 536 “Kiffa Mentors’ Workshop Report.” 537 “Kiffa Mentors’ Workshop Report.” 538 “Atar Mentors’ Workshop Report.” 539 GMC Mentor 1, Atar, Personal Interview, 17 Mar. 2006 540 “Atar Mentors’ Workshop Report.” 541 “Kiffa Mentors’ Workshop Report.” 542 “Kiffa Mentors’ Workshop Report.” 543 Peace Corps 1, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 14 Mar. 2006. 544 Peace Corps Volunteers, “Kiffa Mentors’ Workshop Report,” (2006). 545 Peace Corps Volunteers, “Bogué Mentors’ Workshop Report,” (2006). 493
494
143 Part II: Program Evaluation “Kiffa Mentors’ Workshop Report.“ “Kiffa Mentors’ Workshop Report.” 548 Questionnaire from parents of girls (GMC and non‐GMC). 549 Questionnaire from parents of girls who do not attend the GMCs. 550 Peace Corps 1, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 14 Mar. 2006. 551 Peace Corps, Annual Girls’ Education Conference Final Report (2005) 1. 552 AGEC Final Report 2. 553 Lucy P. Carner, “An Educational Opportunity for Industrial Girls,” Journal of Social Forces 1.5 (Sep. 1923):612–613. 554 Carner 612. 555 Carner 613. 556 Stephen T. Russell, “The Developmental Benefits of Nonformal Education and Youth Development,” FOCUS (The University of California, Davis: Summer 2001) 2. 557 Russell 3. 558 Peace Corps 1, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 23 Mar. 2006. 559 Peace Corps, “Initial Proposal to the Ambassador” (2005). 560 Peace Corps 1, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 14 Mar. 2006. 561 AGEC Girls, Atar, Focus Group, 16 Mar. 2006; AGEC Girls, Kaedi, Focus Group, 20 Mar. 2006. 562 High school girls, Magta Lahjar, Focus Group, 29 Mar. 2006. 563 Peace Corps 1, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 23 Mar. 2006. 564 AGEC Final Report 1. 565 PNDSE 71–72. 566 MEFS, DEE, Presentation des Resultats des Examens Nationaux 2005 (Nouakchott: Sep. 2005) 14. 567 National Center for Education Statistics, Percentage of 25‐ to 29‐year‐olds who completed high school (1998) <http://nces.ed.gov/quicktables/Detail.asp?Key=444>. 568 Peace Corps, PCV Feedback on Questionnaires, 2005. 569 AGEC Final Report 2. 570 Girls’ Mentoring Center Ideabook. 571 AGEC Girls, Kaedi, Focus Group, 20 Mar. 2006. 572 AGEC Girls, Atar, Focus Group, 16 Mar. 2006. 573 AGEC Girls, Atar, Focus Group, 16 Mar. 2006. 574 Peace Corps, Bogué PCV Feedback, 2005. 575 Peace Corps 2, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 23 Mar. 2006. 576 GAD Specialist, Peace Corps Benin, E‐mail to Racey Bingham, 30 Mar. 2006. 546
547
144 UNICEF Our analysis of UNICEF activities in Mauritania focuses on two projects, Ecoles communautaires propres saines et vertes (“clean, healthy and green community schools“ or ECPSV) project in public and Koranic schools, and the Mini‐bus project, which provides girls in rural communities with transportation to secondary schools. We selected the ECPSV and Mini‐bus projects for analysis in this study as they are both designed to have a positive impact on girls’ education through the improvement of quality and increased access to schools. Our evaluation of both projects consists of a discussion of the background of UNICEF’s activities in Mauritania related to girls’ education, a description of our research methodology and an analysis of these two projects. As in our analysis of Peace Corps GAD projects, a foundational question of our analysis is the extent to which these projects are relevant to supporting girls in overcoming the challenges to participating in secondary education, which we identified in Part I of this report. We evaluate the relevance and feasibility of each project, the impact of the project and the project’s prospects for sustainability. Background
UNICEF strategy in Mauritania
UNICEF works in close collaboration with the Government of Mauritania on five in‐
country programs related to children’s health, education and development. One such program is the “Education for All” initiative, which seeks to support Mauritanian children’s development and education. UNICEF oversees this program and the projects that fall within its framework. The MEFS coordinates UNICEF’s activities, assists in the site selection for projects and supports the monitoring and evaluation of the projects. 577 Among the objectives of the “Education for All” program are promoting girls’ education and reducing gender disparities in schools. Overview of “Education for All” 578
UNICEF’s “Education for All” Program is an integral part of the Program of Cooperation 2003‐08 between the Government of Mauritania and UNICEF. Additionally, “Education for All” is a component of the country’s long‐term strategic plan for educational improvement and reform, the PNDSE. The Program has two main areas of focus, the Integrated Development of Young Children Project and the Quality, Modern and Informal Basic Education Project. (See Figure 16) The two projects evaluated for this study fall under the second area of focus, which supports children of primary school and collège age in both public and traditional schools 145 Part II: Program Evaluation (i.e. Koranic schools and mahadras). * The overall objective of the Quality, Modern and Informal Basic Education Project is to improve the access to, and quality of basic education, in both public and Koranic schools in the geographical areas in which the “Education for All” Program is active. 579 Another objective of the project is to reduce the disparities between girls and boys through the first cycle of the secondary level, as transition and retention rates at the secondary level are lower than at the primary level, and retention rates are disproportionately low for girls. Education for All
Program
Integrated Child
Development Project
Quality Modern and
Informal Basic Education
Project
Promote an adequate
framework for children
through a community
Improve schooling and the
quality of basic education
Support the implementation of
the PNDSE and Young Child
education strategies
Support the implementation of
the PNDSE and Basic
Education strategies
Improve access and quality
of education for adolescents
Figure 16: Structure of “Education for All” Program. 580 In addition to the partnership between UNICEF and the Government of Mauritania, the “Education for All” Program includes linkages with the World Bank, African Development Bank, Islamic Development Bank (BID), Coopération Française, UNICEF, World Food Program, UNESCO and other donors involved in the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) debt alleviation process, all under the framework of the PNDSE. Additional technical and financial partners include the Governments of Norway (African Girls’ Education Initiative), France (Inter‐country Research Program on Girls’ Education), Canada and Japan. 581 The Adventist Development and Relief Agency (ADRA) in * “Koranic school” generally refers to the informal place of schooling where younger students first attend to learn the Koran. “Mahadra” refers to the traditional Islamic school where students can pursue religious studies over a longer period of time. (Source: The World Bank, Africa Region Human Development Working Paper Series, Girls’ Education in Africa: What Do We Know About Strategies That Work? 95.) 146 UNICEF Mauritania also provides support in the development of school infrastructure to the ECPSV. There is relatively little collaboration between UNICEF and NGOs in this program, but its decentralized structure easily allows for the creation of new partnerships. 582 The “Education for All” Program is implemented in four regions (wilayas): Assaba, Brakna, Gorgol and Guidimakha. UNICEF selected these sites based on high poverty rates, the persistence of disparities between girls and boys in education, as well as the presence of factors conducive to successful implementation of the projects, including active community dynamics, opportunities for partnerships and existing infrastructures. 583 The program seeks to address several challenges to increasing educational levels of children in those areas, with a particular focus on girls. Among those challenges are problems with educational quality, low levels of student retention, limited access to superior cycles and human resource needs and teacher motivation. 584 At the same time, there are several resources that support the promotion of education, such as the compulsory education law and mechanisms for on‐the‐ground statistical monitoring of teachers. UNICEF and the Government of Mauritania’s expansion of the definition of basic education to include the first cycle of the secondary level has also helped to direct support to increasing the quantity of students, and especially girls, who make the transition to the secondary level. 585 Quality Modern and Informal Basic Education Project 586
The ECPSV is one component of the Quality Modern and Informal Basic Education Project. The initiatives of this project include the following: 587 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Promotion of the ECPSV approach, which aims to contribute to the national educational objectives within the PNDSE; Development of statistical monitoring indicators at the community level (Suivi Statistiques de Proximité à base communautaire) in order to measure improvements in enrollment and retention; Encouragement of participation of student and parent associations, school administration and Comités de Gestion de l’Education (Educational Management Committees, or CGEs) to take charge of their children’s education and improve school quality and access; Promotion of education about life‐skills, hygiene and nutrition to improve the learning environment and student retention; Support of the reinforcement of complementarities between public and Koranic schools. The project is decentralized by design. At the central level, the project aims to contribute to capacity‐building around planning, management and monitoring for the Primary Education component (public and Koranic) of the PNDSE. At the regional and local levels, the project aims to reinforce capacity‐building between institutional, regional partners (such as the DREN and IDEN) and the beneficiary communities in the targeted areas. Eduquer les Adolescents 588
The Eduquer les Adolescents project focus of the “Education for All” Program provides support for girls’ education specifically at the secondary level in the four regions of 147 Part II: Program Evaluation Assaba, Brakna, Gorgol and Guidimakha. The project is funded by the United Nations Fund (UNF) and is carried out by five UN agencies (UNDP, UNCEF, UNFPA, WHO and ORC) who jointly conduct planning and implementation of the project. The project’s general goal is to “foster rapid growth of adolescent girls’ enrollment in secondary education” and its aim is “to strengthen [the girls’] self‐confidence, enabling them to participate actively in the socio‐economic development of their communities.” 589 Specific project objectives include increasing the rate of adolescent girls in the first cycle of secondary education and improving the attendance and scholastic achievements of adolescent girls in this cycle. 590 Figure 17: Girls in ECPSV School (Thide) The project began with an assessment of the status of girls’ secondary education in Mauritania, during which eight impediments to girls’ education were identified. Those impediments are poverty, distance to schools (which creates insecurity and additional expenses), unhygienic state of schools, discriminating social representations of girls, teachers’ attitudes, weakness in pedagogic support and guidance, early marriage and maternity (coupled with heavy burdens of household chores) and inadequacies in educational methods and curriculum. 591 In the following stage, different strategies were designed to address these obstacles comprehensively and simultaneously. Specific UN agencies take responsibility for implementing each of these sub‐components of the project. Of these, a project undertaken by UNICEF and UNDP, with governmental support from SECF, is the provision of mini‐buses to provide girls with transportation at a reduced cost to and from school. This project seeks to address poverty and distance from school, which are two impediments that have adverse effects on girls’ education. 148 UNICEF Methodology for Research
The two UNICEF projects evaluated were chosen based on the fact that both are under active implementation, and both are targeted to support girls’ participation in secondary education. The ECPSV school project is currently implemented only in primary schools but seeks to support primary students’ transition to the secondary cycle. The Mini‐bus project directly supports girls in the first cycle of the secondary level (collège). The evaluation of the ECPSV project consisted of a literature review, a review of UNICEF project documents (e.g. the “Education for All” strategy, and ECPSV Guides) and targeted interviews with institutional actors (UNICEF, MEFS, DRP, Ministry for the Fight against Illiteracy, Islamic Orientation and Original Education). Within the MEFS, we interviewed school directors, teachers, and members of Parent Associations (Association des parents dʹélèves or APE). * The research also included site visits to five ECPSV schools, three of which are public schools (in Thide, Toulde, Sarandougou, respectively), and two of which are Koranic schools (both in Bogué). The evaluation of the mini‐bus project consisted of a review of documents from the Eduquer les Adolescents project and specific documents concerning the Minibus project, including the “Project Review Form (PRF)” and the “Protocole d’Accord.” We also conducted targeted interviews with institutional actors (UNICEF, SECF, MEFS, and community members) and site visits to three schools serviced by the Mini‐buses (Bogué, Sarandougou and Magta Lahjar). Literature Review
Both the ECPSV and Mini‐bus projects take a local‐level approach, focusing on community participation as a key component of project development and implementation. Research from other developing countries supports this approach as an effective means toward sustainable development, and the evaluation will further reference this literature to support its conclusions. Development theorist Norman Uphoff defines the “local level” as groups and organizations in a community that are based primarily on close and daily networks. 592 Others in this field argue that working at the local level is a more effective approach to development strategies, as changes “are seen and felt in a much more immediate manner.” 593 When strategies are posed solely at the global and national levels, then visualizing how action should be manifested at the local level is more difficult. This, in turn, leads to less sustainable action at the local level. 594 People tend to relate more strongly to the community in which they live, which influences their “social construction of meaning.” Thus, for actions to be sustainable, they should take place within local communities. 595 The APEs are comparable to Parent Teachers Associations (PTAs) in the United States. *
149 Part II: Program Evaluation Uphoff also analyzes the advantages of participation of local institutions in development projects and explores the appropriate circumstances for utilizing this approach. 596 He concludes that local institutions are especially important in terms of the sustainability of development projects. First, local institutions can mobilize local resources and identify the most efficient and sustainable ways of utilizing them, because they are most familiar with the local needs and realities of the community. Second, local institutions can also solve operational problems more quickly than institutions at higher levels. Finally, a local approach can raise the community’s awareness on critical issues and enhance the community’s solidarity. This can encourage people to overcome short‐term or individual interests and coordinate for the common good. Thus, he believes that working with local institutions is an approach to designing development that draws on the advantages of both the public and private sectors, the motivation to work for the common interest, and the flexibility to address issues. 597 Furthermore, working in communities allows for flexibility in programming, as each community has different socioeconomic and political conditions. Adopting a “’one size fits all’ approach is simply not tenable,” but with a community‐level approach, practices can be developed that are more appropriate to particular communities. 598 In addition, working at the local level ensures more self‐sufficiency economically and socially, as “the city as a social organism presents itself as the smallest meaningful scale where the many dimensions of social…sustainability can be put in balance without exporting negative externalities to other levels at all.” 599 Development is more likely to be sustainable, as a community can manage its own economic and social needs more carefully and closely. 600 Along those lines, based on his empirical analysis of natural resources management, Uphoff identifies two major criteria to ensure the success of a local‐level approach, the coherence of the group and the low degree of uncertainty of the resources they control. 601 In other words, the more the community is well‐organized and coherent, and the more controllable the resources that they manage are, the more potential the approach has of being successful. However, it is important to also note that working at the local level also has certain potential challenges and drawbacks. Leadership and participation in the community tends to be limited to economic elites. As a result some groups will inevitably be excluded, and actions will not necessarily harmonize all interests. 602 These analyses have significant implications for the impact and sustainability of the UNICEF projects evaluated for this study, as both projects incorporate a community participatory approach and focus on community self‐sufficiency. At the same time, the success of this approach, according to this literature, will largely depend on the communities’ existing coherence, ability to control resources and the inclusiveness of the project. 150 UNICEF Analysis
ECPSV Schools
Project presentation
“It’s not the student who abandons the school, but more the school that abandons the student” (“ce n’est pas l’élève qui abandonne l’école mais bien l’école qui abandonne l’élève.”) 603 Many schools and villages in Mauritania do not have access to complete educational cycles or adequate infrastructure, constituting a substantial barrier for students and their families who want them to continue and succeed in school. The ECPSV project seeks to increase community involvement to help address some of these issues, as well as the challenges presented by slowed growth in enrollment at the primary level and disparities in secondary schooling indicators for girls and boys. 604 An overarching goal of the ECPSV approach is to reinforce education and improve the learning environment and content by promoting community participation methods. From the literature previously cited, community participation is one of the most effective and flexible means of sustainable development. 605 At the regional level, the specific objectives of this project include an increase in primary schooling for all children, reinforcement of the complementarities between public and Koranic schools, an increase in the number of girls who reach the last year of primary school and an increase in the number of girls that enroll in the first year of the secondary cycle. 606 While this project is currently implemented only in primary schools, long‐range plans are to incorporate the approach into the first cycle of secondary schools, which UNICEF and the Government of Mauritania now define as part of basic education. 607 The project began with pilot activities in communities in Brakna, Guidimakha and Hodh el‐Charghi, areas that were chosen because of weak enrollment rates, especially for girls, and high poverty rates. 608 By September 2005, the ECPSV approach had been implemented in 238 primary schools, which represents 47.6% of all primary schools in Mauritania. Approximately 51 percent of the beneficiaries of these programs are girls. 609 Beginning in the 2001‐02 school year, the UNICEF office in Nouakchott decided to broaden the project’s implementation throughout an entire region to ensure a more consistent and systematic approach. UNICEF began with the Brakna region, where the project has been implemented in the entire community of Bogué. Additionally, there are plans in place to implement the project in Bababé, M’Bagne and Aleg, after which the entire Brakna region will be covered. The UNICEF‐Nouakchott office will use the Brakna region as a model for the ECPSV approach, to which other regions that have not received UNICEF support will be compared for analysis. 610 151 Part II: Program Evaluation Figure 18: ECPSV School in Thide The ECPSV project seeks to improve education by engaging communities in the functioning, management and monitoring of individual public and Koranic primary schools. This initiative aims to change the behavior of parents and students by involving them in participatory methods in the two Mauritanian educational systems. The ECPSV approach also targets infrastructure improvements in some of these schools, in order to improve children’s learning environment. These improvements include building water supplies, latrines and sinks, which are accompanied by a community‐wide sensitization campaign regarding health and hygiene. The project also trains community members in local‐level statistical monitoring mechanisms in order to carry out their own monitoring of the project. 611 The primary beneficiaries of this project are students in the public and Koranic schools (especially girls), APE members, public school directors, and Koranic school directors (i.e. Cheikhs). 612 Box 16: How to Establish an ECPSV School
I. Identification of sites
•
•
•
UNICEF establishes eligibility criteria
Site visit
General Assembly with the community to establish partnership
II. Implementation of community structures
•
•
•
Election of CGE by general assembly
Election of CHSE
Establishment of student associations in the school and mahadra
III. Resources of community structure
•
•
•
•
Revenue-generating activity (AGR)
Revenues from school cooperative
Contributions from community participation
Funds provided to CHSE and Student Association
IV. Technical capacity-building of community members
•
•
•
•
Training
Support
Materials
Monitoring and Evaluation
152 UNICEF V. Implementation of approach
•
•
•
•
•
Elaboration of Action Plans for the CGE, CHSE, and Student Association
Launch revenue-generating activity
Launch school cooperative
Monitor progress and action plans
Evaluation of action plans (mid-year and end-of-year)
Source: Guide de Mise en Place des Ecoles Communautaires, Propres, Saines et Vertes – Manuel d’Orientation et de
Procédures 8, 15.
The implementation of the ECPSV approach is carried out in five stages, which are included in detail in Box 16. The process begins with the identification of school sites in which to initiate an ECPSV project and the establishment of partnership with the host community. In the second stage, the Comités de Gestion de l’Education (CGEs) are elected. The CGEs develop the annual action plans, which are monitored in the middle of the school year, usually in February, and evaluated at the end of the school year in June. 613 In schools in which APEs are non‐existent or malfunctioning, the CGE provides the structural organization necessary to liaison with UNICEF. In schools with functioning APEs, the CGE assumes the structure of the existing APE or works in close cooperation with it. UNICEF has maintained this structural difference between the CGEs and APEs to ensure that the ECPSV approach is carried out in a systematic way across all sites. For the third stage, the ECPSV community receives an initial sum of 100,000 UM to develop a revenue‐generating activity (AGR, Activités génératrices de revenu). Communities are expected to develop an AGR that responds to a socioeconomic need in a community, and examples include cereal banks and school gardens. When the ECPSV project was first introduced, start‐up funds were set at 300,000 UM. However, as UNICEF has expanded the ECPSV project to target entire regions, they have decided to limit grants to their current level. UNICEF only provides financial support at this initial stage and emphasizes to the community that any additional resources must be generated by the activities they choose. 614 In addition to these revenue‐generating activities in the third stage, UNICEF also helps each school to establish a cooperative store, at which school supplies are sold to students for a low price. This cooperative also provides a source of revenue to support school activities and projects. To set up the school cooperative, UNICEF donates a supply of notebooks and pens, which the school in turn sells to the community. The notebooks are sold for 20 UM, instead of 50 UM in the market, and the pens are sold for 10 UM, instead of 20 UM in the market. 615 In this way, parents and students can avoid the high prices of these products in the community stores. When the stock of notebooks and pens diminishes, the school is expected to buy more with the profits from the previous sales. Recently, UNICEF has also begun to distribute free school kits (kits scolaires) to students in all of the ECPSV schools. The kits consist of necessary school supplies, such as pencils and erasers. 153 Part II: Program Evaluation Figure 19: Separated latrines at ECPSV School (Thide) The proceeds from the school cooperatives and the revenue‐generating activities are intended to support school repairs and improvements. During the initial stages of the implementation of an ECPSV project, UNICEF supports the improvement of school infrastructure by adding school yard fencing and locks, carts to fetch water, water pots and hand‐washing stations. In many schools, UNICEF also constructs gender‐separated latrines, but because of their high cost it is not possible to build them in every school. One UNICEF official in Nouakchott estimates that UNICEF builds only 20‐25 latrines per year. 616 In the communities in which UNICEF cannot afford to build latrines, they still provide awareness training in hygiene and health issues and encourage community members to seek other outside funding for the latrines. For example, an ECPSV school in Toulde built separated latrines with World Bank funds a few years after the ECPSV project had initially been implemented. 617 Figure 20: Water Pots Provided by UNICEF in ESCPV School (Thide) The fourth and fifth stages include monitoring and evaluation, which is conducted at the central, regional and local levels. UNICEF coordinates these activities from the central level; regional teams including the DREN and IDEN are responsible at the regional level; and CGEs are responsible at the local level. Consistent with the decentralization process 154 UNICEF currently underway within the government, UNICEF’s long‐term plan is for evaluations to be completed primarily at the regional and local levels. 618 Analysis of ECPSV Public Schools
Relevance
The main objectives of the ECPSV project are to decrease educational disparities in gender and among regions, and to improve the learning environment in schools. Community participation The ECPSV’s fundamental approach of engaging community participation in schools is particularly appropriate to the educational environment in Mauritania, given the significance of parents, teachers and directors in the education of the community’s children. This is particularly true in light of the importance of community norms and parents’ roles in making decisions regarding their daughters’ education. Our research indicates this approach enhances the effectiveness of existing community practices. For example, in Toulde, school officials confirmed that even before UNICEF initiated activities in their community, parents had been involved in their children’s education by monitoring teacher absences and contributing financially to the school. The arrival of the UNICEF program further promoted parental involvement by sensitizing parents and communities on quality and curriculum issues in school and easing the financial burden on families through the revenue‐generating activities. Also, to support greater community involvement, the project transfers all decision‐
making power to the community and assesses school needs at the local level. The community has the flexibility to choose what kind of revenue‐generating activity would best suit its needs, as well as how to spend the profits these activities generate. These practices are critical to fostering the community’s self‐sufficiency. 619 Moreover, the funds support the enhancement of the quality of the learning environment and lower the cost of sending children to school, which ultimately promotes girls’ access and retention in school. A critical element of the success of these projects is community capacity and will. According to a UNICEF official in Nouakchott, the communities in which UNICEF has implemented the ECPSV project thus far are strong in both respects. 620 However, a challenge to the project is the high rate of illiteracy in these regions, which limits the possibility of training community members in the management, accounting and evaluation skills needed to effectively implement the project. 621 Thus, CGE members who are literate can carry out these activities, but illiterate community members are excluded from this community participation. Improvement of conditions and content of the learning environment Achieving this objective involves the technical implementation of the project, which includes establishing revenue‐generating activities and the community structures for decision‐making. The mission of both the CGE and the APE is to improve student conditions. However, the CGEs limit their focus to the management of the ECPSV project, while the APEs work in a broader pedagogical framework. Because the CGE structure and functioning is similar to the APE, most communities were already familiar with the decision‐making structure of the CGE when it was introduced by UNICEF. This 155 Part II: Program Evaluation facilitated the implementation of this aspect of the project. While UNICEF does not require the CGEs to meet with any specific frequency, it does ask that they meet often enough to develop and implement their action plans and monitoring and evaluation methods. 622 Whether or not the objectives of this project are met will in part depend on the reliability and commitment of the CGEs and their ability to implicate the community. The ECPSV project has also established new structures, such as the Club Hygienique, Santé et l’Environnement (Hygiene, Health and Environment Club or CHSE), of which all students in ECPSV schools are members, and which are led by teachers. Most communities are unfamiliar with this type of association. However, one school official noted that UNICEF was engaging the Ministère de Jeunesse * to help introduce this culture of associations in his community. 623 Another factor supporting the implementation of the program is that it emphasizes and supports teaching of some topics with which teachers are already familiar. Hygiene and health education is already part of the national educational curriculum. Thus, the ECPSV project builds on what teachers in the three schools are already teaching, but UNICEF also provides some additional materials to support the teachers. 624 These materials also help teachers to develop lessons in new topics, such as environmental education. Feasibility
This section analyzes the extent to which the structure and resources of the project support participants in working towards its objectives. Table 4 below summarizes the different components of the ECPSV project that were implemented in each of the schools visited. This table compares the tools, resources and community structures that were integrated in each community. As the table indicates, overall, the schools visited were similarly prepared with resources to work towards the objectives of the project, in keeping with the guidelines of the project document. Ministry of Youth. *
156 UNICEF Table 4: Snapshot of Current ECPSV Schools in Thide, Toulde and Sarandougou School
Total
UNICEF
Investment
School
cooperative
present?
Revenuegenerating
activities
How are
profits
used?
Infrastructure
received
Thide
200,000
UM
Yes
School
repairs,
End-ofyear party
Watering
cans, Rakes,
Shovels,
Separated
latrines,
Fencing,
Donkey cart
Toulde
100,000
UM
Yes
200,000
UM
Yes
School
repairs,
Jerseys,
Sports
equipment
School
repairs
Fencing
Sarandougou
Selling
rice
paddy,
Sell
vegetables
from
school
garden
Sell
vegetables
from
school
garden
Cereal
bank
Separated
latrines,
Fencing,
Rakes,
Shovels
How
often
does
the
CGE
meet?
When
needs
arise
Koranic
School
Affiliation
Club
HSE?
Yes.
No.
When
needs
arise
Yes.
Yes.
When
needs
arise
Yes.
Yes.
According to a UNICEF official in Nouakchott, communities participating in the project receive initial training in the ECPSV community approach, but after this, little formal training is offered. 625 Some communities also receive additional training on the management of CGEs and revenue‐generating activities, methods of statistical evaluation, and approaches to teaching the hygiene curriculum. However, the approach to training has not been systematic. 626 This lack of consistent training impairs the feasibility of achieving the project objectives. As noted above, some aspects of the ECPSV structure are familiar to community members, such as the CGE structure and hygiene curriculum. In addition, communities are expected to maintain records of school statistics, such as student attendance and transition rates, using local‐level statistical evaluation methods. However, additional, formal training on these methods is especially needed so that communities have the ability to effectively monitor and evaluate the impact of the project. 627 The lack of consistent evaluations, due to insufficient resources and changing regional government personnel, 628 also makes it difficult to improve some aspects of the project, such as the need for increased training. These issues pose challenges to sustaining the spirit of the community approach. Impact
Current results and qualitative feedback from schools show, overall, that the ECPSV project has helped to increase girls’ enrollment in the primary cycle and their transition to the secondary cycle. Officials at some schools provided anecdotal observations that the number of girls taking and passing the exam to enter collège had increased. 629 Some schools report experiencing an even higher enrollment of girls than boys in primary 157 Part II: Program Evaluation school, which some respondents attribute to communities’ increased awareness of the importance of decreasing gender disparities in school. 630 However, access continues to pose a problem for girls to transition to the secondary level, especially in more rural sites, as transportation is not always available. * Furthermore, at the secondary level, girls are faced with additional cultural issues, such as early marriage and maternity, which make it difficult for girls to continue their studies. † The lower cost of school supplies provided by the school cooperatives has helped to promote girls’ retention and transition to the secondary cycle, as it has relieved the economic burden placed on families (See Economic Section, Part I). 631 Increasing students’ access to these necessary materials improves their learning environment. Furthermore, convenient access to school supplies also supports reductions in student tardiness and increased attendance. Credit policies at the school cooperatives also support this end because when students do not have the adequate school supplies for school on a given day, the school cooperative offers the supplies at credit. This prevents students from having to return home to ask their parents for funds. 632 Maintaining water supplies at school has a similar impact, as when drinking water is available on the school grounds, then students can save time fetching water and spend more time in class. One aspect of the project has changed since it was first piloted, and this change could have eventual implications on the impact of the project on girls’ education. When the ECPSV approach was first implemented, UNICEF gave communities 300,000 UM in start‐
up funds to establish their school cooperative and revenue‐generating activity. UNICEF lowered this amount to 100,000 UM in order to reach more communities. It remains to be seen whether or not this amount will be sufficient to effectively support the creation of activities that are sustainable and that generate sufficient funds to support school programs. For example, program participants from one school that received less than the 300,000 UM stated that the profits from the revenue‐generating activities they use for school repairs do not actually cover the entire cost of repairs needed for their school. 633 This could in part be a result of the lower initial investment provided to them by UNICEF. The extent to which the project has had an impact on parent involvement is difficult to determine. Even before the arrival of the UNICEF project in the schools that we visited, parents were generally aware of teachers’ absences from school and held the schools accountable in this respect. 634 However, parents were less likely to intervene or monitor in matters concerning quality of teaching, as they trust the teachers with their children in this respect, in part due to cultural norms surrounding the role of teachers 635 Thus, increasing parental involvement in the project as a means to improving the learning environment may be limited in the area of teacher quality and curriculum. However, increasing parental involvement may have an impact on girls’ enrollment and retention in school, as decisions about girls’ education are often made by the family. In Sarandougou for example, the mini‐bus does not reach all of the rural areas in the vicinity so many girls cannot access the collège. See the Mini‐bus Section for more information. † Addressed in the Cultural Context analysis in Part I. *
158 UNICEF Sustainability
The evaluation of the sustainability of UNICEF’s ECPSV school projects focuses on whether the project can still deliver its benefits and the achievements can be sustained, even after external assistance is completely withdrawn. Some components of the project, such as the CHSEs, may not continue over time, according to some interviews and the nature of the structure. 636 However, the achievements of the CHSE have the possibility of being sustained through the promotion of the culture of associations and the increased awareness of hygienic and environmental issues. he sustainability of the project’s achievements, however, will be limited to the regions in which UNICEF can fund the project. The ECPSV practice of allowing communities to choose the revenue‐generating activity that best responds to a particular socioeconomic need in their community may contribute to the project’s long‐term impact. According to relevant literature, this flexibility in a community‐level approach is a key component of sustainable development. 637 This approach also prevents community schools from becoming dependent on external funds, as UNICEF takes a hands‐off approach following the initial provision of start‐up funds. UNICEF’s promotion of community ownership of the revenue‐generating activities also helps ease the socioeconomic constraints faced by these communities. Profits from the revenue‐generating activities can be used for school improvements, instead of coming from financial contributions from the parents. Ultimately, this emphasis on self‐
sufficiency promotes increased community participation and involvement in education, as well as the prospects for sustainability. The high level of illiteracy of community members is also a challenge that these UNICEF projects face, according to a United Nations Development Assistance Framework (UNDAF) evaluation. 638 As high illiteracy rates are characteristic in many Mauritanian communities, these projects carry the risk of excluding a large portion of the community members. This could hurt the long‐run sustainability of the project’s achievements. 639 To remedy this, instead of leaving the project implementation only to older and literate community elites, UNICEF has begun to place the condition that younger community members, who are in school, also be involved in the implementation of the community‐
based UNICEF projects. This approach may help to promote the sustainability of project achievements. 640 The hygienic improvements in schools, in particular the addition of potable water sources and separated latrines, may also be difficult to sustain. Though integral to the concept of a hygienic school, UNICEF cannot provide separated latrines to all of the schools because of the high cost. According to a UNICEF official in Nouakchott, UNICEF in Mauritania has a small budget that is guaranteed, and the difference between this guaranteed budget and the projected budget must be secured with funds from external donors. 641 Therefore, a large part of the action plan is estimated. Furthermore according to ADRA‐Mauritania (UNICEF’s partner on the ground for the construction of the latrines), once the latrines are built, UNICEF cannot fund any evaluation or maintenance follow‐ups of the latrines. 642 Consistent monitoring and evaluation would also support the sustainability of project achievements. However, UNICEF has not conducted annual evaluations for two years prior to the publication of this study due to institutional constraints. These constraints 159 Part II: Program Evaluation include limited staff resources at the UNICEF‐Nouakchott level and frequent changes at the Ministry level, leading to new structures and personnel at the regional level (Institutional Analysis, Part I). Because of these changes, the regional teams are ultimately not as involved in the monitoring and evaluation process as envisioned by the project. 643 Furthermore, funds are often blocked between the central and regional levels. This has slowed down the decentralization of the project and the ability to implicate regional actors in the evaluation process. 644 In the end, this weak link at the regional level for the project’s monitoring and evaluation could have negative implications for the project’s sustainability. Furthermore, because of this frequent turnover, government staff members are often unaware of the ECPSV program and its integral relationship to the PNDSE strategy. According to a UNICEF official in Nouakchott, the DRENs at the regional level have not yet embraced the ECPSV as a government project; rather, they view it only as a UNICEF project. 645 In response, UNICEF has conducted several trainings on the community approach of the project when new staff enter the government. This lack of awareness on the part of government officials about the project negatively affects the sense of ownership it receives at the regional and local levels, which could ultimately have an impact on sustainability. Analysis of ECPSV Koranic Schools
Relevance
Reinforce complementarities between public and Koranic schools One of the main objectives of the ECPSV project is to reinforce the complementarities between public and traditional schools. Mauritania’s system of traditional schools, both Koranic schools and mahadras, play a key role in the educational system and culture of the country. Public schools, in turn, may be better suited to providing children with skills necessary to access employment in the labor market (with the exception of work related to religious studies). 646 However, the reality remains that many students do not have access to a public school, and in addition, many families still prefer a Koranic education for their children. 647 Because of the continued importance of Koranic schools and mahadras in Mauritania’s educational system UNICEF has incorporated activities targeting them into their objectives, and the MEFS has integrated Koranic education in the PNDSE strategy. 648 Most children begin their education at the Koranic school at approximately the age of four. After one to two years, some students enroll in public school, others attend both public and Koranic schools, and yet a third group continues only at the Koranic school. 649 The objective of the ECPSV project to reinforce the curriculum of Koranic schools is targeted to those students that only attend Koranic school and are therefore not exposed to the curriculum of the public schools. Thus, one eligibility criterion for Koranic schools’ participation in the project is that at least 30% of students must attend that school exclusively. 650 UNICEF’s initiative to support complementarity between public and Koranic schools’ curricula is intended to create more consistency in what students learn in public schools and Koranic schools, and thus to prepare them more equally for the future. This aspect of 160 UNICEF the project is moving the most slowly of all other components of the project, as UNICEF recognizes that this type of integration is a slow and sensitive process. 651 Figure 21: Chalkboard provided to ECPSV Koranic School (Bogué) Feasibility
To establish an ECPSV site for this project, each public school is paired with a Koranic school. 652 As of September 2005, 217 Koranic schools had been paired with public ECPSV schools. 653 UNICEF provides the ECPSV Koranic schools with chalkboards and chalk to facilitate the teaching of math and health, which complements the small, wooden boards with which students mostly work. 654 The school cooperative and revenue‐generating activities are established only in the public school, but the Koranic school students have access to the school cooperative. Unless the Koranic school is physically attached to the public school (which is typically not the case), the profits from the school cooperative and the revenue‐generating activities are directed primarily toward improvements of the public school. 655 To integrate instruction in math and health into the Koranic curriculum, UNICEF has developed two manuals for use by the Koranic schools. By September 2005, UNICEF had trained 165 Cheikhs of Koranic schools in methods of teaching math and health education. 656 Another approach that some schools have taken to curriculum integration is asking teachers from the public school to teach these subjects in the Koranic school. This strategy has especially been used in schools in which Cheikhs have not yet received the relevant training. However, an obstacle to this strategy is that teachers from the public school must be available to teach these subjects. This is not feasible every year because of teacher shortages in many public schools. 657 Thus, the feasibility of the curriculum integration aspect of the ECPSV project is limited to UNICEF’s capacity to conduct the appropriate training, as well as teacher hiring decisions at the MEFS. Impact
The curriculum integration objective of the ECPSV project has moved more slowly than the other objectives, because of the sensitive nature of the initiative and UNICEF’s limited 161 Part II: Program Evaluation resources to carry out all of the necessary training. 658 The provision of chalkboards and chalk, as well as access to school supplies, has improved the Koranic school learning environment; however, the impact on girls’ education in particular is less clear. 659 Sustainability
As the public and Koranic schools are affiliated, the sustainability of the achievements of the ECPSV project in Koranic schools is ultimately linked to that of the public schools. However, in this partnership, the public school carries a larger weight in terms of influence and decision‐making. The public school selects the Koranic school with which they will affiliate, and the Koranic school has little input until after it is selected. 660 Furthermore, though the Cheikh of the Koranic school is an active member of the CGE, many decisions made within the CGE affect only the public school, such as the use of the profits from the revenue‐generating activities. This unbalanced partnership has implications for the sustainability of the project’s achievements, especially the reinforcement of complementarities between public and Koranic schools. However, as noted by a UNICEF official in Nouakchott, this aspect of the project is still sensitive, and in the short term, UNICEF has decided not to impose the idea too strongly on communities. 661 Teachers also recognize that many Koranic school students can also choose to eventually go to the public school and have access to the curricular opportunities there, 662 and this may serve as a disincentive for them to introduce new material. This, in turn, also makes uncertain the future sustainability of this curriculum integration. The effects on the students who do not ever integrate into the public school system also remains to be seen as the project evolves. Mini-buses
Project Presentation
As introduced above, the Mini‐bus project is part of the larger Eduquer les Adolescents project and is coordinated by UNICEF, UNDP and the SECF. The overarching objectives of this project are to improve both the access and quality of the first cycle of secondary education by simultaneously addressing different challenges for girls’ education, such as poverty, inadequate quality of teaching, insufficient school facilities and limited access to secondary school. 663 The Mini‐bus project is designed to specifically address the issue of girls’ limited access to secondary schools. The project was initiated in August 2005, and by November 2005, 14 mini‐buses were distributed to the Assaba and Brakna regions in order to transport students, especially girls, to secondary schools in neighboring villages. 664 The project selected 14 secondary schools in the Assaba and Brakna regions based on their initial needs assessment. 665 The criteria for selection included the level of poverty and the number of potential beneficiaries. This number was measured by the number of girls who are eligible to go to collège but are unable to attend because of distance or transportation costs. 666 The purpose of the project is to provide communities with a mini‐bus so that girls can attend school without having to walk long distances or pay expensive transportation fees. Although the issue of distance negatively affects both boys and girls in the areas of 162 UNICEF enrollment and retention, the impact on girls tends to be more severe. Because of the socio‐cultural context in Mauritania, as described in Part I, girls are not traditionally allowed to travel long distances alone. Therefore, by providing a secure means of transportation to and from school each day, the project aims to remove this socio‐cultural challenge for girls and thereby increase girls’ enrollment rates, as well as reduce dropout rates at the first cycle of the secondary level. 667 Another feature of the mini‐bus project is to apply the community‐based approach to its operations, just as in the ECPSV school project. More specifically, the CGEs in each community, which are established for this project, are in charge of the actual operation of the bus. Their responsibilities include hiring a driver, making decisions on the route and schedule of the bus, maintenance of the bus, keeping accounting records, making decisions on how to use the profits generated from the bus operation, paying depreciation costs, arranging payments for the driver and for petrol and reporting the financial and operational situation to SECF on a regular basis. 668 By allowing the communities to generate income from the bus operation, the project also aims to address the issue of poverty. The bus’ primary function is to serve the students, but during non‐school hours and on weekends, the bus also serves regular customers in the community and charges normal fees. The revenue generated from this additional function is used to support the community’s educational needs, for example, by funding school rehabilitation and relieving the financial burden on poor households. With this arrangement, the project supports financially needy households in two ways, first by providing cheaper transportation for students relative to other transportation options, and second, by addressing the needs of these families in the community use of the bus operation revenue. This community approach and revenue‐generating activities have several advantages. First, by involving community members, the project increases the community’s interest and awareness about girls’ education. It also contributes to improving the sustainability of the project by transferring its implementation to the community without requiring additional outside support. In addition, it builds communities’ ownership of the project, which effectively increases communities’ attention and interest in supporting the project. Finally, the community approach makes the project more appropriate to the socio‐
cultural context of each community, as the community members are most familiar with their needs and traditions and can thereby arrange the operation in a way that best fits their situation. 163 Part II: Program Evaluation Figure 22: Mini‐bus used to transport girls Analysis
Relevance
The goals of this project can be summarized as follows: to provide a secure and inexpensive means of transportation to secondary schools; to enable the community to generate revenue and thereby improve school facilities and reduce burdens on households; and to raise awareness in the community on the importance of secondary education for girls. Before the Mini‐bus project was developed, another type of intervention had been included in the original project document to address the access issue. This pilot project was the “Foyer d’Accueil” project, which attempted to build or establish a place for girls from neighboring villages to stay at night so they could attend school. However, as many Mauritanian parents feel uncomfortable allowing girls to leave home and stay overnight away from the family, the project did not obtain wide support from communities. 669 Based on this experience and other pilot projects attempted through the Eduquer les Adolescents project, UNICEF decided to initiate the Mini‐bus project as a more culturally appropriate solution to address the challenge of access. This initiative was subsequently accepted by community members. 670 In fact, community members currently observe that there are more girls going to secondary school with the mini‐bus compared to without the mini‐bus, which implies that this project is more relevant to the Mauritanian educational environment and cultural context. 671 Feasibility
An underlying objective of the project design is to maintain a positive net financial balance for the bus operations. The bus ticket cost for students, in most communities, is fixed at 10 UM per student per trip. In the case of Magta Lahjar, the community charges 30 UM for non‐student passengers who take the mini‐bus when it operates during non‐
school hours. According to the treasurer of one CGE, the income generated by the bus operation ranges from 5,000 to 7,000 UM per day. 672 The drivers’ salary is fixed at 30,000 UM per month in all of the communities. Other expenses, such as depreciation (50,000 UM per month), fees for petrol, maintenance and other miscellaneous expenses are also covered by the revenue from the bus rides. According to one CGE member, if the bus 164 UNICEF were to operate only for the students, and not during these additional hours, the revenue would not be sufficient to cover all the expenses. 673 While communities have so far managed to keep a financial surplus from the bus operations, the project is still new. The issue of local competition and potential future cost for maintenance are matters of concern. In Magta Lahjar, for example, the community faces competition with the bus company that operated before the arrival of the mini‐bus, and that has since lowered its bus ticket price to 20 UM. At the same time, the CGE recognizes that it cannot increase its own price for students, as it may impede some students from taking the mini‐bus and attending school. 674 In order for communities to maintain a positive profit, the CGE will need to possess strong operational skills to maximize the numbers of trips and passengers, to flexibly respond to competitors and to adequately maintain the bus in order to minimize the maintenance fees. Another issue of feasibility is the communities’ capacity and readiness for this community approach. As noted above, the CGEs are in charge of bus operations and financial administration, which require a high level of management skills and administrative experience. However, the illiteracy level of the community members is usually high, and many community members are not familiar with the type of operations and documentation required for the project. One measure taken to respond to this risk was in the site selection process, where the community’s operational experience and achievement in other revenue‐generating activities under the Eduquer les Adolescents project were considered as one of the criteria. 675 In addition, it is important that a support structure is provided for the communities, such as initial trainings and periodic monitoring by SECF and UNICEF, as well as accessible and open communication channels for advisory services if questions or problems arise. As the project started less than six months before this report was issued, it is still too early to make a judgment of whether the selection was successful and whether all the communities are sufficiently capable to operate the project. According to the two‐day conference on the Mini‐bus project held in March 2006 (which most of the 14 community representatives attended), different communities have experienced different successes or challenges in the operations. However, they all were able to operate the buses and keep a proper record of the financial status. In the conference, the participants also shared their experiences and lessons learned from the project, which supports the monitoring and evaluation process. Continuous support for the communities is important, such as providing sufficient follow‐up consultations and technical advising. Periodic opportunities to exchange their experiences, such as conferences, may also help communities to learn from each other’s effective practices. Impact
According to the joint project review, the 14 mini‐buses serve 14 high schools, taking students to and from school safely and on time, and the “beneficiaries included 4,800 students including 1,600 girls that [previously] hired lifts or that walked 4 ‐15 kilometres daily and who often missed their classes due to delays and transport problems.” 676 Community members also report large increases in girls’ enrollment at the first cycle of secondary school, less tardiness and fewer dropouts. 677 Thus, the intervention appears to 165 Part II: Program Evaluation be generally beneficial in increasing girls’ enrollment and ensuring regular attendance. One community member also observed that the existence of the mini‐bus also put a certain motivation and pressure on girls to continue to go to school, as they can no longer use the distance and tiredness from walking as an excuse. 678 Not only has the enrollment status improved, but the project also has had a positive effect on the learning environment of the girls, according to some community members. As the girls previously walked distances of as much as four or five kilometers to attend school, they tended to be very tired and could not always concentrate in class, which further discouraged them to continue their education. Thus, an opportunity to travel by mini‐bus also supports’ girls participation in school in this respect. 679 Regarding the cost‐effectiveness of the project, the selection of the vehicle for the mini‐
buses was questionable. The mini‐buses purchased for this project were new Toyotas. However, there also exist many other options such as different brands of vehicles, used mini‐buses or larger buses, such as the Mercedes buses often used in Mauritania. Each alternative has its own advantages and shortcomings. For example, used cars are apparently not as durable as new ones, and larger buses may be slower and less flexible to drive down narrow or unpaved roads. Information about how these vehicles were selected for this project was not available for this study. However, comparisons of the costs and benefits of each type of vehicle, including investment and maintenance costs, geographical factors and capacity, could all be beneficial if this project were to continue or expand. If donors are considering scaling up this project, then this research will be especially necessary to ensure its effectiveness and to thereby maximize the number of long‐term beneficiaries from the intervention. Sustainability
As already explained in the Feasibility section, the long‐term financial sustainability of the bus operation is one of the main challenges of this project. More specifically, if a bus breaks down and must be repaired, those girls who rely on the buses to go to school will return to the original status quo of walking or taking lifts to school while the bus is incapacitated. In addition, if the cost of repair is greater than the financial capacity of the CGE, the community will face a difficult decision of either putting an extra burden on the community members to cover the expense or to abandon the bus. Either way, the bus’ potential mechanical problems pose one of the most serious risks for the project in the long run. At present, some communities are generating revenue that they plan to use to purchase a second bus for their community in the future. This type of successful experience was shared with the other communities at the above‐mentioned conference, which is expected to encourage other communities and help them learn about successful operations, and thereby improve their operations as well. Another issue for ensuring the sustainability of the project’s achievements is adequate monitoring and evaluation, which will ensure that operations are transparent and will help to identify further needs. As already mentioned in the Feasibility section, the actual operations are managed by the CGEs, most of which are not experienced in administrative operations. Thus, it is important for both the community members and the SECF to periodically conduct monitoring and assess the need for further training. The 166 UNICEF SECF and UNICEF have conducted evaluations, but the report was not yet ready at the time of issuing this report. In addition to monitoring and evaluation, there is also an attempt at the community level to improve financial transparency. For example, the CGE of Magta Lahjar is considering hiring a conductor who will be in charge of collecting fees on the bus and keeping the records to ensure its transparent operations. They feel that although the current driver is trustworthy, this arrangement would increase the legitimacy of the operation and will work as a deterrent mechanism for any potential abuse, as well as improving the bus’ operational efficiency. 680 Finally, in order to solve the issue of access in the long term, the project must also ensure coordination with the MEFS on infrastructural and quality issues. For infrastructural purposes, it should be made clear whether providing transportation to increase access in the target regions is a temporary or permanent solution. Communities, CGEs and SECF should be aware of plans to construct new schools in the target areas, so that if the challenges of access are removed, the mini‐bus provision should be treated as a temporary solution. In contrast, in communities in which new schools are not planned (for example, because of population size or other reasons) the mini‐bus may be developed as a long‐term solution. Moreover, although the mini‐bus project has an immediate positive impact on enrollment figures, there are several reasons to believe that new school construction is preferable to mini‐bus provision. First, the mini‐bus approach still imposes some economic burdens on the household, as the service is not free. Second, the community also carries the operational burden. Third, as explained earlier, the buses are supposed to last only a few years, and the community needs to earn enough to purchase another bus before the first bus’ operational life comes to an end. Finally, the bus cannot address all of the needs in the neighboring communities due to its low seat capacity. Thus, if it is considered to be a permanent solution, it is strongly recommended that there be more support provided to ensure its sustainability. If mini‐buses are implemented as a temporary solution, the project should have a follow‐up plan of school construction in coordination with the MEFS, which determines the school construction sites. Without this arrangement, there remains the risk that the resulting high enrollment from the project may discourage the MEFS from building schools in the area, but the above‐mentioned burdens and risks would persist. In conclusion, it is important that the project coordinate with the MEFS’s educational policy plan to avoid eventual adverse impacts on these targeted communities in terms of school availability. Conclusion
The two projects in this evaluation, the ECPSV schools and the Mini‐buses, share common approaches and features. They are both community‐based and rely on revenue‐
generating activities for self‐sufficiency. The findings from both cases strongly support the argument made by Uphoff that the community approach has a great potential for efficiency and sustainability. However, the success also depends on the communities’ capacity, in particular with respect to the existing level of coordination among community members, their management and technical knowledge levels, and their 167 Part II: Program Evaluation capacity to access important information and thereby maintain the control over their operation. Thus, it seems that the initial arrangement for capacity development training of community members, especially the CGE members, is crucial for the success of these projects. An additional critical element is the need for continuous monitoring and evaluation, which allows the community to identify and solve operational problems and ensure transparency. A unique aspect of these projects is financial self‐sufficiency, which the literature confirms is a key component of sustainable development when combined with a community‐based approach. 681 As the projects are designed in a way that the communities have to sustain the project by generating revenue on their own, dependency on external financial support is thus limited. This process also requires high levels of management skills, which UNICEF or SECF should provide through adequate technical support and training. Overall, the community‐based approach, with a focus on self‐sufficiency that UNICEF encourages in its projects, has contributed to setting a positive path toward sustainable development, which is supported both in theory and practice. Program of Cooperation, Mauritania‐UNICEF, 2003‐2008, Chapter II, Education for All Program, YE 102 2. Program of Cooperation 1. 579 Program of Cooperation 5. 580 Program of Cooperation 8. 581 Program of Cooperation 9. 582 Program of Cooperation 10. 583 Program of Cooperation 6, 9. 584 Program of Cooperation 11. 585 Id. 586 “Projet Education de Base Formelle et Non formelle de qualité” 587 Program of Cooperation 23‐24. 588 “Educate Adolescents” Project 589 Official Document, “Project Review Form (PRF) Joint United Nations Project in Mauritania,” (2001): 1. 590 Ibid. 591 Project Review Form (PRF) 2. 592 Norman Uphoff, “Local institutions and participation for sustainable development,” Gatekeeper series 31 (1991): 2. 593 Jeffrey C. Bridger and A.E. Luloff, “Toward an interactional approach to sustainable community development,” Journal of Rural Studies 15 (1999): 380. 594 Ernest J. Yanarella and Richard S. Levine, “Does Sustainable Development Lead to Sustainability?” Futures (1992): 764. 595 Bridger and Luloff 383. 596 Uphoff 2. 597 Uphoff 4. 598 Bridger and Luloff 381. 599 Yanarella and Levine 772. 600 Bridger and Luloff 381. 601 Uphoff 8‐9. 602 Bridger and Luloff 382, 384. 603 Program of Cooperation 3. 604 Program of Cooperation 3; Program of Cooperation 24. 605 Bridger and Luloff 383. 606 Program of Cooperation 6. 607 Program of Cooperation 24. 608 UNICEF Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 17 Jan. 2006. 577
578
168 UNICEF Amadou Ousmane Diallo, “UNDAF Midway Review”, Education‐Training Thematic Group (Sep. 2005) 18. UNICEF‐Mauritania Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. 611 Système d’Information de Suivi de Proximité – SISP. 612 Guide de Mise en Place des Ecoles Communautaires, Propres, Saines et Vertes – Manuel D’Orientation et de Procedures 4. 613 Guide de Mise en Place des Ecoles Communautaires, Propres, Saines et Vertes – Manuel d’Orientation et de Procedures 15. 614 UNICEF Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. 615 Thide School Officials, Thide, Personal Interview, 17 Mar. 2006. 616 UNICEF‐Mauritania Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. 617 Toulde School Officials, Toulde, Personal Interview, 17 Mar. 2006. 618 UNICEF Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. 619 Bridger and Luloff 381. 620 UNICEF Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. 621 UNDAF Evaluation 37. 622 UNICEF Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. 623 Sarandougou School Official, Aleg, Personal Interview, 18 Mar. 2006. 624 Thide, Toulde and Sarandougou School Officials, Thide – Toulde – Aleg, Personal Interviews, 17‐18 Mar. 2006. 625 UNICEF Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. 626 UNICEF Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. 627 Système d’Information de Suivi de Proximité – SISP 628 UNICEF Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. 629 Sarandougou School Official, Aleg, Personal Interview, 18 Mar. 2006. 630 Sarandougou School Official, Aleg, Personal Interview, 18 Mar. 2006. 631 Thide, Toulde and Sarandougou School Officials, Thide – Toulde – Aleg, Personal Interviews, 17‐18 Mar. 2006. 632 Toulde and Sarandougou School Officials, Toulde – Aleg, Personal Interviews, 17‐18 Mar. 2006. 633 Thide School Officials, Thide, Personal Interview, 17 Mar. 2006. 634 Toulde School Official, Toulde, Personal Interview, 17 Mar. 2006. 635 Bogué Koranic School Official, Bogué, Personal Interview, 16 Mar. 2006. 636 Sarandougou School Official, Sarandougou, Personal Interview, 18 Mar. 2006. 637 Bridger and Luloff 381. 638 UNDAF Evaluation 37. 639 Bridger and Luloff 382, 384. 640 UNICEF Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. 641 UNICEF Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. 642 ADRA‐Mauritania Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 23 Mar. 2006. 643 UNICEF Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. 644 UNICEF Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. 645 UNICEF Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006 646 Ministry for the Fight Against Illiteracy, Islamic Orientation and Original Education Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 23 Mar. 2006. 647 Girls, Magta Lahjar, Focus Group, 19 Mar. 2006. 648 PNDSE 21. 649 El Ghassem Ould Ahmedou, Enseignement traditionnel en Mauritanie: La mahadra ou l’ecole ‘a dos de chameau’”, Paris: L’Harmattan (1997): 37. 650 Guide, ESPSV 12. 651 UNICEF Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. 652 UNDAF Evaluation 20. 653 UNDAF Evaluation 20. 654 UNDAF Evaluation 20. 655 Koranic School Teacher 1, Bogué, Personal Interview, 16 Mar. 2006. 656 UNDAF Evaluation 20. 657 Thide School Officials, Thide, Personal Interview, 17 Mar. 2006; Koranic School Teacher 1, Bogué, Personal Interview, 16 Mar. 2006. 658 UNICEF Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 17 Jan. 2006. 659 Koranic School Teacher 1, Bogué, Personal Interview, 16 Mar. 2006. 660 Thide and Toulde School Officials, Thide and Toulde, Personal Interviews, 17 Mar. 2006. 661 UNICEF Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 17 Jan. 2006. 609
610
169 Part II: Program Evaluation Koranic School Teacher 1, Bogué, Personal Interview, 16 Mar. 2006. Project Review Form (PRF) 7‐12. 664 Official Document, “TDR atelier de suivi et d’échange d’expérience des AGR bus et magasins de fournitures scolaires au niveau des 14 sites du Brakna et de l’Assaba,” Monitoring Workshop and Exchange of Experiences of AGR for the Mini‐bus and School Supply Cooperatives in the 14 sites of the Brakna and Assaba (2006): 1. 665 Official Document by SECF, UNDP, and UNICEF. “Protocole d’Accord” (2005): 2. 666 UNICEF Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. 667 Protocole d’accord 2. 668 Project Review Form (PRF) 14; CGE members, Magta Lahjar and Aleg, Personal Interviews, 20 Mar. 2006. 669 UNICEF Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. 670 Project Review Form (PRF) 7. 671 Community members, Magta Lahjar, Personal Interviews, 20 Mar. 2006. 672 Treasurer of CGE, Magta Lahjar, Personal Interview, 20 Mar. 2006. 673 CGE member, Magta Lahjar, Personal Interview, 20 Mar. 2006. 674 Community members, Magta Lahjar, Personal Interviews, 20 Mar. 2006. 675 UNICEF Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. 676 Project Review Form (PRF) 7. 677 Community members, Magta Lahjar and Aleg, Personal Interviews, 20 Mar. 2006. 678 Community members, Magta Lahjar, Personal Interviews, 20 Mar. 2006. 679 Community members, Aleg, Personal Interviews, 20 Mar. 2006. 680 Community members, Magta Lahjar Personal Interviews, 20 Mar. 2006. 681 Yanarella and Levine 772. 662
663
170 Part III: Recommendations and Conclusion Recommendations Recommendation 1: Awareness-raising campaigns about
girls’ education
Awareness‐raising campaigns are an effective method of promoting changes in social behavior in the Mauritanian context. Given the adherence of Mauritanians to community norms as defined by their religious leaders and tribal networks, and the relatively minimal influence of laws on their daily lives, an appropriately designed awareness‐
raising campaign could have tremendous implications for encouraging girls’ education at the secondary level. Therefore, we recommend that the following issues be addressed in an awareness‐raising campaign designed to promote girls’ secondary education: •
The achievement of secondary education for girls has a positive correlation with health and economic growth indicators. • The pursuit of education for girls is consistent with and encouraged by interpretations of Islam. • Early marriage and maternity decisions that accommodate the continuation of education. Background
Given the research and analysis presented in this paper, an awareness‐raising campaign, which is culturally appropriate to the Mauritanian context, should be designed and implemented in order to promote girls’ secondary education. We recommend that this awareness‐raising campaign target the following comprehensive issues in its promotion of girls’ secondary education: the importance of girls’ secondary education because of the positive correlation between secondary education for girls and health and economic indicators; the importance of achieving an education as a tenet of Islam; and delaying early marriage and maternity to order to complete secondary school. Awareness about legislation that promotes girls’ education, such as the previously mentioned Code du Statut Personnel and the compulsory education law, should be raised. However, this legislation should not be the focus of the campaign. As discussed in Part I of this report, a mother’s education at the secondary level has been shown to have positive effects on a family’s health indicators, is correlated with positive economic growth and increases the possibility of expanded educational opportunities for 171 Part III: Recommendations and Conclusion the educated mother’s children. Furthermore, promoting the importance of girls’ secondary education is consistent with interpretations of Islam, which advocates the pursuit of knowledge by both girls and boys. Thus, awareness‐raising around the importance of girls’ secondary education should focus on the value of education, its inherent importance in pursuing productive labor opportunities in the future, and its reflection of fundamental tenets of Islam. As previously mentioned, early marriage and maternity affect girls’ access and retention at the secondary cycle, because attending school becomes more difficult when a girl is married and must take care of her children at home. Awareness‐raising can be conducted around including the continuation of a wife’s education in the marriage contract and delaying marriage, consummation or pregnancy until studies are completed. Awareness‐
raising discouraging early maternity should focus on the potential health effects of early maternity, such as its adverse effects on the physical development of the mother and child. The experience of UNFPA and UNICEF with campaigns on this issue should be consulted and incorporated into future awareness‐raising campaigns. Implementation
By Whom?
Many different actors and stakeholders in Mauritania should work to promote this effort through integrated and strategic cooperation. The awareness‐raising efforts should be led by SECF, which is the arm of the government that has been the focal point for awareness‐
raising campaigns in the past, specifically around the promotion of women’s status and labor market participation. Within the SECF, the Information, Education and Communication (IEC) department should directly lead the campaign and set its agenda and timeframe. Past SECF awareness‐raising campaigns have been determined by the availability of internal and external funds, primarily because the SECF has an insufficient budget to initiate and implement an awareness‐raising campaign independently. Therefore, while the SECF would be the point focale for awareness‐raising campaigns around girls’ education, the module it creates should be distributed to other organizations and stakeholders already working on these topics, who could operationally and financially contribute to disseminating the messages of the campaign. These organizations include the MEFS, Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) and donors, such as Peace Corps, UNICEF and UNFPA. Within civil society, individuals that must be involved in disseminating the messages of the awareness‐raising campaign include the following, in order of priority: Religious leaders, Teachers, Girls, Peace Corps Volunteers and Mentors. Religious leaders
Religion plays an important role in people’s daily life and decisions in Mauritania. When making decisions about marriage and education, for example, families often consult Imams for advice about practices that are permitted or forbidden according to Islam. In the past, SECF (and to a certain extent the UNFPA) has worked to sensitize religious leaders and the community of Imams, in general, about the Code du Statut Personnel. For these reasons, religious leaders should be the key transmitters of the message about the importance of girls’ education. In addition to raising awareness about existing legislation on 172 Recommendations early marriage and compulsory education, religious leaders can articulate questions of early marriage, maternity, human rights and the health and employment benefits of education in a religious framework with which community members can identify and apply more to their daily lives. For example, if a girl marries at a young age, a religious leader can still advocate for delaying maternity by highlighting the adverse physical effects of premature childbearing, and stressing that any practice with such detrimental effects is inconsistent with Islam’s tenet of respecting and protecting one’s body from harm. Additionally, through the awareness‐raising campaign, religious leaders should emphasize the importance that Islam accords to the pursuit of knowledge, and thereby encourage girls’ to pursue their education. Teachers and girls
Furthermore, teachers and girls should be involved in disseminating awareness‐raising information. Teachers can have an active role in promoting girls’ education through curriculum and teaching methods, and they can also encourage increased parental involvement in their daughters’ education. Girls themselves are effective message transmitters in awareness‐raising campaigns, because they can relay important messages to trusted peers. For example, girls could conduct follow‐up awareness‐raising campaigns after the Peace Corps Annual Girls’ Education Conference to disseminate the message from the conference, as it relates to girls’ education, to a broader community than that reached by the conference. Peace Corps Volunteers and Mentors
Peace Corps Volunteers and Mentors can also promote awareness of these issues in the activities and trainings they conduct at the GMCs or Mentors’ Workshop. Peace Corps Volunteers and Mentors work with groups of girls at the local level on a regular basis and could therefore serve as effective carriers of these messages. For Whom?
Awareness‐raising campaigns should not only be directed to girls, but also to the people in the community who contribute to decision and policy‐making about education. These community members include the following, all of which should be addressed with equal importance in an awareness‐raising campaign: Parents (mothers, fathers, extended families)
Girls in Mauritania generally do not make decisions about education independently of their families. Understanding this context, the SECF in past awareness‐raising campaigns regarding early marriage has targeted girls’ mothers, because they are typically closer to their daughters than fathers. However, in order to effectively influence gender relations in Mauritanian society, fathers and other male family members must also be sensitized. In this way, the behavioral attitudes throughout society as a whole will embrace the importance of girls’ education. Girls and boys
In addition to being message carriers, girls in a community must be sensitized about their own educational opportunities, as well as issues surrounding early marriage and maternity, so that they can help make decisions with their families around how to best accommodate their educational prospects. Boys must also be targeted because they are 173 Part III: Recommendations and Conclusion integral to the existing gender relations framework, and in the future, they will be fathers who contribute to decision‐making in the family. Teachers
Teachers should be sensitized to the aforementioned topics so that they can encourage girls to pursue their education and serve as mentors in their educational pursuits. These efforts should be accompanied by gender‐sensitive curriculum that does not reinforce the status quo regarding gender relations. Religious leaders
Religious leaders who are disseminating information can also sensitize other religious leaders, who will in turn, further transmit these messages to their communities. Since different religious leaders embrace different interpretations of Islam, religious leaders who are sensitized about the importance of girls’ education can work together to raise awareness in the greater community around this topic. Civil servants
Civil servants in the MEFS, who work with the educational strategy (PNDSE) that promotes girls’ education, must also be sensitized about its importance so that their daily work and strategic vision incorporates these messages. This awareness‐raising needs to occur at both the central and regional levels. Where?
This awareness‐raising campaign should, in the short‐term, be implemented in the regions where the donors and institutional partners are strongest and effective collaboration can be ensured. In the long term, the lessons learned from the evaluation of the previous awareness‐raising campaign should be used to secure additional funding so that this campaign can be applied throughout all regions of Mauritania and applied consistently over time. How?
The means of transmission for the messages in an awareness‐raising campaign determine the campaign’s effectiveness. Messages should ultimately be related to interpretations of Islam, because our research and analysis has demonstrated that families primarily base their decisions on religious and traditional community norms. The following are different media for promoting awareness‐raising about girls’ secondary education, which should be selected according to the target group, resources available, location and timeframe: Media
Radio This medium reaches both literate and illiterate groups in a wide audience and can be implemented inexpensively. Many households and public transportation vehicles have radios. UNFPA has integrated messages about health into literacy lessons that are broadcast on the radio, which is an approach that could be extended as well to messages about girls’ education. 682 174 Recommendations Television This medium reaches both literate and illiterate groups in many homes and commercial locations. Cassettes This medium is effective for both literate and illiterate groups and can be widely distributed. An NGO in the Brakna region has successfully financed and distributed cassettes addressing health and legislative issues, and with more donor and government support, these efforts could be expanded to have cassettes promoting girls’ education throughout the entire country. 683 Concerts This medium is effective for both literate and illiterate groups and can reach wide audiences, although only on a sporadic basis. Print (newspapers, brochures, newsletters) This medium is limited to literate groups but can help to distribute messages to a wide audience. Billboards This medium is visual and has a continuous presence, but it will primarily reach literate groups and its reach is limited to the geographical area where it is constructed. School
Books The content in schoolbooks can help promote gender‐sensitive messages. Classrooms Teachers can promote more equal gender relations in the classroom, which will, in turn, be reflected in gender relations in the broader society. Teachers can also encourage students, especially girls, in their pursuit of educational opportunities. Community
Discussions based in Mosques Imams can lead informal discussions in Mosques regarding the importance of girls’ education, the consistency of pursuing education with Islam and issues regarding early marriage and maternity. Self‐produced plays This medium is visual and helps students themselves internalize the messages and work as carriers themselves of the messages. Community awareness meetings Community members themselves can meet on a regular basis to raise awareness on these different issues. GMCs Peace Corps Volunteers and mentors can raise awareness through their weekly activities with secondary‐level girls. 175 Part III: Recommendations and Conclusion Recommendation 2: Increase economic support for poor
families
As discussed in Part I, poverty has an adverse affect on education choices in Mauritania. By finding creative ways to financially support poor families in continuing to educate their children, especially girls, the enrollment, retention and completion of students in the secondary cycle of education will be improved. Therefore, we recommend the following: 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Expand the existing scholarship program in accordance with available government funds. Target scholarships based on financial need, and do not limit them to students who must travel to school. Ensure transparency in the scholarship process, clarify the selection criteria and disseminate these criteria to the public. Provide additional forms of financial assistance to families in need, such as cash transfers, training on revenue generating activities and credit assistance. Condition ongoing financial aid programs upon school attendance. Background
The MEFS currently has a scholarship (bourse) program for students from poor families at the secondary level. The selection process occurs at the regional level. There has recently been a shift towards targeting girls with these scholarships and according to one MEFS source, 70% of the scholarships were granted to girls in 2005. 684 However, the program only reaches approximately 4,000 students per year, when the actual number in need is probably much greater, given the high levels of poverty in Mauritania. 685 In addition, some respondents complained that the scholarships were not always targeted to the poorest families. 686 Finally, the scholarships are only provided in situations where the student needs to travel to another city in order to attend school. Therefore, poor families that live in proximity to a collège are excluded. 687 In addition to scholarships, there are a number of other programs that have been used with success in other countries, such as PROGRESA in Mexico, which gives cash grants to poor families in exchange for school attendance. Another possibility, which was preferred to pure cash grants by the respondents in our economic case studies, is assistance and training on revenue generating activities, coupled with physical capital (e.g. sewing machine, grain mill, etc.). 688 Providing credit to poor families would also be particularly useful after they have experienced serious economic shocks, such as loss of employment, death of family member, drought, crop failure, etc. While the exact poverty reduction intervention to implement in Mauritania requires a further study, a mix of programs would provide the largest amount of choice to poor families and assist them in keeping their children in school, provided the programs do not compete for the same resources. Finally, as research on PROGRESA shows, monitoring attendance in school was a crucial factor to the success of these programs, which would be a key addition to any education subsidy program considered. 689 176 Recommendations Implementation
MEFS should continue to manage the national scholarship program, but local and international NGOs could also play a role in identifying needs and raising awareness about the scholarships and application processes. A more comprehensive financial assistance program should also be undertaken by MEFS. Such a program would be targeted towards improving enrollment, retention and completion ratios, although coordination with other relevant ministries and Commissariat aux Droits de lʹHomme, à la Lutte Contre la Pauvreté et à lʹInsertion (CDHLCPI) would be a necessary component. Thus, we recommend a significant increase in the size of the program, which would require retargeting areas of the budget towards these new activities and may require outside donor support. Regarding the provision of revenue‐generating activities, Peace Corps has strengths in this area through its Small Enterprise Development (SED) program and thus could contribute by targeting their SED interventions to poor families who have students at the secondary level. Peace Corps’ extensive local networks would be very useful in identifying families in need. The scholarships and other aid programs should be targeted to families based on their income level and should be aimed at the poorest families. While students who have to travel long distances should be prioritized because their education costs are higher, this priority should be balanced so that poor families in larger localities with local schools are not ignored. The selection process, both for scholarships and for an eventual subsidy program, should occur at the regional level and should ensure transparency. The criteria for selection of families for assistance should be public and updated annually to account for changes in living standards and poverty levels. Although the scholarship process is currently national, an alternate financial assistance program should be piloted in one or two regions initially in order to measure effects of the program and make modifications before expanding it at the national level. The experience of Mexico is instructive in this regard, because by piloting their PROGRESA program in randomly selected villages, the government was able to do a very detailed and statistically rigorous comparison between villages that had the program and villages that did not. 690 Thus, in Mauritania, a financial assistance program in one region with randomly selected sites, coupled with baseline measurement and follow‐up evaluations, would likely yield a more effective program that could be implemented nationally. 177 Part III: Recommendations and Conclusion Recommendation 3: Improve coordination between
government and other actors
We recommend the following with to improve coordination between the government and other actors in the domain of girls’ secondary education: 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Expand donor–government coordination to include a long‐term focus through the establishment of an institutional framework for policy planning. Unify operational systems amongst donors to alleviate the administrative burden on the government. Involve Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) in the policy planning process. Develop and sustain a network of CSOs for operational support. Improve operational coordination between Peace Corps and SECF through a MoU. Use Extra Teaching Hours from MEFS to support teachers in GMCs. Post teachers to the GMCs to act as administrators of these Centers. Integrate policy and operational coordination. Background
As previously described, improved coordination among the key actors (MEFS, SECF, donors, CSOs, etc.) in the area of girls’ secondary education is strongly recommended. Coordination enables actors who possess different strengths and limitations to complement each other’s work and thereby maximize the effectiveness of their interventions and reduce the administrative burdens borne by the Government of Mauritania. Current donor‐government coordination at the policy planning level is mainly based on joint projects and annual policy reviews and does not address long‐term or sector‐wide coordination. However, joint projects only focus on particular goals during the project period with the various relevant partners. Moreover, annual reviews focus on the action plan for the coming year, not on longer term objectives. Although the PNDSE exists as a policy principle, it does not ensure that each donor agency will be responsible for a certain part of its design in the long‐term. Therefore, in the absence of an effective form of coordination, limited commitment of the donor agencies carries the risk that government‐
led projects will be scaled down or abandoned if they become more challenging than expected. Thus, establishing an institutional framework of government‐donor coordination to jointly agree on a long‐term policy framework is essential. Clearly defining each donor’s primary role and responsibility will enhance the donors’ commitment and enable the government to proceed with the reform in a coherent fashion. Additionally, closer coordination with civil society during the policy planning process will be beneficial. Civil society represents the voices of the people and these voices should be reflected in the policy plans through active participation in the policy planning process. This arrangement will ensure that policy interventions meet the needs of the 178 Recommendations communities and are implemented in a harmonious fashion with the local socio‐cultural context. Finally, coordination at the operational level should be enhanced. Operational coordination enables the actors to maximize the use of available resources by exchanging expertise, sharing information on how to flexibly address operational issues, and eliminating the functional and geographical overlaps of interventions among the actors. For example, Peace Corps focuses on girls’ education at the secondary level whereas UNICEF focuses mainly on the primary level. Coordination of this type allows the efficient use of the limited resources available for the girls’ education sector. Implementation
Policy Planning Coordination
At the policy planning level, further coordination efforts should be led by the Government of Mauritania and involve all the major actors in the area of girls’ education, including UN agencies, international financial organizations, bi‐lateral donors, NGOs and other CSOs (especially religious leaders). More specifically, developing a joint Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) among these major players will help to comprehensively clarify the different responsibilities of each actor and enhance its commitment. We also recommend rigorously analyzing the feasibility of each plan by assigning both tasks and financial responsibilities to each actor based on their comparative advantage and mandate. This process will ensure that the most capable actor, in terms of both financial and professional capacity, is identified and assigned with the consensus of the other actors, which will thus prevent competition among agencies. Additionally, this process should assist with the identification of oversights and elimination of duplications in the actors’ interventions. Another way of enhancing coordination, particularly among donors, is to unify the process of developing policy plans. Currently, UNDAF has started to jointly conduct mid‐term assessments to identify the impact and relevance of its projects and to share effective practices, but this framework is limited to UN agencies. This framework should be expanded at the country‐level to include other major donors, especially development banks that have strong financial capacities. Finally, as previously discussed, the different operational systems of each donor impose a heavy administrative burden on the government. Donors should make efforts to reduce and simplify the operational processes, for example, by using common document formats. Regarding coordination with civil society, efforts should be made both in Nouakchott and at the regional level to develop a representative network of CSOs and to effectively involve them in the formulation and execution of the annual action plans. Operational Coordination
Projects operated by different agencies can be further expanded and operated more effectively with better coordination among development partners. For example, additional coordination between the Peace Corps and other actors has great potential benefit, because Peace Corps can complement other actors’ limited capacity at the 179 Part III: Recommendations and Conclusion regional level with its extensive network of Volunteers, who understand the community and socio‐cultural context of their area. Also, the Volunteers have capacities as trainers and project coordinators and can support the government’s and donors’ projects in the areas of training, monitoring and evaluation. Coordination between the Peace Corps and the SECF can be enhanced by developing a MoU between them. As explained in the evaluation section of the GAD program, by signing a MoU, they can institutionalize their existing coordination and work to expand their partnership in the future. Additionally, Peace Corps can benefit from further coordination with the MEFS, particularly in regard to the operation of GMCs. Currently, GMCs are supported by teachers’ voluntary teaching activities. However, Peace Corps cannot consistently rely on their services, because they are not compensated for the lessons they conduct and often work additional hours in private schools and/or as private tutors. One possible source of funding would be the MEFS fund used to compensate teachers for overtime work (Horaires Supplementaires). By coordinating with MEFS, Peace Corps may be able to access this fund to compensate teachers working at the GMCs. In the long run, the MEFS could post teachers to GMCs to enhance the continuity, and thus sustainability, of the Centers. Posting teachers directly to the Centers through the MEFS will help to institutionalize the Centers and realize the goal of community ownership of GMCs. Furthermore, the previously mentioned awareness‐raising campaign provides and opportunity for coordination among the major actors in the area of girls’ education. The involvement of multiple actors in implementing an awareness‐raising campaign should capitalize on each actor’s strengths. For example, awareness‐raising coordination can combine the professional expertise of the SECF in this area, the nation‐wide institutional capacity of the MEFS, the specific professional expertise and financial resources of the donors, and the profound understanding of socio‐cultural issues of the communities and CSOs. This coordination will allow the campaign to be expanded and have a greater impact than past awareness‐raising campaigns, which were limited in scope and regional impact. Also, multi‐actor coordination will enable the campaign to quickly expand by dividing the regions among the actors according to their strongest geographical areas of intervention. Finally, donor and government coordination at the policy and operational level should be better integrated. Policy level coordination should be reflected at the operational level. At the same time, operational level coordination can identify further needs and systemic improvements, which should be reflected at the policy level. Thus, the scope of coordination should not be limited to merely enhancing each activity independently, but should also be designed in a way that links all the activities (policy and operational) and merges them into a more comprehensive and effective planning and implementation mechanism for the education sector as a whole. 180 Recommendations Recommendation 4: Increase technical assistance to
Government
We recommend that Mauritania’s development partners provide the following technical assistance training to the Government of Mauritania to enhance its capacity in designing and implementing policy plans in the area of girls’ secondary education: 1.
2.
3.
Develop training programs for policy makers to enhance their management and technical skills. Assist the government in developing the administrative capacity to design and implement the aforementioned training programs. Support academic and research institutions in Mauritania in their development of technical assistance programs. Background
Increasing technical assistance to the Government of Mauritania by the donor community is important to enhance the government’s capacity in planning and implementing appropriate policies in the education sector in general, and in particular, for girls’ education. Although many components of the PNDSE have been successfully implemented, many other components have yet to be implemented, which affects the comprehensive nature of the reform process itself. Furthermore, the rapid development of the education sector creates some additional complexities to the administrative operations that guide the entire educational system. Thus, in order for the MEFS to be able to successfully continue its reform initiative, technical assistance, in addition to financial support, should be provided by the donor agencies. Of special importance in technical assistance are initiatives to enhance the planning and administrative capacity of high‐level government officials in the MEFS (and indeed the SECF). Implementation
As previously described, developing technical training for Ministry officials at the policy making level is one important area that donor agencies should focus on in the short to medium‐term. Some skills, such as policy planning, management, information technology, financial management and communication skills have already been identified throughout the process of our research, but since different positions and departments require different skills and competencies, the MEFS should develop an individualized list of the knowledge and skills necessary for each position. Once this set of skills and competencies is identified for each position and department level, donors should coordinate to identify which donor is appropriate to oversee the technical assistance training in each area. This form of intervention should include both central and local high‐level officials in order to support the current decentralization policy of the MEFS. In order to successfully expand the technical capacity of the MEFS, the Ministry must develop an institutional structure that is responsible for monitoring the capacity of all departments and staff, and offering them trainings when necessary. The Department of Human Resources in the Ministry would be an appropriate candidate to play this role. 181 Part III: Recommendations and Conclusion However, donors must support this Department to execute the necessary planning and training, as well as monitoring and evaluation functions. Finally, the sustainability of any technical assistance to the Government of Mauritania in areas such as the planning and implementation of reforms will be greatly enhanced if donors direct some of their financial and technical support to developing existing and new academic and research institutions in Mauritania. These institutions could analyze existing policies and advise the government, so that it will not have to rely on donor support for technical assistance. This is clearly one of the best strategies for national‐led development in the education sector. 182 Recommendations Recommendation 5: Develop new criteria for affectation
A lack of clear, consistently applied, transparent guidelines for assigning teachers to posts, may have adverse effects on teacher recruitment and retention. Therefore, we recommend the following: 1.
2.
Develop specific criteria for assigning teachers to posts. Create transparency mechanisms that provide teachers with information about decisions concerning their requests for a new post. Background
The process by which teachers are assigned to positions is intended to ensure that all teaching posts are filled. However, some aspects of this process may contribute to challenges in teacher recruitment and retention, as well as to high levels of teacher absenteeism. Currently, teacher affectation is conducted at the discretion of the central MEFS and the DRENs, with little or no institutional clarity on the actual procedures for the affectation process. This absence of clear guidelines may deter well‐qualified individuals from entering the teaching profession, and discourage experienced from remaining in the profession. Additionally, they pose a particular barrier for female teachers, whose postings may be far from their families, and thus implicate cultural norms surrounding womenʹs responsibilities to their families. To address these issues, new guidelines for the affectation of teachers to posts should be developed. The new guidelines should include more specificity regarding the criteria by which teachers are assigned to posts. In addition, transparency mechanisms should be introduced that allow teachers to understand the bases upon which they were denied requests for transfer. Ultimately, such transparency will also breed trust between teachers and administrators. Implementation
Ministry of Education officials should make the ultimate determination regarding guidelines for implementation. However, stakeholders representing different domains of the education system and different sectors of the population should be included in the preparation stages of discussing the criteria that should be included. Providing for a multiplicity of perspectives in developing affectation criteria will support the objective of balancing the needs of teachers with the needs of schools in Mauritaniaʹs many communities. The decision‐making process for developing teacher placement guidelines should be divided into two stages. The first stage should include meetings and focus groups with representatives from various domains of Mauritaniaʹs education system, who represent Mauritaniaʹs demographic diversity. Teachers and teaching candidates, DRENs, School Directors (college and lycée), students and parents should be included among these representatives. A gender and geographical balance is also recommended. During these meetings, all representatives should discuss the specific criteria that could be included in decisions regarding affectations, and how those criteria should be implemented. 183 Part III: Recommendations and Conclusion In the second stage of the decision process, MEFS officials should develop a specific set of guidelines for assigning teachers to posts. Among the questions that ministry officials and stakeholders should consider in developing these guidelines are the following: •
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
How the score that teachersʹ received on their qualifying examination will be considered for the posting of teachers newly entering the profession. Whether teachers requesting reassignment will be given preference based on seniority. How the evaluations of job performance will be considered in experienced teachers’ requests for posts, and if so, which exact criteria of the job performance should be taken into consideration. Whether teachers will have the right to retain a post to which they have been assigned. Whether their personal responsibilities (e.g. children, ailing family members, etc.) will be taken into consideration in their assignment to posts, and if so, how. How qualifications, beyond those such as training in the subject area will be determined in assigning teachers to posts (e.g. language skills other than those required to teach in a subject area, other work experience, etc.). Whether the DRENs and School Directors will have the discretion to determine the assignment of teachers to posts beyond the criteria listed above. Whether the School Directors will have the privilege to request that teachers be placed in (or removed from) their school. Ministry officials should develop a system by which teachers who have been denied positions for which they applied can learn how that decision was reached. Additionally, the information teachers receive should reflect the new criteria for teacher placement. More specifically, teachers should receive the following information: •
•
Whether reports of their own performance were among the determinative factors (e.g. whether they were denied a post on the basis of poor performance) Whether superior qualifications of a candidate competing for the same position were among the determinative factors, and if so, which qualifications were relevant to the decision. 184 Recommendations Recommendation 6: Incorporate gender-awareness
courses into teacher training
Gender‐awareness training for teachers is considered an effective practice in creating schools that support both female and male students, but instruction in this area is not part of the teacher‐training curriculum at the ENS. Therefore we recommend the following: 1.
2.
3.
Incorporate a gender‐awareness course into the teacher training program at the ENS. Incorporate criteria for evaluating teacher practices that reflect gender‐
awareness in teacher inspection and monitoring. Provide in‐service training to sustain the ongoing development of effective practices to support girls and boys in secondary schooling. Background
At present the full‐length training program for secondary school teachers does not include instruction about gender‐awareness. Gender‐awareness training should help teachers develop strategies that support girlsʹ learning in their classrooms. It could also help teachers to promote positive attitudes towards education for both sexes in their classrooms. In particular, in Mauritaniaʹs diverse context, such training could be structured to provide teachers with more knowledge about the different norms surrounding gender relations among the nation’s many cultural groups. This program may be most appropriately integrated into the second year of teacher training programs, which focus on teaching methodologies. (These programs should also be included in accelerated teacher‐training programs.) In addition, regular inspections and in‐service training for secondary teachers should include evaluation and support for practices that target girls’ education. A corresponding course in gender‐awareness for inspectors in training could help them better evaluate the impact of teaching practices. Implementation
Directors at the ENS should collaborate with officials from the SECF and inspectors from the IGEN to develop a curriculum for a gender‐awareness course to be included in the training programs for teachers and inspectors. In addition, they should seek the input of outside agencies or consultants who specialize in gender‐sensitivity training. Officials at the IGEN should work to develop relevant, appropriate criteria for assessing gender‐
sensitive teaching practices. These should be incorporated into the evaluation process for teachers. Furthermore, they should work together with Directors and Instructors at the ENS to develop in‐service training programs to support teachersʹ development of gender‐
sensitive teaching methodologies. A course for pre‐service training could include the following: •
•
theories of gender relations analysis of cultural norms for boys and girls 185 Part III: Recommendations and Conclusion •
training in teaching methodologies that might support girlsʹ learning styles. (For example, given that Mauritanian girls may be less likely to speak in front of large groups of people, work in small groups might provide them with more opportunities to engage actively in discussions.) The inspection evaluation could be structured to include an analysis of girls’ and boys’ participation in classes. Inspectors could monitor the percentage of girls and boys who actively participate in class discussions, as well as the teachersʹ style of engagement with students of both sexes. This analysis could help teachers and inspectors to reflect productively on how to continue to improve support for girls’ particular learning needs. Data from evaluations could be useful in evaluating the impact of training programs on teachersʹ practices and learning outcomes for girls, and on developing future pre‐service and in‐service training programs. Finally, in‐service teacher training programs should be structured to provide teachers with ongoing support in their development of gender‐sensitive teaching practices. Trainings could include opportunities for teachers to share effective lesson strategies and to identify areas of further need in developing equitable educational support for girls. 186 Recommendations Recommendation 7: Revise the bac in all subjects to
reflect relevant skills and knowledge
The MEFS and IGEN are currently introducing new curricula and teaching practices into Mauritania’s secondary schools, which may enhance the quality and relevance of instruction. More emphasis on evaluating these new content and skills in the BEPS and bac examinations will promote the implementation of these practices. Therefore, we recommend: 1.
Incorporate tasks to evaluate students’ acquisition of the new content and competencies into the Brevet and bac examinations. Background
Mauritanian stakeholders from various sectors of society expressed a belief that secondary education helps young women to develop a wide array of important competencies, such as being better able to care for the health and education of their families, acquiring the necessary skills to secure employment and being prepared for university‐level studies. Two new initiatives are currently underway to enhance the relevance of instruction in all subjects to a wide range of practical, academic and professional skills. The Program EVF/EMP integrates an awareness of social and health issues in seven “domaines” into the existing subject curricula. The Approche par Competences, which emphasizes supporting studentsʹ development of competencies in each subject area, is currently being introduced as the method of teaching at the secondary level, and the IGEN are developing new syllabi to incorporate this method. A long‐term goal should be to develop the structure of the BEPC and bac examination to emphasize knowledge and skills that will be relevant for students in university‐level studies as well as in their lives beyond formal education. In light of the fact that the two new curriculum reform initiatives are currently underway, the BEPC and bac examinations should be developed to reflect the content and skills that will be introduced through the Program EVF/EMP and the Approche par Compétences. Developing these examinations in this manner will motivate teachers’ and students’ to use these materials and approaches. Thus, it will increase the degree to which students are engaging with a curriculum relevant to their needs. This, in turn, will enhance studentsʹ and parentsʹ demand for secondary schooling by expanding the benefits of secondary schooling to include the opportunity to gain more valuable skills. Additionally, developing a test that reflects the curriculum and teaching methodology employed in the classroom may allow teachers and students to better prepare for the test. Finally, if students are tested on content and skills that are more relevant to their lives and experiences, this may allow them to better demonstrate their competencies. Implementation
In order to implement these recommendations for testing reform, DEE officials should coordinate with officials from the IGEN and representatives from relevant donor agencies to discuss how questions on both examinations could be structured to reflect the content and skills emphasized in both initiatives. University professors should also be included in 187 Part III: Recommendations and Conclusion this discussion, to ensure that the changes to the tests reflect an academic standard consistent with preparation for the tertiary level. Some recommendations for revision are: •
•
•
Integrate questions that emphasize knowledge of health, family relations, gender equality and environmental issues into subjects such as history, geography, philosophy, religion and natural sciences. (For example, the science examination could emphasize relevant environmental challenges such as desertification and water management.) Incorporate tasks into language or mathematics examinations, which are based on readings relevant to the domaines listed above and other real‐
life situations. (For example, language examinations could include reading comprehension passages about child development.) Include tasks that test studentsʹ acquisition of competencies, such as problem resolution, and integrate and apply different kinds of knowledge and skills. (For example, in history and geography examinations, students could compare a problem from a particular time period, and propose how lessons learned from that time period might be applied to a situation in their own communities.) 188 Recommendations Recommendation 8: Improve UNICEF project support
structure
Background
The Ecoles communautaires propres saines et vertes (ECPSV) project in modern and Koranic schools aims to increase enrollment and retention at the primary level, and ultimately, encourage transition to the secondary level. In this effort, as previously mentioned, the project works to improve the learning environment in schools through a community‐
based, self‐sufficiency approach as well as awareness‐raising initiatives and infrastructure investments to make the schools more hygienic and environmentally‐friendly. Similarly, the Mini‐bus project is grounded in a community‐based, self‐sufficiency approach that aims to directly increase girls’ access to the secondary level by providing the needed support in the form of low‐cost and reliable transportation. With only an initial reliance on external funding from UNICEF, the communities take ownership of both projects and make their own decisions based on their socio‐economic needs. Based on the evaluation of the ECPSV modern and Koranic schools, as well as the Mini‐
bus project, our recommendations for UNICEF in Mauritania are targeted to the support structure for these projects, which requires improved Monitoring and Evaluation, increased Training, as well as increased coordination with the Government of Mauritania, specifically the MEFS. These improvements can help to ensure the sustainability of the projects’ achievements and should therefore be priority areas when seeking additional annual funding and when considering project expansion. Implementation
Monitoring and Evaluation
An important factor for ensuring the sustainability of the project’s achievements is prioritizing continuous monitoring and evaluation, as detailed in the initial project documents. The Mini‐bus project is still relatively new and is in the initial stages of monitoring and evaluation. For the ECPSV project, the project document stipulates that monitoring and evaluation should include a mid‐year and an end‐of‐year report, as well as a summer conference that brings together representatives from all the communities to further share experiences and effective practices among sites. This monitoring and evaluation allows communities to identify and solve operational problems as they arise, and ensures transparency with regard to the management of the project and the use of funds. UNICEF has faced difficulties in implementing this monitoring and evaluation system due to its limited financial and human resources, which in turn, has postponed evaluations in most sites. Additionally, the ECPSV project has been expanded to more sites in order to completely cover the entire Brakna region, which may further limit UNICEF’s ability to conduct monitoring and evaluation and thus compromise efforts for project improvement in the future. Therefore, in planning for the expansion of the ECPSV project, UNICEF must also ensure that resources are secured for carrying out consistent monitoring and evaluation at the new and existing sites. One objective should not come at the expense of another. To illustrate, if the number of sites is increasing without 189 Part III: Recommendations and Conclusion accompanying monitoring and evaluation, then the project as a whole will be at risk and the achievements for girls’ education may not be sustainable. Training
UNICEF provides initial training on the ECPSV community‐based approach for participating schools, in addition to sporadic capacity‐building trainings. However, as mentioned previously, due to the current strain on the financial and human resources available at UNICEF, consistent supplementary trainings have been difficult to implement. Ultimately, the success of the ECPSV approach and Mini‐bus project depends upon the community’s ability to learn new skills in statistical analysis in order to monitor the ECPSV project, and in management, for the CGEs, so that the communities can effectively implement and manage the projects. Without consistent trainings by UNICEF, the community will not be able to master these requisite skills. Therefore, UNICEF needs to prioritize continuous training and technical support for capacity development, so that the projects do not lose momentum, which will in turn affect their sustainability. Thus, UNICEF’s budget should guarantee adequate funding for these trainings to occur consistently at the beginning of the project, and continuously in regular intervals each year, with opportunities for different CGE members to participate. Coordination with the Government of Mauritania
UNICEF’s work in the education sector, with the Education for All Program, is an integral part of the Government of Mauritania’s 1999 educational strategy, or the PNDSE. As envisioned in this strategy, ownership of this UNICEF project should eventually be transferred to the Government of Mauritania. However, due to a lack of sufficient coordination between UNICEF and the government, many officials still perceive this project as completely under the control of UNICEF. This lack of coordination is exacerbated by frequent change in Government of Mauritania officials. This frequent staff turnover impedes the development of stable relationships between UNICEF and Ministry officials, which is necessary for a transition in program management. Therefore, in order to more effectively involve government officials in the implementation of UNICEF projects, a UNICEF official recommended that all government officials should be sensitized on the work of UNICEF, instead of only sensitizing specific personnel who may leave their positions. 691 More awareness about the projects can improve cooperation between UNICEF and the Government, at the central and regional levels, which will also improve the implementation of monitoring and evaluation and training initiatives. With greater government support and ownership of projects, the possibility of securing more funds should also increase with the potential of expanding projects into more regions of the country thereby affecting a larger sector of the population. 190 Recommendations Overview of recommendations for Peace Corps
In making recommendations, RIMGAD should be viewed as a work in progress. This program is accorded a unique status and importance given its funding source, but is not guaranteed the permanence and priority of other Peace Corps sectors. The administrative tools supporting it and the methodology it uses currently to execute its projects have been developed in a piecemeal fashion. The goal of these recommendations is to build on the strengths of the activities that have brought the program this far. Below is a list of all suggested recommendations: RIMGAD
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Redirect the GAD Committee’s work towards strategic planning and the coordination of RIMGAD goals. Establish whether the priority of RIMGAD is to improve girls’ education specifically or to promote gender conscious development in general. Create a RIMGAD Project Framework similar to that existing for other Peace Corps Mauritania sectors. Develop a set of guidelines that outline the responsibilities and tasks to be carried out in each GMC. Identify important GMC mentor characteristics and develop a set of criteria for selecting mentors. Finalize the MoU between Peace Corps and the SECF. Establish an agreement regarding Horaires Supplementaires for tutors at the GMCs with the MEFS, as discussed in this collaboration recommendation. Develop an annual report for RIMGAD similar to the Project Status Report for each sector. Hire a GAD Assistant. GMCs
•
•
•
•
•
•
Clarify GMC goals to determine the balance between formal and informal education, the character of desired outcomes and the appropriate target audience. Plan awareness‐raising campaigns outside of the immediate GMC environment. Develop a brochure on the goals of RIMGAD and its projects to sensitize the local community about their work. Implement the recommendations in the Girls’ Mentoring Center Ideabook regarding community participation. Contact and nurture existing girls’ clubs in communities that also have GMCs. Collect school attendance records, final grades, repetition rates and data regarding participation in extra curricular activities for current GMC members. 191 Part III: Recommendations and Conclusion •
•
Provide annual updates on the employment, marriage and educational status of GMC alumnae. Create a set of criteria to guide the selection of the communities where new GMCs will be established. Mentors’ Workshop
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Articulate goals and objectives for the workshop that appropriately reflect the anticipated role of the GMC mentors. Identify overarching themes that each regional workshop should address. Monitor frequency of computer literacy and management skills trainings for mentors. Continue to hold regional workshops rather than a national workshop. Ensure that a Peace Corps staff member attend each regional workshop. Ensure funding for translation services during regional workshops. Prepare seasoned mentors to train new mentors during the workshop. Include training sessions on budgeting, fund raising, grant writing and community outreach. AGEC
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Adjust the goals of the conference to focus directly on incentives and obstacles to girls’ education. Make an exchange between girls from different regions an explicit goal of the conference. Involve girls in the planning and programming of the conference. Have the girls present at the conference and share ideas about what they have done in the various GMCs or girls clubs. Add a workshop to have girls develop action plans addressing issues of relevance to them. Develop contacts between GMCs and girls’ clubs, so that the AGEC eventually evolves into a national meeting of girls’ clubs. Allow girls to elect conference delegates. Eventually, widen the eligibility for the AGEC beyond GMC girls. Plan follow‐up community “sensibilizations” and activities after the national conference where the delegates return, report their results and implement their action plans. 192 Recommendations Recommendation 9: Goal setting for RIMGAD projects
Description
Our analysis has demonstrated that the lack of clarity regarding the goals and objectives of the RIMGAD program affects the understanding of the various actors involved in these projects and diminishes their impact. Thus, the goals and objectives for RIMGAD, the GMCs and the Mentors’ Workshops must be clarified with consistency and clarity of purpose. The AGEC differs in that while its goals do not lack clarity, they should be reoriented to focus on incentives and obstacles to girls’ education at the secondary and post‐secondary levels. This focus will improve the impact and the relevance of the AGEC to Mauritania’s educational goals. Implementation
RIMGAD
In order to streamline the reorganization of the RIMGAD goals, the GAD Committee should depart from its administrative role and focus on strategic planning and alignment of RIMGAD’s goals and Washington’s GAD goals, coordination of individual project goals with overall RIMGAD goals and coordination of project goals with each other. The first task that the GAD committee should undertake, in conjunction with RIMGAD’s partners at the MEFS and the SECF, is to establish whether the GAD’s priority is to improve girls’ education specifically, or to develop gender consciousness in general. Subsequently, the GAD Committee must compile and expand all current goals and objectives relevant to RIMGAD into a document similar to that available for each sector in Peace Corps Mauritania. Individual goals within this document should come from the RIMGAD Mission described in the proposal to the Ambassador, and the objectives within these goals should relate to the GMCs, the Mentors’ Workshops and the AGEC as well as all other major RIMGAD projects (March 8th, Big Sister/Little Sister and Gender Equity Workshop). The GMC objective that is currently listed in the new Education Project Framework should become an objective in this document. Box 17 suggests a rough outline of this framework. Box 17: Proposed Education Project Framework
Goal 1: To encourage and assist in the development of projects that are focused in the domain of GAD,
concentrating especially on girls’ education. 692
Objective 1.1: By XXXX, Volunteers and their Counterparts will have provided training to X teachers on gender
consciousness in the classroom during the Gender Equity Workshop.
Objective: 1.2: By XXXX, X collège and lycée aged girls will have participated in the AGEC. XX of these will have
carried out XX follow-up activities in their communities.
Objective 1.3: By XXXX, Volunteers and GMC mentors will have carried out X regional Mentors’ Workshops that
improve the management skills of the mentors.
Objective 1.4: By XXXX, Volunteers, GMC mentors and tutors will have improved the achievement (i.e. grades),
retention and enrollment of girls at the secondary level in sites where GMCs exist.
Objective 1.5: By the end of the school year 2012-2013, 54 Volunteers and their Counterparts will have
introduced at least 3,000 girls to computer literacy, word processing, and data processing in the Girls
Mentoring Centers. 693
Goal 2: To furnish information and maintain contact with local and international organizations.
193 694
Part III: Recommendations and Conclusion Objective 2.1: By XXXX, Volunteers and their counterparts will have conducted X community wide awareness-raising
activities on the goals and objectives of the RIMGAD program, the GMCs, and the importance of girls’ secondary
education.
Goal 3: To create culturally appropriate and relevant activities and programs for girls in Mauritania in
collaboration with Mauritanian partner organizations, volunteers and counterparts. 695
Objective 3.1: By the end of the school year 2012-2013, 12 Volunteers and their Counterparts will have
participated in the establishment of at least 12 new Girls Mentoring Centers/GMCs. 696
Objective 3.2: By the end of the 2012-2013 school year, 25 volunteers will have identified and trained 50 GMC
managers. 697
Objective 3.3: By XXXX, Volunteers will have brought X primary school girls to regional or departmental capitals
through the Big Sister/Little Sister program.
GMCs
With this larger framework in mind and with input from the GMC managers and regional hosts, the GAD committee must work to clarify a number of inconsistencies in GMC goals, namely the balance between formal and informal education, the character of desired outcomes (i.e. institutional changes or behavioral changes) and the appropriate target audience. Mentors’ Workshops
In terms of the Mentors’ Workshops, Volunteers and mentors must collaborate to reflect the intended role of the mentors in the goals and objectives of the Workshop. They must also, with guidance from the GAD committee, identify the overarching themes that each regional Mentors’ Workshop should include, such as building the capacity of the mentors in management and training. Ideally, Peace Corps should draft the compiled GMC goals and guidelines for the Mentors’ Workshops before the opening of the centers in the beginning of the 2006‐ 2007 school year, and at the latest before the 2007 Mentors’ Workshops occur. AGEC
Currently, the AGEC goals focus on encouraging girls to pursue a post‐secondary education. The goals of the AGEC should be changed to directly address incentives and obstacles to girls’ secondary education. The hope is that the conference can serve as a catalyst for positive change by empowering girls and giving them ideas on how to overcome the obstacles they face. Another recommended change to the goals is to facilitate exchange between girls from different regions. One key benefit of holding the conference in the capital is that girls from all over Mauritania can meet each other and exchange ideas. Peace Corps should recognize that it is just as important for girls to make connections with peers who are in similar situations as it is for them to meet prominent businesswomen and notables. These peer to peer connections should be part of the official goals and programming of the conference. 194 Recommendations Recommendation 10: Ensure the sustainability of Peace
Corps projects
Description
Peace Corps is constantly striving to improve its methodology in order to ensure the sustainability of its projects. In particular, improvements to the RIMGAD program are guided by the APCD for Education’s belief that “Sustainability means people believe in it, they add more variety to it, they make it more lasting in terms of participation, and they make it less expensive. That will come with time, and that is where I would like to see the improvements.” 698 Thus, the future sustainability of RIMGAD projects depends on the ability of Peace Corps and its partners to increase community awareness of and ownership over the projects. In terms of the GMCs, community ownership implies that the immediate GMC community, as well as the Government of Mauritania will play a role in the management and maintenance of the centers. Peace Corps must strive to cultivate this ownership by increasing the engagement of the immediate GMC community, by improving the capacity of the mentors to manage the centers and by continuing to work with the MEFS and the SECF to develop parallel formal agreements on collaboration. For the AGEC, Peace Corps should be the initial driver of change for the conference. However, the long‐term goal should be to establish a structure that is self‐sustaining. Implementation
RIMGAD
The APCD for Education and the GAD Committee must develop two sets of guidelines to help Volunteers ensure the sustainability of the GMCs and the Mentors’ Workshop. The first should be a set of guidelines detailing the responsibilities and tasks to be carried out in each GMC, which ensure the capacity of GMC Managers and mentors in the future to build on lessons learned. These guidelines should include: incrementally increasing mentors’ and tutors’ responsibilities in the GMCs from planning individual session for the girls, to planning entire events, to opening the center when Volunteers are not present, to communicating with the host organization directly for planning activities; following the criteria establish for choosing mentors (described below); regularly organizing community outreach events; and finally, collaborating consistently with the host organization by, for example, submitting regular reports and asking hosts to participate fully in major center events. Volunteers should not give opening or closing addresses at events. Rather, this responsibility should be left to the host. The second set of guidelines that should be developed is a list of criteria for choosing GMC mentors. Currently, the Peace Corps has not established an official process for selecting mentors. RIMGAD identify and document the characteristics that are important for an effective mentor, before it focuses its efforts on developing the capacity of these individuals through the Mentors’ Workshops. Compiling a list of criteria will ensure that mentors are appropriately selected and trained. The characteristics of an effective mentor should include: commitment to volunteerism, literacy in French and/or Arabic and local dialect, numeracy and management skills. 195 Part III: Recommendations and Conclusion In addition to these guidelines, the sustainability of the GMCs can be best assured by finalizing the agreements with the MEFS and the SECF, which were outlined above in the recommendations section regarding operational collaboration. Finalizing the MoU with the SECF and the Horaires Supplementaires agreement are essential for the sustainability of the GMCs because they establish a foundation for the long‐term transfer of ownership to Mauritanians. GMCs
Volunteers and their counterparts can help to ensure the sustainability of the GMCs by planning and coordinating an awareness‐raising campaign to educate the community about the role of the GMCs. This campaign should target parents (especially fathers), professional women and local administrators in the Mauritanian government. This awareness‐raising campaign must primarily be implemented outside of the immediate GMC environment. While it is acceptable for Volunteers to invite community members to the GMCs, it is preferable to bring information about the GMCs to the community. In particular, there are three actions that Volunteers can take to begin this campaign and build community support for these projects. First, Volunteers and the GAD Committee must create a brochure about the goals of RIMGAD and its projects to distribute to the communities, regional partners, project participants and Peace Corps trainees. Second, Volunteers should implement the suggestions in the Girls’ Mentoring Center Ideabook for improving community participation in the GMCs. These suggestions include holding an open house for parents, professional women and local administrators, forming a council of parents, teachers and professional women who have been involved with the center or who seem interested, inviting parents to attend important events and to observe weekly meetings, and printing a newsletter that has been written and typed by GMC members. 699 Finally, Volunteers and their Counterparts must contact and nurture existing girls’ clubs that have been established by UNICEF, Peace Corps and other institutions. In communities without clubs, girls’ clubs can initially be envisioned as sub‐structures that exist within the physical space of the GMCs, but they should be locally led, either by a mentor or an older female student, and offer membership to all girls at the collège or lycée. The GMCs’ collaboration with these girls’ clubs will simultaneously improve community awareness of the GMCs and encourage the perception of GMCs as community owned institutions. The long‐term vision is that eventually, the AGEC will become a national meeting of girls clubs, to discuss issues related to girls’ education. AGEC
In order to improve the community ownership of the AGEC, and build a foundation for it to become self‐sustaining, the girls should be more involved in the planning and creation of material for the conference itself. During the planning process, girls should identify industries or professional people they would like to visit during the AGEC. Furthermore, they can prepare projects at their GMCs to present to their peers at the conference. Ideally, all the girls who are eligible to attend the conference, not just those selected to attend it, should play a role in this planning process. In this way, even girls who do not attend the conference will have participated in its creation, which will enhance a sense of ownership among the girls. 196 Recommendations Recommendation 11: Improve monitoring and evaluation
of RIMGAD
Description
Quantitative monitoring and evaluation practices are needed at the local level and the national level for both individual Volunteer projects and larger nationwide projects, because they currently do not exist. Implementation
RIMGAD
The GAD Committee can take immediate action in this area by developing an annual report similar to the quantitative Project Status Report that each Peace Corps sector completes and annually submits to Peace Corps Washington. This annual report must reflect the revised goals and objectives discussed above and must be mandatory for AGSP fund recipients and all those implementing RIMGAD projects to complete. GMCs
At the start of the 2006‐2007 school year, Volunteers working in GMCs must begin collecting data on current GMC members and alumnae. For the current members, this data should record school attendance, final grades, repeated years of schooling and participation in extra curricular activities. In interviews, Volunteers expressed concern about collecting GMC members’ grades. 700 However, they should recognize that some GMC managers and school directors already rely on final grades in the selection of GMC members, and despite the possible inaccuracy of grades as an indicator of motivation, they are currently the only accepted method of quantifying the impact of GMC activities. For GMC alumnae, Volunteers should provide annual updates on the status of these alumnae which could include their employment, marriage or educational status. Mentors’ Workshops
Volunteers must begin to keep a record of the skills transferred to mentors. In particular, they should monitor both the frequency of computer literacy and management skills trainings and the quality of these trainings, because the mentors’ attainment of these skills is quantified in the Education Project Framework. 701 Some suggestions for monitoring include quantitative data gathering with regard to the number of trainings given to each mentor and the number of times mentors train others in skills they have learned from the Volunteers. The development of qualitative tools, such as tests and peer evaluations, is necessary to evaluate the skills that mentors have received from their trainings. 197 Part III: Recommendations and Conclusion Recommendation 12: Revise project implementation
strategy
Description
Our research has revealed that given the dynamic nature of the RIMGAD program, Peace Corps staff, Volunteers and their Counterparts are constantly adapting their activities to reflect revised priorities. For example, the number of GMCs was originally forecasted to be 12 and is currently expanding given the new funding resources; the Mentors’ Workshop began as a national workshop and has now shifted to regional workshops; the AGEC began in the interior of the country and has now become a national conference. These evolutions in the character of implementation require that Peace Corps develop frameworks and strategies to ensure that new interventions consider the lessons of the past. In particular, guidelines should be established on the site criteria for new GMCs and the resources necessary for each regional Mentors’ Workshop. Implementation
RIMGAD
The first action the GAD Committee must take to facilitate the development of project implementation strategies and to increase continuity for the RIMGAD program, is to hire a GAD assistant. RIMGAD is not always guaranteed to have a VC, let alone one as active and dedicated as the current VC. Furthermore, the presence of a GAD assistant will enhance the ability of the GAD Committee to focus on strategic implementation issues and coordinated project planning, rather than administration. GMCs
We recommend that the GAD Committee begin to work with the Volunteers to create a set of criteria to guide the selection of the communities where new GMCs will be established. Appropriately, there are already a number of existing criteria that include: •
•
•
•
•
•
•
developing the same number of GMCs in the northern and southern regions of Mauritania. equal distribution of GMCs among ethnic groups. willing communities with a strong sense of community contribution. donation by community of the space and the essential resources. conduct site visits. speak with government officials and community members. commitment by all APCDs and the Country Director to keeping Volunteers in that site for the next few years. 702 We suggest that Peace Corps add the following to these criteria: •
•
Ensure that there are active professional women in the community (i.e., SECF representatives, animatrices, teachers) who meet the mentor criteria articulated above. Identify possible mentors before opening the center. 198 Recommendations •
•
•
Facilitate non‐GAD Volunteer training in GMC management, including site visits to operational GMCs and shadowing of more than one GMC Manager. Facilitate visits of current mentors to the new GMC community to raise community awareness. Train new mentors at the regional Mentors’ Workshops prior to the opening of a new center. If this is not possible, provide a mini‐training for the new mentors conducted by experienced mentors and GMC managers. Mentors’ Workshops
In addition to this set of criteria for new GMC implementation, the GAD Committee needs to work closely with Volunteers to make adjustments to the implementation strategy of the 2007 Mentors’ Workshop. First, we recommend that given the success of the 2006 regional workshops Mentors’ Workshops, as expressed by both participating mentors and Volunteers, Peace Corps continue to hold regional workshops rather than a national workshop. 703 Despite the fact that one mentor interviewed for this report voiced her preference for a national conference, 704 the objective of the workshop (to ultimately transfer management of the GMCs to the mentors) requires that different regions are given the flexibility to adjust the content of the workshops to their mentors’ particular needs. Second, if Peace Corps implements regional workshops in 2007, the GAD Committee must arrange for a Peace Corps RIMGAD staff member to attend the conference. Volunteers agreed that the presence of a staff member would increase the willingness of mentors to participate in regional conferences. Third, essential to the successful implementation of regional conferences is the ability of Volunteers to clearly communicate with mentors. Unfortunately, in many regions, Volunteers do not have sufficient language skills to effectively serve as translators for the Workshops. Thus, the GAD committee must provide funding for translation services during these workshops. Our final recommendation for the implementation of the Mentors’ Workshops responds to the critique by mentors that the workshop content was repetitive. 705 Throughout the year, the Volunteers must prepare the seasoned mentors, or those that have already attended one workshop, to act as the trainers for the new mentors during sessions that are repetitive. In addition, Volunteers should include trainings on topics not yet covered by the workshops, such as budgeting, fundraising, grant writing and community outreach. AGEC
We also recommend a number of improvements to the implementation of the AGEC. First, the selection process for girls who attend the conference should be changed to take into account girls’ preferences for who should represent them. For example, delegates could be elected on the basis of essays that have been circulated amongst their peers. By having all eligible girls participate in the selection of delegates to attend the conference, girls who do not attend will be more invested in their delegates, and the delegates will be 199 Part III: Recommendations and Conclusion more committed to their peers who elected them. Eventually, eligibility for the conference could be widened beyond the GMCs to the local girls’ clubs. Second, the AGEC should incorporate a session on the development of action plans. A similar technique was used with success in Guinea and Mali, although in those cases the trainings were conducted for adults. 706 A training on action plans targeted at girls would help the girls realize their potential to affect change in their communities. To follow up on this training, a workshop should be planned where girls develop real action plans to implement in their communities upon their return. Finally, Volunteers should assist the delegates in carrying out these follow‐up activities upon returning to their communities. These follow‐up activities will solidify the message of the conference in the minds of those who attended, empower the girls who plan them and raise community awareness of the conference, especially among girls who were not able to participate. These follow‐up activities should be modeled on those employed by Peace Corps Guinea, which yielded the powerful results described below: “This year, we had the exciting opportunity to give small grants to fund follow‐up activities in the villages…All of the projects promoted the ultimate theme of the conferences…but there were many different approaches (e.g. rallies, camps, skits) and sub‐themes...Many participants came up with ideas of how to spread the messages to their communities and volunteers were able to assist with these projects…In past years, the participants were encouraged to bring what they learned back to their communities, but the focus had been more on their individual development…We believe this shift in objectives was a great improvement and allowed the participants to implement the messages of the conferences in their communities.” 707 The objective of these recommendations for the AGEC is to expand the reach of the AGEC beyond those who attend. Through election of delegates and peer‐directed follow‐
up activities after the conference, a much larger number of girls can be reached by the message and outcomes of the conference. 200 Conclusion Conclusion A broad range of factors influence the quantity of girls who achieve a secondary education and the quality of the education they receive. Our research allowed us to identify some of the most significant factors from various aspects of Mauritanian society and to explore how these factors intersect to shape girls’ educational experiences. There still remains much to be learned about which resources are most beneficial for girlsʹ education, which problems constitute the greatest obstacles and which interventions could be most effective in improving outcomes. However, some overarching issues emerged from our research. Hopes and reality for secondary education
First, while many Mauritanians believe that increasing the quantity and quality of girlsʹ secondary education could help to achieve a variety of social gains, goals for improving secondary education are not clearly reflected in the existing structure of the Mauritanian school system. Many Mauritanians we interviewed claimed that secondary schooling could contribute to improvements in health and economic development, and promote important social values. Despite the optimism expressed by many Mauritanians about the wide‐ranging benefits of education, they maintained that the primary purpose of secondary education, at least at the lycée level, is to gain admission into the university by passing the bac. Thus, at present, secondary schools are not structured to foster these broader outcomes. Additionally, while reforms and new programs are currently under way to make the secondary system of education more relevant to a broader range of national development objectives, these projects are somewhat fragmented. Initiatives to support the development of competencies; to promote the awareness of social, environmental and health issues; and to support instruction in science are not planned or implemented collectively. Unfortunately, the policy environment itself does not seem to promote open dialogue among the decision makers at the MEFS and a wider set of stakeholders. As a result, a clear disconnect appears as one evaluates the views and plans of the education sector in Mauritania. More specifically, this disconnect is apparent in the educational plans by the MEFS and the views articulated by the Mauritanian stakeholders who we met as part of this study. The MEFS, as per the PNDSE, plans to focus on increasing the quality of education supply by effectively limiting the number of students proceeding to the lycée level of education and providing increased access to technical schools upon completion of the brevet. This policy contradicts the prevalent views of many Mauritanians who stated that the primary purpose of secondary education (especially collège) is not to create an opportunity to pursue a technical education but rather, to pass the bac and proceed to the superior cycle of education. 201 Part III: Recommendations and Conclusion Peace Corps and UNICEF interventions
Similar patterns exist in Peace Corpsʹ program for girlsʹ education. Much like the Mauritanians we interviewed, Peace Corps Administrators and Volunteers are strongly committed to promoting education for girls. Evidence from our analysis of these programs leaves little doubt that the programs foster the learning and development of the Mauritanian girls they serve. However, in terms of objectives, design and implementation, there is a gap between the need to adhere to the specific context of the local communities, in which Peace Corps operates, and to pursue broader national development priorities that are transmitted through the Peace Corps RIMGAD office in Nouakchott. Therefore, a balance should be struck between these two important facets of programming. This should be achieved through open and continuous dialogue between the PCVs and their local counterparts, as well as the Peace Corps Administrators and government officials in Nouakchott. The two UNICEF projects we evaluated appeared to eliminate this disconnect between the perceptions of the utility of programs for a specific community and addressing the needs of the people therein. We found that community‐based revenue generating activities possess great potential for the communities to improve the learning environment in schools and thereby increase the quantity and quality of education. Although many communities see the projects as beneficial, and they have had a positive impact on girls’ education, the key for success relies on the capacity of the communities to operate and manage the projects. Sufficient support for the communities, such as initial training on management and operational skills, and monitoring and evaluation mechanisms for problem‐solving after the operation has been started by the communities are crucial components of projects that need to be guaranteed in project planning and funding. Further areas of research
There is a need for further study of the challenges and opportunities for girls in secondary cycle of education in a few key areas, in order to address and remedy the aforementioned disconnects. At present, relatively little research exists on many aspects of Mauritanian society, and such research could be most productive in the development of effective reforms and programs. A closer examination, beyond this study, of some of the relevant challenges and opportunities for increasing the number of girls in the secondary cycle, could provide a much more nuanced understanding of how these factors may interact differently. In particular, research on disaggregated sectors of Mauritanian society could produce valuable insights into girls’ educational experiences and outcomes. An important area that warrants further research is in the educational disparities between the rural and urban communities. Clearly, factors such as distance from school and familiesʹ employment opportunities are of very different degrees of significance in these two contexts and a closer analysis of each may indicate different types of interventions. Additionally, there is more to be learned about the role of economic factors in educational outcomes between girls from different socioeconomic backgrounds in Mauritania. Moreover, given the importance of cultural norms in influencing girls’ and their familiesʹ 202 Conclusion engagement with public education systems, future research should also be directed towards a comparison of different ethnic communities with regard to education. Ultimately, research on these issues could support a better understanding of which challenges and opportunities are most significant in each context, thereby providing a better direction for future interventions. The Government of Mauritania and donor agencies could support efforts to expand the knowledge base in these areas by developing effective programs and institutions that are responsive to the particular needs of girls’ education. Mauritania has recently made great strides in developing systems for gathering statistics and keeping records on the public education system, particularly at the primary level. The inclusion of more data on secondary schooling and further disaggregation of that data would support efforts to monitor significant trends in this sector and targeting support to the most needy. The growing international focus on girls’ secondary education and continued efforts to share effective studies and practices from other developing countries, particularly in Africa, may also reveal new areas for examination and development. A call for action
However, while further research and analysis can enhance the effectiveness of programs and institutions, the Government of Mauritania, donor agencies and community‐based organizations must use existing knowledge to actively support schooling for Mauritanian girls. Interventions that should occur relatively soon include the improvement of coordination among government ministries, donor agencies, local institutions and organizations, as well as continued expansion of the education system to accommodate growing demand. Moreover, careful and consistent attention must be given to the impact of all educational reforms on girlsʹ schooling. Indeed, it is important to note that leaders, citizens and outside organizations have all taken initiatives to increase the quantity and quality of girls’ education and have incorporated this goal into their long‐term plans. Nonetheless, if Mauritanians want to truly achieve success in this regard, there is a need for further action from all stakeholders. Given the countryʹs past successes in primary education and the collective will to improve schooling, Mauritania has every reason to believe that the goal of increasing the quality and quantity of girls’ secondary education is attainable. UNFPA Officials, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. NGO Representative, Aleg, Personal Interview, 20 Mar. 2006. 684 MEFS Official (PF ES), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. 685 MEFS Official (PF ES), Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. 686 Parent, Kaedi, Personal Interview, 21 Mar. 2006. 687 MEN, Recueil des Textes de Législation Scolaire, Special pour l’Enseignement Secondaire (Nov. 1990) 28. 688 Parent, Atar, Personal Interview, 16 Mar. 2006. 689 J. Behrman, P. Sengupta, and P. Todd, Progressing through PROGRESA: An Impact Assessment of a School Subsidy Experiment, University of Pennsylvania and the International Food Policy Research Institute (Washington, D.C.: Apr. 2001) 2. 682
683
203 Part III: Recommendations and Conclusion Behrman, Sengupta and Todd 3. UNICEF Official, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 22 Mar. 2006. 692 Peace Corps, “Initial Proposal to the Ambassador,” (2005) 1. 693 Peace Corps, “Education Project Framework,” (2005) 4. 694 Peace Corps, “Initial Proposal to the Ambassador,” (2005), 1. 695 Peace Corps, “Initial Proposal to the Ambassador,” (2005), 1 696 Peace Corps, “Education Project Framework,” (2005), 4. 697 Peace Corps, “Education Project Framework,” (2005), 4. 698 Peace Corps 1, Nouakchott, Personal Interview, 23 Mar. 2006. 699 Peace Corps, Girls’ Mentoring Center Ideabook (Jan. 2006) 19. 700 Peace Corps Volunteers, Nouakchott, Focus Group, 14 Mar. 2006. 701 Peace Corps, “Education Project Framework” (2005), 4. 702 Peace Corps 2, E‐mail to Racey Bingham, 5 Apr. 2006. 703 Peace Corps Volunteers, “Kiffa Mentors’ Report” (2006); Peace Corps Volunteers, “Bogué Mentors’ Conference Report” (March 2006). 704 GMC Mentor 1, Atar, Personal Interview, 17 Mar. 2006 705 GMC Mentor 1, Atar, Personal Interview, 17 Mar. 2006; Peace Corps Volunteers, “Atar Mentors’ Workshop Report” (2006). 706 Ilisa Gertner, “Nonformal Education: The Unintended Contributions of the SAGE project,” SAGE Project, Academy for Educational Development, (no date). 707 Peace Corps, Peace Corps Partnership Final Report: 2005 Guinea Gender Conferences (2005) 4. 690
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