Cichy I., Rokita A., Popowczak M., Naglak K.

Transcription

Vol. 20, nr 49
INDEX COPERNICUS
CRACOW – WROCLAW 2010
ISSN 1731-0652
COMMITTEE FOR REHABILITATION, PHYSICAL EDUCATION
AND SOCIAL INTEGRATION OF POLISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SPORT KINETICS – IASK
ANTROPOMOTORYKA
Vol. 20, nr 49
INDEX COPERNICUS
UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION
CRACOW, POLAND
UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION
IN WROCLAW, POLAND
ISSN 1731-0652
KOMITET REHABILITACJI, KULTURY FIZYCZNEJ
I INTEGRACJI SPOŁECZNEJ PAN
MIĘDZYNARODOWE STOWARZYSZENIE MOTORYKI SPORTOWEJ – IASK
ANTROPOMOTORYKA
Vol. 20, nr 49
INDEX COPERNICUS
AKADEMIA WYCHOWANIA FIZYCZNEGO
IM. BRONISŁAWA CZECHA W KRAKOWIE
AKADEMIA WYCHOWANIA FIZYCZNEGO
WE WROCŁAWIU
KRAKÓW – WROCŁAW 2010
ANTROPOMOTORYK A
ISSN 1731-0652
COMMITTEE FOR REHABILITATION, PHYSICAL EDUCATION
AND SOCIAL INTEGRATION OF POLISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SPORT KINETICS – IASK
UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION, CRACOW, POLAND
UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN WROCLAW, POLAND
VOL. 20, NR 49
EDITORIAL COMMITTEE
CHAIRMAN
Edward Mleczko
V-CHAIRMAN
Zofia Ignasiak
MEMBERS
Jan Chmura, Jerzy Januszewski, Andrzej Klimek, Tadeusz Koszczyc, Lesław Kulmatycki,
Wiesław Osiński, Joachim Raczek, Teresa Sławińska-Ochla, Włodzimierz Starosta
EDITORIAL BOARD
Michal Belej (Slovakia), Peter Blaser (Germany), Tadeusz Bober, Janusz Czerwiński, Sławomir Drozdowski,
Józef Drabik, Joanna Gradek, Peter Hirtz (Germany), Josif Moisiejewicz Fejgenberg (Israel), Adam Haleczko,
Andrzej Jopkiewicz, Han C.G. Kemper (Holland), Krzysztof Klukowski, Vladimir Lyakh (Russia),
Robert M. Malina (USA), Wacław Petryński, Ryszard Przewęda,
Igor Ryguła, Stanisław Sterkowicz, Stanisław Żak
EDITOR’S OFFICE
al. Jana Pawła II 78
31-571 Kraków
Poland
Indexed in INDEX COPERNICUS
Copy-editing and proofreading Barbara Przybyło
© Copyright by University School of Physical Education, Cracow, Poland
Design and DTP: University School of Physical Education, Cracow, Poland
Print: Drukarnia Cyfrowa KSERKOP, 30-019 Kraków, ul. Mazowiecka 60
ANTROPOMOTORYK A
ISSN 1731-0652
KOMITET REHABILITACJI, KULTURY FIZYCZNEJ I INTEGRACJI SPOŁECZNEJ PAN
MIĘDZYNARODOWE STOWARZYSZENIE MOTORYKI SPORTOWEJ – IASK
AKADEMIA WYCHOWANIA FIZYCZNEGO IM. BRONISŁAWA CZECHA W KRAKOWIE
AKADEMIA WYCHOWANIA FIZYCZNEGO WE WROCŁAWIU
VOL. 20, NR 49
KRAKÓW – WROCŁAW 2010
REDAKCJA
Redaktor Naczelny
Edward Mleczko
Z-ca Redaktora Naczelnego
Zofia Ignasiak
Komitet Redakcyjny
Jan Chmura, Jerzy Januszewski, Andrzej Klimek, Tadeusz Koszczyc, Lesław Kulmatycki,
Wiesław Osiński, Joachim Raczek, Teresa Sławińska-Ochla, Włodzimierz Starosta
RADA REDAKCYJNA
Michal Belej (Słowacja), Peter Blaser (Niemcy), Tadeusz Bober, Janusz Czerwiński, Sławomir Drozdowski,
Józef Drabik, Joanna Gradek, Peter Hirtz (Niemcy), Josif Moisiejewicz Fejgenberg (Izrael), Adam Haleczko,
Andrzej Jopkiewicz, Han C.G. Kemper (Holandia), Krzysztof Klukowski, Vladimir Lyakh (Rosja),
Robert M. Malina (USA), Wacław Petryński, Ryszard Przewęda,
Igor Ryguła, Stanisław Sterkowicz, Stanisław Żak
ADRES REDAKCJI
al. Jana Pawła II 78
31-571 Kraków
Poland
Czasopismo ANTROPOMOTORYKA jest umieszczone na liście rankingowej INDEX COPERNICUS
Adiustacja i korekta Barbara Przybyło
© Copyright by University School of Physical Education in Cracow
Opracowanie graficzne i łamanie: Sekcja Koordynacji Projektów Wydawniczych AWF Kraków
Druk: Drukarnia Cyfrowa KSERKOP, 30-019 Kraków, ul. Mazowiecka 60
NR 49
AN TRO PO MO TO RY KA
2010
CONTENTS
From Editors: In the year 2010 subsequent issue of Antropomotoryka – Kinesiology in English
Information for the Authors
7
9
DISSERTATIONS AND ARTICLES
Mohsen Ghanbarzadeh, Abdul Hammid Habibi, Mohammed Reza Zadkarami, Mehdi Bustani, Maryam Mohammadi
The effect of an anaerobic test on lung indices in some elite basketball players
15
Bojan Jošt, Janez Pustovrh, Janez Vodičar
Philosophy of expert modelling of sport performance of high level athletes
23
Ryszard Litkowycz, Kajetan Słomka, Monika Grygorowicz, Henryk Król
The influence of plyometrics training on the maximal power of the lower limbs in basketball players aged 16–18
33
Ireneusz Cichy, Andrzej Rokita, Marek Popowczak, Karolina Naglak
Psychomotor development of grade in primary school children who are educated by means of traditional
and non-traditional program
45
Łukasz Jadczak, Andrzej Kosmol, Andrzej Wieczorek, Robert Śliwowski
Motor fitness and coordination abilities vs. effectiveness of play in sitting volleyball
57
Bożena Królikowska, Michał Rozpara, Władysław Mynarski, Bogusława Graczykowska, Daniel Puciato
The calorific cost of young women’s leisure activity
69
Bartłomiej Sokołowski, Maria Chrzanowska
Changes in somatic and motor development in children and adolescents in the years 1980–1988 and in 2000
81
Wanda Pilch, Łukasz Tota, Szczepan Wiecha, Dorota Ambroży
A simple method of assessment of energy expenditure of low-impact aerobic exercises
89
REVIEW PAPERS
Włodzimierz Starosta
The muscle relaxation ability and results in sport of world elite competitors
99
DISCUSSIONS
Wacław Petryński, Mirosław Szyndera
Time perception and motor behaviour of living beings
119
ANNOUNCEMENTS
The International Forum “Health and Longevity” in Kielce, Poland
Competition of research papers on physical education teaching for Prof. Czabański’s Award
–5–
131
132
NR 49
2010
SPIS TREŚCI
Od Redakcji: W roku 2010 kolejny numer czasopisma „Antropomotoryka” po angielsku
Informacje dla Autorów
7
11
ROZPRAWY I ARTYKUŁY
Mohsen Ghanbarzadeh, Abdul Hammid Habibi, Mohammed Reza Zadkarami, Mehdi Bustani, Maryam Mohammadi
Wpływ testu wydolności beztlenowej RAST na wskaźniki czynności płuc u koszykarzy wysokiego wyczynu
15
Filozofia eksperckiego modelowania występu sportowego wysokiego wyczynu
23
Wpływ treningu plajometrycznego na poprawę poziomu siły eksplozywnej kończyn dolnych u koszykarzy
w wieku 16–18 lat
33
Rozwój psychomotoryczny uczniów pierwszej klasy szkoły podstawowej edukowanych programem tradycyjnym
i nietradycyjnym
45
Sprawność motoryczna i zdolności koordynacyjne a skuteczność gry w siatkówce na siedząco
57
Koszt kaloryczny aktywności wolnoczasowej młodych kobiet
69
Zmiany w rozwoju somatycznym i motorycznym u dzieci i młodzieży w latach 1980–1988 i w roku 2000
81
Prosta ocena wydatku energetycznego aerobiku typu low-impact
89
PRACE PRZEGLĄDOWE
Zdolność rozluźniania mięśni a wyniki sportowe zawodników światowej elity
99
POLEMIKI I DYSKUSJE
Postrzeganie czasu a zachowanie ruchowe istot żywych
119
INFORMACJE
Międzynarodowe Forum „Zdrowie i długowieczność”, Kielce, 20–22 maja 2010
131
Konkurs publikacji naukowych z zakresu dydaktyki wychowania fizycznego o Nagrodę Profesora Bogdana
Czabańskiego
132
–6–
NR 49
FROM EDITORS
2010
OD REDAKCJI
IN THE YEAR 2010 SUBSEQUENT ISSUE
OF ANTROPOMOTORYKA – KINESIOLOGY IN ENGLISH
W ROKU 2010 KOLEJNY NUMER CZASOPISMA
ANTROPOMOTORYKA – KINESIOLOGY PO ANGIELSKU
In your hands, you have the forty-ninth issue of our
journal, the second one made up of English-written texts.
That is due to the terms of editorial contract, under which
English and Polish issues of the quarterly should appear
alternately. The fiftieth, jubilee, issue of Antropomotoryka
– Kinesiology is going to appear in Polish.
The problem that should be rethought currently by
the Editorial Committee is the way of delivery our journal to the readership. Until now, subsequent issues of
Antropomotoryka – Kinesiology have been published
in the traditional way as printed brochures. Nowadays,
when academic audience raises more and more boldly
the need for e-periodicals, electronic version of our
Cracow-Wroclaw quarterly is taken into consideration.
We believe that the readers’ need will be met soon.
With the opening of the editorial year 2010, we
would like to encourage the readers to study every
section of Antropomotoryka – Kinesiology paragraph
after paragraph, page after page. Among the authors
you can find the representatives of academic institutions from home and abroad (e.g. from Slovenia and
Iran). Current issue of our journal is devoted mainly
to biological and environmental determinants of sport
motoricity.
First of all we would like to focus the readers’ attention on three papers:
• The effect of an anaerobic test on lung indices in
some elite basketball players, a study written by
a team of Iranian authors;
• The influence of plyometrics training on the maximal
power of the lower limbs in basketball players aged
•
16–18 (by Ryszard Litkowycz, Kajetan Słomka,
Monika Grygorowicz and Henryk Król);
Motor fitness and coordination abilities vs. effectiveness of play in sitting volleyball (by Łukasz
Jadczak, Andrzej Kosmol, Andrzej Wieczorek,
Robert Śliwowski).
Then we suggest concentrating on the findings of
Philosophy of expert modelling of sport performance
of high level athletes. The authors, Slovenian reaserchers: Bojan Jošt, Janez Pustovrh and Janez Vodičar opt
for putting into sport practice their own method for improving organizational culture and training procedures.
Similar method, AHP, is still in its early stages of implementation to the realities of Polish research work and
sporting activities.
After that, the accent should be put on papers familiarizing the audience with the results of pedagogical
experiments. Ireneusz Cichy, Andrzej Rokita, Marek
Popowczak and Karolina Naglak in the text Psychomotor
development of grade in primary school children who
are educated by means of traditional and non-traditional
program present the results of researches confirming the
impact of innovative techniques of working on the psychomotor development of children at early school age.
Also in this issue, two teams of scientists from different university centers focus the reader’s attention on
similar aspects of recreational training for young women… in both cases rather ineffective.
In turn, we have the paper by Maria Chrzanowska
and Bartłomiej Sokołowski, a team of Cracovian re-
–7–
From Editors
searchers, who have centered their interest upon the
field of intergenerational changes in motor and somatic
development of Cracow children and adolescents.
In the study entitled Changes in somatic and motor
development in children and adolescents in the years
1980–1988 and in 2000 the authors hold the readers’
interest in a tendency to achieve higher indexes of morphological development accompanied by lower motor
abilities.
This issue of Antropomotoryka – Kinesiology brings
also a review paper by Włodzimierz Starosta: The muscle relaxation ability and results in sport of world elite
competitors, outlining the problem on the background
of literature survey. Wacław Petryński and Mirosław
Szyndera close the issue with the study Time perception and motor behaviour of living beings in which they
discuss influence of time perception development on
behaviour control in living beings, including humans.
What else can I add as an editor-in-chief to this introductory note? Let me wish you satisfaction with reading current issue of Antropomotoryka – Kinesiology and
express my gratitude to all those who contributed to
publish it. All is well that begins well in the year 2010.
–8–
Edward Mleczko
Editor-in-Chief
of Antropomotoryka – Kinesiology
NR 49
2010
INFORMATION FOR THE AUTHORS
1. “Kinesiology” (“Antropomotoryka”) is an official scientific
quarterly of the International Association of Sport Kinetics
– IASK, published at the University School of Physical Education, Cracow, Poland under the auspices of the Committee
Rehabilitation, Physical Education and Social Integration the
Polish Academy of Sciences.
The magazine presents the results of original research work
and experiments in the field of human motoricity and related
sciences. It also publishes review articles, opinion articles and
discussion of scientists evaluating the current situation and
perspectives of scientific development of human motoricity.
2. Materials for publication (two copies of computer printouts)
should be sent together with the floppy disk at the following
address: Redakcja “Antropomotoryki”, Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego, al. Jana Pawła II 78, 31-571 Kraków, tel.
012 683 12 78, tel/fax 012 683 10 76, e-mail: [email protected].
3. General conditions:
• Upon submitting a paper to be published the Author
(Authors) transfers copyright to the Publishing House of
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• “Antropomotoryka” accepts demonstrative, original,
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motoricity. Original works are accepted in English.
• The works of particular scientific value submitted and
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•
tific periodical can also be submitted for publication in
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Editors: Uniform Requirements for manuscripts submitted in biomedical journals. N Engl J Med 1997; 336,
309–315).
–9–
Information for the Authors
using RAR or ZIP. After copying them on a floppy disk it is
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The reference materials should be given in the order of
quotation.
[1] Żekoński Z, Wolański N: Warunki społeczno-bytowe
jako czynniki rozwoju człowieka w Wolański N (red.):
Czynniki rozwoju człowieka. Warszawa, PWN, 1987,
68–88.
[2] Malarecki I: Zarys fizjologii wysiłku i treningu sportowego. Warszawa, Sport i Turystyka, 1975.
[3] Bouchard C, Malina RM: Genetics of physiological
fitness and motor performance. Exerc. Sport. Sc. Rev.
1983; 11: 112–115.
[4] Szopa J: W poszukiwaniu struktury motoryczności:
analiza czynnikowa cech somatycznych, funkcjonalnych i prób sprawności fizycznej u dziewcząt i chłopców w wieku 8–19 lat. Wyd. Monograficzne, Kraków,
AWF, 1983; 35.
Examples:
a) works printed in magazines:
• Casella R, Bubendorf L, Sauter G, Moch H,
Michatsch MJ, Gasser TC: Focal neuroendocrine
differentiation lacks prognostics significance in
prostate core needle biopsies. J Urol, 1998; 160:
406–410.
b) monographs:
• Matthews DE, Farewell VT: Using and Understanding Medical Statistics, ed 3, revised. Basel,
Karger, 1966.
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• Parren PWHI, Burton DR: Antibodies against
HIV-1 from phage display libraries; Mapping of an
immune response and progress towards antiviral
immunotherapy; in Capra JD (ed): Antibody Engineering, Chem. Immunol. Basel, Karger, 1997,
65: 18–56.
• Kokot F: Fizjologia nerek; (w:) Zieliński J, Leńko
J (eds): Urologia, Warszawa, PZWL, 1992, 1:
9–20.
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When the necessary corrections are made and the article
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A delay in sending back the article may postpone its printing till the next issue of the magazine.
• The Publisher of “Antropomotoryka – Kinesiology” reserves
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be ordered on condition of payment when the corrected
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• Current copies of Antropomotoryka and those from the files
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• Summaries in Polish and in English can be found at
the following internet address: www.awf.krakow.pl; link:
wydawnictwa, czasopisma, antropomotoryka.
– 10 –
NR 49
2010
INFORMACJE DLA AUTORÓW
1. „Antropomotoryka” („Kinesiology”) jest oficjalnym, recenzowanym kwartalnikiem naukowym Międzynarodowego
Stowarzyszenia Motoryki Spor towej – IASK, wydawanym
w Akademii Wychowania Fizycznego w Krakowie pod patronatem Komitetu Rehabilitacji, Kultury Fizycznej i Integracji
Społecznej PAN. W czasopiśmie przedstawiane są wyniki
oryginalnych badań i doświadczeń w dziedzinie motoryczności człowieka oraz dziedzin pokrewnych. Zamieszczane są
również prace przeglądowe, poglądy oraz dyskusje oceniające
obecny stan i perspekty wy rozwoju dorobku badawczego
szeroko pojętej antropomotoryki.
2. Materiały przeznaczone do druku (dwa egzemplarze wydruków
komputerowych) należy przesyłać łącznie z dyskietką pod adresem: Redakcja „Antropomotoryki”, Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego, al. Jana Pawła II 78, 31-571 Kraków, tel. 012 683 12 78, tel./
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[email protected].
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•
•
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imię i nazwisko autora(ów), stopień naukowy autora(ów),
miejsce zakładu pracy, słowa kluczowe oraz zwięzłe
streszczenie po polsku i angielsku. Jego objętość nie
może być mniejsza niż 200 i nie większa niż 250 słów.
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imion, a następnie tytuł pracy w brzmieniu oryginalnym
oraz nazwę czasopisma, z którego praca pochodzi. Skrót
tytułu czasopisma należy podać zgodnie z jego brzmieniem
w Index Medicus (patrz również: International Committee of
Medical Journal Editors: Uniform requirements for manu-
– 11 –
Informacje dla Autorów
niu kompresji, do 10%). Wszystkie pliki mogą być spakowane RAR-em lub ZIP-em. Po skopiowaniu na dyskietkę
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Spis piśmiennictwa powinien być sporządzony według
kolejności cytowania:
[1] Żekoński Z, Wolański N: Warunki społeczno-bytowe
jako czynniki rozwoju człowieka; w Wolański N (red.):
Czynniki rozwoju człowieka. Warszawa, PWN, 1987;
68–88.
[2] Malarecki I: Zarys fizjologii wysiłku i treningu sportowego. Warszawa, Sport i Turystyka, 1975.
[3] Bouchard C, Malina RM: Genetics of physiological
fitness and motor performance. Exerc Sport Sc Rev,
1983; 11: 112–115.
[4] Szopa J: W poszukiwaniu struktury motoryczności:
analiza czynnikowa cech somatycznych, funkcjonalnych i prób sprawności fizycznej u dziewcząt i chłopców w wieku 8–19 lat. Wyd. Monograficzne, Kraków,
AWF, 1988; 35.
scripts submitted to biomedical journals. N Engl J Med
1997; 336; 309–315).
Przykłady:
a) prace wydrukowane w czasopismach:
• Casella R, Bubendorf L, Sauter G, Moch H,
Michatsch MJ, Gasser TC: Focal neuroendocrine differentiation lacks prognostic significiance
in prostate core needle biopsies. J Urol, 1998;
160: 406–410.
b) monografie:
• Matthews DE, Farewell VT: Using and Understanding Medical Statistics, ed 3, revised. Basel,
Karger, 1996.
c) rozdziały w książkach:
• Parren PWHI, Burton DR: Antibodies against
HIV-1 from phage display libraries; Mapping of an
immune response and progress towards antiviral
immunotherapy; in Capra JD (ed): Antibody Engineering. Chem Immunol. Basel, Karger, 1997,
65: 18–56.
• Kokot F: Fizjologia nerek; w Zieliński J, Leńko
J (red): Urologia, Warszawa, PZWL, 1992, 1:
9–20.
Materiał ilustracyjny musi mieć bardzo dobrą jakość. Powinien być wykonany na białych kartkach. Reprodukcje
zdjęć oraz fotografie należy przygotować na błyszczącym
papierze fotograficznym. Na odwrocie fotografii trzeba
napisać miękkim ołówkiem jej kolejny numer oraz zaznaczyć strzałką, gdzie znajduje się jej górny brzeg. Redakcja
drukuje jedynie zdjęcia czarno-białe. Tabele i ryciny należy zamieszczać na oddzielnych stronach i numerować
cyframi arabskimi. Ich nagłówki, objaśnienia oraz podpisy
pod rycinami i nad tabelami powinny być w języku polskim
i angielskim. Przykład:
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Table 1., Fig. 1., Commentary, Boys
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Powołując się w tekście na daną pozycję piśmiennictwa należy podać w nawiasie kwadratowym tylko cyfrę
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5. Uwagi redakcji
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wydawnictwa, czasopisma, antropomotoryka.
– 12 –
DISSERTATIONS AND ARTICLES
ROZPRAWY I ARTYKUŁY
NR 49
2010
THE EFFECT OF AN ANAEROBIC TEST ON LUNG
INDICES IN SOME ELITE BASKETBALL PLAYERS
WPŁYW TESTU WYDOLNOŚCI BEZTLENOWEJ RAST
NA WSKAŹNIKI CZYNNOŚCI PŁUC U KOSZYKARZY
WYSOKIEGO WYCZYNU
Mohsen Ghanbarzadeh*, Abdul Hamid Habibi*,
Mohammad Reza Zadkarami**, Mehdi Bustani***, Maryam Mohammadi****
*****Ph.D, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Science, Shahid Chamran University, Ahwaz, Iran
*****Ph.D, Faculty of Mathematics and Statistics Science, Shahid Chamran University, Ahwaz, Iran
*****MA, Student of PE and Sport Science, Shahid Chamran University, Ahwaz, Iran
*****MA, Islamic Azad University at Sousangerd Branch, Sousangerd, Iran
Key words: Pulmonary Function Test, Running-Based Anaerobic Sprint Test (RAST
test)
Słowa kluczowe: próby czynnościowe płuc, test biegowy wydolności beztlenowej
RAST
SUMMARY • STRESZCZENIE
Aim of the work. The main goal of this research was comparing the lung indices of 20 outstanding basketball
players in Khouzestan province in Iran before and after the RAST test. Actually, the study examined the possible presence or absence of bronchial spasms among the athletes who had had several years of background
in intense athletic activities. The subjects consisted of 20 elite basketball players from the eight teams which
were present in Khouzestan basketball league.Their average age, weight, and height ranges were 26.55, 82.34
kg, and 186.35 cm; respectively. The average BMI was 23.69 kg/m². The research made a cross comparison
among the pulmonary function indices MVV, FEF25-75, PEF, FEV1/FVC, FVC, FEV1 which were measured both
before and after the RAST test.
Material and methods. Before and after the RAST test, the pulmonary function indices were measured.
The sample population was given light basketball exercises for 10 minutes prior to the RAST test.
Results. In order to compare the obtained results, they were subjected to a t-test. The final results revealed
no significant difference between the values related to MVV FEV1/FVC (p > 0.05); however, a significant decrease was observed in the values FEF25-75, PEF, FVC and FEV1 being respectively 12.60%, 10.28%, 7.82%
and 5.41% (p < 0.05).
Conclusions. Based on the definition of bronchial spasms arising from athletic exercise, the existence of
such bronchial spasms in the sample population could be defined only based on a single value, that is a 19%
decrease in FEV 1 in over 60% of the sample population.
Cel pracy. Pomiar i porównanie wskaźników czynności płuc przed i po wykonaniu testu biegowego wydolności beztlenowej RAST (Running-Based Anaerobic Sprint Test) u 20 czołowych koszykarzy z irańskiej prowincji
Chuzestan. Ustalenie, na podstawie zmiany których wskaźników czynności płuc można ustalić wystąpienie
skurczu oskrzeli u badanych. W trakcie analizy danych przeprowadzono badanie krzyżowe parametrów pracy
płuc, które zmierzono przed i po fazie beztlenowej wysiłku. Analizą objęto dane liczbowe dotyczące maksymal-
– 15 –
M. Ghanbarzdeh, A.H. Habbi, M.R. Zadkarami, M. Bustani, M. Mohammadi
nej wentylacji dowolnej (MVV), przepływu w środku natężonego wydechu (FEF25-75), szczytowego przepływu
oddechowego (PEF), a także ilorazu jednosekundowej objętości natężonego wydechu i natężonej pojemności
życiowej (FEV1/FVC).
Materiał i metody. Z ośmiu drużyn ligi koszykarskiej Chuzestanu wybrano 20 zawodników legitymujących
się co najmniej pięcioletnim stażem w sporcie zawodowym. Średni wiek badanych, mierzony w latach, wynosił
26,55; podczas gdy średnia masa ciała i wysokość – odpowiednio 82,34 kg i 186,35 cm, a wskaźnik BMI – to 23,69
kg/m2. Przed i po przeprowadzeniu testu wydolności beztlenowej RAST zmierzono wskaźniki pracy płuc badanych,
a 10 minut przed testem przeprowadzono rozgrzewkę.
Wyniki. Analiza danych z obu pomiarów, do której przeprowadzenia posłużono się testem t-Studenta, nie
ujawniła istotnych statystycznie różnic między wartościami MVV i FEV1/FVC (p>0,05). Odnotowano natomiast
istotny statystycznie spadek wartości FEF25-75, PEF, FVC i FEV1 – odpowiednio o 12,60%, 10,28%, 7,82%
i 5,41% (p < 0,05).
Wnioski. Na podstawie przyjętej definicji skurczu oskrzeli wskutek wykonywania forsownych ćwiczeń fizycznych (testu RAST) stwierdzono, że na jego wystąpienie w objętej badaniami grupie wskazuje zmiana jednego
parametru: obniżenie o 19% wysokości wskaźnika FEV1 u ponad 60% osób.
Introduction
The pulmonary system is composed of the lungs,
the central nervous system, the chest cage, the diaphragm and the muscles between the chest bones,
and the blood circulation system within the lungs1. The
central nervous system is responsible for controlling
the muscles of the chest cage which act as a pump for
the pulmonary system [1]. The act of breathing, which
refers to the act of inhaling the air into the lungs and
exhaling it from them, is reliant upon the pulmonary
system function [2]. Any deficiency in the operation
of the trachea and the air passages will result in an
insufficiency in the inhalation and exhalation of the
air and this, in turn, may affect the amount of oxygen consumed during both the resting phase and the
warm up calisthenics. Consequently, the person’s
health will be in danger. Resistance to the inhalation of the air is the most common cause of breath
insufficiency. Based on the fact that bronchical
spasms occur as a result of long time excercises, subjects of the present study were selected from athletes
with at least 5 years of background in the professionl
level.
The obstruction of the air passages leads to fatal
harms and this obstruction may happen in any part of
these passages such as the smallest air channels, the
trachea bronchial system, the larynx, and the esophagus [3]. During heavy athletic exercises, the amount of
the inhaled air may increase ten to twenty times, how1 Abbreviations: MVV – maximal voluntary ventilation; FVC – forced
vital capacity; FEV1– force expiratory volume in 1 sec; FEV1/FVC – forced
expiratory volume in 1 sec / force vital capacity; FEF25-75% – forced expiratory flow; MEFR – maximum expiratory flow rate; PEF – peak expiratory flow;
RAST – Running-Based Anaerobic Sprint Test.
ever, the pulmonary system is made in a way that is capable of conforming itself with severe and intense oxygen demands during both short- and long-term athletic
activities. Anyway, those individuals who abnormally
consume large amount of oxygen during exhaustive
athletic exercises may experience inhalation problems
[4]. There is some evidence proving that performing
exhaustively, athletes will face a severe slow-down in
arterial oxygen. This slow-down happens as a result of
the distributing limitations which themselves arise from
a decrease in the time that red blood corpuscles remain
in lung capillaries [5].
According to Pelkonen and co-workers [6], continuous athletic exercise can optimize the function of the
pulmonary system. On the contrary, some researches
[7] have revealed that continuous athletic exercise can
be one of the causes of bronchial spasms. Evidently,
a large percentage of athletes with no prior history of
asthma or bronchial spasms will develop such symptoms during or after athletic exercise. These symptoms
will appear from the very beginning of the athletic exercise up to 30 minutes after the ending of the exercise;
however, its peak is approximately between five to ten
minutes from the outset of the athletic exercise and will
continue until about 30 minutes after it [8]. Bronchial
spasms are also common in elite athletes [6]. To cite
an example, in the American National Team (67 out
of the total 597 athletes), 11% of the athletes who participated in the 1984 Olympic Games [9], and 23% of
those who took part in the Winter Olympics in 1998,
were diagnosed as having asthma or athletic asthma
characteristics [10]. Ziaee and co-workers [11] performed pulmonary function tests on professional and
semi-professional basketball players prior to and after
a basketball match. Prior to the outset of the activity,
– 16 –
The effect of anaerobic test on lung indices in some elite basketball players
a test was taken in order to establish the base case
values. In the second phase, 10 minutes after the outset of the activity the same test was administered and
then the results from the two phases were compared.
The final results revealed that the amount of FVC and
FEV1 in both groups had decreased after beginning the
activity; however, this decrease was significant only in
the case of the professional group and not in the case
of the other group. In neither of the groups a significant
change was observed in the other pulmonary indices.
Some researchers [12] carried out a study on the
occurrence of bronchial spasms arising from athletic
exercise in over 107 university athletes in 22 different sport fields in the United States. The final results
showed an index of 84% for the occurrence of bronchial
spasms in those sport fields which required extensive
aerobic activity and an index of 20% for the occurrence
of the same factor in the case of those sports which
involved minimum aerobic activity.
Varma and co-workers [13] compared the indices
related to the pulmonary function among the athletes
from four different sport fields in India. In this study, 18
soccer, 19 hockey, and 18 basketball players, and 20
swimmers were chosen as the subjects. The control
group consisted of 20 medical students. The results indicated that, in comparison to the control group, all four
experimental groups had higher rates in the indices of
FVC/FEV1 and PEF. Among these groups, the swimmers had the highest rate of increase in the pulmonary
function indices (FVC, PEF and FEV1).
Abdul and co-workers [14] carried out a study on
the bronchial spasms in men among some athletes in
Karachi, Pakistan. 179 athletes who had daily regular
athletic exercise were selected as the sample population. Using a Spirometer, the peak expiratory flow rate
(PEFR) was measured at the outset of the exercise
(running with an increase of 70% in heart beat rate) and
subsequently at intervals of 5, 15 and 30 minutes. 13
athletes had a decrease of +15% in the PEFR index in
all three intervals. The extent of bronchial spasms was
determined to be 7.26% among these athletes [14].
Ozturan and co-workres [15] applied pulmonary
function tests for elite basketball players prior to and
after a speed exercise session. Prior to the experiment,
The amounts of VC, FVC, FEV1, MVV and PEF were
higher than the amounts recorded to be normal for the
age, height and weight of the sample population; however, after the speed exercise, the same amounts were
less than the norms recorded for their age, height and
weight. The difference between some of the indices
such as FEV 1 and PEF was significantly meaningful
before and after the experiment.
Mc Kenzie and co-workers [16] evaluated the bronchial contraction arising from exercise among 12 athletes who had already showed signs of athletic asthma.
Two methods were applied for measuring the variations
in the pulmonary function, namely; continuous warm
up drills (i.e. 15 minutes of running on a treadmill with
60% increase in oxygen intake) and alternate warm up
drills (eight 30 second sprints with rest periods of approximately 1.5 seconds). In addition to the aforementioned group, a control group was also selected. For
every 2 minutes in a twenty-five-minute recovery period
interval, the three indices FVC/ FEV1 and MEFR were
measured. The results indicated that a fifteen-minute
continuous warm up prior to the exercise would have
a significant effect on decreasing the bronchial contraction.
Mehmet Unal and co-workers [17] also investigated
the existence and the commonality of bronchial spasms
in athletes. For this purpose, 126 athletes which consisted of 85 soccer players, 25 martial art athletes, 11
swimmers, and 5 wrestlers were chosen as the subjects. In these groups, before and after a ten-minute
period of exercise on the treadmill, the Spirometer values were evaluated using the Bruce Protocol. 11% of
the population (that is 14 athletes) had more than 10%
decrease in their PEF. 14% of them (that is 18 athletes)
showed a decrease rate of more than 15% in FEF25-75,
and finally, a decrease rate of over 15% was reported
for 11% of these athletes (that is 14 athletes). Bronchial
spasms were observed in 11% to 14% of the athletes
which paralleled those of the other researches.
Parkkari and co-workers [18] carried out a study on
20 Finnish elite skiers in order to determine the existence of bronchial spasms among them. After measuring the Spirometer values it was observed that 35%
of the skiers suffered from some degree of bronchial
spasms arising from the athletic exercise. Among the
pulmonary indices, the largest decrease was in the rate
of PEF.
Methodology
The effect of anaerobic athletic activities on the pulmonary function indices has been investigated in
a number of studies. The present research which was
a semi-empirical one focused on investigating the extent of the bronchial spasms resulting from athletic exercise. In order to select the sample population it was
– 17 –
necessary to collect some information, first. As a matter of fact, any background of professional activity in
a sport field, having respiration diseases like asthma
or allergy, background of smoking, and any skeletal
disorders such as kyphosis can affect the lung indices. Therefore, it was necessary to ask the subjects
about these facts. For this purpose, before the commencement of the treatment, some questionnaires
were distributed among some athletes and at least 20
basketball players were selected from the eight professional basketball teams in Khouzestan province in
Iran. Actually, their average age range was between
21 and 29 and most of them had played basketball intensely for more than 10 years, but since the criterion
for defining the professional experience was the presence in the province super leagues, a five-year period
of professional experience was considered for the
subjects. That is, they had participated in many other
leagues, as well. Neither of the players had a history
of asthma, allergy or any other pulmonary diseases.
Additionally, none of them had skeletal deformities especially in the chest cage region.
Using the Spirometer, the pulmonary function indices FVC, FVC/FEV1, FEV1, MVV, FEF25-75 and PEF
were measured in the pre-test phase. In the next phase,
for every ten minutes of basketball activity, a runningbased anaerobic sprint test (RAST) was taken and in
the post-test phase, the same pulmonary function indices were measured, repeatedly. A Japanese digital
Spirometer set, the HI-601 model, was used to measure the pulmonary function indices. In order to compare the obtained results, the pulmonary function indices of the pre- and post test stages were compared and
a t-test was applied in order to determine the correlation coefficient between the obtained values. The indices weight, height, age, and BMI were also measured
and recorded. In order to analyze the data, the SPSS
software, the 11.5 version, was utilized and the level of
significance was 0.05.
Spirometer test measurement
The variables gender, age, height, weight and environmental temperature were carefully recorded and
entered into the Spirometer. Since the variables
height and weight are among the important variables
for analyzing the pulmonary function test results, and
the Spirometer estimates each of the Spirometric variables according to the weight and height of the subjects, there was an attempt to measure these values
with great degree of accuracy. Each candidate had
to perform the test at least three times and the best
record was registered.
RAST Test
The RAST test was performed as six 35-meter sprints,
both alternately and with an active rest period of 10 seconds. The RAST test was in the form of an anaerobic
speed running test (6 two-way paths). This test was developed by Volor Hampton University for implementing
anaerobic excercises. Moreover, this test is applicable
for those athletes that their sport skills are based on
periodic and anaerobic running. The fatigue index percent in this test is almost high and that is why this test
was selected. The nature of this test is consistent with
basketball and anaerobic activities.
Results
In this research, considering the pre- and post-test stages, a significant decrease was observed in the indices
FEV1, FVC, PEFR and FEF25-75. As it can be understood from the Table 1, these decreases were respectively 12.60%, 10.28%, 7.82% and 5.41% (p < 0.05).
However, no significant changes were identified between the indices FVC, FEV1, and MVV (p > 0.05).
Based on the definition of Bronchial spasms which is
explained as any decrease more than 10% in the FEV1
and more than 15% in PEFR or a decrease more than
25% in FEF25-75 [19, 20]; it can be claimed that in the
present study, only one of the bronchial spasm indices
arising from athletic exercise, that is the FEV1 index
was present (with a mean value of 19% decrease in
60% of the subjects). The existence of such bronchial
spasms in the sample population could be defined only
based on a single value, that is, a 19% decrease in
FEV1 in over 60% of the sample population.
The following figure represents the average amounts
of the pulmonary indices FVC and FEV1 in the pre- and
post-test stages.
The second figure represents the average amounts
of the pulmonary indices FVC/FEV1 and PEFR in the
pre- and post-test stages.
The third figure represents the average values for
the pulmonary indices FEF25-75 and MVV in the preand post-test stages.
Figure (1) demonstrates the changes related to the
lung indices FVC and FEV1, in the pre- and post-test
stages. With regard to p-value = 0/001 for FEV1 and
– 18 –
Table 1. The average values for the pulmonary indices FEV1, FVC, FEV1/FVC, PEF, FEF25-75, and MVV in the pre- and post-test
P
Samples
Amount of
t
0.001
19
5.17
0.005
19
0.001
average
stage
7.47
82.93
Pre-test
10.89
72.48
Post test
5.16
81.47
Pre-test
5.64
73.07
Post test
5.83
117.71
Pre-test
14.21
115.36
Post test
5.92
81.86
Pre-test
6.76
75.48
Post test
4.75
78.85
Pre-test
5.25
74.59
Post test
15.81
117.29
Pre-test
19.79
112.22
Post test
Statistical index
FEV1
9.34
19
0.651
Standard
deviation
FVC
0.717
19
FEV1/FVC
7.37
0.001
19
7.49
0.109
19
1.67
PEF
FEF25-75
MVV
130
100
120
90
110
80
FVC
70
FEV1
100
pre-test
90
80
post-test
70
60
60
50
pre-test
50
post-test
FEF25-75
Fig. 1. The average values for the pulmonary indices FEV1 and
FVC in the pre- and post-tests stages
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
pre-test
post-test
FEV1/FVC
PEFR
Fig. 2. The average values for the pulmonary indices FVC/FEV1
and PEFR in the pre- and post-test stages
p-value = 0/005 for FVC that are less than 0/05, indicating it as a meaningful level, meaningful changes
(meaningful decrease) was observed in these two indices.
MVV
Fig. 3. The average values for the pulmonary indicesFEF 25-75
and MVV in the pre- and post-test stages
In Figure (2) changes in the lungs indices FEV1/
FVC and PEFR is observable in the pre- and post-test
stages. Considering p-value = 0/651 for FEV1/FVC and
p-value = 0/001 for PEFR, meaningful changes (meaningful decrease) in the index PEFR were observed in
the pre- and post-test stages. But in the case of the
lung index FEV1/FVC no meaningful changes were reported.
Figure (3) represents the changes related to
the lung indices FEF25-75 and MVV in the pre- and
post-test stages. With regard to p-value = 0/005 for
FEF25-75 and p-value = 0/109 for MVV, meaningful
changes (meaningful decrease) can be claimed for the
index FEF25-75 in the pre- and post-test stages. But
no significant change was observed in the case of the
lung index MVV.
– 19 –
Discussion and conclusion
In this part, with the aim of mentioning some of the researches with similar achievements, the findings of the
present study are compared with those of some others.
Any way, there are some contradictions between this
research and some others which are reported, as well.
By measuring the indices related to pulmonary function it is possible to determine the rate of muscle development, the existence of any obstruction or limitation in
the air passages, and the existence or non-existence of
swelling and bronchial spasms arising from exercise in
a sample population. The most important index which
can measure the strength of pulmonary muscles, especially the muscles associated with inhaling, is the maximal voluntary ventilation index (MVV). The existence of
values higher than the predicted ones, probably, indicates the strength of these muscles [4].
Another means of evaluating the exhale resistance
of air passages is investigating the results of a rapid
exhalation into a Spirometer. The Spirometer is used
for measuring vital signs known as FVC [4]. An index
like the amount of exhaled air in the first second (FEV1)
is a good index for determining the exhale resistance in
the air passages.
The FVC index is one of the suitable indices applied for determining the exhale resistance of the air
passages, the lungs’ capacity, and the amount of the
air which can be inhaled. This index depends on the
elasticity of the lungs and the resistance of the air passages. Studies have shown that the elasticity of the
lungs, the resistance of the air passages in the alveolus
regions, and the narrowing and compliance of the air
passages are among the physiological mechanisms
which can determine the amount of air passing through
the lungs. The physiological conditions which decrease
the elastic tension of the lungs and increase the resistance of the air passages, reduces the speed of the air
flow, significantly.
In addition, the indices FEV1, PEFR and FEF25-75
are also important for studying the extent of bronchial
spasms arising from exercise among athletes [19]. If after any activity the rate of FEV1 reaches a level of +10%,
the rate of PEFR will reach a level of +15% and the rate
of FEF 25-75 will increase by +25%. The resulting phenomenon is defined as bronchial spasms [19–21]. Some
researches consider a decrease of approximately 6.5%
as slight bronchial spasms, too [18, 21, 22].
In the present research, no significant difference
was seen in the indices MV, and FEV 1/FVC in both the
pre- and post-test stages. In addition, among all the indices measured, the amounts of these two indices were
higher than those values that had been predicted by
the Spirometer on the basis of the age, gender, weight
and height of the sample population. As these two indices are directly related to the pulmonary muscles,
especially the rib cage muscles; it seems that in the
sample population who had over five years of professional basketball training, the rib cage muscles had
been fortified and strengthened. Any decrease in the
amount of the indices MVV and FEV1/FVC implies that
these muscles have been enfeebled. Noticeably, in this
study there was no significant decrease in the amount
of the mentioned indices.
It is believed that exercising in the cold weather is
one of the most important causes of bronchial spasms
among athletes. Contrary to this belief, in the present
study which was carried out in a warm climate and the
sample population had had an extensive exposure to
training in such climate, again one of the bronchial
spasm indices was observed among the sample population (a 19% decrease in the FEV1 index among 12
members of the sample group). It can be implied that
the type of exercise rather than the environmental
temperature can be considered as a reason for such
spasms.
The research also indicated a significant decrease
in the values of FEV1 PEFR, FVC and FEF25-75, but
no meaningful difference was identified in MVV and
FEV1/FVC indices. These findings are in accordance
with those obtained by numerous researchers [12, 14–
18]. Anyway, these results contradicted the findings of
Varma and co-workers [13], since the latter research
compared four different sport fields and made use of
a different methodology.
The obtained results paralleled the findings of
Mehmet Unal and co-workers [17] in a study carried
out in the case of the athletes from four different sport
fields, but the methodologies and the protocols applied
in Mehmet Unal’s study and the present study varied
greatly. If, in the present research, instead of the RAST
protocol, a simple exercise protocol (such as the treadmill exercise utilized in Mehmet Unal’s research) had
been applied, the results of the study would have been
rather different from what was reported. In the research
performed by Ozturan and co-workers [15] on a group
of basketball players, a significant difference was observed in the pulmonary function indices measured
after the pre- and post RAST tests; however, the difference was attributed to the exhaustion, especially in the
– 20 –
pulmonary muscles; rather than the swelling or obstruction of the air passages.
Overall, based on all these findings it can be claimed
that since the sample population participated in an extensive anaerobic exercise, and consequently required
continuous severe breathing, they encountered a type
of swelling and spasm known as a bronchial spasm (albeit with the existence of only one index). As a matter
of fact, the basketball is an anaerobic sport which requires high rate of inhalation and exhalation, this matter
together with the speed of the air in the windpipe led
to the development of symptoms of bronchial spasms
in these athletes [22]. Also, this may be partly due to
performing an anaerobic exercise over a long period
of time which would ultimately decrease the pulmonary
function indices in the athletes.
LITERATURE • PIŚMIENNICTWO
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G, Mastronarde JG: Prevalence of exercise-induced
bronchospasm in a cohort of Varsity College Athletes.
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1487–1492.
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42(3): 412–416.
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University, 2002; 22(4): 94–99.
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Bozkurt AI: Effect of acute on respiratory function tests of
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10–14.
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exercise-induced asthma. Medicine and Science in Sports
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[21] Mannix ET, Manfredi F, Farber MO: A comparison of two
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(ed.): Basketball. Malden, Blackwell Science, 2003; 18:
12–24.
– 21 –
NR 49
2010
PHILOSOPHY OF EXPERT MODELING OF SPORT
PERFORMANCE OF HIGH LEVEL ATHLETES
FILOZOFIA EKSPERCKIEGO MODELOWANIA
WYSTĘPU SPORTOWEGO WYSOKIEGO WYCZYNU
Bojan Jošt*, Janez Pustovrh*, Janez Vodičar**
** Prof., Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana
** Asist., Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana
Key words: sport philosophy, sport performance, expert modeling
Słowa kluczowe: filozofia sportu, występ sportowy, modelowanie eksperckie
Aim of the work. Successful performance in sport is presently much more than a result achieved by the
athlete; it is an element in organizational culture of sports with its values and achievements. Since the basic
goal of organization of sports lies in this culture, the process of managing must consider various invisible and
visible constituents important for the development of organizational culture of sports. The invisible constituents
are those that attract people to sport, while among the visible ones are such as competition rules, execution
of competitions, response to sports competitions, staff engaged in sport, technology of sports, transformation
processes, sports events, etc.
Material and methods. Theory of performance in sport studies will enable the attainment of the set target
criteria on individual performance standards. It can be studied only by means of analysis of a set of a variety of
variables that, in the relationship of cause and effect, influence the criterion states on individual performance
standards. At the Faculty of Sports of the University of Ljubljana, we have started with the formulation of an
expert system called SPORT EXPERT, application of which will enable reaching more efficient decisions in the
management of the various sources involved in performance in sports.
Results and conclusions. The results of expert systems are only an aid that can enable better management of people in terms of elevation of performance on the selected standards and criteria. In this way,
the expert decisions will be based on more scientific grounds; the value of information will be higher, and
the system itself will be permanently oriented towards the growth of the quality of the organizational culture
of sports.
Cel pracy. Zakończony sukcesem występ lekkoatlety na zawodach to znacznie więcej niż sam wynik – to
element kultury organizacyjnej sportu z wszystkimi jej wartościami i osiągnięciami. Podstawowym celem
organizacji sportu jest promocja tej kultury, a zatem w procesie zarządzania sportem należy brać pod uwagę
jej uchwytne i nieuchwytne składniki. Podczas gdy do składników nieuchwytnych zaliczymy te czynniki, które
przyciągają do sportu, w grupie czynników uchwytnych umieścimy same zasady rywalizacji, występ i postawę
sportowca na zawodach, wkład personelu pomocniczego, zdobycze technologii, procesy transformacji, imprezy
sportowe itp.
Materiał i metody. Za pomocą teorii występu sportowego możliwe będzie ujednolicenie standardów dla
poszczególnych wykonań zawodniczych, na co pozwoli analiza szeregu zmiennych poprzez badanie związków
przyczynowo-skutkowych, ustalenie wpływu tworzonych standardów na poszczególne wykonania zawodnicze.
Pracownicy Wydziału Sportu Uniwersytetu w Lublanie rozpoczęli pracę nad systemem eksperckim o nazwie
SPORT EXPERT, którego zastosowanie usprawni proces podejmowania decyzji w zarządzaniu różnymi elementami
występu sportowego.
– 23 –
Wyniki i wnioski. System ekspercki jest użytecznym narzędziem pomocniczym umożliwiającym polepszenie
jakości wykonania za pomocą wybranych norm i kryteriów. Dzięki niemu decyzje rzeczoznawców w większym
stopniu będą opierać się na naukowych podstawach, wzrośnie także wartość przekazywanych informacji, a system
zostanie ukierunkowany na doskonalenie kultury organizacyjnej sportu.
Introduction
Successful performance in sport is presently much
more than just a result achieved by the athlete; it is culture in the sociological and anthropological sense as
it reflects its basic values and achievements. At every
moment in history, the culture of success, as a constituent of development of a given society and its members, depends on a system of symbols [1] that are expressed in myths, ideologies, rules, values, paragons
and other various cultural artefacts (rituals, customs,
special vocabulary, metaphors, acronyms, stories, legends, tradition, architecture, etc.). Organizational and
management aspects of sport culture deal with the
organization of sports and the characteristics of management of sports organizations and their members.
The basic goal of organization of sports lies in the
elevation of the organizational culture of sports. This
culture is revealed in the various visible and invisible
constituents. The invisible constituents are those that
attract people to sport. The visible ones are a system
of values and the level of development of the elementary factors involved in the organizational culture of
sport (competition rules, execution of competitions, response to sports competitions, staff engaged in sport,
technology of sports, transformation processes, sports
events, etc.)
Managing sports organizations must be directed
towards the development of the constituents of the
organizational culture of sport. Management is a mental, intuitive, sensatory activity of people in an organizational system [2]. This is a key subsystem in sports
organizations as it connects and directs all other subsystems towards the achievement of the desired quality or performance level. Management as a science is
based, from the aspect of its contents, on the theory of
sports and – above all – on the theory of performance,
while from the methodological aspect, it is based on
modeling and cybernetics as a science dealing with the
management of complex dynamic systems.
In sports management, we have to deal with –
knowingly or unknowingly – expert modeling within the
space of the theory of performance in sports whenever
we think, make a decision, describe phenomena, people around us; whenever we are involved in concrete
practice, in the formation of a certain notion (i.e. model
of thought) about objects; whenever we carry out simple thought simulations of the behavior of models, think
about proper management decisions etc.
The most important realization for management is
that, in its management practice, there exists the external world which is independent of us and which is
outside our observation. In order to represent it, we
set up simplified verbal, descriptive, physical, pictorial,
mathematical models. In modeling knowledge, we encounter smaller and larger problems. The larger problems occur in the study of complex fields, phenomena,
objects, processes, events, whose interior nature and
functioning is more or less inaccessible to us. Since
we only have access to external behavior, we can draw
conclusions about internal mechanisms, properties,
characteristics only by means of external indicators. In
most cases, however, we are not able – due to a large
number of variables and their mutual interactions – to
describe all of them and to place them into a coherent
functional cause-and-effect whole.
Theory of performance in sport studies, especially
the content-related standards and criteria of performance and the manner of management, will enable
the attainment of the set target criteria on individual
performance standards. Theory of performance can be
studied only by means of analysis of a set of a variety of
variables which, in the relationship of cause and effect,
influence the criterion states on individual performance
standards. From the systems cybernetic aspect of the
theory of performance in sport, it is thus first necessary
to formulate the standards and criteria of performance
and to determine on the basis of them the target criterion states and functions. In the theory of performance,
standards of performance represent basic axioms by
means of which we assess the achievements in the
field of sport. In sport, the axioms according to which
sports competitions take place are well known; they are
laid down in advance in the form of competition rules
and are also strictly supervised during competition.
Violation of the rules of competition unavoidably results
in disqualification and reduction of the performance
rate of the athlete. However, for high achievements in
sport it is necessary to first define the relations between
the final achievements and the sub-criterion standards
– 24 –
Philosophy of expert modeling of sport performance of high level athletes
which are in a functional logical connection with these
achievements [3].
From formal logical or strictly functional point, penetration into the depth of these sub-criterion variables
of performance soon comes to an end due to the fact
that we reach the limit where we can no longer draw
any conclusions about the sub-criterion functions of
performance in a direct manner, i.e. such conclusions
can be drawn only indirectly by means of stochastic and
probability relations. To set up an appropriate system of
the factors involved in performance in sports is not an
easy task, especially if we also want to penetrate the
depths of this system [4].
The construction and supplementing of the system
of performance factors is especially productive if it carried out by modeling. However, here we can very quickly
be confronted with the dangers and traps of modeling;
models are and will also always reflect the views of their
authors. Yet, without suitable model support, based on
the knowledge of sports science, we also cannot expect progress in sport. Thus, modeling within the space
of theory and its application to practice is necessary.
Our efforts have resulted in the construction of
one possible model of performance in sports, which is
based on the philosophical empirical hypothetical systems approach. As the performance model is future-oriented, we have called it a potential performance model.
Performance models can be observed and studied on
three basic levels (=macro, mezzo, and micro). The
micro level represents the smallest complete system
which is based on a single person as an individual. The
mezzo level represents a symbiosis of the systems defined on the micro level. The macro level represents
a symbiosis of the systems on the middle level. The
mezzo and macro levels represent systems of higher
order. Performance in sports depends on a balanced
development of all three levels of the performance systems. As on all levels there are concerned systems that
are based on real life, the factors of environment are
permanently affecting the behavior and functioning of
these systems. These factors can have an extremely
important and sometimes even a decisive role in the
functioning of the systems.
The expert modeling of the knowledge base from
the aspect of the athlete’s performance takes place by
means of the model facts (=constituents of the knowledge base) and rules with which we define the relations
between the criterion of performance and individual
constituents of the knowledge base relative to their importance.
The knowledge base in the expert system thus contains two types of knowledge [5]:
1) Model facts: for their definition it is necessary to
determine the contents, method of acquisition of
knowledge, reference relationship to other model
facts and basic characteristics which justify their
scientific source.
2) Heuristic, i.e. the expert rules of conclusion-drawing
and decision-making.
The construction of the knowledge base takes place
by means of a formalism, which – taking into account
the target criterion functions of the knowledge base –
formulates this knowledge base in such a way that it
can be used on a computer. The domain dealing with
the drawing of knowledge and its conversion into the
selected formalism is called “the technology of knowledge.”
The formalism of the selected knowledge base must,
in general, enable the recording of the knowledge concerning the domain of application, i.e. the statements
about the properties of objects, systems, models, about
the relations between them, about general principles of
the domain, but also about the methods for the resolution of the problems associated with the domain.
The formulation of the formalism of the knowledge
base must be such that it enables the best possible answers to the following questions:
1) On what factors does successful performance depend (i.e. cause-and-effect relationship)? The content by which individual factors can be described is
important.
2) By means of what measuring instruments and in
what way can performance factors are measured
and what is their value from the aspect of scientific
realization? (i.e. recognizability of the contents of
the measuring procedure, the type and objectivity of
the method used to measure the respective factor –
i.e. intuition, logic deduction, mechanical measurement, estimate on the basis of tradition, estimate
on the basis of experiences, experiment, inquiry,
examination of filed documents, interview, study of
the individual, etc.); coding system in terms of the
coding of the structure of knowledge, capacity for
numerical or attributive manipulation, determination
relative to rank, association with normal distribution,
objectivity, reliability, validity (qualitative, functional
logical, real-correlational), sensitivity, homogeneity, invariance (i.e. invariability in time), capacity for
transformation and development.
– 25 –
3) What are the interrelations between the factors of
the performance model? This concerns the definition of the reference relationship between the factors of the performance model both on the level of
elementary and on the level of derived model constituents and viewed according to the principle of
inter- and intra-reference.
4) What is the nature of association between the
performance factors and the final performance
criterion? It is necessary to establish the form of
association that can manifest itself in linear or in
non-linear functions. Since the final achievements
in sports are always linear, it is necessary to linearize all non-linear relations between the factors of
the performance model and the final criterion. The
procedures for linearization can be mathematical
analytical or heuristic.
5) What is the importance of the factors of the model
from the aspect of target criterion functions (what is
their functional and real stochastic validity)? In this
part, we want to model the so-called dimension configuration of the factors of the performance model.
First, we do this on the level of elementary factors,
and then also on the level of derived model constituents. In carrying it out, we draw conclusions about
the relations between the individual factors and the
final performance criterion, or the relations between
performance factors and all those performance subcriteria, which are in a formal logical, mathematical
functional or a very high stochastic (i.e. correlation
association) connection with the final criterion.
6) What is the state or position of an individual on the
selected performance factor? Here we determine
the so-called positional configuration of the factors
of the performance model, which is shown in the
current state of individuals on model variables. The
assessment of an individual on a defined model
variable takes place by means of the so-called normalizers, which represent the defined quality categories on the basis of which we assess the values
of the variables as excellent, very good, good, satisfactory or unsatisfactory. From the statistical point
of view, we can also determine the relationship according to the type of the observed values’ variability into inter-individual and intra-individual positional
configuration.
7) What are the optimal means, methods and loads
by means of which we can elevate the positional
configuration of the performance factors separately
for each individual?
Tackling of the problems of this kind in the theory
of performance requires top-level contents-related and
methodological support. The contents-related support
is based on the theory of sports, while the methodological one is increasingly based on expert systems
as a method of artificial intelligence. An expert system
is a model representing general ideas and possible solutions analogous to the topic that is solved, until it is
filled by relevant knowledge [6].
In the field of management of athletes, the doctrine
of management is included in the functional structure of
the expert system Sport Expert. The results obtained
thus far are, regretfully, still limited to only some fields
of the athletic performance model. However, despite
the narrowness of its contents, they can be useful in
many ways to the manager in making management decisions. From this point of view, the use of a computerized consulting-expert system is of the greatest importance in places where information is transmitted to the
decision subsystem. It can be used especially at those
points in which information is processed by means of
statistical methods in order to serve for appropriate decision process in control or management systems. The
quality of the expert system is, above all, the function of
the scope and quality of its knowledge base [7], which
in turn is based on the knowledge acquired within the
framework of sports science or theory of performance
in sport.
Material and methods
At the Faculty of Sports in Ljubljana, we started in the
1991 with the formulation of an expert system called
Sport Expert (SPEX) whose application will enable
reaching more efficient decisions in the management of
the various sources involved in performance in sports.
The expert system has been developed for more sport
disciplines [8, 9, 10]; one of them is ski jumping. In that
sport discipline, Slovenian athletes have been very successful over the last 20 years.
In the first phase, the expert system was developed
in the space of chosen morphological and basic motoric variables (see variable list in Table 1). In addition
to the content-related knowledge, the knowledge base
contains also decision rules and normalizers, by means
of which new knowledge can be synthesized. The decision rules are proportions of individual potential performance model dimensions (weights), expressed in percentages, by which potential prognostic performance
is defined at each node of the performance decision
– 26 –
Table 1. Structure of the knowledge base of the SPEX expert system, structure of the elementary and derived morphological and
motoric variables, ski jumping
Decision tree
Name of the variables
Unit
Weights
Normalisers unsatisfactory – 1, satisfactory – 2, good – 5, very good – 8, excellent – 9
PUSPEH
Expected success
+-BASMORMOTST
Basic Morph.-Motoric status
100.0
70.0
¦ +-MOTORIKA
Motoric status
47.0
¦ ¦ +-ENKOGI
Energetic component
23.5
¦ ¦ ¦ +-TRAEKS
Duration of excitation
¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-MMRNPK3
Jumping over bench
rep.
¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-MRTDT45
Abdominal crunches
rep.
¦ ¦ ¦ +-INTEKS
Intensity of excitation
¦ ¦ ¦ +-HIT_MOC
Speed strenght
¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-MMENSDM
Long jump from a standstill
cm
2.5
0:0, 274,4:2, 286,8:5, 293,7:8, 302,4:9
¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-SMABAV0
High of the vertical jump
cm
6.5
0:0, 47,4:2, 53,2:5, 56,5:8, 60,5:9
¦ ¦ ¦ +-EKS_MOC
Explosive strenght
¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-EKSPL0
Explosiveness of the jump
3.5
2.5
0:0, 91,1:2, 99,8:5, 104,7:8, 110,8:9
1.0
0:0, 14:2, 16:5, 18:8, 20:9
19.0
9.0
6.0
m/s
2.0
0:0, 75,8:2, 85,2:5, 90,4:8, 96,9:9
4.0
0:0, 7:2, 8:5, 8,5:8, 9:9
¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-EKSPLO1
Start explosiveness
¦ ¦ ¦ +-ELAST_MOC
Elastic strenght
¦ ¦ ¦ +-MMEN3SM
Triple jump
¦ ¦ +-INKOGI
Information component
¦ ¦ +-REGSIN
Regulation of muscles
8.5
¦ ¦ ¦ +-RAVNOTEZ
Balance
2.5
¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-MRSAGIT
Sagittal balance
sec.
1.5
0:0, 18,91:2, 21,35:5, 24,93:8, 29,4:9
¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-MRFRONT
Frontal balance
sec.
1.0
0:0, 4:2, 7:5, 9:8, 12:9
¦ ¦ ¦ +-HITROST
Motoric speed
¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-MHFNTD
Tapping - right food
rep.
1.0
0:0, 28,4:2, 33,1:5, 35,7:8, 38,9:9
¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-MHFNTL
Tapping - left food
rep.
1.0
0:0, 28,4:2, 33,1:5, 35,7:8, 38,9:9
2
4.0
m
4.0
0:0, 8,779:2, 9,271:5, 9,544:8, 9,886:9
23.5
2.0
¦ ¦ ¦ +GIBLJIVOST
Flexibility
¦ ¦ ¦ +-MGGTPK
Forward bend
4.0
¦ ¦ ¦ +-MGGTPKR
Forward bend-relative
¦ ¦ ¦ +-MGGOLS
Angle of the ankle
¦ ¦ +-KOORDIN
Coordination
¦ ¦ +-MFE10P
Hurdle jumping
sec.
7.5
5,1:9, 5,4:8, 5,6:5, 6:2, 15:0
¦ ¦ +-MKKROSP
Figure-of-eight
sec.
2.5
14,8:9, 15,17:8, 15,46:5, 15,99:2, 25:0
¦ ¦ +-MKPOLN
Polygon backwards
sec.
5.0
6,06:9, 6,38:8, 6,64:5, 7,11:2, 20:0
¦ +-MORFO
Morphological status
¦ +-BAZDIM
Basic dimensions
¦ ¦ +-AT
¦ ¦¦
Body weight
kg
8.0
0:0, 45:2, 50,1:5, 54,9:8, 55:9, 62:10, 69:9,
70,1:8, 71,1:5, 80,1:2, 100:0
¦ ¦ +-AV
¦ ¦
¦ ¦
Body height
cm
4.0
100:0, 161,6:2, 165,1:5, 166,8:8, 168,7:9,
175,2:10, 181,7:9, 183,5:8, 190,1:5, 198,5:2,
210:0
¦ +-MORF_IND
Morphological indexes
¦ +-INDPLOV
Aerodynamic index
-
¦ +-INDODSK
Special take-off index
-
+-SPMORMOTST
Special Morphological-motor
status
+-MMISSK
Basic index
-
12.0
0:0, 1200:2, 1270:5, 1350:8, 1450:9
+-SMISSKA
Special ski jumping index
-
18.0
0:0, 232,5:2, 253,6:5, 265,3:8, 280:9
cm
0
0:0, 58,9:2, 63,6:5, 66,2:8, 69,4:9
/
2.0
0:0, 220:2, 250:5, 270:8, 300:9
deg.
2.0
33:9, 37:8, 40,3:5, 46,1:2, 90:0
15.0
23.0
12.0
11.0
7.0
0:0, 880:2, 930:5, 980:8, 1030:9
4.0
0:0, 185:2, 190:5, 195:8, 200:9
30.0
– 27 –
potential model [11]. In formulating the decision rules,
the experts have pursued a vision of an ideal top-level
ski jumper profile in the absolute competition category.
Normalizers or qualitative marks of the potential success represent the limits within which value judgments
are being defined. They are numerically expressed
limits of the results in individual dimensions and assign concrete performance marks separately to every
individually subject (unsatisfactory – 1, satisfactory – 2,
good – 5, very good – 8, excellent – 9).
The general mechanism of decision making is
based on the logic of the hierarchical linear regression
equation in which the final result equals the sum of the
weighted summands of the dimensions of lower order
in the potential performance model. All calculation operations have been made by computer according to the
following formula:
Svr = (Snr1 × P1) + (Snr2 × P2) + ….. + (Snrn × Pn)
Svr – normalized value of the variable of higher order
Snr – normalized value of the variables of lower order
P – weight of the variable of lower order (decision
rule).
By means of the above method, we have first calculated (for each subject) the potential prognostic value
of the performance scores on the lowest level (i.e.
elementary tests) of the decision tree in the reduced
performance model. Then we performed a successive
calculation of the values of variables at higher nodes of
the decision tree up to the final highest node, i.e. the
general prognostic mark or score of the potential competition performance of the respective subject.
Results and discussion
The final structure of the SPEX expert system is shown
in Table 1.
The two basic predictors in the regression equation, by means of which the final predicted potential
performance of ski jumpers was assessed, were aggregated (linearly calculated) variables of the basic
morphological-motor status (BASMORMOTST) and
special morphological-motor status (SPMORMOTST).
The first variable contributed to the formation of the linear expert regression function a relevant share (70.0%).
The second variable contributed 30% to the formation
of the regression equation. In the space of the variables
by means of which the aggregated mark of the sub-
criterion (BASMORMOTST) was calculated, the mark
of the basic motor status (MOTORICS) dominated with
the value of the coefficient of 47.0 %. The total mark of
performance of ski jumpers in the space of motor variables (MOTORICS) was calculated as a linear combination of two hypothetical motor components based on
the specific latent motor mechanisms. The first energy
component of movement (ENCOMPMOV) represents
the total component of mechanisms which within man’s
motorics take care of the control and regulation of energy processes. In addition to this component, there also
is presumed (from the aspect of motor behavior) the
existence of the information component of movement
(INFCOMPMOV), which covers the co-ordinated action
of those latent motor mechanisms that take care of the
control and regulation of information processes. In ski
jumping, it is hypothesized that the both components
have an equally important weight in the formation of the
total motor regression function. This fact was also confirmed in this research as the both motor components
have approximately the same coefficients of multiple
correlations, as well as the elementary coefficients of
correlation [12]. The manifestation of the energy component of movement is (within the RPPM of ski jumpers)
subject to the linear summary of the mechanism for the
regulation of excitation duration of the neuromuscular
system (EXCDUR) and the mechanism of intensity of
excitation of the neuromuscular system (INTEXC). For
ski jumps, the mechanism that (within the motorics of
a ski jumper) takes care of the intensity of energy processes and their external physical explication in terms
of the development of the largest possible force in the
shortest possible or in optimal time is highly important
[13]. Within the mechanism for the intensity of excitation
of the neuromuscular system (INTEXC), all the three
phenomenologically defined abilities showed balanced
and statistically significant correlations with the criterion
of performance of ski jumpers. We could say that within
the field of strength, the speed strength is the most important for ski jumping; of course, this is also true at
a satisfactory degree of the development level of explosive strength and elastic strength. The mechanisms
that, within human motorics, take care of the regulation of synergists and antagonists (REGSYN) and the
structuring of movement in the prescribed parameters
of contents, space and time (COORDINATION) were,
from the aspect of explained variance of the criterion of
performance in ski jumping, approximately the same.
Of course, the manifestation of the co-ordination abilities depends on the plasticity of the mechanism for the
– 28 –
Table 2. Results of the SPEX expert system of the eight-year monitoring of reduced potential performance model (RPPM) of the
best Slovenian Ski-jumper winner in the World Cup in season 1996/97 and 1997/98 (Qualitative marks of RPPM: unsatisfactory – 1,
satisfactory – 2, good – 5, very good – 8, excellent – 9)
Age of jumper
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
Date of testing
10.11.
1993
25.10.
1993
28.10.
1994
21.10.
1995
21.10.
1996
27.10.
1997
19.10.
1998
25.10.
1999
20.10.
2000
Competition success
6.0
6.5
6.8
7.0
8.0
9.0
9.0
7.8
7.4
PUSPEH
3.1
5.0
5.0
5.6
6.3
7.7
8.3
8.9
7.4
+-OSMORMOTST
2.2
6.8
5.0
5.6
5.9
7.2
8.0
8.8
7.1
¦ +-MOTORIKA
2.5
2.9
3.5
4.2
4.6
6.7
7.7
8.7
6.3
¦ ¦ +-ENKOGI
2.3
3.2
3.5
3.6
4.6
6.8
7.6
8.3
6.0
¦ ¦ ¦ +-TRAEKS
6.3
8.4
9.1
7.4
8.2
9.9
9.8
10.0
10.0
¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-MMRNPK3
6.3
8.5
9.5
9.9
10.3
10.3
10,0
10.0
10.0
¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-MMRTDT45
8.0
8.0
1.7
3.5
9.0
6.5
9.0
9.0
¦ ¦ ¦ +-INTEKS
1.2
1.8
2.0
2.6
3.6
6.0
7.0
7.8
4.8
¦ ¦ ¦ +-HIT_MOC
1.6
1.8
1.8
2.6
4.2
8.2
8.7
9.1
6.3
¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-MMENSDM
1.6
1.6
1.8
1.9
2.6
7.3
8.4
8.5
3.4
¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-SMABAV0
1.6
1.9
1.9
2.8
4.9
8.6
8.9
9.4
7.5
¦ ¦ ¦ +-EKS_MOC
0.3
2.4
3.1
3.2
3.1
5.3
5.4
2.5
4.6
¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-EKSPL0
4.0
4.3
4.9
8.2
8.2
8.2
¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-EKSPLO1
0.3
1.9
2.8
2.8
1.8
4.5
4.7
1.9
¦ ¦ ¦ +-ELAST_MOC
1.5
1.8
1.9
2.4
4.0
4.6
7.5
3.8
¦ ¦ ¦ +-MMEN3SM
1.5
1.8
1.9
2.4
4.0
4.6
7.5
3.8
¦ ¦ +-INKOGI
2.6
3.5
3.5
4.8
4.7
6.6
7.9
9.0
6.7
¦ ¦ +-REGSIN
3.7
5.5
5.7
4.7
4.5
5.9
7.5
7.7
7.1
¦ ¦ ¦ +-RAVNOTEZ
0.9
1.2
4.2
2.1
1.9
5.5
7.7
8.2
7.5
¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-MRSAGIT
0.4
1.2
0.6
1.4
1.5
7.0
9.1
9.1
9.1
¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-MRFRONT
2.0
12.5
3.6
2.7
2.1
4.5
6.2
3.7
¦ ¦ ¦ +-HITROST
2.1
2.7
3.3
4.8
3.3
8.6
8.7
8.9
¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-MHFNTD
2.4
3.0
3.7
6.0
3.7
8.4
8.4
8.7
¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-MHFNTL
1.9
2.4
3.0
3.7
3.0
8.7
9.0
9.0
¦ ¦ ¦ +-GIBLJIVOST
7.1
9.8
8.0
7.8
6.9
7.2
7.0
6.8
6.1
¦ ¦ ¦ +-MGGTPK
2.7
2.0
4.0
¦ ¦ ¦ +-MGGTPKR
8.2
8.6
8.6
8.6
8.6
8.2
8.2
8.2
8.5
8.3
8.1
7.3
1.9
¦ ¦ ¦ +-MGGOLS
7.1
9.8
8.0
6.2
1.9
2.1
1.9
1.9
¦ ¦ +-KOORDIN
1.9
1.8
2.2
4.9
4.9
7.1
8.1
9.9
6.4
¦ ¦ +-MFE10P
1.9
1.7
1.9
1.9
3.5
5.0
8.0
8.7
4.2
¦ ¦ +-MKKROSP
1.5
2.0
3.6
8.2
1.9
8.2
3.1
8.7
2.0
¦ ¦ +-MKPOLN
2.1
1.9
1.9
7.8
9.2
9.8
10,0
10,0
10,0
¦ +-MORFO
1.7
2.1
8.3
8.5
8.6
8.0
8.7
9.0
8.9
¦ +-BAZDIM
1.7
2.1
7.7
9.6
9.6
9.6
9.6
9.5
9.4
¦ ¦ +-AT
1.7
2.3
6.3
9.4
9.8
9.9
10.0
9.8
9.7
¦ ¦ +-AV
1.7
1.9
9.1
9.9
9.4
9.3
9.1
9.1
9.1
¦ +-MORF_IND
8.9
7.5
7.5
6.5
7.9
8.6
8.5
¦ +-INDPLOV
9.1
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.8
8.7
8.3
¦ +-INDODSK
8.6
5.6
5.6
2.6
6.2
8.4
8.8
+-SPMORMOTST
5.0
0.9
4.8
5.7
7.3
8.8
9.0
9.1
7.9
+-MMISSK
9.6
0.1
8.3
8.2
8.2
8.6
8.8
8.6
7.5
+-SMISSKA
1.9
1.4
2.5
4.1
6.6
8.9
9.1
9.5
8.1
– 29 –
regulation of the synergistic and antagonistic muscle
groups. Within the mechanism for the regulation of synergists and antagonists there occurred, at the phenomenological level, a domination of the ability of balance
in comparison with the ability of speed of alternative
movements of the lower extremities and the ability of
flexibility. This is also so with the ability of co-ordination
of movement, which was (for the requirements of this
research) expressed by three variables indicating three
typical forms of co-ordination. For all the three forms,
the requirement for the fastest possible execution of
motor tasks that are complex in some way (as to contents or spatially) it is characteristic.
The highest degree of correlation with the criterion
of performance of ski jumpers was seen in the variable
MFE10P. This is a variable where the subject must jump
over 10 obstacles at a prescribed height in the shortest
possible time. The task requires that the subject has
highly developed abilities for rhythmic mastering of
movement; such movement is made difficult by certain
hindrances or obstacles.
Among the morphological variables under which we
understand the transformed values of the predicted potential performance of ski jumpers, the highest weights
was found in body weight; this completely confirms with
the findings of some studies [14]. The contribution of
body weight to the formation of the higher weight at
the node (BASICDIMENSIONS) was significant and, in
comparison to the body height, dominant. In the analysis of performance of ski jumpers, we should not neglect the importance of special morphological indexes,
calculated on the basis of the anticipated functional relations to the physical environment in which ski jumps
are realized. The morphological index of the take off of
ski jumpers points to a relative relationship between the
body weight and leg length. It is assumed that the ski
jumpers with a higher relative leg length in comparison
with body height have poorer predispositions for successful take off and transition into flight [15].
As an example of longitudinal monitoring of the development of potential performance from the aspect of
morphological and motor variables, we have selected
the results of the winner in the World Cup in ski jumping
for the 1996/97 and 1997/98 seasons (Table 2).
From the aspect of reduced potential performance
model (RPPM), the best mark (8.9) was achieved by the
winner of World Cup in ski jumping in 1999 when he
was 20 years old. In that season, the best Slovenian
ski jumper won second place at the World Cup. After
this season, his average competition performance
declined. For his high results in the World Cup, the
jumper needed about 10 years of preparation. His potential performance at age 13 in 1992 was not so high.
Then his marks of potential performance were rising
rapidly. In the 1995/96 season, he won first place in
World Cup competition, when the mark of his potential performance was only 6.3. In that season, the
mark of RPPM attained by the young Slovenian ski
jumper was good, which means that he had already
surpassed those minimal limits of satisfactory potential capacity, which allowed him to achieve his first
two wins in the World Cup [16]. His morphological
profile in the best two competition seasons (1996/97
and 1997/98) was excellent, especially the aerodynamic index of flight. In the basic motor space, this
high level jumper has a slightly more developed information component of movement; however, both the
information component and the energy component of
movement have been scored as good. In these two
seasons, the competitor further improved his potential performance, which enabled him, at full utilization
of his competitive talent, to achieve two overall wins
in the World Cup.
Conclusion
The results thus confirm the importance of monitoring the potential competitive performance of athletes
with the help of the expert system. The results of expert systems are only an aid that can enable better
management of people in terms of elevation of performance on the selected standards and criteria. In
this way, the decisions will be based on more scientific
grounds; the value of information will be higher, and
the system itself will be permanently oriented towards
the growth of the quality of the potential competition
performance of athletes. Expert system should have
the possibility of adding and including a new piece of
knowledge into the existing system, i.e. the ability to
improve the system permanently. The system should
be able to explain the causes from which certain decisions followed.
– 30 –
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NR 49
2010
THE INFLUENCE OF PLYOMETRICS TRAINING
ON THE MAXIMAL POWER OF THE LOWER LIMBS
IN BASKETBALL PLAYERS AGED 16–18
WPŁYW TRENINGU PLAJOMETRYCZNEGO NA POPRAWĘ
POZIOMU SIŁY EKSPLOZYWNEJ KOŃCZYN DOLNYCH
U KOSZYKARZY W WIEKU 16–18 LAT
Ryszard Litkowycz *, Kajetan Słomka **,
Monika Grygorowicz ***, Henryk Król****
*****Dr., Chair of Team Sports, the Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education in Katowice
*****Dr., Department of Human Motor Behavior, the Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education in Katowice
*****Dr., Department of Physiotherapy, the Stanisław Staszic State School of Higher Vocational Education in Piła
*****Dr., habil., Department of Human Motor Behavior, the Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education in Katowice
Key words: basketball, training, playometrics
Słowa kluczowe: koszykówka, trening, plajometryka
Aim of the work. The study was aimed at assessing the influence of plyometric training on explosive strength
development dynamics in running and jumping among basketball players, since basketball is a sport discipline
dominated by strength and speed abilities. The combination of these two constitutes explosive strength enables
the athletes of various sport disciplines to perform at the highest level of their technical and tactical skills.
Material and methods. Thirty-six basketball players aged 16–18 participated in the study. They were divided
into experimental (E) and control (K) group. Running speed (5 m, 15m, 20m and 30m distance), speed endurance (10 × 30 m run), explosive strength of trunk and legs (recorded on a dynamometric platform) as well as
strength endurance of leg flexors and extensors in isokinetic conditions were measured at the beginning and
at the end of the experiment.
Results. The training regimen did not result in any significant changes in the examined motor abilities of
basketball players in the control group. The introduction of plyometric training in the experimental group resulted
in a statistically significant strength torque increase in knee flexors and extensors of both joints (measured
at 60º/s, 120º/s, and 240º/s angular velocity). Moreover, changes were observed in the conventional ratio of
hamstrings and quadriceps muscles of the right extremity. Specific training activities positively influenced the
speed endurance assessed with the use of a shuffle run (10 × 30 m). There were no significant differences in
the level of running speed and explosive strength of legs.
Cel pracy. Celem pracy było określenie dynamiki zmian siły eksplozywnej przejawiającej się w biegach i skokach u koszykarzy w wieku 16–18 lat pod wpływem treningu plajometrycznego. Koszykówka należy bowiem do
tych dyscyplin sportowych, w których dominującą rolę odgrywa zdolność motoryczna o charakterze siłowo-szybkościowym, a w konsekwencji – siła eksplozywna. Dzięki niej nie tylko koszykarze, ale także przedstawiciele innych
dyscyplin sportowych mogą pokazać pełnię swoich umiejętności techniczno-taktycznych.
Materiał i metody. Badaniom poddano 36 koszykarzy w wieku 16–18 lat, podzielonych na grupę eksperymentalną i kontrolną. Przed eksperymentem oraz po jego zakończeniu dokonano pomiarów szybkości biegowej
(na dystansach 5, 15, 20 i 30 m), wytrzymałości szybkościowej (bieg 10 × 30 m), siły dynamicznej kończyn dolnych
– 33 –
i tułowia (platforma dynamometryczna), siły dynamicznej oraz wytrzymałości siłowej prostowników i zginaczy stawu
kolanowego w warunkach izokinetycznych.
Wyniki i wnioski. Trening sportowy nie wywołał istotnych zmian u koszykarzy z grupy kontrolnej w zakresie
badanych zdolności motorycznych. Wprowadzenie ćwiczeń plajometrycznych do treningu koszykarzy z grupy
eksperymentalnej w większości przypadków doprowadziło do istotnego statystycznie wzrostu wartości momentu
siły zginaczy i prostowników stawu kolanowego kończyny dolnej prawej i lewej (60º/s, 120º/s, 240º/s). Ponadto
stwierdzono zmiany w proporcjach wartości momentów sił zginaczy i prostowników stawu kolanowego kończyny
dolnej prawej. Specyficzne zajęcia treningowe wpłynęły na istotną poprawę wytrzymałości szybkościowej ocenianej
biegiem wahadłowym 10 × 30 m. Nie stwierdzono różnic, bądź też występowały sporadycznie w poziomie szybkości
biegowej (5, 15, 20 i 30 m) oraz mocy kończyn dolnych (platforma dynamometryczna).
to a very intensive muscle contraction – the concentric (overcoming) phase [4, 8–11]. The most important
discovery of the plyometric training was that it not only
develops the muscle tissue but above all, it improves
the coordination of the whole neuromuscular system.
Previous research results [6, 5, 10, 12–22] on plyometric training and relation between strength and speed
abilities inspire to further studies. The aim of our experiment was to assess the influence of plyometric training
on the explosive strength change dynamics, evident
in running, jumping and in muscle torque values measured in isokinetic conditions.
Introduction
Time[s]
Practical experience and various test results prove that
speed-strength abilities are one of important motor
abilities for an athlete, particularly for a basketball player
[1–8]. Modern sport training practice attributes particular
importance to strength developing exercises (dynamic,
explosive). Apart from the classic methods of shaping
muscle dynamics, plyometrics is an important form of
sport performance. The term “plyometrics” comes from
the Greek words “plio” and “metric”, meaning “more” and
“measure”, respectively. The first reports about the methods and concept of plyometric exercises were provided
by the coaches from the former USSR, as described by
Donald and Chu [4] and Mikołajec and Rzepka [8].
Explosive force is based on a phenomenon known in
the literature as the “stretch reflex”, “muscle spindle reflex” or “myotatic reflex”. Rapid muscle elongation due
to a load (eccentric or landing phase) influences the
stretching of fibers responsible for generating energy
necessary for a contraction, which causes the activation of muscle spindles. Muscle spindle stimulation
leads to the stimulation of the spinal cord, and next,
Basketball players from the team AZS Katowice who
participated in youth basketball league in two age
groups: older juniors (19–20 years old) and juniors
(17–18 years old) took part in the study. The players
were divided into two groups (experimental and control
one) according to their training skills and age; more experienced players, able to handle larger training loads,
were assigned to the experimental group (Fig. 1). The
1,45
1,43
1,41
1,39
1,37
1,35
1,33
1,31
1,29
1,27
1,25
E I
E I I
KI
KII
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
R u nn um ber
Fig. 1. Comparison of mean time in 5m run for the experimental (E) and control (K) group before (I) and after the experiment (II)
– 34 –
The influence of plyometrics training on the maximal power the lower limbs in basketball players aged 16–18
Table 1. Material
Group
Category
Number
of players
x± S
min – max
Training
advancement
[years]
Age [years]
Experimental (E)
Juniors
18
16,8 ± 1,2
15,3 – 18,3
6,2
Control (K)
Juniors
18
15,8 ± 0,8
14,5 – 16,4
4,7
experiment lasted from January 30 2006 to June 2
2006, and it was divided into preparation – introduction phase (8 weeks) and experiment proper phase
(I and II, 8 weeks). The aim of the preparation phase,
during which the subjects trained twice a week (using their own bodyweight, mats, and exercises with
a partner) was to develop athletic prowess and practice the correct take-off technique in jump exercises.
The experiment proper I (4 weeks) aimed at building
explosive leg strength through the application of selected plyometric exercises. In the experiment proper II
(4 weeks) training loads were increased on the basis of
individual abilities of the players. To achieve that, basketballs as well as 1 kg and 4 kg medicine balls were
used in plyometric training. The number of jumps was
also increased, but the structure of particular training
units did not change. The microcycle structure details
in the experiment proper phase I and II are presented
in Table 2.
Motor ability level was assessed prior to (on 25
March 2006) and after the experiment completion (on
24 June 2006), with the following research tools:
1. Laser diode system LDM 300C-Sport, used to assess:
– running speed at 5m, 15m, 20m and 30m
– speed endurance in 10 × 30m run.
2. KISTLER dynamometer platform with MVJ [23]
software, used to assess:
– explosive leg and trunk strength measured by
vertical jump with no arm swing.
3. EN-Knee isokinetic dynamometer (Enraf Nonius,
Holland) used to estimate the values of:
– dynamic strength of knee flexors and extensors at 60º/s angular velocity (5 repetitions) and
120º/s angular velocity (10 repetitions) as well
as the conventional muscle torque ratio of knee
flexors and extensors,
– strength endurance of knee flexors and extensors at 240º/s angular velocity (15 repetitions)
as well as the conventional muscle torque ratio
of knee flexors and extensors.
The dynamometer had been used in previous research [24], and the evaluation of the muscle dynamic
potential in isokinetic conditions (including warm-up,
stabilization, rest period) was performed according to
methodology described by Grygorowicz [25].
Descriptive statistics was used in data analysis. It
was found out that the empirical data distribution was
close to normal, which allowed for the analysis of variance (ANOVA) with repeated measures. Since the
condition of data globosity was not fulfilled, the multifactor analysis was used. To assess the significance
between respective test differences post hoc Tukeys’
test was done. To compare related pairs from test I and
II, the Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Ranks test was used.
Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Statistica 5.0
software was used for statistical analysis.
Results and discussion
The study confirmed the effectiveness of the specific
plyometric training. Subjects from the experimental
group obtained significant improvement in the majority
of analyzed variables. In the control group, comparing
the results before and after the experiment, differences
appeared in motor abilities levels; however, they were
not statistically significant (p > 0.05) (Table 3–12, Fig.
1, 2).
Elevating the center of body mass during a vertical jump on spot with no arm swing may be the basis
for an estimate of leg and trunk strength-speed ability
level in basketball players [26]. The obtained data did
not show any significant difference in explosive leg and
trunk strength measured on a dynamometer platform
(Table 3).
The analysis of strength abilities test results performed before and after the experiment in isokinetic
conditions showed an improvement of strength level
in the experiment group, and in the majority of players
the difference was statistically significant (Table 4–8).
The most noticeable is the significant difference in the
level of knee flexor strength at all tested angular veloci-
– 35 –
– 36 –
Technical exercises with balls 15min
Strength exercises with medicine
balls (1kg) 15 min
– “multiple jumps”
– “standing jumps”
– “jumps on spot”
(benches, lines, “hexagon”)
– “depth jumps” (with the use of 3 vaulting
boxes and hurdles)
Day off
Day off
4
5
6
7
Phase I
Day off
Day off
1 min after each 3
jumps
4 times longer than
exercise
Day off
1 min after each 3
jumps
4 times longer than
exercise
All jumps total (8 weeks of experiment)
Day off
Day off
Day off
Day off
Strength exercises with medicine
balls (1kg) 15min
– “depth jumps” (with the use of 3 vaulting
boxes and hurdles)
2
3
Constant run
10-15min
Warm up
– “core stability”
on unstable ground (mats),
– “bounding”
Training methods
1
Day of the
week
Table 2. Microcycle structure
Phase II
Day off
Day off
2 min after each 3 jumps
5 times longer than
exercise
Day off
2 min after each 3 jumps
5 times longer than
exercise
Rest period
0
0
60
140
0
60
120
Phase I
0
0
60
200
0
60
220
Phase II
Load
(number of jumps)
3266
0
0
658
1182
0
353
1075
Load total
(no of jumps)
5 ,2
Time[s]
5 ,1
5
E I
4 ,9
E II
K I
4 ,8
K II
4 ,7
4 ,6
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
R un n um b e r
Fig. 2. Comparison of mean time in 30m run for the experimental (E) and control (K) group before (I) and after the experiment (II)
ties, both in left and right extremity (Table 4, 5). Identical
number of jumps performed by both lower extremities in
the proper phase of the experiment resulted in a greater
strength increase in the right knee flexor. The strength
level of knee extensor increased as well, however not at
all tested velocities; no significant difference was recorded in the dynamic strength of the lower right extremity
(tested at 60º/s and 120º/s angular velocity) or left extremity (tested at 60º/s angular velocity) (Table 6, 7).
Before the experiment, at 60º/s and 120º/s angular
velocity, the strength level of right knee extensor in basketball players was on a similar level to the strength level
of left knee extensor; only the level of strength endurance
of left knee extensor was slightly higher than that of the
right knee extensor. It seems that the right lower extrem-
ity is more often used to perform the long step in layup
(opposing and take-off phase) while the left lower extremity makes a short dynamic step (take-off phase). As
a result of the plyometric training there was a change in
strength endurance (tested at 240º/s angular velocity) of
knee extensors in both lower extremities. Changes in
dynamic strength levels were observed only in left lower
extremity at 120º/s angular velocity.
One may ask why before and after the experiment
there were no significant differences in the level of dynamic strength of right and left lower extremity extensors
(at 60º/s and 120º/s, and 60º/s angular velocity, respectively). Perhaps motor activities in the regular basketball
training resulted in the development of high strength
level of knee extensors, and the experiment was not
Table 3. Descriptive statistics and significance level of the differences in vertical jump [cm]
Test
N
x± S
min – max
Sk
Ku
I
18
40,2 ± 4,86
30,9 – 52,1
0,494
1,050
II
18
40,0 ± 4,30
32,3 – 47,7
–0,350
–0,525
I
18
40,2 ± 4,86
30,9 – 52,1
0,494
1,050
III*
18
39,7 ± 4,44
32,4 – 47,4
–0,152
–1,122
II
18
40,0 ± 4,30
32,3 – 47,7
–0,350
–0,525
III*
18
39,7 ± 4,44
32,4 – 47,4
–0,152
–1,122
T
p
0,235
0,817
0,992
0,335
1,022
0,321
* Having observed no statistically significant changes in the level of explosive leg and trunk strength, the researchers decided to carry out test III believing
that a longer rest period will allow the subjects to show the real level of the tested ability.
– 37 –
Table 4. Descriptive statistics and significance level of the differences for the right lower extremity flexor muscles [Nm]
Test
Angular
velocity
I
60 deg/s
x± S
min – max
Sk
Ku
171,8 ± 49,53
93,8 – 303,0
1,304
2,631
197,3 ± 55,06
125,0 – 322,0
1,298
1,059
158,8 ± 36,82
79,4 – 243,0
0,533
2,205
177,6 ± 44,03
120,0 – 279,0
1,304
1,270
127,1 ± 23,97
90,7 – 175,0
0,841
0,045
145,2 ± 28,79
99,6 – 204,0
0,631
–0,009
N
18
II
60 deg/s
I
120 deg/s
18
II
120 deg/s
I
240 deg/s
18
II
240 deg/s
a sufficient stimulus to bring about the intended effects.
Statistically significant differences between the values of
muscle torque of flexors (6 cases) and extensors (3 cases) may suggest that in basketball training insufficient attention was devoted to the muscles responsible for knee
flexion, which confirms their susceptibility to the stimulus
of the plyometric training (Table 4–7).
According to Wilkerson et al. [11] the value of conventional knee flexors/extensors ratio should be equal
to 2:3. However, varied values of this ratio (Hamstring/
Quadriceps) have been reported in scientific research,
depending on the tested velocity, the subject’s position,
the test muscle group [27, 28]. Nevertheless, many
authors accept 0.6 as the normative value of the knee
conventional ratio at 60°/s angular velocity; it increases
to 0.8 at higher velocities of the isokinetic assessment
[29–31].
It should be noted that before the experiment most
of the subjects had a correct conventional ratio of knee
T
p
–4,610
0,000
–3,984
0,001
–5,698
0,000
extensor and flexor muscles (Hcon/Qcon) (Table 8),
and the statistically significant changes caused by
the plyometric training occurred only in the lower right
extremity. It might be said that the plyometric training
to a greater extent affected the weaker muscle group,
that is hamstrings (semimembranosus muscle, semitendinosus muscle, biceps femoris muscle), causing
compensation changes. Changes leading towards
the proper muscle ratio were particularly visible in the
lower extremity, which – as it was already mentioned
above – performs particular work during training and
game. After the experiment the results of the described
ratio of right lower extremity exceeded the normative
values at 240º/s angular velocity, mostly due to the
large increase of the flexors’ strength endurance level.
It should be remembered that before the experiment
the right lower extremity demonstrated correct values
of conventional knee flexors/extensors ratio (60°/s – 0.
63, 120°/s – 0.76, 240°/s – 0.86). After the experiment
Table 5. Descriptive statistics and significance level of the differences for the left lower extremity flexor muscles [Nm]
Angular velocity
N
60 deg/s
x± S
min – max
Sk
Ku
172,57 ± 43,39
129,0 – 272,0
1,516
1,700
187,50 ± 43,52
139,0 – 290,0
1,288
1,039
157,25 ± 30,21
114,0 – 218,0
0,855
0,366
169,00 ± 32,93
136,0 – 234,0
1,133
0,084
123,09 ± 20,13
93,5 – 157,0
0,108
–0,983
134,00 ± 16,12
107,0 – 161,0
0,168
–0,945
18
60 deg/s
120 deg/s
18
120 deg/s
240 deg/s
18
240 deg/s
– 38 –
T
p
–4,151
0,000
–2,964
0,009
–2,971
0,009
Table 6. Descriptive statistics and significance level of the differences for the left lower extremity extensor muscles [Nm]
Test
Angular
velocity
I
60 deg/s
II
60 deg/s
I
120 deg/s
II
120 deg/s
I
240 deg/s
II
240 deg/s
N
18
18
18
x± S
min – max
Sk
Ku
259,56 ± 62,41
162,0 – 416,0
1,001
1,650
267,06 ± 60,41
178,0 – 411,0
0,948
1,034
211,25 ± 39,50
160,0 – 317,0
1,499
2,526
223,44 ± 43,87
172,0 – 319,0
0,937
0,341
150,56 ± 26,45
105,0 – 187,0
–0,080
–1,140
164,94 ± 23,54
126,0 – 218,0
0,518
0,495
this ratio was incorrect and at 240º/s angular velocity it
exceeded normative data (0.98) (Table 8).
Out of 40 parameters describing speed and speed
endurance, its derivative, statistically significant changes
were observed in the values before and after the experiment in 19 cases in the experiment group; no such changes were recorded in the control group (Table 9–12, Figure
1 and 2). It should also be noted that what improved was
endurance abilities, not speed abilities, as could be suggested by the type of the training experiment. All significant differences in the running test were only noticed in
the 6th or 7th repetition (when the subjects had already
run 5 × 30m). The differences were not recorded in any
of the first runs at 5 m, 10 m, 20 m or 30 m distance,
which confirms the above mentioned observation on the
endurance type of changes in motor abilities of basketball players. According to Wachowski et al. [13] there was
no correlation between the running speed and the power
and strength tests. The obtained results show that there is
a small relation (too many components) between running
speed and strength and power. Therefore, it should not
be assumed that a plyometric training focused on power
development will result in better results in running tests.
T
p
–1,205
0,246
–2,674
0,017
–3,560
0,002
Moreover, the authors claim that in optimal conditions for
strength and power development, running speed level depends on the running technique (the length and frequency
of step).
Changes in motor abilities in the experiment group
resulted from the plyometric training structure, as well
as from the subjects susceptibility to training impulses
(sensitive periods). Thus the research question should be
considered from two perspectives; that is, from the educational and ontogenetic perspective.
Literature analysis [5, 13, 14, 17, 32–36] allows for
a conclusion that the slowest is the annual speed increase (5%) which grows best up to age 16. Faster development can be observed in the case of jumping abilities
(7%) and power (6%), and the sensitive period for these
abilities occurs at age 13–15.
The development of jumping abilities is mainly related to the training of the capability of fast and economic
use of muscle strength (neuromuscular coordination)
of lower extremities. It depends, among others, on the
elastic elements acting within the ankle joint. It can thus
be said that the experiment was too short to cause any
significant changes in the level of relative strength,
Table 7. Descriptive statistics and significance level of the differences for the right lower extremity extensor muscles [Nm]
Test
Angular
velocity
I
60 deg/s
N
x± S
min – max
Sk
Ku
261,56 ± 54,69
187,0 – 400,0
1,105
1,483
268,81 ± 64,72
181,0 – 412,0
0,948
0,224
209,81 ± 49,46
145,0 – 333,0
1,324
1,312
218,37 ± 47,48
154,0 – 327,0
0,971
0,589
141,81 ± 26,28
101,0 – 202,0
0,705
0,363
152,69 ± 23,64
116,0 – 194,0
0,434
–0,700
18
II
60 deg/s
I
120 deg/s
18
II
120 deg/s
I
240 deg/s
18
II
240 deg/s
– 39 –
T
p
–0,978
0,343
–1,593
0,131
–2,193
0,044
Table 8. Descriptive statistics and significance level of the differences for conventional knee flexors/extensors ratio
Angular
velocity
Conventional index
x± S
min – max
Sk
Ku
T
p
47,5
0,289
67,5
0,979
62,0
0,756
9,0
0,006
25,0
0,084
27,5
0,036
Left lower extremity
60 I
0,68
0,68 ± 0,10
0,50 – 0,91
0,495
0,507
60 II
0,70
0,70 ± 0,07
0,60 – 0,84
0,355
–0,532
120 I
0,76
0,76 ± 0,08
0,59 – 0,9
–0,161
–0,345
120 II
0,76
0,76 ± 0,08
0,62 – 0,92
0,195
–0,670
240 I
0,86
0,86 ± 0,16
0,61 – 1,25
0,791
0,994
240 II
0,87
0,87 ± 0,13
0,64 – 1,14
0,254
0,040
Right lower extremity
60 I
0,63
0,63 ± 0,07
0,48 – 0,74
–0,772
0,131
60 II
0,70
0,70 ± 0,10
0,51 – 0,94
0,262
0,755
120 I
0,76
0,76 ± 0,09
0,55 – 0,89
–0,699
0,650
120 II
0,81
0,81 ± 0,11
0,66 – 1,05
0,696
–0,142
240 I
0,86
0,86 ± 0,21
0,21 – 1,21
–1,867
6,068
240 II
0,98
0,98 ± 0,17
0,61 – 1,19
–0,733
–0,004
responsible for the elevation of the body mass center
during a vertical jump on a platform. It also seems that
boys aged 11–14 are more capable of perfecting their
strength-speed abilities [17].
As a result of the exercises the greatest annual
changes can be observed in endurance and absolute
power training (more than 20%) [33, 17]. It can be expected that the time of the experiment and training load
allowed only for the development of endurance changes in running tests (Table 9–12, Figure 1 and 2). Such
interpretation of the results is confirmed by the high
level of running endurance and strength endurance of
knee flexors and extensors. Significant changes in the
muscle torque values in tests performed on the isokinetic dynamometer at 240º/s angular velocity characterize changes in strength endurance, while the value
of muscle torque at 60º/s angular velocity suggests
changes of dynamic strength.
Basketball players from the experiment group performed more than 3000 jumps during the proper phase
of the experiment (I and II). That is a lot, taking into consideration the time span of the experiment: eight weeks
(Table 2). One may ask whether three days of rest were
enough for four days of plyometric training. To com-
pare with other research, in a study by Kubaszczyk and
Litkowycz [10] basketball players were subject to a plyometric training twice a week for five months, performing
approximately 2500 jumps. As a result, there were significant changes in the dynamic strength level measured
by a vertical jump, long jump from a spot and triple jump.
It should be noted that in spite of the fact that the training load was divided into five months, during the second
measurement (out of three), in the middle of the experiment, the authors recorded a regress of results. What
occurred was a common phenomenon observed in all
tests: a decrease in the level of strength-speed abilities
value, after which a significant improvement occurred,
with values higher than those before the experiment.
After the fatigue accumulation effect, supercompensation occurred. It can thus be said that prolonging the
experiment at the expense of one training unit would
allow for achieving satisfactory results not only in the
level of endurance abilities but, above all, of speed abilities. Another reason for significant differences in the
level of dynamic strength of lower extremities in basketball players tested by Kubaszczyk and Litkowycz [10]
is the age of subjects (16 years) and thus their greater
susceptibility to strength-speed training impulse.
– 40 –
Table 9. Descriptive statistics and significance level of the differences for 5m run [s]
Test
Run
N
x± S
min – max
Sk
Ku
I
1
188
1,34 ± 0,07
1,18 – 1,48
–0,404
0,572
II
1
18
1,27 ± 0,04
1,20 – 1,35
0,112
0,014
I
2
18
1,35 ± 0,10
1,17 – 1,55
–0,029
–0,411
II
2
18
1,30 ± 0,05
1,21 – 1,38
–0,295
–0,296
I
3
18
1,35 ± 0,09
1,16 – 1,51
–0,282
–0,523
II
3
18
1,30 ± 0,05
1,24 – 1,40
1,142
0,331
I
4
18
1,37 ± 0,08
1,24 – 1,49
0,113
–1,456
II
4
18
1,30 ± 0,05
1,22 – 1,40
–0,019
–0,482
I
5
18
1,38 ± 0,10
1,19 – 1,58
–0,245
–0,371
II
5
18
1,33 ± 0,04
1,23 – 1,39
–0,927
0,835
I
6
18
1,39 ± 0,07
1,29 – 1,58
1,091
1,507
II
6
18
1,31 ± 0,07
1,15 – 1,38
–1,389
2,091
I
7
18
1,39 ± 0,07
1,25 – 1,57
0,428
0,988
II
7
18
1,31 ± 0,04
1,27 – 1,39
1,318
0,924
I
8
18
1,41 ± 0,08
1,28 – 1,63
0,732
1,628
II
8
18
1,32 ± 0,02
1,30 – 1,36
0,360
–1,474
I
9
18
1,42 ± 0,08
1,23 – 1,55
–0,698
1,047
II
9
18
1,32 ± 0,05
1,26 – 1,41
0,421
–0,507
I
10
18
1,42 ± 0,08
1,32 – 1,60
0,772
–0,081
II
10
18
1,31 ± 0,06
1,25 – 1,42
1,066
0,014
Cossor et al. [22] described the effect of 20 weeks
of plyometric training. During the study subjects (12–16
year old swimmers) performed a total of 2700 jumps.
After the experiment there were no significant changes
in the values of explosive leg strength in the young
swimmers. The authors suggest two most probable reasons for such a situation: first, physical load imposed by
the plyometric training turned out to be too low, as the
authors used load recommended for training children.
Out of the two components of training load, the body
of a young athlete better tolerates volume better than
intensity. The second reason is the young swimmers’
growth process.
Authors [12, 15, 18–21, 37] of some research papers have not observed any significant increase of
sport achievements after applying the plyometric train-
T
p
11,5
0,055
31,5
0,893
25,0
0,798
11,5
0,055
27,0
0,593
11,5
0,055
2,0
0,005
12,5
0,068
6,5
0,018
5,0
0,021
ing, which was most probably due to a too short plyometric program. Burr and Young [20] believe that the
plyometric training should be carried out for at least 18
weeks for the positive effects to appear. High intensity
exercises which affect the nervous system should only
be applied in individuals where the growth process is
completed. Particular plyometric exercises should be
performed with maximum strength (when the subject
is not fatigued), and rest periods should take at least as
much time as the exercises.
The conclusions concerning the application of
plyometric exercises in a training process can be now
formed. Basketball training should be supported by plyometric training, and its intensity, one of the components
of load, should exceed average values appropriate to
the subject’s age. Increasing the training volume and
– 41 –
x ± S
min – max
Sk
Ku
188
2,81 ± 0,11
2,59 – 3,00
–0,208
–0,123
18
2,71 ± 0,08
2,61 – 2,89
0,952
1,103
2
18
2,84 ± 0,16
2,56 – 3,14
0,097
–0,461
II
2
18
2,76 ± 0,08
2,66 – 2,91
0,585
–0,972
I
3
18
2,87 ± 0,15
2,61 – 3,15
0,197
–0,717
II
3
18
2,78 ± 0,10
2,64 – 2,99
0,877
0,603
I
4
18
2,90 ± 0,14
2,71 – 3,23
0,801
–0,177
II
4
18
2,79 ± 0,09
2,64– 3,95
0,529
–0,016
I
5
18
2,91 ± 0,16
2,64 – 3,23
–0,021
–0,484
II
5
18
2,81 ± 0,09
2,65 – 2,95
0,074
0,360
I
6
18
2,93 ± 0,13
2,77 – 3,22
0,908
0,570
II
6
18
2,79 ± 0,09
2,64 – 2,92
–0,302
–0,640
I
7
18
2,94 ± 0,13
2,69 – 3,22
0,436
0,065
II
7
18
2,79 ± 0,10
2,70 – 3,03
1,745
2,267
I
8
18
2,97 ± 0,15
2,76 – 3,34
0,844
0,993
II
8
18
2,81 ± 0,07
2,72 – 2,96
0,874
0,834
Test
Run
N
I
1
II
1
I
I
9
18
2,98 ± 0,12
2,70 – 3,18
–0,511
0,502
II
9
18
2,82 ± 0,09
2,72 – 3,04
1,399
2,519
I
10
18
2,98 ± 0,15
2,77 – 3,33
0,765
0,225
II
10
18
2,80 ± 0,12
2,69 – 3,06
1,322
1,056
T
p
9,5
0,066
30,5
0,824
21,0
0,858
9,5
0,066
19,0
0,386
5,0
0,012
4,5
0,011
2,0
0,009
5,0
0,012
3,0
0,007
T
p
10,5
0,083
30,5
0,824
31,0
0,858
10,0
0,040
17,5
0,308
6,0
0,016
5,0
0,012
6,0
0,016
4,5
0,011
3,0
0,007
Table 11. Descriptive statistics and significance level of the differences for 20m run m [s]
Test
Run
N
x± S
min – max
Sk
Ku
I
1
188
3,47 ± 0,14
3,21 – 3,70
–0,260
–0,555
II
1
18
3,36 ± 0,10
3,23– 3,58
0,929
1,046
I
2
18
3,51 ± 0,19
3,19 – 3,86
0,171
–0,587
II
2
18
3,42 ± 0,10
3,32 – 3,61
0,778
–0,819
I
3
18
3,55 ± 0,18
3,26 – 3,91
0,355
–0,622
II
3
18
3,45 ± 0,12
3,27 – 3,70
0,709
0,076
I
4
18
3,59 ± 0,18
3,37 – 4,04
0,926
0,338
II
4
18
3,46 ± 0,12
3,27 – 3,66
0,616
0,307
I
5
18
3,60 ± 0,19
3,28 – 4,01
0,119
–0,534
II
5
18
3,48 ± 0,11
3,27 – 3,67
0,295
0,836
I
6
18
3,62 ± 0,17
3,42 – 4,03
0,874
0,424
II
6
18
3,46 ± 0,10
3,31 – 3,62
0,215
–0,373
I
7
18
3,63 ± 0,17
3,35 – 3,99
0,519
–0,195
II
7
18
3,46 ± 0,13
3,36 – 3,79
1,867
2,948
I
8
18
3,67 ± 0,18
3,43 – 4,07
0,801
0,518
II
8
18
3,48 ± 0,10
3,35 – 3,71
1,147
1,724
I
9
18
3,68 ± 0,14
3,36 – 3,93
–0,258
0,102
II
9
18
3,49 ± 0,11
3,36 – 3,76
1,534
2,784
I
10
18
3,69 ± 0,19
3,41 – 4,15
0,780
0,333
II
10
18
3,48 ± 0,15
3,34 – 3,82
1,542
1,717
– 42 –
Test
x±S
min – max
Sk
Ku
188
4,79 ± 0,20
4,48 – 5,16
0,278
–0,947
18
4,64 ± 0,15
4,45 – 4,98
1,086
1,530
Run
N
I
1
II
1
I
2
18
4,85 ± 0,25
4,43 – 5,36
0,285
–0,655
II
2
18
4,71 ± 0,15
4,56 – 5,00
0,917
–0,362
I
3
18
4,92 ± 0,26
4,56 – 5,47
0,539
–0,610
II
3
18
4,77 ± 0,18
4,53 – 5,11
0,708
–0,366
I
4
18
4,99 ± 0,29
4,67 – 5,73
1,089
0,909
II
4
18
4,78 ± 0,17
4,55 – 5,10
0,927
0,457
I
5
18
4,99 ± 0,28
4,57 – 5,51
0,185
–0,908
II
5
18
4,80 ± 0,16
4,54 – 5,09
0,808
0,771
I
6
18
5,02 ± 0,26
4,70 – 5,67
0,949
0,481
II
6
18
4,79 ± 0,14
4,61 – 5,08
0,918
0,524
I
7
18
5,03 ± 0,25
4,65 – 5,57
0,614
–0,424
II
7
18
4,79 ± 0,20
4,62 – 5,28
1,945
3,402
I
8
18
5,09 ± 0,24
4,74 – 5,67
0,823
0,583
II
8
18
4,82 ± 0,15
4,65 – 5,17
1,434
1,867
I
9
18
5,10 ± 0,22
4,65 – 5,48
0,011
–0,225
II
9
18
4,82 ± 0,17
4,61 – 5,23
1,614
3,131
I
10
18
5,13 ± 0,30
4,67 – 5,77
0,699
0,275
II
10
18
4,80 ± 0,21
4,62 – 5,31
1,685
2,410
reducing rest periods will adversely affect the release
of elastic energy during exercises and decrease the explosive strength level. Prolonging the transition phase
(stance phase) leads to the diffusion of elastic energy
accumulated in tissues into chemical energy and heat
[8]. Duda [38] claims that if we shorten ground contact
time during take-off, jump height will increase; an identical mechanism is performed in specific plyometric exercises. Future research including the plyometric training should consider the intensification of youth training
by exercises that do not burden the motor system, that
is the so-called ‘hexagon’: skipping rope, jumps over
a line, depth jumps from low heights (e.g. from a bench,
not higher) stressing the short stance phase with jump
up and short acceleration phase. In mature athletes
similar exercises should be used, increasing the height
of accessories (vaulting boxes, hurdles), adding medicine balls – enforcing short ground contact time after
landing.
T
p
15,0
0,109
26,5
0,563
29,5
0,755
12,5
0,068
17,0
0,154
2,0
0,009
5,0
0,012
2,0
0,005
3,0
0,007
1,0
0,004
The research results and the discussion presented
above allow us to present the following conclusions:
1. Plyometric training increases knee flexor and extensor
muscle strength, but its effects are greater in the case of
weaker muscles – hamstrings (semimembranosus muscle, semitendinosus muscle, biceps femoris muscle).
2. Weekly plyometric training load turned out to be too
much (mainly due to the volume component), causes
endurance changes in general physical ability of the
subjects.
3. Changes in knee flexor and extensor muscles in
basketball players ought to be considered in the aspect of lateralization.
4. Significant changes in the dynamic strength level can
result from plyometric training applied twice a week for
no less than 20 weeks.
5. Plyometric training should include highly intensive exercises; however training methods should be different in
athletes whose growth process is not yet completed.
– 43 –
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– 44 –
NR 49
2010
PSYCHOMOTOR DEVELOPMENT
OF GRADE I PRIMARY SCHOOL CHILDREN WHO ARE
EDUCATED BY MEANS OF TRADITIONAL
AND NON-TRADITIONAL PROGRAM
ROZWÓJ PSYCHOMOTORYCZNY UCZNIÓW PIERWSZEJ
KLASY SZKOŁY PODSTAWOWEJ EDUKOWANYCH
PROGRAMEM TRADYCYJNYM I NIETRADYCYJNYM
Ireneusz Cichy∗, Andrzej Rokita∗∗, Marek Popowczak∗∗∗, Karolina Naglak∗
∗∗∗ MSc, University School of Physical Education, Wroclaw, Poland
∗∗∗ Dr habil., University School of Physical Education, Wroclaw, Poland
∗∗∗ Dr, University School of Physical Education, Wroclaw, Poland
Key words: physical activity, educational balls, general body coordination, integrated
education
Słowa kluczowe: aktywność ruchowa, piłki edukacyjne, ogólna koordynacja ciała,
kształcenie zintegrowane
Aim of the work. In our study, we attempted to define the level of the general body coordination and acquisition of chosen educational competences by children taking part in one-year-long pedagogical experiment
with educational balls “edubal”.
Material and methods. Our research comprised children from one of primary schools in Wroclaw. The
experimental group I was represented by 8 girls and 8 boys. The experimental group II included 7 girls and
7 boys. Subsequently, the control group was composed of 8 girls and 12 boys. The general body coordination
was examined with General Body Coordination and Control Test by Kiphard and Schiling for children aged
5–4, while for determination of acquisition level of chosen educational competences we used test elaborated
in Competence Examination Institute in Wałbrzych.
The obtained results underwent a statistical analysis with Statistica 8.0.
Results and conclusions. Girls from experimental group I achieved better results than girls from two other
groups EII and K in almost all trials in the range of general body coordination. The tests were conducted at the
beginning and at the end of the experiment. The results of the second part of the research regarding general
body coordination were much worse (both for girls and boys) than the results of the same groups in the first
examination. Girls from the first experimental group obtained the best results among all groups in Competence
Examination Institute Test. It was also the only group which improved their first results in the second part of
our research. It is worth mentioning that the employment of games and exercises with the educational balls
did not substantially influence the results in the test of the researched competence.
Cel pracy. W naszej pracy podjęliśmy próbę określenia poziomu ogólnej koordynacji ciała oraz opanowania
wybranych kompetencji edukacyjnych wśród dzieci uczestniczących w trwającym rok eksperymencie pedagogicznym z wykorzystaniem piłek edukacyjnych „edubal”.
– 45 –
Materiał i metody badań. Badaniami objęci zostali uczniowie jednej z wrocławskich szkół podstawowych.
Grupę eksperymentalną I reprezentowało 8 dziewcząt i 8 chłopców, eksperymentalną II – 7 dziewcząt i 7 chłopców, natomiast grupę kontrolną – 8 dziewcząt i 12 chłopców. Badanie ogólnej koordynacji ciała przeprowadzono
w oparciu o Test Ogólnej Koordynacji Ciała i Opanowania Ciał u dzieci w wieku od 5–14 lat Kipharda i Schilinga,
natomiast do zbadania kompetencji edukacyjnych wykorzystano Test Instytutu Badań Kompetencji w Wałbrzychu.
Uzyskane wyniki badań poddano analizie statystycznej wykorzystując program Statistica 8.0.
Wyniki i wnioski. Uczennice z grupy EI uzyskały lepsze rezultaty niż dziewczęta z grup EII i K w prawie
wszystkich próbach z zakresu Ogólnej Koordynacji Ciała, badanych na początku i na końcu eksperymentu. Wyniki
zarówno wszystkich dziewcząt, jak i chłopców w badaniu II dotyczącym Ogólnej Koordynacji Ciała okazały się
zdecydowanie gorsze od wyników tych samych grup w badaniu I. Dziewczęta z grupy eksperymentalnej I uzyskały w obu badaniach najlepsze wyniki spośród wszystkich grup w Teście Kompetencji oraz jako jedyna grupa
poprawiły swój wynik z badania I w badaniu II. Należy również zauważyć, że wykorzystanie zabaw i gier z piłkami
edukacyjnymi nie wpłynęło istotnie na uzyskane wyniki w teście badanych kompetencji.
Introduction
At the end of the 1990s the European educational
system underwent the process of significant changes.
The area where particular changes took place was
the attitude towards the early school child education.
The traditional model of education was modified into
a contemporary model of participation – a child was no
longer treated as a passive person but as an active and
creative partner of interaction [1].
In Poland, the model outlined above was addressed
by a reform of the education system which started in
1999. The reform was especially focused on changes
with special regard to the educational process planning
and school organizational structures. However, the
most significant changes were introduced in the phase
of early school education, which altered its name from
initial education to integrated education.
According to the assumptions of the education
system reform (1999), the integrated education ought
to combine, in a particular way, various domains of
science so that the child is enabled to perceive the
image of the surrounding world as wholesome as possible [2].
The changes introduced by both the program basis of 1999 and the new program basis of 2009, which
maintained most of the tasks of the integrated education, resulted in the situation in which teachers have
more freedom and arbitrariness in choosing educational contents and the ways of their performance.
Although all those quite radical changes were introduced ten years ago, we can see that teachers of
the integrated education, who are engaged in the process of locomotive education, still make mistakes at
this stage. Unfortunately, the introduced education programs, which are numerous because they are so freely
created, do not show the significance of harmonious
development of all spheres of human functioning for the
future of a young human being.
Therefore, during last several years, both in Poland
and abroad, there have been carried out many researchers into pedagogical examinations aimed at proving the
efficiency of the influence of chosen methods, forms or
didactic means upon the educational achievements of
students. The existence of connections between motor
development of a child and his/her educational achievements was also emphasized.
As it turned out, a lower level of physical development is associated with worse results in reading and
counting with first grade boys. This phenomenon was
also confirmed in the research by Klausmeier and
Lehman [3].
Mental maturation takes place parallel to the processes of physical development. That is why Hetzler
suggested applying the physical development level as
one of the criteria of school maturity [3]. Also, the development of visual perception is preceded by kinesthetic
and locomotive development and both spheres – perceptional and locomotive one – are inextricably linked with
each other, what has been confirmed by Kephart [3].
Chissom proved the existence of a significant interrelation between motor activity and school achievements, as well as school attitudes of grade I and III primary school pupils. Motor competence of children was
assessed according to the criterion of coordination,
locomotive balance and dynamic strength [3].
A very significant conclusion, from the point of view
of the early school education, has been formulated by
A.B. Johnson, who sought connections between school
maturity tests and motor tests. On the basis of examinations and results of factor analysis he concluded that
motor competence level should be adopted as one of
the criteria of school maturity of pupils who start their
education in the primary school [3].
– 46 –
Psychomotor development of grade I primary school children who are educated by means of traditional...
A.H. Ismail and J.J. Gruber went still further in their
considerations concerning searching for connections
between motor activity and educational achievements
of children. They draw the conclusion that intellectual
achievements of children can be predicted on the basis
of motor factors. According to their opinion, the greatest
prognostic power is associated with the following motor
features: coordination and balance [3, 4].
Among the Polish authors, who wrote about the
significance of the proper development of physical
ability in adaptation of a child to work and play in the
school environment, were the following: S. Szuman, A.
Dzierżanka, H. Gniewkowska, and B. Wilgocka-Okoń.
These authors agreed that the development of motor
activity is an important factor for making social contacts by a child, especially in the school environment
[5]. They also proved that good agility and high abilities
in games and plays (also with balls) facilitates the process of child adaptation to the surrounding reality. The
children who are more agile in games and plays are
also better accepted in a peer group [3].
The examination by Pawłucki also confirmed the
existence of connections between motor development
and school readiness [6].
The examples from literature of the subject presented above clearly show that there exist direct connections between psychomotor development of a child and
his/her school results, especially during the initial stage
of school education.
Consequently, we intended to check whether the
introduction of physical classes with the use of educational balls “edubal” into the education program called
“Happy School” for grade I of primary school can bring
about any changes in the particular tests of general
body coordination of the examined girls and boys and
also in the educational competencies which are acquired by them during their course of learning. For the
purposes of our examinations, this unique education
program “Happy School”, including physical classes
with the use of educational balls, has been termed
“non-traditional program”, while the same program
conducted in a traditional form was addressed as “traditional program” [4].
Research material
Our research comprised three groups of students
of Complex of Schools No 11 in Wrocław. 16 pupils
made experimental EI group, 14 pupils – experimental EII group, and 20 pupils made the control K group.
Experimental group I consisted of eight girls and eight
boys; experimental group II consisted of seven girls and
seven boys and the control group consisted of eight girls
and twelve boys. Only the results of children who took
part in both examinations were used in the elaboration.
Moreover, all groups carried out their motor activities in
the same conditions having a big and small sports hall
at their disposal.
Research methods
In the research, we employed a pedagogical experiment along with the use of a parallel group technique
[7, 8]. The planned didactic process was carried out
in three groups: two experimental ones (EI and EII)
and one control group (K). The classes were realized
according to the education program called “Happy
School” accepted for use in all grades of the integrated
education process in a given school. Children from the
experimental groups took part in physical classes twice
a week, which were conducted by an integrated education teacher – class tutor. During these classes, educational balls “edubal” were used for exercises, games
and plays and they were carried out on the basis of
the scenarios which were prepared by the author of
the experiment together with the tutors. They referred
to learning and improving the knowledge of various
problematic areas in the range of mathematics and language learning which posed special difficulties for the
students.
The scenarios emphasized an element of play
which was directed towards the improvement of general
locomotive skills. Plays with balls constituted circa 60%
of the lesson time. The remaining time was devoted to
other forms of physical activity.
The control group worked under unchanged conditions carrying out the same education program in the
whole experiment; physical activities, similarly to the experimental groups, were run by an integrated education
teacher who was at the same time the class tutor [4].
During the experiment, which lasted one year, general body coordination and educational competencies
were diagnosed twice, i.e. at the beginning and at the
end of the school year.
The examination of general body coordination was
carried out by means of the General Body Coordination
and Control Test with children aged 5–14 by Kiphard
and Schiling [9], while for the purpose of examining
key competencies we employed the test elaborated in
Competence Examination Institute in Walbrzych.
– 47 –
The obtained results underwent a statistical analysis with the use of Statistica 8.0 program.
groups in the first test (Table 1), we noticed that each
time the best results in walk on the beam, jumps on
one leg, side jumps and carrying over the board were
achieved by the girls from EI group. The worst results
when compared to EI and K groups were achieved by
the girls from EII group. This is further confirmed by the
sum of obtained results during the whole test which differentiates the examined groups (Figure 1). Comparing
the girls from EI and EII groups, this difference is 43.5
points in favor of the first group, though we did not notice any statistically significant differences between the
examined groups (Table 1; Figure 1).
As for the boys in the first examination (Table 2) we
can notice that in each of the examination tests the best
Results
The analyzed examination results were characterized
by variability which is typical for the presented material. Therefore, for the purpose of our analysis we used
positional measurements – median. When comparing
more than two groups, we used the non-parametrical
test ANOVA by Kruscala Wallis. All the employed statistical tests assumed the level of significance = 0.05.
With regard to the analysis of the obtained results
in General Body Coordination of girls in EI, EII and K
Table 1. Medium results of the trials with reference to General Body Coordination of girls in groups xperimental I (EI), experimental II
(EII) and control (K), (examination I)
EI
VARIABLE
N=8
EII
N=7
K
N=8
x
M
V
x
M
V
x
M
V
RÓWN_1
51.63
56.50
32.49
31.29
29.00
59.42
47.38
51.50
29.91
PNJN_1
40.25
42.00
21.53
30.71
30.00
35.35
37.13
35.50
28.41
BPRZE_1
44.63
45.00
17.72
31.86
34.00
15.74
40.38
39.00
22.11
PRDE_1
56.38
56.00
4.54
52.00
57.00
20.77
53.25
53.50
12.88
SUMA_1
191.75
198.50
15.84
145.86
155.00
24.54
178.13
174.00
18.81
RÓWN_1
PNJN_1
BPRZE_1
PRDE_1
SUMA_1
–
–
–
–
–
walk on the beam
jumps on one leg
side jumps
carrying over the board
the sum of results in General Body Coordination (examination I)
Variable: BPRZE_1
70
60
BPRZE_1
50
40
30
20
10
EI W
EI M
EII W
EII M
KW
KM
Median
25%-75%
Min-Maks
[Group + gender]
Fig. 1. Medium results achieved by girls (W) and boys (M) from the experimental group I (EI), experimental group II (EII) and control
group (K), in side jumping (examination I)
– 48 –
tal group II and the control group in the case of side
jumps test (Figure 2).
While analyzing the obtained results for girls in
examination II (Table 3) we noticed that experimental
group I achieved, similarly to examination I, the best
results in all the tests.
There was a particularly big difference, although
statistically insignificant, in the case of side jumps in
which the girls from group EI obtained 57 points in
relation to 46 points K and 38 in EII. Apart from this,
experimental group I achieved the best general test result – 181 points. However, one fact is really intriguing:
a general result in the General Body Coordination Test
in examination II for each group is lower than in exami-
results were achieved by the control group. In the case
of walk on the beam and jumps on one leg these results
were 10.5 to 18.5 points higher than in the remaining
groups.
Also a summary result for the whole test was the
highest in the control group and the lowest in experimental group II; especially in girls the result seems
to be simply alarming. Similarly to the comparable
girls group, non-parametrical Kruscal Willis test
did not show any statistically significant differences
(Table 2).
Comparing the obtained results in the first examination between all the groups (girls and boys) we noticed
a statistically significant difference between experimen-
Table 2. Medium results of the trials with reference to General Body Coordination of boys in groups experimental I (EI), experimental
II (EII) and control (K), (examination I)
EI
VARIABLE
N=8
EII
N=7
K
N = 12
x
M
V
x
M
V
x
M
V
RÓWN_1
32.38
33.00
56.74
26.00
25.00
42.02
42.08
43.50
34.26
PNJN_1
39.88
37.50
28.73
33.00
33.00
40.13
41.17
41.00
32.06
BPRZE_1
38.50
41.50
35.96
34.43
34.00
22.74
44.92
43.00
21.36
PRDE_1
50.38
51.00
15.23
53.29
56.00
18.06
57.00
56.00
13.85
SUMA_1
161.13
170.00
24.47
146.71
153.00
26.74
185.17
189.00
18.54
RÓWN_1
PNJN_1
BPRZE_1
PRDE_1
SUMA_1
–
–
–
–
–
walk on the beam
jumps on one leg
side jumps
the sum of results in General Body Coordination (examination I)
Variable: SUMA_1
260
240
220
200
SUMA_1
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
EI W
EI M
EII W
EII M
KW
KM
Median
25%-75%
Min-Maks
[Group + gender]
Fig. 2. Medium results achieved by girls (W) and boys (M) from the experimental group I (EI). experimental group II (EII) and control
group (K). the sum of four trials in General Body Coordination (examination I)
– 49 –
Table 3. Medium results of the trials with reference to General Body Coordination of girls in groups experimental I (EI). experimental
II (EII) and control (K). (examination II)
EI
VARIABLE
N=8
EII
N=7
K
N=8
x
M
V
x
M
V
x
M
V
RÓWN_2
48.88
54.50
31.08
38.14
42.00
37.03
46.38
50.50
29.23
PNJN_2
34.63
33.50
22.53
28.43
35.00
45.22
36.63
36.00
16.44
BPRZE_2
56.75
57.00
10.85
39.57
38.00
27.75
46.38
46.00
22.67
PRDE_2
33.13
32.50
11.23
29.86
31.00
19.95
31.88
31.00
12.93
SUMA_2
173.38
181.00
14.52
136.00
144.00
29.66
161.25
160.50
15.89
RÓWN_2
PNJN_2
BPRZE_2
PRDE_2
SUMA_2
–
–
–
–
–
walk on the beam
jumps on one leg
side jumps
the sum of results in General Body Coordination
sult on a similar level, while EI and K groups had much
lower results, respectively by 23.5 and 22.5 points. This
can be due to, similarly to the case of girls, low involvement of the examined children in the performance of
the tests.
The results obtained by girls in examination I in
Competence Test (Table 5) clearly show that the female pupils who start their education in the primary
school are characterized by a comparable level of the
competencies under research. Further examinations
of the learnt competencies, which were carried out at
the end of the school year, proved that the girls from
EI group (who already obtained a very good result) improved their result by 27.5 points out of 30 possible to
nation I. In the case of group EI by 18.5 points, EII by 11
points and K by 13.5 points. The reason of such a poor
result in all three groups can be low verbal motivation
of pupils because they were not properly motivated by
the teachers who ran the tests (Table 3).
When comparing the results obtained by the boys
from three groups in examination II (Table 4) we noticed that, similarly to examination I, the control group
achieved much better results than all the other groups.
Both among boys and girls, the sum of results in all
the tests is lower than in the case of examination I
(Figure 3). (Table 4), (Figure 3)
However, EII group, which was undoubtedly the
weakest in examination I, in examination II achieved re-
Variable: SUMA_2
220
200
180
SUMA_2
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
EI W
EI M
EII W
EII M
KW
KM
Median
25%-75%
Min-Maks
[Group + gender]
group (K). the sum of four trials in General Body Coordination (examination II)
– 50 –
Table 4. Medium results of the trials with reference to General Body Coordination of boys in groups experimental I (EI). experimental
II (EII) and control (K). (examination II)
EI
VARIABLE
x
N=8
M
EII
x
V
N=7
M
K
V
x
N=12
M
V
RÓWN_2
37.88
35.50
43.62
34.71
34.00
21.41
42.58
42.50
18.53
PNJN_2
28.75
25.00
47.46
33.29
38.00
42.97
39.75
35.00
30.79
BPRZE_2
46.88
48.00
33.20
39.14
43.00
21.40
50.42
52.00
17.49
PRDE_2
30.25
30.50
19.97
33.29
33.00
23.83
34.17
34.00
11.22
SUMA_2
143.75
146.50
27.94
140.43
149.00
22.52
166.92
166.50
13.41
RÓWN_2
PNJN_2
BPRZE_2
PRDE_2
SUMA_2
–
–
–
–
–
walk on the beam
jumps on one leg
side jumps
the sum of results in General Body Coordination
Table 5. Medium results achieved by girls in Competence Test in groups experimental I (EI). experimental II (EII) and control (K).
(examination I and examination II)
EI
VARIABLE
N=8
EII
N=7
K
N=8
x
M
V
x
M
V
x
M
KOMP_1
25.00
26.50
17.76
23.14
25.00
25.25
25.63
26.00
9.77
KOMP_2
25.13
27.00
17.98
20.57
21.00
28.46
23.63
24.00
16.15
V
KOMP_1 – result of the Competence Test (examination I)
KOMP_2 – result of the Competence Test (examination II)
Table 6. Medium results achieved by boys in Competence Test in groups experimental I (EI). experimental II (EII) and control (K).
(examination I and examination II)
EI
VARIABLE
N=8
EII
N=7
K
N = 12
x
M
V
x
M
V
x
M
V
KOMP_1
24.63
25.00
23.97
23.86
24.00
12.44
21.75
23.00
14.95
KOMP_2
22.88
22.50
15.22
16.71
18.00
40.98
21.08
20.00
16.49
KOMP_1
– result of the Competence Test (examination I)
KOMP_2
– result of the Competence Test (examination II)
KOMP_2–1 – increase of the result in Competence Test (examination II – examination I)
achieve. On the other hand, K and EII groups had lower
results, by 2 and 4 points respectively (Table 5).
Among the boys (Table 6), similarly to the case of
the girls, the obtained results in examination I were
comparable and the best result was achieved by EI
group.
On the other hand, examination II showed that
the obtained results in the competence test among
the boys are undoubtedly lower than in examination I
(Table 6 and Figure 4).
A particularly poor result was achieved by EII
group in which pupils obtained six points less than
during the first examination. There can be at least two
reasons of this situation: firstly, two of the boys were
absent from school for a long time during semester
II and consequently, they had educational problems;
secondly, the education program was not fully carried
out by the teacher because of educational difficulties
which appeared while carrying out the one-year experiment.
– 51 –
Variable: KOMP_2-1
15
10
KOMP_2-1
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
Median
25%-75%
Min-Maks
-25
EI W
EI M
EII W
EII M
KW
KM
[Group + gender]
Fig. 4. Increases (KOMP_2–1) achieved by girls (W) and boys (M) from the experimental group I (EI). experimental group II (EII) and
control group (K). in the final result from Competence Test (examination I)
Table 7. Comparison of the medium results achieved by girls and boys in Competence Test in groups experimental I (EI). experimental
II (EII) and control (K). (examination I)
EI
VARIABLE
N=8
EII
N=7
K
N = 12
x
M
V
x
M
V
x
M
V
KOMP_K
25.00
26.50
17.76
23.14
25.00
25.25
25.63
26.00
9.77
KOMP_M
24.63
25.00
23.97
23.86
24.00
12.44
21.75
23.00
14.95
KOMP_K – result of the Competence Test for girls in examination I
KOMP_M – result of the Competence Test for boys in examination
Zmienna: KOMP_1
32
30
28
26
KOMP_1
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
EI K
EI M
EII K
EII M
KK
KM
Median
25%-75%
Min-Maks
[Group + gender]
Fig. 5 Medium results achieved by girls (W) and boys (M) from the experimental group I (EI). experimental group II (EII) and control
group (K). in the final result of Competence Test (examination I)
– 52 –
Table 8. Comparison of the medium results achieved by girls and boys in Competence Test in groups experimental I (EI), experimental
II (EII) and control (K) (examination II)
EI
VARIABLE
N=8
EII
N=7
K
N = 12
x
M
V
x
M
V
x
M
V
KOMP_K
25.13
27.00
17.98
20.57
21.00
28.46
23.63
24.00
16.15
KOMP_M
22.88
22.50
15.22
16.71
18.00
40.98
21.08
20.00
16.49
KOMP_K – result of the Competence Test for girls in examination II
KOMP_M – result of the Competence Test for boys in examination II
Variable: KOMP_2
35
30
KOMP_2
25
20
15
10
5
0
EI W
EI M
EII W
EII M
KW
KM
Median
25%-75%
Min-Maks
[Group + gender]
group (K). in the final result of Competence Test (examination II)
The comparison of results in the Competence
Test between girls and boys in examination I in each
group showed minimal differences in favor of the girls.
However, none of these differences was statistically
significant (Table 7 and Figure 5).
The same comparison which was made after examination II (Table 8 and Figure 6) revealed the same
trend and the differences were also statistically insignificant, however, in each case they were again much
bigger in favor of girls. Therefore, we can conclude that
girls are better at learning chosen educational competencies. Similar conclusions had been drawn at by
Rokita [10] (Table 8 and Figure 6).
Discussion
In Poland, pilot [11, 12] and proper examinations [10,
13, 14] concerning the employment of educational balls
“edubal” at the stage of the early school education
have been carried out since 2002. The goals, which the
authors pursued, concerned the influence of the introduction of educational balls “edubal” in the realization
of the didactic process on the motor development and
on the process of learning chosen didactic program
contents (e.g. language and mathematics education)
as well.
Cichy and Rzepa wrote in their study about the
relation between the use of educational balls “edubal”
in grades I–III of primary school and the development
of physical ability [12]. They carried out a one-year
pedagogical experiment by means of the parallel
group technique. After the realization of this experiment, they noticed that the education program which
used educational balls influences the motor sphere in
the same way as the traditional program. Krajewski
came to the similar conclusion after he had carried
out his examinations [14]. Analyzing the results obtained by the children in the range of general body
– 53 –
coordination, Krajewski stated that apart from the fact
that the results were higher in relation to the examination before the experiment, there was no statistically
significant difference in each group both in all partial
assessments and in the whole assessment of the general body coordination test. Also Rokita, who carried
out his research in the rural environment, as well as
Wójcik and Rzepa, who examined cases of children
living in a big city, stated that independently of the
environment in which the educational balls “edubal”
were used, children’s physical ability is comparable
and did not depend on the experimental factor [15,
16]. In their research they confirmed [11, 12, 17, 10]
the existence of connections between the employment of educational balls “edubal” in the integrated
education and the intellectual development of the children [10]. Rokita in his study of 2008 came to an interesting conclusion, that the employment of educational
balls “edubal” enhances the speed of reading skills
acquisition but it does not impinge the writing skills in
the same way.
The results obtained by the authors enable to state
that the employment of educational balls “edubal” during the physical classes does not bring about any unfavorable changes in the spheres of physical ability and
general body coordination. On the other hand, it can
contribute to the achievement of goals of education in
a more effective way at this stage.
Taking into account the observations outlined
above, we must conclude that the employment of the
didactic means of this type can constitute an attractive supplement of the traditional classes conducted in
school conditions.
Conclusions
1. Girls from EI group obtained better results than the
girls from EII and K groups in almost all of the trials
in the range of General Body Coordination which
were conducted at the beginning and the end of the
experiment. Only in examination II in jumps on one
leg the control group’s girls achieved better results.
2. Control group boys always obtained better results
than the boys from experimental I and experimental
II groups in both of the examinations in the tests of
General Body Coordination.
3. The results of all girls and boys in examination II
in the range of General Body Coordination were
slightly worse than the results of the same groups
in examination I. These differences were not statistically significant.
4. Girls from experimental group I in both of the examinations obtained the best results from all the
groups in the Competence Test and they were the
only group that in examination II improved their result in comparison with examination I.
5. The worst result among all the female and male
groups in the Competence Test was achieved by
control group of boys in examination I and experimental group II of boys in examination II.
6. All the girls in each of the examined groups obtained
better results in both examinations than their grade
peers in the range of the Competence Test.
7. We must conclude that the employment of educational balls “edubal” did not significantly influence
the results obtained in the test of the examined
competences.
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NR 49
2010
MOTOR FITNESS AND COORDINATION ABILITIES
VS. EFFECTIVENESS OF PLAY
IN SITTING VOLLEYBALL
SPRAWNOŚĆ MOTORYCZNA I ZDOLNOŚCI
KOORDYNACYJNE A SKUTECZNOŚĆ GRY
W SIATKÓWCE NA SIEDZĄCO
Łukasz Jadczak*, Andrzej Kosmol**,
Andrzej Wieczorek***, Robert Śliwowski*
****Dr, University School of Physical Education, Poznań
****Dr habil., assoc. prof., University School of Physical Education in Warsaw
****Dr habil., assoc. prof., University School of Physical Education in Poznań
Key words: sitting volleyball, motor fitness, coordination abilities, efficiency
Słowa kluczowe: siatkówka na siedząco, sprawność motoryczna, zdolności koordynacyjne, skuteczność
Aim of the work. To find relations between coordination abilities, motor fitness and effectiveness of play
of sitting volleyball players.
Material and methods. The study material consisted of sixty players of the Polish sitting volleyball league.
The test of general motor fitness included: dynamic strength of upper limbs, static strength of hand, muscular
endurance of upper limbs, muscular strength of body, body flexibility (back muscles), endurance-speed. For
the measurement of special motor fitness the following tests were used: attack, serve, overhand pass, forearm
pass, tip. For the assessment of coordination abilities computer tests of coordination abilities were used which
included measurement of time of simple reaction to visual stimulus (simple reaction), time of complex reaction
to visual stimulus (complex reaction), effect of visual-motor coordination (Piórkowski test), orientation ability
(a cross matching test), attention divisibility, orientation ability – perception. The assessment of effectiveness
of play was performed according to the formula proposed by Coleman [1].
Results. The analysis of correlation between general and special fitness as well as coordination abilities and
effectiveness of play indicates that the greatest impact on effectiveness of play of players in the Polish sitting
volleyball league was exerted by the results of the following tests: body flexibility with endurance-speed in
general fitness, ball passes, both overhand and forearm, and attack in special fitness, and in terms of coordination abilities particularly great impact was noted in the test of attention divisibility, orientation-perception and
complex reaction.
Conclusions. The level of majority of tested properties of motor fitness and coordination abilities shows
a statistically significant relation with the effectiveness of basic technical and tactical actions applied when
playing sitting volleyball.
Cel pracy. Celem pracy było poznanie zależności między zdolnościami koordynacyjnymi i sprawnością motoryczną a skutecznością gry zawodników w piłce siatkowej na siedząco.
Materiał i metody. Materiał badań stanowiło 60 zawodników polskiej ligi piłki siatkowej na siedząco. Badania
sprawności motorycznej ogólnej obejmowały: siłę dynamiczną kończyn górnych, siłę statyczną ręki, wytrzymałość
– 57 –
mięśniową kończyn górnych, siłę mięśni tułowia, gibkość tułowia (mięśni grzbietu), wytrzymałość-szybkość. Do
pomiaru sprawności motorycznej specjalnej wykorzystano następujące próby: atak, zagrywka, odbicie sposobem
oburącz górnym, odbicie sposobem oburącz dolnym, „kiwnięcie”. Do oceny zdolności koordynacyjnych zastosowano natomiast komputerowe testy zdolności koordynacyjnych, które obejmowały pomiar czasu reakcji prostej
na bodziec wzrokowy (reakcja prosta), czasu reakcji złożonej na bodźce wzrokowe (reakcja złożona), efektu koordynacji wzrokowo-ruchowej (test Piórkowskiego), zdolności orientacji (test krzyżowy), podzielności uwagi, zdolności
orientacji-postrzegania. Oceny skuteczności gry dokonano wg wzoru zaproponowanego przez Colemana [1].
Wyniki. Analiza korelacji między sprawnością ogólną i specjalną oraz zdolności koordynacyjnych ze skutecznością gry wskazuje, że największy wpływ na efektywność gry zawodników w polskiej lidze piłki siatkowej na
siedząco miały wyniki testów: gibkości tułowia wraz z wytrzymałością – szybkością w obrębie sprawności ogólnej,
odbicia piłki zarówno sposobem górnym, jak i dolnym oraz atak w obrębie sprawności specjalnej, a w zakresie
zdolności koordynacyjnych szczególnie istotny wpływ odnotowano w teście podzielności uwagi, orientacji – postrzegania oraz reakcji złożonej.
Wnioski. Poziom większości badanych cech sprawności motorycznej, jak i zdolności koordynacyjnych wykazuje istotny statystycznie związek ze skutecznością podstawowych działań techniczno-taktycznych mających
zastosowanie podczas gry w piłkę siatkową na siedząco.
Introduction
The requirements of sports championship level make
one to realise the significance of somatic, motor and
psychomotor components of the actions of top players
in a given discipline. This undoubtedly close relation of
constitutional properties, motor fitness and motor abilities can be explained also on the basis of the theory
of effective action. In praxeology of sports game, the
factors determining the perfection of a player and
a team (including motor abilities, somatic properties)
are defined as dispositions to play which are displayed
in various play situations in the form or so called interdispositions, make individual and/or team action possible for a player. The player’s (team’s) action abilities are
thus defined as a dispositional and situational possibility to carry out a certain action and it is possessed by
a player (team) who, using one’s individual dispositions,
can carry out specific action in existing circumstances.
The measure of championship of a player (team) is an
ability of an effective action in more and more difficult
competitive conditions [2].
Regular checking of physical preparation and technical abilities is significant for the assessment of training results. Due to an ever growing interest and dynamic development of sitting volleyball visible in the international arena, there is a demand for reliable, precise and
accurate analysis and assessment of the sports level
of players as well as teams. There are no tests assessing special motor fitness of sitting volleyball players in
specialist literature. With some modifications resulting
from specific character of moving on the court, the tests
by Downs and Wood [3], Bolach [4], Bartlett et al. [5]
prepared for disabled standing volleyball players can
be adapted.
Coordination abilities, in particular sport and technical abilities, are of particular significance in the process
of sports training. They determine the degree and quality of motor learning, mastering and stability of motor
abilities and their appropriate and effective application
in changing conditions [6, 7].
The effects of coordination abilities on sports level
have been widely documented in volleyball of healthy
players [8, 9, 10, 11]. The lack of reports on the relation
between coordination abilities, general and special motor fitness, as well as effectiveness of play in disabled
sitting volleyball players indicates the need to fill in
this gap. The level of coordination motor abilities plays
a significant part in the actions of complex nature, and
such occur in sitting volleyball. An equally important issue seems to be specifying the level of coordination
motor abilities depending on the degree of disability.
This issue has not been explored in literature either.
The significance of watching competition in sports
practice is very well known. Information collected in this
way makes it possible to assess the play in quantitative (duration of play, the number of elements of play,
its topography) and qualitative terms (effectiveness of
actions, character of player’s behaviour) and has been
used in sports team games for years as a part of tactical preparation. In sitting volleyball similar actions are
undertaken. However, the differences resulting from
the adaptation of rules of the game should be taken
into consideration.
In volleyball of able-bodied players quite varied
methods of recording the play have been used. Renner
[16] recorded information on effectiveness of attack
from zone II, III and IV, whereas Pieron and Ligot [17]
assessed the effectiveness of selected elements of play
on various levels of competition. Attempts have been
– 58 –
made to record the play using video tape recorder [18]
as well as symbols and diagrams [19].
Kaplan [20, 21] combined the assessment of effectiveness and topography of play in attack with a detailed
factor analysis, whereas Żeczew et al. [after Wołyniec
and Saryczew 22] suggested their own method of assessment of effectiveness of play, combined with data
processing with electronic digital machines. Subject to
the assessment were both individual components of technique of volleyball play, e.g. block [23] and attack [24], and
comprehensive technical and tactical actions of the team
[25], using the methods of calculating effectiveness of basic elements of play developed by the authors.
The discussed issues were also dealt with by Polish
theorists [26, 27, 28, 29]. A computer assisted method
of analysis and assessment of play, using an element of
theory of extensive games developed by Wołyniec et al.
[30] deserves particular attention. Nowadays computer
programmes for quantitative and qualitative assessment of play are known and generally used in volleyball
[31, 32, 33]. The data used in this way, often given still
during the sports competition, increase the sports level
of the team, and are used to prepare strategy and carry
out game tactics with a specific opponent [34, 35, 36].
Sitting volleyball has all the hallmarks of sport of setting records, therefore it seems by all means justified
to use this type of tool also in this discipline. This kind
of analysis of play in sitting volleyball of the disabled
cannot be found in literature. Thus the aim of the study
was to find the relation between coordination abilities,
motor effectiveness and effectiveness of play of sitting
volleyball players.
The participants of the study were sixty players of the
Polish sitting volleyball league. The material includes
the results of measurements of general and special
motor fitness, coordination abilities and effectiveness
of play.
The assessment of technical and tactical skills of
the players was made on the basis of the effectiveness of basic elements of play (attack, serve, receiving
a serve, block, the set, defence).
The tests of motor fitness and coordination abilities
as well as effectiveness of play (video recordings) performed at the Polish Championships tournaments were
carried out twice, six months apart, in order to verify
whether the studied relations change in time, i.e. in different periods of training.
All tests (except for the assessment of effectiveness
of play) were carried out in home training centres of
the studied teams (Poznań, Elbląg, Wrocław, Kielce,
Jelenia Góra, Szczecin, Katowice).
The effectiveness of play was assessed according
to the formula [1, 34]:
WS =
PZ − PS
ΣWD
where: WS – effectiveness indicator, PZ – points scored,
PS – points conceded, WD – total of all actions.
Each technical element (attack, block, defence, set,
serve) was assessed in a three-degree scale according
to the observation sheets used by the Polish Volleyball
Association.
The following tests were used for the assessment
of general fitness:
● Static strength of hand measured with a hand dynamometer [37].
● Muscular endurance of upper limbs measured with
a bent arm hang test [37].
● Dynamic strength of upper limbs measured with
a seated medicine ball throw [38].
● Strength of body muscles measured with bends in
30 s [39].
● Flexibility of body measured with a body lifting test
[40] – from lying on the front, hands resting along
the body, the subject was lifting the body as high
as possible. The distance between the floor and the
chin of the subject was measured.
● Endurance and speed test [41] was modified and
involved covering the appointed distances moving
on the buttocks. Instead of sitting on a medicine ball
the subject was to touch the appointed circle with at
least one buttock.
The following tests were used for the measurement
of special fitness:
a. Serve [42] – performing 24 serves from any place of
serving area, aiming at selected zones alternately
on the straight line and diagonally. For hitting the
correct zone the player scored 1 point, for a good
serve that missed 0 points, for a bad serve –1
point.
b. Attack [43] – the player stands in the position of the
left attack (behind the connection of the attack line
with side line). The setting player is in the zone III
at the net (middle of attack) facing the player per-
– 59 –
forming the test. The attacking player passes the
ball to the setting player then performs a run-up and
a spike. After the attack he performs the action 10
times.
c. The tip [43] – the player takes position on the right
attack (behind the connection of the attack line and
the side line). The setting player is in the zone III at
the net (middle of attack) facing the player performing the test. The tested player passes the ball to the
setting player who sets it along the net. The player
performs a run-up, like for the attack, and then at
the last moment hits the ball with a one-hand finger
pass to a selected zone of the court (on the other
side of the net).
d. Overhand pass [44] – the test involved receiving
and passing the ball overhand to a rectangle sized
1.5 m by 1.2 m on the wall at the height of 115 cm,
from the distance of 1.5 m.
e. Forearm pass [45] – a player makes forearm passes for the height of 1 m for one minute in the circle
of the diameter of 4 m.
For the assessment of coordination abilities computer tests of coordination skills [46] were used, which
included the following tests:
● Measurement of time of simple reaction to a visual
stimulus (simple reaction).
● Measurement of complex reaction to visual stimuli
(complex reaction).
● Measurement of effect of visual and motor coordination (Piórkowski Test).
● Measurement of orientation ability (cross test).
● Measurement of effect of attention divisibility (component of the ability to adjust) – attention divisibility.
● Measurement of the effect of perception (component of orientation ability) – orientation – perception.
For the assessment of relations between motor
fitness and coordination abilities and effectiveness of
play Spearman’s rank correlation was used.
Results
The isolation of so called prognostic features which
determine the achievement of high sports performance
is very significant for the training process. It helps to
establish the character of training in its various phases,
in particular in the period of a sensitivity of a given property to motor stimulation [47].
The results of the tests of motor fitness and coordination skills on two dates of tests and the effectiveness of play in the Polish sitting volleyball league were
presented in Table 1. The structure of motor fitness of
sitting volleyball players was assessed with battery of
tests, taking into consideration motor abilities most useful during the play i.e. the strength of abdomen muscles
– body bends in 30 s, strength of hand grip measured
with a hand dynamometer, muscular endurance measured with a bent arms hang, dynamic strength of upper
limbs – a medicine ball throw, flexibility of the body and
endurance-speed. While establishing the set of tests of
special motor fitness in sitting volleyball, the main criterion was the analysis of technique of play in this discipline and they were selected in such a way so that all
most frequent elements of play are contained in them
– overhand and forearm passes, serve, attack, tip. The
players representing high sports level are characterised
by a similar and very high development of mechanisms
of adaptation to physical exertion. An important factor
which influences the results of competition, in particular
in technical disciplines – and sitting volleyball is one of
them – is the neuromuscular coordination. Its high level
determines the achievement of sports success [46]. It
is generally known that the basis of every sport discipline is the technique and the ability of its appropriate
application in the conditions of sports competition. The
rate of learning movement technique and its mastering depends mainly on the level of coordination abilities which are a “genetic” basis for mastering a sports
technique [48]. Thus in the presented study the level
of coordination abilities was assessed using the following tests: simple reaction, complex reaction, Piórkowski
test, cross test, test of attention divisibility, orientationperception test. Previous analyses of motor fitness and
coordination abilities are the basis for the assessment
of psychomotor and technical potential of individual
players. In team games these elements are used in the
conditions of sports competition. The measure of this
competition is the effectiveness of the team which determines the final result of a match (Table 1).
Table 2 presents correlations between general fitness on two dates of tests and effectiveness of play in
the Polish sitting volleyball league. Only some general
fitness properties show significant relations with the effectiveness of specific technical elements. In the tests
of lifting the body and in endurance-speed test significant relation was noted between effectiveness and all
tested play components. In able-bodied people lower
limbs play a very significant role in each element of
– 60 –
Table 1. The results of tests of motor fitness and effectiveness of play in the Polish league of sitting volleyball in the 1st and 2nd tests
Participants
n = 60
TESTS
Body bends in 30 s
Bent arm hang [s]
Lifting the body [cm]
Medicine ball throw
[m]
Endurance-speed [s]
Hand grip strength [kg]
Overhead pass
[number of cycles]
Underhand pass
[number of cycles]
Serve [pts.]
Attack [pts.]
Tip [pts.]
Simple reaction [s]
Participants
n = 60
TESTS
Number of test
I
II
x
19.90
19.86
SD
x
2.93
2.81
19.93
21.42
14.52
15.56
34.82
32.37
SD
x
12.31
10.60
6.58
6.67
SD
x
1.04
0.99
41.83
40.22
8.71
8.59
51.17
51.81
7.62
7.93
16.05
16.85
6.05
5.94
19.73
22.08
8.25
9.51
5.80
6.52
3.89
3.01
13.63
14.35
3.28
2.99
15.52
15.92
SD
x
SD
x
SD
x
SD
x
SD
x
SD
x
SD
x
SD
x
2.70
2.50
0.26
0.26
SD
0.05
0.04
play. In sitting volleyball their function in largely limited,
thus it should be assumed that disabled athletes compensate these limitations with other properties of motor fitness, including also the range of body movement.
A large range of movement related to the greatest possible sway of the body plays an important part in defence,
during attack and receiving of the ball. Significant relations of technical and tactical elements and speed endurance seem to be obvious. This property determines
the speed and precision of moving in a long period of
time which is constantly used in the game in each of its
components.
Also explosive strength of upper limbs, measured
with a medicine ball throw test showed a significant correlation with effectiveness of serve (on two dates of tests
0.30 and 0.31), receiving (0.31 and 0.31), attack (0.36
and 0.35), block (0.29 and 0.33) and defence (0.29 and
0.30). Only setting of the ball did not show significant
relations with the dynamic strength of the upper limbs
Complex reaction [s]
Piórkowski Test [s]
Cross test [s]
Divisibility of attention [%]
Orientation-perception [%]
Number of test
I
II
0.45
x
0.47
SD
x
0.16
0.13
45.17
44.35
SD
x
9.47
7.89
57.93
56.14
SD
x
13.49
10.93
47.00
46.60
SD
x
21.97
20.40
51.10
51.40
SD
12.11
11.67
EFFECTIVENESS [%]
Serve
Receiving
Attack
Block
Set
Defence
x
–5.0
SD
x
12.4
6.66
SD
x
16.05
SD
x
12.58
SD
x
10.01
SD
x
13.28
SD
16.58
7.8
3.9
4.5
6.6
which is probably related to the performing technique
of this element, where the fastest possible reaching of
the place where the ball is played and precision of its
performance play a more important part.
On the opposite end of the correlation between
general fitness and effectiveness there are strength of
abdomen muscles measured using a 30 s body bends
test, muscular endurance measured in the bar hang test
and static strength of hand measured using a hand dynamometer. The lack of significant correlations between
these properties and the effectiveness of technical and
tactical elements may be related to a smaller part they
play in the game and may indicate the direction of players’ training. These results confirm the earlier studies in
which no significant correlations were noted between
muscular endurance of upper limbs, static strength of
hand and elements of special fitness.
The data presented in Table 3 relates to correlation
between the properties of special fitness (overhand and
– 61 –
Table 2. Correlation coefficients between general fitness and effectiveness of play in the Polish sitting volleyball league
Technical and tactical elements
Test
No. of test
Serve
[%]
Receiving [%]
Attack
[%]
Block
[%]
Set
[%]
Defence
[%]
Body bends in
30 s
I
0.13
0.13
0.17
0.14
0.04
0.09
II
0.09
0.08
0.18
0.08
0.00
0.07
I
0.04
0.11
0.09
0.12
0.10
0.10
II
0.02
0.09
0.08
0.10
0.08
0.09
I
0.36**
0.34**
0.42**
0.32*
0.35**
0.33*
II
0.32*
0.35**
0.41**
0.35**
0.34**
0.36**
Bar hang
[s]
Body lifting
[cm]
Medicine ball
throw
[m]
I
0.30*
0.31*
0.36**
0.29*
0.21
0.29*
II
0.31*
0.31*
0.35**
0.33*
0.23
0.30*
Endurance-speed
[s]
I
–0.31*
–0.37**
–0.37**
–0.36**
–0.31*
–0.32*
II
–0.29*
–0.35**
–0.36**
–0.35**
–0.31*
–0.32*
I
0.17
0.18
0.20
0.18
0.13
0.17
II
0.18
0.18
0.21
0.19
0.13
0.16
Hand grip strength
[kg]
* r significant with p ≤ 0.05, ∗∗ r significant with p ≤ 0.01
forearm passes, serve, attack, tip) and the effectiveness of basic technical and tactical components (serve,
receiving, attack, block, set, defence). Significant correlations were noted in tests of overhand and forearm
passes and attack with the effectiveness of all studied
technical elements of the play. Significant correlation
was noted of the serve attempt with the effectiveness
of this element in the game (0.37) and attack (0.39)
which resembles a serve. The questions of correlation between the attempted tip with the effectiveness
of technical and tactical elements i.e. serve (0.27 and
0.30), attack (0.29 and 0.32), block (0.30 in the 2nd test),
set (0.28 in the 2nd test) and defence (0.29 in the 2nd test)
is quite different. A statistically significant relation with
serve and attack may be related to a similar movement
structure.
The data presented in Table 3 clearly show significant correlation between coordination abilities and effectiveness of play in the Polish sitting volleyball league.
The relations of coordination abilities and the quality of
serve are most visibly manifested in attempts of simple
reaction (–0.35 and –0.39), complex reaction (–0.37
and –0.41), attention divisibility (0.35 and 0.43) and orientation-perception (0.34 and 0.52). The reaction times
allow to quickly initiate and perform a short-term motor movement responding to a special signal which is
Table 3. Correlation coefficients between special fitness and effectiveness of play in Polish sitting volleyball league
Test
No. of test
Overhand passes
[number of
cycles]
I
0.45**
0.53**
0.56**
0.52**
0.51**
0.56**
II
0.46**
0.55**
0.57**
0.53**
0.54**
0.58**
Serve
[%]
Receiving
[%]
Attack
[%]
Block
[%]
Set
[%]
Defence
[%]
Forearm passes
[number of
cycles]
I
0.43**
0.37**
0.47**
0.44**
0.39**
0.44**
II
0.41**
0.39**
0.46**
0.42**
0.39**
0.43**
Serve
[pts.]
I
0.14
0.07
0.16
0.15
0.12
0.08
II
0.37**
0.34**
0.39**
0.44**
0.48**
0.40**
Attack
[pts.]
I
0.35**
0.43**
0.36**
0.38**
0.37**
0.42**
II
0.41**
0.50**
0.45**
0.48**
0.45**
0.49**
I
0.27*
0.17
0.29*
0.22
0.18
0.21
II
0.30*
0.25
0.32*
0.30*
0.28*
0.29*
Tip
[pts.]
* r significant with p ≤ 0.05, ∗∗ r significant with p ≤ 0.01
– 62 –
Table 4. Correlation coefficients between coordination abilities and effectiveness of play in the Polish sitting volleyball league
Test
No. of test
Simple reaction
[s]
I
Serve
[%]
Receiving
[%]
Attack
[%]
Block
[%]
Set
[%]
Defence
[%]
–0.35**
–0.21
–0.21
–0.20
–0.19
–0.19
II
–0.35**
–0.39**
–0.32*
–0.32*
–0.33**
–0.33**
Complex reaction
[s]
I
–0.37**
–0.47**
–0.39**
–0.50**
–0.45**
–0.50**
II
–0.41**
–0.55**
–0.45**
–0.57**
–0.52**
–0.56**
Piórkowski test
[s]
I
–0.09
–0.16
–0.18
–0.10
–0.12
–0.14
II
–0.28*
–0.37**
–0.34**
–0.31*
–0.31*
–0.33**
I
–0.27*
–0.34**
–0.35**
–0.34**
–0.31*
–0.34**
II
–0.37**
–0.43**
–0.45**
–0.47**
–0.43**
–0.44**
I
0.35**
0.37**
0.39**
0.39**
0.40**
0.41**
II
0.43**
0.45**
0.45**
0.48**
0.45**
0.49**
I
0.34**
0.35**
0.38**
0.43**
0.32*
0.42**
II
0.52**
0.53**
0.52**
0.59**
0.50**
0.57**
Cross test
[s]
Attention divisibility
[%]
Orientationperception
[%]
*r significant with p ≤ 0.05, ∗∗ r significant with p ≤ 0.01
the movement of the arm hitting the ball (attack, serve).
Due to a complex structure of movements in sitting volleyball (determining the position of the whole body and
its individual parts in relation to the ball, net, court) the
need to watch the opponent’s and own player’s movements, making decisions in a small space in a short
time, the relation of the described coordination tests
and effectiveness of play seems very significant. Only
in the first test of the simple reaction and Piorkówski
test no statistically significant correlation with effectiveness of the analysed play components was observed.
Discussion
It was assumed that the scope and level of motor fitness, coordination abilities and somatic features is the
basis for effective competition in sports team games.
Thus, exploring the conditions of effectiveness of team’s
actions may contribute to an improvement in quality
of play. On the other hand, a number of factors which
determine the sports performance of players and their
effectiveness in play are an incentive to search for relations between them, which from the cognitive and practical point of view are of fundamental importance in the
process of motor and tactical preparation of players.
Therefore, the aim of the study was to assess the
effect of motor fitness and coordination abilities on the
effectiveness of play in sitting volleyball.
The studies of Klocek and Żak [11] on female
players indicate that high level of general and special
– technical – motor fitness determined their higher effectiveness in play. In motor area, the most significant
components determining the quality of play are speed
and strength components, which together with the age
of studied players determine a higher degree the effectiveness of presented technique. It has to be emphasized that special orientation and visual-motor coordination determine the quality of play in the area of
coordination abilities. Referring the above observation
to the results of the studies carried out by Szczepanik
and Szopa [49] on a group of beginner, able-bodied volleyball players confirm that among the features of motor
fitness, explosive strength of upper limbs and running
speed determine the effectiveness of play. Although in
sitting volleyball, due to disability, these abilities do not
play any part, the changes in the levels of general fitness properties, including explosive strength of upper
limbs and endurance-speed, and special fitness in own
study confirm a large part of these motoricity components in the area of quality of play, including also sitting
volleyball.
In the analysis of the collected material it should be
borne in mind that a correlation coefficient, being a static measure, does not fully reflect the cause-and-effect
relation between the level of the studied coordination
abilities, motor fitness and effectiveness of play. The
number of factors which may affect the relationships
studied in this work is much larger and often difficult
to study, in particular in the context of widely varying
disabilities of examined players. The level of tactical
– 63 –
trainedness (individual and team), programme of training and technique mastering, level of motivation, mental
resistance, state of health etc. may all be significant.
However, the noted relations may provide interesting
information on the area of science that so far has not
been much explored.
The study of young female volleyball players carried
out by Klocek and Szczepanik [47] and concerning the
relation of motor fitness and coordination abilities with
the effectiveness of serve, receiving a serve and attack
showed only a high relation of precision of receiving
a serve and the results of the test of locomotive speed
(r = 0.58) and spatial orientation (r = 0.43). Fitness abilities did not show correlation with the effectiveness of
serve or attack. In own studies a statistically significant
negative correlation was found between the endurancespeed test, corresponding to the locomotive speed test,
and effectiveness of all assessed elements of play, i.e.
serve, receiving a serve, attack, block, defence and
set. The ability of fast moving in a longer period of time
plays a very significant part during the game of sitting
volleyball. This property determines the time necessary
to take an appropriate position and potential adjustment
of the stance before passing the ball. Body flexibility
also showed statistically significant relation with the effectiveness of all technical components of the play. In
volleyball played in a sitting position, where the impact
of the lower limbs is small, the ability to manoeuvre the
body in the greatest possible range of movement is very
important and largely facilitates correct overhand and
forearm passes as well as one-hand passes. Greater
backward sway of the body in the form of so called
“drawn bow” may contribute to a greater dynamics of
the attack and, as a consequence, its better effectiveness. These speculations confirm significant relations
of special fitness test in attack and tipping of the ball
with the effectiveness of play in attack (0.36 and 0.45 in
the 1st test and 0.29 and 0.32 in the 2nd test). Statistically
significant correlation of special fitness tests in attack
and tip with effectiveness of serve may result from
a similar structure of movement in the above elements.
The relations between tests of overhand and forearm
passes and the effectiveness of all assessed technical
and tactical activities are not surprising, as their effective performance requires from the player a very good
mastering of the basics of technique. A more controversial question is the one of the relation between the
results of tests of passes and serve and attack in which
the ball is hit with one hand with an inside part of the
hand, not the fingers (overhand pass) or lower arms
(forearm pass). Also in a block, due to the manner of
performance the ball is not hit in any of the above ways.
This may be explained only partly by scoring points
after returning of the ball on the opponent’s side (onehanded and two-handed) which was qualified as attack
or performance of the serve by underhand one-handed
pass. Using other types of tests could complete and
explain the reasons for the above situations.
The tests aiming to find a set of features which characterise a high class volleyball player involved studying
their relations with the sports level and effectiveness
of play. They confirmed the significance of appropriate
body build [50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57], in particular
the significance of height, body proportion and length
of limbs was emphasised. Also the significance of the
level of some fitness abilities was emphasised, in particular speed and strength [11, 58, 59, 60]. On the basis
of own studies aiming to find motor fitness features and
coordination abilities which have the greatest impact on
the effectiveness of play of players in the Polish sitting
volleyball league, it is difficult to indicate unambiguously the properties which to a largest extent contributed
to more effective play of individual players, formation
or teams. Nevertheless, within properties of general
fitness we may indicate mainly endurance, speed and
body flexibility, as well as, to a lesser degree, dynamic strength of upper limbs as the ones which played
a greater part in the effectiveness of play then others.
The effect of the endurance-speed test on the effectiveness of play in the context of great age differences
of the participants seems logical. On the other hand the
manner of moving on the court required the participants
to have an appropriately high level of body flexibility.
Dynamic strength of upper limbs affects the dynamics of such technical and tactical elements as attack
and serve, which significantly influence the course of
a match in sitting volleyball. In terms of special fitness,
both overhand and forearm passes, as well as attack
correlated to the effectiveness of play to a largest extent. Ball passes occur in various forms in almost every
situation in the match, therefore their high level determines the effectiveness of such technical and tactical
elements of the game as set, receiving or defence of
the ball. The attack is the main source of scoring points,
hence a high correlation with the effectiveness of play
is unquestionable.
The studies on the significance of coordination
abilities in volleyball indicate that there is a relationship between spatial orientation and usefulness for the
game [61], reaction time and effectiveness of defence
– 64 –
and block [62], as well as between balance, spatial orientation and visual-motor coordination and the level
of technique [8, 9]. The own study confirms the significance of the effect of orientation-perception, visualmotor coordination (cross test) and complex reaction
on the effectiveness in all studied technical and tactical
elements. The complexity of the game, changeability
of situations, the need to constantly watch and control
the actions of players of one’s own and the opponent’s
teams as well as the ball in play explains the statistically significant correlation of attention divisibility and
effectiveness of play.
The analysis of correlation between general and
special fitness and coordination abilities and effectiveness of play indicate body flexibility and endurancespeed within general fitness, as well as overhand and
forearm passes and attack within special fitness, as
those that have the greatest impact on the effectiveness of play in the Polish sitting volleyball league. In
terms of coordination abilities, attention divisibility, orientation-perception and complex reaction had a particularly great impact on the effectiveness of play on
both dates of tests. In team games, including sitting
volleyball, where the situation is constantly changing
and players have to take into account the positions of
the opponents, the ball, net, and floor in relation to one
another, and this in a very short time, a high level of the
above coordination abilities impacts the course of the
game in a particular way.
In this study we tried to explore the relationships between the motor fitness and coordination abilities and
the effectiveness of play of sitting volleyball players.
An important methodological question, which would
require a future verification, is the selection of tests
the reliability and precision of which will take into account the problem of various types of disabilities, which
makes it very difficult to assess the motor fitness – and
therefore its impact on the effectiveness of play.
Conclusions
1. The effectiveness of basic technical and tactical
elements (serve, receiving, attack, block, set, defence) show close relations with the level of motor
fitness and coordination abilities.
2. In special motor fitness tests overhand and forearm
passes as well as attack have the greatest impact
on the effectiveness of basic elements of play in sitting volleyball.
3. The properties which have the greatest impact on
the effectiveness of technical and tactical actions
in sitting volleyball are endurance-speed and flexibility of back muscles with the participation of body
in tests of general motor fitness.
4. Among coordination abilities orientation-perception,
attention divisibility and complex reaction show the
greatest impact on the effectiveness of elementary
components of play in sitting volleyball.
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– 67 –
NR 49
2010
THE CALORIFIC COST OF YOUNG WOMEN’S
LEISURE ACTIVITY
KOSZT KALORYCZNY AKTYWNOŚCI WOLNOCZASOWEJ
MŁODYCH KOBIET
Bożena Królikowska*, Michał Rozpara **, Władysław Mynarski ***,
Bogusława Graczykowska****, Daniel Puciato *****
*****
*****
*****
*****
*****
Dr., Department of Active Forms of Tourism and Recreation, Opole University of Technology
MSc., Department of Active Forms of Tourism and Recreation, Opole University of Technology
Dr. habil., assoc. prof., Department of Active Forms of Tourism and Recreation, Opole University of Technology
Dr., Department of Active Forms of Tourism and Recreation, Opole University of Technology
Dr., Department of Geography and Economics of Tourism, Opole University of Technology
Key words: physical activity, leisure, calorific cost, accelerometry, caltrac, women
Słowa kluczowe: aktywność fizyczna, wolnoczasowa, koszt kaloryczny, akcelerometria,
caltrac, kobiety
Aim of the research. The aim of the researches is an attempt to compare a weekly calorific cost of leisure
activity of women regularly and irregularly physically active in the everyday and habitual activity.
Material and method. The research covered 34 women aging 18–35 and residing on the territory of the
Opole province. For the research two groups of women were selected. The first one was made up of women
who did not undertake a regular physical activity and the other one was made up of women exercising
regularly. In this research a method of an indirect observation was applied and a weekly calorific cost of the
two groups of women was measured with an accelerometer – Caltrac Monitor. The results of the monitoring of the weekly energetic expense done by women were expressed in kilocalories (kcal) per week and
kilocalories per day.
Results. The total calorific cost of everyday (habitual) activity done by women in their ordinary week was
various in the compared groups. The women exercising regularly achieved almost twice higher calorific cost
than the other research group, which was a result of their different lifestyles. In both groups of the women the
calories spent on physical activity constituted approximately 70% of their total caloric cost of habitual activities
and it exceeds the energetic cost accompanying passive forms of leisure activities.
Conclusions. It should be noticed that the caloric expense of a physical leisure activity done in a free time
per week by the researched women was too low to meet the health recommendations taken by Paffenbarger
(about 2000 kcal per week and 300 kcal per day pro physical activity). Definitely, those who were close to meet
the above recommendations were the women regularly physically active.
Cel badań. Próba porównania tygodniowego kosztu kalorycznego wolnoczasowej aktywności kobiet regularnie
i nieregularnie aktywnych fizycznie na tle czynności codziennych (habitualnych).
Materiał i metoda. Badaniami objęto 34 kobiety w wieku 18–35 lat, mieszkanki województwa opolskiego.
Wyróżniono dwie grupy badanych: osobniczki nieregularnie aktywne ruchowo oraz systematycznie ćwiczące.
W pracy zastosowano metodę obserwacji pośredniej, a tygodniowy wydatek kaloryczny badanych kobiet mierzono
akcelerometrem Caltrac Monitor. Uzyskane wyniki monitoringu tygodniowego wydatku energetycznego kobiet
ujęto w kilokaloriach (kcal) na tydzień i kilokaloriach na dzień.
– 69 –
Wyniki badań. Całkowity koszt kaloryczny przypadający na codzienną (nawykową) aktywność kobiet w zwyczajowym tygodniu ich życia był zróżnicowany w porównywanych grupach. U kobiet regularnie aktywnych był on
blisko dwukrotnie wyższy niż u pozostałych badanych, co było skutkiem odmiennego trybu życia. W obu grupach
kobiet kalorie wydatkowane na aktywność wolnoczasową stanowiły około 70% całkowitego kosztu kalorycznego
ich aktywności habitualnej, przewyższając wydatek energetyczny towarzyszący biernym formom spędzania czasu
wolnego.
Wnioski. Należy zauważyć, że wydatek kaloryczny przypadający na aktywność fizyczną podejmowaną w czasie
wolnym w ciągu zwyczajowego tygodnia życia badanych kobiet był zbyt niski, by spełniać zalecenia prozdrowotne
przyjmowane przez Paffenbargera (około 2000 kcal na tydzień i 300 kcal w ciągu dnia na aktywność ruchową).
Zdecydowanie bliższe spełnieniu tych zaleceń były kobiety systematycznie aktywne ruchowo.
Introduction
The civilization of the 21st century provides us with numerous facilities but it also limits a proper functioning
of a human system. The consequence of the occurring
changes is a necessity to increase our care about health
associated with an optimal mood and wellness [1]. The
factor which decides about our health in 50–60% is our
lifestyle [1–3]. The World Health Organisation defines it
as an outcome of individual preferences and behavioural
patterns as well as living conditions of the existence,
determined by psychological, social, economic and cultural factors [4]. The essential part of a desired lifestyle
is widely recognized everyday and habitual physical activity with the predominance of a physical effort [1, 5–10]
which nowadays is currently recognized as one of the
basic human needs, disregarding the stage of their lives,
as their genome was shaped in a phylogenesis by an
adoption of a system to extremely difficult surrounding
conditions which required from a human to make frequently extremely intensive physical efforts. In the result
of that a drastic limitation of physical activities becomes
one of the threats to the health of modern generations
preferring a sitting lifestyle [1, 6, 7, 11–14].
In the literature of this subject there are many definitions of a physical activity. Bourchard, Shephard [6]
identify it with work done by the skeletal muscles resulting in an energetic expense exceeding a static metabolism. They also take it for a primary health factor and
its best indicator. An intentional, regular and rational
physical activity is commonly nowadays identified as
a desired mean of health creation and prevention and
treatment of civilization diseases (mainly hypokinetic).
Its results are determined by a proper dose of physical
effort: intensity and volume of exercises (their duration,
number of repetitions, length of distance, caloric cost).
The aim of activity is also important, as well as psychic
attitude, influence of a surrounding [15–17].
According to WHO report, a dose of a physical
activity which is positive for health should exceed the
volume of 3,5 hours a week [18]. American experts say
that to maintain a state of health an adult should undertake a physical activity of an intermediate intensity in
the majority of week days (4–5 times) for approximately
30 minutes [7, 19] However, there are only general recommendations as a dose of an effective physical activity has to be individually adapted to the psychophysical
abilities of a given person [1, 20, 21].
A caloric or, in other words, an energetic expense of
the volume of a physical activity is taken for its best indicator [2, 22]. According to Kłosowski [23] the necessity
of measuring a caloric cost of a physical effort of a nowadays human being results from a shortage of the equilibrium in a daily energetic balance, which is the reason
for most problems connected with a phenomenon of hypokinesis. The amount of used energy as an indicator
of an activity level can be expressed in traditional units
of heat – in calories (cal), a kilocalorie (kcal) is frequently used. The energetic balance results from the sum of
energy absorbed in a form of food and a daily energetic
expense necessary to support life processes, as well as
the energy used for various physical and psychic activities, which is called an active energetic expense. The
bigger the caloric cost of physical activity, the bigger
the chance to counteract an energetic balance of contemporary man and its beneficial influence on human’s
health [21]. It has been proved that in a case when 300
kcal are spent daily, then the significant changes in the
level of physical fitness and metabolism of a human being can be expected [24]. In the opinion of Paffenbarger
and the co-authors [25], the satisfactory amount of
a weekly physical activity is a physical effort leading
to the energetic expense of 2000 kcal for people aging
20–59 years and of a body mass of 70 kg. For smaller
or bigger mass, the energetic expense should be proportionally lower or higher. It depends on the age and
physical activity as well [25–27]. In the situation like
this, a search for accurate, reliable and commonly accessible means (tools) of assessment and measuring
a caloric expense of a physical activity has its utilitar-
– 70 –
ian reason. One of the methods used for this reason
is a mechanical or electronic monitoring of a volume
of a physical activity in which the measuring tools are
movement indicators and acceleration indicators (accelerometers). In the group of accelerometers one of
the most used measuring tools in this group is a device
called Caltrac Monitor [17, 27].
Many foreign researchers have dealt with a problem
of measuring a volume of a physical activity by means
of accelerometers and they have proved their practical
usefulness [28–32]. The devices of this type are more
and more frequently applied in the national researches
of a caloric cost of different forms of recreation and everyday physical activity [33–36].
In the literature of this subject we came across the
research connected with the social activity according to
the different ages. There was a lot of attention paid to
the subject of the young generation. It should be emphasized that a physical activity is lower in girls and
women than in boys and men [37–39]. The researches
of physical activity volume, presented in this paper,
show that such an activity is especially recommended
for women at different age.
The subject of this research work is a habitual and
leisure activity of young women assessed along with its
caloric cost. As a habitual activity we understand the
everyday human activities connected with daily routine
such as professional work, education and habits; that’s
why it is called habitual activity [40]. Meanwhile the
free leisure activity is mainly connected with the way
of spending the free time by average human being. The
activities done in this category may be of different kinds
such as passive (imitative – inactive) and active (creative). We should take in mind that leisure activity is really an ambiguous term. It’s very often hard to say what
is a leisure activity and what is a daily routine.
The aim of the research
The main aim is an attempt to assess a weekly caloric
expense of a leisure activity done by women who are
regularly and irregularly physically active in their everyday (habitual) lives. Such an aim of research was presented in a form of the following research questions:
1. What is an average caloric expense accompanying
daily and weekly activity of young women during
their typical week?
2. What part of their weekly caloric cost of everyday
activity may be ascribed to the active and passive
leisure activity of the researched women?
3. What part of an energetic expense connected with
activities done in leisure time may be ascribed to
a physical activity?
4. In which way does a weekly caloric cost of a physical activity taken in a leisure time done by the researched women meet the criteria of a volume beneficial for health?
The research questions based on the following hypotheses:
1. A weekly caloric cost of an activity done by women
who are not regularly physically active will not be
sufficient to meet the criteria of a healthy lifestyle.
2. A weekly volume of a physical leisure activity expressed in calories in women systematically undertaking a regular physical activity will probably meet
the criteria of a healthy lifestyle in a scope of physical efforts.
Research material, methods and tools
There were thirty–four women, aged 18–35, who participated in this research and all of them were the residents of the Opole province. Over half of them – 55%
were students, 25% joined studies with professional
career and only 20% of them worked professionally.
To realize these aims, they were divided into following
groups:
– those who do not exercise regularly; in a text they
are addressed as a group irregularly physically active (and a group I),
– those who are regularly undertaking a physical
effort, called also the regularly physically active
(group II); they were the fitness instructors.
The research process covered a sequence of seven days in the daily lives of the examined women in the
autumn 2008.
For the purpose of this work, the method of an indirect
observation was applied. The measurement of a caloric
expense was performed by means of an accelerometer
– Caltrac Monitor – that reacts on the speeding of the
whole body and enables a measurement of a physical
activity for a period of several and several or more dozen
of minutes as well as for a period of several days or even
a whole month [35]. Before the tests started, in memory
of the device the data concerning age, sex, height and
weight of each participant has been stored. According
to the recommendations, in the measurement process
Caltrac was carried on a belt attached to a waist, so it
– 71 –
did not disturb a person in an unconstrained movement
during a day. The registered values of the monitoring of
the burnt calories were written down in a card of habitual
activity, which was especially worked out for this reason.
It was done every morning when the device was put on
and every evening while taking it off as well as before and
after the main daily activities. The bath and night sleep
were not taken into consideration because of the technical restrictions of the device.
To make the analysis of the results of monitoring of
an energetic expense, the activities done during a day
were classified:
1. Activities done permanently, so called daily activities – morning and evening washing, preparing and
having meals, moving to work, school, home, etc.,
activities connected with professional work, studying and housework.
2. Activities done in leisure time:
a) passive – perceptive forms of spending free time
(having a nap, watching TV, listening to music,
etc.),
b) active (creative) ways of spending free time
such as:
– efforts of intellectual kind (reading magazines, books, solving cross-word puzzles,
activities involving enriching knowledge for
the sake of self-improvement),
– physical activities (different forms of exercising, gardening, DIY activities, etc.).
The results of a weekly monitoring were expressed
in kilocalories (kcal a week–1). The results were also
showed in calories per day (kcal a day–1).
Research results and discussion
The average age of the researched women physically
active irregularly amounted to 23 ± 2.88 and in a case
of those systematically active reached 24.7 ± 3.93. The
average height was 165.45 ± 6.82 in the first group
and 166.79 ± 4.76 cm in the second one. The average weight of non-active ones was up to 60.00 ± 7.43
and 58.07 ± 5.12 kg in the group of those regularly exercising. The BMI-index in the group of the examined
women who were not active ranged from 18.42 to 25.08
kg × m–2, on average 21.87 kg × m–2. In a similar example – 18.78–26.45 kg×m –2 was the value of BMI for the
group of women who were regularly active. In this case
the average reached the level of 20.90 ± 2.00 kg × m –2
(Tab. 1). Only two women out of each group presented
BMI indicator whose value of 18–25 kg × m–2 was exceeded, which stands for their slight overweight [41].
While analyzing a caloric expense of the habitual
activity of the women who were irregularly active during the entire monitored week of their lives, it can be
concluded that an average caloric expense equaled
2521.70 kcal, which divided into a daily portion equaled
360.24 kcal (Tab. 2). In the own researches there was
observed the high level of the diversity of the habitual
human weekly activity of women irregularly physically active. A weekly activity per person differs a lot –
635.42 kcal/week. The lowest weekly caloric expense
per person reached 1514.00 kcal, (216.43 kcal/day) and
the highest one 3440.00 kcal (491.43 kcal/day). In the
group of regularly active women the average number
of calories burnt during a weekly habitual activity was
Table 1. Numeric characteristics of age, features and somatic built indicators of women irregularly (I) and regularly (II) physically
active
Variables
Unit
Age
[years]
Height
Weight
BMI
Group
x
s
V
Min
Max
I
23.00
2.88
12,.4
17.0
30.0
II
24.71
3.93
15.0
20.0
35.0
I
165.45
6.82
4.2
147.0
176.0
II
166.79
4.76
2.5
154.0
175.0
I
60.00
7.43
12.9
46.0
70.0
II
58.07
5.12
8.2
53.0
72.0
I
21.87
1.92
8.0
18.2
25.8
II
20.90
2.00
9.9
18.8
26.5
[cm]
[kg]
[kg×m–2]
* In Tables 1–5 the significance level p < 0.05 is written in bold letters and the level p < 0.01 has been denoted in bold italics.
– 72 –
t
p*
–1.7
0.5
–0.3
0.3
0.4
0.1
1.1
0.7
Table 2. Numeric characteristics of a weekly and daily caloric cost of total indicators of a caloric cost of a physical activity done by
women irregularly (I) and regularly physically active
Variables
Weekly caloric cost
of activities done
regularly
Weekly caloric cost
of a leisure activity
(total)
Weekly caloric cost
of habitual activity
Unit
Group
x
s
V
Min
Max
[kcal/week]
I
1693.75
464.29
27.41
1029.00
2566.00
[kcal/week]
II
2964.57
792.47
26.73
1877.00
4328.00
[kcal/day]
I
241.96
66.33
27.41
147.00
366.57
[kcal/day]
II
423.51
113.21
26.73
268.14
618.29
[kcal/week]
I
827.95
351.32
42.43
325.00
1391.00
[kcal/week]
II
1923.21
684.99
35.62
1162.00
3603.00
[kcal/day]
I
82.06
47.12
57.43
21.57
167.00
[kcal/day]
II
231.09
104.67
45.30
127.43
500.00
[kcal/week]
I
2521.70
635.42
25.20
1514.00
3440.00
[kcal/week]
II
4887.79
836.00
17.10
3855.00
6411.00
[kcal/day]
I
360.24
90.77
25.20
216.29
491.43
[kcal/day]
II
698.26
119.43
17.10
550.71
915.86
4887.79 kcal/week (698.26 kcal/day), which was twice
as much as in the group I, with a standard deviation of
836.00 kcal, a minimum value per person was 3855.00
kcal (550.71 kcal/day) and maximum one 6411.00 kcal
(915.86 kcal/day). The big differences in the burnt energy in both groups surely result from a character of the
undertaken activities with a predominance of a physical
effort on the part of the women regularly active, their
lifestyle and somatic structure (weight) of their bodies
as well as the intervals that the said activity was done.
Their interests and hobbies turned out to be important
as well, but they were not explored.
If we take into consideration the group of women
who were irregularly active, it can be stated that their
everyday activities took 1693.75 kcal, (Tab. 2) on average, which constituted 67% in the percentage scheme
t
p
–5.89
0.000
–6.12
0.000
–9.38
0.000
of the whole burnt calories in the process of the monitoring (Fig. 1). In a case of regularly active systematically researched women the caloric cost of such activities reached a far higher level of 2964.57 kcal a week,
(423.51 kcal/day), (Tab. 2). The percentage share of
the constant activities in the total caloric cost, for this
group, was 61% (Fig. 1).
The higher energetic expense in the group of women regularly active was the effect of fitness exercises
done by them, which were treated as the obligatory activities. This share of a caloric cost in the total activities
regularly taken was up to 1702.14 kcal/day, i.e. 243.16
kcal/day (Tab. 3). It is known that the final results of
everyday activities’ caloric cost assessment of the examined women are affected by different factors such
as: the kind of professional work, the duration of an ac-
Group I
33%
67%
Fig. 1. The percentage scheme of the total weekly caloric cost in the groups of irregularly (I) and regularly physically active (II)
– 73 –
Table 3. Numeric characteristics of a weekly and daily caloric cost of activities constantly done by women irregularly (I) and regularly
physically active
Variables
Unit
Group
x
s
V
Min
Max
[kcal/week]
I
110.00
27.82
25.29
69.00
192.00
[kcal/week]
II
157.79
61.90
39.23
67.00
272.00
[kcal/day]
I
15.71
3.97
25.29
9.86
27.43
[kcal/day]
II
22.54
8.84
39.23
9.57
38.86
[kcal/week]
I
390.90
221.96
56.78
135.00
982.00
[kcal/week]
II
357.57
153.34
42.88
156.00
680.00
[kcal/day]
I
55.84
31.71
56.78
19.29
140.29
[kcal/day]
II
51.08
21.91
42.88
22.29
97.14
[kcal/week]
I
467.10
146.38
31.34
243.00
687.00
[kcal/week]
II
1702.14
701.79
41.23
712.00
2993.00
[kcal/day]
I
66.73
20.91
31.34
34.71
98.14
[kcal/day]
II
243.16
100.26
41.23
101.71
427.57
[kcal/week]
I
403.95
171.75
42.52
159.00
844.00
[kcal/week]
II
306.36
146.27
47.74
165.00
679.00
[kcal/day]
I
57.71
24.54
42.52
22.71
120.57
[kcal/day]
II
43.77
20.90
47.74
23.57
97.00
[kcal/week]
I
265.45
110.23
41.52
79.00
468.00
[kcal/week]
II
383.93
208.38
54.28
106.00
658.00
[kcal/day]
I
37.92
15.75
41.52
11.29
66.86
[kcal/day]
II
54.85
29.77
54.28
15.14
94.00
[kcal/week]
I
56.35
16.58
29.42
11.00
94.00
[kcal/week]
II
56.79
16.88
29.72
35.00
89.00
[kcal/day]
I
8.05
2.37
29.42
1.57
13.43
[kcal/day]
II
8.11
2.41
29.72
5.00
12.71
Morning activities
Commuting from home to work/
school
Activities connected with work/
learning
Commuting home from work/
school
Activities connected with
housework
Activities done before a night
rest
tivity, its intensity or the weight of a researched person.
It may explain such a big discrepancy of the results in
the compared groups. It comes from the results shown
in Table 3 that the women in both groups burnt the most
calories while doing their obligatory activities and taking the majority of their time during a day, and they are
as follows: work, learning, housework, which can be
observed in relation to the women that are systematically physically active.
The total weekly caloric cost of the daily activities of
the researched women resulted also from an energetic
expense of leisure activities – all activities undertaken
in their free time. The average value of the energy spent
on leisure activity in a group of women irregularly active was 827.95 kcal/week, which gave only 82.06 kcal/
week and constituted 33% of all burnt calories during
a week. In group II the same value exceeded by almost
100% the results achieved by the women irregularly
– 74 –
physically active, and on average it weekly reached –
1923.21 kcal (231.09 kcal/day), which constituted 39%
of the total amount of calories burnt by them per week.
The data presented in Table 2 shows that all the
differences between the groups (a weekly caloric cost:
habitual activities constantly done, total leisure activities, all week learning activity) are statistically significant (p < 0.001).
It is commonly known that not only the quantity but
also the way we make use of leisure time is important.
A human can spend it on less or more valuable activities. In this context it appears important to put a question in what way the examined women used their free
time and especially what kind of place their physical
activities take among the leisure conduct.
The analysis of the aspect of the leisure behaviours
were started with comparing a caloric cost of passive
leisure activities in groups I and II connected with the
activities such as watching TV, socializing, listening to
music, having a nap. An average caloric expense of the
women irregularly active was 253.55 kcal, which calculated per day was 36.22 kcal and constituted 31%
of a weekly caloric cost of their leisure activity (Fig.
2). In the group of regularly active women an average
amount of spent calories, in this field of their lifestyles,
was 305.57 kcal/week (43.65 kcal/day; Tab. 4), what
constituted 16% of a weekly energy expense of a leisure activity (Fig. 2). It can be said that the caloric costs
of the leisure activities of a passive character was twice
as high as in the group of the irregularly active women
and at the same time that such behaviours fill their free
time space.
An intellectual effort was taken into consideration
also as a part of leisure activity of an intellectual kind.
In the group I this part the results were not analyzed
because during a week only 2 persons out of 20 undertook the activities of this type. Therefore it is possible to
conclude that it is not a preferable way of spending free
time when it comes to this group. On the other hand,
the group II spent on average 221.64 kcal/week on an
intellectual activity (Tab. 4), which constituted 11% of
the total amount of burnt calories (Fig. 2).
Another group of activities which we focused on
in our analysis was a leisure activity connected with
a physical effort. Its caloric cost in the group of irregularly active per week was 574.40 kcal, which converted on a daily rate was 82.06 kcal. It was 69% of their
weekly energetic expense on a leisure activity (Fig. 2).
A huge standard deviation (329.85 kcal/week) indicates
a significant dissipation of the results among the average value. The analyzed form of activity covered mainly
such activities as: going shopping/an outing to a super-
Table 4. Numeric characteristics of a weekly and daily caloric cost of leisure activities done by women irregularly (I) and regularly
physically active
Variables
Unit
Group
x
s
V
Min
Max
[kcal/week]
I
253.55
136.65
53.89
68.00
660.00
[kcal/week]
II
305.57
136.03
44.52
103.00
605.00
[kcal/day]
I
36.22
19.52
53.89
9.71
94.29
[kcal/day]
II
43.65
19.43
44.52
14.71
86.43
[kcal/week]
I
–
–
–
–
–
[kcal/week]
II
221.64
76.57
34.55
114.00
401.00
[kcal/day]
I
–
–
–
–
–
[kcal/day]
II
31.66
10.94
34.55
16.29
57.29
[kcal/week]
I
574.40
329.85
57.43
151.00
1169.00
[kcal/week]
II
1396.00
747.26
53.53
778.00
3320.00
[kcal/day]
I
82.06
47.12
57.43
21.57
167.00
[kcal/day]
II
199.43
106.75
53.53
111.14
474.29
Passive leisure activity
Active leisure activity
(intellectual)
Active leisure activity
(physical efforts)
– 75 –
t
p
–1.09
0.282
–
–
–4.37
0.000
GroupII
GroupI
16%
31%
Passiveleisureactivity
11%
69%
Activeleisureactivity
(intellectual)
73%
Activeleisureactivity
(physical efforts)
Fig. 2. A percentage scheme of a weekly caloric cost of a leisure activity of women irregularly (I) and regularly physically active (II)
market, going to church or settling different matters in
town and for a few people it was a walk or an individual
gymnastics at home or going to a disco with friends.
Those who were systematically physically active, in
their free time during a week, burnt considerably more
calories than those belonging to the group I – on average they burnt 1396 kcal per week, (199.43 kcal/day),
which constituted 73% of their weekly leisure activity
(Tab. 4, Fig. 2).
Considering the whole team of the research
women consisting of the persons declaring a shortage of a regular participation in forms of physical rest
as well as those regularly making physical efforts, it
was interesting to find out if or to what extend their
caloric expense of leisure activities was close to
a recommended healthy conduct which was stated
by Paffenbarger and the coauthors and Kuński [25,
26]. Taking into consideration a required amount of
energetic expense spent on a physical activity taken
by the authors mentioned above (about 2000 kcal per
week and 300 kcal per day pro physical activity), we
calculated an average value for each group of the researched women [27]. In case of those who were irregularly active it was the value of 1714.29 kcal/week,
which was 244.90 kcal/day and in the group of irregularly active ones 1659.18 kcal/week (237.03 kcal/day;
Tab. 5).
It results from the calculations that the group irregularly active women lacked 1139.83 kcal/week
(162.84 kcal/day) to meet the recommendations of
a healthy activity. A significantly smaller difference was
observed in a group of the examined women who regularly were active – 263.18 kcal/week (37.60 kcal/day).
In the group of the women that are irregularly active
it was possible to observe a considerable difference
between an actual caloric cost of a leisure activity and
a required one (66%), which constituted only 34% of the
required amount, while in the group of those regularly
active ones up to84 %. It is necessary to add that in
the latter group a significant part of energy was used
for a physical effort, however, it was not qualified as
a leisure activity but an activity connected with work
Table 5. The degree of meeting the recommendations of a weekly volume a physical activity done by women irregularly (I) and
regularly physically active
Variables
A weekly recommended
volume of a physical
activity
The degree of meeting
the recommendations of
a weekly volume a physical activity
Unit
Group
x
s
[kcal/week]
I
1714.29
212.40
[kcal/week]
II
1659.18
[kcal/day]
I
[kcal/day]
Min
Max
12.39
1314.29
2000.00
146.32
8.82
1514.29
2057.14
244.90
30.34
12.39
187.76
285.71
II
237.03
20.90
8.82
216.33
293.88
[kcal/week]
I
–1139.89
347.95
–30.52
–1677.57
–345.29
[kcal/week]
II
–263.18
793.89
–301.65
–1074.14
1662.86
[kcal/day]
I
–162.84
49.71
–30.52
–239.65
–49.33
[kcal/day]
II
–37.60
113.41
–301.65
–153.45
237.55
– 76 –
V
t
p
0.84
0.407
–4.39
0.000
GroupII
GroupI
16%
34%
Completedpart
66%
84%
Notcompletedpart
Fig. 3. The percentage of meeting the recommendations of a weekly volume a physical activity done by women irregularly (I) and
regularly physically active (II)
–conducting fitness classes. Having taken into consideration a caloric cost of these activities, it appeared that
the examined women from the group II, would have met
the requirements of a proper volume of a physical activity beneficial for health on the average.
In the result of the analysis of the achieved results,
it is possible to state that the first hypothesis taken
in this thesis was verified positively. A caloric cost
of a weekly physical activity of the examined women
who are active irregularly turned out to be relatively
low, which proves the fact that none of them meets
the requirements of the recommended volume of
a physical activity beneficial for health. However, the
second hypothesis assuming that a weekly energetic
expense that accompanies a physical activity of the
women regularly active will meet the above criteria
was not proved. This group also does not meet the
recommended standards, though it considerably approaches them.
Summing up, it is possible to state that despite the
increasing knowledge of the influence of a physical
activity on a human system and possibilities to measure its caloric cost, for too many people undertaking
a regular physical effort still remains only in the sphere
of opinions and declarations and they are not put into
practice in their everyday lives, which was proved by
the results of our research.
Therefore we search for the ways of constant education of a society in the field of intentional practicing regular physical activity, e.g. in a form of healthy
training and more effective ways of changing a lifestyle
whose aim will be a care about health and a good psychical and physical condition. The diagnosis like this,
in the reference to a young generation, is necessary to
assess a present and future state of a society’s physical
activity in order to determine the directions and aims of
its promotion.
Conclusions
1. A caloric expense of everyday (habitual) activity in
the women who are irregularly active in their ordinary week was 2521.70 kcal on average. Assuming
that this value covers all kinds of undertaken activities, including also those that can be qualified
as physical ones, it is insufficient in the context of
health care needs.
2. The total caloric cost, covering the same activities,
in the second group of the examined women who
undertake a regular activity is almost twice higher
(4887.79 kcal), which is an effect of other lifestyle in
the field of physical activity
3. A leisure activity of the examined women which covers both passive and active physical activities and
in the case of the women who are regularly active,
it also includes their intellectual effort in the total caloric cost per week. In the group of those irregularly
active it was at the level of 827.95 kcal (67%) and
in the group of the regularly active it was 1923.21
kcal (61%) on average. The above values probably
reflect the fact that all these women have different
daily leisure time budgets and spend it in a different
way.
4. In the group of the irregularly active women the
number of calories burnt in their physical activity
(a physical effort) was 574.40 kcal, which constituted 69% of the caloric cost of their leisure activity,
and for those who are regularly active the caloric
cost is twice higher – 1396.00 kcal (73%). In both
cases it is higher than the value of an energetic cost
accompanying a passive activity.
5. While comparing a caloric expense of a physical
weekly leisure activity of the researched women
with the Paffenbarger’s assumptions, it is necessary to state that in both groups (those irregularly
– 77 –
and regularly active) it does not meet the recommendations for a healthy conduct. In the first group
the difference between a real and a recommended
cost is significant and reaches 66% and in the second group is relatively small and equals only 16.
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– 79 –
NR 49
2010
CHANGES IN SOMATIC AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
IN CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS IN THE YEARS
1980–1988 AND IN 2000
ZMIANY W ROZWOJU SOMATYCZNYM
I MOTORYCZNYM U DZIECI I MŁODZIEŻY
W LATACH 1980–1988 I W ROKU 2000
Bartłomiej Sokołowski*, Maria Chrzanowska**
***Dr. Department of Physiotherapy, University School of Physical Education in Cracow, al. Jana Pawła II 78
***Prof., Department of Anthropology, University School of Physical Education in Cracow, al. Jana Pawła II 78
Key words: Cracow children and adolescents, physical development, secular trends
Słowa kluczowe: dzieci i młodzież krakowska, rozwój fizyczny, trendy sekularne
Aim of the work. Comparison of body height and weight and the development of selected motor abilities in
children and adolescents from Cracow population on the basis of examinations performed from 1980 through
1988 and in 2000.
Material and methods. The work includes materials collected by the teams of researchers from the Department of Anthropology and Anatomy, University School of Physical Education in Cracow while implementing
“The Cracow Child 2000” project and during former examinations in the years 1980–1988. Results for age groups
of 8–16 years were taken into consideration. Body height and weight got examined as well as the results of
motor fitness tests: standing broad jump, sit-ups from the lying position for 30 s, and the sit and reach test. The
values of arithmetic means were compared and the significance of their differences was calculated.
Results and conclusions. The girls and boys examined in 2000 are characterised by higher body height and
weight when compared to the ones tested in the years 1980 through 1988. In the tests of explosive strength of
lower extremities, flexibility and dynamic strength of abdominal muscles lower results were achieved by the
examined in 2000. Only in the test of abdominal muscles in younger school age, the contemporary teenagers
were better. Among children and adolescents from Cracow population, there occurred a tendency to achieve
higher indexes of morphological development accompanied by lower motor abilities.
Cel pracy. Porównanie wysokości i masy ciała oraz rozwoju wybranych zdolności motorycznych dzieci i młodzieży populacji krakowskiej na podstawie badań przeprowadzonych w latach 1980–1988 i w roku 2000.
Materiał i metody. W pracy wykorzystano materiały zebrane przez pracowników Zakładu Antropologii
i Anatomii Akademii Wychowania Fizycznego w Krakowie podczas realizacji projektu „Dziecko Krakowskie 2000”
i wcześniejszych badań w latach 1980–1988. Wzięto pod uwagę wyniki dla grup wiekowych 8–16 lat. Uwzględniono
wysokość i masę ciała oraz wyniki testów motorycznych: skoku w dal z miejsca, siadów z leżenia tyłem w 30 s
i skłonów tułowia w przód. Porównano wartości średnich arytmetycznych i obliczono ich istotność.
Wyniki i wnioski. Dziewczęta i chłopcy badani w roku 2000 charakteryzują się większą wysokością ciała
i większą masą ciała w porównaniu do swoich rówieśników badanych w latach 1980–1988. W próbach siły
eksplozywnej kończyn dolnych, gibkości i siły dynamicznej mięśni brzucha gorsze wyniki osiągali badani w roku
2000. Jedynie w teście mięśni brzucha w młodszym wieku szkolnym lepsza była młodzież współczesna. Wśród
dzieci i młodzieży populacji krakowskiej ujawniła się tendencja do osiągania wyższych wskaźników rozwoju morfologicznego, przy jednoczesnym obniżeniu zdolności motorycznych.
– 81 –
Introduction
Research material and methods
Biological and physical development of children and
adolescents has long been the subject of researchers’
interest in many countries. The number of works in the
field is so large that it would be impossible to quote
them within the frames of this paper. Also in Poland
studies of the issue have a tradition reaching the beginnings of the 20th century [1, 2]. Many of the elaborations were developed in the ‘60s and ‘70s when the
phenomenon of secular trends in the context of social
and economic differences was presented [3–11]. In
that period, as well as in the ‘80s, a similarity of somatic development and motor fitness was observed
[12–16].
However, later studies indicated a different tendency in the intergenerational variability, i.e. disparate directions of changes in somatic and motor development,
defined as “scissors opening” [17– 24].
A considerable contribution into the research of the
level and dynamic of somatic and functional features
development was made by the University School of
Physical Education in Cracow [25– 35].
On the basis of longitudinal and cross-sectional
studies there were constructed tables and centile charts
of high diagnostic values. Developmental norms of somatic and motor fitness characteristics were worked
out in different time intervals by regional or national
research centres.
In 1980 the scientists of the Unit of Anthropology and
Anatomy at the University School of Physical Education
in Cracow started a large scale long-term studies (lasting till 1992) of children from schools located in Nowa
Huta, one of the districts in Cracow.
After 20 years, in 2000 the workers of the Unit performed cross-sectional studies of a random cohort of
children and adolescents in Cracow. In both research
series the level of development of somatic and motor
characteristics was estimated.
The aim of the paper is then an attempt to find out
whether there exist differences in the level of somatic
and motor development in boys and girls from Cracow
population examined contemporarily, i.e. in 2000 and
the ones examined in 1980–1992 and, if they exist,
to assess their intensity and diversification directions.
Such investigation can also allow verification of the thesis claiming that contemporary adolescents are characterised by a better morphological development but
lower motor fitness when compared to their peers of
the previous years.
The project called “The Cracow Child 2000” included
2093 girls and 2409 boys aged 4–20 from four Cracow
districts: Śródmieście, Krowodrza, Podgórze and Nowa
Huta. All types of schools were considered. The examined were selected with two-stage draw by ballot box
method with no returning. Twenty two somatic features
were measured as well as motor fitness tests contained
in the European Tests of Physical Fitness.
In 1980 the examination included all children from
the first classes of preliminary schools located in
Mistrzejowice – a part of Nowa Huta amounting at 360
girls and 460 boys, 820 in total. The longitudinal studies got preformed annually for the following 10 years.
Nineteen somatic features were measured and eight
motor fitness tests contained in the International
Tests of Physical Fitness were conducted.
This work only included research results of those age
groups which consisted of sufficient number of people,
i.e. 8–16 years old. Body height and weight got taken into
consideration as well as results of the motor tests that
were identically performed in both studies i.e. standing
broad jump (explosive strength of lower extremities), situps from the lying position for 30 s (dynamic strength of
abdominal muscles) and the sit and reach test (flexibility).
For the needs of this paper the measure data obtained in longitudinal studies were treated as crosssectional data.
The values of arithmetic means of body height,
weight and motor tests obtained within the frames of
the Child of Cracow 2000 project were compared with
the means of children examined in 1980–1988 and the
differences significance was calculated .
Research results
The information presented in Table 1 indicates that both
boys and girls examined in 2000 were taller than the
ones examined in 1980–1988 in all age groups. All the
differences are statistically significant.
A similar regularity can be observed at the comparison of body weight (Table 2). Children of both sexes examined later are characterised by higher weight, however, at the age of 16 years the differences are small.
Results of motor abilities tests are different. Girls
examined in 2000 in the standing broad jump got much
worse results. The differences are statistically significant. A similar tendency, but less intensified, was noticed in boys from the same cohort (Table 3).
– 82 –
Table 1. Body height
Boys
Girls
Year
Difference
N
x
SD
2000
133
129.50
5.75
1980
460
126.32
5.38
2000
194
134.00
5.97
1981
456
132.22
5.52
2000
126
140.90
6.36
1982
450
137.36
5.84
2000
138
145.90
6.91
1983
435
142.19
6.27
2000
198
150.80
7.36
1984
432
147.82
6.64
2000
143
158.30
8.85
1985
430
154.42
7.44
2000
262
165.70
8.29
1986
420
161.92
8.20
2000
188
171.80
7.77
1987
420
168.82
7.70
2000
233
174.90
6.87
1988
348
173.33
6.85
Age
3.18***
8
1.78***
9
3.54***
10
3.71***
11
2.98*
12
3.88***
13
3.78***
14
2.98***
15
1.57**
16
Difference
N
x
SD
140
129.50
6.10
360
125.54
6.00
143
133.90
5.48
358
131.26
6.00
115
139.90
6.85
354
136.87
6.47
154
145.50
6.69
352
142.62
6.99
200
152.80
6.82
350
148.94
7.44
175
158.70
6.50
350
155.20
6.96
239
161.60
6.05
346
156.34
6.18
167
164.00
6.19
346
161.61
5.71
132
164.60
5.72
219
162.98
5.73
3.96***
2.64***
3.03***
2.88***
3.86***
3.50***
5.26***
2.39***
1.62*
According to t°-Student the differences are: significant at the level * p ≤ 0.05. **p ≤ 0.01. ***p ≤ 0.001
Table 2. Body weight
Boys
Girls
Year
Difference
N
x
SD
2000
133
28.30
5.70
1980
460
26.10
4.35
2000
194
31.00
7.17
1981
456
28.22
4.80
2000
126
35.40
7.97
1982
450
31.13
5.50
2000
138
38.80
8.70
1983
435
35.13
6.73
2000
198
41.80
9.86
1984
432
38.82
7.48
2000
143
47.60
10.79
1985
430
43.44
8.32
2000
262
52.80
10.45
1986
420
49.42
9.28
2000
188
59.40
11.78
1987
420
56.22
9.42
2000
233
63.70
11.04
1988
348
61.71
8.87
Age
2.20***
8
2.78***
9
4.27***
10
3.67***
11
2.98***
12
4.16***
13
3.38***
14
3.18***
15
1.99*
16
Difference
N
x
SD
140
27.80
5.54
360
25.70
4.37
143
29.90
5.84
358
27.58
5.05
115
34.50
8.36
354
30.74
5.80
154
37.20
7.79
352
35.15
6.71
200
43.00
7.93
350
40.22
7.82
175
47.00
8.84
350
44.83
8.45
239
51.00
9.41
346
49.07
7.85
167
55.00
7.93
346
52.46
7.97
132
54.80
7.25
219
54.13
7.48
– 83 –
2.10***
2.32***
3.76***
2.05**
2.78***
3.17**
1.93**
2.54***
0.63
Table 3. Standing broad jump
Year
Boys
N
x
SD
2000
132
115.60
18.87
1980
460
127.20
19.00
2000
194
128.20
23.92
1981
456
142.50
15.14
2000
126
139.10
21.70
1982
450
148.50
17.10
2000
137
149.30
22.07
1983
435
156.80
16.80
2000
197
153.20
23.94
1984
432
158.58
17.10
2000
143
169.60
23.55
1985
430
177.72
18.41
2000
262
181.70
26.15
1986
420
185.72
20.14
2000
188
193.90
22.89
1987
420
197.24
21.93
2000
230
199.80
25.11
1988
348
210.13
20.63
Difference
Age
–11.60***
8
–14.30***
9
–9.40***
10
–7.50***
11
–5.38**
12
–8.12***
13
–4.02*
14
–3.34
15
–10.33***
16
Girls
N
x
SD
140
105.20
17.11
360
121.30
17.70
142
119.90
21.97
358
138.20
14.83
113
129.20
20.82
354
144.40
15.88
154
138.40
20.51
352
156.13
16.25
196
144.80
20.08
350
160.10
16.80
175
154.00
22.85
350
173.11
17.11
231
156.20
21.47
346
175.18
16.97
165
162.80
25.06
346
174.78
17.69
131
164.00
23.57
219
176.28
18.08
Difference
–16.10***
–18.30***
–15.20***
–17.73***
–15.30***
–19.11***
–18.98***
–11.98***
–12.28***
Table 4. Sit and reach
Boys
Girls
Year
Difference
N
x
SD
2000
124
47.10
6.90
1980
460
48.36
5.72
2000
192
46.90
6.24
1981
456
50.20
5.60
2000
124
46.90
6.05
1982
450
50.72
6.12
2000
136
48.10
6.14
1983
435
49.82
6.04
2000
197
46.70
6.35
1984
432
49.88
4.10
2000
143
47.90
8.10
1985
430
50.31
6.35
2000
262
48.60
7.95
1986
420
53.18
6.92
2000
188
51.50
9.07
1987
420
53.56
7.45
2000
230
54.30
8.34
1988
348
56.55
7.76
Age
–1.26*
8
–3.30***
9
–3.82***
10
–1.72**
11
–3.18***
12
–2.41***
13
–4.58***
14
–2.06**
15
–2.25**
16
Difference
N
x
SD
130
48.30
5.56
360
50.34
5.18
143
49.50
5.55
358
51.68
5.28
115
49.60
7.06
354
52.92
6.24
154
50.30
6.61
352
53.76
6.30
198
53.10
6.53
350
55.32
6.74
175
54.60
7.94
350
56.62
6.22
234
54.10
7.14
346
58.79
6.41
167
56.10
7.90
346
59.88
6.31
131
58.40
7.83
219
61.11
6.03
– 84 –
–2.04***
–2.18***
–3.32***
–3.46***
–2.22***
–2.02**
–4.69***
–3.78***
–2.71***
Table 5. Sit-ups
Year
Boys
N
x
SD
2000
128
18.10
3.70
1980
460
15.20
4.20
2000
194
19.60
3.78
1981
456
17.94
4.22
2000
125
21.60
4.63
1982
450
20.38
4.33
2000
136
22.90
4.06
1983
435
23.02
3.99
2000
198
22.80
4.47
1984
432
24.72
4.02
2000
142
24.60
4.33
1985
430
25.99
3.98
2000
261
25.00
3.70
1986
420
28.08
3.76
2000
188
25.10
4.19
1987
420
29.96
3.74
2000
230
25.00
4.10
1988
348
30.77
3.60
Difference
Age
2.90***
8
1.66***
9
1.22**
10
–0.12
11
–1.92***
12
–1.39***
13
–3.08***
14
–4.86***
15
–5.77***
16
Girls
N
x
SD
136
17.10
3.26
360
14.36
4.18
142
18.10
3.33
358
16.38
4.49
115
19.50
3.44
354
18.38
4.75
153
21.30
3.19
352
21.35
3.99
197
21.90
3.86
350
22.14
4.06
174
22.00
4.34
350
22.82
3.86
228
21.00
3.47
346
24.14
4.16
160
21.30
3.78
346
24.62
4.13
130
23.10
3.55
219
25.04
4.18
Difference
2.74***
1.72***
1.12*
–0.05
–0.24
–0.82*
–3.14***
–3.32***
–1.94***
Flexibility was measured by the sit and reach test
and both boys and girls examined in 2000 achieved
worse results than those examined in 1980–1988 in all
age groups (Table 3).
In the abdomen dynamical strength test (Table 5) in
boys and girls aged 8, 9 and 10 the number of sit-ups
done within 30 seconds is higher in children examined
in 2000. However, from the age of 11 years there appears an increasing advantage of those examined in
1980–1988. At the age of 14, 15 and 16 the differences
are considerable, particularly in boys.
Discussion
The studies over the phenomenon of body weight
and height secular trend show its different intensity in
Poland, depending on a region and social structure of
the examined population. The influence of economic
conditions on physical development of children and
adolescents should also be taken into consideration.
A majority of researchers observed a continuous tendency for an increase of body height and weight.
The results of our paper also indicate higher values
of the basic somatic characteristics in contemporary
adolescents. In all age groups both boys and girls examined in 2000 are taller than those examined in 1980–
1988. The greatest difference for boys (3.88 cm) occurs
at the age of 13, and the smallest one at 16 (1.57 cm).
For girls the greatest difference takes place at the age
of 14 (5.26 cm), and the smallest at 16 (1.62 cm).
The same trend refers to body weight. Differences
amount from 1.99 to 4.27 kg in boys, whereas in girls
they are a bit smaller (from 1.93 to 3.76 kg) and at the
age of 16 the difference (0.63kg) is not significant statistically. Przewęda and Dobosz [17], who obtained similar
results, explained the fact with a fashion for a slim girlish figure. The process of getting slimmer in girls after
puberty period was also observed by Chrzanowska
et al. [36] when comparing two random cohorts from
Cracow population examined in 1983 and 2000.
Results of studies on intergenerational tendencies
of motor abilities development are not clear. Bocheńska
[9] observed a unity of morphological and motor fitness changes on the basis of data of 1938 and 1962.
Przewęda and Trześniowski [15] and Charzewski and
Przewęda [16] while examining Polish adolescents in
the ‘70s and ‘80s noticed a motor development progression. Similar results were obtained by Zaradkiewicz
– 85 –
[37] in relation to the population of the middle-east
macro-region in the years 1979–1989. Dudkiewicz [38]
compared the level of somatic features and motor abilities development in children and adults examined in
1971 and 1986 from the Kieleckie region; the research
showed a linear development of somatic features and
physical fitness. However, results of later studies indicated the phenomenon of ‘scissors opening’ which
bases on a better and better development of somatic
features accompanied by a decrease of motor abilities.
Przewęda and Dobosz [17] revealed the phenomenon
in children and adolescents on a national scale while
comparing the results of auxological picture assessment in 1979, 1989 and 1999. Bronikowski [18] found
the phenomenon in Poznań children examined in 1979
through 1999. The alarming fall of physical fitness was
raised by Raczek [19] on the basis of results of studies
performed in 1965, 1975 and 1985 including subjects
aged 8–18. Żak and Szopa [20] confirmed regression
of fitness in Cracow adolescents who were examined in
1983 in comparison with norms of 1973–1974. Mleczko
and Ozimek [22] also demonstrated unfavourable tendencies in development of motor fitness in Cracow population aged 15–19. The syndrome of ‘open scissors’ in
Polish students was described by Pilicz [23] while analyzing studies results of 1954–1979, whereas Mleczko
and Januszewski [24] determined the direction of
changes in Cracow students in the years 1972–2008.
This paper confirms the thesis of different tendencies in somatic features and motor abilities development. Particularly considerable differences unfavouring the 2000 population were observed in girls at
the standing broad jump; in boys the differences are
slightly lower. Flexibility measurement also indicated
a lower level of the feature development in contemporary adolescents; the differences occur consistently in
both sexes aged 8–16. Different results obtained in individual age ranges at the static strength of abdominal
muscles tests are difficult to be interpreted. In boys and
girls aged 8–10 better results were achieved by the examined in 2000; at the age of 12–16 in boys and 14–16
in girls an advantage of those examined in 1980–1988
begins to be more and more visible. It can be assumed
that at the younger school age there emerged a strong
influence of a better somatic development in contemporary children. While getting older, the strength, being
the ability only slightly conditioned genetically [31], is
influenced by environmental factors, especially physical activity which in 2000 was weaker than in the ‘80s.
Changes of body build proportions and different stages
of puberty processes during this period of ontogenesis
might have influenced the results. Different commitment of the examined into the implementation of the
difficult tests should also be taken into account.
There are many reasons for regression of motor
abilities. Przewęda [39] claims that in order to develop
one’s motor activity, firstly they must want to do so;
whereas currently there can be observed a decrease of
motivation for physical activity in young generation. The
Internet and computer games consume too much time.
Children and adolescents spend many hours in closed
rooms in sitting position without any movements and it
leads to atrophy of muscles and disturbances of physiological processes. Pańczyk [40] emphasizes isolation
from natural environment which also influences negatively the development of young organisms. The teachers and peers’ pressure at school affect mental health
resulting in frequent frustrations and depressions.
Przewęda [39] suggests working out such a model
of education that could prepare children for later selfcontrol of their physical condition. Highly promoting the
idea, it should be remembered that its implementation
must be preceded by deep changes in the social consciousness.
Results summary and conclusions
1. Girls and boys examined in 2000 are characterised
by higher body height and weight in comparison
with their peers examined in 1980–1988.
2. In the tests of explosive strength of lower extremities, flexibility and abdominal dynamic strength lower results were obtained by the examined in 2000.
Only in the test of abdominal muscles, boys and
girls examined in 2000 were better at the younger
school age.
3. In the light of the obtained results in children and
adolescents from Cracow population, a tendency
appeared for achieving better indexes of morphological development accompanied by lowering of
the motor abilities level.
– 86 –
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– 88 –
NR 49
2010
A SIMPLE METHOD OF ASSESSMENT
OF ENERGY EXPENDITURE OF
LOW-IMPACT AEROBIC EXERCISES
PROSTA OCENA WYDATKU ENERGETYCZNEGO
AEROBIKU TYPU LOW-IMPACT
Wanda Pilch*, Łukasz Tota*, Szczepan Wiecha*, Dorota Ambroży**
***Dr, Physiology and Biochemistry Unit, Institute of Human Physiology, University School of Physical Education
Cracow, Poland
***Dr, Theory and Methodology of Gymnastics Department, University School of Physical Education Cracow, Poland
Key words: aerobic, energetic expenditure, heart rate
Słowa kluczowe: aerobik, wydatek energetyczny, częstość skurczów serca
Aim of the work. Estimating the character, intensity and energy expenditure in young women during one
hour of aerobic low-impact training.
Material and methods. The exercise ability of ten women was measured as well as threshold physiological parameters, which determine adaptation of the organism to the physical strain. The exercise test on the
laboratory track was performed
until subject’s refusal. During the test maximal heart rate (HR) and maximal
.
oxygen consumption (VO2 max) were measured. In the second stage of the study, during one hour of aerobics exercises, the dynamic changes of HR were observed using the sport-testers produced by Polar Electro
Corporation. To estimate energy expenditure indirect calorimetric method was used. To use this method, one
minute absorption of oxygen has to be measured, than by knowing caloric equivalent (which is 5 kcal for one
liter of oxygen) it is possible to measure the energy output in women during aerobic.
Results and conclusions. According to energy expenditure during one hour of aerobics low-impact (308
kcal) it may be classified as light work.
Cel pracy. Określenie charakteru i intensywności wysiłku, a także wydatku energetycznego poniesionego
przez młode kobiety podczas godzinnych zajęć aerobiku typu low-impact.
Materiał i metody. Przeprowadzono ocenę możliwości wysiłkowych badanych 10 kobiet oraz progowych
wielkości wskaźników fizjologicznych określających adaptację organizmu do wysiłku. Przeprowadzono na bieżni
laboratoryjny test wysiłkowy ze stopniowo narastającym obciążeniem, wykonywany do odmowy.
W trakcie testu
.
oznaczano m.in. maksymalny rytm pracy serca (HR) oraz maksymalne pochłanianie tlenu (VO2 max). W drugim
etapie obserwowano dynamikę zmian HR w czasie godzinnych zajęć aerobiku, stosując w tym celu sporttestery
firmy Polar Electro. W celu oznaczenia wydatku energetycznego posłużono się metodą kalorymetrii pośredniej,
która polega na pomiarze minutowego poboru tlenu w trakcie ocenianego wysiłku. Znając równoważnik kaloryczny, który dla jednego litra tlenu odpowiada 5 kcal wydatkowanej energii, możliwe jest wyrażenie wydatku
energetycznego poniesionego przez badane kobiety podczas zajęć aerobiku w kcal.
Wyniki i wnioski. Na podstawie przeprowadzonych pomiarów i porównań stwierdzono, że wydatek energetyczny o średniej wartości 308, jaki podczas godzinnych zajęć z aerobiku low-impact poniosły młode kobiety o
średniej wysokości, przeciętnej masie ciała oraz małym otłuszczeniu, można zaliczyć do pracy lekkiej.
– 89 –
Introduction
The modern kind of aerobics involves the whole body,
and the correctly performed exercises increase the
level of one’s physical fitness as well as tolerance to exertion. The term ‘exertion abilities’ means the unit of the
psychophysical properties of the body which enable the
performance of certain exercises connected with the
physical load; the term ‘exertion tolerance’ determines
the body’s ability to perform the physical work from the
moment the discomfort appears to the moment when
the need to interrupt occurs. Aerobics is a system of
physical exercises including the intensity, which require
the big amount of oxygen to be delivered to a certain
body. Looking at the intensity of aerobic, we can divide
it into three parts: low-impact, hi-lo, hi-impact. These
exercises enable the increase in exertion abilities as a
result of fitness and health training, based on the intense oxygen exchange. The modern aerobics is the
strict co-ordination of the movement with music in time
and space. Consecutive exercises should form harmony together with the music which, like dance, is a
unique experience including movement for both the instructor and the participants of the classes. Depending
on the intended intensity of the exercises we use different melodies. There are two increasing and two decreasing phrases (depending on the pitch of the sound
a phrase ends with) which are alternatively arranged in
the musical theme. The phrase corresponds to a choreographical figure of eight (sequence), whereas the
musical theme corresponds to a choreographic block
[1]. The pace also changes depending on the advancement level of the group [2].
In the low-impact system, warming, strengthening,
and calming elements can be distinguished
I. Warming exercises: their aim is to prepare body for
more intense exercises in the main aerobics part. In
this part we use basic steps repeated many times.
Duration is about 5–10 min.
II. Main part, strengthening part. This part is constructed from a sequence of movement combined
into blocks. The aim of this part is to maintain constant pulse using different choreography. Duration
is about 30–40 min.
III. Calming: we use some stretching exercises to calm
down and relax the body.
The high frequency of the systoles results in a substantial energetic effort and it increases the level of
physical fitness. The efficiency of circulatory systems
and respiratory systems is considered to be the most
important element of one’s fitness which promotes
health. An improvement in the cardiopulmonary function
is conductive to the reduction of many cardiovascular
diseases; it also enhances the ability to work and facilitates the opposition to tiredness [3]. Cardiopulmonary
fitness is the ability of the system to deliver oxygen in
amounts which are essential for taking up effective
muscular work and prolonged physical activities. The
efficient functioning of cardiopulmonary system is important for delivering oxygen and nutritional substances
and removing unnecessary products of metabolism [4].
The aim of the research was to determine the character
and intensity of the exertion as well as energy expenditure among young women during an one-hour long
low-impact aerobics classes.
Methodology of the research
10 women leading an active way of life took part in the
research. Their anthropometrical indicators fitted in the
range for thin women aged 21–23 – Tab. 1 [5, 6].
Technology of performed measurements
The research was carried out in a gym and a physical research classroom of Chair of Physiology and
Biochemistry at University School of Physical Education
in Cracow.
The program of the research included 2 types of
tests: a laboratory exertion test in which the load has
gradually increased until the moment of the subjective feeling of inability to continue workout, as well as
HR observation during aerobics exercises in the gym.
Before the research was carried out, the basic biometrical parameters had been measured. The height of the
bodies was measured by means of an anthropometre,
whereas the mass of the bodies was taken with the help
of an electronic scale Tanita, made in Japan.
The test started with 2-minutes long warm-up on a
mechanical track with the speed of 6 km/h. The speed
of the track’s movements was increased 1 km/h every 2
consecutive minutes. During the exertion, the frequencies of the systoles (HR) and the respiratory parameters
such as V̇O2 (ml/kg), V̇O2 (l/min) were recorded. After
finishing the exertion, parameters were also measured
during 3 minutes of repose.
The second type of the research, the low-impact
aerobics exercises, lasted for 70 minutes and the following stages could be distinguished:
– 90 –
III stage – 10 minutes, (warm-up – simple exercises
based on elementary steps),
III stage – 40 minutes, (choreographic routine),
III stage – 15 minutes, (weight training of basic muscular groups),
IV stage – 5 minutes, (relaxation part, stretching).
The dynamics of changes in the frequency of the
systoles was measured with a versatile device Acurex
plus by Finnish company Polar-Electro. Microcomputers
(sport-testers) make it possible to constantly monitor
the heart’s work during each exertion. In the present
research, the microcomputers were used during both
track-tests and aerobics classes.
A computer program enabling the current monitoring of the results from a device by the Finnish company
Medicro OY had been applied in the registration and
analysis of the respiratory data. This device registers
the respiratory parameters. The heart’s work was monitored, its average size at different phases of exercising
was calculated and identical HR values during the tracktest were compared in order to estimate the burning of
calories from aerobics classes. The corresponding V̇O2
values were also recorded and they were subsequently
accepted as adequate to the performed workout during
4 stages of aerobics. The time of individual phases as
well as the adequate level of V̇O2 made it possible to estimate the global use of oxygen and, consequently, the
energy expenditure as well. It was also demonstrated
how the marked V̇O2 values and HR measured during
aerobics classes were shaped in relation to the maximum values. In this way, the values of the measured
parameters among the participants of the research and
their potential abilities were received and presented.
The material included in this research is represented by the results of 10 women – students of University
School of Physical Education in Cracow who lead an
active way of life most of the time. The average age of
women taking part in the research amounted to 22.5
years, the height – 166.5 cm, whereas the body’s mass
– 55.5 kg (Table 1).
Results
The frequency of the systoles (HR) during aerobics
classes made it possible to trace the dynamics of
changes of the heart’s work in particular stages of exertion.
The biggest difference in the heart’s rhythm was
recorded during the second part of aerobics classes
(choreographic routine) in which the average HR count
amounted to 143.6 beats per minute. The highest heartbeat at this stage was 192 beats per minute, whereas
the lowest equalled 106 beats per minute (Table 2).
The lower intensity was observed in parts I and II
of aerobics classes (warm-up and physical exercises)
Table 1. Somatic characteristics of the group
No.
Age
Body height [cm]
Body mass
[kg]
FAT
[%]
1
24
177
56
25.0
2
22
160
49
20.5
3
23
176
59
24.5
4
22
163
60
33.5
5
25
170
64
30.0
6
22
159
49
21.5
7
21
168
50
21.5
8
22
162
55
26.5
9
22
158
45
17.0
10
22
172
68
38.0
x
22.5
166.5
55.5
25.8
SD
1.18
7.06
6.42
6.42
– 91 –
Table 2. The average frequency of heart rate in different parts of the aerobic
I part
No.
II part
III part
IV part
max
min
max
min
max
min
max
min
1
155
74
184
131
165
110
161
100
2
155
63
174
129
172
110
133
107
3
148
99
177
116
159
110
148
107
4
151
104
165
120
146
101
146
107
5
141
81
173
108
134
84
112
91
6
142
94
166
106
167
88
127
94
7
122
97
167
109
159
92
120
80
8
176
110
192
145
183
115
145
118
9
142
74
166
110
136
96
119
92
10
151
107
155
110
133
97
110
85
x
148,3
90,3
171,9
118,4
155,4
100,2
132,1
98,1
SD
13,74
16,16
10,58
12,81
17,36
10,70
17,27
11,74
in which the lowest average heart count totalled 111.3
beats per minute and 107.3 beats per minute, whereas
the highest average HR count amounted to 142.9 beats
per minute (Table 2).
During the graded track test, the maximum values
of the heart’s systoles and the minute consumption of
oxygen in global and relative frames were determined;
the time of the race and the run distance were registered. The highest relative value VO2 max equaled 50.0
ml/kg/min, whereas the lowest totalled 39.5 ml/kg/min.
The average count of the examined group was 45.4 ml/
kg/min. (Table 3).
Table 3. The maximal oxygen consumption and heart rate, time and distance during maximal aerobic test on a treadmill
No.
V̇O2 max [ml/kg/
min]
V̇O2 max
[l/min]
HRmax [sk/min]
Time of run [min]
Distance
[m]
1
50.0
2.8
209
16.9
2496
2
45.2
2.47
198
15.0
2350
3
44.2
2.57
194
16.3
2407
4
39.8
2.66
205
15.1
2353
5
39.5
2.58
199
14.0
2140
6
46.4
2.43
187
12.5
1825
7
49.4
2.64
199
15.0
2357
8
47.3
2.73
215
15.6
2466
9
48.5
2.50
187
15.0
2343
10
43.5
3.11
197
15.5
2455
x
45.38
2.65
199
15.09
2319.2
SD
3.7
0.19
8.88
1.20
199.83
– 92 –
Table 4. Comparison of heart rate on each stage of aerobics with the results obtained a speed run on a treadmill.
HR [1/min]
V [km/h]
No.
HRmax
HR1
HR2
HR3
HR4
V1
V2
V3
V4
1
128.3
151.4
135.7
129.5
6.5
7.0
6.5
6.5
209
2
111.3
157.1
131.8
121.0
6.5
8.0
7.0
6.5
198
3
130.2
149.4
133.0
117.4
8.0
9.0
8.0
6.0
194
4
130.6
140.0
124.1
125.5
6.5
7.0
6.5
6.5
205
5
122.1
133.4
109.1
102.0
6.5
6.5
6.0
6.0
199
6
127.8
141.1
121.2
115.7
6.5
7.5
6.5
6.5
187
7
117.9
133.9
121.3
104.3
6.5
7.0
6.5
6.0
199
8
142.9
164.4
142.0
129.3
7.5
8.5
7.5
6.5
215
9
109.7
132.9
107.3
104.3
6.5
7.5
6.0
6.0
187
10
131.3
132.2
118.6
94.5
7.0
7.0
6.5
6.0
197
x
125.2
143.5
124.4
114.3
6.8
7.5
6.7
6.29
199
SD
10.9
11.40
11.28
12.37
0.53
0.78
0.63
0.26
8.88
The average values of the heart’s systoles’ frequency calculated from 70-minute low-impact fitness
classes are close to those received during the graded
test with the race speed of 7 km/h (Table 4).
To determine the difficulty of the work carried out
by the examined women during aerobics, the bal-
ance sheet including the results from the track and
during the aerobics classes were compared. HRmax
and V̇O2 max V̇O2 max obtained during the track attempt with the average frequency of the heart’s systoles and corresponding oxygen consumption were compared (Table 5). The results suggest that the exercised
Table 5. Comparison of VO2 max and HR during aerobic, with maximal aerobic test performed on a treadmill
Aerobics
Treadmill
No.
% V̇O2 max
%HRmax
V̇O2 max
HRmax
1
22.9
65.12
50.0
209
2
35.1
65.77
45.2
198
3
50.5
68.27
44.2
194
4
20.0
63.35
39.8
205
5
12.0
58.57
39.5
199
6
22.7
67.57
46.4
187
7
23.0
59.92
49.4
199
8
48.5
67.22
47.3
215
9
29.0
60.67
48.5
187
10
27.9
60.45
43.5
197
x
29.16
63.69
45.38
199
SD
12.3
3.57
3.7
8.88
– 93 –
Table 6. Cost of work (kcal) during low-impact aerobic
No.
I part
II part
III part
IV part
Total
1
15
284
40.5
7.5
347
2
15
288
67
10
380
3
64.5
314
97.5
17.5
493
4
15
120
15
5.0
155
5
10
100
8.25
2.75
121
6
12.5
240
19
5
276
7
25
180
37.5
6.5
249
8
20
338
30
22.5
410
9
28
228
45
12.5
313
10
28.5
234
37.5
7.5
337
x
26.35
232.6
39.72
9.67
308.35
SD
19.37
79.26
26.34
6.19
113.22
work can be clasified as a light one, because it was
calculated that demand for oxygen totaled on average
29.16% V̇O2 max. The average value HRmax for aerobics classes amounted to 63.7% HRmax obtained on
track (Table 5).
During the low-impact aerobics classes, the participants burnt off 308.4 ± 113.2 kcal on average. The
span of the result was considerable and it totaled as
much as 372 kcal. The highest value was 493 kcal,
the lowest 121 kcal. The analysis of the cost of work
at particular parts of classes points to the fact that the
biggest energy expenditure was reached in part II and
it equaled 232.6 kcal, whereas the lowest was reached
in part IV – 9.67 kcal. In both first and second examples
the individual span of results was very high: SD – 79.26
kcal and SD – 6.19 kcal (Table 6).
Discussion
The change of chemical energy included in energy
substrates into mechanical work carried out by a
person takes place with a specific efficiency. The
consumption of 1 litre of oxygen with RQ equal to 1
causes the production of energy corresponding to 5
kcal. The prolonged physical exertion executed below
the anaerobic threshold is powered at the expense of
changes during which most of the energy is freed from
oxidation of fatty acids, glucose and amino acids. The
sort of the used substrate of oxygen changes is de-
pendent upon the intensity and lasting of the exertion
as well as metabolic preferences of the muscle tissue.
The energy used to move comes from the complicated
chemical processes [11].
The high level of oxygen-related metabolic abilities
is needed not only for people actively involved in athletic sport. Few people realise that the growth of maximum speed of oxygen-related metabolism of muscles
enables the elderly or sick to go for a walk without much
exertion and function everyday in the society. In case of
the effective functioning of oxygen supply mechanism,
the resynthesis of high-energy phosphogenic compounds and glycogen takes place, which later results in
symptoms of tiredness [12, 13].
Physical exertion can be divided into hard, very
hard, moderate and light exertion depending on energy
expenditure [14]. Light exertion is characterised by energy expenditure which does not exceed 5 kcal/min,
whereas hard is defined as even exceeding 10 kcal/
min [7]. Having in mind those parameters, it can be observed that exertion after 70 minutes of the low-impact
aerobics exericses totaled not much than 4 kcal/min.
This result is characteristic for light kinds of exertion.
Nevertheless, it must be highlighted that differentation
of energy expenditure of the participants fluctuated between 121 and 493 kcal, but it did not exceed the moderate kind of exertion [14].
According to Kubica [7], energy expenditure in different sports can be subdivided into groups with light,
– 94 –
moderate, hard and very hard character. The foundation
of such division is connected with the number of kcal
which are burnt off or the oxygen taken. The exertion
which was reached by the examined participants of the
low-impact aerobics classes corresponds to the moderate work. It can be further compared to golf classes
where the average energy expenditure amounts to 300
kcal/h. Some of the participants with higher average
number of the burnt kcal could compare their exertion
to the race walking where the average exertion equals
550 kcal/h.
Jaskólski [14] characterizes sport classes in terms
of energy expenditure expressed in KJ/min in his work.
The numbers gained by the participants of the study fit
into the range of recreational activities 14.6–32.7 KJ/
min. These results can be compared to e.g. canoeing classes. He also presents energy expenditure in
different sports depending on the body mass and the
burnt kcal/min. The average body mass of the examined totalled 55 kg, and the number of the burnt kcal/
min: 4.4 kcal/min. Therefore, according to Jaskólski,
the reached exertion expenditure could be compared
to dancing classes (4.8 kcal/min) or, for people below
the average during the classes, to recreational cycling
(3.2 kcal/min).
By defining the size of the workout, Christensen
makes a reference not only to the number of kcal and,
consequently, the value of VO2, but also to the frequency of the heart’s work. The average HR reached by the
low-impact aerobics classes’ participants points to the
average load of the system. Taking into consideration
wide discrepancies of this parameter between the exercises, we conclude that among people with HR higher
than 125 beats per minute during the research, the load
was considerable [7].
Aerobics is classified as a modern gymnastic form
and defined as a form of exercises carried out to the
accompaniment of music. It requires from the exercising people not only good fitness but also co-ordination
of movements. Taking into account the energy expenditure of a dancer during particular dances, it undoubtedly depends on the character of the dance. The similar
correlation can be found during fitness classes.
As it has already been mentioned, nowadays there
are many types of aerobics classes. Considering their
energy expenditure, it should be taken into consideration that they differ in respect of pace, character, and
length of classes (what considerably varies them).
In the research done by Pilch et al. [10], the energy
expenditure of the low-impact aerobics classes was put
to simple assessment. The results of the research highlight the fact that taking into consideration the workout,
this type of aerobics is more demanding than the lowimpact one. The participants of the study burnt off 510
kcal on average with HR 148 beats per minute. There
was also a substantially higher consumption of oxygen:
1.71 l/min.
Judging from the aerobic effort point of view, the
measurements taken during low-impact aerobics classes, conducted according to the schedule in our own
research, proved beyond doubt the adequacy of terminology, since the pulse rate of examined participants
reached 70% of maximal pulse level.
Quite big differences in the obtained values of the
parameters demonstrate personal differences in exertion ability levels, as well as co-ordination and one’s
‘attitude to exercises’. The differences in the obtained
values point to the fact that there is a necessity to look
generally at the number of the burnt calories during aerobics classes. This results from presented research. In
the group of 10 people the differences in the obtained
energy expenditure values during the same classes
are so considerable that it can be claimed that the participants’ attitude and reliability have a great impact on
those values.
Conclusions
1. The analysis of HR and VO2 results obtained during the graded exertion test ‘until refusal’ will make
it possible to estimate the energy expenditure of
other exercises during which the exertion pulse is
marked.
2. During the low-impact aerobics classes the participants incurred energy expenditure amounting to
308 kcal on average.
3. The obtained results make it possible to suppose
that the low-impact aerobics is the exertion with the
oxygen character of metabolic changes.
– 95 –
[1] Oleksy-Mierzejewska D: Fitness – teoretyczne i metodyczne podstawy prowadzenia zajęć. Wydanie Monograficzne,
Katowice, 2002.
[2] De Angelis M, Vinciguerra G, Gasbarri A, Pacitti C. Oxygen
uptake, heart rate and blood lactate concentration diuring
a normal training session of an aerobic dance Class J Appl
Physiol 1998; 78 (2): 121–127.
[3] Cooper K: Aerobics. New York, Bantom Books. 1968.
[4] Grant S, Armstrong G, Sutherland R. et al.: Physiological
and psychological responses to a university fitness session. Br J Sports Med 1993; 27 (3): 162–166.
[5] Chrzanowska M: Biologiczne i społeczne determinanty
rozwoju podskórnej tkanki tłuszczowej u dzieci i młodzieży.
Wydawnictwo Monograficzne, Kraków, AWF 1992; 49.
[6] Szopa J: Zmienność ontogenetyczna, zróżnicowanie
środowiskowe oraz genetyczne uwarunkowania rozwoju
komponentów ciała w populacji wielkomiejskiej w wieku
7–62 lat. Wydawnictwo Monograficzne, Kraków, AWF,
1985; 22.
[7] Kubica R: Podstawy fizjologii pracy i wydolności fizycznej.
Wydawnictwo Skryptowe, Kraków, AWF, 1999.
[8] Pilch W: Ocena wysiłku tancerzy podczas symulacji
zawodów tańca towarzyskiego w konkurencji tańców
latynoamerykańskich; in II Międzynarodowa Konferencja
Naukowa „Zdrowie: istota, diagnostyka i strategie zdrowotne w warunkach nauczania, pracy i sportu”, Krynica
Górska, 13–15.11.2003.
[9] Berry MJ, Cline CC, Berry CB, Davis M: A comparison
between two forms of aerobic dance and treadmill running.
Med Sci Sports Exerc, 1992; 24(8): 946–51.
[10] Pilch W, Wnorowski J, Szyguła Z: Prosta ocena wydatku
energetycznego podczas aerobiku high-impact. Medicina
Sportiva Practica, 2006; vol. 7, no. 3: 30–32.
[11] Borkowski J: Bioenergetyka i biochemia tlenowego wysiłku
fizycznego. Wrocław, AWF 2003.
[12] Malarecki I: Zarys fizjologii wysiłku i treningu sportowego.
1995.
[13] Costil DL: Naukowe podstawy treningu długodystansowca. Sport Wyczynowy 1976.
[14] Jaskólski A: Podstawy fizjologii wysiłku fizycznego. Wrocław, AWF, 2005.
– 96 –
REVIEW PAPERS
PRACE PRZEGLĄDOWE
NR 49
2010
THE MUSCLE RELAXATION ABILITY AND RESULTS
IN SPORT OF WORLD ELITE COMPETITORS
ZDOLNOŚĆ ROZLUŹNIANIA MIĘŚNI A WYNIKI
SPORTOWE ZAWODNIKÓW ŚWIATOWEJ ELITY
Włodzimierz Starosta*
**Prof. dr habil, International Association of Sport Kinetics; University School of Physical Education and Tourism
in Białystok (Poland)
Key words: muscle relaxation, method of relaxation, results of relaxation, different sports,
effectiveness of sport technique, competitors of world elite
Słowa kluczowe: rozluźnianie mięśni, metody rozluźniania, skutki rozluźniania, różne
dyscypliny, efektywność techniki sportowej, zawodnicy światowej elity
In the theory and methodology of sport training there are issues which are extremely important and which
are marginal. As a rule, the first kind of issues becomes the subject of intensive research, whereas the second
occasionally and fragmentarily are subject to scientific penetration. Sometimes, these extremely important,
although not being sufficiently dealt with, cease to be the subject of interest. It seems that the same lot fell
upon the extremely important issue which was and still is – the ability of muscle relaxation. Despite the
significant progress in the knowledge about sport training, muscle relaxation accounts for a relatively little
exploited reserve in the practice of physical education and sport. There are fewer and fewer such reserves,
since in contemporary record-seeking sport, more often it is the odds and ends that affect the final result. The
ability to relax muscles is not trifle, since according to scientists and coaches the low level of muscle relaxation
inhibits the achievement of maximal sport results.
The superficial overview of contemporary literature related to physical education and sport demonstrates
that the issue has recently become barely noted, though 30–40 years ago it was a subject of various research
works, carried out by specialists of various scientific disciplines in many countries Taking into account the evident
shortage of new information, as well as the lack of interdisciplinary interpretation of the issue, particularly from
the point of view of the science about human movement – antropokinesiology, the work hereby focuses on
the achievement of the following aims: 1. Definition of the place of the muscle relaxation ability in the science
about human movement. 2. Manifestation of the muscle relaxation ability in various sport disciplines. 3. Search
for the relationship between this ability and other motor abilities. 4. Establishment of the relation between the
level of the ability of muscle relaxation and sport techniques. 5. Attempt to establish the influence of the ability
of muscle relaxation on the effectiveness of technique and on the sport success.
W teorii i metodyce treningu sportowego są zagadnienia wyjątkowo ważne i marginalne. Z reguły te pierwsze
stanowią przedmiot intensywnych badań, te drugie zaś podlegają sporadycznym i fragmentarycznym penetracjom
naukowym. Czasami te wyjątkowo ważne, mimo niewystarczającego ich opracowania, przestają być przedmiotem zainteresowania. Wydaje się, że taki los spotkał niezwykle ważne zagadnienie, jakim była i pozostała
zdolność rozluźniania mięśni. Mimo ogromnego postępu wiedzy o treningu sportowym rozluźnienie mięśni
stanowi dotychczas stosunkowo mało wykorzystaną rezerwę w praktyce wychowania fizycznego, a także sportu.
A rezerw tych jest coraz mniej. We współczesnym sporcie wyczynowym bowiem o końcowym sukcesie coraz
częściej decydują drobiazgi. Zdolność rozluźniania mięśni do drobiazgów nie należy, bo jej niski poziom według
uczonych i trenerów hamuje osiągnięcie maksymalnych wyników sportowych.
– 99 –
Przegląd współczesnego piśmiennictwa dotyczącego wychowania fizycznego i sportu wskazuje, iż
zagadnienie to ostatnio stało się ledwo zauważalne, choć 30–40 lat wstecz było przedmiotem badań w licznych krajach prowadzonych przez specjalistów rozmaitych dyscyplin naukowych. Uwzględniając wyraźny niedobór
nowszych informacji, a także nie zawsze interdyscyplinarnego interpretowania tego zagadnienia, szczególnie
z punktu widzenia nauki o ruchach człowieka – antropokinezjologii, ukierunkowano niniejszą pracę na osiągnięcie następujących celów: 1. Określenie miejsca zdolności rozluźniania mięśni w nauce o ruchach człowieka.
2. Przejawianie się zdolności rozluźnienia mięśni w różnych dyscyplinach sportu. 3. Poszukiwanie związku tej
zdolności z innymi zdolnościami motorycznymi. 4. Ustalenie relacji pomiędzy poziomem zdolności rozluźniania
mięśni a techniki sportowej, 5. Próba ustalenia wpływu zdolności rozluźniania mięśni na efektywność techniki
i sukces sportowy.
Only the one who is able to master the art of relaxation
can achieve success in sport
[Matwiejew, Nowikow, 1982]
Introduction
In the theory and methodology of sport training issues
that are exceptionally important and those that are
marginal co-exist concurrently. The first ones become
a subject of intense studies, and the latter of sporadic
research. At times those important issues cease to be
the subject of any interest. It seems that this is what has
happened to an issue of great importance – muscle
relaxation ability. Exercises with „…the biggest tension and the biggest relaxation” were used already in
the ancient times. What is this ability? This is how it is
understood by W. Farfel, a physiologist: “Relaxation
– a widely used term in sport, which nevertheless
has no accurate definition or quantitative dimension. I perceive relaxation as an ability of random
reduction of unnecessary and reflective muscle
tonus.” [1, p. 16]. Despite continuous progress in
knowledge muscle relaxation remains a reserve in
physical education and sport, which has been little
exploited so far.
The review of specialist literature indicates that
this issue has recently become practically barely
perceptible, even though 30–40 years ago it was the
subject of research in numerous countries, and the focus of interest of specialists from many scientific disciplines. Taking into account the shortage of the latest
information, and what is more the interpretation of this
issue which is not always interdisciplinary in nature,
especially from the viewpoint of science of human
movements – anthropokinesiology [2], the objective of this study was: 1. Determination of the position
of muscle relaxation ability in the science of human
movements. 2. Manifestation of muscle relaxation ability in various sport disciplines. 3. Seeking associations
of this ability with other motor abilities. 4. Determination
of relations between the level of muscle relaxation ability and the sport. 5. Attempt at determination of the way
that the muscle relaxation ability influences the effectiveness of the technique and achievements of sport
success.
1. The position of muscle relaxation ability
in the science of human movements
This ability has been called differently in the past
(Fig. 1). Can this ability really be regulated if its existence depends on so many environmental factors?
These factors comprise among others: the level of
motor abilities and kinaesthetic impressions, psychical properties and attitude, training system and others
(Fig. 2). It seems that similarly as all forms of specific “feeling of the body”, “feeling of the movement”
or “feeling of the accessories” this ability depends
both on genetic and on environmental factors [3].
Recently it has been included into basic coordination abilities [4] (Fig. 3). This ability depends on internal coordination, e.g. intramuscular and intermuscular
coordination, as well as on movement coordination (its
external dimension) (Fig. 4). This diagram emphasises
the two-dimensional nature of the manifestation of the
analysed ability.
The muscle relaxation ability is an issue which
is on the border line of physiology, psychology and anthropokinesiology. Its mechanism has been described
by W. Farfel in an interesting way: “If certain movements
are executed freely, especially the difficult or unknown
ones, tension may increase in muscles which do
not participate directly in the given movement.
This impedes coordination of movements, in which
– 100 –
The muscle relaxation ability and results in sports of world elite competitors
Ability of free muscles relaxation
[Lebiedjanska, 1952]
[Topoljan, 1953]
H
I
G
H
[àowicka,1955]
L
E
V
E
L
[Farfel, 1960]
O
F
[Miedwiedjew, 1954]
Muscles relaxation
Free relaxation
[Zaciorski, 1961]
Rational muscles reluxation
[Zaciorski, 1966]
Ability of muscles relaxation
[Farfel, Nazarow, 1971]
Skill of muscles relaxation
[Farfel, 1975]
Art of relaxation
[Nowikow, Matwiejew, 1982]
Ability of free relaxation
[Ljach, 1989]
Free relaxation
[Handelsman, Jedokimowa, 1990]
Ability of relaxation
[Hirtz, 1994]
Scope of ability relaxtion
[Hirtz, 1994]
Relaxation
[Kempf, 1995]
S
T
E
E
R
I
N
G
M
O
V
E
M
E
N
T
A
P
P
A
R
A
T
U
S
Ability of muscles relaxation
[Starosta, 1995]
Fig. 1. Calendar of formation the term of muscle relaxation ability in opinion of different authors [Starosta, 2009]
– 101 –
Movements
culture
Personal data
(age, sex, degree of
advancement, sport experience,
movement experience).
Psychic qualities
(psychic predispositions, motivation,
resistance to stress, ability to react in difficult
and unusual situations, temperament and
others).
Motor abilities
(degree of physical abilities,
particularly coordination).
Psychic attitude
(i.e. to perform exercises correctly, to
achieve a defined sport result or to set a
record).
Ability of differentiation
space, time and strength
movement in standard and
variable conditions.
Training system
(methods, means, versatility, variability of
exercises used, training loads and others).
Ability of muscle relaxation
l
Level of kinesthetic impressions
(i.e. „body feeling”, „movement
feeling”) and other specific for the
discipline (i.e. „ball feeling”, „water
feeling”, „feeling of the opponent”,
„mat feeling”, „javelin feeling”
Specificity of the training and
competition site
(climatic zone, temperature and air
humidity, illumination of the sport facility,
number of spectators and their
reactions.).
Sport equipment
(adequate in quality, adequately adapted to
the competitor and not worse than the one of
the competitors)
Personality of the coach
(authority, competence, requirements,
kindness, remarks adequate to the
existing situation ).
Fig. 2. Selected conditions changing the level of abilities of muscle relaxation [Starosta, 2009]
during tensing of one group of muscles relaxation of
another is necessary. That is why coaches draw the attention of their students-athletes to the necessity of mastering the ability of relaxing those muscles, the excessive
tensing of which impedes the performance of a given
movement. Practice has shown that manifestation of
this ability in many cases encounters severe difficulties.” [1, p. 15]. This is confirmed by an example, described by the Author, which relates to the freestyle lowering of the hand. The antigravitational tension has been
registered first by measuring the speed of the falling hand
[5], then by making a comparison of the hand weight with
its weight calculated according to N. Bernstein [6] and
finally by its “differentiated” weighing [7]. The tests comprised an athlete and a person not practicing sport (Fig.
5). In the first case the recorded relaxation equalled
88%, and in the latter case – 48%.
In another study the level of relaxation ability
in the athletes was also much higher (73%) than
in persons not practicing any sport at all (55%) [8].
– 102 –
Fig. 3. Relationship between coordination and physical abilities in sports games [Starosta 1995]
In highly advanced athletes specialised in modern pentathlon after a 4km long cross country run the relaxation index was lowered on average by 16.3%, after
a swimming training by 11.0%, after fencing tournament
by 11.5%, and after an exhausting run on the treadmill
by 7.6% [8]. On the basis of a 9-week long experiment, during which special exercises were applied,
a statistically significant increase of the relaxation
index was proven [8].
2. Manifestation of muscle relaxation ability
in various sport disciplines
A high movement culture comprise skilful tensing and
relaxation of muscles. The muscle relaxation ability
differs from their tensing even in highly advanced
athletes. Discoordination with respect to relaxation
and tensing may be a cause of straining or even breaking of muscle fibres [9; 10]. It is much simpler to manifest muscle control culture in local rather than in global
movements. The first ones involve few muscles or their
parts, and in the second group large muscle groups
of the entire body. Muscle relaxation in the first group
is much simpler than in the latter group. The relations that occur between local and global movements have not been undertaken in scientific research [2].
Observation of athletes participating in “cyclical”
sport disciplines enables the determination, in those
best ones, of a significant “freedom of movement”,
– 103 –
)
Fig. 4. Kinds and structure of coordination [Starosta, 2009]
Fig. 5. Muscle relaxation in athlete (A) and non-athlete (B) [Farfel, 1995, 16, after Nazarov]
– 104 –
1. Movement harmony
2. Movement transmission
A
b
i
l
i
t
y
1. Kinesthetic differentiation of movement
2. Movements rhythmisation
3. Movements connection
o
f
4. Movements adaptation
3. Movement fluency
4. Movement elasticity
5. Movement rhythm
6. Movement lightness
7. Movement precision
8. Movement anticipation
m
u
s
c
l
e
5. Maintenance of balance
6. Speed of reaction
r
e
l
a
x
a
t
i
o
n
7. Space and time orientation
8. Movements symmetrization
9. Movements expressiveness
10. Cooperations
Fig. 6. Mutual conditions determining muscle relaxation, quality features of movement and other coordination abilities [Starosta, 2009]
which proves exceptional muscle relaxation. It is much
more evident in black athletes at the final metres of their
short distance run. The relaxation of large muscle
groups proves the ability of full and rational use
of those muscles. Muscle relaxation is much simpler
in “cyclical” sport disciplines. It is much more complex
in “acyclical” disciplines, especially those in which the
movement has to meet high aesthetic requirements,
among others, in sport and artistic gymnastics, in sport
ballroom dance. In those disciplines movements should
be characterised by: smoothness, harmony, rhythm,
lightness, accuracy, transfer (Fig. 6). Manifestation of
their high level is not possible without the ability of
muscle relaxation.
Muscle tension can be affective and coordinational by nature. The first one of them is caused by:
fear, anxiety about loosing or fear of spectators, ”the
pre-start anxiety”. This has been observed in 30%
of professional golf players. The second one causes
contraction of antagonistic muscles (opposite to
those involved in the exercise) when the athletes perform a decisive movement. It is even noted in the
case of outstanding athletes with long-lasting experience.
– 105 –
3. The connection of muscle relaxation
abilities with other motor capabilities
A master control of the motor system, which is called
the movement culture, comprises the ability of tensing
and relaxing of muscles. An athlete unable to relax
muscles to the maximum extent would not be able
to tense them in an optimum way, i.e. “just right”.
Optimum muscle relaxation allows using the master
level technique and maintaining a high endurance level,
speed and force while the effort is made during training
and competitions. Of particular importance in sports requiring a complex technique is maintaining the coordination durability over a longer time (e.g. martial arts,
in sport games), which allows the execution of accurate
movements.
Muscle relaxation ability is a result of a high level of
intramuscular and intermuscular coordination. It is
a specific manifestation in an individual, which depends
on quick variability in the processes of stimulation and
restraining. It seems that a higher level of the ability
of rhythmic and quick muscle relaxation at a high
movement frequency characterises black athletes. This may be confirmed by successive success
achieved by representatives of this race during highest rank competitions and the ever better world records
broken by them in sprinter runs. Final games in those
competitions during world championships and Olympic
Games presented on television in slow motion show the
“wonderful muscle play” in them. An interesting view
was presented on this issue by T. Tellez, coach of the
famous sprinter champion C. Lewis: “...he was truly inspired by Borzow’s runs. In his opinion the sprinter ran
in the most natural way, always at his own speed...
Walery Borzow was the most perfect running machine created by humankind.” [11].
1.
2.
Movements differentiation
Movements rhythmization
4.
3.
Movements
connection
Movements
adaptation
Muscle relaxation
6.
5.
Maintenance of balance
Speed of reaction
7.
8.
Space and time orientation
Movements symmetrization
10.
9.
Cooperations
Movements expressivensss
Fig. 7. Correlation between abilities of muscles relaxation and other coordination abilities and their hierarchy [Starosta, 2009]
– 106 –
The “wonderful muscle play” – is the end product
of successful composition of a few more important
coordination abilities: movement differentiation and
their rhythmisation, symmetrisation, combination and
adaptation of movements, muscle relaxation (Fig. 7).
A leading position among them is occupied by the
muscle relaxation ability which takes place in combination with their selective tensing – creating a seemingly
natural chain of manifestations of mutually interdependent coordination abilities. The muscle relaxation degree depends, to a large extent, on the ability of
force based movement differentiation. It also comprises the level of muscular tension, i.e. its portioning
depending on the specific situation. Such portioning
has been called “force accuracy” [12]. The application of optimum force characterises presently
the technique of almost all sport disciplines. This
even concerns the discipline of weight lifting. Its excess
violates the most vital fragments of the technique and
frequently leads to “lost battles”. A strong relation also
exists between the ability of movement rhythmisation
and muscle relaxation. This has been formulated quite
precisely by K. Meinel: “The concept of movement
rhythm comprises dynamic movement structure,
based on periodical variability of muscle tensioning and relaxation.” [13, p. 180–181]. This variability
is determined by the speed of performed movements. It
may be achieved easier for movements with a smaller
speed than those with a greater speed [14]. The manifestation of this variability is simpler in cyclical movements that in acyclical ones (arrhythmic ones), especially in the short lasting ones (e.g. throws). The most
complex mosaic-like nature of muscle tension and
relaxation occurs in series of diversified exercises
(arrangements) e.g. sport or artistic gymnastics.
It may be described as kaleidoscopic fireworks of
those two important types of muscle work.
4. Relation between muscle relaxation and tension
Proportional interaction of relaxation and tensing
of specified muscles at the appropriate moment is
a necessary prerequisite for intermuscular coordination. The performance of movements, and especially
those that are complex from coordination point of view
and unknown, independently of the exercising person,
increases the tensing of muscles which are not directly
involved in that movement. The excessive muscle tonus
and their insufficient relaxation cause a phenomenon
called “constraining” (of the body, movements, muscles) or “stiffening”. Such tension reduces the quality of the performed movements making them awkward and inaccurate. This type of tension may be
effectively overcome by the application of special
relaxing exercises [14, 15] (Fig. 8). It is also possible
to reduce this type of tension by applying the so-called
“coaching tricks” (Fig. 9).
A physiological effect of relaxation depends to
a large extent on the type of earlier muscle work [17,
18]. Consequently W. Fedorow and A. Furmanow [19]
have carried out a two-year long experiment on female
volleyball players to determine the impact of “momentary relieving” on muscle relaxation. The degree to
which the muscles go from tension to relaxation, i.e.
the relaxation amplitude was determined. In the experimental group force tensions have been changed
Groups of relaxation exercises
1.
2.
3.
4.
Exercises combined
with the moving from
tension to muscles and
to relaxation through:
-usual degree of muscle
tension;
- contrasting immediately
from tension to relaxation;
- gradual.
Exercises in which
relaxation of some
muscles is connected
with the tightening of
other
These exercises
require holding inertial
movement of the
relaxed part of the body
thanks to other
movements.
It consists of regular
physical exercises
at the time when
competitors are offered
to independently define
their time of rest and at
this time perform
maximal muscle
relaxation
Fig. 8. Groups of exercises aimed at muscles relaxation according to the increasing degree of their complexity [Lowicka 1956, 1957]
– 107 –
Ways of tension elimination
1.
2.
3.
4.
Explanation regarding
the incorrectness of
performing exercises
with tension.
(exercises should be
performed with lightness,
freely, as if “in a play”).
Particularly important
when working with
children. In American
schools special slogans
and banners are hung to
remind of the muscle
relaxation.
Special relaxation
exercises.
Aim: developing abilities
recognizing muscle
relaxation; earning to
relax them freely (4
groups according to
àowicka, 1964).
Using special means:
During the execution of
exercises –sing, smile,
talk, close your eyes for a
moment.
Observing the mimicry
of the competitor, which
expresses tension. Before
performing the exercisetighten the muscles of the
entire body, hold the
breath, then suddenly
relax them (with a forceful
expiration), and them
immediately take up the
exercise.
Methods of autogenic
training of J.H. Schultz
are applied not only to
eliminate tension but also
to accelerate
recuperation, decrease
excessive stimulation
during competitions.
Fig. 9. Ways (pedagogical methods) of eliminating coordination tension [Zaciorski, 1966, 175–176]
by a momentary elimination of external resistance
combined with deep enforced exhaling. This assured quick and deep muscle relaxation. In the con-
trol group in identical exercises the external resistance
has been eliminated more smoothly. In this group at the
beginning of the experiment an insignificant reduction
Fig 10. Measurements results of muscle hardness tension and relaxation in female volleyball players of experimental and control group in one
year training [Fedotov, Furmanov, 1971]
– 108 –
Fig. 11. Changeability of reaction time (A) and internal movement speed (B) in female volleyball players of experimental and control group in
one year training [Fedotov, Furmanov 1971]
Fig. 12. Changeability of joint flexibility in female volleyball players of experimental and control group in one year training [Fedotov, Furmanov
1971]
– 109 –
Fig. 13. Relationship between movement abilities and relaxation amplitude [Fedotov, Furmanov 1971]
in muscle hardness (tonometry), and then return to the
initial condition were observed (Fig. 10). In the experimental group the muscle tension hardness has decreased and its tonic relaxation has been considerably reduced. The reaction time to a moving ball was
shorter in this group by 14.7% than in the control group
(Fig. 11), and additionally the movement amplitude in
the joint was enhanced by 39.7% as compared to the
control group (Fig. 12). In addition, in female athletes
of the experimental group an improvement was noted
as for: the strength of the back muscles – by 8.5%,
strength of the hand muscles – 7.8%; jumping ability –
1.3%, strength of attacking blow – 17.2%. The differences in results were statistically significant. Statistically
significant relation between the increasing amplitude of muscle relaxation and all the motor skills
allowed for in the tests was ascertained (Fig. 13).
The biggest dependency was noted between the relaxation amplitude and the time of sight and motor reaction
(0.826) and the initial movement speed (0.842).
5. Muscle relaxation and the sport technique
According to some authors [3, 20, 21, 22] sport technique comprises forms (“external movement image”) and contents (“internal movement image”)
(Fig. 14). Developing of the form is much simpler, as
observation of the structure of a performed movement
allows relatively quick determination of its basic indices.
Much more complicated is the analysis of constituent
elements of the contents, one of the most important of
which is the ability of muscle relaxation. An interesting
statement on this issue was made by J. Weismuller,
multiple champion of the Olympic Games and the world
record winner in swimming: ”The biggest secret behind my success is relaxation. Relaxation is important even when I’m swimming at the greatest
speed.” [24, p. 4]. Excellent mastering of the technique
is characterised by unconstrained and natural execution
of particular movements. The muscle relaxation ability
stands out from their tensing even in advanced athletes
[9, 10]. “»The secret« of highly advanced competitors lies in their ability of not becoming tense in the
decisive moments of a sport competition.” (…) The
muscle play during performance of movements is
characterised by a kaleidoscopic change in tension
and relaxation.” [24, p. 34].
In an incorrectly implemented teaching process the
emphasis is placed on muscle tension, disregarding the
mastering of the ability of their relaxation. That is why in
some US gyms we may see slogans like: “Remember,
success in sport is only possible if you master the
– 110 –
Fig. 14. Contents of sport technique [Fedotov, Furmanov 1971]
art of relaxation”, “It’s not the result that counts,
but the freedom of movements” [25, p. 175], ”You’ll
never become a champion if you don’t master the
ability of muscle relaxation”. Interesting remarks on
this subject were made by N. Ozolin: “A lot of attention
has to be paid to »unconstrained« performance of
all sport exercises, without unnecessary muscle
tension. It is indispensable for the athlete to be well
familiar with the essence of »relaxation« in movements and to be aware of its importance. The main
way leading to mastering the freedom and lack of tension in movements – is conscious striving at executing
them »as if playing«.” [26, p. 143].
The majority of 7–11-year old children have
a natural muscle relaxation ability, which disappears at a later age, if not further developed. In
such a way the phenomenon of movement illiteracy is
created. It is among others a consequence of reduced
movement activity, limiting movements only to those
that are indispensable and specialised, avoiding or limiting natural movements. This specific type of illiteracy
was also observed in high class wrestlers in short distance runs.
Particularly interesting conclusions are reached during observation of athletes, who during tournaments focus on maximum muscle relaxation. These measures
are particularly intensified in athletes specialised
in jumping and in sprint runs. For them muscle relaxation, and in particular, relaxation of those in the
lower extremities, becomes of utmost importance, determining the achievement of the desired result. Such
relaxation was achieved slightly differently by U. Bolt,
a Jamaican, world champion and record winner in
a 100-metre run. Before the start of a final run during
world championships in Berlin he ‘played with the spectators”, laughed and made funny faces. However, once
in the “starting blocks” he focused particularly hard on
the forthcoming start. Perhaps this is a new and much
better way of achieving an extraordinary muscle relaxation during a run?
W. Legień, a world champion, made an interesting statement about the training of Japanese judokas:
– 111 –
“Training of the Japanese comprises in the first place
a lot of relaxing exercises. They are all well stretched.
Each muscle remains so relaxed at any time that
it allows the athlete to perform even the most astounding movements. And this is apparently more important in judo than superhuman force.” [27]. S. Smith,
winner of a tennis tournament in Wimbledon [1972]
in singles has formulated 6 commandments important for achieving success in this sport discipline.
The most important one concerned muscle relaxation
during the tournament: ”Even the most gifted athlete
cannot win a single tournament if he or she feels rigid
during the play. Stiffening, first of all, deprives the
athlete of the freedom of movements, violates their
coordination and causes quicker fatigue.” And we
read on: “In numerous cases stiffening disturbs the
rhythm, and excessively tense muscles prevent
smooth performance of a blow.” [28, p. 52].
6. An attempt at determination of the impact
of muscle relaxation ability on the effectiveness
of the technique and sport success
The muscle relaxation ability is exceptionally
important for the entire human organism, as it is
connected with reducing mental tension. The mus-
cular system and the psyche are strictly interrelated, as
they are bound by the central nervous system which
assures the unity of the human organism. Muscle
stiffening limits the selectivity of their tensing and
lowers the movement accuracy without which the
technique becomes insufficiently effective. Muscle relaxation is indispensable not only before the start, but
also during the tournament. For example W. Legień,
the Olympic judo champion, relaxed his muscles
before the execution of each throw. The relaxation
may be defined: “…as a state of full well being,
psychical and physical freeing. Relaxation means
regeneration; it eliminates stress, gives a feeling
of inner peace and contentment. It replenishes the
energy and adds new strength.” [29, p. 29]. This is
conducive not only to lowering muscle tonus, but also
for the frequency of heart systoles and blood pressure;
widens the blood vessels, reduces the number of brain
waves and energy use (Fig. 15).
The sprinter run of the Olympic champion and world
record winner F. Griffith-Joyner was defined as being
full of grace. And this is how she achieved such movement precision: “In 1987 we looked through old video
cassettes to try and find out why I was not running as
well as I could, without making use of the entire energy.
We came to the conclusion that the reason was in-
Results of muscles relaxation
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Decreasing muscle
tension
(rising the level of
qualitative features of
movement, and
particularly of its
accuracy).
Lowering heart
contractions and
blood tension
[Jakobson, 1948;
Handelsman,
Jewdokimowa,1990].
Decreasing
the frequency
of breaths
Widening of blood
vessels
(rise of body
temperature by 2-6 C).
Decreasing the
number of brain
waves
(to the level proper to
sleep).
6.
7.
8.
9.
10
Increased
economy of
movements
(Lowering energy
consumption by
30%).
Increasing
movement
amplitude
Increasing the level
of coordination
abilities
(particularly,
differentiation of
movements)
Increase in the
level of speed,
strength and
endurance
During symmetrization of
movements – transfer
„refreshment” of kinesthetic
impressions.
(among others specific to:„ball
feeling”, „water feeling”, „bar
feeling”, „feeling of the
opponent”, „field feeling” and
other [Starosta, 1991, 2003].
Fig. 15. Impact of muscle relaxation on particular systems of the human organism [Starosta, 2009]*
* based on data elaborated by: A. Handelsman, T. Jewdokimowa [1990], W. Jakobson [1948], H-D. Kempf 1994, W. Starosta [1991, 2003]
– 112 –
sufficient relaxation. Legs worked quickly, but I did
not manage to move as quickly as I wanted. And
so I sought ways of obtaining better relaxation.
Now I move my legs equally quickly, but in each step I
manage to overcome a bigger distance. Breaking of the
world record required running the 100-metre run in 47–
49 steps, while before that I would make ca. 56 steps.”
[30]. This statement clearly indicates the existence of
a dependence between the level of muscle relaxation
ability and the movement amplitude (elongated steps),
as well as movement aesthetics. The obtained effect
was fully justified by results of earlier studies: “The application of relaxation exercises in the period when stiffness increases in the joints considerably enhances the
training effectiveness (ca. 10%). What is more, those
exercises are conducive to increasing the amplitude,
both active and passive.” [31, p.79].
An interesting case was noted for the record breaking javelin throw by J. Sidło during the competition
held in Jena. In the first throw he achieved the result
of 71.59 which assured him winning the first place. In
the second throw he broke the Polish record – 77.32.
The third throw was performed according to instructions given by his coach, Z. Szelest: “..lightly, without
any effort at all. And so in such an »effortless way«
the javelin flew 80.15, which was a new record of
Europe, inferior only by 26 cm to the best record
won by an American-Held, which has not been recognised yet as the world record.” [32]. The hazard of
muscle stiffness may also occur in the least expected
moment. Here is a story reported by a bronze medal
winner of the Olympic Games in Tokyo in a 400-metre run, A. Badeński: “Had I then been a few years
older and more experienced than I was, I would have
returned home with a gold medal. After 300 metres I
was in the lead by four metres, and I should have continued very relaxed to the finish, maintaining my
advantage. And instead I tried to overcome the op-
Table 1. Determining factors changing the level of muscle relaxation [Starosta, 2009]
increasing – improving
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
decreasing – deteriorating
Mastering the correct coordination of exercises
In endurance exercises – performing exercises until exhaustion.
In ballistic exercises – performing exercises „in no time” – inertly.
Performing relaxation exercises after every exercises engendering “tension” .
Feeling local fatigue.
Massage, self- massage and hydro-massage.
Developing attitudes towards relaxation.
Deliberate control of the technique of exercises.
Control of the face mimcry (showing tension).
Applying rhythmic breathing.
Performing exercises with the accompaniment of music.
Turning the attention to the surrounding environment (other objects and
tasks)
Using ideomotor and autogenic training (i.e. of Schultz, 1956]
Singing, talking, smiling – during the performance of exercises.
Performing exercises with eyes closed.
Focusing attention to the correct performance of exercises( accuracy,
amplitude of movements).
Loud counting of movements, uttering words or phrases related to the
particularities of the technique and the character of effort.
Optimistic attitude towards performed exercises.
Recalling an amusing event or anecdote prior to the exercises performed.
Spontaneous – natural laughter before exercises („relaxing laugh”)
[Bevin, 2000].
Swimming and bathing in warm water.
Performing exercises alternatively with maximal and decreased intensity.
Performing exercises alternatively with the right and left side of the
body („refreshing kinesthetic impressions”)[Starosta, 1991].
Shaking arms, legs and the trunk.
Relaxed „fall” of the trunk, raised arms and legs.
Conscious relaxation of muscles while sitting or lying.
Relaxed swaying of the arms and legs.
Progressive relaxation E. Jakobson [1948].
– 113 –
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
Coordination complexity of the exercise.
Weakness of those muscles used during exercises.
Low level of flexibility.
Emotional stimulation (i.e. number of spectators,
rank of competitions and other).
The eagerness to perform exercises „at full steam”.
Low temperature of the surrounding.
Performing complex and unknown exercises.
Performing exercises aimed at „obtaining
results”.
Negative attitude prior to the performance of exercises.
Unfavorable psychic microclimate in the team.
Negative evaluation of the performed exercises.
Tense relationships between the athletes and
coach.
Personal problems of the competitor (ego).
Very high temperature of the surrounding.
Series of failures suffered.
Intensive strength exercises.
Lack of sufficient psychomotor and biological
recuperation.
Lack or insufficient number of relaxing exercises
in the process of training.
Exhaustion and weariness
[Nazarow, 1964].
Bad frame of mind.
Uncertainty of the possessed sport abilities
Exessive training load.
ponents and over a distance of three-four metres
I became so stiffened that in the end I got a terrible
cramp; my only thought was – to get to the finish.” [33].
The contemporary civilisation popularised
a style of living “relaxed” as an antidote to stress
which accompanies humans almost in any conditions. What do the saying: “relaxation”, “be relaxed”,
“relax” mean? Behaviour without any constraints, without psychical and muscular tension. In many cases “relaxation” entails the use of relaxing substances (such
as beer) which are to add courage, to unblock control
centres and lower self-control. It is much more rational to make use of numerous natural means and
methods increasing the effectiveness of various
types of motor activities of an individual without
exposing the health to harm (Table 1). Muscular “relaxation” is strictly connected with the psychical
one. Both take place in the central nervous system
and have a mutual interaction. This means that to
a large extent they are mutually interdependent, i.e. the
“mental relaxation” affects the “muscle relaxation”
and vice versa. Both types of “relaxation” depend
on the type of psychical approach of a person
based on the concept formulated by D. Uznadze
[34, 35, 36]. This may be illustrated by the performance
of A. Małysz, winner of numerous medals during highest rank competitions in ski jumping. When his focus
was on technically correct jump he managed to achieve
successive successes. Later he shifted his focus to
achieving a specific result and occupying a specified
position. Such an approach was accompanied by
increasing emotions, and along with them, reduced muscle relaxation. Some observers, and also
Małysz himself, called this phenomenon “tightness” or
“stiffness”, and as a consequence a growing shortage
of “relaxation”. “Muscle stiffness” significantly lowers
the level of “feeling of the threshold”, “feeling of the
body position during the jump” etc. As an effect, during
competitions the achieved results were getting worse
each time. Such psychical approach, unfavourable
in immeasurable disciplines and those that require
a high movement quality as well as its effects,
were already mentioned a long time ago [37]. The
level of muscle relaxation ability, similarly as the various types of feeling, are highly variable. This may be
proven by a statement made by W. Fortuna, an Olympic
champion, about the participation of A. Małysz in world
championships in 2007: “yesterday he was jumping in
a relaxed way, and today he has become tense”.
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DISCUSSIONS
POLEMIKI I DYSKUSJE
NR 49
2010
TIME PERCEPTION AND MOTOR BEHAVIOUR
OF LIVING BEINGS
POSTRZEGANIE CZASU A ZACHOWANIE RUCHOWE
ISTOT ŻYWYCH
Wacław Petryński* , Mirosław Szyndera**
***Dr., Faculty of Tourism, Katowice School of Economics, Katowice, Poland
***Dr., Faculty of Tourism and Recreation, University School of Physical Education, Krakow, Poland
Keywords: motor control, physiology, psychology, sociology
Słowa kluczowe: sterowanie ruchami, fizjologia, psychologia, socjologia
The authors discuss influence of time perception development on behaviour control in living beings, including humans. At first they present “classical” division into energetic and coordinative constituents. Next they
add third group, i.e. psychological elements, and then the fourth category, i.e. cultural factors. Unlike divisions
made in most scientific papers, which usually take into account energetic and coordinative constituents only,
the explanation of the processes involved in human behaviour needs taking into account all four circles of
elements: energetic, coordinative, psychological and cultural ones. In the course of evolution they developed
along with central nervous system. This development included also the capability of better and better formation
of a unique ability, necessary for understanding of reality: the time perception, which significantly influenced
all behaviour patterns.
Autorzy omawiają wpływ rozwoju postrzegania czasu na sterowanie zachowaniem istot żywych, w tym
człowieka. Na wstępie przedstawiają „klasyczny” podział na czynniki wysiłkowe (energetyczne) i zbornościowe
(koordynacyjne). Następnie dodają trzecią grupę, czyli procesy psychologiczne, i wreszcie czwartą, czyli wartości
kulturowe. W odróżnieniu od większości prac naukowych, uwzględniających zwykle jedynie czynniki wysiłkowe
i zbornościowe, wyjaśnienia procesów określających zachowanie człowieka upatrują we wszystkich czterech
„kręgach” czynników: wysiłkowym, zbornościowym, psychologicznym i kulturowym. W toku ewolucji gatunkowej rozwijały się one wraz z ośrodkowym układem nerwowym. Rozwój ten obejmował również możliwość coraz
lepszego kształtowania niezwykłej zdolności niezbędnej do rozumienia rzeczywistości, czyli postrzegania czasu,
które wywarło znaczący wpływ na wzorce wszelkich zachowań.
The development of a mankind consists of two stages:
at first a human started to think about things,
and then – to think about thinking.
John D. Barrow
Introduction
The behaviour of living beings – including humans – has
been for a long time an important point of interest for many
scientists in different disciplines. Here it would be instructive to quote an anecdote by Nikolai A. Bernstein:
– 119 –
“You probably do not know that God has a cousin who has never been very famous. So, the cousin asked God to help him achieve
fame and glory in science. To please the cousin, God gave him ability to get any information about physical systems in no time and
to travel anywhere within a microsecond. First the cousin decided
to check whether there was life on other planets. No problems: he
travelled to all the planets simultaneously and got an answer. Then
he decided to find out what the foundation of matter was. Again, this
was easy: He became extremely small, crawled inside the elementary particles, looked around, and got an answer. Then, he decided
to learn how the human brain controls movements. He acquired the
information about all the neurons and their connections, sat at his
desk and looked at the blueprint. If the story has it right, he is still
sitting there and starring at the map of neuronal connections” [1].
So, in the development of motor science we come
across three important factors:
The matter of human behaviour is probably most
complicated issue in contemporary science, much
more intricate than e.g. quantum mechanics or molecular biology.
In physics Sir Isaac Newton created a mathematical
projection of real world, which opened way for application of the deduction method for its description. On the
other hand, in physical culture, the essence of which is
much more complicated than relations between mass,
force and acceleration, mainly the inductive way of reasoning is adopted [2, 3].
In contemporary researches into human behaviour,
deduction and induction are not used as complementary methods, but they rather collide with each other.
Moreover, an extremely inductive stream of thinking
in physical culture sciences was behaviourism, which
placed all the deductive methods in so called “black
box”. Unfortunately, the consequences of behavioural
approach to motor control problems are discernible
even now, though behaviourism itself seems to be no
more so influential as before.
In physics the Newton’s achievements became
some important turning point: According to outstanding
COORDINATION
(NEUROPHYSIOLOGY)
mathematician René Thom, before Newton the observations went ahead of theory, and after Newton – the
theory did overtake observations [2]. Some great theories, e.g. the quantum mechanics, would not be possible with observations as a starting point, because quantum phenomena were then far beyond the capabilities
of both human sense organs and even measurement
instruments. Unfortunately, in physical culture sciences
we still observe mainly striving for collecting “new, original experimental data”, and scientists are expected to
make first of all observations and measurements, and
not to formulate theories.
Two circles – energy and coordination;
physiology
The first complex and systemic theory of living beings
motor behaviour had been created by Bernstein in 1947
[4, 5]. In classical paradigm of human movement analysis, two main factors are taken into account: energetic
and coordinative ones [6, 7]. More detailed such division had been presented by Gundlach [8]. The interrelation of both these factors is shown in Fig. 1.
In a living organism the energetic or physiological
factors are determined by energy transformation (metabolic processes), which result in muscle contraction
and expenditure of work into environment. Information
processing in living creatures bases also on energy
flows (neural impulses), but their power is negligible
as compared to those developed by muscles; so, the
muscles act as mighty servomechanisms. To achieve
a certain level of efficacy, a living organism has to use
both energetic and coordinative capabilities. In Fig. 1
such a situation is represented by the field ”Efficacious
motor actions”.
EFFICACIOUS
MOTOR ACTIONS
ENERGY
TRANSFORMATIONS
(METABOLISM)
Fig. 1. Interrelations between coordination and energy transformations; efficacious motor actions
– 120 –
The sheer use of energetic and coordinative capabilities in a living being does not need any time perception.
Even primitive animals, as worms or snails, are able to
perform quite coordinated movements. However, their
motion is aimed at looking for stimuli in environment using the “trial-and-error” method. Bernstein wrote:
“Consider a worm that crawls to an obstacle or a snail that
reaches the tip of a grass blade. When there are complications of
this kind, these animals start rather animated, aimless searching
movements in all directions. In the more highly developed neokinetic animals, movements follow sensations; that is, movements are
directed and controlled by sensations. In the lower animals, the opposite is true: Sensations are served and provided by movements”
[7]1.
Third circle – emotions and reason;
psychology
More advanced animals developed remote sense
organs – teleceptors. The most complicated of them
seems to be vision. At first the eyes were placed at
the sides of head, enabling panoramic view. Then, especially in predators, they moved to one plane, what
enabled stereoscopic, three-dimensional view [9].
Such an ability to see has facilitated the perception
and evaluation of position and its change, i.e. motion.
The process of place changing was inseparably connected with some speed, and this made necessary to
perceive – at least in some sense – a new important
factor: the time.
Detailed analysis of time perception has been
presented by Holly Andersen and Rick Grush [10].
They described this phenomenon from psychological
(William James) philosophical (Edmund Husserl) and
physical (William Hamilton) point of view. Time is one
of the most elusive, abstract and mysterious notions in
whole human knowledge; by now it was impossible to
formulate an internally coherent, succinct definition of it.
So, in four-dimensional space-time continuum, where
the results of motor control processes are observable,
it is necessary to turn to less philosophical, but more
“tangible” description of time2. The more accessible
1
The quoted fragment has been excellently translated from Russian by
Mark L. Latash. The only quibble concerns the word “aimless”. In the Russian
original it reads “беспорядочное”, i.e. “disorganised, chaotic”, and not “aimless”.
2
Here we come across very important factor in science. To be useful,
any scientific tool has to be not only efficacious and formally correct, but also
understandable and easy to use by scientists who are not specialists in a given branch. This is why mathematics is not as commonly used as it should be:
because it is perceived as being too complicated for non-mathematicians.
Here we observe similar situation with description of the notion of time: its
(but less detailed) analysis of temporal aspects of motor performances in sport had been presented by HansVolkhart Ulmer [11].
Not without reason the word “tangible” had been
written in parentheses, because no living being has
specific sense organs for detecting the time lapse.
Using sense organs, time may be recognized only indirectly, by analysis of movement and velocity. Such analysis has been made already by Leonardo da Vinci, who
analyzed perception of velocity (inseparably connected
with time) in space from the point of view of painter [12].
The sensory observable phenomena, translation and
speed, are physically inseparably associated with sensory unobservable time.
By the way: it has to be stressed that stimuli are not
information carriers per se. They are received by sense
organs which produce appropriate sensory inputs. The
specific information is being ascribed to these sensory inputs only in the central nervous system. So, red
light means for a sailor “port side”, while for a driver –
“stop”.
The occurrence of teleceptors resulted in formation of some kind of time perception. The simplest
was the division into past and present, later some
animals mastered also the ability to anticipate – to
some extent – also future events. Thus, the teleceptors enabled extending the time-space continuum,
accessible to reasonable analysis, little bit “forth” and
“back” in time. Moreover, the quantity of information
provided by teleceptors was so great that it evoked
the necessity of significant development of the central nervous system, to make it able to process this
increasing (both qualitatively and quantitatively) information. This is why Bernstein quotes Sir Charles
Sherrington, who stated that “teleceptors created the
brain” [4].
Another important element is the ability to abstract
projection of reality in mind. In animals it is not a verbal language, but nevertheless a code of information
processing, used by them, enables to project in their
minds some images of past events, thus making the
ground for memory. The memory includes information
processing, i.e. employment of instinct, intelligence
and intuition. Thus, it makes possible the processes
of learning and skills acquiring. In humans crucial are
also close connections of the origins of movements
and language [13].
philosophical descriptions are hardly useful for motor control specialists, i.e.
it is not enough “user friendly”.
– 121 –
EMOTIONS
AND MIND
1. I want
I have skill
I have no energy
COORDINATION
EFFICACIOUS
DELIBERATE
MOTOR ACTIONS
3. I have skill
I have energy
I don’t want
2. I want
I have energy
I have no skill
ENERGY
TRANSFORMATIONS
Fig. 2. Interrelations between coordination, energy transformations and emotions+mind; efficacious deliberate motor actions
Time perception in the range available to senses
makes the ground for phenomenon addressed as “timing”. Arturo Hotz describes this notion as follows:
Timing is the temporal punctuality towards a spatial point,
and also the functional potential to be at proper time, with optimum
speed, and in relevant place [14].
The ability to judge spatial, motor and temporal
aspects of phenomena and processes, which happen
in environment, have changed the role of movement in
living beings. In his seminal work On construction of
movements Bernstein wrote:
ence between sheer agility and sophisticated dexterity.
The agility is only coordinated cooperation of muscles
which does not need to be deliberated and goal directed, while the dexterity means solving the complex tasks
by means of movements.
Perception of time by a dog has been excellently
described by Jack London in the following fragment
of his famous novel White Fang (quoted by Bernstein,
19913):
“Another advantage he possessed was that of correctly judging
time and distance. Not that he did this consciously, however. He did
not calculate such things. It was all automatic. His eyes saw correctly, and the nerves carried the vision correctly to his brain. The
parts of him were better adjusted than those of the average dog.
They worked together more smoothly and steadily. His was a better,
far better, nervous, mental, and muscular coordination. When his
eyes conveyed to his brain the moving image of an action, his brain,
without conscious effort, knew the space that limited that action and
the time required for its completion. Thus, he could avoid the leap of
another dog or the drive of its fangs and at the same moment could
seize the infinitesimal fraction of time in which to deliver his own
attack. Body and brain, his was a more perfected mechanism. Not
that he was to be praised for it. Nature had been more generous to
him than to the average animal. That was all” [15].
Teleceptors turned to be a mighty centralizing factor because
they enabled an animal to react to a distant stimulus. The dimensions of its own body were negligible small as compared with a distance to the stimulus. This brought to foreground the movements
in space of whole body, thus pushing to background the partial
metamere reactions which played the main role in the era of tangoceptors domination [5].
As stated by Bernstein, movements became no
more necessary to look for stimuli, but the information “extracted” from external stimuli was exploited by
animals to control movements. Thus, the movements
became more economical, intentional and conscious.
In this respect we observe great qualitative change in
motor control: here we have to do not with sheer coordination, which may be aimless, but with intentionally performed motor skills. So, the load of intellectual
elements in otherwise motor activity makes the differ-
The ability to remember past events enabled a living being to collect experiences, and later use them
to probabilistic prognosis of the future [16]. The animal
3
Unfortunately, this important quotation is not included into otherwise
excellent translation of this book into English (Bernstein, 1996, p. 130). It was
surprise even for the translator, Mark L. Latash.
– 122 –
became able to judge in advance, either should it avoid
some thing or phenomenon, or should it look for them.
Thus emerged the motivation.
Motivation, involving emotional and rational factors,
make a third important circle of elements influencing
the behaviour of living beings (Fig. 2).
Here the field of efficacy has to include three factors:
• energy,
• skill,
• will (motivation).
Lack of any of these elements makes an efficacious
motor performance of a living being impossible.
In field 1 there is lack of energy; in such a situation
some development of effort abilities – strength, endurance, efficiency etc. – is necessary.
Field 2 represents the lack of skills. To eliminate it,
necessary is some specific, motor and mental training.
In field 3 we have to do with lack of motivation. In
humans building a proper motivation is a basic condition for any deliberated (voluntary) activity.
Summing up, it is possible to state that the tangoceptors enabled reaction to contact stimuli. Next, the
development of teleceptors, together with elementary
time perception, made it possible to react to distant
stimuli. Additionally, the ability to make abstract projections of reality in mind (the most developed code of doing it is the language) and time perception (timing) enables probabilistic anticipation of stimuli. Development
of these abilities was possible only in highly advanced
central nervous system and they constitute the cornerstones of increasing efficiency and efficacy of actions
performed in environment by living creatures. The temporal structure of informational processes – and proper
timing – is very important in many human activities, e.g.
in combat sports [17].
Fourth circle – skills and tradition; culture
Homo sapiens is the only being which developed time
perception beyond the limits determined by sense organs. The past developed into historical perspective,
the future into “end of the universe”. High precision of
time measurement made possible the observation of
phenomena and processes lying far beyond the capabilities of human senses, e.g. those belonging to the
sphere of quantum mechanics. Also sport measurements, with accuracy of up to 1/100 or 1/1000 second, are at present possible only with special devices.
Moreover, using of GPS navigation devices, more and
more common by now, needs to take into account
also the rules of theory of relativity, i.e. forces engineers to understand also some relativistic “plasticity”
of time [18]. Paradoxically enough, by now scientists
were not able to formulate any good definition of time.
Nevertheless, humans had understood the notion of
time to much higher extent than any other living creature.
Historical perspective enabled an individual human to collect not only his own experiences, but also
to make use of the experiences of previous generations. As John T. Cacioppo and Gary G. Berntson have
stated, “humans are social animals” [19], but – unlike
other living beings taking advantage of group cooperation – they are able to extent their “sociality” also far
in the past and far in the future. The entire heritage,
both material and spiritual, of a whole mankind, being
consolidated and enriched in the course of history, and
transferred from one generation to the next one, has
been termed culture [20], which includes also science
and technology.
Many human behaviour patterns are conditioned
culturally. So, in scheme of factors influencing a human
behaviour, there emerges a fourth circle: the cultural
one (Fig. 3).
As in the “three-circle scheme” (Fig. 2), the coordination may be here identified with sensorimotor skills
(sensorimotor habit patterns).
The specific field in Fig. 3 is the B-field: a place of
actions possible to be performed (there is enough energy, skill and will), but not allowed culturally. In other
words, this is a place for criminal behaviour.
The ability to use verbal code of information processing is unique to humans and enables time perception without mental limitations in past and present; here
arises the notion of eternity. This makes possible to create the tribal and, at higher level of development, also
the social behaviour of large human groups.
Discussion and conclusion
The diversity of origins of human behaviour affords
many interpretational difficulties. The energy circle
“belongs” to physiology; the coordination one – to neurophysiology, the motivation one – to psychology, and
the cultural one – to sociology. Each of these branches
of science has its own scientific workshop, traditions,
achievements (and defeats). Some kind of false “scientific pride” makes it difficult to find a common language
– 123 –
CULTURE
EMOTIONS
AND MIND
4
D
C
CULTURAL
MOTOR
ACTIONS
1
A
3
B
COORDINATION
ENERGY
TRANSFORMATION
2
Abbreviations:
A – I have skills; I have energy; I am allowed to do it; I DON’T WANT TO DO IT.
B – I have skills; I have energy; I want to do it; I AM NOT ALLOWED TO DO IT.
C – I have energy; I want to do it; I am allowed to do it; I HAVE NO SKILLS.
D – I have skills; I want to do it; I am allowed to do it; I HAVE NO ENERGY.
1 – I have skills; I am allowed to do it; I HAVE NO ENERGY; I DON’T WANT TO DO IT.
2 – I have skills; I have energy; I don’t want to do it; I am not allowed to do it;
3 – I have energy; I want to do it; I have no skills; I am not allowed to do it.
4 – I want to do it; I am allowed to do it; I HAVE NO SKILLS; I HAVE NO ENERGY.
Cultural motor actions: I have skills; I have energy; I want to do it; I am allowed to do it.
Fig. 3. Interrelations between coordination, energy transformation, emotions+mind and culture; cultural motor actions
for all these branches of science. Moreover, all the
branches listed above are rooted in inductionist rather
and not deductionist methodology of science development. Nevertheless, in contemporary science some kind
of mathematical description, deductionist in its core, is
more and more necessary and here we come across
conflicts between both these streams. Mathematics is
in fact some kind of language enabling fully formalised
expression, reliable reasoning and drawing accurate
conclusion about the real world even without direct contact with it. Such a language enables using the purely
mental method of proving the correctness of thinking
and drawing conclusions, independent of direct observations and measurements in reality. Unfortunately,
the mathematical formalism is hardly understandable
to many biologists, psychologists and sociologists, so
they treat the pure intellectual process of reasoning and
creation of conclusions with some mistrust. Moreover,
the information processing system in humans is multilevel and multimodal, and mathematics is not a “native”
code at any of the levels and modes. Thus, it may serve
only as auxiliary tool for verifying of reasoning correctness, but it not mirrors truly the information processing
in living beings, including human. In other words, mathematics cannot release physical culture scientists from
thinking and looking for new ways of reality description.
Unfortunately, in contemporary biological sciences – in
a broad sense – the apparently reliable ground of easily observable, measurable and countable experimental
facts do not make any more a fertile base for real progress in science.
As seeing from evolutionary perspective, one may
state that the most primeval from among all four circles
is energetic one. Next comes the coordinative one, next
emotional/rational (psychological) and finally the cultural one. On the basis of daily experience it is possible to
formulate the hypothesis that the older the “circle”, the
stronger is “rooted” in information processing system in
human. Thus, in situation of overloading the information
processing system (e.g. in high danger) the capability
– 124 –
of it becomes limited and first the cultural circle – most
sophisticated, but at the same time most vulnerable to
any disturbances – is being “switched off”, then the psychological, and finally the coordinative one. This is also
fully coherent with Abraham Maslow’s theory [21].
Time is the most abstract notion from among all
the elements influencing behaviour of living creatures,
including a human. No living being has special sense
organs to perceive it. According to Hotz:
“The time is an invention of humans which arose from the real
need to better orientate themselves in events. The Nature gives
some rhythms. The periodical returns of sun and moon, beating of
heart – it enables us to learn and experience the notion of time.
When we line such periods and count them, then we obtain the time”
[14].
Nevertheless, just this elusive phenomenon influences greatly an overall behaviour of all living beings,
including human. The modality of space and motion
perception results in the necessity of taking into consideration also that new element: the time. More and more
advanced understanding of this phenomenon – and
making proper use of this understanding – gave better
chances in permanent, evolutionary fight for surviving.
The humans have developed two magnificent abilities:
abstract projection of reality (language) and perceiving
the time as a universal factor which orders the succession of events in perspective much wider than that determined by limits of sense organs. Both these abilities
make two main pillars of abstract thinking which make
the ground for culture formation. The culture, in turn,
influences also the most primeval behaviour patterns of
humans, i.e. the motor ones.
Summing up, it is to be stated that:
• Information extracted from contactceptive stimuli
(mainly touch) is so primitive that it does not need
a code of processing including any time perception,
• Information extracted from teleceptive stimuli (in
humans mainly vision) carries so rich information
that it was necessary to create a code of processing including elementary time perception (timing,
limited by sense organs capabilities).
• Verbal information has to be processed with highly
sophisticated code including time perception in
historical and cultural scope; this is purely human
perspective of reality perception.
It is to be noted that the perception of time is not
the same as its full understanding. By now scientists
were not able to formulate good definition of time.
Nevertheless, employing increasingly advanced codes
and methods of information processing, including more
and more thorough time understanding, was possible
only when the central nervous system reached successive, higher and higher stages of development. This
process was illustratively described by Bernstein [4, 5,
6, 7].
Currently it is more and more obvious that reality
does not obey the divisions of science into particular
branches as made by learned people. These divisions
are more and more often perceived as senseless or
even harmful to science. K. Popper wrote:
“...universities completely needlessly have fragmented the
knowledge into different, specialized branches. Each of them, without any necessity, had been closed in its own ritual and terminology.
It is necessary to counteract this fragmentation of science [2]”.
On the other hand it becomes clear that it is impossible to solve the greatest intellectual and practical
problems within the frames of one branch of science
only. So, it becomes necessary to apply so called interdisciplinary approach. Bogdan Czabański wrote:
“In motor learning – to make the image of particular elements
more clear – one may divide the emotional, cognitive, motor and
social layers, but it is always to be remembered that they make one
coherent system of learning in humans” [22].
Unfortunately, the movements’ creation and control seems to be not very interesting to psychologists
or even specialists in cognitive science. Cacioppo and
Berntson wrote:
“... the study of complex aspects of the mind and behaviour will
benefit from yet a broader collaboration of neuroscientists, cognitive
scientists, and social scientists” [19].
Here very characteristic is the absence of a very
important aspect of human behaviour, i.e. the motor
one. James Kalat, other outstanding psychologist, expressed this still more clearly:
“... most of psychologists do not care much about the movement. The investigation of muscle contractions seems to be less
»psychological« than research into visual perception, learning processes, social interactions, motivation or emotion. Nevertheless,
quick movements of a skilled typist, professional musician or athlete
need very complex brain activity. Movement understanding is the
great challenge both for psychologists and biologists” [23].
Hence, it seems that just the living beings’ motor
activity constitutes fundamental element of biological
“jigsaw puzzle” enabling scientists to understand and
describe the behaviour of animals and humans. In other
words, omitting the motor aspects of human behaviour
– 125 –
makes it difficult (if not completely impossible) to understand. Roughly one may then state that:
• Performing goal-aimed, reactive operations in tangible (recognized by contactceptors) environment
does not need any recognition of time,
• Performing deliberate, active operations in observable (recognized by teleceptors) environment needs
time recognition at level of timing,
• Performing cultural, creative operations in perceivable environment needs time recognition reaching
beyond the limits of direct sensory observations.
The experimental research of these phenomena
and processes in humans are very difficult, because,
according to Bernstein’s theory, Homo sapiens may
adopt information processing procedures from perceptive level, virtually impossible to direct experimental
research, even in operations simple, reactive and easily observable. The researcher may directly observe
only the final result, the movement, but not information
processing underlying the creation of this movement.
Thus, in fact the researcher never knows, results of
what processes he observes experimentally.
Fortunately enough, the kinesiology – and its “hard
core”, the motor science (or motor control) – involves all
the four circles of elements influencing behaviour of human in a society: energy, coordination, motivation and
culture. Understanding their interrelations would not be
possible without taking into account the problem of time
perception.
[1] Latash ML: Synergy, New York, Oxford University Press,
2008.
[2] Sorman G: The Real Thinkers of Our Times [in Polish:
Prawdziwi myśliciele naszych czasów]. Warszawa, Czytelnik, 1993.
[3] Wróblewski AK: The History of Physics [in Polish: Historia
fizyki], Warszawa, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, 2007.
[4] Bernstein NA: On Construction of Movements [in Russian:
O postroyenii dvizheniy], Moskva, Medgiz, 1947.
[5] Bernstein NA: Movements’ coordination in ontogenesis [in
Russian: Koordinaciya dvizeniy v ontogeneze]; in: Ucenye
zapiski Gosudarstvennogo centralnogo instituta fizkultury,
vol 2. Moskva, Fizkultura i Sport, 1947: 3–52.
[6] Bernstein NA: On Dexterity and Its Development [in Russian: O lovkosti i yeyo razviti]. Moskva, Fizkultura i Sport,
1991.
[7] Bernstein NA: On Dexterity and Its Development; in Latash
ML, Turvey MT (eds.): Dexterity and Its Development,
Mahwah, New Jersey, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,
Publishers, 1996: 1–243.
[8] Gundlach H: System Connections of Somatic Abilities
and Skills [in German: Systembeziehungen körperlicher
Fähigkeiten und Fertigkeiten]. Theorie und Praxis der
Körperkultur, 1968; 17(2): 198–205.
[9] Calder R: The Inheritors; The Story of Man and The
World He Made [in Polish: Spadkobiercy]. Warszawa,
Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, 1972.
[10] Andersen H, Grush R: A Brief History of Time-Consciousness: Historical Precursors to James and Husserl. Journal
of the History of Philosophy, April 2009; vol. 47, no 2:
277–307.
[11] Ulmer H-V: Time: The fourth dimension of long-time goaloriented motoricity [in German: Die Zeit: Vierte Dimension
einer Langzeit-Zielmotorik]; in Hirtz P, Nüske F (eds.),
Bewegungskoordination und sportliche Leistung intrgrativ
betrachtet, Schriften der Deutschen Vereingung für Sportwissenschaft, Bd 87. Hamburg, Czwalina Verlag: 105–109.
[12] Janowski J: Depicting of imagined space in pictures
[in Polish: Przedstawienia wyobrażonej przestrzeni na
obrazach]; in: Francuz P (ed.): Obrazy w umyśle. Studia
nad percepcją i wyobraźnią. Warszawa, Wydawnictwo
Naukowe “Scholar”, 2007.
[13] Allott R: The Motor Theory of Language; in von RafflerEngel W, Wind J, Jonker A (eds.): Studies in Language
Origins, vol. 2. Amsterdam – Philadelphia, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 1991: 123–157.
[14] Hotz A: Qualitative Movements’ Learning [in German:
Qualitatives Bewegungslernen], Bern, Verlag Schweizerischer Verband für Sport in der Schule SVSS, 1997.
[15] http://london.sonoma.edu, retrieved 18.03.2009.
[16] Feigenberg IM: Probabilistic prognosis in human activity and animals’ behavior [in Russian: Veroyatnostnoye
prognozirovaniye w deyatelnosti cheloveka i poviedenii
zhivotnykh]. Moskva, Nyudiamed, 2008.
[17] Borysiuk Z: Temporal Structure of Informational Processes in Selected Combat Sports [in Polish: Struktura
czasowa procesów informacyjnych w wybranych sportach walki]. Warszawa, Academy of Physical Education,
2006.
[18] Hawking S: The Illustrated A Brief History of Time [in
Polish: Ilustrowana krótka historia czasu]. Warszawa,
Zysk i S-ka, 2005.
[19] Cacioppo JT, Berntson GG: Social Neuroscience; in Cacioppo JT, Berntson GG, Adolphs R, Carter CS, Davidson
RJ, McClintock MK, McEwen BS, Meaney MJ, Schacter
DL, Sternberg EM, Suomi SS, Taylor SE (eds.): Foundations in Social Neuroscience. Cambridge, MA, MIT Press,
2002: 3–10.
[20] The Dictionary of Polish Language [in Polish: Słownik
języka polskiego]. Warszawa, Wydawnictwo Naukowe
PWN, 1989.
[21] Maslow A: Motivation and personality [in Polish: Motywacja i osobowość], Warszawa, Wydawnictwo Naukowe
PWN, 2009.
– 126 –
[22] Czabański B: Optimization of Learning and Teaching Sport
Activities [in Polish: Optymalizacja uczenia się i nauczania
czynności sportowych]. Academy of Physical Education,
Wrocław, 1986.
[23] Kalat JW: Biological Psychology [in Polish: Biologiczne
podstawy psychologii]. Warszawa, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, 2006.
– 127 –
ANNOUNCEMENTS
INFORMACJE
NR 49
2010
THE INTERNATIONAL FORUM
“Health and Longevity”
Kielce, Poland
20–22.05.2010
HONORARY PATRONAGE
THE POLISH MINISTER OF HEALTH
World Health Organization – Office in Poland
ORGANISERS
The Faculty of Health Sciences
The Jan Kochanowski University of Humanities and Sciences in Kielce
The Foundation For the Development of Surgery
Holycross Cancer Center
The City of Kielce
Health promoting Association Qigong – Soaring Crane
MEDIA PATRONAGE
Radio FAMA
THE AIM OF FORUM
The aim of the forum is to propagate the idea of a healthy lifestyle in the context of ageing of
societies, the exchange of ideas and experiences as well as presenting the results of scientific
research towards functioning of man in health and sickness.
The Forum is one of the elements of a great venture taken up by the Jan Kochanowski University
of Humanities and Sciences in Kielce, Holycross Cancer Center and the Government of Kielce
and the Region, concerning the Tumour Prevention Centre in Kielce.
Correspondence address: [email protected]
http://www.ujk.edu.pl/mfzid/
– 131 –
NR 49
COMPETITION OF RESEARCH PAPERS
ON PHYSICAL EDUCATION TEACHING
FOR PROF. BOGDAN CZABAŃSKI’S AWARD
Submission requirements:
• Only papers published in the year prior to the date of competition may be
submitted.
• Papers (off-prints) must be sent before the end of March 2011 to the Organizers’
address:
Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego
Katedra Dydaktyki Wychowania Fizycznego
ul. Witelona 25, 51-617 Wrocław Poland
Tel. 0 (prefix) 71 347-31-69, fax 348-25-27
www.awf.wroc.pl/czabanski
e-mail: [email protected]
• Independent academics and former award winners must not partake in the competition.
• A research paper can be a teamwork effort, but the team of authors must not include an
independent academic.
Evaluation criteria:
• Submitted papers must be research papers.
• All papers must be on the subject of physical education teaching.
Jury:
Three independent academics, professors
of the University School of Physical Education in Wroclaw, Poland:
• Prorector for Research,
• Head of Chair of Physical Education Didactics,
• Head of Chair of Swimming.
The jury convenes on 24 April 2011.
The jury’s final decision will be made available to all participants.
Only one paper will be awarded with the prize (diploma of merit and 1.000 PLN).
The award will be presented during the inauguration ceremony of the academic year
2011/2012 at the University School of Physical Education in Wroclaw, Poland.
– 132 –
2010

Cichy I., Rokita A., Popowczak M., Naglak K.

Transcription

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