Free-stall Dimensions

Transcription

Dairy Cow Comfort
Neil Anderson
Revised JANUARY 2012
1. Concepts
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Cow measurements and their space requirements are
needed to design stalls. Stall dimensions must be
appropriate for standing, lying, rising and resting
without injury, pain or fear. Stalls must meet the needs
of the cow for comfort and the caregiver for
cleanliness and ease of milking. This document
describes cow dimensions, space requirements and
stall dimensions for modern Canadian Holstein cows.
The concepts shown in Table 1 and Table 2 may be
used to design stalls for Holstein heifers or other dairy
breeds.
2. Choices - Stall Maintenance / Manure System
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Choice of manure system and commitment to stall
maintenance play an important role in determining
our choices in stall design.
For example, a once-per-day stall cleaning
protocol may not be compatible with stall
dimensions that focus on comfort of the cow.
University of British Columbia (UBC) research
has shown that stall usage is greatest with a 50inch-wide stall compared to a 45-inch stall.
Increased soiling accompanied greater stall usage.
Although more acceptable to cows, the wider
stalls require more daily maintenance.
At the outset, one must decide if the choice in
stalls will be based on ease of maintenance,
greatest use by the cows, or a compromise
between those two ends of the spectrum.
1. Concepts
2. Choices – stall maintenance & manure system
3. Cow dimensions
4. Space requirements
5. Stall dimensions as ratios of body dimensions
6. Neck rail
7. Forward or diagonal lunge
8. Loops or Dividers & Stall Width
9. End stalls
10. Bed length and slope
11. Stall length and height
12. Brisket locators
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Automation of stall cleaning could sway producers
to choose larger, cow-friendly stalls.
The choice of stall surface, bedding material and
manure handling system must be compatible.
3. Cow Dimensions
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Cows vary in size between and within herds. The
first step in planning stall size is the measurement of
Lactation 1 and mature cows in your herd. Measure
the larger representatives in an age group.
Rump heights and hook-bone widths are useful
measures to estimate several other body dimensions.
Since several body dimensions are proportional,
ratios provide reasonable estimates of dimensions
for calves, heifers or other dairy breeds.
Figure 1. Variation in cow size within and between herds
highlights the need to measure your cows before choosing stall
sizes.
Table of Contents
13. Area forward of the brisket locator
14. Deterrent strap or pipe – open front stalls
15. Sand-bedded stalls
16. Stall bed or cushion
17. Bedding – manure system & lame cows
18. Stocking density & social turmoil
19. Bunk space
20. Feed bunk restraint
21. Manger curb and feed table (manger)
22. Steps and elevations
23. Biosecurity
24. Diagrams, reading list & contact information
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Producers may build three sizes of stalls (sized for
Lactation 1 heifers, milking cows and dry or
special-needs cows) in recognition of the variation
in cow size and their needs within a herd.
Therefore, measurements should include a sample
of small, medium and large cows.
A barn with one stall size poses several challenges
to both management and cows. Stall and cow
cleanliness, labor, mastitis, foot diseases and cow
comfort are issues to consider in one-group barns.
Table 1 shows measurements of mature Canadian
Holsteins taken at a local herd and some
calculated proportions. For example, the cows had
a rump height of 60 inches, a nose-to-tail length of
8.5 feet and a hook-bone width of 25 inches.
Table 1. Body dimensions, example measurements for
mature Holsteins, and estimated ratios to rump height
and hook-bone width.
Body Dimension
Inches
Proportions
102 (range 961.6 x rump
Nose-to-tail length
110)
height
1.2 x rump
Imprint length –
72 (68-76)
height
resting
2 + x hookImprint width
52 (48-54)
bone width
0.4 x rump
Forward lunge
24 (23-26)
height
space
0.3 x rump
Stride length when
18
height
rising
Rump height –
Median 60
mature
(range 58-64)
Rump height –
Median 58, top
Lactation 1
25% - 59
1.0 x rump
Stance – front-to60 (range 58-64)
height
rear feet
1.0 x rump
Withers (shoulder)
60 (range 58-64)
height
height
Hook-bone width
Figure 2. Several cow measurements taken on standing cows are
useful for building free stalls. Other essential measurements are
imprint length and imprint width of resting cows.
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Imprint length describes the length from folded
foreknee to tail while lying in the narrow position. It
defines the bed length needed for resting with all
body parts on the stall. Imprint length is greater when
the cow extends her front legs forward in normal
(long) resting positions.
Imprint width is the lateral distance from the point of
the hock on the upper hind leg and the extension of
the abdomen on the opposite side when resting in the
narrow position. This width is the minimum stall
width for a resting cow.
For improved comfort, most new free-stall barns are
being built with stalls wider than the imprint width of
a cow in the narrow resting position.
26 (range 24-27)
4. Space Requirements
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UBC research showed a 1350-lb cow uses 118 in
longitudinal space when lying and 43 in lateral
space.
Observations of cows freely lying and rising reveal
that a mature Canadian Holstein cow uses 102 x
52 inches of living space and another 20 inches
(16 to 24 inches) of open forward space for
lunging motions.
Figure 2 shows cow dimensions that define this
living space plus imprint length and width.
Nose-to-tail length describes the measurement
from the tail to the nose of a cow standing with
her head forward. A cow has a normal crook in
her neck when lying and her nose-to-tail length is
less than while standing.
Revised January 2012 - OMAFRA
Figure 3. Imprint length extends from the folded foreknee to the
tail (see arrows) when lying in the narrow position. This length
defines the bed length of a stall.
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Lunging space is the room needed for lying and
rising motions and it extends forward, downward
and upward for head lunge and bob, vertically and
forward for standing, and laterally for hindquarter
movements.
Knowledge of the lunging space is essential for
properly positioning neck and tie rails, deterrent straps
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or bars, solid stall fronts or provision for social
space in open-front, head-to-head stalls.
A cow’s nose uses the space 4 to 12 inches above
the surface when lying or rising.
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Measure your cows before choosing stall sizes.
Table 2. Stall dimensions, estimated relationships to body
dimensions and example calculations for mature Holsteins
Ratio and
An Example
Reference
a median
Stall Dimension
Body
cow
Dimension
Stall length from curb to
2.0 x rump
2.0 x 60 =
solid front
height
120 in.
Stall length for open
1.8 x rump
1.8 x 60 =
front head-to-head
height
108 in.
Bed length = imprint
1.2 x rump
1.2 x 60 = 72
length
height
in.
Neck-rail height above
0.83 x rump
0.83 x 60 =
cow’s feet
height
50 in.
Neck-rail forward
(1.2 x rump
(1.2 x 60)-2 =
location = bed length-2
height)-2
70 in.
Deterrent strap in open0.6 x rump
0.6 x 60 = 36
front stalls – 18-ft.
height
in.
Deterrent strap in open0.7 x rump
0.7 x 60 = 42
front stalls – 16-ft.
height
in.
Stall width – loops on
2.0 x hook-bone
2.0 x 25 = 50
centres
width
in.
Space between brisket
foot-width
5 inches
locator and loop
Figure 4. Imprint width is the lateral distance from the left
hock to the right abdomen – a distance of about 52 inches
for this cow. It increases when the rear legs extend outwards
or the cow reclines in wide resting positions.
6. Neck Rail
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Figure 5. While rising freely on pasture, a cow uses the
forward, downward and vertical space outlined by the white
lines in the photograph. While rising, this cow lunged forward
about 22% of her resting nose-to-tail length. Her nose either
touches or almost touches the ground. Therefore, the space
in front of free stalls should not have any obstacles higher
than bed height that interfere with the normal head bob
during lying and rising motions.
5. Stall Dimensions as Ratios of Body Dimensions
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Although nose-to-tail length is essential, it is a
difficult dimension to gather.
Hook-bone width and rump height are easy to
measure and since many body dimensions are
proportional these two dimensions are useful
references for sizing stalls.
Table 2 shows stall dimensions, estimated
relationships to body dimensions and example
calculations for mature Holsteins in a study herd.
Figure 39, at the end of this document, shows
head-to-head stalls and example dimensions.
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The neck rail (sometimes called a head rail) is the
restraint (often a pipe) mounted to the top or
underside of the top pipe of a loop.
A neck rail controls the forward location of a cow
while standing in the stall. It affects stall standing,
perching, and stall cleanliness but not lying.
The reference for vertical placement of the neck rail
is the standing surface (e.g., mattress, mat, and
bedding) for the cow’s feet.
Measure from the concrete platform during
construction and allow for the bed.
The vertical location above the bed is about 0.8 x
rump height. It may be 48 inches for Lactation 1
heifers or 50 inches for mature cows.
The neck rail forward location is a horizontal
measurement from the alley curb. It may be 68 inches
for Lactation 1 heifers or 70 inches for mature cows.
The top pipe of a loop becomes the neck rail when
cows lunge through it.
Proper location of the neck rail lets a cow stand
straight with all four feet in the stall and rise without
contacting the rail and contributes to stall cleanliness.
The location is lower and forward of the withers.
The neck rail is usually directly above or an inch or
two to the cow side of the brisket locator.
Perching, diagonal standing, or neck injuries may
indicate incorrect placement of the neck rail.
Sole ulcers and lameness occur when neck rails force
cows to stand with their front feet on the bed and
back feet in the alley (perching in the stall).
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Contact with the neck rail while rising causes
injury, pain, fear, frustration and stress and alters
stall usage.
A nylon strap (as shown in Figure 7) increases the
frequency of perching.
The distance between neck rails in head-to-head
open-front stalls should be equal to or greater
than the length from tail to withers of a cow. That
is, a cow should be able to stand in the open
space. This is possible in 18-foot head-to-head
stalls.
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their body direction, but diagonal or sidewise to the
stall.
Provide unobstructed forward space for frontward
lunging and bobbing of the head. (see space
requirements)
Stalls facing a wall or forward obstruction should be
10 feet from alley curb to the wall.
Head-to-head stalls should be 18 feet from alley curb
to alley curb. A cow can use space on the opposite
side of centre. Resting nose-to-tail length is 8 to 8.5
feet.
For side lunging, choose a divider with an opening
wide enough to permit easy lunging for rising or lying.
The top pipe of the loop becomes the neck rail when
cows lunge through it. It should be about the height
recommended for the neck rail – 48 to 50 inches for
mature Holsteins.
The bottom pipe of the loop must not inhibit the
ability to lunge over it.
The measurement from the top of the mattress to the
top of the bottom pipe should be about 12 inches.
8. Loops or Dividers and Stall Width
Figure 6. A neck rail placed 50 inches above the mattress
and 70 inches forward of the curb allows this cow to stand
straight in the stall with four feet on the bed.
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Figure 7. The region of the supraspinous bursa of the neck
can experience repetitive trauma from a neck rail or strap
when a cow stands in a stall, during the motions to lie and
during the motions to rise.
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7. Forward or Diagonal Lunge
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A mature Holstein uses about 10 feet of space
measured from her tail to the most forward lunge
distance when rising or lying normally.
Obstructions in the lunging space (e.g., a facing
cow in short stalls, wall, heap of bedding, concrete
curb, post, gate, transverse mounting pipe) lead to
diagonal (e.g., corner-to-corner) standing, lying
and rising. Cows still lunge forward relative to
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Loops or dividers define the width of the stall space
for each cow.
With 10 resting and 10 rising motions per day, cows
benefit from greater ease when getting in and out of
their stalls. Choose the right loop for the job.
Obstructions to forward-lunging force cows to sidelunge through the loops.
Loops designed for side-lunging have a wider opening
between the top and bottom pipe. The top pipe
becomes the neck rail and the bottom pipe must not
obstruct lunging.
Loops and narrow stalls designed to force cows to lay
straight in the beds may contribute to injuries.
Use imprint width to determine minimum stall width
(about two times hook-bone width).
Minimum width prevents cows from resting in wider
positions.
Wider stalls compensate for challenges in short stalls.
Mount dividers on 50-inch centres for average-sized
mature Holstein cows. (e.g., gives 48 inches of space)
In practice, loops are being mounted on 50- to 54-inch
centres to provide 48 to 52 inches of space, depending
upon cow size or special needs.
A loop with the rear part of the top pipe lower than
the forward part lets cows easily swing their heads
over while turning out of the stall.
A loop that restricts the space at the back of the
platform to 12 to 14 inches discourages cows from
walking along the back of the stall.
A loop with the bottom pipe high enough above the
bed will entrap hips and cows.
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The height of the bottom pipe above the bed
should be about 12 inches for easier side-lunging.
Mount each loop or pair of loops to a support
post or floor mount.
Transverse mounting pipes for the lower ends of a
loop interfere with lunging and are a hazard.
Transverse mounting pipes for the upper ends of
loops may be a hazard in some but not all
installations.
Side-lunging loops are useful for renovating older
barns with short stalls. They make it easier for
cows that are lunging over the lower pipe about
20 times every day.
Several loop dimensions are significant for cow
comfort. For example, the loop shown in Figure
21 has the lower pipe extended further to the rear
of the stall before the pipe bends upward. The
loops are supposed to force cows to lie straight in
the stall. However, they are very shiny from cow
contact and cows may get bruises on their bodies
from this style of loop.
For a contrast, the loops shown in Figure 8 are
bent differently. The lower pipe extends less to
the rear of the stall before bending upward. This
design provides ample space for the hips (24 to 27
inches) but prevents her from rolling under the
loop.
The downward slope of the top pipe of loops
shown in Figures 8 and 16 allows cows to swing
their heads over easily when exiting the stalls.
They can do this with their front feet still on the
bed. However, the loops shown in Figure 19 do
not have that feature and cows must back out of
the stall before turning.
Figure 8. A wide loop opening and open-front stalls allow cows to
lunge both diagonally and frontward. While rising, this cow did not
contact the neck rail and she took the stride over the low brisket
locator.
Figure 9 shows loops that are a challenge for cows housed in sidelunging stalls. The lower pipe of the loop is 18 inches above the
bed. It is too high for easy side-lunging motions.
9. End Stalls
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An end stall must provide space for backing
around with the rump, swinging the head for
turning out of the stall, and resting postures.
Otherwise, it becomes a one-way stall that cows
do not like. Concrete curbs or walls in end stalls
are hazards for injuries to hook bones.
Concrete curbs restrict normal leg postures for
resting cows.
Place water troughs on the outside wall or centre
of a crossover rather than against the end stall.
(e.g., to ease cow traffic flow through the
crossover and to avoid wet beds)
Cows avoid end stalls with discomfort features.
Use a stall divider (loop) for the end partition.
Use a section of brisket locator or plastic pipe as
an end curb.
Figure 10 shows the same loops as in Figure 9 loops but installed
in a new barn. In this installation, cows have space for forward
lunging. The back part of the loop is too high and cows have been
trapped under it.
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10. Bed Length and Slope
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Bed length in mattress stalls is the distance from
the alley curb to the brisket locator.
Use imprint length of the resting cow as a guide
for determining bed length. It is about 1.2 times
rump height.
Bed length should allow cows to rest parallel to
the dividers in the short position with tail and legs
on the bed.
Consider a 70-inch bed for Lactation 1 heifers that
have a rump height of 58 to 59 inches.
Consider a 72-inch bed for mature Holstein cows
measuring 60 inches at the rump.
In practice, bed length ranges from 68 to 72
inches.
The minimum bed length described above allows
cows to lie straight with their forelegs extended
with the installation of a low brisket locator.
High brisket locators or short beds force cows to
lie diagonally or with their rumps over the gutter
to attain the fore-legs forward normal resting
posture.
Stalls are seldom built with longer beds because
they pose challenges with stall and cow cleanliness
and the risk of mastitis.
Build a slope of two to three percent into the
concrete platform (higher at the front). (e.g., about
1.5 to 2.0 inches in a 72 inch stall)
Too much slope may contribute to claw disease.
(See neck rails & perching)
11. Stall Length and Height
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Stall length from alley curb to a solid front is 10
feet for normal rising and resting motions.
Stall length for open front head-to-head stalls is 18
feet for normal rising and resting motions.
Stall height is the difference in elevation between
the alley and the stall platform.
Stall height affects cow safety or comfort.
Build the stall platform ≤ 6 inches higher than the
alley for barns with alley scrapers.
Consider lower stall height with slatted floors and
robotic scrapers.
Consider difficulty of entry or exit with high
platforms.
Consider ease of doing reproductive examinations
and artificial insemination – ergonomics for
technicians and veterinarians.
Tractor scraping and once-a-day cleaning often
lead to building the stall platform higher than
what is comfortable for a cow. Twice-a-day
cleaning could facilitate use of a lower stall height
in tractor-scraped barns.
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The width of the alley, stocking density and frequency
of scraping have an effect on the depth of slurry in the
alley.
Figure 11. Cows resting with front legs extended over a brisket
locator mounted to the platform. The height of the brisket locator
allows cows to take the normal stride when rising. A space of 5
inches between the top of the brisket locator and the bottom pipe
of the loop and no bracket are essential design features to avoid
entrapment of a leg.
12. Brisket Locators
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A brisket locator restricts the forward location of a
cow lying in the stall.
It defines the forward limit of the bed length
measured from the rear curb.
Brisket boards or locators make stalls less comfortable
for cows.
Cows prefer to use stalls without brisket locators and
spend less time lying in stalls with brisket locators.
However, brisket locators may contribute to cleaner
beds and cows and reduced risk of mastitis.
The challenge is to design, select and install a brisket
locator that meets the needs of the cow for comfort
and the owner for stall cleanliness. Here are several
design principles and features that may be useful when
judging or selecting a brisket locator.
Design principles for brisket locators
o Permit normal behaviour
 Stride when rising
 Legs extended when resting
 Hours of resting
 Restfulness and not restlessness
o Assure a safe resting place
 Free of hazards (e.g., entrapment of legs)
o Enhance stall cleanliness
 Resting parallel to the loops
 Resting location relative to the alley curb
o Durability
 Strong enough to provide years of service
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Figure 12. A cow-friendly brisket locator is about 4 inches in
height, has a smoothed surface and attaches to the stall
surface rather than the loops.
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Justification for design features
 Height and width: about 4 inches above the
mat or mattress.
o A stride (e.g., step forward by one leg) is part
of a normal rising motion.
o Brisket locators higher and wider than 4
inches (for mature Holsteins)
o interfere with the stride
o contribute to cows stumbling or falling
forward.
 Resting with one or both forelegs extended
forward is a normal resting posture.
o Brisket locators higher than 4 inches interfere
with this behaviour.
o Cows rest diagonally in the stall when high
brisket boards interfere with normal resting
postures.
 Unwanted outcomes include diagonal resting,
manure and urine on the beds, pressure sores
on spines, restlessness and hock sores, or
reduced hours of resting.
 Mount the locator to the platform, not the
loop.
o Allows cows to stretch their forelegs under
the loop.
o Eliminates a hazard for leg entrapment or
injury.
 Space between the brisket locator and bottom
pipe of the loop should be no less than 5
inches.
o Allows cows to assume the legs forward
resting posture
o Assures a leg or foot will not be trapped or
injured
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Forward location should be, for Holsteins, 68, 70
or 72 inches.
o Measured from the alley curb to the cow-side face
of the brisket locator
o Defines the forward position of a resting cow
o Allows all body parts (including the tail) to rest on
the bed
o Provides the bed length needed to rest parallel to
the loops
 Shape should be a contoured and smooth top
surface.
o Provides comfort or safety when cows extend and
retract their legs over the locator
 Area in front of the locator is important for
resting or rising.
o Height similar to the stall platform
o Provides a safe and comfortable surface for the
stride when rising
o Provides a comfortable space for legs when
extended while resting
o Provides excellent traction (not slippery)
o Assures ease of rising
o Minimizes risks of stumbling or falling
The design principles and features listed above
provide guidelines for judging the value of wooden
boards, concrete curbs, nylon straps, metal or poly
pipes, or plastic curbs as safe and comfortable brisket
locators.
Some make excellent choices while others provide too
many hazards and challenges to merit use in Ontario
free-stall barns.
A 6-inch sewer pipe is not a suitable brisket locator.
A 3-inch sewer pipe may be a suitable brisket locator
when mounted to the platform.
Figure 13. A 6-inch PVC sewer pipe attached to the bottom pipe of
a loop prevented normal resting behaviour, interfered with rising,
trapped legs, and led to dirty stalls. It contributed directly or
indirectly to cow injuries and deaths and had to be replaced or
modified. The space between the sewer pipe and the loop is 3
inches, perfect for trapping front legs.
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Figure 14. Unique brackets mount a 3-inch plastic pipe to the
floor. This installation meets the requirements for a safe
brisket locator.
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13. Area Forward of the Brisket Locator
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Objects in the space forward of the brisket locator
are obstructions to the head lunge and bob, the
stride and resting positions for the front legs.
This area may contain some bedding and be
slightly higher than the stall bed.
The use of one support structure (e.g., post or
floor mount) for the loop in single stalls or pairs
of loops in head-to-head stalls keeps the area
unobstructed.
Roof-support posts located between loops may
force cows to stand and lie diagonally in the stalls.
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The deterrent must not interfere with the upward bob
of the head. If it does, expect unwanted behaviours
and stall refusal.
The height of the deterrent above the bed varies with
the length of the stall and location of the mounting
post.
A temporary installation and observation will help you
to determine the best location.
The usual mounting point is the support post for the
loops.
Deterrents may be wood, metal, or poly rope.
In one barn, a 3/8-inch polypropylene rope strung
loosely between the loop mounting-posts was a very
effective deterrent for Lactation 1 heifers in head-tohead stalls.
In general, tie-down straps used in the trucking
industry are a hazard and should be avoided. When
ratcheted tight, the straps can cut a cow’s hide if she
becomes trapped by them.
Several management practices reduce the risk of cows
trying to escape through stall fronts.
Moving cows in estrus to a ‘play pen’ and choosing AI
rather than ‘running a bull’ protects cows from
pestering.
Using bedding slingers to bed stalls or tractors to clean
alleys while cows are in the holding pen and parlor is a
common practice.
Gentle handling must be the standard of care.
On some farms, veterinarians and farmers successfully
handle cows and their reproductive programs in openfront stalls without deterrent bars. A credit to gentle
stockmanship.
Figure 15. The area forward of the brisket locator must be
free of obstructions to lunging, bobbing of the head and the
stride when rising.
14. Deterrent Strap or Pipe – Open-Front Stalls
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Open-front stalls provide cows with a convenient
route for escaping a dominant cow, a cow in heat,
equipment used to bed stalls or an aversive
handler.
A deterrent bar or rope discourages cows from
exiting through the front of stalls.
Figure 16. A deterrent bar or strap must not interfere with the
upward bobbing of the head. A suggested placement is about 4042 inches for Holsteins in 16-foot stalls and about 34-36 inches
in 18-foot stalls. The height varies with stall length.
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A brisket locator can be mounted in a sand-bedded
free stall.
At one farm, a 10-inch concrete curb supported the 9inch footprint of the plastic brisket locator. However,
the caregivers failed to keep sand above the concrete
curb and several cows suffered injuries to their knees
from the installation.
Another method is to use a 10-inch wooden plank and
rods driven into the sand bed and its base.
Figure 17. A deterrent bar prevents cows from exiting the
feed alley into the fronts of these free stalls. It also prevents
cows from exiting forward into the feed alley. The mounting
posts are about 8 feet from the rear curb. The deterrent is
mounted high enough (about 40 inches above the mattress)
so it does not interfere with forward lunge and head bobbing
motions.
Figure 19. The soft resting surface of sand-bedded stalls includes
the space between the inside of the concrete curb and the brisket
locator. This distance is the resting surface for the cow.
Figure 18. The space between an outside wall and the
mounting posts for loops is a trap for cows housed in openfront stalls. This forward space is essential for front lunging.
A deterrent is essential for the cow safety. The photograph
shows a pipe deterrent – probably the best choice for this
application.
15. Sand-Bedded Stalls
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Sand bedding provides unique challenges for
maintaining stall dimensions.
Ideally, a sand bed should be slightly sloped and
filled to curb height.
Neck-rail height changes with the height of sand
stored at the front of the stall.
The effective bed length for sand-bedded stalls is
the distance from the inside of the rear curb to the
brisket locator when the sand level is below the
level of the curb.
The rear curb is the fixed reference point for
vertical measurements to locate neck rails.
Figure 20. The loop for this sand-bedded stall slopes downward at
the curb side so cows can swing their heads over it more easily
when exiting the stall. It has a narrow opening and it is mounted
higher above the bed than loops for mattress barns (see Figure 8).
The loop controls cow position and generally forces forward
lunging. The bottom pipe is high enough to discourage cows from
lunging through it, yet low enough to discourage cows from
lunging under it.
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9
The neck rail in most sand stalls is placed the width of
the rear curb closer to the back of the stall than it is
for mattress stalls. This neck rail location forces cows
to perch in the stall rather than stand with their rear
feet in the sand bed or on the concrete curb. This neck
rail location aims to prevent cows from urinating or
defecating in the sand bed.
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Finnish cows, when given a free choice between
different bedding materials, avoided sand and
preferred straw and rubber mats in both summer
and winter (Emmi Manninen, 2002).
Closer to home in BC, Tucker et al (2001) found
that cows preferred stalls with deep sawdust to
sand-bedded stalls.
Nonetheless, sand is to be the bedding of choice
for prevention of injuries.
Lame cows rise and go down easily in sandbedded stalls but have difficulty in stalls with
firmer beds.
o
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Cover mattresses or mats with chopped straw,
sawdust, kiln-dried softwood shavings, manure solids,
or peat moss.
Consider absorption (dryness) and traction when
choosing bedding.
Hardwood shavings or wood chips are unacceptable
bedding materials.
Solid mats provide varying amounts of cushioning.
They require a very generous (e.g., >3 inches) cover
with bedding.
Some mattresses or mats allow a ‘basin’ to form that
collects urine and milk. This results in wet teats,
udders and flanks and a hazard for mastitis. More
slope on the platform may not succeed in getting
better drainage from these beds.
Some mats or top covers are slippery and become
slipperier with straw and moisture.
Poor traction with one foot on a slippery bed and the
other coping with a brisket locator may contribute to a
falling-forward hazard while rising.
Figure 21. Sand stored in stall fronts is an obstruction to
lying, rising and resting behaviours. The cows in the adjacent
photo spent considerable time standing and perching for a
few days after the once-monthly addition of sand.
16. Stall Bed or Cushion
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Concrete platforms require a cushion for a
resting surface.
Ample bedding is a best management practice in
the Dairy Code.
Cows need a cushioning surface with good
traction to avoid injuries.
Obstructions to normal resting positions and
choices in beds or bedding contribute to
restlessness and hock blemishes or injuries.
The challenge is to provide an optimal stall surface
– one that provides thermal insulation, softness,
traction, low risk of abrasion and that is easy to
maintain and clean.
Rubber-filled or gel-filled mattresses, foam mats
with rubber top covers, mats of various
compositions, and organic (straw, sawdust, peat
moss, manure solids) or inorganic (sand) bedding
provide varying degrees of cushioning.
Mattresses or mats have a limited life expectancy
for softness and require replacement after a few
years in service.
Figure 22. Recent research from the University of British Columbia
(Drissler and others) showed that sand level is important for lying
time. As sand level dropped below the curb, cows spent less time
lying in the stalls. Lying times decreased by 10 minutes for every
1-cm (0.4 inches) decrease in bedding level below the curb.
17. Bedding – Manure System & Lame Cows
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10
Choice of manure system, commitment to stall
maintenance and the ready availability of inexpensive
bedding determine our choices in stall design.
A once-per-day stall cleaning protocol may not be
compatible with stall dimensions that focus on the
comfort of the cow.
British Columbia research has shown that stall usage is
greatest with a 50-inch-wide stall compared to a 42inch stall.
However, stall soiling with manure increased about
two-fold with the wider stalls.
In another study, they found that stalls with little use
stayed clean and stalls with the greatest occupancy
were dirtiest.
Although more acceptable to cows, the wider stalls
require more daily maintenance, just as more usage of
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a tractor requires more frequent oil changes.
Dirtiness should not be the sole measure of stall
design.
Researchers (Cook et al) at the University of
Wisconsin have shown a positive relationship
between standing or perching and lameness in
dairy cows.
The behaviour of lame cows differs in mattressbedded barns and sand-bedded barns.
Whereas lame cows in sand barns showed normal
patterns of lying and standing, lame cows in
rubber-filled-mattress-bedded barns spent more
time standing and less lying.
Traction may be an important factor and suggest
that lame cows on mattresses experience more
pain and fear.
Traction afforded by loose bedding is a great
advantage to lame cows.
Loose bedding distributes weight bearing to the
entire claw and is less painful than that
experienced in mattress barns with scant loose
bedding.
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Figure 23. Tucker and others (Univ. British Columbia) showed
lying time and perching time for rubber-filled mattresses with
0, 1, and 7.5 kg of sawdust bedding. The two lowest levels of
bedding represent common practice in mattress-bedded
barns. Lying time increased and perching time decreased
with the addition of bedding to the mattresses.
Figure 24. Fregonesi and others at the University of British
Columbia found that lying in the stall decreased and standing in
the stall increased as stocking density increased from 100 to
150%. Other researchers found lameness was more common with
greater standing times.
19. Bunk Space
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o
18. Stocking Density and Social Turmoil

Stocking density refers to the proportion of cows
to the number of stalls, the number of cows per
square foot of bedded pack area, the inches of
feed bunk space per cow, or the proportion of
cows to the number of self-locks at a feed bunk.
Some advisors recommend overstocking because they
believe it is economical to house more cows than there
are available stalls.
Stall stocking densities ≥100% alter cow behaviour.
Overstocking stalls increases standing time in alleys.
Overstocking stalls reduces lying time.
Reduced lying time contributes to the development of
claw lesions. Overstocking stalls is a risk factor for
lameness.
Overstocking a feed bunk (e.g., < 30-inches per cow)
is a risk factor for ketosis and low early lactation
production.
Overstocking a pen or barn challenges cows,
ventilation systems, manure handling and
management.
Social turmoil refers to distress amongst cows as they
establish dominance patterns. Turmoil may last for 2
to 4 days after introduction of a cow or cows into an
established group of cows. Weekly introductions (e.g.,
on Thursday) into a dry cow pen may produce two
days of turmoil and five days of calm. Daily
introductions into a calving pen may be viewed as
constant turmoil in the group.
Social turmoil has an adverse effect on cow behaviour
and performance.
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11
Bunk space describes the linear inches of feed bunk
per cow in the group.
Cow displacements at the feed bunk are more
common when stocking density increases.
Bunk space per cow is a risk factor for fresh cow
ketosis.
Feeding time decreases as stocking density increases.
Subordinate cows reduce feeding activity when bunk
space is reduced.
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Dry matter intake decreases when all cows cannot
eat at the same time.
Cows do not voluntarily fill more than 80% of 24inch headlocks.
Overstocking at the feed bunk has an adverse
effect on milk production in early lactation.
Avoid overstocking at the feed bunk to increase
feeding activity and reduce competition.
Provide 30 inches of bunk space per cow in fresh
cow and close-up cow pens.
Conventional building techniques result in 24
inches of bunk space per cow in 2-row barns and
about 18 inches in 3-row barns.
20. Feed Bunk Restraint
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A feed bunk restraint prevents cows from
escaping from their pens into the feed alley.
Post-and-rail (pipe), cable, slant bar and headlocks
are common restraints.
Post-and-rail and cable restraints are risk factors
for neck injuries when the skin, the nuchal
ligament and its bursae and the supraspinous
processes of the first few thoracic vertebrae at the
withers experience repetitive trauma. The injuries
may be gall, callus, hygroma or bursitis.
Similar injuries occur when the top rail is too low
on slant bar or headlock restraints.
Figure 25. The bump is a hygroma located at the point of the
withers. It is the result of repetitive pressure against a feed
rail restraint.
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o
Post-and-rail restraints have a rail (pipe)
attached either directly to a post or on a mount to
locate the rail forward of the post and over the
manger.
Pipes mounted on a pivot are a variant of the
post-and-rail restraint. With this device, the larger
cows in the group raise the restraint and spare
smaller cows the burden. The cost of construction
is greater than a single rail and there may be no
cow comfort or practical advantage.
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Rail height may be adjustable and should be raised or
lowered to suit cow size in various pens.
A mount may offset the rail about 6, 8 or 10 inches
over the feed bunk.
Regardless of height, a rail or cable may blemish or
injure necks.
The height of the feed rail and the frequency of
pushing feed up contribute to freedom from neck
injuries.
In barns where feed is not pushed up often, cows
sustain injuries to the supraspinous processes,
especially with a higher rail.
Elevated feed alleys keep feed close to cows, reduce
the risk of neck injuries, or decrease labour.
Displacements by boss cows are more common with
post-and-rail or cable restraints.
The feed alley must be wide enough to permit passage
of feed wagons without damage to the rail. Measure
the TMR wagon to be sure.
Slant bar and headlock restraints are alternatives to
consider.
For most Holsteins, the manger wall should be 18 to
20 inches higher than the walk alley (cow’s feet) to
avoid injury to briskets. This height also permits the
addition of self-locks later.
Cows may be tipped into or fall into a manger.
Therefore, mangers should not have a front or barrier
in barns with post-and-rail restraints.
Figure 26. A post and rail feed-bunk restraint mounted 48 inches
above the cows’ feet and about 8 inches forward of the centre of
the manger curb. Experience has shown that the rail is too high
and leads to injury to the delicate supraspinous processes.
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12
Slant bar restraints have a top and bottom rail with
slanted bars on 12- to 14-inch centres for mature
cows.
The top bar must be located higher than the withers
height of the tallest cow in the group.
Slant bar restraints are built in panels, rest on the top
of the manger curb, and are fixed to mounting posts.
o
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The top of the slant bar panel may be offset over
the manger by 6 to 8 inches.
The height of the concrete curb plus the bottom
bar of the panel should be about 20 inches for
mature Holsteins. Allow for the thickness of the
bottom bar when building the concrete curb.
Slant bar restraints minimize bullying,
displacements at the bunk, wastage of feed, or
injuries to necks.
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Figure 27. Properly constructed slant bar restraint reduces
the chance of neck injuries. A feed-front manger keeps feed
within cow reach. Feeding management limits wastage and
labour for cleaning is less than 4 minutes per day.
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Self-locking headlocks prevent cows from
escaping their pens into the feed alley and restrain
groups of cows on days when examinations are
necessary.
The top bar must be located higher than the
withers height of the tallest cow in the group to
avoid neck injuries.
Headlock restraints are built in panels, rest on the
top of the manger curb, and are fixed to mounting
posts.
The top of the slant bar panel may be offset over
the manger by 6 to 8 inches.
The height of the concrete curb plus the bottom
bar of the panel should be 20 inches. Allow for
the thickness of the bottom bar when building the
concrete curb.
Headlock restraints minimize bullying,
displacements at the bunk, wastage of feed, or
injuries to necks.
Headlock restraints are handling facilities for
those who do not build palpation rails.
Since most headlocks are built on 24-inch centres,
they do not provide the recommended 30 inches
of bunk space per cow.
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21. Manger Curb and Feed Table (manger)

A manger curb keeps manure out of feed and
feed in the manger.
13
A manger curb must not injure the brisket of cows.
Measure curb height from the floor in the cow alley.
Manger curb height should be less than the floor to
brisket height of the smallest cow in the pen.
Keep feed within easy reach to assure freedom from
hunger, injury and disease.
Keep feed within 24-inches of the manger curb.
Cows exert considerable force on their claws when
reaching for feed beyond 24 inches.
Build the curb height 20 inches for post-and-rail
restraints or 18 inches for slant bars or headlocks.
Curb height will be 14 or 16 inches on the feed table
side (e.g., the feed table is 4 inches higher than the
cow’s feet).
Build a concrete curb 6 inches wide to support posts.
Bevel, smooth or round the curb edges on the cow
and manger sides.
The feed table is adjacent to the curb.
The height of the manger surface (feed table) is
relative to the cow’s feet on the bed.
Feed table height is chosen to minimize pressure on
the soles of claws, maximize foot health and make
eating more comfortable for cows.
Build the ‘eating’ surface about 24-inches wide.
Choose an acid-resistant and relatively smooth surface.
Slippery surfaces are a hazard for workers.
Ceramic tile, plastic or special concrete are common
surfaces. Each provides benefits, challenges or hazards
for consideration.
Sweep-in mangers allow simplicity of construction
and ease of cleaning.
Sweep-in mangers have the same elevation as the drive
alley for delivering feed.
With sweep-in mangers, cows push feed out of their
reach while sorting and eating.
The intensity of the labour for pushing up feed varies
with the technology (e.g., brooms, snow shovels,
ATVs or garden tractors with blades or brushes, skid
steers or tractors) and the intensity of management.
Automated (robotic) feed pushers are available.
A feed front (barrier) on the feeding table keeps feed
closer to cows, lessens stresses related to reaching for
feed, minimizes injuries to necks, and reduces labour
for pushing up feed.
An elevated feed alley acts as a feed barrier.
A feed front may be constructed of concrete, plastic or
wood.
Feed fronts or barriers are available for retrofitting
sweep-in mangers.
The ‘Conney Barricade’ is a recent innovation from an
Ontario producer. It may be raised to clean the feed
table and lowered to keep feed close to cows. See
Figure 30.
Figure 28. The feed in this sweep-in manger is outside the
reach of the cows. Although push up and cleaning are easy
tasks, the feeding system requires labour to keep the feed
close to the cows. The feed rail is low enough to prevent
escapes. However, with constant reaching for feed because
of infrequent feed push up, these cows are at greater risk of
neck injuries.
Figure 29. The elevated drive alley is about 6 inches higher than
the feed table (manger) and the feed table is 4 inches higher than
the cow’s feet. Feed stays within reach of the cows and there is
minimal labour for pushing up feed.
22. Steps & Elevations
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Steps are hazards for claw-horn disruption.
Connective tissue that fixes the pedal bone to the
claw relaxes at calving time and retightens within a
few weeks. The pedal bone has greater mobility
within the claw and there is greater opportunity
for bruising of the sole and formation of sole
ulcers.
Unlace your boots and walk the barn to get an
understanding of what is happening in the claw.
The ideal barn would have only one step – from
the walk alleys into the bed.
Tractor-scraped or slatted floor barns may have
no steps at crossover alleys.
Alley scrapers require a curb to run along.
Crossover alleys may be lower in elevation (e.g., 3
inches) than the stall platform (e.g., 6 inches)
relative to the floor.
Sharp turns in return alleys or parlor exits are
hazards for claw-horn disruption in fresh cows.
Provide enough space for cows to turn in an arc
while taking steps. Avoid narrow spaces where
they must pivot on a back foot.
Eliminate unnecessary steps into and out of pens,
at crossovers, or into milking parlors when
designing or building free-stall barns.
Barn drawings should show elevations and these
should be considered carefully for cow comfort
and health.
Figure 30. The Conney Barricade keeps feed close to cows and
raises for feeding and sweeping.
Figure 31. A step at the holding pen is a hazard for cows. Check
plans for elevations and monitor construction to be sure this does
not happen by error or oversight.
14
23. Biosecurity
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Biosecurity is about ways to prevent the spread of
diseases within the barn or on the farm.
Diseases of concern are spread in manure.
Consider the movement of air, manure, feed,
cattle, equipment and people outside and within
the barn.
Design the barn to segregate manure from feed.
Consider traffic routes for people and cows, for
feeding and bedding equipment, for moving
manure, for delivering feed, and for service
providers and visitors.
Manure storage should be distant and down wind
from the barn.
Calving pens should not be adjacent to the parlor
holding pen.
Outside the barn, lanes for moving feed should
not cross routes used for hauling manure.
Inside the barn, consider designs without
intersections for both cows and equipment.
In the design of 2- and 3-row barns, tractors and
TMR mixers or feed pushers do not have to cross
cow alleys and cows do not have to cross the feed
alley.
A feed bunk filled by an overhead conveyor has
no cow traffic through it.
A feed-wall with outside feeding keeps feeding
equipment outside the barn. With this design,
there is no cow traffic across the feeding table.
Perimeter feed alleys for 4- or 6-row barns keep
feeding equipment out of cow alleys and cows out
of feed alleys.
A barrier on the feed table keeps feeding
equipment out of the feed.
Many barn designs have traffic intersections where
workers’ mucky boots or cows cross feed alleys.
Sanitation strategies help to prevent manure
contamination of boots, tires and feed.
A lift bridge allows cows to cross a feed alley
without contaminating it with manure and urine.
A lift bridge allows feeding equipment to cross a
cow alley without getting manure on tires.
A foot bridge allows people to cross cow alleys
without contaminating their boots.
Water outlets and hoses at strategic locations
allow workers to wash their boots when exiting
cow alleys and before entering feed alleys.
Slopes and washing equipment allow cleaning of
intersections at feed alleys.
A curb on the end of the feed table keeps feed out
of the feed-alley intersection.
Guide visitors along clean routes, not cow alleys.
Figure 32. A lift bridge keeps tractor and TMR mixer tires out of
manure in the cow alley. When raised, cows do not contaminate
the feed alley. This Finnish example is hydraulically operated.
Figure 33. A footbridge keeps boots clean when crossing cow
alleys. This bridge mounts on a gate and allows an alley scraper to
pass beneath it.
Figure 34. In Finland, Jouni Pitkäranta designs barns with a feedwall for feeding from the outside. The translucent-panelled feed
wall opens and closes with a remote control. In summer, the
panels open horizontally for full ventilation. Tractors and TMR
mixers do not enter the barn.
15
Figure 35. A post and rail feed barrier must be constructed
for the dimensions of the cows eating at the bunk. For most
Holsteins, the manger wall should be about 20 inches higher
than the walk alley (cow’s feet) to avoid injury to briskets.
This height also permits the addition of self-locks later. Newer
designs permit vertical and horizontal adjustment of the rail
as shown in some photographs above. The feed manger
platform must be 4 to 6 inches higher than the walk alley
(cow’s feet). (Figure courtesy of H. House, OMAFRA)
Figure 36. The diagram shows a typical installation for a selflocking front at a feed bunk. Note that the concrete manger front
is lower than the one for the post and rail feed manger. The height
of the concrete manger wall should be adjusted for the size of the
cattle to avoid injuries to briskets.
(Figure courtesy of H. House, OMAFRA)
Figure 37. The diagram shows
open-front free stalls with rubberfilled mattresses. The table shows
variations in stall dimensions to
meet the needs of Holsteins first-lactation heifers, mature
milking cows and dry cows. The
slope on the stall is 0.25 inches
per foot. For ease of side-lunging,
the top of the lower pipe of the
loop should be no higher than 12
inches above the bed height
(mattress). The neck rail forward
position should allow the majority
of cows to stand squarely with all
four feet in the stall. Generally,
the neck rail mounts directly
above or two inches behind the
brisket locator. (Figure courtesy of
H. House, OMAFRA)
16
Figure 38. The figure shows
dimensions for a sand-bedded, freestall design using a wide-loop
divider. It shows dimensions
suggested for first lactation cows,
mature cows and mature pre-fresh
cows. The forward location of the
neck rail is the bed length minus
the width of the concrete curb.
Since cows will not stand on the
slope of the curb, they stand
diagonal ahead of the curb if stall
length allows. The rearward
location of the neck rail
discourages cows from standing
with all four feet in the bed and
excessive soiling of the stall. In
effect, the rearward location forces
cows to perch in the stalls.
However, with lower sand levels,
the degree of elevation of front
feet may be minimal. The height of
the neck rail will vary with sand fill
and should be at least 44 inches
above the sand. (Courtesy of Drs.
Cook and Nordlund, Univ. of
Wisconsin, Vet Clin Food Anim 20
(2004).)
Figure 39. The diagram shows a
design for head-to-head, openfront, free stalls with sand bedding.
The table shows variations in stall
dimensions to meet the needs of
first-lactation heifers, mature
milking cows and dry cows. The
figure also shows a narrow-opening
style of loop and no brisket locator.
The loop has a narrow opening and
the bottom pipe mounts higher
above the bed than wide-opening
style loops for mattress barns. The
loop controls cow position and
generally forces forward lunging.
The bottom pipe is high enough to
discourage cows from lunging
through it, yet low enough to
discourage cows from lunging
under it. (Figure courtesy of H.
House, OMAFRA)
17
Reading List
Anderson NG. Observations on dairy cow comfort:
diagonal lunging, resting, standing and perching in free
stalls. Proc 5th Int'l Dairy Housing Conference, ASAE
2003:26-35.
Ceballos A, Sanderson D, Rushen J, Weary DM. Improving
stall design: Use of 3-D kinematics to measure space
use by dairy cows when lying down. J Dairy Sci 2004;
87(7):2042-2050.
Cook NB, Bennett TB, Nordlund KV. Effect of free stall
surface on daily activity patterns in dairy cows with
relevance to lameness prevalence. J Dairy Sci 2004;
87(9):2912-2922.
Cook NB, Bennett TB, Nordlund KV. Monitoring indices
of cow comfort in free-stall-housed dairy herds. J Dairy
Sci 2005; 88(11):3876-3885.
Cook NB, Nordlund KV, Oetzel GR. Environmental
influences on claw horn lesions associated with
laminitis and subacute ruminal acidosis in dairy cows. J.
Dairy Sci. 2004; 87:E36-46.
Cook NB, Mentink RL, Bennett TB, Burgi K. The effect of
heat stress and lameness on time budgets of lactating
dairy cows. J Dairy Sci 2007; 90(4):1674-1682.
Cook NB, Nordlund KV. Publications about stalls and
beds. Last accessed January 14, 2012
http://www.vetmed.wisc.edu/dms/fapm/forms_info.
htm
Drissler M, Gaworski M, Tucker CB, Weary DM. Freestall
maintenance: effects on lying behavior of dairy cattle. J
Dairy Sci 2005; 88(7):2381-2387.
Fregonesi JA, Tucker CB, Weary DM. Overstocking
reduces lying Time in dairy cows. J Dairy Sci 2007;
90(7):3349-3354.
Fulwider WK, Grandin T, Garrick DJ, et al. Influence of
free-stall base on tarsal joint lesions and hygiene in
Gaworski MA, Tucker CB, Weary DM, Swift ML. Effects
of stall design on dairy cattle behaviour. ASAE Proc
5th International Dairy Housing Conference Fort
Worth, Texas. 2003:139-46.
Huzzey JM, von Keyserlingk MAG, Weary DM. Changes in
feeding, drinking, and standing behavior of dairy cows
during the transition period. J Dairy Sci 2005;
88(7):2454-2461.
Mowbray L, Vittie T, Weary DM. Hock lesions and freestall design: effects of stall surface. Proceedings 5th
Int’l Dairy Housing Conference, ASAE 2003:288-295.
Olsson J, Magnusson M, Ventorp M. The effect of the
passage flooring in cubicle houses on the behavioural
time-budget of dairy cows. Proc Int’l Soc Anim
Hygiene. 2005; 2:140.
Overton MW, Sischo WM, Temple GD, Moore DA. Using
time-lapse video photography to assess dairy cattle
lying behavior in a free-stall barn. J Dairy Sci 2002;
85(9):2407-2413.
Philipot JM, Pluvinage P, Cimarosti I, Sulpice P, Bugnard F.
Risk factors of dairy cow lameness associated with
housing conditions. Vet Research 1994; 25(2-3):244248.
Tucker CB, Weary DM, Fraser D. Effects of three types of
free-stall surfaces on preferences and stall usage by
Tucker CB, Weary DM, Fraser D. Free-stall dimensions:
effects on preference and stall usage. J Dairy Sci 2004;
87(5):1208-1216.
Tucker CB, Weary DM. Bedding on geotextile mattresses:
how much is needed to improve cow comfort? J Dairy
Sci 2004; 87(9):2889-2895.
Tucker CB, Weary DM, Fraser D. Influence of neck-rail
placement on free-stall preference, use, and cleanliness.
J Dairy Sci 2005; 88(8):2730-2737.
Tucker CB, Weary DM, de Passillé AM, Campbell B,
Rushen J. Flooring in front of the feed bunk affects
feeding behavior and use of freestalls by dairy cows. J
Dairy Sci 2006; 89(6):2065-2071.
Tucker CB, Zdanowicz G, Weary DM. Brisket boards
reduce freestall use. J Dairy Sci 2006; 89(7):2603-2607.
Author Credit
Companion Infosheets
Neil Anderson, Lead Veterinarian – Disease
Prevention - Ruminants
Animal Health and Welfare Branch
Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food
and Rural Affairs
6484 Wellington Road 7, Unit 10
Elora, Ontario N0B 1S0
Tel.: (519) 846-3410, Fax: (519) 846-8178
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.ontario.ca/livestock
Cow Behaviour to Judge Free-stall and Tie-stall Barns
Tie-stall Dimensions
Agricultural Information Contact Centre:
1-877-424-1300
E-mail: [email protected]
Northern Ontario Regional Office:
1-800-461-6132
www.ontario.ca/livestock
18

Free-stall Dimensions

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