Manual - IDEXX

Transcription

Manual - IDEXX

Manual
IDEXX Reference Laboratories
Division of IDEXX Laboratories
Mörikestraße 28/3
D-71636 Ludwigsburg
Druckereistraße 4
D-04159 Leipzig
Tel.: 00800 1234 3399 (toll free)
www.idexx.eu
Nordic374-0913
Manual
Manual
5th Edition • April 2013
IDEXX Reference Laboratory
Divisin of IDEXX Laboratory
Mörikestraße 28/3
D-71636 Ludwigsburg
Druckereistraße 4
D-04159 Leipzig
Tel.: 00800 1234 3399 (toll free)
Tel.: 07141 6483 0
Fax: 07141 6483 555
[email protected]
www.idexx.eu
April 2013
Dear colleague,
We make it our aim always to offer you the best possible service. To that end, we are
constantly developing new methods and improving existing ones. In 2011 alone, 58 million
euros were invested in in-house research and development. We also have numerous
cooperative arrangements with research institutions and universities that allow us access
to the latest technologies. The tests for pancreas-specific lipase, Spec cPL®, Spec fPL®
and Cardiopet® proBNP, are just some of the examples that are exclusively available to
our clients.
A substantial contribution to our success is made by our highly-qualified laboratory staff.
Each department is under veterinary supervision. In microbiology, for example, two veterinary
specialists, a microbiologist and nine MTAs are on hand to guarantee quick processing. In
histopathology, the samples you submit are assessed by 16 veterinary specialists.
Many new tests have been added to the IDEXX test menu. In PCR diagnostics, for example,
we can offer a quantitative PCR for a series of parameters. It is also worth taking a look at
our ever-expanding range of profiles: general profiles can be customised by adding on a
selection of attractively-priced profiles and tests, to help address your patients' symptoms in
a targeted way.
This is the first Nordic edition of our Directory of Services, which provides a comprehensive
overview of all tests available from us together with important information about the tests
and required sample material. Updates to this Directory have been made necessary by the
development of new tests and improvements to existing ones: We are delighted to inform
you about our free hotline concerning changes to particular tests. This number can also
be used to reach our accounts department, courier service and specialist advisers.
On behalf of myself and my colleagues, I would like to thank you for your confidence in
us and look forward to continuing our excellent cooperation.
Yours faithfully,
Dr. med. vet. Ulrich Brandenburg
(Laboratory Manager)
Contents description
1 Index
I
2 General Information
1
2.1 General Advice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2.2 General Advice on blood sampling and sample preparation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 General Advice on microbiology tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4 General Advice on molecular biology tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.5 G
eneral Advice on histopathology and cytology tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.6 General Advice on parasitology tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.7 Quality management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.8 Abbreviations/Legend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.9 Conversion table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3 Screening profile 29
3.1 General profile cats and dogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2 Add-on tests (dogs and cats) at a reduced price . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.3 Profile dogs, cats (in alphabetical order). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.4 Profiles for horses (in alphabetical order).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.5 Profiles bovine (in alphabetical order) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.6 Profile porcine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.7 Profile camelid .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.8 Profile rabbit/rodent/reptile (in alphabetical order) .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.9 Multi-species Profiles (in alphabetical order). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4 Hematology
51
4.1 Hematology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.2 Coagulation parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.3 Blood groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.4 Blood parasites and haemotropic bacteria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5 Biochemistry
58
6 Toxicology and Drug detection 95
6.1 Medication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6.2 Toxicology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.3 Medical substance detection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
7 Gastrointestinal tract diseases, liver, pancreas
99
7.1 Gastrointestinal Diseases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
7.2 Diseases of the Liver. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
7.3 Diseases of exocrine pancreas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
8 Kidneys and urinary tract organs
106
8.1 Blood tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
8.2 Urine analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
9 Muscles, bones, joint 110
9.1 Infectious muscle diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
9.2 Non-infectious muscle diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
9.3 Non-infectious bone diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
9.4 Infectious joint diseases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
9.5 Non-infectious joint diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
10 CNS
114
10.1 Infectious CNS diseases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
10.2 Non-infectious CNS diseases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
11 Skin diseases 120
11.1 Allergic/Infectious skin diseases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
11.2 Non-infectious skin diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
12 Endocrinology
123
12.1 Hormonal disturbances/diseases of adrenal glands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
12.2 Hormonal disturbances/diseases of thyroid gland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
12.3 Sex hormones/Pregnancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
12.4 Special hormones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
13 Infectious diseases 156
14 Immunology and Allergy 232
14.1 Autoimmune diseases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
14.2 Allergy Diagnostics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
15 Molecular Biology tests 241
15.1 General Information on PCR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
15.2 Pathogen detection with PCR (in alphabetical order). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
15.3 Hereditary diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
15.4 Avian Sex Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
15.5.Parentage verification/ genetic fingerprint. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
16 Microbiology
300
16.1 Bacteriology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
16.1.1 Testing Times and Charges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
16.1.2 General bacteriology tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
16.2 Faecal tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
16.3 Mycology tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
16.3.1 Testing Times and Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
16.3.2 General mycology tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
17 Parasitology
313
17.1 Endoparasites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
17.2 Ectoparasites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
18 Histopathology
317
18.1 Histopathology and Cytology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
18.2 Biological Fluids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Index
A
a-1-Globulin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
a2-Globulin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 87
a-Amylase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Acetylcholine Receptor Antibodies . . 111
ACTH. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
ACTH Stimulation test
(dogs, cats). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127, 138
Adenovirus (Ab), Canine. . . . . . . 103, 193
Adenovirus, Equine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243.
Adenovirus Type 2,
Canine (DNA-detection). . . . . . . . . . . 243
African Horse Sickness (AHSV) . . . . . 157
AHSV (Ab). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Albumin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58, 84
Albumin/Globulin-Ratio. . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Aldosterone (dogs, cats) . . . . . . . . . . 138
Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP, ALKP). . . . 59
Allergy Diagnostics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
ALT (GPT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Anaemia profile (dogs,cats). . . . . . 34, 51
Anaplasma phagocytophilum (Ak)
(dogs, cats). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Anaplasma spp.
(DNA-detection) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180, 243
Antinuclear antibodies
(ANA) Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122, 113, 232
Antiepileptics activities . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Anti-inflammatory
drug screening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Antithrombin III (dogs). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
AP (heat stable) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
aPTT (activated
partial thromboplastin time) . . . . . . . . . 53
Arsenic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Arteritis, Equine Viral. . . . . . 231, 243, 251
Aspirate profile 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48, 317
Aspirate profile 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48, 317
AST (GOT). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Aujeszky’s Disease (Ab). . . . . . . . . . . 157
Aujeszky’s Disease. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Autoimmune
Haemolytic Anaemia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Avian-Screening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
B
b-Carotene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
b-Globulins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
b-Hydroxybutyrate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Babesia canis (Ab) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Babesia felis (DNA-detection). . . 160, 244
Babesia spp.
(DNA-detection) . . . . . . . . . 159, 162, 244
Babesias (Ab) (Horses) . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Babesias - Direct detection. . . . . 159, 161
Babesiosis (dogs)/Piroplasmosis. . . . 158
Babesiosis (cats)/Piroplasmosis. . . . . 160
Babesiosis (horses)/Piroplasmosis . . 161
Bacteriology, aerobic . . . . . 121, 109, 301
Bacteriology, anaerobic . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Bartonella spp. (DNA-detection). 162, 244
Bartonellosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Basic Check-up (dogs, cats) . . . . . . . . 29
Bile acids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Bile acid stimulation test. . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Bird profile 1 - Basic (PCR). . . . . . . . . . 46
Bird profile 2 (PCR). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Bird profile 3 (PCR). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Bird profile 4 (PCR). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Bovine Herpes Virus (BHV-1) (Ab) . . . 194
BHV-1 Field virus/Marker virus . . . . . . 194
Bilirubin (direct). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Bilirubin (total). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
BLAD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Blood groups (dogs, cats) . . . . . . . . . . 56
Blood cultures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Blood parasites
and haemotropic bacteria. . . . . . . 57, 314
I
Index
Borna (Ab). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114, 163
Borna (RNA-detection). . . . 114, 163, 245
Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato
(DNA-detection) . . . . . 112, 114, 164, 245
Borrelia (Ab) IgG. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Borrelia (Ab) IgG (dogs and horses. . 165
Borrelia (Ab) IgM (dogs) . . . . . . . . . . 165
Borrelia Quant C6® (dogs)
Borrelia Anti C6 Ab quantitative. . . . . . 166
Borrelia Anti C6 Ab qualitative. . . . . . . 166
Borreliosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112, 114, 164
Bovine Coronavirus Infection . . . . . . . 167
Bovine Coronavirus (Ag) detection. . . 172
Bovine Herpes Virus Infection. . . . . . . 167
Bovine Leukosis Virus. . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Bovine profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Bovine Viral Diarrhoea (BVD/MD). . . . 167
Bromide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95, 119
Brown colour (Dogs). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
BRSV (Ab) (cattle). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Brucella abortus (Ab). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Brucella canis (Ab) . . . . . . . . . . . 168, 169
Brucella melitensis (Ab). . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Brucella ovis (Ab) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Brucella spp. (DNA-detection) . . 169, 246
Brucellosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Burkholderia mallei (Ab) . . . . . . . . . . . 191
BVD Antigen detection . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
BVD (Ab). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
C
Cadmium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
CAE (Ab). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115, 170
CAE, Caprine Arthritis Encephalitis. . . 170
Calcium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Calicivirus (Ab. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Calicivirus Infection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Calicivirus (cats) (RNA-detection). . . . 253
Calicivirus (RNA-detection). . . . . . . . . 170
II
Camelid profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Candidatus Mycoplasma
turicensis (DNA-detection). . . . . . . . . 261
Canine Malignant Hyperthermia
(genetic predisposition) . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Canine Adenovirus Type 2 (DNA). . . . 170
Canine Adenovirus Type 2 Infection. . 170
Canine Enteral Coronavirus (CECoV)
(RNA-detection) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Canine Herpesvirus-1 (CHV-1)
(DNA-detection) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195, 247
Canine Influenza virus
(RNA-detection) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214, 247
Canine Parainfluenza virus
(RNA-detection) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Canine Respiratory Coronavirus
(RNA-detection) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173, 248
Canine TSH (dogs). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Cardiopet® proBNP (Nt-proBNP)
(dogs, cats). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Cerebrospinal fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . 15, 316
Check-up. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Chlamydia (Ab). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Chlamydia felis (DNA-detection). 171, 248
Chlamydia psittaci
(DNA-Detection). . . . . . . . . . . . . 171, 249
Chlamydia spp.
(DNA-Detection). . . . . . . . . . . . . 171, 248
Chloride. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Cholesterol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Cholinesterase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Chromium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
CHV-1 (Ab) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116, 195
CHV-1 (DNA-Detection) . . . . . . . 116, 195
Circovirus infection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Circovirus, porcine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2676
CK (CPK). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
CLAD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Clostridium perfringens. . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Index
Clostridium perfringens
Enterotoxin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99, 305
Clostridium perfringens Enterotoxin
A gene (DNA-Detection). . . . . . . 172, 249
Clostridium spp. (quantitative,
without pathogen differentiation. . 99, 305
Chocolate/cinnamon colour (Cats). . . 275
Cobalt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Coggins Test (antibodies detection). . 199
Collie Eye Anomaly (CEA). . . . . . . . . . 273
cord1-PRA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Cortisol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Cortisol/Creatinine ratio (dogs, cats) . 128
Coronavirus FCoV (Ab) (FIP-Ab). . . . . 115
Coronavirus FCoV, FECV
(RNA-Detection) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Combined Dexamethasone Suppression
and TRH Stimulation-Test (horses). . . 132
Combined Glucose Insulin
Test (CGIT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Copper storage disease. . . . . . . . . . . 280
Coxiella burnetti (Ab). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Creatinine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Creatinine Clearance,
modified exogenous. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
CRP C-reactive Protein (Hd . . . . . . . . . 70
Cryptococcus neoformans/
C. gattii (DNA-Detection).. . . . . . 173, 250
Cryptosporidia (Ag). . . . . . . . . . . 102, 313
CSF profile 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48, 316
CSF profile 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48, 316
CSF profile 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48, 319
cTLI (Dogs ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
cTLI (Dogs) fTLI (cats) (USA) . . . . . . . . 89
Cushing’s Monitoring profile. . . . . . . . . 35
Cystatin C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Cystinuria in Newfoundlands
D
D-Dimers (dogs only). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Dermatophytes/skin fungi. . . . . . 121, 309
Dexamethasone high-dose Test
(Suppression test, HDDS) (Dogs). . . . 129
Dexamethasone low-dose Test
(Screening test, LDDS). . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Differential blood count . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Differential blood count (Reptiles). . . . . 52
Differential blood count (birds). . . . . . . 52
Digoxin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Direct Coombs test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Dirofilaria PCR. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Dirofilariasis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Diarrhoea profile B
(Dogs, Cats) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35, 99, 307
Diarrhoea profile C
(Dogs, Cats, Ferrets). . . . . . . 46 , 99, 328
Diarrhoea profile E
(Dogs). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35, 99, 104, 307
Diarrhoea profile Plus, dogs (PCR). . . . 34
Diarrhoea profile Plus cats . . . . . . . . . . 35
Distemper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Distemper (Ab) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Distemper virus (CDV)-detection
(RNA-detection) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176, 247
Dourine (Burkholderia mallei) . . . . . . . 173
Downer syndrome, cattle.. . . . . . . . . . . 42
E
EBL (Enzootic Bovine Leukosis) (Ab). . 183
Ehrlichia canis (DNA-Detection). 179, 250
Ehrlichia spp. (DNA-Detection,
multiple species . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179, 250
Ehrlichia (Ab). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Ehrlichia/AnaplasmaDirect detection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Ehrlichiosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
III
Index
EHV-1/2/4/5 (DNA-Detection). . . . . . . 116
EHV-1/4 (Ab). . . . . . . . . . . . 116, 196, 251
Single allergen estimation
- large: dogs, cats and horses. . . . . . 239
Single allergen estimation
- small: dogs and cats . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Faecal Egg Count (McMaster test)
(horses, cattle, camelids). . . . . . 100, 312
Ectoparasites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120, 314
Elastase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105, 305
Encephalitozoon cuniculi
spore detection (Ag). . . . . . . . . . 115, 182
Encephalitozoon cuniculi (Ab). . . 115, 181
Encephalitozoonosis/
Nosematosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115, 181
Endocrine skin diseases. . . . . . . . . . . 123
Endoparasites (dogs/cats/swine, birds/
rabbits/rodents). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101, 311
Endoparasites (hedgehog . . . . . 101, 312
Endoparasites
(horses /camelids) . . . . . . . . . . . 101, 312
Endoparasites (Reptiles). . . . . . . 101, 311
Endoparasites (cattle). . . . . . . . . 101, 312
Enzootic Bovine Leukemia (EBL) (Ab).183
Equine Adenovirus Type 1 Infection. . 182
Equine Infectious Anaemia. . . . . . . . . 182
Equine Influenza.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Equine Influenza (Ab). . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Equine Adenovirus Type 1
(DNA-Detection). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Equine Arteritis Virus (Ab). . . . . . . . . . 231
Equine Arteritis Virus (EAV)
(RNA-Detection) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Equine Herpesvirus 1(EHV-1). . . 196, 251
Equine Herpesvirus 4 (EHV-4)
(DNA-Detection). . . . . . . . . . . . . 196, 251
Equines Herpesvirus-2 (EHV-2)
(DNA-Detection). . . . . . . . . . . . . 197, 253
Equines Herpesvirus 5 (EVH-5)
IV
(DNA-Detection). . . . . . . . . . . . . 196, 253
Equine Influenza virus
(RNA-Detection) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200, 253
Equine Metabolic Syndrome/
Pre-Cushing (horses) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Equine viral Arteritis
(RNA-Detection) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183, 231
Hereditary diseases . . . . . . . . . . 270, 271
Eye profile, cats (PCR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
F
Factor IX (Dogs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Factor VIII (Dogs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Familial Nephropathy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Fasting Insulin and
Glucose estimation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
FCoV (Ab). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Feline Coronavirus Infection/
Feline Infectious Peritonitis (FIP). . . . . 186
Feline Haemotropic
Mycoplasmas (PCR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Feline Coronavirus (FIP/FeCV). . . . . . 188
Feline Coronavirus (RNA-Detection). . 254
Feline Herpesvirus-1 (FHV-1)
(DNA-Detection). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Feline Immunodeficiency virus (FIV)
(Progenome DNA and Virus
RNA Detection). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Feline Leukemia virus (FeLV)
(DNA- and RNA-Detection). . . . . . . . . 256
FeLV (Ag). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
FeLV (Feline Leukemia virus) . . . . . . . 184
FeLV Progenome (DNA-Detection). . . 186
FHV-1 (Ab). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117, 198
FHV-1 (DNA-Detection . . . . . . . . 117, 198
Fibrinogen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Filaria (DNA-Detection). . . . . . . . 174, 256
FIP.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
FIV (Ab). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Index
FIV (Feline Immunodeficiency Virus). . 189
FIV Progenome and Virus RNA
(DNA and RNA Detection) . . . . . . . . . 191
Foal profile. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Folic acid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72, 100, 105
Fractionated Electrolytes
excretion (FE) (horses). . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Free fatty acids (cattle). . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Ferrets profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Fructosamine.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
FT4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
FT4 (Equilibrium-Dialysis) . . . . . . . . . . 143
fTLI (Cats). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Fucosidosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Function tests for hyperadrenocorticism
diagnosis/ Equine Cushing’s
Syndrome. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Food allergy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
G
γ-Globulin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
γ-GT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
γ-GT/creatinin-ratio (horses). . . . . . . . 107
Gastrointestinal diseases
(former Profil P). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Genetic Fingerprint DNA Profile.. . . . . 298
Geriatic Profile (Dogs/Cats) . . . . . . . . . 30
Geriatric Profile without blood count.. . 30
Geriatric Profile horse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Geriatric Profile horse, small. . . . . . . . . 40
Giardia (Ab). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102, 313
GLDH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Globoid Cell Leukodystrophy.. . . . . . . 278
Glucocorticoid screening. . . . . . . . . . . 98
Glucose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Glucose Tolerance Test (GTT). . . . . . . 136
Glycogen storage disease Type IV. . . 278
GM1 Gangliosidosis in dogs . . . . . . . 276
GM1 and GM2 Gangliosidosis
in cats. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
GnRH-Stimulation test (horses) . . . . . 151
Gold colour (Dogs). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xx
Granulosa Theca Cell
Tumor Profile. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40, 154
H
Haemobartonella felis. . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Haemotropic Mycoplasma
(Haemobartonella)
Direct detection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Heavy metal profile, large. . . . . . . . . . . 96
hCG Stimulation test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
HCM (hypertropic cardiomyopathy)
Mutations A31P, A74T, R820W . . . . . . 279
Helicobacter-Infection. . . . . . . . . 102, 192
Helicobacter spp. (DNA-Detection
multiple species). . . . . . . . . 102, 192, 257
Hepatitis contagiosa
canis (HCC). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Hepatozoon canis
(DNA Detection) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193, 257
Herpesvirus Infection,
bovine (IBR/IPV/IBP). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Herpesvirus Infection, canine. . . 116, 194
Herpesvirus Infection, equine. . . 116, 196
Herpesvirus Infection, feline. . . . 117, 197
Histopathological skin examination.. . 132
Horse profile. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.
Hygiene control tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Hyperadrenocorticism
(Cushing’s Syndrome) . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Hyperthyroidism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Hypoadrenocorticism
(dogs, horses.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Hypothyroidism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
HYPP.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111, 280
V
Index
I
IBR/IPV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Identification of ectoparasites. . . . . . . 314
IGF I (Insulin-Like Growth Factor). . . . 155
Immunoglobulin status/IgG (foals). . . . 76
Immunotherapy Solution
(dogs, cats, horses) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Infectious Anaemia, equine. . . . . . . . . 199
Influenza, equine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Influenza virus Infection. . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Insects - Allergy screening
for horses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Insulin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Intestinal pathogens. . . . . . . . . . 300, 304
Interpretation of
T4- and cTSH-results . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
K
K-value (FT4/Cholesterol) (dogs). . . . 143
Kidney profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48, 106
L
L-2-HGA (L-2-Hydroxyglutaracidurie). 281
Lactate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77, 111
Large Blood count . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Large Blood count (Reptiles) . . . . . . . . 52
Large Blood count (birds). . . . . . . . . . . 52
Large Bovine profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Large Check-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Large Copper profile for cattle . . . . . . . 43
Large Equine profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Large Feline profile. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Large Porcine profile. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Large Coagulation Profile (Dogs). . . . . 54
Large Reptile profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Lawsonia intracellularis
(DNA-detection) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201, 258
VI
(Equine Proliferative Enteropathy). . . . 201
Lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27, 96
LDH. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Liver profile 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36, 103
Liver profile 2 (dogs, cats) . . . . . . 36, 103
Leishmania spp. (DNA-detection,
quantitative). . . . . . . . . . . . .121, 203, 259
Leishmania (Ab) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121, 204
Leishmania Direct detection. . . . . . . . 203
Leishmaniasis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121, 202
Leptospira spp. (DNA-detection,
many species). . . . . . . 103, 106, 206, 260
Leptospira (Ab). . . . . . . . . . 103, 106, 205
Leptospirosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Leukemia, bovine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Leukemia virus Infection, feline. . . . . 207
Lipase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Listeria monocytogenes
(DNA-detection) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207, 261
Listerias (Ab). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Listeriosis.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Local Anaesthetic Screening.. . . . . . . . 98
Lungworms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101, 313
M
Maedi/Visna (Ab). . . . . . . . . . . . . 117, 208
Magnesium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Macrofilaria (Ag)
(Dirofilaria immitis). . . . . . . . . . . . . 57, 174
Maintenance Solution. . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Malignant Hyperthermia, canine . . . . 281
Malignant Hyperthermia, porcine. . . . 281
Manganese. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Mating time estimation.. . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Medical substance detection. . . . . . . . 97
Megabacteria Direct detection. . . . . . 208
Megabacteria Infection. . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Microbiology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Microfilarias-Direct detection . . . . . . . 174
Index
Molybdenum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Mucopolysaccharidosis VII. . . . . . . . . 282
Muscle profile. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49, 111
Myasthenia gravis. . . . . . . . . . . . 111, 233
Mycoplasma felis
(DNA-detection) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212, 261
Mycoplasma haemocanis, Candidatus
Mycoplasma haematoparvum
(DNA-detection) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211, 261
Mycoplasma haemofelis,
haemominutum, Candidatus
Mycoplasma turicensis, Mycoplasma
haemocanis und Candidatus
Mycoplasma haematoparvum . . . . . . 209
Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum
(DNA-detection) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Mycoplasma spp. (DNA-detection,
multiple species). . . . . . . . . . . . . 212, 262
Myotonia congenita
In miniature schnauzers . . . . . . . . . . . 283
N
Night blindness in Briards. . . . . . . . . . 283
Neospora caninum (Ab) . . . 110, 117, 214
Neospora Infection . . . . . . . 110, 117, 213
Neospora spp. (dogs). 110, 117, 214, 262
Neurology Profile, dogs (PCR). . . . . . . 34
Non-infectious joint diseases. . . . . . . 113
Nonspecific Parameters for Cushing’s
Disease diagnostics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Nickel.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
NSAID Screening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Nt-proBNP (Cardiopet® proBNP)
(dogs/cats).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
O
Obductions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Occult Blood. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100, 306
OLWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Oestradiol (17b-). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Oestrone sulfate (horses, male). . . . . 151
Oestrone sulfate (horses, female. . . . 153
Ovarian tumors in horses. . . . . . . . . . 154
P
Pancreas specific Lipase, canine
(Spec cPL®). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82, 104
Pancreas specific Lipase, feline
(Spec fPL®) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82, 104
Parainfluenza virus (Ab) (cattle) . . . . . 214
Parainfluenza virus Infection. . . . . . . . 214
Parasites In faeces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Paratuberculosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Paratuberculosis (Ab) (Cattle). . . . . . . 215
Parvovirosis/Panleukopenia . . . . 102, 216
Parvovirus (Ag) (dogs, cats). . . . 102, 216
Parvovirus (Ab) (dogs, cats). . . . 102, 218
Parvovirus FPV, CPV
(DNA-detection) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217, 264
PBFD-Virus (DNA-detection . . . . 219, 265
PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction). . . 241
Performance profile, horses.. . . . . . . . . 41
Pregnancy diagnostics, horses . . . . . 153
Phenobarbital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Phosphate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Phosphofructokinase deficiency. . . . . 285
PKD (Polycystic Kidney Disease). . . . 286
PMSG/eCG. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Polyomavirus, avian (BFD-Virus)
(DNA-detection) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218, 265
Polyuria/Polydipsia Profile
(dogs, cats). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36, 106
Porcine Circovirus 2 (PCV-2)
(DNA-detection) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218, 266
Porcine Influenza virus (Ab) . . . . . . . . 219
Porcine Malignant Hyperthermia
VII
Index
Syndrome (genetic predisposition).. . 281
Potassium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
PRA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
prcd-PRA.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Profile respiratory diseases,
foals (PCR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Profile respiratory diseases,
horses (PCR).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Profile EMS/Cushing 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Profile EMS/Cushing 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Profile Feline Haemotropic Mycoplasms
(DNA-detection) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36, 263
Profile S
(electrolytes + trace elements). . . . . . . 49
Progesterone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Protein/Creatinine ratio. . . . . . . . . . . . 107
PRRS (Ab) (porcine). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
PRRS (Porcine Reproductive
and Respiratory Syndrome) . . . . . . . . 219
PT (Quick-Test) (Thromboplastin time,
Prothrombin time). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
PU/PD Profile (Polyuria/Polydipsia). . . 106
Pyruvate kinase deficiency. . . . . . . . . 290
Q
Q-Fever. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
R
Rabies virus (Ab) (NT). . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Rabies virus antibody
detection for travel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Rrcd1-PRA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
rcd2-PRA, PRA in Collies . . . . . . . . . . 289
rdAc-PRA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Respiratory Profile, dogs (PCR) . . . . . . 34
Respiratory Profile, cats (PCR). . . . . . . .34
Reticulocytes (Dogs, Cats). . . . . . . . . . 51
Rheumatoid factors. . . . . . . . . . . 113, 235
Rheumatoid Polyarthritis. . . . . . . 113, 234
VIII
Rhodococcus equi
(DNA-detection) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222, 267
Rickettsias (Ab) (Dogs). . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Rocky Mountain
Rotavirus (Ag). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Rotavirus (Ag)-detection. . . . . . . . . . . 223
Rotavirus-Infection . . . . . . . . . . . 102, 223
S
Salmonella abortus equi (Ak) . . . . . . . 223
Salmonellas detection. . . . . . . . . . 99, 304
Sarcoptes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Sarcoptes (Ab) (dogs) . . . . 120, 122, 224
SCID in Arabians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Scrapie (TGF)
Screening for foreign substances. . . . . 97
Screening Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
SDS-Page Electrophoresis
(Urine protein electrophoresis). . . . . . 108
Sedative/Tranquilizer Screening. . . . . . 97
Selenium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83, 111
Sequence analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Serum electrophoresis (Agarose-Gel) . 83
Sex hormones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Sex identification in birds . . . . . . . . . . 296
Spec cPL®, Canine pancrase specific
Lipase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82, 104
Spec fPL®, Feline pancrease specific
Lipase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82, 104
Stone analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Stimulant Screening.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Stomatitis vesicularis (Ab) (horses) . . 230
Screening Fertility disorders 1. . . . . . . . 43
Skin profile 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Skin profile 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Skin profile 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Index
Skin profile 4 (Dogs). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Skin profile 7 (Dogs, Cats) . . . . . . . . . . 49
Small blood count. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Small blood count (Reptiles). . . . . . . . . 52
Small blood count (birds) . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Small copper profile for cattle. . . . . . . . 43
Sodium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Spotted Fever (RMSF) . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Synovia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50, 112, 318
Synovia Profile 1. . . . . . . . . . 50, 112, 318
Synovia Profile 2. . . . . . . . . . 50, 112, 318
Synovia Profile 3. . . . . . . . . . 50, 112, 318
Systemic Lupus erythosus (SLE).113, 232
T
T3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
T3-Suppression test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
T4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140, 146
T4-Antibodies (dogs). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Testosterone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Tickborne Encephalitisvirus . . . . . . . 116
Ticks profile 1 (serology). . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Ticks profile 2 (serology). . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Ticks profile 3 (PCR blood). . . . . . . . . . 37
Ticks profile 4 (PCR ticks). . . . . . . . . . . 37
Thallium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Thallium (Hair). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96, 122
Thallium (Urine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96, 122
Thrombin time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Thyreoglobulin (Anti-thyroid Antibodies)
(dogs). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Thyroid hormones Function tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144, 146
Thyroid profile 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39, 141
Thyroid profile 2 (dogs . . . . . . . . . 39, 141
Thyroid hormones single estimation. . . . . . . . . . . . . 139, 146
Total protein. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Toxoplasma gondii
(DNA-detection. . . . . . 110, 118, 227, 168
Toxoplasma (Ab). . . . . . . . . . . . . 110, 227
Toxoplasma Direct detection. . . . . . . . . . 110, 118, 227
Toxoplasmosis.. . . . . . . . . . 110, 118, 227
Transmissible Gastroenteritis Virus
(TGV) (RNA-detection) . . . . . . . . 228, 257
Transmissible Gastroenteritis
Virus, porcine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Travel diseases
Profile 1 - early (dogs). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Travel diseases
Profile 2 - late (dogs). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Travel diseases
Profile 3 - acute (dogs). . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Trematode eggs.. . . . . . . . . . . . . 102, 313
TRH-Stimulation test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
TRH-Stimulation test (Dogs). . . . . . . . 145
TRH-Stimulation test (Horses) . . . . . . 145
Trichomonas Direct detection. . . . . . . 229
Trichomonas-Infection. . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Triglycerides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Tritrichomonas foetus
(DNA-detection) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229, 269
Tritrichomonas Infection . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Tricyclic Antidepressives Screening. . . 98
Troponin I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Trypanosoma equiperdum-Ab. . . . . . . 230
Trypanosoma-Infections . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Trypanosomes Direct detection . . . . . 229
TSH-Stimulation test (Dogs) with
rhTSH (human recombinant TSH. . . . 144
T-cell Carcinoma Screening
(TCC) (dogs). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
U
Uric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Urine sediment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
IX
Index
Urine analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Urea (BUN). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
V
Vaginal cytology (dogs, cats). . . . . . . 152
Virology faecal examination . . . . 100, 306
Virus arteritis, equine (EVA). . . . . . . . . 231
Viral Diarrhea, bovine . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Vitamin A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Vitamin B1 (Thiamin). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavine) . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine). . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Vitamin B12 (Cobalamine) . . 93, 100, 105
Vitamin D3 (1,25-di-OH)
Vitamin D3 (25-OH). . . . . . . . . . . . 93, 111
Vitamin E (Tocopherol) . . . . . . . . . 94, 111
Vitamin H (Biotin). . . . . . . . . . . . . .94, 122
X
Von Willebrand disease (vWF) . . . . . . 294
Von Willebrand Factor 1 - 3.. . . . . 55, 294
Von Willebrand Factor
Antigen (vWF: Ag) (dogs). . . . . . . . . . . 55
X
X-SCID. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Y
Yeasts in faecal sample
(quantitative). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Yeasts and moulds. . . . . . . . . . . 121, 310
Z
Zinc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Zinc (Serum, hair). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
2.1 General information
Sampling and Mailing Sample Materials
We will be glad to provide all our sample tubes, protective mailing containers,
submission forms, barcode labels, cooling containers and dispatch bags/boxes
free of charge (excluding blood culture systems). You may order these via fax or
phone. Cost of different shipping methods can be found on the material order form.
All protective containers and boxes are designed to be recycled. Glass and other
breakable containers should not be used to send samples.
EDTA-tube
Contain ethylenediamine-tetra-acetate as
anticoagulant.EDTA-blood
will be used for blood counts
and for PCR tests.
EDTA-plasma is obtained
by centrifugation of
EDTA-blood.
Serum tube
To send in serum
obtained by
centrifugation.
Coagulation tube
To obtain serum by centrifugation
of coagulating tubes and filling
serum-tubes.
Synthetic sample beads increase
the surface area and improve the
formation of fibrin nets, which
speeds coagulation.
1
Main tube
To send milk, liquor, urine,
aspirates or exsudates.
Faecal tubes
For parasitology and
bacteriology tests of
faeces samples.
Protective outer for tubes
For sending sample tubes.
Citrate tubes


To obtain citrate plasma used in blood coagulation diagnostics.
Contains Na-citrate as anti-coagulant. Available in two sizes:
4,5 ml for large animals and 2,7 ml for small animals.
Important: please fill to the exact filling level of these tubes.
To prepare citrate plasma, gently mix the blood, then centrifuge
the sample and remove the supernatant (citrate-plasma) with
a pipette. Samples should always be sent frozen!
NaF-tubes
For glucose and lactate estimation
Please fill in between upper
and lower mark.
2
Histology pot
Container with formalin,
available in two sizes
(60 ml, 120 ml).
The 120 ml size is
subject to a cost.
Faecal pot for
large and small animals
Container for collective
samples(red cap) with
protective container.
Please fill inner container
almost to the rim.
Cyto-Brush
For sample collection
or molecular diagnostic
tests, for example
conjunctiva- or mucosal
membrane Swabs.
Slide protection incl. two glass slides
Used for sending blood smears for
differential blood count and for blood
parasites, haemotropic bacteria and
cytology.
Blood culture bottle
Special bottles for blood
sample culture. For prices,
please see our pricelist.
Barcode labels
For safe marking of your
samples.
3
Universal Swab
(without transport
medium)
Sterile Swab container
(available in two sizes)
for PCR. Not used for
culture tests.
niversal Swab (with
U
transport medium)
Sterile Swab container
(available in two sizes)
for bacterial culture.
reeze container for
F
frozen transport
For sending cool or frozen samples.
Please order in a timely manner
and store without Styrofoam in
freezer only for 24 hours!
Dispatch bag
4
Submission forms
For ease of recognition we offer you separate submission forms:
1.Submission form: dogs (green), cats (pink), pets/exotics, birds (purple):
for hematology, clinical chemistry (including specific profiles, serology,
endocrinology, allergy testing, PCR tests)
2.Submission form for large animals (blue) for hematology, clinical chemistry
(including specific profiles , serology, endocrinology, allergy testing, PCR tests)
3.Submission form for microbiology (brown).
4.Submission form for histology (white).
5.Submission form for rabies antibody testing (white)
6.Submission form for molecular diagnostics (orange)
7.Submission form Diagnostic Plus - profiles and add-on tests for dogs
and cats (turquoise)
Please fill out the submission form completely:
- Veterinary surgeon (including stamp), owner’s name, animal species,
sex and age of the animal
- Select your desired tests. Should you require a specific test which you have
not found on the form, but can see the test in the pricelist, please add the
test to the form manually.
5
Sample identification and packaging
The safest way to identify your sample is to use the barcode which IDEXX will provide
for your practice. The barcode contains the practice details you have registered with
IDEXX, so should you forget to stamp the submission form, your sample will still
be correctly assigned to your patient (and your practice). Each row of barcodes
consists of a column of seven stickers, all with the same number. Each patient
requires a unique number, which means using a new row of barcodes for every patient.
For safe identification and packaging of your samples please follow the guidelines
mentioned below:
- Always use a barcode on the submission form - number towards the top.
- Include one barcode in your patient file! This speeds access to the patient results,
especially in case of unclear owner details. With the barcode number, access to
your patient results can be fast and simple.
- Please make sure that the barcode you are putting on each of the sample tubes
(please do not add the barcode to the protective outer tube) is the same as of that
particular patient.
- Please ensure that the barcodes on the tubes and test order form are the same.
- Make sure you have closed the sample tubes carefully and place them in the
protective outer. Glass and other breakable materials are not allowed for sample
transport.
- Please use only IDEXX Reference Laboratory dispatch bags/boxes. Laboratory
samples are hazardous materials and are subject to special transport regulations.
- Close the dispatch bag/box carefully, even if you are using a courier collection
service.
- If you are sending the dispatch bag via post, please make sure you apply sufficient
postage and observe your local postal regulations.
6
Courier collection service
Courier services permit quick and efficient transport of your samples to our lab.
Please contact the IDEXX Reference Laboratories Hotline or your local Sales
Representative to get more information about the options in your region.
Different options of result delivery
Please inform us immediately about any changes in your address, phone number,
fax or e-mail address.
Results sent:
Interim result
possible?
Electrophoresis
possible?
Other remarks
By fax
yes
yes
Automatic results by fax is easier if your fax
machine is set to automatically receive.
Redial (for example because of call diversion) can be started again if the fax toner
or ribbon is exhausted. (This may delay
obtaining the results.)
Email: PDF
attachment
yes
no
They can be read using Adobe Acrobat
Reader, which can be downloaded from the
Adobe homepage free of charge
IDEXX Internet Platform
VetConnect
This service does not require a specific practice management system. Please register on
www.de.vetconnect.com
Registered clients then access the current
status of results and record their orders
online.
If you have any questions regarding electronic results transmission, please contact
our hotline. Select your preferred transmission method to ensure your results are
always sent the same way. If you have other requests, please contact us via phone,
fax or email.
7
Telephone enquiries
Please contact us with any questions or requests for information.
Denmark: 80347618
Finland: 0800 98458
Norway: 800 31026
Sweden: 020 160 58 90
The Netherlands: 023 5587 001
Additional testing requests
Submitted sample material will be stored at IDEXX for 5-7 days, depending on storage
availability. (Note: faecal samples are only kept for a maximum of 2-3 days.) During
this time, provided that sufficient sample is available, additional tests and profiles can
be requested. If bacteriology/mycology cultures are required, additional charges will
be made.
Please note: PCR testing should be done from samples that were prepared from the
start for PCR testing. Using samples that were harvested for other testing methods
may cause false positive results due to contamination of the sample.
8
1. Invoice
Invoice receiver is the submitting veterinarian (summary invoice):
You receive a monthly invoice. If you wish, you may receive a price breakdown with
your results, which will be list prices only. Any discounts will only be shown on your
periodic invoice.
2. Cancellation
Cancellation is only possible if you inform us before the requested test is performed.
Please let us know as soon as possible if you intend to cancel a test, as you will be
charged for tests which have already been peformed.
3. Prices
Please check our price list for our current prices.
9
2.2 General advice on blood collection and sample preparation
Sample collection
1. Preparing the patient
Satisfactory blood results depend on good preparation of the patient. If possibile
the patient should be starved 10-12 hours prior to blood sampling, if the state of the
animal permits it. Otherwise many blood parameters may be inaccurate. The animal
must be starved before TLI, ammonia and bile acid tests. The patient should not have
been heavily exercised immediately before sampling, and the procedure should be
carried out quickly and calmly. Agitation and exertion may lead to increased CK,
LDH, lactate, glucose and cortisol levels as well as a rise in circulating lymphocytes.
2. Blood sampling technique
To avoid haemolysis, blood should be taken immediately after the vein has been
raised. ‘Pumping’ blood from the vein can affect results. Avoid high negative
pressure in the syringe, as this may cause erythrocytes to rupture. Do not squirt the
blood forcefully into the tube. Instead, let it run down the tube wall. Do not try to get
the last remaining blood drops that are left in the needle. When using a tube with an
anticoagulant, do not shake the contents - instead, you should gently invert the
sample tube several times after sampling is completed.
Please remember to remove the needle before mailing your sample. (Note: sharp
objects should not be transported by post, as there is a risk of personal injury during
transportation or unwrapping at the laboratory.)
3. Which type of blood for which test?
Our manual explains whether serum or whole blood is required for every parameter
we test. Generally, most laboratory tests can be carried out on either serum or
plasma. Exceptions are mentioned below. The type and amount of sample needed
is also stated on our submission forms.
10
Blood
Coagulation
Whole blood
Centrifuge
Li-Heparin, K-EDTA (Anticoagulant)
EDTA-blood
Heparin-blood
Centrifuge
Serum
Plasma
Plasma
Definition: Aqueous part of blood made noncoagulable by means of an anticoagulant.
Plasma is easier to obtain than serum. It gives higher yield and reduced risk of
haemolysis.Please note that the mixing ratio of blood and coagulant must be correct,
or the sample may haemolyse. The sample should not be above or below the required
amount of blood stated on the tube.
Immediately after blood sampling the tube should be gently inverted several times
to mix with anticoagulant. Then centrifuge for 5 - 10 minutes (approx. 3500 r/min).
The most important anticoagulants are EDTA (ethylenediamintetraacetate),
heparin and citrate.
Please note that the following parameters cannot be determined from EDTA-plasma:
• potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, alkaline phosphatase, glucose and lactate.
Other parameters require special anticoagulants:
• citrated plasma: frozen, to determine coagulation parameters.
Serum
Definition: Aqueous part of blood with fibrin and blood cells removed by coagulation.
(plasma without fibrin). The collection of serum is more time consuming than the
collection of plasma. To obtain serum, leave blood standing in a tube without
coagulation inhibitor until coagulation is complete. (Coagulation time varies between
species and individuals. The time can be shortened by adding a coagulation aid to
the tube; or using a coagulation tube with plastic beads). Gently loosen coagulate
from the tube wall and centrifuge the sample for 5-10 minutes
(3500 r/min). Immediately transfer serum into a plain serum tube.
Please note that it is very important to separate the serum and blood clot completely,
11
especially when testing haemolytic samples.
Whole blood
Submitting whole blood is not recommended, as transport often causes haemolysis,
which affects various parameters. Blood glucose breaks down almost completely due
to continuing blood cell metabolism.
EDTA blood
Blood should be stabilized with the anticoagulant EDTA in order to perform blood and
thrombocyte counts, blood group testing and PCR testing. Blood should be kept refrigerated until it is sent. Extended storage may increase MCV and haematocrit values.
Blood smear
After 4-6 hours post blood sampling, cell ageing may affect results. Therefore for differential blood counts we suggest sending an air dried blood film in addition to EDTA
blood. Blood films are required for detection of blood parasites and haemotropic
bacteria.
Instructions for correct blood
smear preparation
•Place 1 drop of blood on a
glass slide with a pipette
•Take a cover slip (or extra microscope
slide with frosted end) and touch the
blood drop on the glass slide,
holding the cover slip at a 45° angle
•Capillary action draws the blood
along the edge of the cover slip
•Push the cover slip at the angle of
30-45° over the glass slide
30-45° angle
for smear distribution
•The smear should be smoothly
distributed, without gaps, over 2/3rds
of the microscopic slide. The smear
should be gradually thinner towards
the far end of the film.
•Allow to dry completely.
12
Blood smear technique
4. Sample volume
The required sample volumes will differ depending on your desired test. The required
volumes are provided in the individual test descriptions and in our alphabetical
price list.
5. Factors that can affect results
Haemolysis Def.: rupture of the erythrocyte cell membrane, causing a release
of cell contents (e.g. potassium, iron and hemoglobin).
Causes: hemolytic anaemia, sampling error (see: blood sampling
technique, Chap. 2.2). If haemolytic sample is noted in the report,
the results should be viewed with caution, as the hemolysis may
affect the reported values.
Lipaemia: Def.: blood serum or plasma is a milky white color due to fat (lipids).
Causes: see triglycerides (Chapter 5), feeding, obesity. Animal should
be fasted 12 hours prior to blood sampling to avoid lipaemia caused by
feeding. In case of a lipaemic sample we recommend you consult the
table below for possible effects on your test results.
Factor influencing the result
Parameter
Possible Effect
Haemolysis
albumin, α-amylase, ALT, AST, bilirubin, cholesterol,
CK, iron, fructosamine, γ-GT /GGT, total protein,
potassium, calcium, creatinine, LDH, lipase, magnesium, phosphate, zinc, selenium, haemoglobin,
manganese, MCHC
#
Increase
in value
alkaline phosphatase, bilirubin, folic acid,
γ-GT /GGT, glucose, calcium, creatinine, lipase,
haematocrit, erythrocyte number
$
Decrease
in value
alkaline phosphatase (ALT), AST, bilirubin, cholesterol, total protein, glucose, calcium, creatinine,
phosphate, triglycerides, haemoglobin, MCHC
#
Increase
in value
Amylase, albumin, K, Na
$
Decrease
in value
Lipaemia
Hormonal analysis and serological tests may also be influenced by haemolysis
13
and lipaemia.
6. Deeply frozen samples
For some special tests it is necessary to send a frozen sample.
Coagulation factors: ADH, ammonia, ACTH, parathormone
Insulin: citrate plasma
EDTA plasma
serum, plasma (No Serum gel tubes)
These samples should be sent in a special frozen container, which is available from
IDEXX on request. Before transport the container should be frozen separately overnight
(without Styrofoam insulation). To ensure that submitted samples remain frozen until
testing, avoid sending samples at the end of the week. Samples frozen to -20 degrees
Celsius in the frozen containers will stay frozen up to 12 hours in outside temperatures
of 18-20 degrees Celsius. In case of higher outside temperatures this time is shorter.
Alternatively, samples may be sent in dry ice.
7. Sample preparation for coagulation diagnosis
Sodium citrate tubes:
Fill in to the
maximum mark


Attention:
Sodium citrate tubes available from
IDEXX have two different volumes:
2,7 ml blood for small animals
4,5 ml blood for large animals
2,7 ml tube
4,5 ml tube
14
Sample preparation for coagulation diagnosis
1. Raise the vein carefully and briefly (less than 30 seconds).
2. The initial blood drops should be discarded, or can be used to obtain serum.
3. Sodium citrate tubes should be filled up to top of the label to achieve 1 part
citrate per 9 parts blood (1:10 dilution).
4. Invert the tubes quickly.
5. Check the blood sample: if it is clotted, the sample is not suitable for testing.
6. Centrifuge blood immediately after sampling, or a maximum 2 hours later
(5 minutes @ 3500 RPM).
7. Remove the supernatant (citrate plasma) with a pipette and place into a plain tube.
Do not use EDTA, heparin or other citrate tubes.
8. As we do not test coagulation factors every day, if you request screening tests and
coagulation factors at the same time, the submitted serum should be divided into
two separate tubes.
9. Samples for coagulation testing should be frozen and kept in the freezer
(-20 degrees C) until transport.
10.Shipment must be in deep freeze boxes ordered from IDEXX Reference
Laboratories. These boxes should be kept in the freezer without Styrofoam packaging for 24 hours after arrival at your practice. Samples must arrive at
the laboratory frozen. Please follow the directions for deep freeze samples.
8. Cerebrospinal fluid and aspirate tests
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is physiologically clear. When sampling, do not add any
anticoagulants or preservatives. CSF and other aspirates should be collected into
sterile tubes. If you desire multiple tests (bacteriology and cytology) it is better to
send samples in separate tubes to enable us to perform both tests simultaneously.
CSF and other aspirates are very unstable biological samples. The sample material
may degrade as soon as 30 minutes after sampling, and by 4 hours after sample
collection, the results of the test may be significantly affected. Therefore cytological
examination of aspirated fluid and examination of the number of cells in cerebrospinal
fluid is possible only during this time period. To enable us to perform a cytology
examination, please prepare a sediment smear as soon as possible after sample
collection (after centrifugation for 3-5 minutes at 1000 rounds/min; prepare smear
as in case of blood and air dry).
15
2.3 General advice on sample collection for microbiology tests
Sample collection for bacteriology tests
Collection time
If possible, samples should be taken before antibiotic therapy. In case of treatment
monitoring it is advised to allow sufficient time interval after antibiotic administration.
Sample collection from a necropsy should be performed immediately post mortem.
Collection site Sample collection is best done at sites on the border of healthy and inflamed tissue.
The best are sites that are likely to contain pathogenic microorganisms. Useful
locacions include purulent lesions, areas of inflammatory changes in the ear, and
absceses (Please note that it is usually impossible to grow bacteria from pus).
Sampling technique
When collecting samples for bacteriology you should avoid contamination by foreign
substances (e.g. dirt or other contaminants.) Also, after collection you should avoid
contamination during sample preparation or packaging for transport.
Samples for bacteriology tests:
• Swabs:
For sample collection from different sites we use cotton Swabs. If possible you
should use Swabs with transport medium. With dry Swabs there is a risk that fragile
or sensitive microorganisms may not be cultured in the laboratory. If the surface we
want to collect from is very dry, the Swab may be moistened with sterile fluid.
• Urine: Please send urine samples in uncoated tubes. It is preferable to collect urine by
cystocentesis or by catheter. Naturally voided (free catch) urine may contain
microorganisms from body surfaces or from the environment. Urine samples from
the environment (from litter box or examination tables) are not suitable for tests.
Urine can also can be sent in a culture system (Uricult) instead of sample tubes.
• Biopsies and organ fragments:
Send in uncoated sterile tubes. If transport time is expected to be prolonged, organs
should be sent deeply frozen, without any chance for thawing and refreezing. Please
clearly indicate on the packaging that frozen samples are being sent.
• Biological fluids:
(synovial fluid, cerebrospinal fluid, organ aspirate, milk etc.) should be sent in sterile
uncoated tubes. If you require an anaerobic culture, please limit sample contact with
atmospheric oxygen (use our special container).
16
2.3 General advice on sample collection for microbiology tests
• Faeces:
(synovial fluid, cerebrospinal fluid, organ aspirate, milk etc.) should be sent in sterile
uncoated tubes. If you require an anaerobic culture, please limit sample contact with
atmospheric oxygen (use our special container).
•Blood culture:
Proper bacterial culture from blood requires special culture bottles, available from
our laboratory. It is impossible to culture blood from the routinely used blood tubes.
Samples should be collected in completely sterile conditions. Bottles containing
blood samples should be kept in room temperature (unrefrigerated) and sent to the
laboratory as soon as possible.
Mycology sample collection
Collection technique:
With sample collection for yeast and mould culture we use the same advice as for
bacteriology tests. Swabs with transport medium are most suitable for sending. During
sample collection from mucosal membranes you should pay attention to membraneous and purulent deposits, from which organisms are best cultured.
To isolate dermatophytes it is best to disinfect the site with 70 % alcohol; this prevents
incidental bacteria from overwhelming any mycological culture. The sample should be
collected from a site on the border of the lesion and sent in a dry tube.
If a lesion needs to be tested for both bacteriology and mycology, the bacteriology
sample should be collected first and put in transport medium. Following this, disinfect
the site with 70% alcohol and collect sample for the mycology test, placing the collected material into a sterile tube).
Sample for mycology test:
The best samples are deep skin scrapings or plucked hair that includes the root. Hairs
clipped with scissors are not suitable for mycological testing. Fungal culture medium
incubated in your own clinic may also be sent for identification. For fungal testing of faeces you must send a faecal sample, as a faecal Swab is not suitable for this purpose.
17
2.4 General advice on molecular biology tests
Sample material for molecular pathogen diagnostics
Samples used for PCR testing should be those with the highest possible content
of the organism in question. Therefore, prior to taking a sample, take the following
into account:
•whether the animal is currently in a viraemic/bacteraemic stage.
•whether the organism may have reached its final target organ and if so, where
it is likely to be found when considering the clinical symptoms.
•whether there is a latent organ where the organism may be hiding during the
subclinical phase (e.g. EHV-1 in leukocytes).
Possible test sample:
• Swabs:
For Swabs, please use a sterile, dry Swab without transport medium and send
in uncoated tubes.
Note: these samples are not suitable for bacteriological tests!If requesting
simultaneous bacteriological and molecular biology tests, please collect and
send two separate Swabs.
• Biological fluids :
(Synovia, cerebrospinal fluid, body cavity aspirate, aqueous humor, urine, etc.)
Send in sterile uncoated tubes. 0,5-2 ml of material is normally needed. For urine
samples 5 ml of sample is needed, depending on requested test. If sample will be
sent on the next day after collection, please store the sample between + 2° C to
+ 8° C and send unfrozen. If sending is expected to be delayed, freeze the sample
and send without breaking the cold chain (e.g. usage of coldpacks and styrofoam
packane, or sending in dry ice). For intracellular organism testing (e.g. Listeria),
freezing should be avoided, so for these samples we recommend storage between
+ 2° C to + 8° C. Please indicate clearly on the packaging that these are samples in
deep freeze, and so thawing and refreezing should be avoided.
• Biopsies, organ parts, aborted material:
Send in sterile uncoated tubes. Add sufficient sterile saline to cover the sample. If
sample sending by the next day is not possible, please send sample material in deep
freeze, without adding saline. Ensure that the cold chain is not broken. Please indicate
clearly on the packaging that these are samples in deep freeze, and so thawing and
refreezing should be avoided.
18
• EDTA-blood, Citrate blood:
The required amount of sample depends on test parameters and disease phase.
Please do not send frozen EDTA or citrate blood under any circumstances. Please
do not send heparinised blood!
•Faeces:
Send in uncoated, sterile tubes.
Sample material for molecular genetic diagnostics
(hereditary diseases, parentage verification)
Standard sample for animal genetic tests is 0,5 - 2 ml EDTA-blood. Transport is not
time sensitive. The standard sample for genetic identification (especially parental
verification) is a minimum of 0,5 ml EDTA-blood, or Swabs (two preferable) from the
buccal mucosal membrane. A separate submission form can be ordered.
Guidelines for buccal mucosal membrane Swabs
1.The patient should not receive any food or fluids (except for water) for at least
30 minutes before sample collection.
2.Using a sterile cotton Swab (or ideally a ”cytobrush”) strongly rub each buccal
cavity a minimum of 10 times. Following this, rub the cotton Swabs on each other.
3.Transport containers should be clearly labeled to avoid loss or confusion!
4.Air dry the Swab for a minimum 1-2 hours at room temperature. Place the Swab
a few centimeters into the protective outer tube and leave it.
5.After the sample is completely dry, place the Swab deep into the the protective
outer tube.
6.Store the sample in a cold (5 - 8 °C) and dry place or immediately send it to the
laboratory.
Do not touch the cotton Swab under any circumstances, as test results may
be affected.
19
Precautions during sample preparation
Because of high sensitivity of PCR method, please obey the following sample collection:
•To avoid contamination, always wear gloves during sample collection.
•Separate samples should be collected for this type of test.
•Sterile tubes and instruments should be used to avoid contamination during sample
manipulation (e.g. when filling or packaging the sample)!
•Do not send the samples chilled, unless sample will not be sent immediately. If the
sample will be sent within 24 hours, sample material should be cooled to between
+ 2 °C and + 8 °C.
•When longer transport time or delay is unavoidable, send deeply frozen samples
(except for EDTA/Citrate-blood), ensuring an unbroken cold chain. (Suggestions
include usage of coldpacks and stryrofoam packages, or sending on dry ice)!
If this is not possible, send unfrozen samples. Thawing and refreezing of the sample
should be avoided.
Additional requirement
Please note: If you request an additional test for molecular biology pathogen
PCR testing from a test sample that was not prepared for this purpose (and was
used for other diagnostic tests) there is a risk of contamination, which can lead to
false positive results.
20
2.5 General advice on histopathology and cytology tests
IDEXX Reference Laboratories will perform the following tissue tests:
•histopathology of neoplasias, skin punches, skin and organ biopsies, fine needle
aspirates, as well as from any nonspecific changes found in tissues. Also from
tissue or organs or parts of organs collected during surgery or autopsy/post mortem
examination.
•cytology of fine needle aspirates collected from body fluids (e.g. joint or pleural
fluids, ascites, urine) or from organs (e.g. mammary gland, kidney, liver, thyroid
gland or lymph nodes)
•cytology of vaginal smear (vaginal cytology)
Important guidelines for optimal sample preparation:
•clearly fill out the histopathology submission form.
•remember to complete the reverse side of the submission form when submitting
dermatological samples.
•all samples should be submitted completely covered in fixative. Please avoid
crushing the sample. Make sure your submission pot is large enough, or your
sample may not be entirely covered by fixative. The autolytic processes will then
continue.
•use pots with a large opening. The sample hardens due to the action of the fixative.
If the opening is too small, artefacts due to crushing can occur when removing the
sample from the tube.
Tru-cut-Biopsy
Purpose-designed biopsy systems are available on the market of 0,3 mm and 1 mm
diameter. Such tissue cylinders collected with wide lumen needles can be put directly
into formaldehyde solution and mailed. Fixated tissue cylinders have the advantage
over aspirates in that tissue morphology is preserved. An additional advantage is that
you may be able to obtain more information on tumour origin and structure. If a neoplasia reachs a larger diameter, larger organ samples may be biopsied with a larger
needle diameter.
If lymphoma is suspected, Tru Cut and cytology should not be performed in mandibular lymph nodes, as strong reactive activity/hyperplasia is often seen here, which can
hide neoplastic processes.
21
2.5 General advice on histopathology and cytology tests
Fine needle aspiration from masses and fluids
In order to perform a fine needle biopsy you may use a 0.8-2 mm (18-22G) needle
of sufficient length. The use of an aspiration guide is often helpful. This enables you
to safely collect several aspirates. A 5 or 10 ml syringe is recommended.
Sample collection is completed after a brief, single aspiration. If possible, when
collecting several aspirates, use a new needle for each new biopsy. Try not to collect
your aspirates by poking the needle around in the tissue. Also, try not to collect your
sample by lengthly aspiration of the tissue. This will lead to excessive mixing of blood
into the sample. It can also increase the risk of metastasis of neoplastic or purulent
infectious processes.
The collected aspirate can be treated like a blood smear and can be transferred to
a glass slide.
Liquid aspirates should be centrifuged at 1500 RPM for 5-10 minutes. Discard the
supernatant fluid and transfer the sediment onto a glass slide. Make a smear and
allow to dry naturally, then place in a slide protection box and send to the lab.
Remember to inform the lab about the site of collection
Price information
A higher fee is charged for very large samples, samples containing several tumours
or several samples from the same animal, as well as for more than six skin biopsies
from a single animal. This is due to the increase in time required for processing the
samples, as well as the larger number of sections and possibly diagnoses that have
to be made.
22
2.6 General advice on parasitology tests
Samples collection and sending
Faecal samples should ideally be taken directly from the rectum. If you are unable to
collect a rectal sample, ensure you collect fresh faeces. Faeces collected from the
ground can be contaminated by free living nematodes in a short time.
For reliable results a minimal amount of faeces is needed (amount is specified with
each test description). Samples should be put into a tightly closed and damage resistant package, cooled and sent to laboratory directly after collection.
If sending sample is delayed, it should be stored in the refrigerator. Parasite larvae are
not damaged, but oocyst and egg development is inhibited.
Parasites or parasite parts shed with faeces or should be sent in a plain tube (without
formalin) or in physiological salt solution, separate from the faecal sample.
Parasitology tests results estimation.
Each diagnostic procedure has its limitations. A positive result (direct parasite
confirmation) confirms infestation, but a negative result does not exclude parasitic
infestation. Multiple tests may be necessary to confirm the presence of parasites.
Because the various development stages of the parasite are not excreted
continuously, it is advised to test faecal samples collected over 3 days. In animal
herds (apart from fattening swine and poultry) a representative number of randomly
taken samples should be collected (not a collective sample from multiple animals)!
Showing various development stages of parasites is possible only in patent phase
(prepatent or postpatent infections in are not detected this way). It is important in
some parasitic infestations, as clinical signs may be present in the prepatent period.
23
2.7 Quality management
Quality management at IDEXX Reference Laboratories
The quality of diagnostics at IDEXX Vet Med Labor is subject to continuous and
extensive monitoring. Since June 2003, the high quality standards at our Ludwigsburg
facility have been confirmed by accreditation in accordance with DIN EN ISO 17025.
The German accreditation body DAkkS grants this recognition after thorough scrutiny.
Accredited tests carried out at this facility are marked (1) in the following pages;
non-accredited tests are identified by (2).
Our new Leipzig facility is committed to the same quality requirements.
However, the tests carried out there have not yet been accredited.
Our quality management does not start with the diagnostic machines - it begins
by giving information and advice to our clients on all pre-testing questions.
We make special efforts to ensure correct and reliable laboratory results.
To be able to process the wide range of submitted samples, our methods are
specifically calibrated to different animal species. All our diagnostic procedures are
validated and the reliability or our results are frequently monitored. By participating
in numerous national and international research groups, the quality of our analytic
methods are constantly revised and improved.
Even with the greatest care in diagnostic procedures, test results and parameters may
have some errors. We aim to minimise any deviation from the actual result. On your
request we can give information according Information on our expected margins within
our validation methods is available on request.
In the interests of clarity, we show the results of our tests in the most readable way.
In order to achieve this, we present a summary of the test results. A more detailed
description of the diagnostic method or procedure will be sent if requested.
An important element for quality improvement is a careful analysis of feedback from
our clients. We are always keen to hear any comments or criticism from our clients.
Your feedback is always welcome.
24
2.8. List of Abbreviations
CP
Citrate-plasma
Ag
Antigen
EB
EDTA blood
Ab
Antibody
EP
EDTA plasma
HB
Heparin blood
Birds
birds
HP
Heparin plasma
L.A.
Large animals
S
Serum
dogs
dogs
U
Urine
C a.
Companion animals
mis
miscellaneous
Rab.
rabbit
HP
Heparin-Plasma
S. a.
Small animals
NaF
Natrium-Fluorid-Blut
cats
cats
S
Serum
Ho
Horse
U
Urin
Ctl.
cattle
Va
Varia*
Shee.
Sheep
Sw.
Swine
(1)
Test is accredited*
* With stabilisor
(2)
Test is not accredited*
(3)
Test by partner laboratory
*affects the location Ludwigsburg,
Germany.
** please contact the hotline to
receive current information.
25
2.8. List of Abbreviations
AES
Atomic Emission Spectrometry
AGT
Serum agglutination test
CELISA
Competitive Enzyme Linked Immunoabsorbent Assay
CLIA
Chemiluminescence Immunoassay
ECLIA
Chemiluminescence Enzyme Immunoassay
EIA
Enzyme immunoassay
ELISA
Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay
FT-IR
Fourier Transform-Infrared Spectroscopy
GCMS
Gas Chromatography-Mass spectrometry
HIT
Haemagglutination Inhibition Test
HPLC
High Pressure Liquid Chromatography
IA
Immunoassay
ICPAES
Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy
ICP-MS
Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry
IFT
Immunofluoresence test
IHA
Indirect haemagglutination,
CFT
Complement fixation test
MAR
Microagglutination reaction
NT
Virus neutralisation test
PAS
Periodic Acid-Schiff
PCR
Polymerase Chain Reaction
RIA
Radioimmunoassay
SLA
Slow agglutination
26
2.9 Conversion Table
SI units
ACTH
conventional
units
pg/ml
Multiply with 
 divide by
SI units
0.2202
pmol/l
Albumin
g/dl
10
g/l
Aldosterone
g/ml
2.77
pmol/l
Ammonia
μg/dl
0.587
μmol/l
Bilirubin
mg/dl
17.104
μmol/l
Calcium
mg/dl
0.2495
mmol/l
Cholesterol
mg/dl
0.02586
mmol/l
Copper
μg/dl
0.157
μmol/l
Cortisol
μg/dl
27.6
nmol/l
mg/dl
88.4
μmol/l
μg/l
1.28
nmol/l
Fibrinogen
mg/dl
0.01
g/l
Folic acid
ng/ml
2.27
nmol/l
FT3
ng/l
1.54
pmol/l
FT4
ng/dl
12.87
pmol/l
Glucose
mg/dl
0.0555
mmol/l
Creatinine
Digoxin
Haemoglobin
g/dl
0.621
mmol/l
μU/ml
7.18
pmol/l
Iron
μg/dl
0.1791
μmol/l
Lactate
mg/dl
0.11
mmol/l
μg/l
0.00483
μmol/l
Magnesium
mg/dl
0,411
mmol/l
Insulin
Lead
Kreatinin
mg/dl
88,4
μmol/l
Kupfer
μg/dl
0,157
μmol/l
Laktat
mg/dl
0,11
mmol/l
Magnesium
mg/dl
0,411
mmol/l
27
2.9 Conversion Table
SI units
Oestradiol
conventional
units
Multiply with 
 divide by
SI units
ng/l
3,671
pmol/l
Phenobarbitone
μg/ml
4.31
μmol/l
Progesterone
ng/ml
3.18
nmol/l
T3
μg/ml
1.54
nmol/l
T4
μg/dl
12.87
nmol/l
Testosterone
pg/ml
0.00347
nmol/l
Total protein
g/dl
10
g/l
Triglycerides
mg/dl
0.0114
mmol/l
mg/l
3.49
μmol/l
pg/ml
0.738
pmol/l
mg/l
5.678
μmol/l
μg/l
0.153
μmol/l
Vitamin A
Vitamin B12
Vitamin C
Zinc
28
3 Profile
3.1 General profile cats and dogs
A general screening profile provides extensive information about the health status of
your patient. It can be customised with our add-on profiles, which can be selected
on a flexible basis according to the clinical symptoms. Screening profiles and add-on
tests can be
ordered using the "Diagnostic Plus" submission form.
Large Check-up
1 ml S + 1-2 ml EB + blood smear (+ NaF)
Kidney
Urea (BUN), creatinine, sodium, potassium, phosphate
Liver
Bilirubin, ALT (GPT), AP, γ-GT , AST (GOT), GLDH, total protein, albumin, globulin,
albumin/globulin ratio (feline only)
Pancreas
Glucose, α-amylase (excluding cat), lipase (only dogs) cholesterol,
fructosamine (only dogs, cats)
Muscle
CK, LDH, calcium, magnesium
Metabolism
Triglycerides
Haematology
Large blood count (Small blood count + Diff. blood count + reticulocytes)
Note: Physiological values may vary among species
Check-up
1 ml S (+ NaF)
Includes all parameters in Large Check-up, except the Large blood count.
Basic Check-up
(dog and cat only)
1 ml S + 1-2 ml EB + blood smear (+ NaF)
Includes the same parameters as Large Check-up, with small blood count instead
of large blood count
Geriatric Profile
29
1 ml S + 2 ml EB + blood smear (+ NaF)
3 Profile
3.1 General profile cats and dogs
Large Check-up + T4
Geriatric Profile
without blood count
1 ml S + NaF
Geriatric Profile (Large Check-Up + T4), without large blood count
Large Feline Profile
1 ml S + 0,5 ml EB + Blood smear
Kidney
Urea (BUN), creatinine, total protein, sodium, potassium, phosphate
Liver
Total protein, bilirubin ALT (GPT), AP, AST (GOT), GLDH,Υy-GT
Pancreas
Glucose, cholesterol, fructosamine
Muscle
Metabolism
Triglycerides
Haematology
Large blood count (Small blood count + Diff. blood count + reticulocytes)
Serology
FeLV (Ag) FIV (Ab), FIP/coronavirus antibody titre
Serum protein electrophoresis
Add-on Profile
Anaemia cat
1 ml EB + 1 ml S
30
3 Profile
3.2 Add-on tests (dogs and cats) at a reduced price
Only valid, if both a general profile and an add-on test are ordered at the same
time on the same submission form.
Test requests at a later time will be charged at normal list price.
Besides distinguishing between regenerative and non-regenerative anaemia,
you can use this profile to test simultaneously for three common causes.
FeLV (ag), FIV (ab), Retikulozyten, Mycoplasma haemofelis,
Cand. Mycoplasma haemominutum (DNA).
Profil/Add-on Profile
Cardiac diseases
dogs: 0.3 ml EP + 0.5 ml S cooled
cats: 0.3 ml S cooled
This profile is useful in the cardiac workup of cats and of dogs with a heart murmur.
Cardiopet® proBNP, Troponin I ultra-sensitive
s.  Chapter 5
Cardiopet® proBNP
dogs: 0.3 ml EP
cats: 0.3 ml S
s.  Chapter 5
CRP C-reactive protein
(dogs)
0.5 ml S
s.  Chapter 5
2 ml S
Profil/ add-on Profil
(former Profil P) (dogs,
cats)
This profile provides a wide range of information on the gastrointestinal tract and
pancreas and is indicated in all patients suffering from chronic diarrhoea, especially
if there are indications of small intestine disease.
Spec cPL® (dogs), Spec fPL® (cats), folic acid, Vitamin B12, cTLI (dogs)
31
3 Profile
Add-on Profile
Pruritus (dogs)
0.5 ml S + skin scrapings
This test profile usually permits the diagnosis or exclusion of ectoparasites
as the cause of pruritus.
Ectoparasites - microscopic, Sarcoptes (ab) - ELISA
0.5 ml S
Spec cPL® Canine
pancreasspecific lipase
(dogs)
s.  Chapter 5
Spec fPL® Feline
pancreasspecific
lipase (cats)
0.5 ml S
s.  Chapter 5
1.5 ml S
Add-on Profile
Under the weather cat
Cats commonly only exhibit non-specific symptoms such as anorexia or lethargy. This profile can help in working up these cases and also allows you to detect
hidden disease and help find the direct cause.
Spec fPL®, Cardiopet® proBNP, FeLV (ag) - ELISA, FIV (ab) - ELISA,
Coronavirus feline (ab) - IFT
Add-on Profile Urine
(dogs, cats.)
6 ml Urine
32
3 Profile
This test profile provides a comprehensive overview of all relevant urinary tract
parameters and complementary information on the health status of your patient.
Add-on Profile
Weigth loss (dogs)
1 ml S + 1 ml Urine + 5 g faeces
Because there can be a variety of reasons for weight loss, this profile helps to
identify the underlying causes more quickly.
Spec cPL®, CRP (c-reactive proteine), protein/creatinine ratio, endoparasites
Add-on Profile
Weigth loss (cats)
0.5 ml S + 1 ml Urine + 5 g faeces
Because there can be a variety of reasons for weight loss, this profile helps to
identify the underlying causes more quickly.
Spec fPL®, Cardiopet® proBNP, protein/creatinine ratio, endoparasites
33
3 Profile
3.3 Profile dogs, cats
(in alphabetical order)
Please also note:
Anaemia Profile
(dogs, cats)
s.  Chapter 3.1 Routine profile
s.  Chapter 3.2 Add-on tests (dogs and cats)
at a reduced price
1 ml S + 1-2 ml EB + blood smear
Large blood count, reticulocytes, bilirubin (total), LDH, protein (total)
Canine Neurologic
Profile
0.5 ml CFS PCR
Bartonella spp. (DNA), Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato(DNA), Canines Distempervirus (Staupe) (RNA), Cryptococcus neoformans/C. gattii (DNA), Neospora spp.
(DNA),
Toxoplasma gondii (DNA).
Canine Upper
Respiratory Profile
smear (throat, eye) PCR
Canine Adenovirus type 2, CanineDistempervirus, Canine Herpesvirus (CHV-1),
Canine Parainfluenza Virus Type 3, Canine Influenza Virus,
Canine Respiratory Coronavirus.
Diarrhoea Profile
(cats, dogs)
Feaces PCR
Giardia spp., Cryptosporidium spp., Salmonella spp., Clostridium perfrigens alpha
Toxine gene, Clostridium perfrigens Enterotoxine gene, Canine Enteric Coronavirus,
Canine Parvovirus, Canine Distemper Virus - qualitative
Respiratory Profile
Canine Adenovirus Typ 2 (CADV-2) (DNA), Canines Distempervirus (RNA quantitative), Canine Herpesvirus 1 (CHV-1) (DNA), Canine Parainfluenzavirus (RNA),
Canine Influenzavirus (RNA), Canine Respiratory Coronavirus (CRCoV) (RNA).
Canine Tick Profile
(Blood)
1 ml EB PCR
34
3 Profile
Anaplasma spp. (DNA), Babesia spp. (DNA), Ehrlichia spp. (DNA),
Hepatozoon canis (DNA)
Profile Cardiac diseases dogs: 0.3 ml EP + 0.3 ml S
cats: 0.3 ml S
Cardiopet® proBNP, Troponin I ultra-sensitive
s.  Chapter 5
Cushing Monitoring
Profile
2 x 0.5 ml S + 1 ml NaF
Urea (BUN), creatinine, potassium, glucose, ALP, ALT,
ACTH stimulation test (2 cortisol values)
s.  Chapter 12.1
Diarrhoea Profile B
(dogs, cats)
2 ml S
cTLI, folic acid, vitamin B12
Diarrhoea Profile C
(dogs, cats, ferrets)
faeces (min. 1 tube)
s.  Chapter 16
Diarrhoea Profile E
(dogs)
faeces (min. 1 tube)
s.  Chapter 16
Feline Diarrhoea Profile 5 g faeces PCR
Trichomonas foetus, Giardia spp., Cryptosporidium spp., Toxoplasma gondii,
salmonella spp., Clostridium perfrigens alpha Toxine gene, Clostridium perfrigens
Enterotoxine gene, Feline Coronavirus, Feline Parvovirus.
Feline Eye Profile
Swab (conjunctiva/cornea) PCR
35Chlamydia felis (DNA), Mycoplasma felis (DNA), Feline Herpesvirus (FHV-1) (DNA).
3 Profile
Feline Haemotropic
Mycoplasma
Profile
1 ml EB PCR
s.  Chapter 15
Feline Upper
Respiratory Profile
Chlamydia felis (DNA), Feline Calicivirus (RNA), Feline Herpesvirus (FHV-1) (DNA),
Mycoplasma felis (DNA).
Gastrointestinal
2 ml S
Diseases (former Profil P)
(dogs, cats)
Spec cPL® (dogs), Spec fPL® (cats), folic acid, Vitamin B12, cTLI (dogs)
Liver Profile 1
1 ml S
Urea (BUN), Bilirubin, ALT (GPT), AP, γ-GT , GLDH, AST (GOT), bile acids, albumin
Liver Profile 2
(cats, dogs)
1 ml S + 0.5 ml EB + 1 ml CP frozen
Liver profile 1 + small blood count, Quick-Test (PT), PTT, Serum electrophoresis
PU/PD (Polyuria/
Polydipsia)
Profile (dogs, cats)
s.  Chapter 8.1
Travel Disease
Profile 1 - early (dogs)
1 ml S + 1 ml EB + blood smear + 10 ml Urine
2 ml S + 1 ml EB + blood smear
Ehrlichia canis (Ab), Leishmania (Ab), Babesia canis (Ab), Blood parasites and
haemotropic bacteria - microscopy
Travel diseases Profile 2 - late (dogs)
3 ml S
36
3 Profile
Useful in combination with the microfilaria filtration test. The latter is available as a
reduced-price add-on profile if ordered at the same time as Travel Disease Profile
2
on the same submission form.
Ehrlichia canis (Ab), Leishmania (Ab), Microfilaria (Ag) (Dirofilaria immitis),
Babesia canis (Ab), C6 qualitative Borrelia-Screening (Ab)
s.  Chapter 4.4
Travel diseases Profile 3 - acute (dogs)
3 ml EB + blood smear
Ehrlichia spp. (DNA) - PCR, Anaplasma spp. (DNA) - PCR
Babesia spp. (DNA) - PCR, Hepatozoon canis (DNA) - PCR
Blood parasites and haemotropic bacteria - microscopic direct detection,
small blood count
Thyroid Profile 1
(dogs, cats, horses)
2 ml S
s.  Chapter 12
Thyroid Profile 2 (dogs)
2 ml S
s.  Chapter 12.
Tick Profile
Tick PCR
Anaplasma spp. (DNA), Babesia spp. (DNA), Ehrlichia spp. (DNA), Hepatozoon canis (DNA, Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (DNA), Tickborne Encephalitisvirus (RNA).
Canine Tick Profile
(blood)
1 ml EB Anaplasma spp. (DNA), Babesia spp. (DNA), Ehrlichia spp. (DNA),
Hepatozoon canis (DNA)
Tickborne Disease
Profile (dogs)
1 ml S
Borrelia Screening (Ab, C6 qualitative), Anaplasma phagocytophilum (Ab)
37
PCR
3 Profile
Large Tickborne
Disease Profile
(serological) (dogs)
2 ml S
Borrelia Screening (Ab, C6 qualitative), Anaplasma phagocytophilum (Ab)
Ehrlichia canis (Ab), Babesia canis (Ab)
Cushing Monitoring
Profile
1 ml EB
Urea(BUN), crea, K, Na, glucose, ALP, ALT,
ACTH stimulation test (2 cortisol values)
Equine Profile, large
1 ml S + 1 ml EB + blood smear + NaF
38
3 Profile
3.4 Profiles for horses
Kidneys
Liver
Total bilirubin, total protein
AP, g-GT, AST (GOT), GLDH, albumin
Metabolism
glucose, cholesterol, triglycerides
Muscles
CK, LDH, Calcium, Magnesium
Microelements
zinc, copper, selenium
Hematology
Large blood count
Equine Profile
3 ml S, HP (+ NaF)
Large Horse Profile without large blood count
Equine Geriatric Profile 3 ml S + 2 ml EB + blood smear + NaF
Kidneys
Phosphate, urea -N (BUN), creatinine
Liver
AST, GLDH, total bilirubin, g-GT
Muscles
Calcium
Metabolism
Glucose, triglycerides
Microelements
Zinc, selenium
Serum protein electrophoresis
Hematology
Large blood count
Equine Geriatric
Profile, small
3 ml S + NaF
Geriatric Horse Profile without blood count
Equine Respiratory
Profile
Nasal Swab PCR
39Equines Influenzavirus (RNA), Equines Arteritisvirus (RNA), EHV-1 (DNA), EHV-4
(DNA)
3 Profile
Equine Respiratory
Profile Foal
Nasal Swab + Trachea secretions
(-lavage, BALF
PCR
Equine Respiratory Profile + Rhodococcus equi (DNA).
Foal Profile
1 ml S + 2 ml EB +blood smear + NaF
Kidneys
Urea (BUN), creatinine, sodium, potassium
Liver
Total bilirubin, Total protein, AP, γ-GT , AST
Muscle
Calcium, Magnesium, CK
Metabolism
Trace elements
Iron
Hematology
Large blood count
Special
Serum IgG
Granulosa Theca Cell
Tumor Profile (horses)
5 ml S (nonhaemolysed sample)
s.  Chapter 12
Performance Profile
(equine)
2 ml S + 1 ml NaF
40
3 Profile
Kidneys
Urea (BUN), sodium, potassium, phosphate
Liver
Total bilirubin, γ-GT, AST (GOT)
Pancreas
Glucose
Muscles
Note: To measure lactate please use sodium fluoride tubes, as it is necessary to
use sample tubes with a glycolysis inhibiting substance. Centrifugation of the tubes
and pipetting of plasma should be performed within 15 minutes of blood sampling.
To avoid confusion, send fluoridated plasma in clearly marked tubes. Serum is not
suitable.
Thyroid Profile 1
(horses)
2 ml S
s.  Chapter 12
Bovine Profile
41
3 ml S + 2 ml EB (+ NaF)
3 Profile
3.5 Profiles bovine
Kidneys/Protein metabolism
Urea (BUN), creatinine, total protein, sodium, chloride, potassium, phosphate
Liver
Total bilirubin, AP, AST (GOT), cholinesterase, γ-GT , GLDH, bile acids
Metabolism
Glucose, fructosamine, cholesterol, β-Hydroxybuttyric acid
Muscles
CK, calcium, magnesium
Trace elements
Zinc, copper, selenium
Vitamine
β-Carotene
Bovine Upper
AboT., BAL, tracheal lavage
Respiratory Tract Profile
PCR(3)
We offer molecular diagnostic tests for three pathogens involved in the EBP complex, either as part of a cost-saving profile or as individual tests.
Mycoplasma bovis (DNA detection), bovine parainfluenza 3 (RNA detection),
bovine respiratory syncytial virus (RNA detection).
Downer Cow
Profile
1 ml S + NaF
Urea (BUN), total protein, phosphate
Liver
AST (GOT), γ-GT
Metabolism
Glucose, cholesterol
Muscles
CK, calcium, magnesium
Note: Please send only hemolysis-free serum (no EDTA-/Heparin blood!
Fertility Profile 1
(bovine)
1 ml S
42
3 Profile
3.5 Profiles bovine
Kidneys/protein metabolism
Urea (BUN), total protein, sodium, potassium, phosphate
Liver
AST (GOT)
Muscles
Calcium, magnesium
Fertility Profile 2
(bovine)
3 ml S
Fertility Profile 2 + Vit. E, Selenium
Large Bovine Profile
3 ml S + 2 ml EB + 10 ml U + hairs (+ NaF)
Urea (BUN), creatinine, total protein, sodium, chloride, potassium, phosphate
Liver
Total bilirubin, AP,AST (GOT), choline esterase, γ-GT , GLDH, bile acids
Metabolism
Glucose, fructosamine, cholesterol, trigllicerides, β-Hydroxybutyric acid
Muscles
CK, Calcium, magnesium
Thyroid gland
T4
Trace elements
Zinc (S, Ha),copper, selenium, manganese (EB, Ha), sodium (U)
Vitamines
Biotin, folic acid,Vit. A, β-Carotene, Vit. B1, Vit. B12, Vit. E
Large Copper Profile
(bovine)
3 ml S, EB
u, Zn, Se, Mo
Small Copper Profile
(bovine)
Cu, Mo
Large Porcine Profile
43
3 ml S, EB
3 Profile
3.6 Profile porcine
Kidneys
Liver
Bilirubin, direct total bilirubin, total protein, AP, γ-GT , AST (GOT), GLDH
Pancreas
α-Amylase, lipase, cholesterol
Muscles
Metabolism
Triglycerides
Trace elements
Haematology
Large blood count
44
3 Profile
3.7 Profile camelid
Camelid Profile
45
3 Profile
3.8 Profile rabbit/rodent/reptile
Kidneys
Liver
Bilirubin, total protein, AP, γ-GT , AST (GOT), albumin
Pancreas
Cholesterol
Muscles
Metabolism
Trace elements
Zinc, copper, selenium, iron
Hematology
Large blood count (small blood count + differential blood count)
Avian Profile
Feather + 0.1- 0.5 ml EB PCR
PBFD-Virus (DNA), Polyoma-Virus (DNA)
Avian Profile 2
Feather, 0.1- 0.5 ml EB + smear, faeces
PCR
Bird panel 1 + Chlamydia psittaci
Avian Profile 3
Feather, 0.1- 0.5 ml EB
PCR
Bird panel 1 + sex determination
Avian Profile 4
Feather, 0.1- 0.5 ml EB + smear, faeces
PCR
46
3 Profile
3.8 Profile rabbit/rodent/reptile
Bird panel 1 + Chlamydia psittaci + Sex determination
Avian-Screening
0.5 ml S
AST (GOT), bile acids, total protein, albumin, urea,
CK, LDH, phosphate, calcium, potassium, cholinesterase
Diarrhoea Profile C
faeces (min. 1 full faecal tube)
s.  Chapter 16
Ferret Profile
1 ml S + 0.5 ml EB + blood smear
Large blood count, urea (BUN), creatinine, total protein, albumin, globulins, γ-GT ,
AST, glucose, CK, LDH, triglycerides, calcium
Rabbit/Guinea Pig
Profile
47
3 Profile
3.9 Multi-species Profiles
Kidneys
Urea (BUN), creatinine, phosphate
Liver
Total protein,
γ-GT , AST (GOT), GLDH
Muscles
CK, LDH, Calcium
Metabolism
Glucose, triglycerides, fructosamine (rabbits only)
Haematology
Large blood count (small blood count + differential blood count)
Reptile Profile, large
0.5 ml S + 0.5 ml HB + blood smear
Kidneys
Uric acid, Urea (BUN), phosphate
Liver
ALT (GPT), AST (GOT), Total protein, albumin, glucose
Metabolism/muscles
Calcium, LDH, CK
Haematology
Large blood count (leukocytes, erythrocytes, haemoglobin,
haematocrit, differential blood count)
Reptile Profile
0.5 ml S
Large reptile profile without large blood count
Aspirate Profile 1
3-5 ml aspirate
s.  Chapter 18.2
Aspirate Profile 2
3-5 ml aspirate + (Swab)
s.  Chapter 18.2
CSF Profile 1
Cell count, protein (total)
s.  Chapter 18.2
CSF Profile 2
CSF Profile 1 + cytology
s.  Chapter 18.2
48
3 Profile
CSF Profile 3
CSF Profile 2 + bacteriology (aerobic + anaerobic)
s.  Chapter 18.2
Electrolyte Profile
1 ml S
Calcium, magnesium, phosphate, sodium, potassium, chloride
Note: Send only unhaemolysed serum (no EDTA/heparin blood).
Heavy Metal Profile
1 ml S + 1 ml Urine + 0,5 ml EB, HB
s.  Chapter 6.2
Kidney Profile
1 ml S
urea (BUN), creatinine , total protein, sodium, potassium, calcium, phosphate
Liver Profile 1
1 ml S Urea (BUN), ALT, AP, γ-GT , GLDH, AST, bile acids, Bilirubin, Albumin
Liver Profile 2
(dogs, cats)
1.5 ml S + 0.5 ml EB + 1 ml CP frozen
s.  Chapter 3
Muscle Profile
1 ml S
CK, LDH, AST (GOT),calcium
Please note: Serum must not be haemolysed!
49
3 Profile
Profile S (electrolytes
+ trace elements)
3 ml S; bovine: 2 ml S + 1 ml EB
Trace elements
Electrolytes
Sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphate, chloride
Skin Profile 1
Tissue in Formalin + Swab
Histopathology, Bacteriology (aerobic)
Skin Profile 2
Tissue in Formalin + Skin scrapings
Histopathology, Bacteriology (aerobic)
Skin Profile 3
Tissue in Formalin + Swab + skin scrapings
Histopathology, Bacteriology (aerobic), Mycology
Skin Profile 4 (dogs)
Tissue in Formalin + 1 ml S
Histopathology, Sarcoptes antibodies
Skin Profile 7
(dogs, cats)
1 ml S + tissue in Formalin
Histopathology, Allergy tests (Screening Test)
Synovia Profile 1
1 ml Synovial fluid
s.  Chapter 18.2
Synovia Profile 2
2 ml Synovial fluid
s.  Chapter 18.2
Synovia Profile 2
2 ml Synovial fluid
s.  Chapter 18.2
50
4 Haematology
4.1 Haematology
Please note: When ordering blood counts for birds and reptiles, please note that, due
to the time-consuming manual work involved, these can be offered only for individual
animals and not as mass tests!
Small blood count
1 -2 ml EB
Flow cytometry (1)
Leukocytes, erythrocytes, hemoglobin, hematocrit, MCV, MCH, MCHC, thrombocytes
Differential blood count
1 ml EB + blood smear
Flow cytometry,
Microscopy (1) )
Basophils, eosinophils segmented neutrophils, nonsegmented neutrophils,
lymphocytes, monocytes, atypical cells, anisocytosis, polychromasia
Large blood count
1 - 2 ml EB + blood smear
Flow cytometry(1)
Small blood count + differential blood count + reticulozytes
Reticulocyte count
(dogs, cats.)
1 ml EB
Flow cytometry,
Microscopy (1)
The reticulocyte count in an anaemic animal measures
the regenerative capability of their bone marrow
Anaemia profile
s.  Chapter 3 profiles
Inclusion Body Disease
(IBD) (reptiles)
minimum 2 blood smears
Microscopie (1)
s.  Chapter 13, Infection Diseases
Small blood count
(birds)
0.5 ml EB/HB
Leukocytes, erythrocytes, hematocrit, hemoglobin
51
Grid count, Photometry,
Centrifugation (1)
4 Haematology
4.1 Haematology
(birds)
0.5 ml EB,HB + blood smear
Microscopy (1)
Basophils, eosinophils, heterophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, anisocytes, polichromasia
Large blood count
(birds)
0.5 ml EB, HB+ blood smear
Microscopy (1)
Small blood count + differential blood count
Small blood count
(reptiles)
1 ml HB + blood smear
Grid count, Photometry,
centrifugation(1)
Leukocytes, erythrocytes, hematocrit, hemoglobin
(Reptiles)
0.5 ml HB + blood smear
Mikroskopie (1)
Basophils, eosinophils, heterophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, azurophils, anisocytes, polychromasia.
Note: Bird and reptile erthrocytes and thrombocytes contain cell nuclei. For this
reason automatic cell count is not possibile. In addition, do not use EDTA with reptile
blood, as it may cause haemolysis. Please use heparin as the preferred anticoagulant.
Large blood count
(Reptiles)
0.5 ml HB + blood smear
Grid count photometry,
centrifugation (1)
52
4 Haematology
4.2 Coagulation parameters
Small blood count + differential blood count
Quick-Test (PT)
(Thromboplastin time
Prothrombin time)
0.5 ml CP frozen
Indication:
- Screening test for suspicion of the extrinsic
coagulation pathway disorders
- Diagnosis and monitoring of your patient following
vitamin K antagonist intoxication,factor VII deficiency,
hepatopathy and DIC
Antithrombin III (dogs)
0.5 ml CP
(citrated plasma) frozen
Coagulometry (1)
Chromogenic Assay (2)
AT III is one of the most important inhibitors of coagulation and a thrombin
antagonist. Its activity is enhanced by heparin. This test is recommended during
heparin treatment and early diagnosis of DIC.
PTT (active partial
0.5 ml CP frozen
Coagulometry (1)
thromboplastin time)
Indication:
53
- Screening test for the intrinsic coagulation pathway
- A test for factor VIII, IX, XI, XII deficiencies
- Heparin therapy monitoring
4 Haematology
Thrombin time
0.5 ml CP frozen
Indication:
-Suspected fibrinogen deficiency or disturbance of
-Fibrinogen production
-Fibrinolysis therapy monitoring
-Heparin therapy monitoring
D-Dimer (dogs only)
0.5 ml CP frozen
Coagulometry (1)
Immunogy
disorders Test (2)
D-Dimer is a fibrin degradation product. This screening is used to test fibrinolytic
activation.Increased D-dimer concentration is seen in dogs with DIC,
thromboembolism and also in acute kidney failure, neoplasia, immune-mediated
anaemia and other diseases.
Fibrinogen
1 ml CP frozen
Indications:
DIC, hepatopathy, fibrinogen deficiency, consumptive
coagulopathy or hyperfibrinolysis
Coagulometry (1)
- As an acute phase protein marker during inflammation.
Large Coagulation
Screening
1 ml CP frozen
Coagulometry (1)
Fibrinogen, PTT, Quick-Test, thrombin time
Coagulation Screening
(dogs)
1 - 2 ml CP frozen
Coagulometry(1)
Total coagulation status, D-Dimer, Antithrombin III
Factor VIII (dogs)
0.5 ml CP frozen
Indications:
Diagnosis of hemophilia A (Factor VIII deficiency)
Factor IX (Hd.)
0.5 ml CP frozen
Indications:
Diagnosis of hemophilia B (Factor IX deficiency )
Coagulometry(1)
Coagulometry(1)
54
4 Haematology
Von Willebrand-Factor1 ml EB
Antigen (vWF: Ag) (dogs)
Immunologic
disorder test (1)
Von Willebrand factor mediates the adhesion of thrombocytes to the endothelial wall
of blood vessels and acts as a carrier protein for factor VIII. Von Willebrand syndrome
has been described in numerous dog breeds, but is most frequently seen in
Dobermanns and Scottish Terriers.
Test is indicated if PTT or skin/mucosal membrane bleeding time is increasd.
Von-Willebrand-Factor
1-3
1 ml EB
s.  Chapter 15, Molecular biology tests
55
PCR (3)
4 Haematology
4.3 Blood groups
Blood group typing
(dogs, cats)
0.5 ml EB, HB + blood smear
Dogs
There are currently 13 known blood groups described
in dogs.These are known as DEA (dog erythrocyte
antigen) 1.1,1.2,etc. Dogs do not have any clinically
significant endogenous antibodies towards other blood
groups.
This is why transfusion reaction haemolysis is not
expected following the first blood transfusion. We test
for blood group DEA1.1, as this is the group with the
strongest antigenic potential, and may cause significant
antibody production leading to delayed hemolysis.
An animal which has never had a blood transfusion has
no naturally occurring clinically relevant antibodies.
However once a DEA 1.1-negative animal has ben
sensitized by a DEA 1.1-positive transfusion, a further
DEA 1.1-positive transfusion may cause acute hemolytic
transfusion reaction.
Cats
Cats have blood groups A, B and AB. The most common
one is blood group A (96%). Type B varies according to
the breed, with an increased prevalence in Devon Rex
or British Shorthair cats (20-45%).
Blood group AB is extremely rare. Cats have naturally
occurring antibodies towards other blood groups, so the
blood group of both the donor and recipient should be
checked before any transfusion.
Blood group testing reduces the chance of the
occurrence of neonatal erythrolysis when both parents
are tested prior to breeding, as there is a great risk of
neonatal erythrolysis if kittens of A (or AB) blood group
are born from B blood group mother.
immmunochromatographic test (1)
56
4 Haematology
4.4 Blood parasites and haemotropic bacteria
Blood parasites and
haemotropic bacteria
0.5 ml EB + blood smear
Microscopy (1)
Microscopy of Giemsa stained blood smear, looking for Babesia, Ehrlichia,
Anaplasma, Hepatozoon or other pathogens. Direct pathogen detection is possible
only in parasitic or bacteriemic phase; therefore multiple tests may be required to
rule out disease.
s.  Travel Profile 1 + 3
s.  Chapter 13, Infectious diseases
Microfilaria - Knott Test
1 - 2 ml EB
Microscopy (1)
Dirofilaria immitis
(Macrofilaria) (Ag)
1 ml S, EP, HP
57
Filtration test,
Microscopy (1)
5 Biochemistry
Albumin
0.3 ml S, EP, HP
Indications: Hepatopathies
Nephropathies
Determination of albumin/globulin ratio (FIP diagnostics)
Occurrence:
Albumin is synthesized
in the liver
Decreased in:
- Protein deficiency (nutritional)
- Anorexia
- Malassimilation
- Hepatopathies
- Renal, glomerular loss (nephritis, nephrotic syndrome)
- Protein-losing enteropathy
- FIP
- Burns
- Blood loss
- Body cavity effusions
- Hypoadrenocorticism
- CNS disease
- Relative deficiency due to overhydration
- Hypergammaglobulinaemia
Increased in:
- Dehydration
Photometry (1) )
58
5 Biochemistry
Alkaline Phosphatase
(AP)
0.3 ml S, HP
Indications: Hepatopathies
Hyperadrenocorticism
Osteopathies
Occurrence:
Alkaline phosphatase is found in the liver
(membrane-bound in biliary duct epithelium),
small intestinal mucosa, bones, kidneys, placenta,
spleen, leukocytes, and erythrocytes
Increased in
physiologically
- Growth
liver specific increase
-Hepatopathies with intra- or extrahepatic
cholestasis (cats/ruminants show a very slow reaction)
-Liver neoplasia
-Hepatotoxicity
-Pancreatitis
non-specific increase
-Hyperadrenocorticism (esp. dogs)
-Hyperthyroidism
-Diabetes mellitus
-Hyperparathyroidism
-Bone healing
-Osteopathies
-Neoplasias
-Pregnancy (esp. cats)
-Medication (e.g. glucocorticoids, anticonvulsant drugs,
barbiturates, certain antibiotics)
Results affected by:
Haemolysis, EDTA, severe lipaemia and bilirubinaemia
Please note:
Young animals show considerably higher alkaline
phosphatase values than adults.
59
Enzyme kinetics,
Photometry (1)
5 Biochemistry
Alkaline phosphatase
(AP) thermostable
0.5 ml S, HP
Indications:
Cushing-diagnostics in dogs:
Detection of steroid induced fraction (heat stabile) of AP:
thermostable fraction of AP is increased by endogenous
or exogenous glucocorticoids. Thermostable fraction of
AP is detectable by heating serum to 65° C.
Haemolysis, EDTA, high grade lipemia, bilirubinemia
a-Amylase
0.3 ml S, EP, HP
Indications:
disease of the exocrine pancreas
Occurrence:
α-amylase is found in the pancreas, liver, small intestine,
salivary glands, kidney (dog)
Increased in:
- Acute pancreatitis (see also specific pancreaslipase,
cats, dogs)
- Pancreatic necrosis
- Pancreatic tumour
- Obstruction of the pancreatic duct
- Nephropathies
- Hepatopathies (carcinoma)
- Ileus, peritonitis, cholecystitis, small intestinal disease
- Hyperadrenocorticism
- Medication (e.g. glucocorticoids)
Enzyme kinetics,
Photometry (1)
Enzyme kinetics,
Photometry(1)
60
5 Biochemistry
ALT (GPT)
0.3 ml S, EP, HP
Indications:
Hepatopathies
Occurrence:
Liver (hepatocytes cytoplasm)
(especially in dogs and cats)
Kidneys, heart and sceletal muscles
(especially in horses, cattle, swine and sheep).
Increased in:
Especially in following hepatopathies:
- Hypoxia damage
- Liver fibrosis or cirrhosis (acute phase)
- Extrahepatic bile duct obstruction
- Cholangitis, cholangiohepatitis
- Liver lipidosis
- Liver amyloidosis
- Restricted venous flow (congested liver)
- By described processes (e.g. tumors, abscesses)
Mild or no increase:
- Acute necrosis by toxins or medications
(after increase faster fall )
- Medications (e.g. anticonvulsiva,glucocorticoids)
- Fever (small increase)
Haemolysis, lipaemia
Ammonia
1 ml EP frozen
Indications:
Hepatopathy
Hepatic encephalopathy
Occurrence:
(Toxic) Metabolite from protein metabolism, synthesised
in the intestines, further metabolised to urea (BUN)
in the liver.
Increased in:
- Portosystemic shunt
- Severe chronic hepatopathies (fibrosis, cirrhosis)
- Severe acute hepatopathies (acute hepatitis,
acute liver cell necrosis)
- Uraemia
- Primary hyperammonaemia (rare)
Please note:
For blood collection use pre-chilled collection tubes.
Close the tube immediately after collection and
centrifuge at once. Send the plasma frozen! The animal
should be fasted for 12 hrs prior to sampling.
61
Enzyme kinetics,
Photometry (1)
Photometry (1)
5 Biochemistry
AST (GOT)
0.3 ml S, EP , HP
Indications:
Myopathies: all animal species
Hepatopathies: horses, cattle, sheep, goats,
pigs, (dogs, cats)
Occurrence: AST (GOT) is found primarily in skeletal muscle and liver
(cytoplasmic, mitochondrial)
Increased in:
- Hepatopathies
- myopathies (possibly also cardiomyopathies)
(to differentiate, also test CPK/ALT)
- Medication (e.g. anticonvulsants, oestrogens)
- Training
b-Carotene
2 ml S
Indications:
- Fertility problems in cattle, horses, and swine.
(eg silent oestrus, stillbirth, delayed ovulation, frequent
return to cycle, abortion/embryonic death)
- Increased susceptibility of infection in neonates
Incidence:
- Provitamin A (Exception: cats are not able to transfer
ß-carotene into vitamin A)
- The main storage organ for ß-carotene is the liver.
Decreased in:
Nutritive (e.g. feeding long storaged silage)
Enzyme kinetics
Photometry (1)
Photometry (1)
HPLC (2)
62
5 Biochemistry
b-Hydroxybutyrate
0.3 ml S, EP, HP
Indications:
Measurement of β-hydroxybutyrate is a highly sensitive
method of ketonemia detection.
Occurrence:
β-Hydroxybutyrate is found in body fluids
(serum, milk, urine).
Increased in:
- Ketoacidosis in dogs and cats (e.g. in uncontrolled
diabetes mellitus)
- Ketosis (cattle)
- Pregnancy toxicosis (sheep)
- Diabetes mellitus (with ketoacidosis)
- Pyrexia
- Starvation
Bilirubin (total)
0.3 ml S, EP, HP
Indications:
- Cholestasis
- Hepatopathies
- Anaemia, haemolysis
Occurrence:
Mainly when haemoglobin is broken down into bilirubin I,
(unconjugated or indirect bilirubin), conjugation takes
place in the liver (dog: also in the kidneys) to bilirubin II,
(conjugated or direct bilirubin).
Haemolysis, Lipemia, Daylight
63
Photometrie (1)
Photometry (1)
5 Biochemistry
Bile acids
0.3 ml S, EP, HP
Indications:
Hepatopathies
Occurrence:
Bile acids are synthesised in the liver from cholesterol.
They are responsible for digestion and absorption of
lipids in the intestines (bile acids reach the intestines
in bile and a small amount is passed with the faeces.
A larger amount is reabsorbed and transported back
to the liver).
Photometry (1)
Hepatopathies lead to disturbances in bile acid
secretion. The accumulation of bile acids then leads to
functional disorders due to their toxic properties.
Increased in:
specific increase
Liver and bile duct disease with intra- or post-hepatic
cholestasis, e.g.
- Hepatitis
- Chronic hepatitis
non specific increase
- An increase is physiologically normal up to 24 hrs
following a fatty meal
- Hyperthyroidism
- Diabetes mellitus
Please note
Please note: Animal must be fasted 12 hrs
prior to sampling!
64
5 Biochemistry
Bile Acid
Stimulation Test
2 x 0.3 ml S, EP, HP
Test principle:
- Testing for liver function disorders
- Suspected portosystemic shunt
Test method:
Under normal conditions blood bile acid concentration
will increase following a fatty meal.
If the liver function is disturbed, or in the case of a
shunt this increase will be abnormally high.
1. the first blood sample measures bile acid basal level
(starved animal)
2. stress feeding (small fatty meal or recovery diet)
3. second blood sample 2 hrs following the
meal measures the postprandial (post-feeding) level
Photometry (1)
or
1. The first blood sample measures bile acid basal level
(starved animal)
2. Injection of Ceruletid (Takus®, Pharmacia)
0.3 μg/kg i.m.
3. Second blood sample 20 minutes post-injection measures the bile acid stimulation value
Interpretation:
65
- Basal level < 20 μmol/l and postprandial level
< 40 μmol/l = normal
- Basal level > 20 μmol/l and postprandial level
20-40 μmol/l = borderline
- Postprandial level > 40 μmol/l = pathological
5 Biochemistry
Calcium
0.3 ml S, HP
Occurrence:
Mainly in bones
Increased in:
- Primary/tertiary hyperparathyroidism
- Hypervitaminosis D
- Acidosis
- Neoplasia (lymphoma, adenocarcinoma)
- Osteolytic tumours
- Osteomyelitis
- Osteoporosis
- Nephropathies
- Hyperalbuminaemia (increase of the protein bound
part)- malignant hypercalcaemia
Decreased in:
- Hypoparathyroidism
- Secondary (renal) hyperparathyroidism
- Nephropathies
- Hypoalbuminaemia
- Hypovitaminosis D
- (Necrotic) pancreatitis
- Tetanus
- Puerperal tetany
- Milk fever (parturient paresis)
- Malabsorption
- Hypercalcitonism
- Ethylene glycol intoxication (e.g. antifreeze)
Lipaemia, Haemolysis, EDTA
Cardiopet® proBNP
(Nt-proBNP)
dogs: 3.0 ml EP
cats: 0.3 ml S
Dogs with heart murmur:
In dogs with a heart murmur and clinical symptoms
such as respiratory symptoms and/or exercise
intolerance, this test determines the probability of
these symptoms being caused by heart disease.
The test helps to assess the risk of a dog developing
congestive heart failure over the next 12 months,
when presented with a heart murmur due to
degenerative mitral valve disease, but which does
not currently exhibit clinical symptoms.
Photometry (1)
ELISA (1)
66
5 Biochemistry
Indications in cats:
The Cardiopet® proBNP Test can also be used in all
cats as a screening test (e.g. pre-anaesthesia, as part
of preventive testing, in predisposed breeds) or in
animals with suspected heart disease and indicates
the probability of cardiomyopathy. The result makes it
easier to decide whether a further cardiac workup
of the patient is necessary.
- Haemolysis
- Lipemia
Chloride
0.2 ml S, EP, HP
Indications: Electrolyte disturbances
Occurrence: Chloride is the most important extracellular anion
in the living organism. Under normal physiological
conditions of acid/base balance the serum chloride
concentration equals the sodium concentration.
Increased in - Dehydration (fluid loss, reduced fluid intake)
- Increased intake of sodium chloride
- Diabetes insipidus
- Diabetes mellitus (following insulin therapy)
- Mineralocorticoids (retention of sodium)
- Nephropathy
- Acidosis
- Small intestinal diarrhoea
Decreased in:
- Increased loss of sodium chloride
(vomiting, diarrhoea, sweating)
- Insufficient intake of sodium chloride
- Increased intake of water
- Osmotic diuresis (e.g. diabetes mellitus)
- Congestive heart failure (oedema)
- Nephropathy
- Loop diuretics (e.g. furosemide),
- Aldosterone antagonists (e.g. spironolactone)
- Reduced colloid osmotic pressure
(hypoalbuminaemia)
- Metabolic alkalosis
67
Ion selective
electrode (1)
5 Biochemistry
Cholesterol
0.3 ml S, EP, HP
Indications:
Metabolic disturbances (and endocrinopathies)
Occurrence: Nutritional intake or synthesis in the liver
Precursor of steroid hormones and bile acids
Increased in: - Postprandial
- Nutritional
- Hypothyroidism
- Diabetes mellitus
- Nephrotic syndrome
- Hepatopathies
- Extrahepatic cholestasis
- Hyperlipaemia syndrome (e.g. hereditary in certain
families of Miniature Schnauzer and Beagle dogs)
- Acute pancreatitis, pancreatic necrosis
- Idiopathic hypercholesterolaemia in Dobermann
andRottweiler dogs
- Pony lipidosis
- Medication (e.g. glucocorticoids)
Decreased in:
- Malabsorbtion
- Reduced liver function (e.g. liver cirrhosis,
portosystemic shunt)
- Cachexia
- Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency
- Protein losing enteropathy
- Hyperthyroidism
Please note:
Animal must be fasted before sampling!
enzyme kinetics,
photometry (1)
68
5 Biochemistry
Cholinesterase
0.2 ml S, EP, HP
Indications:
- Hepatopathies
- Organophosphate intoxication
- Prior to administration of muscle relaxants if there
is evidence of hepatopathy in the case history
Occurrence: Brain, nervous tissue, erythrocytes;
synthesised in the liver
Decreased in: - Severe hepatopathies
- Poisoning due to organophosphates and alkylphos
phates (parathion, E-605)
- Medication with carbamic acid derivates (neostigmine)
- Severe protein deficiency
- Cachexia
- Chronic infection
Increased in:
- Nephropathies
- Exudative enteropathy
CK, creatine kinase
(CPK)
0.3 ml S, EP, HP
Indications:
Primary/secondary myopathies
Occurrence: Skeletal muscle, heart muscle, brain,
urinary bladder (cats)
Increased in: - Myopathies
- Myositis (infectious, immune-mediated, endocrine)
- I.m. injection
- Physical exercise
- Tetanus
- Exercise myopathy
- Deficiency myopathy
- Shock
- Urinary bladder obstruction (cat)
Haemolysis, bilirubinaemia
Please note:
The reference range in dogs varies according to age CK in newborn puppies may be five times higher than
in adult dogs
69
enzyme kinetics,
photometry (1)
Enzyme kinetics,
photometry (1)
5 Biochemistry
CRP C-reactive protein
(dogs)
0.5 ml S
Indications:
Inflammation
Occurrence:
Acute Phase Protein
Increased in:
- Especially acute bacterial infections
- Acute phase of chronic infections
- Myocardial infarctions
- Malignant tumors
Copper
0.5 ml S, hair, tissue, 1 g liver
biopsies
Cattle: 3 ml EB, HB, hair
Indications:
- Especially in cattle: reduced performance,
reduced growth rate
- Changes in wool quality (sheep)
- Enzootic ataxia (lambs)
- Hepatopathies
- Haemolytic anaemia
Occurrence:
- Part of many enzymes
- Important for haematopoiesis
- Stored in the liver
Increased in:
- Copper storage disease (Bedlington Terrier,
West Highland White Terrier, Cocker Spaniel and
Dobermann Pinscher); rarely increased!
Reliable results with histopathology examination
- Bile duct obstruction
- Nutritional (copper poisoning, esp. in sheep)
(not always!)
Decreased in:
- Primary Cu deficiency due to reduced intake
- Secondary Cu deficiency (disturbed absorption
Due to Cu antagonists)
Turbidimetry (1)
ICP-AES (1)
ICP-MS (1)
70
5 Biochemistry
Creatinine
0.3 ml S, EP, HP
Indications:
Nephropathies
Occurrence:
- Creatinine is a product of endogenous muscle
metabolism (young animals have a lower serum
creatinine concentration compared to muscular adult
animals)
- Excretion takes place mainly via glomerular filtration
Increased in:
Independent from diet!
specific increase:
- Nephropathies (needs at least 70%
non-functional nephrons)
- Post-renal azotaemia
non specific increase:
- Dehydration
- Electrolyte imbalance
- Heart/circulatory failure
- Hypalbuminaemia
- Medication (e.g. corticosteroids,
tetracycline, cimitidine, cephalosporin, trimethoprim)
- Diabetic ketoacidosis
- Tissue catabolism (pyrexia, muscle trauma, myositis)
Decreased in:
Emaciation
Haemolysis
s.  Chapter 8, Kidney and urinary tract
modified exogenous creatinine-clearance
71
Photometry (1)
5 Biochemistry
Cystatin C
1 ml S, EP, HP
Indications:
Kidney insufficiency
Polypeptide Cystatin C will be produced by all nucleated
cells of the body, filtrated by glomerules and absorbed by
tubules. Therefore like creatinine, it is suitable as marker
for kidney insufficiency, similar to creatinine.
Nephelometry (3)
s.  Chapter 8, Kidney and urinary bladder obstruction.
Folic acid
0.5 ml S
Indications:
- Testing small intestinal absorption efficiency
- Detection of intestinal bacterial overgrowth
- Blood production disorder
- Disorder of the immune system
Occurrence:
As tetrahydrofolic acid coenzyme for synthesis of purine
bodies.
Increased in:
- Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO)
- Pancreatic insufficiency
Decreased in:
- Jejunal absorption disorder (malabsorption)
- Inhibition of microbial folic acid synthesis by
sulfonamides
Fractioned Excretion of
Electrolytes (Horses)
2 ml S + 5 ml U
ECLIA (1)
Photometry(2)
The estimation of FE is part of laboratory diagnostics
tests for investigating functional disorders of kidney
tubules. Together with the loss of tubular resorbtion
ability, the excretion of electrolytes is increased as is its
FE-value. Electrolyte imbalance can also lead to reduced
muscle metabolism, and this test can be used to
differentiate muscle disorders. Excretion rates of
Na, K, P and Cl will be tested.
72
5 Biochemistry
Free Fatty Acids
(cattle)
0.5 ml S, EP frozen
Factors decreasing
FFA levels:
Free fatty acids (FFA or NEFA - non esterified fatty
acids) in blood are a good indicator of energy balance
in cattle (only over longer periods of time). Free fatty
acids circulate in blood, when the cow needs to
mobilize her energy reserves to reach normal body
functions. Increased FFA concentrations show that
the cow is not receiving sufficient energy for her
requirements. Field studies show a linear correlation
between disease (such as placental retention, ketosis,
abomasal displacement and mastitis) and increased
FFA level in the dry period.
In addition, there is close correlation between FFA levels
in plasma and FFA concentration in ovarian follicles.
Increased FFA levels in blood inhibits follicle
development.
Hemolysis, lipaemia, icterus
Fructosamine
0.3 ml S, EP, HP
Photometry (2)
Photometry (1)
Fructosamine is a useful parameter in investigating
medium and long-term glucose metabolism in dogs and
cats. The test measures the non-enzymatic glycatedprotein complexes in the blood that correlate well with
the average glucose concentration in the last 1-3 weeks.
It is important that the reference range should NOT be
used as a target range for diabetics receiving treatment,
as it is too low for these patients. If a diabetic receiving
treatment has levels in the reference range (applicable
to healthy patients), this indicates with a high degree of
probability that the patient has gone through significant
hypoglycaemic phases!
Haemolytic samples are not suitable for the measurement of fructosamine. Diabetic cats with fructosamine
levels over 550 μmol/l are suboptimally controlled.In
dogs, the equivalent figure is over 450 μmol/l.
73
5 Biochemistry
Indications:
- Differentiation of transient and long-term
hyperglycaemia
- Monitoring of diabetes mellitus therapy
Occurrence:
Fructosamines are serum proteins glycolysed
independently of insulin. Their occurrence is in
direct proportion to the blood glucose concentration
of the previous one to three weeks
Increased in:
- Diabetes mellitus
- Persistent hyperglycaemia of other origin
- Hyperalbuminaemia
Haemolysis, severe bilirubinaemia
Please note:
Hypoalbuminaemia may lead to decreased fructosamine
levels. Concurrent hypothyroidism may lead to false
high fructosamine values whereas hyperthyroidism may
lead to false low fructosamine values.
g-GT (GGT)
0.3 ml S, EP, HP
Indications:
Hepatopathies, cholestasis (more suitable than AP
in horses, cattle, pigs and sheep), colostrum intake
in calves
Occurrence:
Liver (membrane-bound in bile duct epithelium),
kidneys, pancreas, small intestine
Increased in:
specific increase
- Hepatopathies with cholestasis
(intra- and extrahepatic)
non specific increase
- Pancreatitis/enteritis with liver involvement
- Colic (horses)
- Diabetes mellitus
- Right sided heart failure
- Leukosis
Please note:
Very slow reaction in cats!
Photometry (1)
74
5 Biochemistry
GLDH
0.3 ml S, EP, HP
Indications:
Hepatopathies
Occurence:
Liver (mitochondrial, central lobe)
Increase in:
Small increases are not clinically significant. 3-fold
or more increases are clinically significant especially
in the following hepatopathies:
- Cholestasis
- Hypoxemia
- Acute hepatitis
- Liver cell necrosis
- Chronic hepatitis
- Liver fibrosis, cirrhosis
- Intoxication
- Liver congestion due to congestive cardiomyopathy
Haemolysis, Lipaemia
Please note:
In horses moderately increased values may be found
without the presence of liver disease.
Glucose
0.3 ml S, NaF blood
Indications:
Diabetes mellitus
Insulinoma
Increased in:
Primary increase
- Diabetes mellitus
Enzyme kinetics,
Photometry (1)
Photometry (1)
Secondary increase
- Postprandial (up to 150 mg/dl - 8.25 mmol/l)
- Stress (cats up to 400 mg/dl - 22 mmol/l)
- Hyperthyroidism
- Acromegaly
- CNS diseases
- Convulsions
- Pancreatitis
- Severe trauma
- Medication (e.g. glucose, glucocorticoids, ACTH,
progestagens, morphine, adrenaline, thiazide diuretics)
75
5 Biochemistry
Decreased in:
Primary decrease
- hyperinsulinism, insulinoma
Secondary decrease
- Renal glucosuria
- Hepatopathies
- Glycogen storage disease
- Malabsorbtion
- Starvation
- Idiopathic hypoglycaemic syndrome (dwarf breeds)
- Hypothyroidism
- Septicaemia
- Severe polycythaemia
- Neonatal hypoglycaemia
- Hunting dog hypoglycaemia
- Paraneoplastic syndrome
- Medication (e.g. beta-blockers, antihistamines)
Haemolysis, whole blood
Please note:
Use only sodium fluoride (NaF) blood, fluoride oxalate,
or blood which is not haemolytic and completely free
from erythrocytes. Do not send whole blood.
Immunglobulin status/
IgG (foals)
0.5 ml S
Zone electrophoresis (1),
Photometry (1)
Inadequate IgG colostrum transfer is one of the
most important predisposing factors for infectious foal
diseases. IgG assessment is important for timely
diagnosis and for treatment during the foal’s first life
stages. In foals IgG assay should be performed between
8 and 12 hours of age.
76
5 Biochemistry
Iron
0.3 ml S, HP
Indications:
Differential diagnosis for anaemia, deficiency diseases
Occurrence: Nutritional intake, haemoglobin catabolism
Increased in: - Haemolytic anaemia
- Hepatopathies
- Haemochromatosis
Decreased in:
- Severe chronic blood loss
- Young animals fed on a milk- only diet
- Infections
- Neoplasias
- Nephropathies
Haemolysis
haemolysis, (lipaemia), EDTA,
severe hyperproteinaemia
Lactate
0.3 ml NaF plamsa
Indications:
Checking the training status (horse),
myopathies
Occurrence:
Lactate is produced in the tissues (muscle) during
anaerobic glucose breakdown or it is increasingly
produced by intestinal bacteria when feeding
carbohydrate-rich diet
Increased in:
- Increased anaerobic glycolysis
- Disturbed lactate metabolism in the liver
(e.g. due to shock)
- Burns
- Leukosis
- In new borns in the first 24 hrs
- Intense physical exercise
- Intestinal torsion, strangulation or rupture (horse),
postoperative
77
Photometry(1)
Photometry (1
5 Biochemistry
whole blood
Please note:
To measure lactate accurately you must use sodium
fluoride glycolysis inhibiting tubes, or the lactate value
may be falsely high.Centrifugation of the tubes and
pippeting fluoride plasma into plain tubes should take
place not later then 15 minutes after sampling.
To differentiate from other samples, please clearly
mark fluoride plasma tubes.Serum is not suitable.
LDH
0.3 ml S, HP
Indications:
Myopathies (hepatopathies)
Occurrence:
All tissues, especially muscle, liver, erythrocytes
Increased in:
- Myopathies of skeletal muscles and heart muscle
- Hepatopathies
- Cell necrosis
- Haemolysis
- (Malignant neoplasia)
Lipase
0.3 ml S, HP, EP
Indications:
Diseases of the exocrine pancreas
Occurrence:
Pancreas, gastric mucosa
Increased in:
- Acute pancreatitis
- Pancreatic necrosis
- Pancreatic neoplasia
- Pancreatic duct obstruction
- Nephropathies
- Hepatopathies (carcinoma)
- (Ileus, peritonitis, cholecystitis)
- (Medication, e.g. glucocorticoids)
Haemolysis, bilirubinaemia, lipaemia
Please note:
Cats with acute pancreatitis may occasionally show
normal lipase values
Enzyme kinetics,
Photometry (1)
Enzyme kinetics,
Photometry (1)
78
5 Biochemistry
Magnesium
0.3 ml S, HP
Indications:
Electrolyte imbalance
Occurrence:
Especially in bones, all tissues.
Magnesium is important for cellular energy metabolism
and neuromuscular impulse generation (decrease leads
to convulsion, increase leads to flaccid paralysis)
Increased in:
- Renal failure during anuric/oliguric phase
Decreased in:
- Malabsorption
- Tetany
- Disturbed renal function
- Hypoparathyroidism
- Medication (e.g. aminoglycosides, amphotericin B,
insulin)
- Hypercalcaemia
- Hyperkalaemia
Haemolysis, hyperbilirubinaemia, EDTA
Manganese
Hair
Cattle: 2 ml EB.
Other animals: 1 ml S,
plasma
Indications:
Reduced growth, Fertility problems,
Abortion, Stillbirths, Locomotor disorders
Decreased in:
Nutritional
Potassium (K)
0.3 ml S, HP, U
Indications:
- Electrolyte imbalance
- Hypokalaemia leads to paralysis of the smooth and
striated muscles (ST decrease in the ECG)
- Hyperkalaemia leads to neuromuscular symptoms
and myocardial damage
Occurrence:
96 - 98% of potassium is in the intracellular space
79
Enzyme kinetics,
Photometry (1)
ICP-AES (1)
ICP-MS (1)
Ion selective electrode (1)
Zonenelektrophorese
(1) Photometrie (1)
5 Biochemistry
Increased in:
- Decreased potassium excretion
- Hypoadrenocorticism (a sodium/potassium ratio
< 27:1 is indicative for Addison's Disease)
- Nephropathies (oliguric/anuric phase)
- Rupture of the bladder, post-renal obstruction
- Diabetic ketoacidosis
- Tissue damage (potassium from within the cells)
- Hypoxia
- Haemolysis (esp. in Akita Inu dogs)
- Acidosis
- Iatrogenic (overtreatment
Decreased in:
- Low potassium diet
- Increased potassium excretion (chronic vomiting/diarrhoea)
- Increased diuresis
- Chronic hepatopathies
- Hyperadrenocorticism (low decrease)
- Medication (e.g. glucocorticoids, diuretics, insulin)
- Nephropathies (polyuric phase)
- Alkalosis
haemolysis, (lipaemia), EDTA,severe hyperproteinaemia
Phosphate
0.3 ml S, EP, HP
Indications:
Osteopathies, Nephropathies,
Hypo/hyperparathyroidism, see below
Occurrence:
Especially in the skeletal system and erythrocytes
Increased in:
- Young animals
- Nephropathies (reduced glomerular filtration rate)
- Primary hypoparathyroidism
- Hypervitaminosis D
- Secondary hyperparathyroidism
- Nutritional
- Osteolytic tumours
- Hyperthyroidism (cats)
- Medication (e.g. anabolics, furosemide)
- Soft tissue trauma
- Acidosis
- Post-renal obstruction
Photometry (1)
80
5 Biochemistry
Decreased in:
- Primary hyperparathyroidism
- Malabsorption
- Medication (e.g. glucocorticoids, insulin)
- Malignant hypercalcaemia
- Hypovitaminosis D
- Osteomalacia
- Milk fever (hypocalcaemic parturient paresis)
- Fanconi syndrome
- Alkalosis
Please note:
Juvenile animals show much higher
phosphate levels than adults.
Sodium (Na)
0.3 ml S, EP, HP
Indications:
Electrolyte balance disorders
Incidence:
Intracellulary and extracellulary (responsible for
osmolarity of extracellular space)
Increased in:
- Dehydratation (fluid loss, decreased fluid intake)
- Increased sodium chloride intake
(diarrhoea and vomits)
Decreased in:
- Fever
- Diabetes mellitus (after insulin therapy)
- Diabetes insipidus
- Mineralocorticoid therapy (sodium retention)
- Nephropathy (post renal obstruction)
- increased loss of sodium chloride
(caused by vomiting, diarrhoea, intensive perspiration)
- Insufficient sodium chloride in food
- After large amount of water intake
- Hypothyroidism
- Osmotic duresis (e.g. in diabetes mellitus)
- Congestive heart insufficiency (with oedema)
81
Ion selective
electrode (1)
5 Biochemistry
- Nephropathies
- Medication: loop diuretics (e.g. furosemide),
aldosterone antagonists (e.g. spironolactone)
- In decreased oncotic preassure (hypoalbuminemia)
Lipaemia, severe hyperproteinemia
Spec cPL ™
Canine pancreas
specific lipase
0.5 ml S
ELISA (1 )
This immunoassay tests only for lipase which is
synthetised by acinar cells of exocrine pancreas.
Hence our test is a reliable, minimally invasive
diagnostic for pancreatitis. This test shows high
specificity (> 95 %) and sensitivity (>95%).
Inflammatory changes in the pancreas leads to an
increase of canine pancreas specific lipase, not related
to any previous feed intake. Other than lipase, pancreas
specific lipase is not influenced by nephropathies,
hepatopathies, gastritis, Cushing’s disease or
corticosteroid administration.
Indications:
Vomiting, suspicion of acute pancreatitis, chronic
pancreatitiss, explanation of increased lipase.
Occurence:
Pancreas
Spec fPL™ (feline
pancreas specific
lipase)
0.5 ml S
ELISA (1)
Like Spec cPLTest for dogs , our Spec fPLTest
for cats exclusively estimates pancreas specific lipase.
This test is suitable for diagnosis of chronic and acute
disease in cats and shows good sensitivity (83%) and
specificity (86%).
Indications:
Lethargy, reduced appetite, dehydratation, weight loss,
Icterus, diabetes mellitus, liver or gastrointestinal tract
diseases
Occurence:
Pancreas
82
5 Biochemistry
Selenium
0.5 ml S, tissue, 1 g hair
Indication:
Selenium imbalance, wasting, embryonic death,
reduced performance, fertility problems,
recurrent illness, reduced immune response
Occurrence
Antioxidant,
metabolic function in prostaglandin synthesis,
steroid and cholesterol metabolism
Decreased in:
- Nutritional
- Increased requirement (growth, stress, high milk
production)
- Vitamin E deficiency
- Selenium antagonists (zinc, sulphur)5
Serum protein
electrophoresis
(Agar-Gel)
0.3 ml S, (EP, HP)
ICP-AES (1)
ICP-MS (1)
Zone electrophoresis
(1)
Diagnosis of hyper- or hypoproteinaemia, e.g. diagnosis
or evaluation of the course of inflammation/infection,
hepatopathies, antibody deficiency, gammopathies, etc.
83
5 Biochemistry
Albumin/Globulin-ratio
Increased in: Hypogammaglobulinaemia (e.g. rarely in newborn
animals with insufficient colostrum intake)
Decreased in: - Congenital immunodeficiency
- Acquired immunodeficiency (e.g. distemper
in newborns, canine parvovirus infection, FeLV, FIV)
s.  Globulin content increase
s.  albumin content reduction
s.  FIP
Albumin
Increased in:
- Dehydration
Decreased in: -Protein deficiency (nutritional)
-Anorexia
-Malabsorption
-Hepatopathies
-Renal loss (nephrosis, nephrotic syndrome)
-Protein loss nephropathy
-FIP
-Burns
-Blood loss
-Body cavity effusions
-Hypoadrenocorticism
-CNS diseases
-Relative loss by overhydration
-Hypergammaglobulinaemia
84
5 Biochemistry
Increased in: Acute and subacute inflammations
(e.g. acute hepatitis)
- Fever
- Tssue injury, traumatic or postoperatively
- Malignant neoplasia (e.g. chronic lymphatic leukemia)
- Glomerulonephritis, renal amyloidosis
- Rheumatoid arthritis
- Infectious diseases (see also albumin)
- Hyperthyroidism
- Burns
- Reticulosis
- Post infection
- Cytostatic therapy
- Lupus erythematosus
- Bacterial endocarditis
- Pregnancy
- Physiologically in newborns
Decreased in:
- Exudative enteritis
- Severe hepatopathy
85
5 Biochemistry
a-2-Globulin
Increased in:
- Acute inflammation
- Burns
- Postoperatively
- Malignant tumors
- Lymphatic leukemia (Leucosis)
- Fatty liver
- Bile duct obstruction
- (Chronic pyelonephritis, interstitial nephritis)
- (Advanced renal insufficiency)
- Hyperlipoproteinemia
- Lupus erythematosus
- Pregnancy
Decreased in:
- (Acute viral hepatitis)
- Chronic active hepatitis
b-Globulins
Increased in: - Acute inflammations
- Hepatopathy
- Cholestasis
- Neoplasia (especially in the liver)
- Pyoderma
- Lymphosarcoma
- Lupus erythemathosus
- Pregnancy
- Chronic blood loss, haemolysis
Decreased in:
- Postoperatively
- Haemoytic anaemia
- Coagulopathy, haemophila
- Autoimmune diseases
86
5 Biochemistry
g-Globulins
Increased in:
- Subacute and chronic inflammations
- Neoplasia (liver carcinoma, lymphosarcoma)
- Infectious diseases (FIP, FIV, Leishmaniasis, Ehrlichiosis)
- Autoimmune diseases (systemic Lupus
Erythrematosus, rheumatoid arthritis)
- Glomerulonephritis, renal amyloidosis
- Pyoderma
- Burns
- Myeloid leukemia
- Hepatopathies
- Nephropathies
- Congestive heart failure, causing liver congestion
- Hypothyroidism
Decreased in:
- Nephrosis, nephrotic syndrome
- Lymphatic leukemia
- Hypo- or agammaglobulinemia
- Immunosuppression (e.g. long-term corticosteroid
therapy, hyperadrenocorticism)
Total Protein
0.3 ml S, EP, HP
Indications:
Hepatopathies,
Gastrointestinal disease,
Nephropathies,
FIP,
Dehydration,
Overhydration
Occurrence:
Except for immunoglobulins, circulating proteins are
synthesized in the liver primarily globulins!
Increased in:
-Dehydration
-Chronic infectious diseases (e.g. ehrlichiosis, FIP,
Leishmaniasis)
-Chronic bacterial infections
-Parasitic diseases (e.g. demodex, dirofilaria, sarcoptes)
-Neoplasia
-Multiple myeloma
-Autoimmune diseases
-Haemolysis
87
Photometry (1)
5 Biochemistry
Decreased in:
-Malabsorption
-Maldigestion
-Nutritional deficiency (poor in protein)
-Chronic hepatopathies
-Nephropathies (especially nephrotic syndrome)
-Protein loss nephropathy
-Blood loss
-Body cavity effusion
-Hypoadrenocorticism
-Burns
-Relative reduction by overhydration
s.  serum electrophoresis
Haemolysis
Please note:
A lower protein concentration in young animals is normal.
Triglycerides
0.3 ml S, EP, HP
Indications:
Metabolic disorders
Occurrence:
Primary hyperlipaemia (congenital):
- Idiopathic hyperlipaemia (certain families e.g. Miniature
Schnauzer, Beagle)
- Pony hyperlipaemia
- Lipomobilisation syndrome (cattle)
Enzyme kinetics,
Photometry (1)
Secondary hyperlipaemia (acquired):
- Postprandial hyperlipaemia: increased levels are
possible up to 12 hrs after eating
- Diabetes mellitus
- Hypothyroidism
- Administration of glucocorticoids
- Cholestasis
- Acute pancreatitis, pancreatic necrosis
- Exudative enteropathy
- (fasting in obese animals)
Feeding (starve 12 hrs prior to blood sampling!),
intense exercise
88
5 Biochemistry
Troponin I
ultra-sensitive
1 ml S (cold)
CLIA (1)
Cardiac troponin I is a largely heart muscle-specific
protein which is released in the event of injury to or
necrosis of the heart muscle cells. An increased plasma
level is therefore a very sensitive and specific marker
for heart muscle damage
Indications:
Diagnosing heart muscle damage
Occurence:
Heart muscle (skeletal muscle)
Erhöhung
Cardiomyopathy with heart muscle damage
cTLI (dogs)
fTLI (cats) (USA)
1 ml S
1 ml S, EP, HP
CLIA (1)
RIA (3)
The TLI test (trypsin-like-immunoreactivity) measures the
specific pancreatic enzymes trypsin and trypsinogen in
the blood. Oral substitution of pancreatic enzymes does
not influence the test result.
Inflammation of pancreatic sections or food intake
before sampling may lead to an increase in serum TLI
concentration, which can be misleading. (It is important
to starve 8 to 12 h the animal before sampling!).
The exocrine pancreatic insufficiency due to blockage
of the pancreatic ducts will not be diagnosed with the
TLI test. In this case the test for faecal elastase-1 is
recommended (dog only).
Indications:
Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency
Occurence
Pancreas
Increased in:
- Acute pancreatitis (short term)
- Acute phase of chronic pancreatitis
(for differentiation we recommend you assess canine
pancreatic lipase)
Decreased in:
Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency
Haemolysis
89
5 Biochemistry
Urea (Blood Urea
Nitrogen, BUN)
Blood urea nitrogen
(mg/dl - mmol/l)
x 2.14 = Urea (mg/dl)
0.3 ml S, EP, HP
Indications:
Nephropathies (hepatopathies)
Occurence:
Urea is a metabolic product of protein
metabolism in the liver.
Excretion occurs mainly via the kidney.
Increase in:
Dependent on diet!
Specific increase:
- Nephropathies (minimum of 75% loss
of functional nephrons)
- Post-renal azotaemia
Non specific increase:
- Following high protein meal
- Dehydration
- Heart or circulatory failure
- Gastrointestinal bleeding
- Increased metabolism, e.g. pyrexia, infections
- Muscle trauma, intense physical exercise
- Medication (e.g. glucocorticoids,
tetracycline, thyroxine)
- Hyperthyroidism
Decreased in:
Specific decrease:
- Severe hepatopathies
Non-specific decrease:
- Low protein diet
- Anabolic steroids
- Severe polyuria/polydipsia
(e.g. hyperadrenocorticism, diabetes insipidus)
Haemolysis
Please note:
In the horse even a mild increase must be considered
pathological
Enzyme kinetics,
Photometry (1)
90
5 Biochemistry
Uric Acid
0.2 ml S, EP, HP
Indications:
- Bronzing syndrome in Dalmatian dogs
- Urinary urate calculi
Occurrence:
- Dalmatian dogs: urate level: approx. 2 mg/dl
excretion: 400-600 mg/day urate.
- Other dogs: in the liver, urate is metabolised by
the enzyme uricase to allantoin, therefore:
urate level: < 1 mg/dl
excretion: < 100 mg/day urate.
- Birds: in birds the measurement of uric acid in
the blood is more important than blood urea (BUN)
or creatinine levels. In birds uric acid is an indicator
of renal function.
Damage to kidney epithelium (due to Vitamin A
deficiency, infections, water deprivation, etc.) will lead
to an increase in uric acid. A significant increase
in the uric acid level will cause gout.
Vitamin A
1 ml S, (EP, HP), cool, protected
against light.
Indications:
Metaplastic keratinization of epithelium,
Increased susceptibility to infection,
Various ocular symptoms,
Fertility problems,
Osteopathies,
Neuropathies
Occurrence:
Retinol is the active form
β-carotene is transformed to retinol (except in cats),
main storage is in the liver
Increased in:
- Nutritional (oversupply)
Decreased in:
- Nutritional (deficiency)
- Lack of transport proteins
- Diarrhoea
- Infections and parasites (increased consumption)
- Hepatopathies (disturbed storage)
- Disturbed carotene utilization (high nitrate
concentration, phosphate and vitamin E deficiency)
Please note
EDTA blood must be sent in a dark container
(protected from light).
91
Photometry (1)
HPLC (2)
5 Biochemistry
Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)
0.5 ml EB
Indication:
CNS disorders
coenzyme in ketoacid metabolism
Occurrence:
(Transformation of pyruvate into acetyl-CoA)
Decreased in:
- Thiaminase-producing bacteria
- Nutritional (exclusive feeding of raw fish)
- CCN (cortical necrosis in sheep)
Please note:
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
0.5 ml EB
Indication:
Reduced growth, fertility problems,
Diseases of the skin and horn,
Anaemia,
Reduced immunity,
Conjunctivitis/keratitis,
Myopathies
Vorkommen
Involved in oxidative processes
Erniedrigung
Nutritional
Please note:
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxin)
0.5 ml EB
Indication:
Anaemia, severe weight loss (small animals, horses,
cattle), convulsions (small animals),
growth disturbances, diarrhoea, muscle atrophy (pigs)
Occurrence:
Coenzyme in amino acid metabolism,
cats have an extremely high requirement
Decreased in:
- Medication (e.g. penicillamine)
- Nutritional (horsetail = Equisetum spp.)
Please note:
HPLC (2)
HPLC (1)
HPLC (1)
92
5 Biochemistry
Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) 0.3 ml S
CLIA (1)
Indication:
Anaemia, leukopenia, growth disturbances
Occurrence:
Breakdown of proprionic acid,
Resynthesis of methionine
Decreased in:
- Disturbed absorbtion in the ileum.
Pancreatic insufficiency (lack of intrinsic factor)
- Cobalt deficiency
Vitamin D3 (1,25-di-OH)
Vitamin D3 (25-OH)
0.5 ml S, EP, HP
1 ml S, EP, HP
Indications:
Osteopathies
Occurrence:
Produced in the skin from 7-dehydrocholesterol or
absorbed from food in the small intestine.
Hydroxylated to 25-hydroxycholecalciferol in the liver,
then transformed to 1.25-dihydroxycholecalciferol in the
kidneys
Decreased in:
- Hepatopathies
- Nephropathies
- Phosphate oversupplementation
- Rapid growth
- Lack of UV exposure
- Chronic diarrhoea
Increased in
- Iatrogenic (application of 10 times the required dosage)
- Nutritional
93
RIA (3)
HPLC (1)
5 Biochemistry
Vitamin E (Tocopherol)
0.5 ml S, EP, HP, 1 g tissue
Indication:
Myopathies, Placental retention, fertility problems,
Yellow fat disease (horse, cat)
Significance:
Antioxidant
Decreased in:
- Reduced amount in diet (poor storage or spoilage)
- Increased amount of unsaturated fatty acids
- Vitamin A and carotene deficiency
- Increased requirement (high performance,
Stress, Hepatopathy)
- Selenium deficiency
Vitamin H (Biotin)
0.2 ml S, EP, HP
Indications:
Skin, hair and horn disease,growth problems,
fertility problems
Occurrence:
Involved in numerous carboxylation processes,
synthesized in the intestines rare
Decreased in:
Rare: nutritional
Zinc
0.5 ml S, EP, HP
(Bird: 200 µl S, EP, HP
hair, tissue
Indication:
Para- and Hyperkeratosis of skin
Performance disorders, fertility and growth
Wound healing disturbances
Reduced immune response
Suspicioun of zinc toxicity in birds
Occurrence:
Required for protein function, lipid and vitamin A metabolism, immune response
Decreased in:
- Nutritional (dietary)
- Zinc antagonists
- Reduced zinc absorption
Increase (birds)
Zinc in aviaries
Please note:
If zinc value exceeds 2000 μg/l you should suspect
zinc poisoning.
HPLC (1)
Enzyme binding
Immunoassay (3)
ICP-AES (1)
ICP-MS (1)
94
6 Toxicology and active substance detection
6.1 Medication
Bromide
1 ml S
ICP-MS (1)
To test if the serum level is within the therapeutic reference
range for treatment. Blood sampling should be performed
shortly after initiation of treatment, one month and four
months after starting treatment or changing dosage. Subsequently levels should be checked every 6-9 months.
Digoxin
1 ml S (no separation gel tubes)
CLIA (1)
range for treatment. Blood sampling should take place 8
hours after tablet administration and no sooner than 10
days after starting treatment or changing dosage.
Phenobarbital
0.5 ml S (no separation gel tubes)
CLIA (1)
range for treatment. Blood sampling should take place
shortly after tablet administration, and no sooner than 10
days after starting treatment or changing dosage.
95
6.2 Toxicology
Arsenic
0,5 ml S,U, hair, tissue
ICP-MS (1)
Cadmium
0,5 ml S, EB, hair, tissue
ICP-MS (1)
Chromium
1 ml S, tissue
Cobalt
1 ml S, EB, Haare, Gewebe
ICP-MS (1)
Lead
1 ml S, hairs, tissue
ICP-MS (1)
Mercury
0,5 ml EB, U
ICP-MS(1)
Molybdenum
1 ml S, EP, hair, tissue
Nickel
0,5 ml S, EB, hair, tissue
ICP-MS (1)
Thallium
0,5 ml S, tissue, hair, 5 ml U
ICP-MS (1)
ICP-AES (1)
ICP-AES (1)
Other elements on request
Heavy Metal Profile
1 ml S + 1 ml U + 0,5 ml EB, HB
ICP-MS (1)
ICP-AES (1)
Contains elements: Tl, As, Cr, Cd, Pb, Ni
Indications: suspicion of intoxication with oral application of poison,
especially paints.
Symptoms: Acute: colic, vomiting, diarrhea, convulsions, ataxia,
lameness, anaemia Chronic: skin lesions, asymptomatic
96
6.3 Medical substance detection
We offer you the ability to detect various drugs and other substances using the latest
procedures. The use of drugs and other substances before or during sports competitions (doping) is regulated at national and international level by the relevant organisations which guarantee animal welfare, fair competition and the protection of competitors.
We would like to point out that, due to possible differences in measurement procedures
and limits of detection, the results of the tests listed below need not necessarily be identical to the results of the procedures used during a competition.
Please note:
If you wish to check for substances not listed here, please
contact us.
Foreign Substances
Profile (formerly: Equine
Purchase Profile)
20 ml S, U
Glucocorticoid
screening
Cortisol, prednisolone, betamethasone, dexamethasone,
flumethasone, triamcinolone
NSAID-Screening
Phenylbutazone, flunixin meglumine, rofecoxib,
celecoxib, meclofenaminic acids, ketoprofen,
vedaprofen, salicylates, paracetamal.
Sedatives/TranquilizerScreening
Diazepam, acepromazine, detomidine,
fluphenazine, xylazine, romifidine, reserpin
and others.
Stimulants-Screening
Theophylline, theobromine, amphetamine, caffeine
Local anaesthetics
Screening
Procaine, lidocaine, mepivacaine, tetracaine,
Benzocaine.
Other substances
Clenbuterol, furosemide, barbiturate, opiates and others
(for more information contact IDEXX).
97
GC/MS, LC/MS (3)
6.3 Medical substance detection
Anti-inflammatory
Screening
15 ml S, U
GC/MS, LC/MS (3)
Substances from Glucocorticoid screening + NSAID-Screening
Stimulant Screening
10 ml S, U
LC-MS/MS (3)
Theophylline, theobromine, amphetamine, caffeine
NSAID Screening
10 ml S, U
LC-MS/MS (3)
Phenylbutazone, flunixin meglumine, rofecoxib, celecoxib, meclofenamic
acid, ketoprofen, vedaprofen, salicylates and others.
Glucocorticoid
Screening
10 ml S, U
LC-MS/MS (3)
Cortisol, prednisolone, betamethasone, dexamethasone, flumethasone, triamcinolone
and others.
Sedative/TranquilizerScreening
10 ml S, U
LC-MS/MS (3)
Diazepam, acepromazine, detomidine, fluphenazine, xylazine, romifidine and others
Local anaesthetics
Screening
10 ml S, U
LC-MS/MS (3)
Procaine, lidocaine, mepivacaine, tetracaine, benzocaine and others.
Tricyclic
Antidepressants
10 ml S, U, whole blood
LC-MS/MS (3)
Doxepine, imipramine, clomipramine, amitriptyline, trimipramin and others.
98
7 Gastrointestinal diseases, liver, pancreas
7.1 Gastrointestinal diseases
Diarrhorea profile B
(dogs, cats)
2 ml S
s.  Chaper 3, profiles
Diarrhoea profile C
minimum 1 full faecal tube
s.  Chapter 16, Microbiology
Diarrhorea profile E
(dogs)
minimum 1 full faecal tube
Enteropathogenic
germs
Faeces, fecal Swab
Salmonella detection
faeces, rectal swap
Clostridium spp.
(quantitative, without
antigen differentiation)
¼ faecal tube
Enterotoxin
¼ faecal tube
99
ELISA
Folic acid
0.5 S
s.  Chapter 5, Biochemistry
Vitamin B12
(Cobalamine)
0.3 ml S, EP, HP
Occult Blood
Faeces
(minimum 1/3 faecal tube)
General Virology
(Viral faecal test)
minimum ½ faecal tube
Electron microsco
Any viruses shed in faeces are detected and identified with
electron microscopy.
s.  Chapter 16.2
s.  Chapter 13, Corona-, Rota- and Parvovirus detection
Mc-Master Egg
20 g faeces
Counting Technique
(horse, ruminants, camelids)
Quantitative detection
of eggs grid count,
flotation (1)
s.  Chapter 17, Parasitology
Gastrointestinal
Profile (formerly Profile
P) (dogs, cats)
1-2 ml S
Chromatography (2)
Spec cPL®/Spec fPL®, folic acid, Vitamin B12, cTLI (dogs)
100
Endoparasites
(dogs, cats, pet animals,
birds)
10 g faeces
Flotation (1)
Please note:
For testing parasites in populations of multiple animals,
please take samples from more than one
animal or more than one site!
Endoparasites
(horses, camelids)
min. 10 g faeces
Combined Flotation
Sedimentation method
Endoparasites
(Ruminants)
min. 10 g faeces
Flotation-,
Sedimentation,
Endoparasites
(Reptiles)
min. 3 g faeces
Native preparation
(stained and unstained),
Flotation (1)
Endoparasites
(hedgehogs)
min. 5 g faeces
Flotations-,
Sedimentations-,
Lung worms
(all animals, except birds)
min. 5 g faeces
101
Baermann-Wetzel
Migration method (1)
Trematode eggs
faeces (min. 1 full faecal tube)
Sedimentation- (1)
Giardia (Ag)
2 - 3 g faeces
Cryptosporidia (Ag)
2 - 3 g faeces
 Parvovirosis/Panleukopenia
Parvovirus (Ag)
(dogs, cats)
Dog: rectal swap
Cat: 5 g faeces ,rectal Swab
Immunchromatography (1)
faeces (dogs EIA (1)
Parvovirus (Ab)
(dogs, cats)
0.5 ml S
HAH (1)
 Rotavirus-Infection
Rotavirus (Ag)
1 g faeces
Immunochromatograp
 Helicobacter-Infection
Helicobacter spp.
(DNA)
1 g faeces Immunochromatograp
s.  Chapter Chapter 15, Molecular biology tests
102
7.2 Diseases of the liver
 Liver profile
Liver profile 1
1 ml S
Urea (BUN), Bilirubin,
ALT (GPT), AP, γ-GT, GLDH, AST (GOT), bile acids, albumin
Liver profile 2
(dogs, cats)
1 ml S + 1-2 ml EB + 1 ml CP frozen + blood smear
Liver profile 1 + small blood count, Quick-Test (PT), PTT, Serum electrophoresis
 Canine contagious hepatitis (Hcc)
Adenovirus (Ab) (dogs)
0.5 ml S
 Leptospirosis
Leptospira (Ab)
1 ml S
Leptospira spp.
(DNA)
2 ml EB, 0.5 ml liquor, 5 ml U
(chamber water)
103
7.3 Diseases of exorcine pancreas
Diarrhorea Profile B 3 ml 3 ml S
S (dogs, cats)
Diarrhorea Profile E
(dogs)
min. 1 full faecal tube
cTLI (dogs)
1 ml S, EP, HP
fTLI (cats)
1 ml S, EP, HP
RIA (3)
Spec cPL® (dogs)
0.5 ml S
ELISA (1)
Spec fPL® (cats)
0.5 ml S
ELISA (1)
Gastrointestinal
Disease (dogs, cats)
1 ml S
104
7.3 Diseases of exorcine pancreas
Elastase
3 g faeces
Folic acid
0.5 ml S
ELISA (1)
Vitamin B12
(Cobalamine)
0.5 ml S
ELISA (1)
Faecal digestion test
3 g faeces
105
Microscopy (1)
8 Kidneys and urinary tract
8.1 Blood tests
Kidney Profile
1 ml S
(1)
Leptospira spp.
(DNA-Detection)
2 ml EB, 0.5 ml liquor, 5 ml U,
(chamber water)
PCR (1)
s.  Chapter 15, Molecular Biology tests
Leptospira
(Antibodies)
1 ml S (horse: vitreous of eyes,
chamber water)
MAR (1)
Creatinine Clearance,
modified exogenous
4 x 0,5 ml S
Photometry
This test aids in the assessment of renal glomerular filtration rate. The calculation
is based on the excretion rate of the exogenous marker substance (creatinine)
fromthe serum.After blood sampling for a basal creatinine concentration, the marker
substance creatinine is injected and within 3-8 hours three further blood samples
are taken.To order the marker substance and for a detailed description of the
test procedure please contact IDEXX Reference Laboratories.
Bakteriologie, aerob
U (sterile )
Photometry
This test aids in the assessment of renal glomerular filtration rate. The calculation is
based on the excretion rate of the exogenous marker substance (creatinine) from
the serum. After blood sampling for a basal creatinine concentration, the marker
substance creatinine is injected and within 3-8 hours three further blood samples
are taken. To order the marker substance and for a detailed description of the test
procedure please contact IDEXX Reference Laboratory.
Polyuria/
Polydipsia Profile
1 ml S + 1 bis 2 ml EB + Blood
Smear + 10 ml U
Large Blood count, creatinine, Ca, Na, K, glucose
fructosamine, ALP, ALT, bile acids, albumine, proteine,
urine sediment, urine status, protein/creatinine ratio
cortisol/creatinine ratio (dog),TT4 (cat)
106
8.2 Urine test
Urine Analysis
5 ml U
Urea stick,
Refractometry (1)
Total protein, pH, glucose, nitrite, ketone bodies, blood, bilirubin,
urobilinogen, specific gravity.
Urine Sediment
5 ml U
Microscopy (1)
Leukocytes, erythrocytes, epithelial cells, crystals, casts
Urine storage leads to cell changes and proliferation of bacteria. Urine should be
stored in refrigerator until submission to laboratory. Cooling can lead to crystal
formation, which are not found in normal urine. If nitrite or bacteria are found in the
sediment a bacteriological examination is recommended, in which case you should
submit a new sterile urine sample.
Protein/Creatinine ratio
1 ml U
Indications:
Nephropathies, differential diagnosis of proteinuria
The protein/creatinine ratio correlates well with 24 hour
protein excretion, so this test is used to determine
the cause of proteinuria. Its high sensitivity allows early
detection of glomerulonephropathies. Creatinine is used
as reference only.
Increased in:
Renal proteinuria, postrenal proteinuria severe increase:
glomerulonephritis, renal amyloidosis mild increase:
interstitial nephritis, chronic nephropathies
Pyuria, haematuria
γ-GT/Creatinine -ratio
(horse)
1 ml U
Indications:
Increase of γ-GT/creatinine ratio in urine shows acute
damage of proximal kidney tubule. It can be a result of
nephrotoxic medication, inflammatory kidney diseases,
ischemia or toxemia.
Photometry (1)
Photometrie (1)
107
8.2 Urine test
Urine Protein
Electrophoresis
5 ml U
Indication: Further differential diagnosis of proteinuria.
SDS-Page
Electrophoresis (3)
This test method is used to assess the urine protein
pattern as well as single protein excretion according to
the molecular weight. Amount and composition of the
urine protein allows assessment as to the localisation
and the extent of renal damage (differentiation between
glomerular and tubular damage). Post-renal proteinuria
can be differentiated by test.
Normal:
proteins > 67 000 D are held back by the basement
membrane, only a small amount is filtered by the
glomerulus
proteins < 40 000 D are able to pass the basement
membrane, and is then mostly reabsorbed in the
tubules
Pre-renal proteinuria:
Increase in low molecular weight protein is suggestive
of Bence-Jones protein, myoglobin, haemoglobin, α1microglobulin
Glomerular proteinuria:
Increase in high molecular weight protein
Glomerular filtration: defect
Tubular reabsorption: intact
Glomerular proteinuria occurs only once the tubular
protein reabsorption capacity is exhausted. Indicative of
albumin and possibly IgG
Tubular proteinuria:
Increase in low molecular weight protein
Glomerular filtration: intact
Tubular reabsorption: defect
indicative of albumin, α1-microglobulin
Glomerular-tubular
proteinuria:
increase in low and high molecular weight protein
Glomerular filtration: defect
Tubular reabsorption: defect
indicative of IgG, albumin, α1-microglobulin
108
8.2 Urine test
Post-renal proteinuria:
Increase in high molecular weight protein > 250 000 D
(post-glomerular bleeding and lower urinary tract
infections)
demonstration of IgG, albumin
Stone Analysis
(Urinary calculus)
FT-IR (1)
Size, shape, appearance, and chemical structure are
determined using infrared spectrometry.
Bacteriology, aerobic
U (sterile)
FT-IR (1)
Aerobic culture allows detection of most pathogenic
organisms. Bacteriological urine examination determines the type and number of bacteria. Additionally an
inhibition test is performed to assess the sensitivity to
antibacterial agents.
s.  Chapter 16, Microbiology testsU
T-Cell Carcinoma (TCC)
Screening (dog only)
1 ml U
Latex-agglutination test
(2)
Transitional cell carcinoma (TCC) is the most frequently
found malignant neoplasia in the lower urinary tract in
dogs. It may be isolated or multiple and later stages are
characterised by metastasis into regional lymph nodes
and other organs. The latex agglutination test detects
urine protein complexes associated with TCC (sensitivity
90%, specificity 78%).
Please note
False positive results are possible due to
- haematuria
- severe proteinuria
- severe glucosuria
- pyuria
Sample stability: 48 hrs (if the sample will not reach the
laboratory within this time, please submit the sample
frozen).
109
9 Muscle, Skeleton and Joints
9.1 Infectious Muscle Disease
 Toxoplasmosis
Toxoplasma
Direct detection
collected faeces over
3 to 5 days
Flotation method (1)
The flotation method is only useful in cats (as no other
species will excrete oocysts).
Oocysts are ususally only excreted in acute first infections,
and re-infections do not normally lead to excretion.
The excretion may be intermittent, therefore re-testing may
be necessary.
Please note: Collect several small samples from different
places in the faeces. It is advisable to submit a pooled sample from 3 consecutive days. A negative result does
not rule out infection!
s.  Chapter 13, Infectious Diseases
Toxoplasma gondii
(DNA-detection)
1 ml, S, EP, HP
PCR (1)
Toxoplasma (Ab)
1 ml S, EP, HP
IFT (3)
 Neospora infections
Neospora caninum (Ab)
1 ml S, EP, HP
IFT (3)
Neospora spp. (Hd.)
110
0.5 ml liquor, 2 g faeces
real time-PCR (1)
9.2 Non- Infectious Muscle Diseases
9.3 Non-infectious Bone Diseases
Muscle Profile
1 ml S
s.  Chapter 3, profiles
Lactate
0.3 ml NaF plasma
Photometry (1)
s.  Chapter 5, Clinical Chemistry
Vitamin E (Tocopherol)
0.5 ml S, EP, HP, 1 g tissue
Selenium
0.5 ml S, tissue, 1 g hairs
ICP-AES (1), ICP-MS (1),
ICP-AES (2)
s.  Chapter 5, Clinical Chemistry
 Myasthenia gravis
Acetylcholine Receptor
(Ab)
1 ml S
RIA (3)
s.  Chapter 14 Immunology and Allergy
 HYPP
HYPP
1 ml EB
PCR (1)
s.  Chapter 14, Immunology and Allergy
 Non-infectious bone diseases
Vitamin D3 (1.25-di-OH)
Vitamin D3 (25-OH)
3 ml S, EP, HP
1 ml S, EP, HP
RIA (3)
HPLC (1)
s.  See Chapter 15
111
9.4 Infectious joints diseases
 Borreliosis
Borrelia burgdorferi
sensu lato
(DNA-detection)
real time-PCR (1)
Borrelia (Ab)
0.5 ml S, EP, HP
ELISA (1)
s.  See Chapter 13, Infectious diseases
Borrelia (Ab)
1 ml S, EP, HP
Immunoblot (1)
Borrelia Screening
(ab, C6 qualitative)
0.5 ml S
ELISA (1)
Borrelia Quant C6®
(ab, C6 quantitative)
0.5 ml S
 Synovia
s.  Chapter 18.2
112
ELISA (1)
9.5 Non-infectious joint diseases
 Rheumatoid Polyarthritis
Rheumatic arthritis
factors
1 ml S
Agglutination test (1)
 Systemic lupus erythrematosus
Antinuclear Antibodies
ANA-Test
1 ml S
IFT (1)
113
10 CNS
10.1 Infectious CNS diseases (in alphabetical order)
 Borna
Borna (Ab)
1 ml S, liquor
IFT (3)
Bornavirus
(RNA-detection)
1 ml liquor,
p.m. Retina (send intact
Bulbus, without formalin)
PCR (3)
 Borreliosis
sensu lato
(DNA-detection)
real time-PCR (1)
Borrelia (Ab)
0.5 ml S, EP, HP
ELISA (1)
Borrelia (Ab)
0.5 ml S, EP, HP
Borrelia-Screening
0.5 ml S, EP, HP
Borrelia Quant C6 ® (Dogs) 1 ml S
114
Immunoblot (1)
10 CNS
 CAE
CAE (Ab)
1 ml S, EP, HP
 Encephalitozoon/Nosematosis
Encephalitozoon cuniculi 1 ml S, EP, HP and/or 3 ml
detection
Urine
IFT (1)
 FIP
Feline Coronavirus FCoV,
FECV PCR (1)
(RNA-detection)
PCR (1)
s. Chapter 15, Molecular biology tests
Feline Coronavirus FCoV 1 ml S, EP, HP
(Ab) (FIP-Ab)
IFT (1)
115
10 CNS
 Early Summer Meningoencephalitis
Tickborne
Encephalitisvirus
(RNA-detection)
0.5 ml CSF, ticks
PCR (1)
Tickborne Encephalitis
(Ab)
1 ml S
CFT (3)
 Herpes virus infection, canine
Canine Herpesvirus
CHV-1 (DNA-detection)
PCR (1)
Canine Herpesvirus
CHV-1 (Ab)
0.5 ml S
NT (1)
 Herpes virus infection, horses
EHV-1/2/4/5
(DNA-detection)
PCR (1)
EHV-1/4 (Ab)
1 ml S
116
NT (1)
10 CNS
 Herpes virus infection, Feline
FHV-1 (DNA-detection)
PCR (1)
FHV-1 (Ab)
0.5 ml S
NT (1)
 Herpes virus infection, koi fish
Herpesvirus koi fish,
KHV (DNA detection)
EB, HB, Swab, organ, faeces.
Cooled shipment!
PCR (3)
 Maedi/Visna
Maedi/Visna (Ab)
1 ml S, EP, HP
ELISA (3)
 Neospora infection
Neospora caninum (Ab)
1 ml S, EP, HP
IFT (3)
Neospora spp. (dogs)
0.5 ml liquor, 5 g faeces
117
10 CNS
 Toxoplasmosis
Toxoplasma- Faecal
(serological detection)
(min. ½ faecal tube)
Toxoplasma gondii
1 ml S, EP, HP
IFT (1)
s. Chapter 13
Toxoplasma gondii
(DNA-detection)
118
ZNS-Symptomatik:
CNS symptomatology: 0.5 ml
liquor
Abort (dogs./ little ruminants.):
vaginal smear, placenta,
foetus, tissue (liver, spleen,
kidney, lung, heart, gut)
Respiratory symptomatology:
bronchial lavage
Eye symptomatology: (mostly
cats): chamber water
Fever: 0.5 ml EB
real time-PCR (1)
10 CNS
10.1 Non-infectious CNS diseases (in alphabetical order)
 Hepatic Encephalopathy Syndrome
Ammonia
1 ml EP frozen
Photometry (1)
Please note:Collect blood sample in pre-cooled collection tubes close tube immediately. Centrifuge to obtain plasma,
and submit plasma frozen. The animal must be starved
for 12 hrs prior to collection.
 Therapeutic Monitoring of Anti epileptic Drugs
Bromide
substance detection
Phenobarbitone
substance detection
1 ml S
ICP-MS (1)
s.  Chapter 6, Toxicology and active
0.5 ml Serum
CLIA (1)
s.  Chapter 6, Toxicology and active
119
11 Skin Diseases
11.1 Allergic/ infectious skin diseases
 Allergy Testing
 Sarcoptes
Sarcoptes (Ab)
1 ml S
s.  Chapter 13, infectious diseases
ELISA (1)
 Ectoparasites
Ectoparasites
Scrapings , hair
s. Chapter 17, Parasitology
120
Microscopy (1)
11 Skin Diseases
11.1 Allergic/ infectious skin diseases
 Microbiology
Bacteriology, aerobic
Swab, tissue
Dermatophytes (skin)
Skin scrapings, Hair
Yeasts and
moulds
Swab
Bacterial culture (1)
Microscopy (1
Mikroscopy (1)
 Leishmaniasis
Leishmania spp.
(DNA-detection)
real time-PCR (1)
Leishmania (Ab)
1 ml S, EP, HP
ELISA (1)
121
11 Skin Diseases
11.2 Non-infectious skin diseases
Ant-nuclear antibodies,
ANA-Test
1 ml S
s. Chapter 14, Immunology and
Biotin (Vitamin H)
0. 5 ml S
Thallium
2 ml S, 5 ml U, hairs, tissue
s.  Chapter 6, Toxicology
Zinc
0,5 ml S, EP, HP (bird: 200 µl S,
EP, HP) hairs, tissue
s.  Chapter 5, Serum biochemistry
Sarcoptes (Ab)
1 ml S, EP, HP
122
IFT (1)
Enzyme binding
assay (3)
ICP-MS (1)
ICP-AES (1)
ICP-MS (1)
ELISA (1)
11 Skin Diseases
11.2 Non-infectious skin diseases
 Endocrine skin diseases
s.  Chapter 12, Endocrinology
 Histopathology
Histopathologische
Skin examination
s.  Chapter 18, Histology
123
12 Endocrinology
12.1 Hormonal disturbances/diseases of adrenal glands
 Hyperadrenocorticism (Cushing’s Syndrome)
Cushing’s Syndrome is one of the most common endocrinal diseases in dogs, but it
in cats it is seen rather rarely. Disease is seen mostly in older dogs (> 6 years), and
there is no sex predilection. Predisposed breeds include Poodles, Daschunds, Beagles,
Boxers, Terriers, German Shepherds and Labradors.
According to etiology we classify it into:
a. P
ituitary Cushing’s Syndrome, hCS (Pituitary Dependent Hyperadrenocortisism,
PDH), is mainly caused by hypophyseal adenoma (rarely adenocarcinoma.) The chronically increased ACTH secretion causes bilateral hyperplasia of the adrenal glands and
because of this, increased secretion of cortisol. This form is responsible for about 80-85
% of all cases of Cushing’s
b. A
drenal Cushing’s Syndrome, aCS (Functional Adrenocortical Tumor, FAT).
In about 15-20 % of cases adrenal adenoma or adenocarcinoma leads to excess
cortisol production.
c. Iatrogenic Cushing’s Syndrome Long-term exogenous glucocorticoid therapy
causes typical symptoms of the disease.
Excessive use or dose of cortisone causes increased gluconeogenesis, immunosuppression, antiinflammatory action, catabolism of protein and increased lipolysis.
Common symptoms are:
- PU/PD
- Polyphagia
- Fat tissue on the trunk
- Hanging belly (hepatomegaly, muscles weakness, intraabdominal fat deposition), thin
hair or alopecias (alternatively, hair does not grow back after shaving)
- Thin skin
- Panting
- Mild muscle weakness, muscle atrophy
124
12 Endocrinology
In horses Cushing syndrome is a significant and frequent endocrinopathy of horses and
ponies with an age over 15 years. It is caused by dysfunction of the pars intermedia of
hypophysis. Typical clinical signs are hirsuthism (excessive hair growth), muscle weakness, abnormal deposition of fat tissue in the body, weakness after exercise, PU/PD and
recurring laminitis. For all the diagnostic tests, horses need to be calm and pain free.
Pain (due to laminitis, for example) or increased stress before or during sampling can
lead to false positive results. Seasonal changes of the hypophysis and adrenal glands in
autumn can lead to false positive test results in healthy horses. Negative test results in
autumn exclude Equine Cushing’s Syndrome (ECS) with great probability, while positive
results in horses with inconclusive clinical symptoms should be checked again between
January and August.
Various non specific parameters as well as endocrinological function tests may
be used to diagnose Cushing’s syndrome.
Cortisol
0.5 ml S
ECLIA(1)
The determination of a single cortisol value is not useful
for diagnosing Cushing’s disease because of the episodic
secretion of cortisol in dogs, and it is extremely stress- dependant in cats. In horses, resting cortisol levels are not or
very slightly elevated, but the circadian rhythm is lost.
 Functional tests for diagnosing hyperadrenocortisism/
Equine Cushing Syndrome
Low dose of
dexamethasone test
(screening test, LDDS)
2 cortisol values
3 cortisol values
2 x 0.5 ml S
3 x 0.5 ml S
CLIA (1)
CLIA (1)
Test principles:
ACTH from the pituitary gland, controlled by the hypothalamus, stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce cortisol. The
rising cortisol level leads to a reduced ACTH secretion via
a negative feedback mechanism. This also happens when
dexamethasone is administered exogenously
Physiological mechanism:
After approx. 2-3 hours ACTH secretion is suppressed due
to the negative feedback mechanism. The suppression lasts
for approx. 24-48 hours. The adrenal cortex produces less
cortisol, causing the cortisol level to drop.
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Adrenal Cushing’s
Syndrome (aCS)
Tumors of Functional Adrenal Tissue (FAT) produce autonomic cortisol. Dexamethasone inhibits secretion of ACTH,
but does not lead to reduced cortisol secretion, so the level
of cortisol does not fall or falls only very slightly.
Pituitary Cushing’s
Syndrome(hCS)
The pituitary gland in sick animals will show little or no response to dexamethasone. The ACTH secretion will not be
suppressed at all or only for a short period of time, then it
resumes and therefore the cortisol secretion in the adrenal
cortex remains stimulated. The cortisol level is unaffected,
drops only very little, or only for a very short period of time.
Approx. 15-20% of the animals with PDH do not react with a significant suppression of cortisol levels,
even in the high- dose test
Sensitivity of these tests ranges about 85-95%, specificity will be about 70-75%..
Performing the test
in dogs, cats:
1. First blood sample, for basal cortisol value
2. Injection of dexamethasone 0,01 mg/kg body weight
i.v. (dogs) Injection of dexamethasone 0,1 mg/kg b.w.
i.v. (cats)
3. Second blood sample is taken 8 hours post injection, for
suppression value (an additional blood sample may be
taken 4 hours post injection)
Assessment dogs, cats
- 4 hour value and 8 hour value <1,0μg/dl: negative result,
physiologically normal.
- 4 hour value and 8 hour value >1,4 μg/dl: suspicion of CS
(hCS or aCS)
- 4 hours value <1,4 μg/dl and 8 hour value >1,4 μg/dl
or
- 4 hour value < 50 % of basal value and 8 hour value >
1,4 μg/dl: suspicion of CS (hCS more likely,
but aCS not excluded)
- 8 hour value < 50 % of basal value, but > 1,4 μg/dl:
suspicion of CS (hCS more probably, but
aCS not excluded)
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Performing the test in
Horses
Please note:
1. first blood sampling for basal cortisol value
2. Injection of dexamethasone 0,04 mg/kg (4 mg/100 kg)
b.w. i.m. or i.v.
3. next day: second blood sampling 19 to 24 hours post inj.
for suppression value (an additional blood sample may be
taken 15 hours post injection)
Note: Sampling tubes should be labeled sample 1 and
sample 2 (and sample 3, if applicable), test interpretation
for horses.
In healthy horses, corticosteroids act due to negative
feedback and cause reduction of endogenous cortisol
distribution. This leads to post suppression values of 0.5 to
1 μg/dl. In horses with ECS, dexamethasone induces no
negative feedback and causes no significant reduction of
cortisol concentration after dexamethasone administration.
Dexamethasone suppression test is the test of choice in dogs, cats and horses to
diagnose hyperadrenocorticism.
ACTH-Stimulation test
(dogs, cats)
2 cortisol assessments
2 x 0.5 ml S
Test Principle:
With this test you can assess the secretory ability of th
adrenal cortex.
Dogs, cats: ACTH-Stimulation test is the test of choice for
diagnosing iatrogenic Cushing’s Syndrome, for treatment
control in dogs with hyperadrenocorticism and also for
diagnosing hypoadrenocorticism.
Test method:
1.First blood sampling, for basal value of cortisol
2. Injection of ACTH (i.e. Synachten) i.v./i.m.
Cats: 0,125 mg/animal
Dogs: 0,25 mg/animal (0,125 mg= 12,5 IU,
0,25 mg=25 IU)
Interpretation:
-dogs - Basal value <0.5-2μg/dl and stimulation value
<0.5-2μg/dl: Iatrogenic Cushing’s Syndrome or suspicion
of Addison’s disease
Treatment monitoring
During treatment of CS with trilostane please follow the
manufacturer’s recommended protocol.
ECLIA (1)
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Cortisol/creatinine ratio
(dogs, cats)
1 determination
1 x 3 ml urine
CLIA (1)
Test principle:
Animals with Cushing’s syndrome show an elevated serum
cortisol level and elevated cortisol excretion. Creatinine
is used as reference value only, since the cortisol level
may also be elevated in a physiological metabolic state.
The test is highly sensitive (95-99%) and therefore suitable for ruling out Cushing’s syndrome. On the other
hand, it has a low specificity (pathological levels may be
found in diabetes mellitus, diabetes insipidus, pyometra,
hypercalcaemia, renal disease, liver disease, etc). Pathological results should therefore be confirmed with further
function tests (e.g. dexamethasone low dose test). The
urine should always be collected in a stress-free environment (preferably at home and not in the practice).
Test method:
Day 1: collect the morning urine for the first sample
Day 2: collect the morning urine for the second sample
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Dexamethasone high
dose test
(suppression test, HDDS)
(dogs)
2 determinations
of cortisol
2 x 0.5 ml S
ECLIA (1)
Test principle:
The test is based on the fact that in PDH the negative feedback mechanism is not completely
blocked, whereas in FAT the glucocorticoid secretion cannot be influenced. This means:
- low-dose administration of dexamethasone
(0.01 mg/kg) leads to no, or only a mild decrease, in the cortisol level in both PDH and FAT.
- high-dose administration of dexamethasone (0.1 mg/kg) leads, in most cases, to a significant suppression of the cortisol level in PDH,
but to no or only mild suppression in FAT.
Please note:
Approx. 15-20% of the animals with PDH do not react
with a significant suppression of cortisol levels, even in
the high- dose test.
Test procedure:
1. First blood sample, for basal cortisol level
2. Injection of dexamethasone 0.1 mg/kg i.v.
3. Second blood sample 8 hours after injection of
dexamethasone, for suppression level (an additional
sample may be taken 4 hours post injection)
Interpretation:
If the suppression level is < 50% of the basal level
or < 1.5 μg/dl or or < 40 nmol/l:
diagnosis of PDH (hCS)
If the suppression level is > 50% of the basal level
or > 1.5 μg/dl or > 40 nmol/l:
diagnosis of FAT (aCS)
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ACTH
1 ml EP frozen CLIA (1)
It is essential to submit the sample frozen. Please contact
your Regional Manager or the laboratory before sending a
sample.
The determination of ACTH is used to differentiate between
adrenal and pituitary dependant Cushing’s syndrome.
Adrenocortical tumours will cause a suppression of ACTH
secretion due to the negative feedback mechanism, whereas
excessive ACTH secretion is found in PDH.
Due to the irregular ACTH secretion and the influence of
stress, the interpretation of results can be difficult. The blood
sample must be taken into a pre-chilled EDTA sample tube,
centrifuged without delay, and the separated plasma must
be frozen immediately.
Horse:
Sample collection and processing
• Whole blood sample in plastic EDTA tube (no glass tubes
or vacutainers). The sample can be collected at any time
of day, but preferably between 8 and 10 am.
• Centrifuge the sample as soon as possible (but within 8
hours after sampling). If the plasma cannot be centrifuged
immediately the sample must be kept refrigerated.
• Transfer the plasma to an uncoated plastic tube.
The use of special stabiliser tubes is not necessary.
• Samples should be sent refrigerated (4 - 6°C) or frozen.
• The sample must arrive at the laboratory within 24 hours.
Test principle in dogs
Determination of ACTH value is used to differentiate
between the adrenal and hypophyseal form of CS.
If a functional adrenal tumor is present, secretion of ACTH
is suppressed by negative feedback. In hCS, secretion of
ACTH is excessive.
Interpretation is often difficult due to irregular ACTH
distribution and the interference of any stress.
Assessment in dogs:
- level of ACTH 9-67 pg/ml: physiologically normal result
- level of ACTH <10 pg/ml: suspicion of aCS or suspicion
of secondary hypoadrenocorticism
- level of ACTH > 45 pg/ml: suspicion of hCS or suspicion
of primary hypoadrenocortisism
- level of ACTH > 100 pg/ml: suspicion of primary
hypoadrenocorticism
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Test principles horses:
ACTH: This test is a good and low-risk alternative for the
diagnosis of Equine Cushing’s Syndrome, especially if it is
not possible to take multiple samples.
Assessment of horses:
ACTH: ECS is suspected if the ACTH concentration is above
the diagnostic threshold. An ACTH concentration below the
reference level does not rule out ECS. Please note the new
reference levels. Due to rhythmic fluctuations through the
year, the following reference levels for ACTH apply in healthy
horses:
November to July: ≤ 29 pg/ml (negative)
August to October: ≤ 47 pg/ml (negative)
I
n general, patients with Cushing's syndrome show
significantly higher levels in the respective periods.
Levels must always be interpreted in association with the
clinical symptoms. Determination of ACTH is used for
diagnosis and to monitor the progress of treatment.
Please note:
EDTA Blood must be centrifuged and separated without
delay.
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Combined
4 x 0.5 ml S
dexamethasonesuppression
and TRH-stimulation
Test (horses)
4 cortisol determinations
ECLIA (1)
For further diagnostics of horse Cushing Syndrome in patients with borderline results of a
dexamethasone suppression test.
Test performance: 1. blood sampling for basal cortisol value
2. injection of 40μg/kg b.w. (4 mg/100 kg) of dexamethasone i.v.
3. second blood sampling 3 hours post injection for 1st suppression
value of cortisol
4. injection of 1 mg TRH i.v.
5. third blood sampling 30 minutes post injection for stimulated
cortisol value
6. fourth blood sampling 24 hours post injection for 2nd supression
value of cortisol
Intepretation:Test is based on the assumption that dexamethasone suppresses
normal distribution of ACTH from the hypophyseal pars distalis.
Each increase of cortisol after TRH administration is attributable
to excessive ACTH production in melanotropic cells in the Pars
intermedius. An increase of cortisol concentration to >66% 30 minutes
after TRH administration, and/or a cortisol concentration >1 μg/dl 24
hours after dexamethasone administration is diagnostic for Equine
Cushing Syndrome.
 Equine metabolic syndrome (EMS)
Equine metabolic syndrome (EMS) is a pathological condition in ponies and horses
which is characterized by obesity, insulin resistance, and laminitis. Patients are primarily
between 8 and 20 years old.
Laboratory tests refer to insulin resistance detection. In laboratory diagnostics, affected
horses show consistently increased insulin concentrations (insulin resistance) with or
without accompanying hyperglycemia. The clinical picture can be similar to Cushing’s
Syndrome, making it prudent to perform prompt and specific laboratory investigation for
both diseases to ensure appropriate treatment is provided at the earliest opportunity.
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Important information for test method:
During all sampling horses must be calm and pain free. Pain (for instance laminitis) and
stress before or during sample collection can lead to false positive results, as increased
endogenous cortisol and epinephrine secretion can lead to temporarily increased concentrations of glucose and insulin.
Samples should ideally be collected between 8 and 10 in the morning. Patients should
be fasted about 6 hours before sample collection for all tests. As fasting is a stress
factor for horses it is a possibility to prepare horses by fasting for a few hours (for a few
days) prior to the test. Alternatively, if it is impossible to fast for some reasons, patients
(as an exception) can be given hay and relative results can be estimated by the laboratory.
During this time no grass or green feed should be given. When performing GTT and
CGIT, ideally a jugular catheter should be placed the evening before, to avoid stress
caused by needle puncture. Please label all samples with the appropriate number
(sample 1, 2, 3, etc.) to ensure that results are obtained in correct order. Please avoid
sending frozen samples on Saturday.
EMS/Cushing-Profile 1
1 ml EP frozen + 1 ml S + 1 ml S frozen + 0.5 ml NaF
ACTH, Insulin, Glucose, Triglycerides,γ-GT
EMS/Cushing-Profile 2
1 ml EP frozen + 1 ml S frozen + 1 ml S + 0.5 ml NaF
+ 2 ml EB + smear
ACTH, Insulin, Glucose, Triglycerides, γ-GT,
large blood count
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Fasting Insulin and
Glucose assay (horses)
Insulin: 1 ml S frozen glucose:
1 ml NaF
Test method:
Collection and handling the sample:
Two samples are collected early in the morning. One sample
for glucose determination is collected (NaF tube or serum)
and one serum sample is collected for insulin determination.
The whole blood sample for insulin determination should be
centrifuged between 30 minutes and one hour after collection.
RIA (3)
photometric
estimation (1)
Transfer the serum to an uncoated plastic tube. To freeze or
refrigerate samples, please use serum tubes without separation gel. For the glucose assay, we recommend sending
plasma in sodium fluoride tubes or dividing the serum into
two tubes after rapid centrifugation.
Samples for insulin determination should be sent refrigerated
(4 - 6°C) or frozen.
The sample must arrive at the laboratory within 24 hours.
An insulin value over the reference range shows insulin
resistance (IR). EMS patients mainly show compensated IR.
This is characterised by increased insulin value with normal
or slightly increased glucose levels.
Insulin s.  Chapter 12.4, Special Hormones
Glucose: s.  Chapter 5, Clinical Chemistry
Please note:
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To label all tubes.
12 Endocrinology
Combined Glucose
Insulin Test (CGIT)
(horses)
13 x 1 ml NaF
Plasma (Total 13 samples)
photometric
glucose estimation (1)
Indications for this test are the same as for Glucose Tolerance Test (GTT, page 148).
The advantage of the CGIT test is shorter sampling time
and a possibility to estimate insulin sensitivity in tissues.
Test method:
Interpretation:
1. Sample collection for basal glucose concentration
estimation
2. Intravenous infusion of 150 mg/kg of dextrose
3. Immediately following infusion, insulin is be administered
at a dosage of 0,1 unit/kg b.w. *
4. Samples are collected 1, 5, 15, 25, 35, 45, 60, 75, 90,
105, 120, 135 and 150 minutes after insulin application.
In field conditions test can be shortened to 60 minutes.
It is always recommended to note the time when the
glucose level reaches the basal value, in order to be able
to estimate the treatment.
If glucose concentrations remain over the basal value after
45 minutes, this is diagnostic for insulin resistance.
*Please note: insulin administration can lead to hypoglycaemia. 60 ml syringes with dextrose solution should
be available and administered if weakness or muscle
tremors are observed, or glucose concentration falls
under 40 mg/dl.
Please note:
Please label all the tubes in the correct order.
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Glucose-tolerance Test
(GTT) (horses)
7 x 1 ml NaF-Plasma
(total 7 samples)
Photometric
Glucose-estimation (1)
This is dynamic test for glucose tolerance and EMS diagnosis. It can be performed in
horses with suspected disease that have physiologically normal glucose and insulin
levels.
Test performance:
All samples will be collected into NaF tubes.
1. Sample collection for basal glucose concentration
(sample 1).
2. Administration of 0.5 g/kg b.w. IV of dextrose solution
during 5 minutes.
3. Further samples are collected every 30 minutes for 3
hours (samples 2to 7).
Interpretation:
Insulin resistance is probable if glucose concentration after 3
hours remains above the basal value.
Please note:
Please label the tubes in the correct order.
 Non-specific parameters for Cushing diagnostics
Various biochemical parameters, as well as changes in haematology and urine, may
indicate Cushing’s syndrome. The final diagnosis may only be made by performing the
function tests mentioned above or using imaging methods. The following general changes
may be found in Cushing’s syndrome:
Increase:
- AP, heat stable AP endogenous and exogenous
glucocorticoids lead specifically to an induction of the
heat stable fraction of the enzyme. Bone, liver and kidney
AP, on the other hand, are heat unstable. The heat stable
AP is determined after heating the serum to 65°C.
- ALT
- triglycerides
- glucose
- bile acids
- insulin
- glucose (urine)
- protein (urine)
Decrease:
- urea
- T4
- specific gravity (urine)
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 Hypoadrenocorticism (dogs, horses)
Hypoadrenocorticism is a relatively rarely seen endocrine disorder, which can be caused
by the adrenal gland cortex disease (primary hypoadrenocorticism, Addison’s disease)
or reduced secretion of ACTH (secondary hypoadrenocorticism).
Primary hypoadrenocorticism usually affects both glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid
synthesis, while secondary hypoadrenocorticism usually affects glucocorticoid synthesis
only. There is a gender predisposition in females (70%). In the majority of cases the
affected animals are medium to large breeds and middle aged.
The most common form in veterinary medicine is iatrogenic hypoadrenocorticism caused
by long term exogenous glucocorticoid administration or administration of o,p´-DDD
(Mitotane) in Cushing’s treatment.
Various non-specific changes may or may not be found in laboratory diagnostics, such
as mild anaemia, azotaemia, hypercalcaemia or hypoglycaemia, whereas a change of
the sodium/potassium ratio is seen only if mineralocorticoid synthesis is affected. The
normal ratio is 27:1 - 40:1, whereas in hypoadrenocorticism, a ratio below 27:1 is often
found.
A single test for cortisol is appropriate only to exclude hypoadrenocorticism, as healthy
animals can show cortisol levels < 0.5 μg/dl.
Horse:As in dogs and cats, hypoadrenocorticism is relatively
rarely seen endocrine disorder based on function restriction
of adrenal glands (primary hypoadrenocorticism, similar
to Addison’s disease) or reduced secretion of ACTH or
CRH (secondary hypoadrenocorticism). The most common
form in veterinary medicine is iatrogenic hypoadrenocorticism caused by long term exogenous glucocorticoids
application. A single test for cortisol is not appropriate
for diagnosis. ACTH stimulation test and single ACTH
estimation can give important diagnostic clues, but
diagnosis should be made only in combination with history,
clinical symptoms and diagnostic tests.
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12.2 Hormonal disturbances/diseases of thyroid gland
ACTH-Stimulation test
2 Cortisol assay
2 x 0.5 ml S
Test method:
(dogs, cats)
s.  Chapter 12.1
Interpretation:
Basal value mostly < 0.5 - 2 μg/dl and
Stimulation value < 0.5 - 2 μg/dl
Test performance (horses)
1. first blood sampling for cortisol basal value at 9 o’clock
2. Injection of 100 IU ACTH i.v. (e.g. Synacthen®)
3. second blood sampling 2 hours post injection for
stimulated cortisol value
Interpretation (horses)
In healthy horses cortisol value increases by about 80 %.
Horses with hypoadrenocorticism have mostly very low
cortisol basal value and only low or no cortisol increase
after stimulation.
Aldosterone (dogs, cats)
0.5 ml S cold
CLIA (1)
RIA (3)
A single aldosterone determination is of little diagnostic
value. Interpretation should be made after performing an
ACTH stimulation test (Follow the protocol used for cortisol
level determination in the diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome.
s.  ACTH stimulation test)
Indications:
- selective aldosterone deficiency (hyponatraemia and
hyperkalaemia with normal cortisol basal level or physiological cortisol value after ACTH stimulation test)
- primary hyperaldosteronism
Occurence:
Produced in the Zona glomerulosa of the adrenal glands,
regulated by the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone-system and
serum postassium concentration
Increased in:
excessive stimulation:
primary hyperaldosteronism: hyperactivity of adrenal glands
(secondary hyperaldosteronism: disturbances in aldosterone
removal)
Decreased in:
little or no stimulation:
Hypoaldosteronism
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 Hypothyroidism
Primary canine hypothyroidism (T4 deficiency) is caused by lymphocytic thyreoditis,
idiopathic follicular atrophy or (rarely) neoplasia of thyroid gland. Secondary (TSH
deficiency caused by pituitary tumor) has been very rarely described and tertiary (TRH
deficiency) hypothyroidism has not been reported in veterinary medicine.
Clinical symptoms are caused by a low concentration of thyroid hormone circulating in
blood. Large and medium breed dogs are predisposed.
The nonspecific parameters listed below, described in laboratory diagnostics, can suggest hypothyroidism:
-Increased levels of cholesterol in serum
-mild to moderate anaemia (usually normochromic, normocytic,
or rarely hypochromic or microcytic)
-Increased fructosamine levels
-Insignificant increase of creatinine kinase.
In cats hypothyroidism is very rare.
In horses, primary thyroid diseases are rare in adult horses, but cases have been described. Often it is overdiagnosed in overweight or animals with hair loss, and therefore
tests for hypothyroidism should be accompanied by tests for Cushing’s Syndrome or
Equine Metabolic Syndrome.
Note: Foals can physiologically show increased thyroid hormone values.
 Thyroid hormones: individual hormone sssay
A common diagnostic challengs is dogs and cats with “Euthyroid Sick Syndrome”.
Euthyroid Sick Syndrome occurs when thyroid hormone levels in blood are decreased
due to different diseases, but the patient has few or no symptoms of hypothyroidism.
Interpretation can be made more difficult by the presence of medication.
s. also  Thyroid Profile in Horses above.
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Note:
Thyroid values may be decreased due to non-thyroidal
diseases (NTI).
NTI (Non-thyroidal illness):
Diabetes mellitus, hyperadrenocorticism, hypoadrenocorticism, renal diseases, hepatic diseases, acute infections,
neuro-muscular diseases, pyodermatitis, hypoproteinemia,
congestive heart failure and others. Dogs suffering from one
of these diseases should be tested with caution.
If hyperadrenocorticism is suspected, it should be diagnosed
and treated first.
Medication
NSAIDs, glucocorticoids, anti-convulsive drugs, and
especially sulphonamides.
These medications should be withdrawn around 4-6 weeks
before performing the test.
Total T4
0.5 ml S, EP, HP
Enzyme
immunoassay (1)
Total T4 is composed of a free and protein bound fraction.
Both fractions are measured in this test. Endogenous T4
is produced only in thyroid gland and is an important
indicator for diagnosing hyperthyroidism in cats and
excluding hypothyroidism in dogs - as only a few dogs with
hypothyroidism have T4 concentrations within reference
ranges. (Normal values of T4 in hypothyroid dogs are
possible in the early stages of hypothyroidism.)
In addition, there are a few hypothyroid dogs (c. 1,5%)
which develop T4 antibodies. Confusingly, these antibodies
can “cause” falsely high T4 laboratory results. In these
dogs we recommend testing Free T4 (FT4) values
equilibrium dialysis and/or anti-T4 antibody detection.
Please note: NTI and medications can influence T4 values.
(See above).
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Free T4
0.5 ml S
Determination:
Measurement will be only of free fraction of T4.
Note:
NTI and medications can influence T4 measurement.
(See T4).
Free T4
(Equillibrium dialysis)
1 ml S, EP, HP
CLIA (1)
Radio immune assay(3)
Using equilibrium dialysis, protein-bound T4 is separated
from free T4 and the free T4 fraction is measured in
dialysate.
The result is independent from the concentration of
protein bound T4 and is not affected by the presence of
T4 antibodies. Decreased free T4 is suggestive of
hypothyroidism but does not prove the diagnosis by itself.
Total T3
0.5 ml S
CLIA (1)
T3 is produced by intracellular deionization from T4. If the
synthesis is decreased, a compensatory mechanism can
increase transformation of T4 into T3. T3 values can stay
within reference values even in hypothyroid patients.
External factors influence the T3 level to an even greater
extent than they influence T4, therefore this parameter is not
very useful in the diagnosis of hypothyroidism in the dog.
Thyroid profile 1
2 ml S
For diagnosis of hypo- and hyperthyroidism and to
monitor progress of thyroid treatment.
Dogs
Thyroxine (T4), free T4, TSH
Cats
Thyroxine (T4), free T4
Horses
Thyroxine (T4), free T4, T3
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Thyroid profile 2 (dogs)
0.5 ml S
A reduced level of T4 leads to increased secretion of TSH,
due to a false negative feedback mechanism.
TSH, free T4
Thyreoglobulin antibodies
Canine TSH (dogs)
0.5 ml S
A reduced level of T4 leads to increased secretion of TSH,
due to a false negative feedback mechanism.
T4 and FT4 is reduced and cTSH is increased in primary
hypothyroidism. In about
20-40% of dogs with hypothyroidism, TSH stays within
reference values (sensitivity 63-82 %). Euthyroid dogs can
show increased c-TSH values, (e.g. in the early stages of
hypothyroidism, recovering from or suffering from NTI or
after administration of sulphonamides or other medication.)
Interpretation of T4 and cTSH results
Determined values
Interpretation/further diagnostic management
Increased cTSH and
reduced T4$
Hypothyroidism very likely
Increased cTSH and
normal T
Hypothyroidism not likely
(exception: presence of T4 antibodies)
- Suggested to test fT4, T4 antibody detection,
test for NTI and medication
- Repeat test after NTI treatment or withdrawal
of causative medication
Normal cTSH and
reduced T4 $
Probable hypothyroidism
Test for NTI and medication
- Repeat test after NTI treatment or withdrawal
of causative medication
- Perform TSH stimulation test
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FT4 Cholesterol ratio
kinetics
0.5 ml S, HP
Enzyme,
CLIA (1)
K-value calculation (according to Larsson)
Dogs with hypothyroidism show often increased fasting
serum cholesterol level. According to the formula by
Larsson, used with the patient’s FT4 value, it can be used
as an indication of hypothyroidism. It is necessary to
remember, that hypothyroidism is not always associated
with hypercholesterolemia, and on the other hand, high
levels of cholesterol can have different non-thyroidal
causes (feeding before sampling, liver disease).
Formula according to
Larsson
K=0,7 x FT4(pmol/l)-serum cholesterol (mmol/l)
Calculation factors:
FT4 old unit  SI : x 12,78
Cholesterol old unit  SI: x0,02
Interpretation
K = < - 4  suspicion of hypothyroidism
K = - 4 - 1  doubtful result
K = > 1  physiological range
Thyroglobulin ab (TAK)
(dogs)
0.3 ml S, EP, HP
ELISA (2)
In hypothyroidism caused by lymphocytic thyreoditis,
antibodies against thyreoglobulin are produced.
They are less important for diagnosing hypothyroidism,
than for aetiology of the disease.
These antibodies are present in up to 15% of all healthy
dogs and in up to 25 % of all dogs suffering from
non-thyroidal illness. (NTI). Increased levels of antibodies
can be an early sign of lymphocytic thyreoiditis,
therefore repeat testing at regular intervals is recommended. If glandular thyroid tissue is damaged during the
course of the disease (causing a decrease in hormone
production) autoantibody concentration can reduce as
a result of lower antigenic stimulation.
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T4-autoantibodies (dogs) 1.5 ml S
RIA (3)
Anti-T4 antibodies and anti-thyreoglobulin antibodies can
be present during lymphatic thyreoditis. They can influence
thyroxine concentration determination, causing falsely
increased results of T4 levels (this does not affect fT4
dialysis method).
Indications for the test:
level of T4 within the range of normal values with clinical
signs strongly associated with hypothyroidism.
Limitations:
dogs with normal thyroid function can show anti-T4 antibodies and animals with hypothyroidism there may have none
of these antibodies.
 Thyroid hormone functional tests
TSH-Stimulation test
(dogs) with rhTSH (recom2 x 0.5 ml S
binant human TSH)
EIA (1)
Test principle:
TSH administration causes maximal thyroid stimulation.
Subsequent T4 level determination gives information regarding functional capacity of thyroid gland.
Test method:
1. First blood sampling for thyroxine basal value.
2. Injection of 75μg rhTSH i.v. or i.m.
3. Blood sampling 6 hours post injection for thyroxine
stimulation value
Interpretation:
post TSH T4 > 2.5 μg/dl < 1,5 μ/dl dazwischen normal
hypothyroidism
inconclusive (early
hypothyroi dism, NTI,
medication)
TSH stimulation test will be less influenced by NTI and medicines and is a gold standard
for diagnosing hypothyroidism. For best results it should be conducted only in animals
which do not suffer from NTI and do not receive medication that may affect thyroid levels.
Otherwise this test should be performed only to exclude hypothyroidism. A disadvantage
of this test is the high price of human recombinant TSH.
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12 Endocrinology
TRH-stimulation test
(dogs)
2 T4-determinations
3 T4-determinations
2 x 0.5 ml S, EP; HP
EIA (1)
EIA (1)
By this test we can stimulate and evaluate T4 levels in serum.
Please note:
NTI and medications can influence T4 stimulation. (See T4).
In addition, healthy dogs can show insufficient stimulation.
For these reasons TRH stimulation test is recommended
only to exclude hypothyroidism.
Test method:
1. First blood sampling, for thyroxine basal value
2. Injection of TRH (200 μg/animal) i.v.
(e.g. Thyroliberin (Merck))
3. Repeat blood sample after 2 hours
for 1st stimulation value
4. Repeat blood sample after 4 hours
for 2nd stimulation value
Interpretation:
-stimulation in reference range
(T4-stimulation value >1,5 μg/dl): Diagnosis
of euthyroidism
- no or only small stimulation (T4-basal and stimulation
value <1,5μg/dl): Diagnosis of hypothyroidism
(horses)
2 T4-determinations
3 T4-determinations
EIA (1)
EIA (1)
Test method:
1. First blood sampling for thyroxine basal value
2. Injection of TRH (1 mg/horse, 0.5 mg/pony) i.v.
3. Repeat blood sample after 4 to 5 hours for
1st stimulation value.
4. Repeat blood sample c. 8 hours after
TRH administration for 2nd stimulation value
Interpretation:
in euthyroid cases, after 4 to 5 hours the stimulated T4
value should be approximately double the thyroxine basal
value. The peak level is normally seen 4-10 hours after TRH
administration.
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 Hyperthyroidism
Hyperthyroidism is an endocrine disorder seen mainly in cats, mainly caused by thyroid
gland adenoma. Thyroid carcinoma is rare, but is often the cause of hyperthyroidism
in dogs. (Note: canine hyperthyroidism is very rare.) Older dogs are more commonly
affected. Clinical signs are caused by excessive amounts of thyroid hormone circulating
in blood.
Diagnosing hyperthyroidism is possible based on an increased concentration of T4.
T4 and FT4 concentrations may be unchanged or mildly elevated in the early stages of
disease, in which case diagnosis can be confirmed by triiodothyronine suppression test.
Hyperthyroidism in horses is extremely rare. To deal with this issue, please contact our
specialist advisers.
 Individual thyroid hormones determination
T4
0.5 ml S, EP, HP
Enzyme Immunoassay (1)
s.  Hypothyroidism
Free thyroxine (FT4)
0.5 ml S
CLIA (1)
s.  Hypothyroidism
 Thyroxine hormone functional tests
T3-suppression test
2 T4 determinations
2x 0.5 ml S, (EP), (HP
EIA (1)
Test principle
In healthy cats, triiodothyronine administration causes
significant T4 suppression. In cats with hyperthyroidism,
as a result of excessive T4 secretion, there is no or only
mild suppression.
Test performance:
1. First blood sampling for thyroxine basal value
2. Administer liothyronine orally(Thybon by Henning)
25 μg p.o. every 8 hours for 7 doses
3. second blood sample 2-4 hours after the last
administration for suppression value
Estimation
- suppression >50 % of basal value:
diagnosis of euthyroidism
- suppression <50 % of basal value:
diagnosis of hyperthyroidism
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12 Endocrinology
2 T4-determinations
3 T4-determinations
EIA (1)
EIA (1)
Test principle:
In this test you can determine an increase of T4 in serum.
In normal thyroid Function, after TRH injection, result is
increased TSH and T4. In hyperthyroidal animals TSH level
is suppressed by increased T4level, therefore there is no or very small increase in TSH and T4 concentration.
Please note
NTI and medications can influence T4 values. (See T4)
Test method:
1.First blood sampling for basal thyroxine value
2.TRH injection (100μg) i.v. (f.i. Thyroliberin-by Merck)
3.Second blood sampling 4 hours post injection for
stimulated thyroxine level
Stimulation level
Calculation
Relative stimulation (%)
-basal value
= T4 after stimulation-T
______________________
___________
4
_
x 100
T4 basal value
Interpretation:
stimulation> 60% of basal level: Stimulation<50% of basal level:
Stimulation between 50-60 % of basal level:
normal function
(euthyroid)
suspicion of
hyperthyroidism
borderline result.
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12.3 Sex hormones/pregnancy
 Mating time estimation
Progesterone
(dogs, horses)
0.5 ml S
Indication:
Optimum mating time, pregnancy diagnosis in mares,
fertility problems
Optimum mating time:
The hormone levels in individual bitches can vary significantly!
CLIA (1)
The progesterone level during anoestrus and during most
of proestrus is < 1.0 ng/ml. Around day 10 of proestrus the
level will rise to approximately 2.0 ng/ml due to preovulatory
luteinisation of the ovaries. The following day the level will
be at approximately 3.0 ng/ml and on the day of ovulation
the level will increase to 4.0-8.0 ng/ml. The optimum time
for mating will be around 2-3 days after ovulation.
At this time the progesterone level will rise above 10 ng/ml.
Breeding should be done on 1st and 3rd day after reaching
this value.
In cases where no history is given regarding previous
cycles or pregnancies, the first progesterone test is recommended on day 6-8 of heat (oestrus). If the value is < 1.0
ng/ml then samples should be taken at 3-4 day intervals
until the level reaches 1.0-8.0 ng/ml. Depending on the
exact concentration further samples may be necessary
every 1-3 days.
Pregnancy diagnosis:
148
(18-21 days after covering the mare)
value > 2 ng/ml indicates pregnancy
value < 2 ng/ml indicates pregnancy did not occur
12 Endocrinology
 Sex hormones
Hormonal changes during estrous cycle in bitches.
Oestradiol (17b-)
0.5 ml S
Indications:
- determination of the phase of the cycle
- diagnosis of the abnormal cycle
- diagnosis of sertoli cell tumours
RIA with Extraction (3)
Oestradiol concentration fluctuates markedly depending
on the phase of the cycle (approx. 5-10 ng/l in anoestrus,
up to 50-100 ng/l in proestrus). Oestradiol can be used to
diagnose an abnormal cycle in combination with progesterone determination. In entire males oestradiol determination
can be used to detect sertoli cell tumours.
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12 Endocrinology
Testosterone
1 ml S, (EP), (HP)
Indications:
Differentiating between castrated and cryptorchid animals,
testing androgen levels.
Simple testosterone estimation is often not enough to
confirm cryptorchidism. To confirm the diagnosis an hCGstimulation test should be performed. For information on
granulosa theca tumors in mares see Chapter 12.3.
HCG Stimulation Test
2 Testosterone values
3 Testosterone values
Test performance
(dogs, cats)
1. Blood sampling for basal testosterone value
2. Injection of 50 IU hCG/kg body weight i.v.
3. Blood sample 1 hour post injection for stimulation value
Test performance (horses)
1. Blood sampling for basal testosterone value
2. Injection of 5,000 - 10,000 IU HCG per animal i.v.
3. Second blood sampling 1 hour post
injection for first stimulation value
4. Optional third blood sampling 24 hours post
injection for second stimulation value
Interpretation:
- mild or no stimulation indicates there is
no functioning testicular tissue.
- a marked stimulation indicates there is
functioning testicular tissue.
In horses, a significant increase in testosterone levels
following hCG administration proves that testicular tissue
is present. Please note that in some horses it may take up
to 120 minutes for hCG stimulation to take effect.
A further peak 24 hours post hCG application will be observed. Cryptorchidism cannot be excluded by a significant increase of testosterone concentration post hCG application.
In case of inconclusive hCG stimulation test, an oestrone
sulfate test can be performed.
This test is not reliable in horses younger then three years
old and in donkeys.
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12 Endocrinology
Oestrone Sulfate
(horses,male)
1 ml S
RIA (3)
In case of an inconclusive hCG stimulation test result,
an oestrone sulfate test can be performed. (serum test).
If the hCG stimulation test is performed, ideally the
oestrone sulphate assay should take place immediately
after the hCG administration.
Interpretation:
Concentration of hormones over threshold value is
considered suspicious for cryptorchidism.
Please note:
This test is not reliable in horses younger then three years
old and in donkeys.
GnRH-Stimulation test
(horses)
2 Testosterone
estimations
2 x 0.5 ml S, (EP), (HP)
RIA (3)
This test stimulates the hypothalamus and tests the function
of the hypothalamic-hypophyseal axis. It is often used for
diagnosis of infertile stalions.
Test performance:
1. Blood sampling (in the morning) for basal testosterone
value
2. Injection of 0,04 mg GnRH/ horse i. v. (Receptal®)
3. Blood sampling 1 hour post injection for stimulation
testosterone value
Estimation:
No or minimal stimulation is due to a lack of active
testicular tissue, whereas significant stimulation is caused
by active testicular tissue.
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12 Endocrinology
Vaginal cytology
(dogs, cats )
Vaginal smear
Microscopy (1)
Increased estrogen concentration causes massive
thickening of vaginal epithelium. During anestrus the vaginal
mucosal membrane is composed of 4-6 cell layers and is
relatively fragile. In proestrus it gains 20 to 30 layers.
By gaining cell layers, cells which are closest to the vaginal
lumen are further from blood supply, which leads to cell
death. In addition keratinisation of cells takes place.
These processes are understandable in vaginal cytology.
Range of applications:
• cycle diagnostics in bitches
• mating time estimation
• diagnosis of cycle disorders diagnostics
• diagnosis of vaginitis
• confirmation if mating has occurred
• differentiate between castrated /intact bitch/queen
• vaginal tumor diagnostics (limited)
• estimation of suspected delivery date (daily vaginal
cytology for estimation of metestrus, as delivery date is
approximately 57 days after start of metestrus)
Technique of preparation
With moisturized smear (NaCl) cytology will be taken from
cranial region of vaginal space. Smear will be rolled two or
three times on the microscopic slide and dried
Two or three preparations can be produced from the Swab.
Please note:
Diagnostics of cycle disorders; Mating time estimation;
Mating/vaginal monitoring; can only be used together with
clinical symptoms or additional tests/results.
In some cases there is a need for multiple tests.
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12 Endocrinology
 Horse pregnancy diagnostics
PMSG
3 ml S, EP, HP
ELISA (3)
This pregnancy specific hormone will be produced by
endometrial cups between day 45 and 90 of pregnancy.
Peak point of hormone secretion lies between day 60 and
75. If the pregnancy resorbs, endometrial cups stay active
for a few weeks and PMSG test is false positive. In case of
positive test results we recommend oestrone sulphate test
after 100 days.
Oestrone sulphate
(horses, female)
1 ml S, 5 ml U
RIA (3)
Oestrone sulphate is a pregnancy specific hormone,
which is produced by the intact placenta. Significantly
high estrone sulphate level is indicative of a living foetus.
Testing is possible from day 100 of pregnancy. As not all
pregnant mares show high estrone sulphate level on day
100 after last mating, we recommend another test 2-4
weeks later in case of inconclusive results.
If the test is negative after 120 days of pregnancy, it can
be caused by damage to the fetus. We recommend rectal
palpation and/or ultrasound examination in these cases.
 Cattle pregnancy diagnostics
Oestrone sulphate
(cattle, sheep, goats,
female)
1 ml S, 5 ml U
RIA (3)
Oestrone sulphate is produced by the intact foeto-placental
tissue in pregnant ruminants and is therefore a sensitive
and specific parameter for the presence of an ongoing
pregnancy. In small ruminants, it can be detected from
around day 50 of pregnancy in some cases. However,
measurements from day 110 of pregnancy are more
reliable. In cows of European breeds, a clear positive
result can be expected from around day 120.
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12 Endocrinology
Pregnancy associated
glycoproteins (PAGs)
(bovines)
0.5 ml S, EP
ELISA (1)
 Ovarian tumors in horses
Granulosa Theca cell
Tumor Profile (horse)
5 ml S
(nonhaemolysed sample)
Inhibin: RIA (3)
Testosterone: RIA (3)
Progesterone: EIA (3)
Granulosa theca-cell-tumors (GCT) are the most frequent
ovarian in the mare. The tumor is mostly unilateral. Mares
with GCT show aggressiveness or masculine behaviour,
nymphomania, irregular cycle, anoestrus or infertility.
Diagnosis is based on clinical symptoms, ultrasonography of ovaries and laboratory endocrine tests. Ultrasound
shows an enlarged ovary with multicystic or honeycomb
structure. The affected ovary can also appear as solid
tissue or a large fluid filled ovarian cyst. The contralateral
healthy ovary is usually very small and shows very few or
no follicles. Possible differential diagnosis are anovulatory
follicles (transitional phase), ovarian haematoma, mature
teratoma or cystadenoma.
Hormonal estimation is a very good method for granulosa
theca tumors detection. GCT are hormonally active and
testosterone is increasesd in 50 % of cases. Because of
variations in testosterone concentration, multiple samples
are necessary to detect high testosterone levels. Mares
with GCT often demonstrate low progesterone levels.
The glycoprotein hormone inhibin will be produced in large
amounts in GCT and is increased in about 90 % affected
mares.
Screening for inhibin, progesterone and testosterone in
range of Granulose theca cell tumor Profile show a diagnostic sensitivity of 95% and is the best laboratory diagnostic possibillity.
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12 Endocrinology
12.4 Special hormones
 Special hormones
IGF 1 (Insulin-Like
Growth Factor)
0.3 ml S
Indications:
Dwarfism
Acromegaly
Occurence:
IGF I (Somatomedin C) is synthetised in the liver
Secretion depends strongly on growth hormone secretion.
As IGF-I is secreted very steadily, IGF I is better for Growth
hormone diagnostics, than GH assay alone.
Decrease:
- proportional dwarfism (congenital growth
hormone deficiency)
Increase:
- Acromegaly
Please note:
As reference values depend on breed, we can offer several
reference ranges to you. Please ensure that patient breed
details are sent to the laboratory.
Insulin
0.5 ml S cooled. (4-6 °C)
Indications:
Insulinoma (dogs
Insulin resistence (Equine Metabolic Syndrome/
Equine Cushing Syndrome) (horses)
Consistent blood glucose value < 60 mg/dl
in association with insulin concentration in upper
reference range or more can indicate insulinoma in dogs.
Horse
See  Chapter 12.1 Hyperadrenocorticism
Equine Cushing Syndrome /
Equine Metabolic Syndrome
Please note:
Dogs: Patient should be fasted until the moment of blood
collection.
Glucose value should be < 60 mg/dl.
When performing glucose assay at the same time as this test,
we recommend dividing serum into two
tubes; one should be sent deeply frozen for insulin estimation.
Please use serum tubes without separation gel.
RIA (3)
RIA (3)
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12 Endocrinology
12.4 Special hormones
 Adenovirus-Infection (reptiles)
Adenoviruses are found in various lizards and snakes, and frequently also in species
of bearded dragon (Amphibolurus barbatus, Pogona vitticeps, Pogona henrylawsoni).
Affected animals show non-specific disease symptoms such as anorexia, diarrhoea,
regurgitation and opisthotonus. Post mortem reveals mainly intranuclear inclusion bodies, primarily in the liver and intestines. In the live animal, direct detection is by testing
cloacal Swabs or faeces.
Adenovirus
(DNA detection)
sweab (cloaca), faeces
See  Chapter 15, Molecular Diagnostics
156
PCR (3)
13 Infectious diseases
13 Infectious diseases (in alphabetical order)
 African horse sickness (AHSV)
African horse sickness is a severe, highly contagious and usually fatal viral disease in
of horses and equids in southern Africa. Sporadically some cases are observed in Northern Africa, Southern Europe and Middle East.
Disease is transfered by insects. Clinically you can distinguish 4 forms:
Peracute or lungform (dunkop), subacute oedema or heart form (dikkop), acute or
mixed form and „Horse Sickness Fever“ or abortive form. Symptoms depend from the
form and you can find fever, dyspnea, or oedema (lungs, conjunctiva, abdomen). Death
can occur within 3-5 days. Test is performed mainly for the export of horses from Africa.
Direct transmission from one infected horse to another horse has not been proven.
AHSV (Ab)
1 ml S
CELISA (3)
 Anaplasmosis
s.  Ehrlichiosis
 Aujeszky’s Disease
Aujeszky’s Disease (pseudorabies) is an acute viral disease caused by herpesvirus,
mainly found in swine. Depending on the age of the animal, the virus attacks the central
nervous system, respiratory tract or reproductive tract. Other animal species, (not human beings) may be hosts.
CNS infection is fatal, with dogs being especially susceptible. (Sudden death of the
house dog may be an indication of Aujeszky’s Disease in a swine farm).
Clinical signs:
- Fever,
- CNS-disorders,
- Nasal discharge
- Cough (fattening pigs)
- Abortion
Aujeszky’s Disease (Ab)
1-2 ml S
ELISA (3)
Aujeszky’s Disease (Ab)
1-2 ml S
NT (3)
Virus neutralisation for Aujeszky’s Disease antibody
determination will be performed for an export of dogs.
157
 Babesiosis (dogs)/Piroplasmosis
Piroplasmosis in dogs in Europe are mainly caused by large babesias, from the Babesia
canis group. The most important species are mainly B. canis canis (Syn. Babesia canis)
and B. canis vogeli (Syn. Babesia vogeli). Single strains are of various pathogenicity.
B. canis rossi (Syn. Babesia rossi) is found mainly in South Africa and causes highly
pathogenic infections. Infections with “small” babesias (B. gibsoni , Babesia annae
(Syn. Babesia microti-like, Theileria annae) or B. conradae (so far only found in USA) are
rarely found in Europe, , but there has been a tendency for it to spread in recent years.
In North West Spain there are stories about “small” babesias resulting in highly pathogenic
infections.
Probably they are caused by one of the human-like pathogens of babesia species,
B. annae (Syn.B. microti-like orTheileria annae). The difference between large and small
babesias can have therapeutic indications, as small babesias are not killed by medications
that work against B. canis.
Transmission of Babesias in Europe is caused by ticks of Rhipicephalus and Dermacentor
species. The pathogen may be found from Mediterranean Sea to Hungary and the
Baltic countries. Canine Babesiosis was a typical traveler’s disease associated with
Mediterranean travel, but today it is more and more frequently seen in Germany,
Austria and Switzerland.
Clinical symptoms:
Depending on pathogenicity of the pathogen, the age
and immunity of the dog; disease course can range from
chronic to peracute. Incubation can last from 3 days to 5
weeks, and the patient develops typical disease symptoms:
- Fever (over 40° C)
- Haemolytic anaemia, Hemoglobinemia, Hemoglobinuria
- Icterus, Bilirubinuria
- Hepato- and Splenomegaly
- DIC, Coagulopathy
- Anorexia, Lethargy
158
Babesia direct detection blood smear + 0.5 ml EB
Microscopy (1)
Detection of intra red blood cell merozoits is possible from
Giemsa-stained blood smear under light microscopy, ideally
taken from capillary blood. This way “large” and “small”
Babesias can be differentiated; PCR is indicated for differentiation, particularly in atypical forms. Parasitemia shows
about 4-21 days post infection. In chronic Babesia infections,
direct pathogen detection is difficult, as quiet phase and
parasitemic phase can alternate. In B. canis infections in
particular, there are often low levels of pathogen in the blood,
so microscopic detection is not always successful.
Please note:
Direct pathogen detection is therefore not always possible!
Babesia spp
(DNA-detection).
1 ml EB
real time-PCR (1)
Both large and small Babesias are found in PCR testing.
Differentiation between Babesia canis canis, B. canis vogeli,
B. canis rossi, B. gibsonii and B. conradae will be possible
in 1-3 work days without additional costs.
Comparing to light microscopy detection from blood smear,
PCR is much more sensitive. Parasitemia comes about
4-21 days post infection. In chronic infections, direct pathogen detection is not always possible. Serological detection
is therefore recommended.
159
Babesia canis (Ab)
1 ml S, EP, HP
ELISA (3)
In chronic infections, direct pathogen detection is not
always possible. Serological detection is therefore
recommended.
The earliest detection of Babesia antibodies is possible
10-14 days post infection. Younger animals (under
8 months) develop often low antibody titer and should not
be tested by serology below the age of 3 months, as
maternal antibodies can be available, are protective in
puppies up to 2 months of age. Cross-reactions between
B. canis and B. gibsoni are possible and can be distinguished by means of the travel history and a species-specific
PCR.This method does not detect antibodies against
Babesia canis. If antibodies against Babesia gibsoni are
needed (e.g. for export), please contact the laboratory,
as this has to be noted specifically on the order form.
Please note the Following
tests and Profiles
 Blood parasites and haemotrophic bacterial microscopy.
 Traveler’s Disease Profile, Tick Profile
 Babesiosis (cats )/ Piroplasmosis
Babesia felis
DNA-Detection)
1 ml EB
real time-PCR (1)
160
 Babesiosis (horse)/Piroplasmosis
Theileria (vorm. Babesia) equi and Babesia caballi
Piroplasmosis is a parasitic disease of horse blood transmited by ticks. It is spread
in North- and South America, and South and East Europe. Because of increased horse
transport and increased spread of vectors (Dermacentor/Hyalomma spp.) it is also
possible to find clinical cases or seropositive animals in Germany.
Disease can be chronic, subclinical, acute, and peracute.
In acute cases clinically fever, Agathy, oedema, ecchymosis (swelling) of the third eylid,
colic, icterus and hemoglobinuria are observed. Death is possible. Laboratory tests
show anaemia, leucopaenia, increased bilirubin and prolonged clotting time.
In chronic cases weight loss and performance decreases with mild anaemia
and increased or normal bilirubin concentration can be observed.
T. equi can also be transmitted by placenta and cause abortion and neonatal
piroplasmosis. Infected animals can be long term (even lifelong) pathogen carriers
and act as an infection source for ticks.
Babesia (Ab) (Horses)
1 ml S, EP, HP
IFT (3)
Antibody detection with titre determination by IFT.
Babesia (Ab) (horses)
1 ml S
CBR (3)
Antibody detection with titre determination by CBR. CBR for
Babesia-antibodies detection will be mainly performed for
export of horses.
Babesia (Ab) (horses)
1 ml S
cELISA (3)
Qualitative antibody detection by competitive ELISA.
For export to the United States.
BabesieaDirect detection
Blood smear + 0.5 ml EB
Microscopy (1)
s.  Babesiosis (dogs)
Microscopic detection of intraerythrocytes stadium.
161
Babesia spp.
(DNA-test)
1 ml EB
PCR (1)
Differentiation between T. equi and B. caballi is possible by
sequencing. These can be requested in case of positive
results, in which case additional costs will be incurred.
 Bartonellosis
Bartonella spp.
(DNA-detection)
0.5 ml EB, lymphnode aspirate,
eye smear
real time-PCR (1)
This PCR test detects Bartonella henselae, B. vinsonii,
B. Quintana and B. clarridgeiae. Companion animals
represent a large reservoir for human Bartonella infections,
as most Bartonella-species posess zoonotic potential.
Cats are the main reservoir for Bartonella henselae,
B. clarridgeiae and B. koehlerar. Dogs can be infected
with B. vinsonii subsp. berkhoffii, B. henselae,
B. clarridgeiae, B. washoensis, B. elizabethae and
B. quintana. Infections with Bartonella henselae are
asymptomatic in cats.
The connection with regional or generalised lymphadenopathy will be discussed. Infected cats can be bacteriemic
for months or years, where the amount of bacteria in blood
fluctuates. It is interesting to diagnose the pathogen in the
cat when the contact person is suspected of “cat scratch”
disease. It is in benign in over 90 % of cases in people,
causing a self-limiting lymphadenopathy. Rarely in
immunosuppresed people it can cause severe complications, for instance encephalopathy, arthritis and pneumonia.
162
 Borna Disease, BD
Borna Disease Virus (BDV) is a pathogen of non purulent meningoencephalitis,
which leads to neurological changes and behavioral disorders in peracute, acute or
subacute disease. Most infections show no symptoms. If clinical signs are seen,
disease is mostly lethal. Time of incubation is not known, but reports range from 2
weeks to many months. Seasonal occurrence of clinical cases is more often observed
during spring and autumn. Most clinical cases occur in horses and sheep with increased
numbers in some regions of Germany, Austria, Lichtenstein and Switzerland.
Recent studies show that BDV can be found outside endemic regions. Direct virus
transmission from horse to horse is not yet proven.
Borna (Ab)
1 ml S, liquor
IFT (3)
A single positive IFT result for antibodies in blood does not
confirm disease. Active infection can be proven by two
serum examinations with a 10-14 day interval between
tests. In a genuinely infected animal, seroconversion or
antibody titers will triple by the second test, proving a
continued contact with the pathogen. Antibody detection
in CSF is possible only in clinically sick animals
Bornavirus
(RNA-detection)
0.3 ml liquor
(send intact eyeball, not retina
in formalin)
PCR (3)
When testing CSF it is sensible to simultaneously test with
both IFT and PCR. Positive result in CSF confirms Borna
infection.
163
 Borreliosis
In Europe until now 6 of the 13 species of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato have been
confirmed (B.burgdorferi sensu stricto, B. afzelii, B. garini,
B. lusitaniae, B. bissetti I B. valaisiana). In addition to that we have heard lately many reports about the incidence of a new species of probable human pathogen, B. spielmanii.
For most of these species there are no findings about meaning of pathogens for the animals. Transmission in our area is mainly by the tick Ixodes ricinus. Incidence of Borrelia
covers most extensively Ixodes, so that infection is possible in all of Germany.
to count. Next to humans, the most susceptible to infection are dogs. Other animals
appear to be less infected. Clinical infection has been discussed in horses and cats.
In humans, disease can be divided into three phases. First we have a localized infection, mainly in the form of erythrema migrans. Dissemination into the organism follows
this, with a great spectrum of clinical manifestations. Borreliosis is often associated with
neurological symptoms (i.e. lymphocytic meningoradiculitis, lymphocytic meningitis.) In
the third chronic stadium, arthritis and chronic dermatitis dominate.
Chronic neurological symptoms are rarely seen. In dogs we do not see this kind of clinical classification or it is not significant.
Symptoms: Affected animals show depending on the size of infection:
- Fever,
- Loss of appetite, Apathy,
- Intermittent lameness, mono- or oligoarthritis (5-10%).
The following symptoms are also discussed in association
with Borreliosis:
- Myocarditis
- Uveitis, Chorioretinitis, Conjuntivitis
- Nephritis, Glomerulonephritis and renal failure
Predisposed dog breeds:
(i.e. Bernese Mountain Dog, Labrador,
Golden Retriever, Sheltie)
sensu lato (DNA-detection)
real time-PCR (1)
164
Borrelia (Ak) IgG
(dogs and horses)
0.5 ml S, EP, HP
ELISA (1)
Detection of IgG is possible about 4-6 weeks post infection.
The rate of spread of infection in dogs is relatively high,
so a positive result does not inevitably mean active disease.
False positive results are possible, due to cross reaction by
infection with other Spirochetes and antibodies in connection with vaccination.
Any positive or borderline antibody detection should
be confirmed with Immunoblot (two levels diagnostics).
High IgG titer can remain high in spite of clinically
successful therapy for a very long time. This means
that treatment success monitoring is not possible with
this method.
Borrelia (Ab) IgM (dogs)
0.5 ml S, EP, HP
ELISA (1)
In humans anti-Borrelia IgM antibodies are usually detectable 3 weeks post infection and mean acute disease.
IgM is not important in dogs. In dogs, IgM antibodies are
detectable only temporarily in the first 60-90 days.
Cross-reactions occur and detection does not necessarily
indicate acute borreliosis. The clinical symptoms in dogs
generally occur at a time when the IgM peak has already
passed.
Borrelia (Ab) IgG
1 ml S, EP, HP
Immunoblot (1)
Immunoblot should be performed as confirmation test
in connection with positive or borderline Anti-Borrelia
antibodies detection in IgG/IgM-ELISA.
165
Borrelia Quant C6® (dogs) 0.5 ml S, EP, HP
ELISA (1)
Qualitative detection of Anti-Borrelia burgdorferi-C6antibodies is a new method of borreliosis diagnostics
and should be introduced as screening method.
The chief advantage is the specificity of the method.
There are no cross-reactions with antibodies against
other Spirochetes and antibodies are not affected by
vaccination. A positive result means active infection with
Borrelias and does not have to be confirmed with
Immunoblot testing.
Detection is often possible by 3 weeks post infection.
The Anti-C6 antibody level appears to correlate with the
Borrelia load of the animals.
They increase strongly after infection and fall significantly
with treatment. In animals which have previously been
treated with antibiotics active against Borrelia (e.g.
doxycyclin, amoxicillin), test to rule out differential diseses
should be made. Antibiotic treatment a few weeks before
blood sample collection does not influence C6-antibody test.
Please see also:
Tick profile 1 + 2 and Travel Disease Profile 2
Borrelia Quant C6® (dogs) 0.5 ml S
ELISA (1)
As the level of Anti-Borrellia burgdorferi C6 antibodies seems
to corellate with Borrelia load in animals, quantative detection
can be used for monitoring the treatment.
Direct confirmation of positive qualitative detection of basal
value with quantitative ELISA should be made.
If the animal shows symptoms consistent with Borreliosis, it
should be treated. Additional testing should be done after 6
months. A 50% fall in Anti-Borrelia burgdorferi-C6-antibody
levels (with a base level over 30 U/ml) indicates successful
treatment.
Please note:
Test can be conducted only in dogs and only from serum
166
 Bovine coronavirus infection
s.  Coronavirus infection
 Bovine herpesvirus infection
s.  Herpesvirus infection
 Bovine leukemia infection
s.  Enzootic leukemia infection (EBL)
 Bovine Virus Diarrhoea (BVD/MD)
The pathogen of Bovine Virus Diarrhoea and Mucosal Disease of cattle is a pestivirus
from the family Flaviviridae. Cytopathogenic and non-cytopathogenic BVDV strains can
be differentiated by their behaviour in cell culture.
BVDV infections are most frequently subclinical. Depending on pathogen virulence and
the health status of the animal, the acute form can cause leukopenia, thrombocytopenia,
fever, mild diarrhea, respiratory distress and/or immunosuppression. Very rarely, highly
virulent strains can cause a hemorrhagic syndrome in calves, with high morbidity and
mortality. BVD/MD is recognized by severe thrombocytopenia and bleeding in different
organs. The most significant effects are in intrauterine BVDV infections, which can result
in foetal death, abortion, stillbirth, weak calves, or healthy calves birth. If the foetus is
infected between day 40 and 120 with a cytopathogenic strain, it will acquire natural
immunotolerance to the virus, and the affected animal is persistently infected and sheds
large amounts of virus. Such ‘super-infected’ animals will eventually develop fatal mucosal membrane disease.
BVD (Ag)
2 ml S, EB, HP
ELISA (3)
Antigen detection using an ELISA test.
BVD (Ab)
1 ml S
Antibody detection using an ELISA test
167
AGT (3)
 BRSV Infection
BRSV (Bovine respiratory syncytial virus) is a pneumovirus (family Paramyxovirus) and
plays a role in Enzootic Bronchopneumonia in cattle and other ruminants. Clinically
inapparent BRSV infections with permanent or intermittent excretion are seen. Clinical
signs, such as pyrexia and respiratory symptoms, become evident in case of stress or
concurrent disease. Most adult cattle have serum antibodies which protect them from
clinical illness, but not from infection, virus multiplication and virus spread in the body.
Maternal antibodies are passed on via colostrum. Calves aged 2-5 months are
particularly prone to infection, but occasionally older calves and adult cattle may
develop disease
BRSV (Ab)
1 ml S
ELISA (3)
 Brucellosis
There are several clinically relevant species in the genus Brucella:
B. abortus (bovine brucellosis), B. melitensis (ovine and caprine brucellosis), B. suis
(porcine brucellosis), B. ovis (sheep brucellosis) and B. canis (canine brucellosis). There
is no species specificity, therefore other animals as well as humans can be infected.
Transmission occurs via the oral or genital route. The main source of infection is latently
infected pathogen-shedding animals.
Symptoms:
Brucella canis (Ab)
- Pyrexia
- Abortion in the last trimester
- Testicular and epididymal infections
- Sterility in male animals
1 ml S
Microscopic slide
agglutination (3)
qualitative Ab-detection
no titer
168
Brucella canis (AK)
1 ml S
SLA (3)
Slow agglutination for Brucella canis antibodies is
performed mainly in dogs intended for export.
Please mark on the order sheet that you require this test for
export purposes.
Brucella abortus (Ab)
1 ml S
ELISA (3)
Brucella melitensis (Ab)
1 ml S
ELISA (3)
Brucella ovis (Ab)
1 ml S
ELISA (3)
Brucella spp.
(DNA)
0.5 ml sperm, smear
(cervix, foreskin), bone marrow
real time-PCR (1)
 Calicivirus infection
Feline calicivirus is one of the causative agents of feline respiratory disease complex.
The infection is transmitted through direct contact with saliva or nasal secretions.
The incubation period is 3-5 days. Depending on the immune status of the animal,
the infection may vary from subclinical to acute. Animals that survive the infection
often shed the virus for a long period of time afterwards.
Symptoms:- Fever
- Conjunctivitis
- Rhinitis
- Stomatitis and ulceration of the oral mucosa
- Bronchopneumonia
- ‘Rheumatoid form’ including lameness and joint swelling
169
Calicivirus (Ab)
0.5 ml S
NT (3)
After approximately 14 days post-infection, neutralizing
antibodies can be detected. It is currently not possible to
differentiate between antibodies produced by vaccination
and infection.
Calicivirus
(RNA detection)
Swab (pharyngs,nose, eye),
1 ml EB (in the fever phase)
real time-PCR (1)
 Caprine Arthritis Encephalitis (CAE)
CAE in goats is caused by a lentivirus. The virus shows a low level of pathogenicity.
Transmissionoccurs mainly via milk, and less frequently through direct contact.
Symptoms: Most frequently infected animals are 2-9 years old
- Arthritis
- Cachexia
- Mastitis
- CNS symptoms
CAE (Ab)
1 ml S, EP, HP
ELISA (3)
Antibodies can be detected from a few weeks up to several
years post infection.
Therefore a negative antibody test does not entirely rule out
infection in all cases.
 Canine Adenovirus type 2
Canine Adeno Virus
type 2 (DNA)
1 ml EB, 200 mg Biopsy (liver),
Smear (pharyngeal, nasal, eye)
real time-PCR (1)
 Canines Herpes virus (CHV1)
s.  Chapter 15.2
170
 Chlamydia Infection
Chlamydia species are obligate intracellular organisms and therefore difficult to diagnose.
The normal route of infection is oronasal, but can also be sexually transmitted (mating) in
sheep
Symptoms: Symptoms vary significantly between species and
individuals. Often the infection is latent (subclinical).
Sheep:
- Abortion
Cats:
- Conjunctivitis,
- Involved in feline respiratory disease complex
Birds:
- Ocular and nasal discharge,
- Diarrhoea,
- Weight loss
Chlamydia spp
(DNA-detection)
Samples: depend
on symptoms
PCR (1)
Chlamydia (Ab)
1 ml S
CBR (3)
Confirmation of antibodies against Chlamydia is possible in
all animal species, but not in birds. Differentiation of single
Chlamydia-species is not possible with this test.
Chlamydia felis ((DNA-detection)
real time-PCR (1)
Chlamydia psittaci (DNA-detection)
171
real time-PCR (1)
 Circovirus infection
s.  PBFD
 Clostridium perfringens
Chlostridium perfrigens, 5 g faeces
Enterotoxin A gene (DNAconfirmation, quantitative)
real time-PCR (1)
 Coronavirus infection
Feline Coronavirus s.  FIP
Porcine Coronavirus s.  Transmissible Gastroenteritis Virus
Bovine Coronavirus
Coronavirus Ag detection
1 g faeces (pea-size amount)
Immunchromatography (1)
Coronaviruses cause diarrhoea in first 14 days of life in
calves. Disease is often observed in winter, as the virus
survives better in a moist and cold environment. Adult cattle
normally shed virus without clinical signs and are rarely a
source of infection in young animals. Bovine coronavirus is
confirmed with an antigen test.
Symptoms
- Yellow, watery faeces 2 days post infection for 3 - 6 days
- Apathy
- Anorexia
- Fever
- Dehydration
172
Canine Enteric
Coronavirus CECoV
(RNA-detection)
Rectal Swab, faeces
real time-PCR (1)
Rectal Swab should be taken after first signs of disease, as
virus shedding declines rapidly after the first week of illness.
By 15 days post infection the virus is no longer detectable. As CECoV infection is usually a moderate self-limiting
gastroenteritis, the main goal of PCR diagnostics is early
identification of sick animals and subclinically infected virus
shedding animals in the herd. Naturally, coronavirus detection in faeces does not exclude other diarrhea-causing
pathogenes.
Canine Respiratory
Coronavirus
(RNA-detection)
Swab (pharyngeal, nasal)
real time-PCR (1)
 Covering sickness (Dourine)
s.  Trypanosoma equiperdum
 Cryptococcus infection
Cryptococcus
neoformans/C. gattii
(DNA-detection)
173
CSF, Swab (eyes, pharyngeal)
real time PCR (1)
 Dirofilariasis
Dirofilaria immitis is a pathogen of cardiovascular dirofilariasis. Apart from cats and
dogs, infection is seen in dingos, coyotes, red and grey foxes, red wolves, polecats
and ferrets. In confirmed parasitaemia (microfilaria confirmation and negative
antiserum detection), other pathogenic (Dirofilaria repens) and non-pathogenic filarias
(Acanthocheilonema reconditum, Dipetalonema dracunculoides and others) have to
be investigated as well. Transmission is through mosquitoes (Culex, Aedes, Anopheles).
D. immitis is present in most tropical and subtropical regions and in the Mediterranean
region.
Filaria spp
(DNA-detection)
1 ml EB
PCR (3)
s.  Chapter 15
Microfilaria
Filtration test
1 - 2 ml EB
Filtration test,
Microscopy (1)
Confirmation of Microfilaria is possible in light microscopy
after enrichment (filtration method). In this procedure
distinguishing Dirofilaria immitis from other microfilaria
species is not possible. In positive cases PCR testing
should be used for differentiation. Capillary blood should
be examined, which is best if collected in the afternoon
or late evening. The earliest possible direct detection of
Microfilaria(in case of D. immitis/repens) is 6 months post
infection, so confirmation is not always possible via this
method. Many infections are subclinical. The sensitivity of
the test is approximately 60%, so no Microfilaria may be
confirmed.
174
Microfilaria (Ag)
1 ml S, EP, HP
ELISA (1)
Confirmation of Microfilaria antigen (Û) is possible 5 - 6
months post infection. ELISA detects soluble antigens
coming mainly from the female reproductive tract. The test
is reliable if at least three pregnant worms are present. False
negative results are possible (small degree of infection,
dead (for example, as a result of prior treatment) adult
worms, ectopic localisation, or only male worms)
Please note our test profile
 Blood parasites and haemotropic bacteria - microscopy
 Travel disease Profile 2
 Distemper
Canine distemper is a highly contagious, acute to subacute or chronic infectious
disease.The pathogen is a morbillivirus which is found in dogs, wild Canidae,
Mustelidae and raccoons. Transmission occurs via droplet infection. The virus is found
in all secretions and excretions. The incubation period is 3-7 days.
Commonly noted signs:
175
Symptoms of distemper can vary significantly, depending
on the virus strain and the immune status of the animal.
Many of the symptoms are caused by secondary bacterial
infections due to the immunosuppressive properties of the
virus.
- Pyrexia
- Gastrointestinal symptoms (vomiting, diarrhoea)
- Respiratory symptoms (rhinitis, conjunctivitis,
coughing, pneumonia)
- CNS symptoms (convulsions, ataxia, paresis)
- Characteristic changes in dentition
- Hard pad disease, Dermatitis
- Old dog encephalitis
Canine Distemper Virus
(CDV)- detection
(RNA-detection)
Fever phase: 1 ml EB real time-PCR (1)
conjunctivitis: conjunctive Swab
CNS-symptoms: 0.5 ml CSF
Gastroenteritis: rectal Swab, 5 g faeces,
biopsy (stomach, bladder)
Respiratory tract symptoms:
Nasal secretions
(CDV, Canine Distemper Virus) proliferates from 8 days post
infection in the epithelial cells of different organs (respiratory tract, intestinal tract, urinary tract, skin) and in the CNS.
Clinical symptoms are determined by the location of virus
replication. Following the appearance of signs this virus can
be detected in the affected organs via PCR. With the exception of chronic disase, virus shedding ends when clinical
symptoms resolve. The virus is then no longer detectable.
In contrast to antibody detection, the high percentage of
vaccinated animals is not a problem for PCR diagnostics, as
the vaccination virus is only detectable for 8 to 21 days and is
limited to lymph tissue.
176
Canine Distemper
Virus (CDV)
(RNA-detection
quantitative)
Swab (pharyngeal, nasal, eye)
real time-PCR (1)
Many distemper vaccinations contain attenuated canine
distemper virus. After vaccination these virus strains can
cause “infection” and replicate in the animal, but their virulence is very reduced and only rarely leads to mild clinical
symptoms.
Nevertheless, the low replication rate of vaccine distemper
virus is enough to be detected by the highly sensitive PCR
methods. Therefore this “vaccine interference” may cause
a decreased successful PCR diagnosis in animals recently
vaccinated against distemper.
In case of a positive PCR test, identifying canine distemper
virus-RNA from pharyneal and eye Swabs is the only way
to differentiate between recently vaccinated and wild-virus
infected animals.
This is peformed as part of our our Upper Respiratory Tract
Profile and reported in the results.
Distemper (Ab)
0.5 ml S
NT (1)
Detection of distemper (Ab) in dogs by virus neutralisation
can be performed at the earliest 10-14 days post infection.
Distinguishing between vaccine- and infection titer is not
possible. Dogs with acute distemper usually show no or
low antibody titer. In these cases it is recommended to
repeat the titer in 14 days. To check vaccine status, a single
test is enough. Maternal antibody titer is protective above
1:100, and vaccine titer protects from 1:20.
177
 Ehrlichiosis /Anaplasmosis
In order to detect ehrlichiosis or anaplasmosis, it is necessary to distinguish between
infections indigenous to tropical and subtropical areas, such as canine monocytic or
canine thrombocytic ‘ehrlichiosis’ (Anaplasma platys, Ehrlichia canis and other Ehrlichia
spp.), and the granulocytic disease form (Anaplasma phagocytophilum, formerly called
Ehrlichia phagocytophila) that is prevalent in more northern regions.
E. canis plays a major role as an agent of canine monocytic ehrlichiosis. It is transmitted
in Europe by the tick Rhipicephalus sanguineus. E. canis is widespread in tropical and
subtropical regions and occurs throughout the Mediterranean region. Isolated cases of
infection may also occur in Germany. Other monocytic infections, e.g. with E. chaffeensis,
occur predominantly in the USA.
In Southern Europe, infections with Anaplasma platys are also found that can cause
so-called canine cyclic thrombocytopenia. Infections with Anaplasma phagocytophilum,
the agent of infectious canine granulocytic anaplasmosis (ehrlichiosis), are becoming
increasingly important. This form is primarily found in Northern and Central Europe.
Transmission occurs through the tick Ixodes ricinus.
Canine monocytic ehrlichiosis (caused by E. canis) can be manifested by a broad
spectrum of clinical symptoms. An incubation period of 3 weeks can be followed by
2-4 weeks of acute disease. Ehrlichiosis is usually known for mild nonspecific clinical
symptoms, although serious life threatening disease can also happen.
Affected dogs may show signs of fever, anorexia, lethargy, lymphadenopathy and splenomegaly. Increased bleeding is also possible. Ophthalmic and neurological symptoms may
also be seen. Laboratory diagnostics will show thrombocytopeania and mild anaemia,
leucopaenia and hypergammaglobulinaemia. ALT and AP values are also increased.
Following the acute disease period, a subclinical phase of varying length may develop,
after which the disease may progress into a chronic state. (Not all animals develop the
chronic state.) Findings range from oedema, anorexia, chronic weight loss, neurological
symptoms and generalised lymph node enlargement, to CNS disorders (meningitis),
polymyositis and polyarthritis.
In horses, granulocytic ehrlichiosis caused by A. phagocytophilum (formerly Ehrlichia equi)
and transmitted by ticks of the genus Ixodes is to the forefront in Europe. Iatrogenic
transmission by contaminated vehicles is possible. After entering the bloodstream, the
agent spreads in the blood and lymph system. It displays a cytotropism for neutrophilic
and eosinophilic granulocytes, in which it multiplies within cytoplasmic vacuoles.
The clinical symptoms include fever, mild apathy, petechiae, weakness, limb oedema
and ataxia. There have been no reports to date of abortion or laminitis in connection
with this infection. The disease is normally self-limiting but affected horses may be more
susceptible to secondary bacterial or viral infections. Persistent infections have not so far
been detected in the horse.
178
Ehrlichia/Anaplasma
- Direct detection
Blood smear + 1 ml EB
Microscopy (1)
Direct pathogen detection in blood smear is possible only
during acute disease phase of disease. Light microscopy
is peformed on a Giemsa stained blood smear, ideally
from capillary blood. The probability of finding
A. phagocytophilum is significantly higher than that
of finding E. canis.
Please note:
Negative direct pathogen detection does not exclude
infection!
Ehrlichia spp.
(DNA-detection)
2 ml EB, spleen,
bone marrow, 0.5 ml liquor, tick
real time-PCR (1)
PCR testing is more sensitive than light microscopy of a
blood smear, as negative direct pathogen detection does
not exclude infection. Differentiation of Ehrlichia canis, E.
ewingii and E. chaffeensis is possible on request, with real
time PCR.
Ehrlichia canis
(DNA-detection)
2 ml EB, spleen-,
bone marrow, 0.5 ml liquor, tick
real time-PCR (1)
Direct pathogen detection with PCR can be performed 4-10
days post infection. It is usually more sensitive then light
microscopy of a blood smear. Therefore it is recommended in acute phase of disease, as in later stages often no
pathogen is found in the blood and a negative result does
not exclude infection. To some extent, treatment monitoring
is possible with PCR.
179
Ehrlichia (Ab)
1 ml S, EP, HP
IFT (1)
Detection of Ehrlichia canis-antibodies is usually possible
14 days post infection. Most dogs show seroconversion
in the first 28 days post infection. Two tests should be
peformed with an interval of 2-3 weeks. A 4x titer increase
in the second test result means acute infection. If the titer
stays increased for over a month, positive detection does
not necessarily mean clinically manifested disease. Cross
reactions with other Ehrlichia species are possible.
Please note also
our test profile
Travel disease Profile 1 + 2
Anaplasma
phagocytophilum (Ab)
(dogs, horses)
1 ml S, EP, HP
IFT (3)
Serological tests give initial guidance if anaplasmosis is suspected. However, they can also show false negative results
in the early stage of infection because clinical symptoms
may occur before detectable seroconversion (from around
day 10-15 p.i.). Two tests should be peformed with an interval of 2-3 weeks. A 4x titer increase in the second test result
means acute infection.
One positive test does not allow for a firm diagnosis, as in
endemic areas up to 50% of animals may be seropositive.
Antibody titer does not mean clinical disease.
Please note also
our test profile
Tick Profile 1 + 2
Anaplasma spp.
(DNA detection)
2 ml EB, spleen, bone marrow,
synovial fluid, CSF
real time-PCR (1)
Test detects Anaplasma phagocytophilum and A. platys.
Species differenciation is possible on request.
180
 Encephalitosoonosis/Nosematosis
Encephalitozoon cuniculi is an intracellular pathogen which can infect rabbits, rodents,
and humans. Infection is caused by ingestion of spores. These can be excreted in urine
and sometimes in faeces.
Observed symptoms:
Apart from subclinical infections, disease can range from
chronic to acute.
- Torticollis, Opisthotonus
- Paresis and paralysis
- Nystagmus
- Nephritis
- Polyuria/Polydypsia
- Anorexia, Apathy
This pathogen is currently being associated with uveitis and
cataracts, especially in cats.
Encephalitozoon cuniculi 3 ml U
(Ag-Spores detection)
IFT (1)
Detection of spores in urine is possible in the excretory
phase of infection, from one to three months post infection.
Detection is reliable only in positive cases, as excretion is
intermittent and depends on E. cuniculi infestation of kidneys.
Serological test of antibodies is therefore more a reliable
method of antibody assay.
181
Encephalitozoon
cuniculi (Ab)
guinea pig, chinchilla
(Spore test)
0.5 ml S, EP, HP
(rabbits, cats, dogs)
IFT (1)
In rabbits, serum antibodies are detectable from 3-4 week
post infection and reach a high titer after 8 to 12 weeks, then
gradually fall, with many small fluctuations. Antibodies can
be detected up to three years after infection. In contrast,
maternal antibodies in young rabbits (up to 6-7 weeks of age)
are not detected. Antibodiy detection cannot differentiate
between animals with active infection, latent infection or in
rabbits that are no longer infected and have built up natural
antibodies.
Negative serological result means that E. cuniculi may not be
responsible for the clinical signs. If encephalitiozoonosis-like
clinical signs persist, a repeat test is recommended after 3-4
weeks.
 Equine Adenovirus Type 1 Infection
Equine Adenovirus 1 can in some circumstances (young foals with low or no
maternal antibodies; immunosuppression) cause diseases of the respiratory tract.
Purulent conjunctivitis and nasal discharge can occur.
Equine Adeno Virus
Type1 (DNA-detection)
Cornea Swab,
conjunctiva Swab
PCR (1)
 Equine Herpesvirus Infection
s.  Herpesvirus infection, equine
 Equine Infectious Anaemia
s.  Infectious anaemia, equine
182
 Equine Influenza
s.  Influenza, equine
 Equine Viral Arteritis
s.  Viral Arteritis, equine
 Enzootic Bovine Leukemia
Bovine Leukemia complex can be classed into four clinical forms. Unlike skin leukemia,
juvenile leukemia and mast cell reticulosis (which all occur spontaneously), enzootic
(lymphatic) bovine leukemia is caused by a retrovirus. Transmission is usually possible
shortly after birth through colostrum and milk.
Horizontal transmission is always possible.
Symptoms:
- Apathy, anorexia
- Oedema
- Anaemia, lymphocytosis
- Lymphadenopathy
- Splenomegaly
Bovine Leukosis Virus,
EBL-Antibodies
1 ml S
183
ELISA (3)
 FeLV (Feline Leukemia Virus)
FeLV belongs to the family Retroviridae. Different FeLV groups exist, which are described
as FeLV-A, B and C. Infections with FeLV-B and C occur only together with FeLV-A.
Prevalence in the European feline population ranges (with regional variation) between
1 and 8%.
Transmission is both horizontal with saliva or other body fluids (urine, blood) and also
vertical, though the placenta or mother’s milk. The course of infection varies, depending
on the immune status of the animal and also infectious exposure and virulence of
pathogen. Only a small part of FeLV infected cats show FeLV-associated diseases.
Most affected animals limit the infection or suppress it. So a large part of infected cats
show good immune reaction and can eliminate the pathogen before viremia is seen
(regressor cats/abortive infection). Detection of the FeLV antigen in blood is not possible
in these cats. Some affected animals develops transient viremia, which can last up to
16 weeks. During this time the virus is shed and extracellular antigen can be detected
in blood. Depending on host defences, virus proliferation may stop, may proceed to to
persistent viremia, or may be completely eliminated.
When virus replication begins, integrated viral DNA can stay in infected cells in the form
of provirus (progenome), leaving animals latently infected. Detection of extracellular or
intracellular FeLV antigen is not possible in the blood at this time. Depending on the
number of infected cells, progenome can be detected by PCR in bone marrow or blood.
Reactivation with viremia is possible. In some animals it is possible that the pathogen can
be (eventually) completely eliminated.
If the infected cat is unable to build enough neutralizing antibodies, productive virus
proliferation (permanent persistant viremia) takes place. In about one third of affected
cats the infection shows this progressive course. These cats have a poor prognosis and
often die in 3-5 years from FeLV-associated diseases. They are normally heavy virus
shedders and threaten other cats with infection risk. In a small percentage of infected
animals there is an atypical form of infection with limited virus proliferation in the bladder,
eyes and milk ducts. This form of disease cannot be detected by routine diagnostic tests.
184
Depending on severity and stage of disease, the following symptoms can occur:
Tumoren:Lymphoma, Leukemia, Myeloid tumors, Fibrosarcoma
FeLV-associated disease:
Fever, Anorexia, Apathy, Stomatitis, Gingivitis,
Abscesses, Respiratory symptoms,
Gastrointestinal symptoms
Bone marrow:
thrombocytopenia
Leukopenia, Neutropenia, Non-regenerative anaemia,
Immune mediated diseases: Autoimmune haemolytic anaemia, Glomerulonephritis, Uveitis, polyarthritis
Reproduction disorders:
FeLV (Ag)
Abortion, Stillbirths, Fading Kitten Syndrome
0.5 ml S, EP, HP
ELISA (1)
The detection of free extracellular FeLV-p27 antigen is possible from approximately
3 weeks post infection. Latently infected cats may show false negative results.
A positive result may indicate a transient or persistent viraemia, so the test should be
repeated after 6 weeks. If this second test is positive, a third test should be performed
after another 10 weeks. If it is positive, persistent viraemia must be assumed.
Negative repeat tests indicate virus elimination or a transition into the latently infected
stage. In around half of all cats which appear to be recovering from FeLV infection, there
is a latent infection of the bone marrow. Detection via conventional tests for free p27
antigen from blood samples is not possible in these cats, due to the low virus release.
However, PCR can be used to detect the virus progenome in the blood. Vaccination
does not lead to viraemia, therefore false positive results are not possible.
Please note also our test
profile and combinations
185
 Large cat profile
 FeLV/FIV/FIP, FeLV/FIP, FeLV/FIV, FeLV/FIV
FeLV Progenome
(DNA-detection)
2 ml EB, bone marrow
real time-PCR (1)
Viral DNA integrated in the host cell genome is known as
progenome or provirus, which can be detected using
PCR. This test is highly specific and can therefore be used
to confirm doubtful results with other methods.
Latent infections can be diagnosed to some extent, if other
test results have shown negative results. The sensitivity of
PCR is highly dependent on the number of infected cells
(provirus load), which is why a negative result does not
entirely rule out infection.
Please note:
This method does not measure virus replication ability.
 Feline Coronavirus Infection (Feline Infectious Peritionitis)
Infection with Feline Coronavirus (FCoV) is widespread in cat populations. Approximately
50% of the animals are carriers of antibodies against FCoV. In catteries and animal
shelters, 100% of cats are positive.
Transmission is through faeces, and can be via direct or indirect oronasal infection.
Distinguishing between FCoV and the FIP causing mutant is not possible as the genetic
similarity is over 99%. The theory of harmless enteral coronaviruses (with ony pathogenic
mutants in the rest of the body) has been disproved. As copy errors can develop with
every virus replication, pathogenic variants can theoretically develop from every
coronavirus.
Therefore next to the immune status of the cat, a high feline population density
(shelters and kennels) is one of the most important factors for FIP development.
This is because constant reinfections lead to enrichment of coronaviruses in such a
population. With increased virus load in a single animal, there is always an increased
danger of mutations. The occurrence of pathogenic variants and immune suppressing
factors favour strong virus proliferation in macrophages and pathogen spread in all
organs. Antibody production cannot eliminate pathogen and as a result of increasing
numbers of antigen-antibody immune complexes, FIP symptoms develop.
186
Symptoms:
Antigen-antibody complexes cause vasculitis and
polyserositis (exudative form) and/or granulomatous
inflammations (dry form)
Symptoms are therefore
very various:
- Fluctuating, treatment resistant fever
- Apathy, anorexia
- Ascites, thoracic- and pericardial fluid accumulation
- Dyspnoea
- Glomerulonephritis
- Liver damage
- CNS symptoms
- Uveitis
Diagnosis of FIP is difficult and in living animals is usually a diagnosis of exclusion.
The probability of FIP diagnosis is increased when a combination of different diagnostic
possibilities is used.
FCoV (Ab)
0.5 ml S, EP, HP
IFT (1)
Detection of antibodies against FCoV is problematic,
because of high endemic infection. A positive titer is only
proof that the animal has had contact with coronavirus.
In addition, canine coronaviruses and in some cases also
FIP-vaccination can cause seroconversion in some cases.
A single detection of antibodies in suspiciousl clinical cases
is therefore not enough for diagnosis in any case.
Hyperproteinemia, hypergammaglobulinemia, reduced
albumin/globulin ratio, increased liver values, lymphopenia,
neutrophiles and anaemia are common clinical changes in
FIP.
In addition, a negative result does not exclude FIP-disease,
as massive virus proliferation can cause a significant excess
of antigen, leaving no free antibodies to be detected.
In healthy animals, antibody detection can be helpful in
identifying seropositive animals and hence potential
shedders, although this should be verified by virus detection
in faecal samples (4 at 1-week intervals).
Coronavirus testing is always recommended prior to FIP
vaccination.
Please note our test
profile and combinations
187
 FeLV/FIV/ FIP, FIV/FIP and FeLV/FIP; FeLV/FIV
Feline Coronavirus
(FIP/FCoV)
(RNA-detection)
5 g faeces, 1 ml EB (viremic phase), real time-PCR (1)
0.5 ml liquor, aspirate
Distinguishing between Feline Infectious Peritonitis Virus (FIPV) and Feline
(FCoV, which can mutate to FIP) is yet not possible with PCR.
Detection of Feline Coronavirus (FCoV) in aspirate or CSF suggests FIP as a diagnosis
when clinical symptoms and other laboratory diagnostics (serology, biochemistry) are
indicative of disease. In rare cases, because of tumors, especially inflammatory
processes enteral coronaviruses can be found in body haemorrhages. Therefore
positive result is not always a guarantee of FIP.
Qualitative detection of FCoV in faeces confirms infection with FCoV and is not proof
of FIP. It serves as identification of virus shedders, so case of a negative result, the test
should be repeated, as virus shedding can be intermittent ( 4 probes within 1 weeks).
Quantifying virus shedding in faeces by PCR (in development) may in future serve as
valuable diagnostics for identification of high viral excretion in cat populations, as they
a high risk for other animals and with their high virus load have a higher chance of FIP
development.
Infection of monocytes and macrophages is an important element of pathogenesis of
FIP infection. Hence detection of FCoV in the monocytic/macrophagic fraction of EDTA
blood (Buffy coat) is very specific for FIP infection.
188
 FIV (Feline immune deficiency virus)
FIV is a lente viurs in the Retroviridae family. The prevalence in cats population varies by
region, ranging between between 0,7 and 11%. Transmission is a result of bite wounds,
but infections by maternal milk are described and transmission by mating or via placenta is possible. Similarly, as with HIV infection in human, despite neutralizing antibody
production, there is no virus elimination. The virus causes an increase of mainly CD4+
lymphocytes, which (along with other factors) leads to significant immunosuppression.
Symptoms:
FIV infection can be divided into 4 phases. However, the
individual phases are not always distinct and the transitions
are fluid.
Acute Phase:
Lasting weeks to a month
- Fever
- Neutropenia
- Lymphadenopathy
Asymptomatic Phase
Lasting for 3 - 7 years
Phase of nonspecific
symptoms
Variable length
- Fever
- Lymphadenopathy
- Leukopenia, anaemia, thrombocytopenia
- Apathy, anorexia, cachexia
- Stomatitis, gingivitis, rhinitis, enteritis
- Behavioural changes
AIDS-like Phase
Lasting about a year
- Opportunistic infections
- Neoplasia
- CNS Symptoms
189
FIV (Ab)
0.5 ml S, EP, HP
ELISA (1)
As screening test for routine diagnostics, ELISA FIV
detection is the method of choice to diagnose FIV
antibodies. This test detects antibodies against core
protein p24 and transmembrane protein gp40. About 95%
of infected cats show seroconversion after 2-4 weeks.
Some animals build antibodies later in the course of
infection (due to immune complex formation and
immunodeficiency, antibodies can fall below the threshold
value of the test). In the final stage of infection no antibodies
are detected. In cats under 6 months of age maternal
antibodies can exist. In animals with a positive antibody
result we recommend detection by PCR or additional test
with ELISA, if animal is older than 6 months. Positive result
in ELISA screening test should be confirmed on
immunoblot. Confirmed positive result indicates an infection.
Distinguishing between infection and vaccination-caused
antibodies is not possible.
and combinations
 FeLV/FIV/FIP, FIV/FIP and FeLV/FIV, FeLV/FIV
FIV (Ab)
0.1 ml S, EP, HP
Immunoblot (3)
This method is used because of high specificity to
confirm positive antibodies result in ELISA. Distinguishing
between infections and vaccination-caused antibodies
is not possible.
190
FIV-Progenome and
Virus-RNA
(DNA and RNA-detection)
2 ml EB
real time-PCR (1)
Detection of viral RNA or proviral DNA is highly specific
and in case of progenome is possible from 5 day post
infection. Sensitivity is dependent on the number of infected
lymphocytes. Because of this, it is possible that not all FIV
strain types will be recognized. In addition, because of high
mutation rates, not all subtypes may be recognized.
A negative result does not exclude infection, but a positive
result is highly indicative. This test is used as a confirmation
test in animals that have had a positive antibody test.
(Maternal antibodies can be excluded using this test.)
 Glanders (Burkholderia mallei)
Glanders has been eliminated in Europe and occurs only in some countries in Asia,
Africa and South America. The disease is acute (mainly in donkeys and mules) or chronic
(mainly in horses) with lumps and absceses in mucosal membranes (nasal form), skin
(skin form), lungs (lung form) or other organs. Glanders can be transmitted to humans.
Burkholderia mallei (Ab)
1 ml S
CBR (3)
 Haemobartonellosis /haemotropic Mycoplasms
s.  Mycoplasma haemofelis, Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum,
Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum, Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis,
Mycoplasma haemocanis
191
 Helicobacter-infection
Significant contradictory data exists for Helicobacter infection in animals. In dogs and
cats with gastritis, chronic vomiting or enteritis, Helicobacter spp. can be isolated from
stomach mucosal membrane. Nevertheless Helicobacter is possible also in healthy
animals, and prevalence in the dog and cat population is between 40-100%.
Apart from H. pylori, the following helicobacter species can be found in dogs and cats:
H. heilmanni, H. felis, H. canis or H. mustelae. Genome sequencing is the only way to
differentiate between the species. Whether companion animals are a source of infection
for humans is currently under increasing debate.
H. bizzozeronii and H. felis are the main species seen in cats. H. pylori is only rarely
detected in cats.
Symptoms:
bearing in mind the above mentioned issues, helicobacter
positive animals may show the following symptoms:
- Vomiting
- Diarrhoea
- Stomach ulcers
- Stomach carcinoma
Positive Helicobacter DNA detection in rodents (laboratory animals) can be further
differentiated into H. bilis, H. hepaticus and H. muridarum (separate test order).
Helicobacter spp.
(DNA-detection
Many species)
Faeces, Stomach biopsy
PCR (1)
192
 Hepatitis contagiosa canis (HCC)
Canine Adenovirus I (CAV I) causes HCC in dogs. It is strongly associated with CAV II
serotype, which is part of the Kennel cough complex. The virus will be mainly excreted in
urine for up to 6 months.
Symptoms:
Clinical symptoms occur after an incubation period of 2-7
days and depend on the degree of cell damage by virus
replication:
- Fever
- Anorexia, Apathy
- Tonsillitis, Pharyngitis
- Hepatomegaly
- Oedema, Ascites
- Haemorrhagic diathesis
- Corneal clouding, Uveitis
Adenoviruses (Ab)
(dogs)
0.5 ml S
CBR (3)
The earliest possible positive antibody detection is 10-14
days post infection. Differentiation between CAV I and CAV
II antibodies and between vaccination and infection titer is
not possible. For infection confirmation the test should be
repeated. A titer increase after 10-14 days is considered a
positive result.
 Hepatozoon infection
Hepatozoon canis
(DNA-detection)
1 ml EB, Zecke
193
real time-PCR (1)
 Herpes virus infection, bovine (IBR, IPV, IBP)
Bovine herpesvirus 1 leads to two different disease complexes in cattle, a respiratory
form and a genital form. As in all herpesvirus infections, the infected animal remains
a lifelong carrier and the virus may be excreted intermittently via secretions or faeces.
Symptoms:
- Pyrexia
- Salivation, Nasal discharge
- Coughing
- Meningoencephalitis (calves)
- Vaginitis, Balanoposthitis, Abortion
BHV-1 (Ab)
4 ml S, EP,
heparin plasma
ELISA (3)
BHV-1
field virus/marker virus
2ml S
ELISA (3)
Distinguishes between field and marker virus in animals
vaccinated with marker vaccination.
 Herpesvirus infection, canine
Canine herpesvirus 1 leads to a generally lethal general infection in puppies.
Older animals usually only show mild respiratory signs or genital infection, which can
influence fertility. Animals may be asymptomatic, but these subclinical individuals play
an important role as virus shedders. CHV-1 can also be detected in kennel cough.
The route of infection is oronasal, mostly frequently at birth. The incubation period is
4-6 days. Animals who survive the infection remain lifelong carriers
Symptoms:
- Anorexia, lethargy
- Salivation, nasal discharge
- Crying
- Diarrhoea
- CNS symptoms
- Abortion
194
Canine Herpesvirus
CHV-1
(DNA-detection)
conjunctiva Swab, vaginal smear
real time-PCR (1)
bioptates (liver, lung, spleen, kidney),
aborted material
In case of sudden death in puppies under three weeks of
age, breeders often wish to rule out possible herpesvirus
etiology. In this case direct antigen detection is the method
of choice to diagnose CHV-1 infection.
Canine Herpesvirus
CHV-1
(DNA-detection)
0.5 ml S
NT (1)
The virus neutralisation test is the method of choice for
the identification of subclinical carriers. Antibodies may
be detected as early as 3-4 weeks post infection.
For diagnosing acute infection in puppies it is
recommended to use direct detection of antigen with PCR.
Vaccination always causes seroconversion. Differentiation
between vaccination and infection titer is not possible.
For acute infection in puppies we recommend direct
pathogen detection by PCR.
 Herpesvirusinfection (Chelonia)
Herpesviruses are among the viruses most commonly detected in tortoises. The clinical
symptoms include typical diphtheroid-necrotising stomatitis, rhinitis, glossitis and tracheitis.
Occasionally, diarrhoea and CNS symptoms occur. Surviving animals remain latently
infected and are potential shedders, especially after situations that weaken immunity
(hibernation, transport, altered keeping conditions). Transmission is horizontal; vertical
transmission remains unclear. Direct detection can be performed by a throat Swab kept
moist in a sterile NaCl solution. Cytological examination can detect inclusion bodies,
including in tongue epithelia. Specific antibodies can be detected in the serological test.
195
Herpesvirus infection
Oral cavity Swab
(Chelonia) (DNA-Detektion) (moistened with sterile NaCl)
PCR (3)
s.  Chapter 15, Molecular Diagnostics
Herpesvirus (Chelonia)
(Ag)
0.2 ml S, HP
SNT (3)
 Herpes virus infection, horses
In horses currently 9 Herpes virus species are described. 5 of them will cause clinical
disease. EHV-4 is a pathogen for rhinopneumonitis in horses, and in younger animals
EHV-1 causes respiratory disease. Both serotypes can be confirmed in the CNS with a
paralytic-paresthetic form, and viral (late) abortions are caused by EHV-1. EHV-2 and
EHV-5 are the pathogens of ceratitis. EHV-3 is the pathogen of coital exanthema.
Infected horses are lifelong carriers.
Equine Herpesvirus 1
EHV-1 (DNA-detection)
Respiratory tract symptoms:
PCR (1)
Nasal Swab/pharyngeal Swab
Trachea secretions
Acute disease/fever: 1 ml EB
PCR (1)
Conjunctivitis: conjunctival Swab
Abortion: foetus (liver, spleen, lung) amniotic fluid,
placenta, endometrium
CNS symptoms: 0.5 ml CSF, nasal/pharyngeal Swab
Detection is possible only from cells in the submitted
samples. Only differentiation between EHV-1 and EHV-4
can be performed.
196
Eye symptoms:cornea Swab,
conjunctiva Swab Respiratory symptoms:
nasal Swab, nasal, trachea secretions
PCR (1)
Detection is only possible from from cells in conjunctival,
corneal, and nasal Swabs
Sample see: EHV-2 detection
PCR (1)
EHV-1 und EHV-4 (Ab)
1 ml S
NT (1)
Differentiation between vaccine and infection titer is not
possible. Seroconversion or titer increase of about 3 titer
levels in 2-3 weeks confirms acute infection. The first
sample must be collected in the early phase of disease
 Herpesvirus Infection, feline
Feline Herpesvirus 1 or rhinotracheitis virus is primarily responsible for the cat flu
disease complex. The infection is transmitted by direct contact with saliva or nasal
secretions.
The incubation period is 2-4 days. After disease lasting 1-3 weeks, most infections
go into a latent phase. The severe form will mainly be seen in kittens. Chronic clinical
disease is relatively rarely seen. Large numbers of infected cats are latently infected
and can shed the virus intermittently and indefinitely.
Symptoms:
197
- Fever
- Anorexia, Apathy
- Keratoconjunctivitis
- Rhinitis
- Bronchopneumonia
- Abortion (rare)
Feline Herpesvirus
FHV-1 (DNA-detection)
real time-PCR (1)
Feline Herpesvirus
FHV I (Ab)
0.5 ml serum
NT (3)
The virus neutralisation test is the method of choice for the
identification of subclinical carriers. Detection is possible
about 3-4 weeks post infection. Differentiation between
vaccination titre
and infection titre is not possible. For diagnosing acute
infections we recommend direct detection of antigen
by PCR.
 Herpes virus infection (Koi fish)
Herpes virus infection
(DNA-Detektion)
EB,HB,gills Swab in isopropanol, gill biopsy, organ probes in isopropanol.
Send cooled.
PCR (3)
s.  Chaper 10
 IBR/IPV
s.  Herpesvirus Infection, bovine
198
 Inclusion body disease of boids (IBD) (Reptiles)
Inclusion body disease, or IBD, is observed mainly in snakes of the Boidae and
Pythonidae families. It is characterised by the occurrence of intracytoplasmic inclusion
bodies in the liver, pancreas, kidneys, gastrointestinal mucosa cells and blood cells.
The aetiology of this disease has not yet been sufficiently determined. The suspected
cause is a retrovirus. Infection is by direct contact, indirect (via contaminated objects),
airborne, intrauterine and probably also by a mite vector (Ophionyssus natricis). The
rate of infection is increasing in boas but falling in pythons. Affected animals can show
general symptoms (regurgitation, lethargy, anorexia, weight loss), respiratory symptoms
(pneumonia, mouth breathing, stomatitis) and neurological disorders (tremor, absence
of turning reflex, opisthotonus, torticollis, disorientation). A paramyxovirus infection is clinically indistinguishable from IBD. The disease is usually fatal but asymptomatic carriers
are possible. Ante mortem detection is performed microscopically in blood smears or
organ biopsies (e.g. ultrasound-guided percutaneous liver biopsies). There is no PCR
test for detection to date.
IBD
minimum 2 smears
Microscopy (1)
 Infectious anaemia, equine
Equine Infectious Anaemia (EIA) is a lentivirus affecting equids, occurring worldwide.
Transmission can be via infected blood, blood sucking insects, iatrogenic (contaminated
instruments) or intrauterine. Clinically, horses show recurring fever, thrombocytopenia,
anaemia, rapid weight loss and peripheral oedema.
The infection has several forms, ranging from acute (lethal) to chronic (relapsing).
The blood of infected horses remains permanently infectious, even if the patient
appears to have recovered.
Equine infectious
anaemia/Coggins-Test
(Antibodies detection)
0.5 ml S
Agar gel diffusion test (1)
In the first 2 to 3 weeks after infection sometimes no
antibodies are detectable. Most horses show seroconversion by 45 days post infection. Because of this, suspected
horses should be retested 4 weeks later. In rare cases
seroconversion may not occur until 90 days post infection.
199
 Influenza virus Infection
(RNA-detection)
Nasal/pharyngeal Swab
real time-PCR (1)
 Influenza, equine
Equine influenza is an acute, highly contagious viral disease of the respiratory tract
caused by the influenza A/equi-1 (H7N7) and A/equi-2 (H3N8) viruses. Equine influenza
subtype H7N7 (A/equi-1/Prague/1/56) has not been observed in clinical cases in Western
Europe for several decades and is deemed to have been eradicated, but is contained in
many vaccines.
Transmission occurs via aerosol droplet infection. The symptoms generally consist of
fever, nasal discharge, inappetite, dry cough, bronchopneumonia and myalgia. Infected
horses can continue to shed the virus for around 10 days p.i. There are no asymptomatic
carriers, in contrast to EHV-1 and EHV-4 .
.
Equine Influenza (Ab)
1 ml S
NT (3)
Information about active infection can be given by two
serum tests with a 2 to 3 week interval. Seroconversion or
significant titer increase prove fresh contact with pathogen.
First sample must be taken in the early phase of disease.
The following strains have
been identified:
Prague, Miami, Fontainbleau, Kentucky and Solvalla.
Differentiation between vaccination and infection titer is
not possible.
Equine Influenza virus
(RNA-detection)
Nasal-/pharyngeal Swab,
Tracheal secretion
(-lavage, BAL)
real time-PCR (1)
200
 Iridovirus, Reptiles
Iridovirus, Reptiles
(DNA-Detektion)
mouth Swab without medium
PCR (3)
 Lawsonia intracellularis (Equine Proliferative Enteropathy)
Lawsonia intracellularis is a pathogen of proliferative enteropathies that may affect a
wide range of mammals and birds. Foals up to 12 months old are affected by Equine
Proliferative Enteropathy, but the most common age is between four and six months.
Oral transmission is suspected, as clinically inapparent young carriers can excrete the
pathogen with faeces.
The obligatory intracellular bacteria proliferates in cytoplasm of erythrocytes (mainly in
the middle and distal part of gastrointestinal tract) and influences cell proliferation,
usually without causing inflammatory reaction. Therefore progressive intestinal cell
proliferation is caused with poor cell differentiation and so causes decreased enzymatic
and absorptive features (proliferative enteropathy). Pathogenesis is not yet clear.
The most important clinical signs are lethargy, anorexia, weight loss, oedema
(hypogastrium, prepuce, legs and head). Colic and diarrhoea often occur, due to
intestinal malabsorption and the increased permeability of the gastrointestinal tract.
The pathogen is intermittently excreted in faeces. In case of negative result, a new test
with fresh sample is recommended. L. intracellularis is found worldwide and the disease
has been described in foals in North America, Australia and Europe. There is currently
no direct evidence that L. intracellularis infects humans.
(DNA-detection)
201
5 g faeces
real-time PCR (1)
 Leishmaniasis
Canine leishmaniasis is caused by Leishmania infantum (syn. L. chagasi in Southand Central America). Dogs are also (rarely) infected by L. tropica.
Transmission occurs by the moth fly Phlebotomus (L. chagasi is transmitted by
Lutzomyia sp.). The pathogen range in Europe is the Mediterranean region and is
mainly offshore and on the larger islands.
Symptoms:
Incubation time lasts months to years.
The following symptoms are found:
- Weight loss
- Anorexia, Apathy, Enteritis
- Hyperkeratosis, Alopecia (beginning periorbitally),
Dermatitis, Pad fissures
- Claw lenghthening, Claw bed inflammation
- Pancytopenia
- Lymph node oedema
- Hyperproteinaemia, Hypoalbuminemia,
Hypergammaglobulinemia
- Hepato- and Splenomegaly
- Polyarthritis
- Keratoconjunctivitis, Uveitis,Iritis, Blindness
- Epistaxis
LeishmaniaDirect detection
Smear
Microscopy (1)
Direct detection of Leishmania is reliable only from lymph
node and bone marrow aspirate or skin biosy
(sensitivity 30-50 %). Detection in a blood smear is usually
not successful.
Please note:
infection.
202
Leishmania spp.
(DNA-detection,
quantitative)
Bone marrow, 1 ml EB
real time-PCR (1)
With help of real-time PCR it is possible to quantify the
number of Leishmania in test sample. Knowing the parasite
concentration allows exact knowledge of infection status in
cases where:
- ELISA-results were not reliable,
- Dogs showing clinical symptoms, but without
seroconversion
- Dogs without clinical symptoms, but originating from
endemic regions;
Studies have shown that dogs with medium to high
concentrations of Leishmania in bone marrow or blood
are either already sick or have a high probability to be
affected with clinical leishmaniasis.
Leishmania quantifying offers very good conditions for
treatment monitoring (one month after beginning of
treatment).
Leishmania spp.
(DNA-detection,
qualitative)
3 ml U, 0.5 ml Synovia, biopsy
(liver, spleen), eye-, noise-,
tissue Swab
.
203
Leishmanien (Ab)
1 ml S, EP, HP
dogs ELISA (1)
cats IFT (1)
Asymptomatically infected animals often show no specific
or only borderline/low antibody titres (cellular immunity:
Th1 cells). In clinically infected animals, antibodies are
detectable in the majority of cases (Th2 immune response
with production of non-protective antibodies). As a rule,
seroconversion does not occur until several months postinfection: 1-22 (Ø 5) months in the case of natural infections
and around 1-6 (Ø 3) following experimental infection.
 Travel Profie 1 + 2
 Leptospirosis
Leptospirosis is caused by the following serotypes: L. australis (bratislava), L. autumnalis, L. canicola, L. copenhageni (icterohaemorrhagiae), L. grippotyphosa, L. saxkoebing,
L. sejroe and L. tarassovi.
Transmission occurs directly via contact with infected urine or indirectly via contaminated
water. The pathogen is transported via the bloodstream into the body, and especially
into the liver and kidneys.
Symptoms:
following an incubation period of 4-12 days the following
symptoms can occur:
- Pyrexia
- Anorexia,Vomiting, Enteritis
- Polyuria/polydipsia
- Haemolysis, Icterus
- Haemorrhagic diathesis
- Chronic liver and kidney disease
- Uveitis, Retinitis
204
Equine Recurrent Uveitis (ERU)
Intraocular persistent Leptospira infection as the aetiology of ERU is regarded in Europe
as highly probable. Only Ab or Ag detection in the aqueous humor or vitreous sample is
diagnostically relevant. Increased serum (Ab) detection does not confirm Leptospira in
eye disease.
Leptospira (Ab)
1 ml S
MAR (1)
Detection of Leptospira (Ab) by Microagglutination reaction
(MAR) is usually the method of choice for confirming
suspected infection. The test should be performed at
the earliest 14 days after infection.
In dogs 9 serovars are tested. In horses only L. australis,
L. autumnalis, L. bratislava, L. copenhageni, L. grippotyphosa
and L. pomona are tested. In other animal species other
relevant serovars are tested. Differentiation between
vaccination and infection titer is only limitedly possible
(depending on titer height). Vaccination in dogs is only
with L. canicola and L. copenhageni (icterohaemorrhagiae),
but crossreactions with other serovars is also possible.
In horses: to detect active infection one can use two serum
tests with an interval of 2 to 3 weeks. Seroconversion, 2 levels
of titer increase, or a 4x increase in antibody titer confirm
fresh contact with pathogen. The first sample has to be
collected in the early phase of the disease. Positive antibody
detection with a titer of 1:800 together with appropriate
clinical symptoms is diagnostic for acute Leptospira infection.
s.  Chapter 15, Molecular biology Tests
205
Leptospira spp.
(DNA-detection)
2 ml EB, CSF, 5 ml U, aqueous
humour, vitrous body sample
Abortion: placenta, umbilicus,
foetus (kidneys and liver)
real time-PCR (1)
Direct detection of Leptospira is possible in blood only a
short time after pathogen exposure. Pathogen excretion in
urine starts about 7 days post infection and can continue for
months to years. Detection from aqueous humour is possible
in horses.
The test system detects only pathogenic Leptospira strains
(differentiation is not possible):
The pathogenic
Leptospira include:
L. interrogans
L. kirschneri
L. santarosai
L. weilii
L. alexanderi
L. borgpetersenii
L. genomospecies 1
L. noguchii
The non-pathogenic
Leptospira include:
L. biflexa
L. meyeri
L. wolbachii
L. genomospecies 3
L. genomospecies 4
L. genomospecies 5
Opportunistic/intermediate
pathogens are:
L. broomii
L. fainei
L. inadai
(The above classification is based on the publications
of Slack et al., 2006, and Perolat et al., 1998).
Negative direct pathogen detection does not
exclude infection!
206
 Leukemia, bovine
s.  Enzootic bovine leukemia
 Leukemia virus infection, feline
s.  FeLv
 Listeriosis
Listeria is a bacteria occuring worldwide, which is spread by subclinically infected
rodents. Very high pathogen amounts are required for infection, which accumulate
especially in the edge and superficial layers of contaminated silage, but also occur in
other feed.
Listeria monocytogenes is a facultative intracellular bacteria (gram positive rods). It can
penetrate into different animal cell types and proliferates in macrophages, epithelial cells
or fibroblasts.
Cytolytic toxin listeriolysine is an essential virulence factor, which L. monocytogenes
needs for escape from phagosomes in the cytoplasm. In the clinical manifestation,
horses, cattle and sheep show mainly CNS-symptoms, fever, restlessness, coordination
disorders and other signs of encephalitis. A metrogenic form, which leads to late
abortion, early births or wasting of foals/calves/lambs on delivery is also described.
Listeria (Ab)
1 ml S
Listeria monocytogenes 0.5 ml liquor, 1 ml EB, 5 g
(DNA-detection)
faeces, aborted sample
207
CFT (3
PCR (1)
 Maedi/Visna
The Maedi/Visna virus leads to interstitial pneumonia or demyelinating
encephalitis in sheep.
Symptoms:
- Dyspnoea, Coughing
- Ataxia, lameness
- Decreased milk production
- Emaciation
- Splenomegaly
- Possibly hepatomegaly
Maedi/Visna (Ab)
1 ml S, EP, HP
ELISA (3)
Antibody detection using ELISA. Antibodies occur several
weeks to years post infection. Therefore a negative result
does not rule out infection
 Megabacteria Infection
Megabacteria (Syn. Macrorhabdus ornithogaster, Avian gastric yeast) are fungi that
can cause inflammatory changes in the glandular stomach of birds. They are found in
different bird species, such as parrots, sparrows, chickens, geese and storks.
In psittacidae, this disease is described as “Going light syndrome”. It is amultifactoral
disease. Other infections, parasitosis and tumors should be excluded from differential
diagnosis list.
Symptoms:
- Vomiting/regurgitation
- Diarrhoea
- Lethargy
- Slimming
- Ruffled feathers
MegabacteriaDirect detection
2 g faeces
Microscopy (1)
PAS-staining
Pathogen will be intermittently excreted, therefore we
recommend you collect faeces over 5 days before submission for testing.
Please note:
Negative result in faeces Swab does not exclude
Megabacteria Infection.
208
 Mycoplasma agassizii-Infektion
Mycoplasma agassizii is an agent of multifactorial Upper Respiratory Tract Disease
(URTD) in tortoises. The infection is characterised by serous, mucous or purulent nasal
discharge, as well as eye discharge, conjunctivitis and eyelid oedema. The differential
diagnosis should rule out herpesvirus infection. Detection is by nasal lavage using sterile
NaCl solution or by throat Swab.
Mycoplasma agassizii
0.5 ml nasal lavage,
Swab (throat)
PCR (3)
s.  Chapter 15
 M
ycoplasma haemofelis, Candidatus Mycoplasma
haemominutum, Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis,
Mycoplasma haemocanis and Candidatus Mycoplasma
haematoparvum
Pathogens earlier described as Haemobartonellas have now been reclassified and
assigned to genus Mycoplasma. Isolate Ohio of Haemobartonella felis is named
Mycoplasma Haemofelis and California isolate is now called Candidatus Mycoplasma
haemominutum. Haemobartonella canis is Mycoplasma haemocanis ebenfalls of genus
Mycoplasma. Mycoplasma haemofelis seems more pathogenic then Candidatus
Mycoplasma haemominutum and can cause a disease in immunocompetent cats.
Infection with Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum is mostly mild or subclinic.
With simultaneous immunosuppression (for instance FeLV infection) infected animals
develop more severe disease. Clinical disease is only observed in dogs with in
immunosuppression, splenectomy, or simultaneous infection with other pathogens.
The transmission method is not fully clear, but ticks, lice, fleas, blood transfusions,
and bite traumas are likely to be important. Vertical transmission is probable.
209
Symptoms:
Depending on pathogenicity and immune status, disease
types ranges from subclinical to chronic (latent) to acute.
- Fever (over 40° C)
- Icterus, bilirubinuria
- Hepato-, Splenomegaly
- Anorexia, Apathy
Haemotropic
Mycoplasma
(Haemobartonellas)Direct detection
0.5 ml EB + blood smear
Microscopy (1)
The epicellular organism is found in a Giemsa stained blood
smear using a light microscope. In the chronic course of
the disease asymptomatic and parasitaemic phases will
alternate.
Direct detection of the organism is therefore not always
possible!
Please note:
The pathogen can be confused with with Howell-Jolly, Heinz
bodies or artefacts, therefore our test of choice is a PCR test
from EDTA blood.
Please note our profiles
 Travel disease profile (1 and 2)
Feline Mycoplasmsa
Profile
1 ml EB
real time-PCR (1)
s.  Chapter 15
210
Mycoplasma haemofelis, 1 ml EB
haemominutum
(DNA-detection)
real time-PCR (1)
s.  Chapter 15
Candidatus
Mycoplasma
turicensis
(DNA-detection)
1 ml EB
real time-PCR (1)
The probability of detection of haemotropic Mycoplasms is
high in PCR, contrary to direct detection in a blood smear.
However, the pathogen can often not be detected in in
chronic or subclinical disease. Because of cyclic
fluctuations in pathogen levels, detection of infected
erythrocytes is not always possible during acute disease
either.
In addition, antibiotic treatment before PCR testing usually
gives negative results. It is currently believed that the
pathogen cannot be eliminated fully, therefore a positive
result does not confirm this organism is the cause of the
clinical signs. Interpretation of test results should always
be done with regard to clinical symptoms of hematological
results. The pathogenicity of detected strains should also
be examined.
211
 Mycoplasma spp.
Mycoplasms are the smallest proliferating bacteria in class Mollicutes. Mycoplasmas are
extracellular bacteria that are the cause of many diseases in animals, humans and plants.
(e.g. conjunctivitis in cats, enzootic pneumonia in swine, respiratory tract disease, head
tilt in mice). Mycoplasms are common bacteria of surface regions, especially mucous
membranes, usually producing chronic inflammatory reactions. Mixed bacterial or viral
infections are often seen.
Mycoplasma spp.
(DNA-detection)
Swab (eye, nasal, genital),
secretions (eyes, nose, throat)
Mycoplasma felis
(DNA-detection)
Swap (eye, throat), secret (eye, throat)
PCR (1)
s.  Chapter 15
212
 Neospora-Infection
Neospora caninum is the most common cause of abortion in cattle. In young dogs it causes neuromuscular disorders. Coyotes, wolves, dingos and dogs are currently the only
known end hosts. The latter can also be an intermmediate host for Neospora caninum.
After hosts are exposed to cysts in tissue from intermediate hosts (cattle, sheep, goats,
deer) the end hosts shed oocysts from 5 days post infection for about 2-3 weeks (up to 4
months). City dogs show high seroprevalence. In cattle and dogs vertical and horizontal
infections are possible. Dogs are infected more often postnatally then prenatally. Most
infections in cattle are vertical.
Symptoms:
In cattle
- Abortions
- Placenta retention
- Reproduction disorders
- Encephalomyelitis in live calves (weakness,
Ataxia, Hyperextension, -flexion of limbs,
Downer cow, Exophthalmus )
In dogs
- Muscle atrophy
- Spastic hyperextensions
- Paralysis
- Head tilt
- Dysphagia
- Incontinence
Symptoms:
213
Generalised form
- Myositis
- Myocarditis
- Ulcerative dermatitis
- Pneumonia
- Meningoencephalitis
- Changes in behaviour (aggression, apathy)
occur in chronic disease and in older animals
- Puppies infected in utero suffer from
polycarditis-myositis syndrome
Neospora caninum
(Ab) (dogs)
1 ml S, EP, HP
IFT (3)
The earliest the test can be performed is 14 days after
infection. Cross infections with Toxoplasma gondii cannot
be totally excluded. Antibodies against N. caninum can
persist in dogs for years. Therefore a positive titer does not
always mean this organism is responsible for the observed
clinical disease.
Neospora spp.
(DNA-detection)
0.5 ml CSF, 5 g faeces
real time-PCR (1)
 Parainfluenza virus Infection
The parainfluenza virus belongs to the Paramyxoviridae Family. Sole infection by the
virus usually causes mild or no symptoms. Bacterial secondary infections cause
severe respiratory symptoms. Severe bronchopneumonia is caused in calves.
(Enzootic bronchopneumonia, transport pneumonia, Shipping Fever).
Please note: Parainfluenza is a zoonotic disease.
Parainfluenza virus (Ab)
(cattle)
1 ml S
Canine Parainfluenza
Virus (RNA-detection)
Pharyngeal- and Nasal Swab
HIT (3)
real time-PCR (3)
214
 Paramyxovirus-Infection (OPMV) (Reptile)
Ophidian paramyxoviruses (OPMV) are characterised by a broad host spectrum and
primarily affect the Viperidae, Colubridae, Elapidae and Boidae (and, more rarely, lizards
or Chelonia). They lead to peracute mortality or protracted respiratory disease with CNS
involvement. Typical symptoms are an open mouth, bloody exudate in the oral cavity,
rales, head tremor and opisthotonus. Depending on the pathogenicity of the virus strain,
mortality can be up to 100%. In Boidae, the differential diagnosis should rule out IBD
(inclusion body disease). Virus transmission can be faecal-oral or by aerosol droplet
infection. Throat Swabs are suitable for direct RNA detection. Specific antibodies can
be detected in serological testing.
OPMV (Reptiles)
(DNA-detection)
Swap (throat)
PCR (3)
OPMV (Reptiles) (Ab)
0.2 ml S, HP
SNT (3)
 Paratuberculosis
General Information
The infection with the acid-fast bacillus Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis
occurs in ruminants and is also called Johne’s Disease. After a long incubation period of
2 to 6 years the affected animals begin to suffer from chronic enteritis and weight loss,
with eventually fatal consequences.
Paratuberculosis (Ab)
(cattle)
215
1 ml S, EP, HP
ELISA (3)
 Parvovirus/Panleukopenia
The pathogens causing canine parvovirus enteritis (CPV) and feline parvovirus enteritis
(FPV) are very closely related. More recent strains of CPV may also cause clinical
disease in cats. Transmission occurs oronasally through contact with infected faeces
or contaminated objects. The course of disease varies from subclinical to peracute,
depending on the age and immune status of the animal. Virus replication takes place in
all tissues with a high cell multiplication rate, especially intestinal mucosa, bone marrow,
lymphatic tissue and myocardium. In cats replication may also take place in the retina
and cerebellum.
Symptoms:
animal carriers:
- Abortion, Mummification
In puppies we usually observe following symptoms:
- Pyrexia/hypothermia
- Vomiting, (haemorrhagic) Diarrhoea
- Dehydration
- Leukopenia
- Dyspnoea, Cardiac symptoms
Cerebellar hypoplasia (kittens)
- Lymphopenia
Parvovirus (Ag)
(dogs, cats )
Dogs: rectab Swab
Cats: 5 g faeces, rectal Swab
Immunochromatography (1)
EIA (1)
216
Direct detection of parvovirus antigen in faeces is possible
in cats and dogs. Excretion happens 3-4 days post
infection and lasts for about 7-10 days. In some cases it
can last also longer. Using modified live vaccine can lead
to virus excretion in the first 4 weeks after vaccination;
distinguishing between vaccination and field virus is not
possible.
Please note:
infection!
Parvovirus FPV, CPV
(DNA-detection)
5 g faeces, rectal Swab
real time-PCR (1)
Direct PCR pathogen detection from faeces or rectal Swab
is possible in dogs and cats. It is important to specify the
animal species being tested. In dogs vaccination strain
CPV2 and wild strain CPV 2a/CPV 2b can be differentiated.
It has diagnostic value, as vaccination virus can shed for
2-12 days after vaccination. Shedding of field virus starts
3-4 days post infection and usually lasts 7-10 days. In
certain cases longer shedding is possible.
Please note:
217
A negative PCR result does not exclude infection.
Parvovirus (Ab)
(dogs, cats)
0.5 ml S
HI (1)
Parvovirus antibodies can be detected with the
haemagglutionation inhibition test (HIT) from 4-6 days
post infection in cats and dogs. Seroconversion in
unvaccinated animals is proof of infection. Distinguishing
between vaccination virus, field virus, and maternal
antibodies is not possible. Since vaccination is widely used,
we recommend confirming suspected infection with direct
detection of parvovirus from faeces.
Low maternal antibody titer (usually up to 1:40) does
not protect from infection, but can interfere with
vaccination (immunologic gap). Early vaccination may
not be be effective, as attenuated vaccination virus is
neutralised by maternal antibodies.
The half life of maternal antibodies is approximately
10 days. Maternal antibody titer of single litter puppies is
usually high, so testing puppies allows you to determine
the ideal time for first vaccination.
Please note also
our test profile
 Viral faeces test
 Polyomavirus, avian
 Porcine Circovirus-2
218
 Porcine Influenza virus
Swine influenza is caused by porcine Influenza virus A (Orthomyxovirus). This virus
contains two different forms of superficial antigens (H and N), which are the basis for
classification of different subtypes. A wide range of subtypes enables infection in
human, swine, birds and even horses. Clinical diagnosis is not easy. A successful
virus culture from a nasal or pharyngeal Swab is required for a reliable diagnosis, or
alternatively, detection of a subtype specific antibody increase in two blood samples
with a 3 week interval.
Porcine Influenza virus
(Ab)
2 ml S
Haemagglutination (3)
 PRRS (Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome)
The causative agent of PRRS is a highly infectious arterivirus. The disease is associated
with abortion and reproductive disorders. Male pigs can also be affected, often showing
general symptoms such as inappetence, and can shed the virus with sperm. Subclinical
disease (without any clinical symptoms) is possible.
PRRS (Ab) (porcine)
1 ml S
ELISA (3)
Detection of antibodies using an ELISA test. Serum antibodies are detectable one week post infection, with maximum
titres after 3-5 weeks. Virus neutralizing antibodies do not
develop until 4-8 weeks post infection. It is recommended
to test at least 5-10 animals per herd or population.
 PBFD
219
 Q Fever
Q fever is a zoonotic disease caused by a species of bacteria called Coxiella burnetii. It
does not play a major role in animals, but affected animals constitute a risk of infection
for humans. Ruminants, horses, dogs and cats are susceptible.
Symptoms:
- Pyrexia, lethargy, inappetence
- Conjunctivitis
- Bronchopneumonia
- Arthritis
- Abortion
Coxiella burnetti (Ab)
1 ml S
CFT (3)
220
 Rabies virus antibody detection for travel reasons
When entering some countries in the EU and non EU (e.g. Japan) it is compulsory
to show proof of antibody titres against the rabies virus. This can only be done at
laboratories certified by the EU commission; IDEXX Vet Med Lab is one of these
laboratories.
Travelling pets require an EU pet passport. The regulations for different countries may
vary, so it is very important to inquire well ahead of time what the exact requirements
are. Information can be found on the internet from national internet portals, from the
country’s embassy, or their ministry responsible for animal import and export.
For the test to be performed, a few points must be followed. Please use only special
order form for rabies antibodies detection. You can download these from www.idexx.de
or order directly from IDEXX Vet·Med·Lab. Please fill in the form completely, correctly,
and legibly. If the form is illegible the results cannot be sent. Only good quality,
non-haemolytic and non-lipaemic serum is used as sample. (EDTA, citrate- and heparin
blood can lead to false results, and therefore are not tested).
Sample tubes must be clearly marked and must match the details on the special form.
Results will be sent as a hard copy certificate by post. Please note that additional
analysis is not possible with the same sample material.
Please remember that national entry regulations in can vary from country to country,
so please check for the required tests before any travel is planned.
Note: This test is not used to diagnose animals with suspected rabies infection. Please
do not send samples from suspected animals!
Rabies virus (Ab) (NT):
Please use a separate
form
0.5 ml S. Please label
unmistakably
Test is peformed by fluorescent antibody virus
neutralisation (FAVN) The test is performed
according to O.I.E. regulations.
221
FAVN (1)
 Rhodococcus equi-Infection
Rhodococcus equi
(DNA-detection)
Tracheal secretions (fluid,
BAL), Synovial membrane,
tissue (lungs), faeces
real time-PCR (1)
 Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever (RMSF)
Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever is a significant zoonosis. The pathogen is
Rickettsia rickettsii, which is transmitted by ticks. Disease is found in North, Central and
South America. The infection is usually mild in dogs, but a severe, lethal course is also
possible. Chronic disease has not been described. Incubation time is from 2 to 14 days.
Symptoms:
- Sudden high fever
- Anorexia
- Vomiting, Diarrhorea
- Petechiae
- Oedema (mainly scrotal)
- Joint swelling
- Myalgia
- Dyspnoea
- Beeding in the eye
- Neurological disorders frequently:
- Thrombocytopenia
In Southern Europe Rickettsia conorii is the pathogen of Mediterranean typhus in
humans, but dogs can also be infected. Affected animals show seroconversion.
Clinical disease in dogs can occur in regions where the tick responsible for
transmission (Rhipicephalus sanguineus) is also found; the clinical expression
is similar to granulocytic anaplasmosis.
Rickettsia (Ab) (dogs)
1 ml S
IFT (3)
If accompanied by appropriate clinical signs, a 4x titer
increase in the second of two tests with a 3 week interval is
confirmation of RMSF infection.
222
 Rotavirus
Rotaviruses are found in almost all animal species. The virus has a high affinity for
small intestinal epithelium. Virus replication leads to massive destruction of epithelial
villi, leading to malabsorption and hypersecretion. Severe watery diarrhoea is found,
especially in young animals. The route of infection is oral, with older animals acting
as a virus reservoir.
Symptoms:
clinical symptoms occur after an incubation period
of 1-2 days:
- Watery diarrhoea
- Vomiting
- Dehydration
Rotavirus (Ag)
1 g faeces (pea-sized amount)
Immunchromatography(1)
Virus excretion via the faeces usually lasts 3-10 days. Using
immunochromatography the superficial antigen of the virus
will be detected.
Please note:
A single negative test result with simultaneous clinical
suspicion should be confirmed by testing a second faecal
sample.
Please note also
our test profile:
 Virological examination using electron microscopy
 Salmonella abortus equi
Transmission of the pathogen is mainly oral, but is also possible through mating.
In Germany Salmonella abortus equi is no longer believed to play a role in abortions.
Salmonella abortus
equi (Ab)
223
1 ml S
Slow agglutination (3)
 Sarcoptes
Canine mange is caused by Sarcoptes scabiei var. canis. Severe pruritus is characteristic
for this disease. There is little or no response to treatment with glucocorticoids. Initially
the changes in the skin are seen on the abdomen, sternum, lateral limbs and ears, before
they generalise. The detection of mites in skin scrapes is often unsuccessful in chronic
cases, as due to sensitization even very low numbers of mites continue to cause clinical
symptoms. The sensitivity of skin scrapes is approx. 30-50%. Microscopic detection of the
mites is based on a deep skin scrape (1 mite constitutes proof). Several scrapes should
be taken from different sites and always at the edges of the lesion.
Sarcoptes (Ab) (dogs)
0.5 ml S
ELISA (1)
The ELISA method for detecting sarcoptes antibodies in
dogs is highly specific (94.6%) and highly sensitive (92.1%).
No cross reactions occur with storage mites, demodex mites
or cheyletiella mites. The antibody test can be performed
approx. 3-4 weeks post infection. A negative
result does not rule out infection, since 5-10% of dogs will
not produce antibodies. Antibody titres persist over a long
period of time; therefore they are not very useful in treatment
monitoring.
Please note also our test
 Ectoparasites in the skin scraping
224
 Tickborn Encephalitis
The pathogen of the Tickborne Encephalitisvirus is a Flavivirus, which is mainly
transmitted by Ixodes ricinus in Middle Europe. Clinical disease in companion animals
has been mainly described in dogs. Isolated cases are described in horses and small
ruminants. Endemic areas are usually locally limited in different European countries, as
for instance Switzerland, Austria, France, Hungary, Czech Republic, Poland, Russia and
Slovenia. Sweden and Finland are also affected. Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria and
Südhessen are where the disease is most frequently seen in Germany. Tickborne
encephalitis is mostly acute, with a progressive course. Peracute, acute, subacute
and chronic forms are al possible. Fever, apathy, anorexia, behavior changes such as
nervousness, aggressivness, seizures, paresis, ataxia, hyperaesthesia and hyperalgesia
are often described.
Tickborne
Encephalitisvirus
(RNA-detection)
0.5 ml CSF, ticks
PCR (1)
In case of significant clinical symptoms we recommend
direct pathogen detection in cerebrospinal fluid.
s. Chapter 15, Molecular Biology Tests
Tickborne
Encephalitisvirus (Ab)
1 ml S
CBR (3)
A complement binding reaction is used for detection of
seropositive animals. In endemic areas up to 30% of
dogs may be infected without showing any clinical signs.
Therefore a positive antibody detection is not a
confirmation of clinical disease.
Two serum tests should be peformed, and a significant
titer increase in the second test test proves acute infection.
Complement binding antibodies are detectable for a long
time after exposure. If there is a suspicion of clinical CNS
disease, a CSF test is always recommended.
225
 Toxoplasmosis
Toxoplasma gondii, the causative agent of toxoplasmosis, is prevalent worldwide.
Only cats and related felidae act as final hosts, while almost all warm-blooded animals
(including humans) may act as intermediate hosts.
Clinical disease in cats is rare and is usually only seen in very young or immunosuppressed animals. Infection in cats occurs via ingestion of cyst-containing meat of
intermediate hosts or via feline faeces containing infective oocysts. Almost every organ
will be colonized and in cats the parasite can multiply in the intestinal epithelium.
Oocyst excretion may begin approximately 3 to 9 days after infection with sporulated
oocysts.
Approximately 20% of cats excrete them for 18-35 days. Infection of other warm-blooded
animals and humans occurs via ingestion of inadequately cooked, cyst-containing meat
of intermediate hosts or via contact with infective oocysts originating from feline faeces.
A short parasitaemia is observed as in cats and the parasites then colonize in all organs,
but there is no excretion in these non-feline species.
Symptoms:
the infection is usually subclinical, but the
following symptoms may be observed:
- Pyrexia
- Anorexia, Apathy
- Pneumonia
- Enteritis
- Retinopathies
- Abortion (humans, sheep, goats)
- Encephalitis
- Pneumonia
- Lymph node enlargement
Toxoplasma Direct
Detection
faeces, collected over 3-5 days
flotation method (1)
Direct detection of toxoplasma oocysts in faeces using
the flotation method is only useful in cats. As excretion is
intermittent, not permanent, repeating testing on faecal
samples collected over 3 to 5 days is recommended.
Negative direct pathogen detection does not rule out
infection!
226
Toxoplasma gondii
(DNA-detection)
CNS-Symptms: 0.5 ml CSF
real time-PCR (1)
Abortion (dogs/small ruminants.):
Vaginal Swab, placenta, foetus, tissue
(liver, spleen, kidney, lung, heart, gut)
Respiratory signs: Bronchial lavage
Eye symptoms (mostly cats) aqueous humor
Fever: 0.5 ml EB
Detection with PCR is not possible in faeces. Using the
other samples listed above, PCR can confirm existing
disease. It should be noted that positive PCR result does
not always confirm acute infection with T. gondii. The pathogen can be detected in CSF and in the aqueous humor in
clinically healthy animals. Therefore positive result should
always be interpreted together with clinical symptoms, and
negative result does not exclude infection.
Toxoplasms
IgM, IgG (Ab)
1 ml S, EP, HP (dogs, cats)
IFT (1)
Exotic animals: IHA
Detection of toxoplasma (ab) in cats and in dogs by IFT is
usually the method of choice for confirmation of suspected
infection. IgG antibodies are usually detected from 2 weeks
post infection and can persist for many years. Therefore
to diagnose active toxoplasmosis, increasing IgG titer (in
a repeat test) should be measured. IgM antibodies can be
found from 1-2 weeks post infection and reach maximum
levels 3-6 weeks post infection. In most cats they decrease
under the detection limit about 12 weeks post infection.
A high IgM titer is diagnostic for active infection
227
 Transmissible gastroenteritis (TGE) in swine
The pathogen of TGE is a porcine coronavirus (TGEV), which can causa diarrhorea in
swine of all ages, but especially in nursing piglets. Virus proliferation takes place in the
epithelial villi of the intestines. Normally the virus is shed in faeces by nursing piglets from
1 to 7 days post infection, and in fatteners from 3 to 7 days post infection
Animals may excrete the virus in the faeces intermittently for up to 18 months.
Transmissible
Gastroenteritis Virus
(TGEV) (RNA-detection)
2 g faeces, rectal Swab,
intestinal mucosal membrane
real time-PCR (1)
Pathogen detection by PCR facilitates clinical identification
of subclinical excretion.
As virus shedding occurs intermittently, in case of a
suspicious clinical picture and a negative PCR result,
the test should be repeated. With this test protocol we can
detect porcine respiratory coronavirus (PRCV) and TGEV
mutants which cause mild or subclinical respiratory tract
infections.
 Trichomonas Infection
Trichomonas (Trichomonas gallinae) is seen in pigeons and other bird species (chicken,
falcons, parrots) in the pharynx, esophageus and crop. In addition the liver, heart and
other organs can be affected. The disease occurs in young animals, which are infected
from older animals. Trichomonas species (e. g. Tetratrichomonas gallinarum) found in the
distal part of chicken and waterfowl intestine are harmless.
Symptoms:
- Yellow, cheese-like covering on the beak and pharynx
(“yellow button”)
- Loss of appetite
- Weight loss
- Difficulties in drinking and feeding
228
TrichomonasDirect detection
Swap in NaCl, feacal sample,
crop Swab
Microscopy(1)
Crop Swabs should be taken from fasted animals.
A mucosal membrane sample should be taken by a Swab
moistened with saline solution.
The s should be sent in a tube without transport medium,
with saline solution.
Please note:
Negative result does not exclude infection.
 Tritrichomonas-Infection
(DNA-detection)
5 g faeces, NO rectal swap
real time-PCR (1)
s.  Chapter 15
 Trypanosoma-Infections
Trypanosoma does not play a significant role in companion animal disease in our area.
TrypanosomaDirect detection
Blood smear
Please note:
Direct pathogen detection is not always possible!
229
Microscopy (1)
Trypanosoma
equiperdum (Ab)
1 ml S
CFT (3)
Trypanosoma is a specific chronic or acute contagious
infection in the family Equidae.
Transmission occurs through mating. The first clinical sign
is oedema of the external genitals about 2-4 weeks post
infection. The disease progresses with the formation of
characteristic round skin lesions with depigmentation on the
throat, flank, and abdomen. The third stage of the disease
is characterized by peripheral neural disorders. The disease
can may be lethal. Trypanosoma is widespread, mainly in
Asia and in North and South Africa. Central Europe is free
from T. equiperdum.
 Vesicular Stomatitis
This is a highly contagious virus infection in equids, cattle and swine. In rare cases
infection can be transmitted into humans. The main clinical symptom is vesicles in
the mouth, tongue, udder and hoof crown. Transmission occurs by skin or mucosal
membrane contact and probably also by insects. Main ranges are the USA and
Central America.
Vesicular Stomatitis
(Ab) (horses)
1 ml S, EP, HP
NT (1)
230
 Viral arteritis, equine (EVA)
EVA is a contagious virus disease of horses caused by equine arteritis virus (EVA). EVA
is present worldwide in the horse population. EVA occurrence has increased in recent
years, mainly due to increasingly common horse transport and the widespread use of
transported semen. Virus transmission is possible mainly through semen, but may also
be passed on via aerosol transmission, urine and aborted material. Most frequently the
infection is subclinical, and is only diagnosed by seroconversion.
Clinical symptoms:
- Fever
- Depression, anorexia
- Limb, scrotum and prepuce oedema
- Conjunctivitis (“pinkeye“)
- Urticaria-like skin reactions
- Abortion (especially between 3 - 10 months)
Rarely in young foals
- Pneumonia or enteritis
- Pneumonien oder Enteritiden
In infected stallions the virus stays in accessory sex glands and shed in genital
secretions, while mares, geldings and immature stallions are not longstanding
virus carriers.
Equine Viral Arteritis (Ab) 1 ml S
NT (1)
Infection with EVA can be diagnosed indirectly by detection
of EVA antibodies. A neutralizing antibody titer from 1:4 or
higher is internationally accepted as positive. Titer increase
over 2 titer levels in an interval of 3-4 weeks (serum pair)
confirms acute infection.
Equine Viral Arteritis
(RNA-detection)
Sample depends on
symptoms (see PCR-leaflet)
 Viral Diarrhoea, bovine
s.  Bovine Viral diarrhoea
231
real time-PCR (1)
14 Immunology and allergy
14.1 Autoimmune diseases
 Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE)
Systemic lupus erythematosus is characterized by the production of autoantibodies
against many cell structures, mainly against nuclear structures. Erythrocytes,
coagulation factors and immunoglobulins may also be affected. In dogs, the
disease most commonly affects German Shepherds, Poodles, Shelties and Collies.
In dogs SLE can cause illness at any age. In cats there is a breed predisposition
in Siamese, Persian and Himalayan cats.
Symptoms:
In cats (like humans) we usually observe several symptom
complexes, whereas in most dogs only one symptom
predominates
- Pyrexia
- Polyarthritis
- Haemolytic anaemia, icterus, haemoglobinuria
- Thrombocytopenia, neutropenia
- Hydropic degeneration of the skin and hyperkeratosis
- (Discoid lupus)
Anti nuclear antibodies
ANA-test
1 ml S
IFT (1)
The immunofluorescence test for ANA can be performed
in both dogs and cats. It detects IgG antibodies, but only
about 70% of animals develop clear antibody levels.
A positive test only proves lupus erythematosus in
conjunction with corresponding clinical symptoms,
because clinically asymptomatic animals may also show
antibodies, and autoantibodies may be produced in the
course of other diseases as well. The blood sample should
be collected during an acute phase of disease. For the
diagnosis of discoid lupus and other immune mediated
skin diseases, a test for circulating antibodies is not very
useful. In these cases it is recommended to submit a skin
biopsy for histological examination.
232
 Myasthenia gravis
Myasthenia gravis is caused by a disturbance in the transmission of nervous signals
at the neuromuscular end-plate, triggered by a reduction of acetylcholine receptors.
Two different types are found in dogs and cats:
1. Congenital type: Inherited lack of acetylcholine receptors. This type is mostly
found in Jack Russell Terriers, Fox Terriers, Springer Spaniels and Siamese cats.
Symptoms often show as early as 6-8 weeks of age.
2. Acquired type: Production of autoantibodies against acetylcholine receptors.
Dog breeds most frequently affected are German Shepherds, Akita Inu,
Labrador Retrievers, Golden Retrievers, Dachshund, German shorthaired and
Chihuahua. In cats, the Abyssinian and Somali breeds are predisposed. An onset
of disease is often seen at the age of 2-3 years or 7-9 years. The cause for the
production of autoantibodies is not yet known. Concurrent presence of myasthenia
with neoplasia (especially thymoma) has been described.
Focal form:
Three courses of the disease can be differentiated:
Focal form:
- Dysphagia
- Megaesophagus
- Regurgitation
- Aspiration pneumonia
Acute form:
- Acute muscle weakness
- Dyspnoea
Chronic form:
- Progressive weakness
- Megoesophagus
- Regurgitation
- Aspiration pneumonia
(Megoesophagus is not observed in congenital disease)
233
Acetylcholine Receptor
Antibodies (USA)
1 ml S
RIA (3)
The detection of circulating autoantibodies using
immunoprecipitation (radioimmunoassay) is the
method of choice for diagnosing inherited myasthenia
gravis. At present it is only performed at San Diego
University, California, USA. In cases of inherited,
generalized myasthenia gravis sensitivity is about 98 %.
Regarding sensitivity in the focal form, no precise test is
currently available. In the congenital form there are no or
few detectable autoantibodies. In these cases (or unclear
cases) a Tensilon® or Mestinon® test is recommended.
 Rheumatoid Polyarthritis
Rheumatoid polyarthritis is an immunoreactive polyarthritis. Immune
mediated arthritic diseases are the most commonly found inflammatory joint diseases in
small animal practice. Common factors are that multiple joints are affected (minimum 2-6)
and that generalised symptoms are present.
Rheumatoid arthritis is characterised by erosive damage to the joints. It commonly affects
dogs aged 5-6 years, mostly dwarf and toy breed dogs. The disease is caused by
the production of abnormal antibodies against endogenous immunoglobulins, which are
then deposited in the joints.
Symptoms:
- Inappetence, apathy
- Pyrexia
- Stiff gait, lameness
- Increased amount of synovial fluid
(especially carpal and tarsal joints)
- Joint deformation in chronic cases
In veterinary medicine, the detection of rheumatoid factors is characteristic, but not
specific to this disease. Rheumatoid factors may also occur in other diseases, such as
SLE, dirofilariasis, leishmaniasis, pyometra, and others. A positive result is only reliable
with appriopriate clinical signs, radiological changes and synovial fluid analysis. Sensitivity
is under 90 %, so false negative results are possible. Blood sampling should be done in
every case of acute disease.
234
Rheumatoid arthritis
factors (dogs)
1 ml S
Please note also
our test profiles
s.  Synovial profile 1 - 3
s.  Chapter 3, Profiles
 Autoimmune Haemolytic Anaemia (AIHA)
Autoimmune processes are the most frequent cause of haemolytic anaemia in dogs.
A differentiation is made between a primary, idiopathic form and a secondary form.
The secondary form is caused by an underlying infectious disease, for instance
babesiosis, ehrlichiosis, dirofilariasis, and viral or bacterial infection. Neoplasia and
SLE or drugs such as penicillin, sulfonamides and vaccines may also cause AIHA.
Cats rarely have immune-mediated anaemia, and if seen is most frequently due to
FeLV infection or haemotropic Mycoplasmas infection. Mainly young and middle aged
animals are affected. In dogs, breed predispositions are described in the American
Cocker Spaniel, Springer Spaniel, Irish Setter and Poodle.
Symptoms:
- Inappetence, apathy, weakness
- Pyrexia, dyspnoea
- Anaemia, icterus, haemoglobinuria
- Splenomegaly, possibly hepatomegaly
Direct Coombs Test
1 ml EB
The direct Coombs test or direct antiglobulin test is used
to detect antibodies or complement on the erythrocyte
surface. Low antibody titres may lead to false negative
results. Secondary autoimmune haemolytic anaemias
(see above) may lead to positive results. More definite
signs of AIHA include evidence of spherocytes in the blood
smear, and occasionally microscopic or even macroscopic
autoagglutination.
235
14.2 Allergy diagnostics
 Allergy
Allergies are inherited or acquired specific changes of the immune system’s ability to
respond towards external, intrinsically harmless substances. These substances are then
recognized as allergens, causing an allergic reaction.
Allergies are always preceded by a phase of sensitization, during which there is
repeated contact with one or several allergens. A differentiation is made between four
types of hypersensitivity reactions. In veterinary medicine only type I (immediate type)
and type IV (cell mediated type) is important.
The following allergy forms can be differentiated in animals, based on the cause:
- fFea bite or flea saliva allergy
- Atopy
- Allergic skin reactions to food components
- Allergic contact dermatitis
- Allergic skin reactions to staphyloccocus or malassezia
- Allergic reactions to insect allergens
Flea bite and flea saliva allergies are one of the most common allergies in dogs and
cats.
Sensitization occurs against saliva allergen and probably against excretion products.
The allergic reaction is not necessarily limited to the site of the flea bite, but may be
found all over the body. Fleas cannot always be found. In sensitized animals one single
flea bite every 10-14 days is sufficient to maintain the symptoms. Similar mechanisms
seem to play a role in sarcoptes infestation (see Sarcoptes).
Atopy (canine atopic dermatitis) is an allergic hyperreaction (immediate type) towards
different environmental allergens. In most cases there is believed to be a genetic
predisposition. The allergens are mostly taken up by airways or percutaneously.
In dogs allergen intake by skin is dominating. Once in the skin these allergens become
recognised by the immune system by ‘antigen presenting cells’. This leads to the
production of specific IgE antibodies which bind to the surface of mast cells. (The role
of IgE in atopy is controversial, as some atopic canine patients do not appear to have
elevated IgE levels.) In the event of a new contact with the allergen, bridge-forming of
the IgE antibodies occurs which leads to the release of histamine and other biogenic
amines from the mast cells, which leads to the typical symptoms of pruritus, erythema
and alopecia. The allergy usually starts between one and three years of age. Serological
IgE tests are not sufficient to diagnose atopy - this is a disease of exclusion.
236
Certain breeds show a genetic predisposition for atopic disease: West Highland White
Terrier, Bull terrier, Chow Chow, Boxer, and German Shepherd. Cats, horses, and very
rarely dogs may develop asthma-like symptoms or allergic rhinitis and conjunctivitis.
In food allergies, the immediate allergic reaction with the production of IgE antibodies
plays also a role. Trigger mechanism can also be an allergy of type II, III or IV.
Here neutrophils and eosinophils migrate into the skin where they release inflammatory
mediators. Symptoms are similar to those found in atopic dermatitis. Gastrointestinal
tract symptoms may occur. Serological IgE tests are not sufficient to diagnose food
allergy - an elimination diet must be performed.
If dietary allergies are suspected it is advisable to perform an elimination diet (based on
serological results) over 8-10 weeks, followed by provocation (food challenge) testing.
The owners may prepare the diet themselves.. The diet should consist of a single protein
source (duck, egg, venison, or chicken) and a single carbohydrate source (potato).
Delayed allergic reactions are seen in contact dermatitis. The symptoms are primarily
found in body areas where contact with the allergen has occurred (ventral abdomen,
head etc.). Testing for IgE is not very useful, but the suspected allergens should be
eliminated from the animal’s immediate environment.
Allergic reactions against staphylococcus and malassezia antigens appear to
be common in animals. Both organisms belong to the normal skin flora and are primarily
non-pathogenic. When the environment of the skin changes due to other diseases,
massive profliferation of staphylococcus and malassezia may occur, leading to
sensitization. Staphylococcus allergy cannot be diagnosed serologically. Bacterial
culture is recommended.
Allergic reactions to insect allergens play only a small role in cats and dogs.
In horses, on the other hand, insect allergens play a role in the development of summer
eczema.
237
Screening Test
(Greer®)
1 ml S (dogs, cats)
2 ml S (horses)
ELISA (1)
Screening Test for dogs, cats and horses facilitates
cheap analysis and if needed, a single allergen test can
be performed. It contains three (companion animals) or
four (horses) allergen test groups:
Dogs and cats
1. Flea saliva, mites
2. Trees
3. Grasses and herbs
With / without flea
Horse
1. Mites and moulds
2. Trees
3. Grasses and herbs
4. Insects (excluding Stomoxys. In suspected cases we
recommend IDEXX Insect Allergy Screening)
Single allergens
determination
-SMALL (GREER®):
dogs and cats
1 ml S (per group)
Mites/moulds without flea
(6 allergens)
• Alternaria + Aspergillus
• Cladosporium + Penicillium
• Dermatophagoides farinae
(House dust mite)
• Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus
(House dust mite)
• Tyrophagus putrescentiae (storage mite)
• Acarus siro (storage mite)
238
ELISA (1)
Trees/grasses/herbs (8 Allergens)
• 6 grasses mix - Cock's foot (Dactylis glomerata)
- Meadow fescue (Festuca pratensis)
- Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis)
- Perennial Ryegrass (Lolium perenne)
- Timothy grass (Phleum pratense)
- Velvet grass (Holcus lanatus)
•Rye (Secale cereale)
•Artemisia (Artemisia spp.)
•Ribwort plantain (Plantago lanceolata)
•Birch (Betula)• Willow (Salix)
•Stinging nettle (Urtica dioica)
•Curly dock (Rumex crispus)
ingle allergen
determination - LARGE
(GREER®):
dogs, cats, horses.
1 ml S (per group)
Mites / Moulds, Fungus / Flea
(10 - 11 allergens)
• Penicillium notatum
• Aspergillus fumigatus
• Cladosporium herbarum
• Alternaria alternata
• Cockcroach (Blatella germanica)
• Flea (only dog/cat)
• Acarus siro (storage mite)
• Lepidoglyphus (storage mite)
• Tyrophagus putrescentiae
(storage mite)
• Dermatophagoides farinae
(house dust mite)
• Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus
(house dust mite)
ELISA (1)
Trees (12 allergens)
• Betula sp. (birch)
• Alnus sp (alder)
• Quercus sp (oak)
• Cupressus avellana (cypress)
• Corylus avellana (hazel)
• Ulmus (elm)
• Fagus sylvatica (beech)
• Populus sp. (poplar)
• Acer pseudoplatanus (japanese maple)
• Salix caprea (willow)
• Olea europea/ Fraxinus excelsior (olive)
• Cedrus Chamaecyparis sp. (ceder)
Grasses / Herbs (12 allergens)
• 6 grasses (see above)
• Cock's foot (Dactylis glomerata)
• Meadow fescue (Festuca pratensis)
• Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis)
• Perennial Ryegrass (Lolium perenne)
• Timothy grass (Phleum pratense)
• Velvet grass (Holcus lanatus)
• Redtop (Agrostis gigantea)
• Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon)
• Sorghum (Sorghum halpense)
• Sheep sorrel (Rumex crispus)
• Mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris)
• Ribwort (Plantago lanceolata)
• Lambs quarter (Chenopodium spp.)
• Nettle (Urtica dioica)
• Parietaria sp. (parietaria jud.)
• Ambrosia sp. (ragweed)
• Russian thistle (Salsola kali)
239
Malassezia-IgE (GREER®) 0.5 ml S
(dogs, cats)
Insect Screening
GREER® (Equine)
1 ml S, EP, HP
ELISA (1)
ELISA (1)
- Simulium sp. (blackfly)
- Culex sp. (mosquito)
- Tabanus spp. (horse fly)
- Stomoxys calcitrans (stable fly)
- Culicoides spp. (biting midge)
 Immunotherapy Solution
Immunotherapy Solution 0.5 ml S
(dog, cat, horse)
In order to produce an immunotherapy solution a
veterinary prescription is required. The starter pack
includes 3 bottles of injection solution (2 bottles for insect
immunotherapy) in increasing concentrations and it is
sufficient for about 6 months. A dosage schedule is
included. For other questions, please check the
instructions attached with the medication.
 Maintenance Solution
The maintenance solution is a monthly injection following
the initial desensitization schedule. Usually 2 or 3 bottles of
maintenance solution can be ordered before a new sample
submission is required.
240
15 Molecular biology tests
15.1 General advice on PCR
 PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)
The diagnostic advantage of PCR (polymerase chain reaction) is based on the principle
that specific segments of the various nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) contained in a
sample may be increased (amplified), so that they become measurable or identifiable
(e.g. sequenced).
The amplified nucleic acid is usually derived from pathogen specific DNA or RNA,
or in the case of hereditary diseases, from gene sections where changes
(mutations) are located. For sex identification, the specific genome sequence
of the male or female gene sequence is amplified and tested.
PCR technique
PCR runs in three reaction steps:
In the first reaction step the sample DNA is heated to the high temperature
(e.g. to 94 °C), which denaturates it and splits it into two complementary single strands.
The temperature is reduced in the second reaction step, so that a specific,
complementary oligonucleotide (primer) can attach to each single sample strand
of DNA (template DNA) The region of the template DNA between the two primers is
the region that will be amplified (duplicated).
Specificity of the primer for detected genome segment will be based on similarity
with sequence information saved in a databank (GenBank/EMBL database)
The primers serve as contacts for the heat-stable DNA polymerase
(e.g taq-polymerase).
In the third reaction step, the template primer is exposed to a high molar
concentration of deoxyribonucleotide triphosphate (dNTP), aided by template-specific
DNA Polymerase. This then produces two new (complete) DNA double strands.
This amplified DNA serves as a template for further high concentrations of
oligonucleotide primer.
The cycle of denaturation, hybridization and amplification is repeated many
times to gain a large number of identical copies of the original DNA segment.
Several modifications to the test protocol expand the range of use of PCR:
- Amplification of RNA to detect RNA viruses or gene expression products
- Increased specificity and sensitivity by using an additional specific primer pair in what
is called ‘nested PCR’ which is a multiplication of the original DNA/RNA by using
proprietary methods with real time PCR
241
15.1 General advice on PCR
Test interpretation in pathogen diagnostics
A positive PCR result indicates the presence of the target nucleic acid in the tested
sample. However it is not possible to distinguish whether or not the pathogen of the
nucleic acid is viable and able to multiply. Conventional PCR techniques also do not
allow us to definitively define the amount of nucleic acid in the tube.
Suitable methods for quantitative PCR are currently available at our laboratory for
relevant parameters.
Please note that due to the high sensitivity false positive PCR results are possible if
the sample is even slightly contaminated with the target nucleic acid.
A negative PCR result indicates that at the time of sampling the target nucleic acid
could not be amplified, either because there was no such nucleic acid present in the
sample or the amount was insufficient to be amplified.
False negative results are possible when using unsuitable sample, e.g. sample
material containing inhibitory substances (such as heparin) or inappropriate handling
of the sample before or during transport (e.g. repeated freezing and thawing).
However, inhibitory substances will be detected during PCR analysis and removed,
or if not possible, commented on. Therefore, false negative PCR results due to inhibition
can be avoided.
242
15.2 Pathogen detection by PCR (in alphabetical order)
Adenovirus, Reptilien
(DNA-detection)
rectal swap, feaces
PCR (3)
s.  Chapter 13
Canine Adeno
Virus type 2
(DNA-detection)
pharyngeal-, nasal-,
eye-Swab, 1 ml EB,
biopsy (liver)
real time-PCR (1)
Adenovirus, Equine
s.  Equine Adenovirus
Anaplasma spp.
DNA-detection)
synovia, CSF, ticks
s.  Chapter 13
Arteritis Virus, Equines
s.  Equine Arteritis Virus (EVA)
243
real time-PCR (1)
Babesia spp.
(DNA-detection)
1 ml EB
real time-PCR (1)
Serologically, the earliest time that Babesia spp. can be
detected is 10-14 days after infection.
Young animals under 8 months of age commonly develop
low antibody titres and should not be tested serologically
until they are at least 3 months old because maternal
antibodies can be present.
In rare cases seroconversion does not take place at all.
In the early stage of infection (around 4-21 days p.i.),
Babesia spp. can be found microscopically in blood
smears.
In Babesia canis canis infections in particular, there are
often low levels of pathogens in the blood, so microscopic
detection is not always successful.
PCR is a sensitive test with a high sensitivity to confirm
suspected Babesia spp. infection before the formation of
specific antibodies.
In case of positive PCR results resulting from canine
samples we offer free species differentiation between
Babesia canis canis, B. canis vogeli, B. canis rossi, B.
gibsonii and B. conrada, with results available in
1-3 working days.
Babesia felis
(DNA-detection)
1 ml EB
real time-PCR (1)
Chapter 13, Infectious diseases
Bartonella spp.
(DNA-detection)
0,5 ml EB, lymphnodes aspirate
Conjunctiva Swab
real time-PCR (1)
Chapter 13, Infectious diseases
244
Bornavirus
(RNA-detection)
1 ml S, CSF
PCR (3)
sensu lato
(DNA-detection)
0.5 ml CSF, joint aspirate,
skin biopsy, ticks
real time-PCR (1)
Due to the high seroprevalence in the dog population it
is often difficult to interpret the results. Only a significant
increase in the titre level or an extremely high initial titre is
supportive for an acute infection. Should clinical symptoms
be present, the PCR test for detection of the antigen
provides a fast and convincing confirmation of disease.
In case of negative result you cannot rule out Borrelia
infection, because the pathogen
may be elsewhere in the body. It is therefore vital to choose
the sample material and site very carefully! Horses in
endemic areas show B. burgdorferi antibody titres, but
the clinical relevance of the infection is debatable.
Lameness, polyarthritis and panuveitis have been
described in conjunction with Borrelia infection in horses.
Generally it is possible to detect the pathogen in the
affected organs using PCR.
s.  also Chapter 13, Infectious diseases
Bovine respiratory
syncytial virus (BRSV)
(RNA-detection)
Bronchial lavage, swap
without transport medium,
tracheal washes
real time-PCR (1)
s.  Bovine Upper Respiratory Tract Profile
245
Bovine Upper
Respiratory Tract Profile
real time-PCR (3)
Enzootic bronchopneumonia in cattle (EBP, "shipping fever")
is a multifactorial disease. Stress, loss of maternal
antibodies, suboptimal air quality in the barn, rehousing
and other exogenous factors - in combination with infectious
agents - can lead to significant losses on the farm in
question. Usually, not all animals in a group are affected at
the same time. Rather, the disease lingers in the barn, as
new cases occur while the first animals affected are already
on the road to recovery. Like a chain letter, nearly every
animal in the herd is affected at one time or another.
There are a number of vaccines, designed both to stimulate
production of specific antibodies by the (clinically
unaffected) dams and antibody transmission to the calves
via colostrum, and to protect at-risk calves directly.
We offer molecular diagnostic tests for three pathogens
involved in the EBP complex, either as individual tests or as
a cost-saving three-test profile. A sensible measure is to test
several animals from a suspected herd in the acute phase
of the disease by means of nasal Swabs for virology, thus
without medium. If necessary, it is recommended that
bacteriological testing of a second Swab (with medium)
be carried out in parallel in order to detect the bacterial
co-pathogens (primarily Mannheimia haemolytica A1 and
A6, Pasteurella multocida, Staph. aureus and Actinomyces
pyogenes). If the results are positive, antibiotic sensitivity
testing should be performed.
Mycoplasma bovis (DNA detection), bovine parainfluenza
3 (RNA detection), bovine respiratory syncytial virus (RNA
detection).
Bovine parainfluenza 3
(RNA detection)
real time-PCR (3)
Brucella spp.
(DNA-detection)
0.5 ml sperm, mucosal swap
(cervix, prepuce), bone marrow
real time-PCR (1)
246
Canine Distemper
Fever phase: 1 ml EB
Virus (CDV)
conjunctivitis:
(RNA-detection, qualitative) conjuntival Swab
CNS Symptoms: 0,5 ml CSF
Gastroenteritis:
rectal Swab, faeces
Respiratory tract Swab:
nasal secretions
real time-PCR (1)
Canine Distemper
Virus (CDV)
(RNA- quantitative
detection)
Swab (pharyngeal, eye)
real time-PCR (1)
Canine Enteric
Coronavirus (CECoV)
(RNA-detection)
rectal Swab, faeces
real time-PCR (1)
Canine Herpesvirus I
(CHV I) (DNA-detection)
conjunctival-, genital swap,
biopsy (liver, lung, spleen,
kidney), abortion sample
real time-PCR (1)
(RNA-detection)
pharyngeal- and nasal Swab
real time-PCR (1)
Canine Parainfluenza
Virus (RNA-detection)
real time-PCR (1)
247
Canine Respiratory
Coronavirus
(RNA-detection)
real time-PCR (1)
Chlamydia spp.
(DNA-detection)
Swap (rectal, eye, nose,
throat, genital), faeces (birds)
real time-PCR (1)
Reliable results are obtained when samples are collected at
the first sign of clinical symptoms. Chlamydia are obligatory
intracellular organisms, therefore it is necessary to collect
Swabts rich in cellular material. Positive PCR results confirm
that chlamydia is the cause of the disease, but a negative
result does not exclude chlamydial involvement. PCR in this
test depends on the 16S rRNA range and is not able to
distinguish between Chlamydia psittaci, C. abortus,
C. felis and C. caviae. Chlamydia is quite species
specific, however, so differentiation is possible based on
the host animal: Chlamydia psittaci is seen mainly in birds,
C. abortus is found in sheep, C. felis is in cats and
C. caviae is in guinea pigs.
Chlamydia felis
(DNA-detection)
Nasal, pharyngeal Swab
real time-PCR (1)
Feline Chlamydiosis (Feline Pneumonitis) is caused
by Chlamydia felis. It is common and world wide.
C. felis causes mainly chronic follicular conjunctivitis
with eye discharge, which is occasionally purulent.
This “eye-form” affects mainly five to twelve week old
kittens. Lung inflammation is very rarely seen. Real-time
PCR of the ompA gene of C. felis allows specific
differentiation from other Chlamydia-species.
s.  Chapter 13, Infectious disease
248
Chlamydia psittaci
(DNA-detection)
Swab (cloacal, eye, tracheal),
faeces (birds)
real time-PCR (1)
Birds infected with Chlamydophila psittaci can remain
asymptomatic for a long period of time or may show only
nonspecific symptoms. Occasionally it takes years before
chlamydiosis appears. The faecal excretion of the pathogen
starts 3 days post infection and can last intermittently for
months.
Subclinically infected animals may start shedding if
immunosuppressed (stress, illness). Stressed and sick
animals shed a larger amount of pathogen and they shed
it more frequently. It is essential to identify infected birds,
especially subclinical chronic shedders, because they
constitute the main danger of infection to other birds and
to humans (zoonosis!). Cloacal Swabs are the most suitable for testing. In case of suspected disease with a negative
test result, the test should be
repeated, as the intermittent shedding of the pathogen
may mean no pathogen was excreted at the time of the
original test.
With our PCR method (accreditted by the Friedrich Löffler
Institute, National Reference Centrum for Psittacosis) it is
possible to detect Chlamydia psittaci and so differentiate
from other Chlamydia-species.
s.  Chapter 13, Infectious disease
Alpha Toxin gene
(DNA-detection)
5 g faeces
real time-PCR (1)
Alpha Toxin gene
(DNA-detection,
quantitative)
5 g faeces
real time-PCR (1)
249
Cryptococcus
neoformans/C. gattii
(DNA-detection)
0.5 ml CSF, Swab (eye,
pharynx), bronchial lavage,
5 g faeces
Dirofilaria -PCR
real time PCR (1)
PCR (3)
s.  Filaria spp.
Ehrlichia canis
(DNA-detection)
2 ml EB,0.5 ml CSF
bone marrow, ticks
real time-PCR (1)
E. canis can be confirmed with PCR in blood by 4 - 10 days
post infection - before the first antibodies have been
produced. Monitoring the pathogen after antibiotic
treatment is possible with PCR, as due to long antibody
persistence, serology is less suitable for treatment
monitoring.
Positive PCR result confirms E. canis infection, but a
negative test result does not exclude ehrlichiosis, as the
pathogen may not be present in the blood in sufficient
amount (or at all). Alternatively, infection may be caused
by other Ehrlichia species.
Ehrlichia spp.
(DNA-detection)
0.5 ml CSF, ticks
real time-PCR (1)
Equine Adeno
Virus Type 1
(DNA-detection)
cornea Swab
conjunctival Swab
PCR (1)
250
Equine Arteritis Virus
(RNA-detection)
Sample depends on
symptoms (see below)
real time-PCR (1)
For the molecular genetic tests different sample
sample is used:
- Sperm, seminal plasma (1 ml)
- Vaginal Swab, vaginal washing (2 - 5 ml)
- Nasal/pharyngeal/conjunctival Swab,
nasal secretions, tracheal lavage (2 - 5 ml)
- Tissues: lymph nodes, spleen, lungs, placenta,
foetus (lungs, lymph nodes, spleen, foetal fluids, min. 0,5 g)
- 1 ml EDTA blood, citrated blood (only during or shortly after
viremia, especially in fever phase)
- (Urine, 5 ml)
s.  Also Chapter 13, Infectious diseases
Equine Herpesvirus-1
(EHV-1)
(EHV-4) (DNA-detection)
Respiratory symptoms:
Nasal/pharyngeal Swab,
Tracheal secretion
Conjunctivitis: Conjunctival Swab
Acute disease/feler: 1 ml heparin plasma,
EDTA plasma
Abortion: Amniotic fluid, placenta,
Foetus (liver, spleen, lung)
CNS symptoms: 0.5 ml Cerebrospinal fluid
PCR (1)
PCR (1)
The interpretation of serological test results can be
difficult, especially in herpesvirus infections. Some of
the reasons are:
1. Virus persistence, which is characteristic for herpesvirus,
leads to reactivation of the virus under stress conditions,
causing a renewal of antibody production.
2. Serum antibodies do not lead to a stable immunity,
so even high antibody levels do not protect the patient
from reinfection.
3. Cellular immunity plays a major role in disease resistance
against EHV. Humoral immunity (antibodies) plays a
secondary role
251
Using PCR allows the direct detection of the pathogen in
the affected organ and establishes a definite connection
between acute disease and herpesvirus infection
(if present). A nasal Swab is suitable for detection of virus
shedding animals or for animals that have recently been
exposed to the virus. The virus can be shed in the
respiratory tract for about 10 days post infection or after
reactivation of virus in latent (subclinical) carriers.
The highest virus shedding from nasal tract is often
observed during first fever peak of infection.
Examination of foetal and other tissues is necessary in
cases of abortion. The foetus from a herpesvirus abortion
may be virus negative. (Abortion can be due to under-nourishment from the placenta). In case of suspected disease,
the following tissues should be tested: foetus (lungs, liver
and spleen) + placenta + amniotic fluids, endometrium.
Please do not use formalin to preserve the samples!
EDTA-blood should only be collected during or shortly
after the fever phase. Positive PCR result from cellular
components of blood (leukocytes) is indicative, but does
not guarantee that herpesvirus is the cause of clinical
symptoms. Herpesvirus can be confirmed by positive DNA
testing without this pathogen being the cause of active
infection. (Herpesvirus may be subclinical, while another
virus is causing active disease; the herpesvirus PCR will
detect only herpesvirus.)
Viremia takes place during second fever peak of infection.
For ideal diagnosis, send samples taken during both
phases of the acute disease.
Please note:
This test protocol differentiates between EHV-1 and EHV-4.
252
(EHV-2) (DNA-detection)
Swap (nose, eye),
nasal/tracheal secretions
PCR (1)
PCR can detect causative connection between pathogen
and target organ.
(EVH-5) (DNA-detection)
Swabs: See EHV-2
PCR (1)
Herpesvirus should be suspected when symptoms include
corneal inflammation (ceratitis) and ceratoconjuntivitis.
EHV-2 and EHV-5 have an unclear differentiation and
pathogenicity. EHV-5 has been associated with a recently
described fibrosing lung disease called Equine
Multinodular Lung Fibrosis.This is a progressive lung
disease, whose pathogenesis and etiology is not yet clear.
Mainly adult horses are affected and patients show fever,
respiratory distress, bilateral nasal discharge, anorexia,
cough, weight loss and typical radiological changes.
Different studies appear to indicate that that testing
EHV-5 in BAL fluid is a good differential test in horses
with appropriate symptoms.
Equine
Influenza virus
(RNA-Nachweis)
Nasal/pharyngeal Swab,
Trachea secretions
(washing, BALF)
real time-PCR (1)
Detection of virus shedding in subclinically infected yet
vaccinated horses is very important, as introduction of
such animals in immunologically naïve herd can lead to
a classic outbreak situation with explosive virus spread
and morbidity.
Feline Calicivirus FCV
(RNA-detection)
Swab: pharyngeal, conjunctival,
Acute disease/Fever: 1 ml EB
253
real time-PCR (1)
Feline Coronavirus
(FCoV/FECV)
(RNA-detection)
5 g faeces, 1ml EB (viremia),
0.5 ml CFS, punctate
real time-PCR (1)
Using PCR, it is currently not possible to differentiate
between FIP (feline infectious peritonitis virus) and FCoV
(feline enteric coronavirus), which may mutate in the body
to FIP. The detection of FCoV (feline coronavirus) in aspirate
or in cerebrospinal fluid suggests the diagnosis of FIP,
especially when concurrent clinical symptoms and other
indicative laboratory findings are present (serology, clinical
chemistry).
Qualitative detection of FCoV in faeces does prove infection
with FCoV, but it does not prove evidence of FIP disease.
It can be used to identify virus shedders, but in the case of
a negative result the test should be repeated, as shedding
may be intermittent (4 samples with an interval of one
week). Quantification of virus shed via faeces by PCR
(under development) may in future be a helpful diagnostic
aid in the identification of ‘heavy’ shedders in a feline
population, which would pose a threat for other animals.
Infection of monocytes and macrophages is an important
element in the pathogenesis of FIP infection.
In summary, detection of FCoV in monocytes/macrophages
fraction of EDTA blood (buffy coat) should be interpreted
with care when suspicious of FIP infection.
Feline Herpesvirus-1
(FHV-1) (DNA-detection)
1 ml S, EB, EP, bone marrow,
punctuate, CSF, tussie, swap
real time-PCR (1)
Acutely infected animals excrete virus in large quantities.
However, chronically infected animals only excrete virus
intermittently or in small quantities. The high sensitivity of
PCR allows the identification of these chronic virus carriers.
In the case of a negative result, the test should be repeated
as the virus is excreted intermittently.
254
FIV Feline
1 ml EB, bone marrow
Immunodeficiency Virus aspirate, CSF,
(Progenome-DNA
tissues, Swab
and virus RNA detection)
real time-PCR (1)
Our real-time PCR system detects genetic FIV DNA
(progenome) and also RNA free replicating FIV. Positive
FIV PCR result confirms infection of the tested cat with FIV,
based on the high specificity of the test system (99,9%).
However a negative PCR result cannot exclude an
infection. This is due to FIV having many different subtypes,
a high number of genetic mutations with possibly decreased
genomic integration rate, but also because of the replication
rate of FIV, PCR analysis can lead to false negative results in
infected cats. Our tests are being continuously improved in
order to minimize these false negative results.
PCR may be used to clarify doubtful positive or negative
serological results:
- Infected animals may show false negative serological
results in the early stage of disease; antibodies are usually
detectable after 2-4 weeks post infection, but in some
animals they appear much later, and in end stage disease,
the antibody titer drops under detection limits.
- In kittens, interference with maternal antibodies (up to 6
months of age) can lead to positive serological results,
but infection cannot be excluded.
255
FeLV Feline
Leukemia Virus
(DNA and RNA detection)
1 ml EB
or bone marrow
real time-PCR (1)
Using real-time PCR, viral DNA integrated in the host genome (called progenome or provirus) can be detected. This
detection is used for diagnosis of latent infections. Thanks
to its high specificity, PCR can be used to clarify inconclusive results and confirm infection.
The sensitivity of PCR is highly dependent on the number
of infected cells (provirus load). Therefore negative result
does not rule out an infection.
Please note:
This test provides no information on virus replication ability.
Filaria spp.
(DNA-detection)
1 ml EB
PCR (3)
Using this PCR, Microfilaria that have been detected in
filtration test or blood smear can be further differentiated.
This way it can be detected if they are pathogenic or
non-pathogenic filarias and optimal treatment can be
chosen.
This test can differentiate several adult Filaria species,
which can originate from subcutaneous lymph nodes
(Dirofilaria repens or Acanthocheilonema reconditum),
from the heart (Dirofilaria immitis) or peritoneal cavity
(Dipetalonema dracunculoides).
For each sample a single PCR for Dirofilaria immitis and
Dirofilaria repens, and a 6-species PCR panel will be
performed. The panel contains four further (rare) species
of Microilaria. (Acanthocheilonema reconditum,
D. dracunculoide, Brugia malayi and B. pahangi).
256
Gastroenteritis Virus
(TGEV) (RNA-detection)
Swab, intestinal
mucosal membrane
Haemobartonella felis
s.  Feline Haemotropic Mycoplasma Profile:
Candidatus M. haemominutum,
Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis
Helicobacter spp.
(DNA-detection,
Many species)
Stomach biopsy, faeces
PCR (1)
Hepatozoon canis
(DNA-detection)
1 ml EB, ticks
real time-PCR (1)
Hepatozoonosis in dogs is a disease which is caused
by Hepatozoon canis. Transmission of Protozoa is by the
ingestion of infected brown dog ticks (Rhipizephalus
sanguineus), or by vertical transmission of parasites from
the mother to the puppies.
(Tick bite does not lead to infection.) Hepatozoon canis is
widespread in Southeast Europe e.g. Italy, Spain, Southern
France, in the Middle and Far East, Asia Africa, South
America and the US.
In many cases Hepatozoon canis infection is found with
Babesiosis, Ehrlichiosis, Leishmaniasis or Dirofilariasis.
257
Herpesvirus (Tortoise)
(DNA-detection)
swap, oral cavity
(wetted with NaCl)
PCR (3)
Herpesvirus-Infektion (Koi EB,HB,gills Swab in
fish) (DNA-detection)
isopropanol, gill biopsy,
organ probes in isopropanol.
Send cooled.
PCR (3)
s.  Chapter 10.1
Iridovirus (Reptiles)
(DNA-detection)
mouth Swab without medium
Lawsonia intracellulis
(DNA-detection)
faeces
PCR (3)
real-time PCR (1)
258
Leishmania spp.
(DNA-detection,
quantitative)
Bone marrow, EB,
Lymhnodes aspirate,
eye Swab, urine, skin biopsy
real time-PCR (1)
This PCR test is highly precise and suited for samples from
lymph node aspirate or bone marrow. The advantage of
pathogen detection is that you can identify animals with
subclinical disease, as the antibody level can oftenbe
below the detection limit. Using real time-PCR it is possible
to precisely quantify the number of Leishmania in the test
sample.
Knowing the parasite concentration allows exact estimation
of the infectious status in cases where:
- ELISA-results were not convincing
- Dogs show clinical signs, but do not show seroconversion
- Dogs do not show clinical signs, but originate from
endemic regions.
Studies have shown that dogs with moderate to high
concentration of Leishmania in bone marrow or blood are
sick, or are very likely to be develop active clinical infection.
Leishmania-quantifying is a highly useful method for treatment monitoring (beginning: one month after beginning of
treatment).
s.  Chapter 13, Infectious diseases.
259
Leptospira spp.
(DNA-detection,
Many species)
2 ml EB, 5 ml CSF, 5 ml Urine,
tap water, vitreous body,
Abortion: placenta, umbilical
cord, foetus (kidneys and liver)
real time-PCR (1)
Pathogen detection from blood is possible with PCR is in
first two weeks to two months after infection. Urine can be
used up to the second week post infection. The pathogen
is detectable there months to years, but shedding is
intermittent. In contrast to serology, PCR is more useful
in a very early infection (10 days post infection) for specific
antibody detection in case of clinical suspection.
Additionally it facilitates identification of chronic shedders,
even if they are vaccinated. In case of negative results the
test should be repeated, due to intermittent shedding.
The test system detects only pathogenic Leptospira strains
(differentiation is not possible):
The pathogenic Leptospira include:
L. interrogans
L. kirschneri
L. santarosai
L. weilii
L. alexanderi
L. borgpetersenii
L. genomospecies 1
L. noguchii
The non-pathogenic Leptospira include:
L. biflexa
L. meyeri
L. wolbachii
L. genomospecies 3
L. genomospecies 4
L. genomospecies 5
Opportunistic/intermediate pathogens are:
L. broomii
L. fainei
L. inadai
(The above classification is based on the publications of
Slack et al., 2006, and Perolat et al., 1998).
260
Listeria monocytogenes
CNS-symptoms: 0.5 ml CSF
Abortion: aborted sample
Septicaemia: 1 ml EDTA blood
Diarrhoea: 5 g faeces
Carriers: 5 g faeces
PCR (1)
Mycoplasma bovis
(DNA-detection)
Swab without transport
medium, bronchial/
tracheal lavage
PCR (3)
Mycoplasma felis
(DNA-detection)
conjunctivitis: conjunctive
Swab respiratory tract signs:
nasal-, pharyngeal Swab
real time-PCR (1)
M. haemocanis is closely related (and possibly identical) to
M. haemofelis. Immunocompetentdogs can be chronically
infected without showing clinical symptoms.
Haemolytic anaemia is observed in dogs after splenectomy
or immunosuppressed dogs. In rare cases the disease
can also present in immunocompetent animals.
Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum is closely
related (and possibly identical) to Candidatus Mycoplasma
haemominutum.
Candidatus Mycoplasma 1 ml EB
turicensis
(DNA-detection)
s.  Feline Mycoplasms Profile
261
real time-PCR (1)
Mycoplasma agassizii
0.5 ml nasal lavage,
Swab (throat)
real time-PCR (1)
Mycoplasma spp.
(DNA-detection,
Many species)
Swab (eye, nasal, genital)
secretions (eye, nasal, throat)
Neospora spp. (dogs)
0.5 ml CSF, faeces
PCR (1)
real time-PCR (1)
The tests detects only Neospora caninumand N. hughesi-DNA.
262
Feline Mycoplasma
Profile (DNA-detection)
0.5 ml EB + Swab
real time-PCR (1)
Many more pathogens of feline infectious anaemia can
be taxonomically distinguished today, thanks to new
developments in molecular biology testing.
The large form is called Mycoplasma haemofelis, and
the small form is called Mycoplasma haemominutum.
Both pathogens were formerly described as
Haemobartonella felis (Haemobartonellosis),
Eperythrozoon felis, or rickettsiae.
The earlier “Ohio Isolate" pathogen corresponds to
Mycoplasma haemofelis, with the "California Isolate" now
known as Mycoplasma haemominutum, or Candidatus
Mycoplasma haemominutum. In 2005 a third pathogen
was isolated. Formerly known as Mycoplasma turicensis,
it is currently called Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis.
Those three pathogens are the haemotropic Mycoplasmas.
These are obligate intracellular Gram negative bacteria.
The Mycoplasmas can be classed depending on their
pathogenicity:
Highly pathogenic: Mycoplasma haemofelis
Moderately pathogenic: Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis
Low pathogenic: Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum
263
Parvovirus 2,
5 g faeces, rectal Swab,
canine CPV-2 (DNA) - PCR; tissue, (1 ml EB),
includes the types CPV-2,
CPV-2a, CPV-2b and CPV-2c
real time-PCR (1)
Direct pathogen detection from faeces or rectal Swab by
PCR is possible in dogs and cats. It is important to note the
animal species on the laboratory form. In dogs differentiation
between vaccine strain CPV2 and wild strain CPV 2a/2b can
be performed, if the animal was
vaccinated with attenuated CPV type 2b in the 2 to 3 weeks
before sampling. (Virbagen Puppy 2b, Quantum DA2pi/CvL
and Duramune are common vaccines in Germany.)
For Vaccine virus can be shed 2-12 days after vaccination.
Shedding of field virus begins 3-4 days post infection and
usually lasts 7-10 days.
In some cases longer shedding is possible. A negative
PCR result does not exclude infection.
Parvovirus 2
differentiation in
CPV-2 and CPV-2a/b
(DNA detection)
if CPV-2 detection is positive
Parvovirus, feline FPV
(DNA-detection)
5 g faeces, rectal Swab
real-time PCR
PCR (1)
264
PBFD-Virus
(DNA-detection)
Diarrhoea: cloacal Swab, faeces
Feather deformations: damaged feathers
Post mortem: kidneys, spleen, liver
Chronic form: 0.1 - 0.5 ml EB, feathers
PCR (1)
The pathogen causing PBFD (psittacine beak and feather
disease) is a circovirus. Initial virus replication occurs in
lymphatic tissue, gastrointestinal tract and liver, but the target
organ is the epidermis.
The acute form mainly affects hatchlings. Patients show
diarrhoea, occasionally hepatitis and but a particular feature
of disease is deformed feathers. Many young birds overcome
the acute disease and develop a chronic infection.
The chronic form is characterised by growth of deformed
feathers after moulting and changes to the beak.
Latently infected animals and animals in the incubation
period pose the biggest threat for introducing the virus to
a population. PCR is the method of choice to identify these
animals. A positive PCR test is not proof of active infection,
as inactive virus DNA is detectable in the blood for up to three
months after exposure. Because of this, PCR positive animals
that do not show clinical symptoms should be isolated and
re-tested after three months. If they are still positive after three
months, they must be considered chronically infected, posing
a threat to other birds.
Polyomavirus, avian
(BFD-Virus)
(DNA-detection)
Diarrhoea: cloacal Swab, faeces
Feather deformation: affected feathers
Post mortem: kidneys, spleen, liver
Chronic form: 0.1 ml EB, feathers
PCR (1)
Vertical spread and virus spread by clinically inapparent
animals are the main means of transmission of BFD (budgerigar fledgling disease). Carriers can be identified by testing
several cloacal Swabs using PCR, in three month intervals, to
be able to detect even intermittently shedding animals.
When feather deformities are present, clinical suspicion can
be confirmed using PCR on deformed feathers. The liver,
spleen and kidneys can be used from young birds that have
died of acute disease.
265
Porcine Circovirus 2
(PCV-2) (DNA-detection)
Lymph node, tissue,
Nasal Swab
PCR (3)
Porcine Circovirus 2 has only recently been described
(1998, Canada). (Porcine Circovirus PCV-1 has been known
for a long time and is not pathogenic. PCV-2 causes different
symptoms in weaned and fattening pigs (e.g. dyspnoea,
lymph node oedema, icterus, diarrhoea) and is also known
as PMWS (Postweaning Multisystemic Wasting Syndrome).
Clinical disease has only been found in combination with
other infections (PRRS, PPV).
The other syndrome which may be associated with PCV-2
is PDNS (Porcine Dermatitis and Nephropathy Syndrome).
PDNS is an immune complex disease, but is not currently
well understood.
Not much is known about virus shedding. Experimentally the
virus can be detected in eye secretions, saliva and faeces.
Transplacenta transmission is possible, but does not play a
large role in spread. The virus shows affinity to lymph tissue
and causes immunosuppression, which leads to secondary
infections. Stomach problems can favour outbreak of the
syndrome, and mortality can reach over 80%. Subclinical
infections are possible.
Ranavirus (Reptiles)
(DNA-detection)
Swab (throat)
PCR (3)
Ranaviruses belong to the family Iridoviridae. They are
detected in frogs, turtles, tortoises and snakes. Affected
animals can display respiratory symptoms (conjunctivitis,
stomatitis, pneumonia) and gastrointestinal symptoms
(diarrhoea, anorexia). The differential diagnosis should
include herpesvirus infection. Transmission appears to be
horizontal. Direct detection is by throat Swab.
266
Rhodococcus equi
(DNA-detection)
Tracheal secretion (-lavage,
BALF), Synovial membrane,
tissues (lungs), faeces
real time-PCR (1)
R. equi is the most frequent pneumonia pathogen in foals
aged between one and six months. It is a Gram positive
facultative intracellular pathogen, which can survive in high
temperatures and dry environment. Spread is via inhalation
of contaminated dust or coprophagy (faecal ingestion).
R. equi strains with virus plasmid VapA are the most
frequent cause of clinical disease. Symptoms are
characterized by acute, subacute or chronic
bronchopneumonia. Extrapulmonary forms can occur
through internal spread of pathogen, as mesenteric
lymphadenopathy, ulcerative colitis (diarrhoea), septic
polyarthritis and osteomyelitis. Severe or untreated
disease may be fatal.
Please note:
267
Pathogen detection from nasal sample (nasal-, pharyngeal
Swab) is rarely successful!
Toxoplasma gondii
(DNA-detection)
CNS symptoms: 0.5 ml CSF
real time-PCR (1)
Abortion (dog, small ruminants):
Vaginal smear, Placenta, Foetal
(liver, spleen, lung, heart, gut)
Respiratory symptoms: Bronchial wash
Ocular symptoms (esp. cats):
Aqueous humour Pyrexia: 0.5 ml EB
The high prevalence of antibodies against toxoplasma in
dogs and cats restricts the use of serology in the diagnosis.
Only high IgM titers (in combination with low IgG titers)
gives a clear indication for acute infection, which may be
accompanied by faecal oocyst shedding in cats.
Most infected animals remain seropositive (IgG) at high
levels for several years or for life, which can even make it
difficult to judge paired serum samples.
Please note that a positive PCR test does not prove acute
infection with Toxoplasma gondii. The pathogen has been
isolated from cerebrospinal fluid and aqueous humour in
clinically healthy animals.
The PCR test cannot currently be performed on faeces, but
other sample material, based on clinical symptoms, can be
used to detect infection.
Normal chemical preparations cannot extract the DNA.
In order to absolutely rule out the shedding of oocysts in
all circumstances (for example if the owner is pregnant or
immune compromised) classical methods such as serology
and microscopic faecal examination must be performed.
This is because despite the high sensitivity, false negative
results can occur.
268
Tickborne
Encephalitisvirus
(RNA-detection)
ticks, 0.5 ml CSF
PCR (1)
This test is used to investigate CNS symptoms in animals
from regions endemic for tickborne encephalitis pathogen,
in association with or as confirmation for serological
CSF testing. This test is also capable of detecting the
virus directly in ticks.
(DNA-detection) )
2 g faeces
real time-PCR (1)
Tritrichomonas foetus (syn.: Tritrichomonas suis) is transmitted
via mating, and occasionally infected semen. It can be an
important factor in fertility disorders and abortions in cattle.
T. foetus is not strictly host specific: cattle, swine, and cats
may all be infected.
The prevalence of T. foetus in cats is very high - a figure of
34% was reported by Gookin et al. 2004. In cats trichomonads
stay in the colon and can cause diarrhoea. Also, according to
a recent study in dogs, T. foetus will be confirmed in diarrhea
cases. (Gookin et al., 2005).
269
15.3 Hereditary Diseases
 General Information on Hereditary Diseases
Hereditary diseases are due to genetic mutations. The mutation can be passed on from
parents to offspring.
 Fundamental genetics
Sexual reproduction means that the offspring receives a double set of chromosomes.
One set of chromosomes originates from the mother and father respectively.
Therefore each gene is found in duplicate, meaning as two alleles.
- If both alleles carry the same characteristic or the same defect,
the individual is homozygotic for that defect
- If only one of the alleles carries the characteristic or the defect, the individual is
heterozygotic. The phenotype of the individual is the result of the gene expression.
For hereditary disease this implies:
- Dominant genes will be expressed even if only one of the two alleles is affected by
the defect. Thus, the hereditary disease will be expressed in the offspring if the
mother or the father passes on the mutant gene.
- Recessive genes are only expressed when both alleles are affected by the defect.
This means that both mother and father must both pass the mutant gene to the
offspring. If an animal carries only one allele for the recessive hereditary disease,
it will not express the disease all its life. But it is a carrier and can pass on the gene
to its offspring. If two recessive carriers are matched, the offspring may receive two
defective alleles and subsequently express the disease.
- X-chromosomal gene expression: male animals will express the hereditary disease,
because the defect is located on the gene that is responsible for the x-chromosome.
Female individuals can be carriers, or if they are homozygotic, they may also express
the hereditary disease.
- Autosomal gene expression: the responsible gene is not located on the
x-chromosome, therefore the hereditary disease can be expressed by both male
and female individuals and they can both pass it on to their offspring.
270
 Molecular Genetic Testing for Hereditary Diseases
Molecular genetic testing can be performed at an early age, before the expression of
hereditary disease occurs. It is suitable for identifying carriers of genetic defects.
These animals can then be excluded from breeding.
PCR is used for hereditary disease testing. The DNA which contains the possible mutant
gene is amplified and the sequence is compared to a similar sequence from a genetically sound animal.
The following results are possible:
1. The animal is genetically sound with respect to the disease tested. Neither of the two
alleles carries the mutation in question. The animal cannot express the hereditary
disease, nor can it pass it on.
2. The animal is heterozygous in respect of the mutation in question. It carries a mutant
gene from either the mother or the father. Autosomal dominant gene expression will
lead to phenotypic expression of the gene: the animal will express the hereditary
disease. Autosomal recessive gene expression will not lead to an expression of the
disease. In both cases, the animal can pass on the genetic defect to its offspring.
3. The animal is homozygous in respect of the genetic defect in question. Both alleles
are mutants. The animal will express the hereditary disease and it will pass on the
genetic defect to its offspring.
BLAD (Bovine leukocyte 1 ml EB
adhesion deficiency)
PCR (3)
BLAD (Bovine leukocyte adhesion deficiency) leads to fatal
immunodeficiency in calves and young cattle.
Occurrence:
Holstein-Frisian cattle.
Symptoms:
- Recurrent infections of the respiratory and gastrointestinaltract, as well as the nasopharyngeal region
- Low birth weight
- Delayed wound healing, necrosis, gangrene
Laboratory findings:
Leukocytosis
Inheritance:
Autosomal recessive
271
Canine Malignant
Hyperthermia
(genetic predisposition)
0.5 - 1 ml EB, 2 oral mucosal
membrane swaps
PCR (3)
Also called Canine Stress Syndrome. It is caused by a
sudden severe rise in body temperature during or after
general anaesthesia and results in death in up to 70% of
cases. The severity of the symptoms varies.
Genetic predisposition and the use of depolarizing
muscle relaxants or volatile anaesthetic agents leads to
disturbance in calcium homeostasis and subsequent
increased prolonged muscle contractions, resulting in
tachycardia, tachypnoea, muscle rigidity, increased
lactic acid, hypercalcaemia and myoglobinuria.
Homozygous and heterozygous carriers can develop
the disease.
Inheritance:
Autosomal dominant
CLAD (Canine leukocyte 0.5 - 1 ml EB, 2 oral mucosal
adhesion deficiency)
membrane Swabs
PCR (1)
Mutation of one gene which encodes for leukocyte adhesion protein, damaging leukocyte function and therefore
causes CLAD (Canine leukocyte adhesion deficiency), a
fatal immunodeficiency in Irish Setters.
Symptoms:
- Susceptibility to infections (phlebitis, fever, gingivitis,
osteomyelitis, osteopathy esp. of metaphyses and jaw
bones).
- Enlargement of superficial lymph nodes
Severe neutrophilia
Inheritance:
Autosomal recessive
Predisposed breed:
Irish Setter
272
Collie Eye Anomaly
(CEA)
membrane Swabs
PCR (3)
Collie Eye Anomaly (CEA) or Choroidal Hypoplasia (CH) is
a hereditary eye disease, which is caused by abnormal a
genetic disorder of eye development.
The choroid is not formed correctly and is hypoplastic
(underdeveloped) in the region of the optic nerve.
A coloboma (hole) may be found near the optic disc,
caused by improper closure closure of embryonic tissue.
The severe form may involve retinal detachment and
bleeding in the eye, causing total blindness in the affected
animal.
The severity of this disease varies significantly between
individual dogs, and occasionally between individual eyes.
CEA an autosomal recessive allele that has been found in
nearly 100% of predisposed breeds.
Predisposed breeds:
Inheritance
Please note:
273
Clinical signs may develop as early as 6 to 7 weeks of age.
Mutation analysis is performed by OptiGen, USA.
Border Collie, longhaired and shorthaired Collie,
longhaired Whippet, Lancashire Heeler, Nova Scotia Duck
Tolling Retrievers (Toller), Shetland Sheepdog,
Silken Windhound and Australian Shepherd.
Autosomal recessive.
Please specify the patient breed in the test order.
Cystinuria in the
Newfoundland, Landseer membrane Swabs
PCR (1)
A mutation on the gene SCL3A1 leads to a disturbance of
cystine reabsorption in the renal tubuli in Newfoundland
dogs. The increased cystine excretion may lead to the
formation of cystine calculi. The DNA test enables the
detection of homozygous animals with this reabsorption
disturbance which can then be prophylactically treated to
prevent stone formation, and in addition will identify
clinically healthy carriers of the cysteine allele. This is
important for breeding purposes, as heterozygous carriers
should only be mated with genetically healthy animals.
Predisposed breeds: i
Newfoundland and Landseer dogs
Inheritance:
Autosomal recessive
Please note:
Please specify the patient breed in the test order.
Familial
Nephropathy FN
membrane Swabs
Predisposed breed
English Cocker spaniels
Symptoms:
Kidney disease in young animals
Inheritance:
Autosomal recessive
Coat colour brown
(dogs)
0.5 - 1 ml EB,
2 Mundschleimhaut-Abstriche
Test possible for:
Australian Shepherd, Border Collie, Beagle, Cardigan Welsh
Corgi, American Cocker Spaniel, Dachshund, Dalmatian,
Doberman Pinscher, English Cocker Spaniel, English
Springer Spaniel, Flat-Coated Retriever, German Shepherd,
German Shorthaired Pointer, German Wirehaired Pointer,
Irish Setter, Labrador Retriever, Poodle
PCR (3)
274
Coat colour yellow
(dogs)
0.5 -1 ml EB, 2 oral mucosal
membrane Swabs
Test possible for:
Australian Shepherd, Bedlington Terrier, Border Collie,
Cardigan Welsh Corgi, American Cocker Spaniel,
Dachshund, Dalmatian, Doberman Pinscher, English Cocker
Spaniel, English Springer Spaniel, Flat-Coated Retriever,
Fox Terrier, French Bulldog, Galgo Espanol,
German Longhaired Pointer, German Shorthaired Pointer,
German Wirehaired Pointer, Labrador Retriever,
Miniature Pinscher, Newfoundland, Pointer, Poodle,
Portuguese Water Dog, Scottish Terrier, Weimaraner
Chocolate / cinnamon
coat colour (cats)
membrane Swabs
Test possible for:
All breeds.
Coat colour Merle
(dogs)
membrane Swabs
Test possible for:
Shetland Sheepdogs, Collie, Great Danes, Cardigan Welsh
Corgi, Australian Shepherds, Border Collie, Chihuahua,
Cocker Spaniel, Dachshund, Catahoula Leopard Dog,
Norwegian Hound, Pyrenean Shepherd, Pomeranian,
Beauceron Sheepdog, Pit Bull.
Coat colour Chestnut
1 ml EB
PCR (3)
PCR (3)
PCR (1)
PCR (3)
A mutation in MC1R (melanocyte stimulating hormone
receptor) is likely the cause of chestnut colour.
Test possible:
Horses
Symptoms:
Lack of pigment building (brown/black)
Inheritance:
Autosomal recessive
275
Fucosidosis
membrane Swabs
PCR (3)
Fucosidosis is an autosomal recessively inherited fatal
disease of dogs. It occurs mainly in English Springer
Spaniels.
Fucosidosis is characterized by the deposit of fucose
containing complex molecules in the nervous system, but
also in the liver, kidneys, lungs, lymph nodes and bone
marrow. Due to a genetic deficiency of the enzyme alphaL-fucosidase, these substrates can not be broken down.
First neurological symptoms are seen at the age of 12-18
months (behavioural changes, locomotor disorders,
blindness, deafness, problems swallowing), eventually
leading to the death of the animal. Dogs often show a
rough, dry haircoat and are unable to breed.
Additionally affected dogs loose weight and may vomit.
Newborns show no clinical signs, as the earliest signs of
illness present between 4-24 months of age. The disease
has a progressive course and is invariably fatal. Affected
dogs are usually put to sleep because of the severity of
symptoms in the end stage of disease.
Molecular genetic tests allow reliable diagnosis at birth.
Clinically healthy carriers of the gene mutation can be
identified. Carriers should not be bred, or at least not with
other carriers, to avoid breeding affected animals and to
reduce disease occurrence in predisposed breeds.
Genetic test possible:
English Springer Spaniel
Inheritance:
Autosomal recessive
Gangliosidosis GM1
in dogs
membrane Swabs
Test is possible in
Husky, Portuguese Water Dog
PCR (3)
276
GM1 und GM2Gangliosidosis
in the Cat
membrane Swabs
PCR (3)
Gangliosidosis is an autosomal recessive hereditary lipid
storage disease. Gangliosides accumulate in lysosomes
because of the absence of the necessary enzymes for their
breakdown. Gangliosidosis is seen in certain dog and cat
breeds and in humans. Two main forms are differentiated,
depending on the stored ganglioside or the missing
enzyme respectively.
GM1-gangliosidosis is characterized by the lack of
β-galactosidase, and GM2-gangliosidosis is
characterized by the absence of β-hexosaminidase.
Both forms lead to severe progressive CNS disorders with
tremor and paralysis. GM1-gangliosidosis is expressed
earlier and the clinical symptoms progress more quickly
than in GM2-gangliosidosis. Both forms are expressed in
the first few months of life. The Korat cat expresses both
forms of the disease. GM2-gangliosidosis is widespread
in the Korat cat population, which poses a serious problem
for breeders. All cats should be tested before they are
used for breeding, to avoid breeding genetic carriers.
Symptoms:
- CNS symptoms
- Tremor
- Paralysis
Inheritance:
Autosomal recessive
Predisposed breed:
Siamese (GM1), Burmese (GM2),
and Korat cats (GM1 and GM2)
277
Globoid cell
leukodystrophy
membrane Swabs
PCR (3)
Globoid cell leukodystrophy (Krabbe’s disease) is found is certain dog and cat breeds
and in humans. It is a hereditary lipid storage disease. The lack of the lysosomal enzyme
galactocerebrocide-β-galactosidase leads to the deposition of of cerebrosides in the
CNS. As a consequence the white matter is demyelinated. In West Highland White and
Cairn Terriers the defect is an autosomal recessive disorder.
First symptoms are usually seen at the age of 2-6 months.
Predisposed breeds:
West Highland White Terrier, Cairn Terrier.
Symptoms:
CNS disorders: Ataxia, Paresis of hind limbs, head tremors
Behaviour disorders:
Reduced spinal reflexes, muscle atrophy
Inheritance:
Autosomal recessive
Glycogen
Storage disease
Type IV
membrane Swabs
PCR (3)
Glycogen storage disease type IV (GSD IV) is one of the different forms of a heterogenic
group of glycogen metabolism disorders, which are described also as glycogenosis.
In GSD IV, glycogen branching enzyme (amylo-1,4-1,6-transglucosidase) expression is
reduced, which results in accumulation of abnormal long-branched glycogen in different
tissues. Clinical symptoms are reduced muscle tone and cirrhosis.
Two different forms of GSD IV in Norwegian Forest Cats are described: cats affected by
the first form die at or shortly after birth.
In the second form, development of cats is normal for the first 5-7 months, but then slows
down and affected cats show tremors, high fever, muscle contractions and progressive
muscle atrophy. Paralysis eventually develops, and affected animals die between 7 and
14 months of age.
Predisposed breed:
Norwegian Forest cats
Inheritance:
Autosomal recessive
Please note:
Please state the patient breed on the test order form!
278
HCM (hypertrophic
cardiomyopathy)
Mutations
A31P, A74T, R820W
membrane Swabs
PCR (1, 3)
Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is the most commonly diagnosed heart disease
in cats. Caused by concentric hypertrophy of the heart, the following clinical symptoms
can occur:
- Rhythm disorders
- Sudden death,
- Cardiac insufficiency,
-Tachycardia,
-Dyspnoea
- Congestive heart failure
- Thrombus formation in aortic bifurcation of pelvic and limb arteries.
Persians and Maine Coon cats are some of the most likely breeds to develop heart failure.
In Maine Coon cats, mutation A31P may be a genetic trigger of primary HCM in MYBPC3
(cardiac myosin binding protein 3). It is not currently possible to define how widespread
the mutation is, due to differences in the published data.
The inheritance is autosomally dominant, so animals with a single allele can develop
disease. In homozygous cats and purebred cats the disease is more severe.
According to the most recent research, the A74T mutation has not yet been proven to
cause HCM in Maine Coon Cats. The R820W mutation has been detected only in ragdoll
cats and is autosomal recessive inherited. It is not known in cats how many genes are
involved in the development of HCM (in humans more than 100 mutations have been
described until now).
Gene test A31P and
A74T possible in:
Maine Coon cats and Maine Coon mixes which will test if
the mutation has been passed on by the parent.
Gene test R820W
possible in:
Ragdoll cats and Ragdoll mixes, which will test if the
mutation has been passed on by the parent.
Inheritance A31P
Inheritance R320W
Autosomal dominant (?)
Autosomal recessive
Please note:
Please state the patient breed in the test order form!
279
HYPP
1 ml EB
PCR (1)
HYPP (Hyperkalaemic periodic paralysis) is a muscular
disease that is most likely due to disturbed electrolyte
transportation in the muscle cell membrane.
The responsible mutation is on the gene which codes
for the sodium channels in the muscle cells. Potassiuminduced attacks of skeletal muscle paralysis occur.
Genetic test possible:
American Quarter horse and their cross breeds
Symptoms:
Increased breathing sounds, muscle weakness,
muscle tremor, collapse
During training:
Laryngospasm, hypoxia, hypercapnia, arrhythmias
Inheritance:
Autosomal co-dominant (more severe symptoms in
homozygous animals than in heterozygous animals)
Copper Storage disease 0.5 - 1 ml EB, 2 oral mucosal
membrane Swabs
PCR (3)
Copper storage hepatopathy is due to a disturbance
in copper excretion, which leads to an accumulation of
copper in the liver with subsequent damage to the liver
cells. For the detection of this disease, a DNA microsatellite
marker is used, which is closely linked to the responsible
gene mutation.
Predisposed breed:
Bedlington Terrier
Symptoms:
Severe liver damage, tremors,
occasionally haemolytic anaemia
Inheritance:
Autosomal recessive
280
(L-2-Hydroxyglutaraciduria) membrane Swabs
PCR (3)
L-2-HGA (L-2-Hydroxyglutaraciduria) is a progressive
neurodegenerative disease with mostly neurological manifestations, which are characterised by increased levels of
2-hydroxy-glutaric acid in urine, plasma and cerebrospinal
fluid.
First clinical signs occur usually in between the ages of 6
months to a year. (Occasionally signs develop later.) HGA
causes many neurological deficits, such as psychomotoric
retardation (especially in the first year of life), seizures and
ataxia. Affected animals show weak gait, tremors, muscle weakness after excercise, excitement and behaviour
changes
Predisposed breed:
Staffordshire Bull Terrier
Inheritance:
Autosomal recessive
Please note:
Canine Malignant Hyperthermia
s.  Canine Malignant Hyperthermia
Porcine Malignant Hyperthermia Syndrome
s.  Porcine Malignant Hyperthermia Syndrome
281
Mucopolysaccharidosis
VII
membrane Swabs
PCR (3)
Mucopolysaccharidosis VII occurs in various dog breeds
and their crosses and is well known in cats, mice and
human. Lack of ß-D-Glucuronidase enzyme, which is
important for normal cell functions, causes progressive
lysosomal accumulation of glycosaminoglycans in some
tissues. Various symptoms occur are similar to those in
human.
Symptoms include joint deformations, reduced weight loss,
mental retardation, eye and heart diseases, hepato and
splenomegaly. Animals are affected at the age of
approximately six months and often cannot stand or walk.
The disease leads to early death.
The molecular genetic test allows the most reliable
diagnosis of diseased animals and identification of gene
carriers. Carriers should not be mated, in order to avoid
breeding diseased animals and to reduce the incidence
of disease in affected breeds.
Predisposed breeds:
German shepards
Erbgang
Autosomal recessive
Myopathy,
Labrador Retriever
(CNM, HMLR, LRM)
0.5 ml EB, 2 buccal Swabs
PCR (3)
282
Myotonia congenita
in Miniature Schnauzers membrane Swabs
PCR (3)
Myotonia congenita is well described in Miniature
Schnauzers, but is also seen in other dog breeds
(Chow-Chow, Staffordshire Bull Terrier, Great Danes)
and other domestic animals (cats, horses, sheep, goats,
and mice). The gene mutation, which encodes for ion
channels in skeletal muscle membranes, causes delayed
electrical impulses in muscle and abnormal muscle
relaxation. Affected animals show clinical symptoms within
a few weeks after birth. Disease does not cause abnormal
contractions or pain.
Predisposed breed:
Miniature schnaucers
Symptoms:
- Muscle hypertrophy, stiff gait, hopping gait
(“bunny hopping“)
- Enlarged tongue, swallowing difficulties,
increased salivation
- Loud breathing, altered voice (barking)
- Only in Miniature Schnauzers: shortened mandibula,
missing teeth
Inheritance:
Autosomal recessive
Night Blindness
Briard dog
membrane Swabs
PCR (3)
A deletion in the RPE65 gene, which codes for the protein
in the stratum pigmentosum of the retina, is responsible for
the defect. Young puppies show signs of night blindness.
This progresses until the the patient is completely blind.
Predisposed Breed
Berger de Briard dog
Symptoms
Night blindness, eventually total blindness
Inheritance:
Autosomal recessive
283
Overo Lethal White
Syndrome (OLWS)
1 ml EB
PCR (3)
OLWS (Overo Lethal White Syndrome) concerns of a
missense-mutation of gene for endothelin receptor B.
This receptor is involved in development of some neural
cells, which later become intestinal ganglions. By pairing
two heterozygotic carriers for this gene defect, a white
homozygotic foal can be born with non-functioning
intestinal ganglions. Animals are born apparently healthy,
but due to a non-functioning colon, die of colic in a few
days. A molecular genetic test is always recommended
in suspected cases.
Predisposed breeds:
American Paint Horses, Appaloosa, Pinto, Quarter Horses,
Thoroughbreds, American Miniature Horses, Mustangs,
Arabian crosses.
Symptoms:
The foals are born completely white and have an
innervation defect of the gastrointestinal tract
(intestinal agangionosis).
Inheritance:
Autosomal recessive
284
Phosphofructokinase
deficiency
membrane Swabs
PCR (3)
Phosphofructokinase (PFK) is a glycolytic enzyme that
is involved in the energy supply to erythrocytes and
myelocytes. Hereditary phosphofructokinase deficiency
leads to chronic haemolysis (chronic hyperbilirubinaemia,
increased reticulocyte count with normal haematocrit).
However, stress situations will lead to a haemolytic
crisis (brown/red urine due to haemoglobinuria and
hyperbilirubinuria, icterus, severe anaemia, lethargy) and
to stress myopathies (reluctance to move, convulsions).
With adequate good care and rest, animals may have a
normal life span. The disease is caused by a point mutation
in the muscle-type phosphofructokinase gene.
Point mutation causes reduced enzyme production, which
results in metabolic myopathy and chronic haemolysis
(chronic hiperbilirubinemia, icterus, severe anaemia,
lethargy) and stress myopathias (movement ability,
spasms). Affected dogs show only 6 - 22 % of normal
erythrocytic PFK activity and only 1- 4 % of normal
muscular PFK activity. Treatment is not possible.
By careful husbandry and optimum living conditions, a
normal life expectancy is possible for affected animals.
This molecular genetic test allows reliable diagnosis to
identify asymptomatic carriers of the gene mutation.
The carriers should not be bred, or at least not bred
together, in order to avoid breeding sick animals and to
reduce prevalence of the gene and the disease in affected
breeds.
Predisposed breeds:
English Springer Spaniel, American Cocker Spaniel
and their crosses
Inheritance:
Autosomal recessive
285
Polycystic Kidney
Disease PKD
membrane Swabs
PCR (1)
PKD was discovered in Persian cats in 1967. Polycystic
kidney disease is a worldwide spread inherited disease,
which affects 38% of Persian cats (6% of all cats).
Disease progression in affected animals is slow and leads
to terminal kidney failure. Symptoms usually reflect
nonspecific chronic kidney deficiency and can only be
treated conservatively. Clinically asymptomatic carriers
of the gene mutation are identified. Carriers should not
be bred, in order to avoid breeding diseased animals and
to reduce the gene occurrence in predisposed breeds.
A C > A mutation will be tested in feline PKD1-Gene
(GenBank Acc. Nr. AY612847).
Inheritance:
Autosomal dominant
Predisposed breeds:
Persian, Himalayan and Siamese cats, Ragdolls,
European shorthaired, American Shorthair, British Shorthair
(BKH; BRI), Exotic Shorthair, Selkirk and Scottish Folds.
Carthusian Cats: Only possible: blue BKH;
not possible: Chartreux
Please note:
1 ml EB
Porcine Malignant
Hyperthermia Syndrome
PCR (3)
This disease is caused by gene mutation, which encodes
for ryanodine receptors in skeletal muscles. It is found in
all swine breeds with increased muscle attachment and
decreased fat deposition. This gene defect causes calcium
release from the sarcoplasmatic reticulum of myelocytes in
high stress situations and during inhalation anesthesia.
Increased calcium release causes muscle contraction,
which leads to increased anaerobic glycolysis, lactate
acidosis and hyperthermia. Our molecular genetic test
allows identification of healthy animals and carriers of one
or two pathogenic alleles, and is required by breeders.
Test is possible in
All swine breeds may suffer from this mutation.
286
PRA
membrane Swabs
PCR (3)
Progressive Retina Atrophy (PRA) occurs in several dog
and cat breeds. It causes degeneration and eventually
total loss of retinal photoreceptors. Different forms of
PRA exist and may be differentiated according to clinical
symptoms (first night blindness, than daytime sight
diminishes and proceeds to gradual blindness) and
ophtalmological picture (hyperreflexy of tapetum lucidum,
thin retinal vessels, pale papillae, depigmentation
in tapetum free fundus). They also differ in age of onset
of clinical symptoms. PRA is caused by several different
gene mutations, of which only some are known.
cord1-PRA
cord1-PRA (Cone rod dystrophy 1) is a disease of the
retina. It is a special form of PRA, which is completely
different from other PRA forms in clinical course and
also genetics:
While most other inherited diseases of retina first destroys
rod cells and then cone cells of retina, in cord1-PRA
the cone cells are damaged first.
The first clinical symptoms of cord1-PRA can occur at the
age of six months, although some genetically affected dogs
show visible clinical symptoms at an older age.
Predisposed breeds:
Long and shoirthaired dachshund, English Springer Spaniel
Inheritance:
Autosomal recessive.
Test not possible:
Rabbit dachshunds
287
prcd-PRA
The genetic mutation prcd-PRA leads to degeneration of
retina cells. Retinal rods, one of the photoreceptors type,
which are specialized in low-light vision, are the first to lose
their normal function; the result is development of night
blindness. Following that, the retinal cones begin to lose
their function in normal light conditions. Affected dogs go
completely blind. Typically, the first clinical signs can be
observed very young dogs, although disease presentation
varies between different dogs. Mutation analysis is performed by OptiGen, Ithaca, USA.
Predisposed breeds:
Australian Shepherd, Mini Australian Shephard, Australian
cattle dog, American Cocker Spaniel, American Eskimo,
Chesapeake Bay Retriever, Chinese Crested, English Cocker Spaniel, Entlebucher Sennenhund, Golden Retriever,
Kuvasz, Lapponian Herder, Labrador Retriever, Zwergpudel
(Dwarf Poodle), Miniature & Toy Poodle, Nova Scotia Dock
Tolling Retriever, Portugiesischer & Span. Wasserhund,
Schwedischer Lapphund, Finnischer Lapphund, Silky Terrier, Australian Stumpy Tail Cattle Dog, Wäller, Pumi.
NEW: Cockapoo, Golden Doodle, Karelian Bear Dog,
Labradoodle, Australian Labradoodle, Markiesje, Moyen
Poodle, Norwegian Elkhound, Yorkshire Terrier.
Test not possible
Poodle, Sheltie Shepherd, Bernese Mountain Dog!
Inheritance:
Autosomal recessive
288
rcd 1-PRA
The genetic mutation for an early type of PRA, the rod-cone
dysplasia type 1, can be identified in the Irish Setter. The
gene expression is autosomal recessive, therefore only
animals with two mutated genes will develop disease.
Ophthalmological detection is usually possible from the
age of 4 months. Molecular biological detection is possible
at any age, to determine whether the animal is a genetically
healthy heterozygous carrier or a homozygous carrier that
will develop the disease.
Predisposed breeds:
Irish Setter
Inheritance:
Autosomal recessive
Test not possible:
Bobtails, Cardigan Welsh Corgi = rcd3-PRA!
rcd2-PRA
PRA in Collies
In this form of PRA the abnormal development of rods and
cones leads to an early form of night blindness, which
typically shows up in puppies by 6 weeks of age. In most
cases the homozygotic dog goes blind by 1 year of age.
Predisposed breeds:
Collies
Inheritance:
Autosomal recessive
Test not possible:
Border Collies
rdAc-PRA
Progressive Retinal Atrophy of Abyssinian and Somali
cats (rdAc) is also a disease of the retina which leads to
blindness.First the rods cells lose their normal function,
then the cone cells of the retina are affected. Clinical
symptoms present from between 1,5 and 2 years. At the
end stage of disease, the animal goes completely blind by
3-5 years of age.
Predisposed breeds:
Abyssinian, Somali, Ocicat, Siamese, Bengal, Balinese,
Javanese, Oriental shorthaired, Tonkinese
Inheritance:
Autosomal recessive
Please note:
289
Pyruvate kinase
deficiency
0.5 - 1 ml EDTA plasma, 2 oral
mucosal membrane Swabs
PCR (3)
Pyruvate kinase deficiency is well researched in Basenji
dogs and West Highland White Terriers, but it also occurs in
other dog breeds (Cairn Terrier, Beagle, Miniature Poodle,
etc.), cats and humans. It is a specific mutation in the gene,
which encodes for functional pyruvate kinase enzyme.
The lack of the enzyme, which plays an important role in
red blood cell metabolism, leads to premature breakdown
and destruction of red blood cells.The affected animals
subsequently develop chronic regenerative haemolytic
anaemia, progressive myelofibrosis and osteosclerosis and
have a much reduced life span. The onset of disease is
between the ages of four to twelve months.
Predisposed breeds:i
Dogs: Basenji, West Highland White Terrier
Cats: Abyssinian, Somalian, (Ocicat)
Test not possible:
Pug dog, Cairn Terrier
Inheritance:
Autosomal recessive
Please note:
290
SCID in Arabians
1 ml EB
PCR (3)
SCID (Severe combined immunodeficiency) in the Arabian
foal is probably due to a defect in the lymphoid stem cells,
which leads to disturbed maturation of the B- and T-cell
lymphocytes, resulting in severe lymphopenia. Affected
foals develop disease at the age of approximately 1 month
and the majority of them die within 5 months of birth,
due to opportunistic infections.
The disease is caused by a deletion in a gene that codes
for DNA-dependent protein kinase. Only foals that carry
two copies of the gene will develop disease. The genetic
test can detect diseased foals as well as clinically healthy
carriers, which is important for breeding purposes.
Predisposed breed:
Arabian horse
Symptoms:
Susceptibility to infection
Inheritance:
Autosomal recessive
291
SCID in
Jack Russell Terrier
membrane Swabs
PCR (3)
SCID (severe combined immunodeficiency) is a genetically
determined severe immune disease that has a range of
clinical symptoms and is described in many different dogs
breeds. The disease is also possible in horses, mice and
humans.
A point mutation results in B- and T-lymphocyte
dysfunction, which leads to extreme lymphopenia,
agammaglobulinemia, thymus dysplasia and peripheral
lymphoid aplasia. Affected dogs die shortly after weaning.
Only puppies which carry a double mutation in their
genome will develop disease. Affected puppies can be
diagnosed by gene test and is very important for breeders.
Clinically asymptomatic SCID carriers can be distinguished
from non-carriers. SCID carriers are excluded from
breeding, but they have to be paired with non-carriers.
Predisposed breed:
Jack Russell Terrier
Inheritance:
Autosomal recessive
292
Scrapie
1ml EB
PCR (3)
Scrapie is a non febrile, chronic progressive degenerative
CNS disorder in sheep, rarely seen in goats and cattle. It is
caused by the formation of an endogenous glycoprotein on
the neuronal surface which folds incorrectly and therefore
cannot break down. This results in the formation of amyloid
aggregates which deposit in certain tissues, causing CNS
symptoms.
Disease is transmitted horizontally and vertically in sheep.
In sheep, horizontal and vertical transmission can occur.
Whether or not an individual is susceptible to Scrapie is
determined by the prion protein gene (PrP). Molecular
genetic testing of the gene make it possible to assess the
risk for the animal to develop Scrapie.
The following amino acids can occur depending on
position: Alanine (A), Histidine (H), Glutamine (Q), Arginine
(R) or Valine (V).
By gene testing all variants of three specific gene parts
(Codons 136, 154 and 171) the coding for these amino
acids will be analysed. The BMVEL and Project Group of
German Society of Breeders are breeding for TSE-resistance in sheep, and sheep are classified as one
of five genotype classes:
Genotype class:
TSE-resistance genotype
G5
VRQ/VRQ, ARQ/VRQ, ARH/VRQ, VRQ/AHQ
G4
ARR/VRQ
G3
AHQ/AHQ, AHQ/ARH, AHQ/ARQ, ARH/ARH, ARH/ARQ
ARQ/ARQ
G2
ARR/AHQ, ARR/ARH, ARR/ARQ
G1
ARR/ARR
Test method:
Direct DNA-sequencing. This is a new method, with which
all currently identified mutations can be diagnosed.
Predisposed breeds:
All sheep breeds
293
Von Willebrand
disease (vWF)
membrane Swabs
PCR (3)
The Von Willebrand factor (vWF) mediates the adhesion
of thrombocytes to the subendothelial cells of a damaged
blood vessel. It also acts as a carrier protein for Factor VII
of the plasma coagulation system and protects it from
premature proteolytic decomposition. Reduced
concentration or complete absence of functional vWF leads
to coagulation disorders of various degrees of severity.
Characteristic symptoms are bleeding from the mucous
membranes and vigorous bleeding during teething, oestrus
and trauma.
There are three types of Von Willebrand Disease, two of
which can be genetically determined: type 1 and type 3.
vWF type 1
Often a milder course of the disease. The gene expression
is autosomal incompletely dominant, e.g. heterozygous
animals possess moderate vWF plasma concentrations
and may be clinically inapparent, whereas homozygous
animals possess low vWF plasma concentrations and
show more severe clinical symptoms.
Predisposed breeds
Dobermann Pinscher, Poodle, Manchester Terrier,
Coton de Tulear, Doberman Pinscher, Drentsche
Patrijshond, Bernese Mountain Dog, German Pinscher,
Kerry Blue Terrier, Poodle, Papillon, Welsh Corgi
vWF type 2
Shows a mild to severe course with variable
vWF concentrations.
Predisposed breed:
German wirehaired pointer, German Pointers
Inheritance:
Autosomal recessive
294
vWF type 3
The most severe course of the disease. The gene
expression is autosomal recessive. Homozygous animals
possess no detectable vWF plasma concentrations and
suffer from severe coagulation disorders. Heterozygous
animals possess reduced vWF plasma concentrations
and are carriers of the disease, but do not usually show any
clinical symptoms.
Predisposed breeds:
Scottish Terrier, Sheltie, Kooiker dog
Test not possible:
Rhodesian Ridgeback
Please note:
Please state the patient breed in the test order form
X-SCID
membrane Swabs
PCR (3)
X-SCID (X-linked Severe Combined Immuno Deficiency)
in the dog is caused by a defect in the γ-chain of the
interleucine-2 receptor. The cellular and humoral immune
systems are markedly impaired. Only male dogs are
affected by the disease; female dogs are only carriers.
Recurring and chronic infections (due to opportunistic
pathogens) start once maternal antibody protection ends.
Most affected puppies die at the age of three to four
months.
Predisposed Breeds:
Welsh Corgi, Basset
Symptoms:
- Developmental disorders, thymus dysplasia,
- Susceptibility to infections, inadequately formed
peripheral lymph nodes
Lymphopenia, reduced IgG and IgA levels,
variable IgM levels
Gene expression
X-chromosome bound
295
15.4 Avian Sex Determination
 General Information
Avian sex determination is performed using DNA extracted from feather pulp
or from EDTA blood. A specific region of the DNA is amplified using PCR.
Two different molecular biological methods are employed to identify the
gender-specific gene sequences of the sex chromosomes.
This test can be used in several hundred avian species. It can not be used
in ratites (emu, ostrich, nandu and kiwi) but it can be used in the cassowary.
Sex determination, avian 100 µl EB, feathers
real time-PCR (1)
EDTA blood:
only 2-3 drops are required
Feathers:
Several small feathers or one large feather can be submitted,
but it is important that the quill is intact. Growing feathers
contain more DNA than mature feathers, which is why they
are most suitable for sex identification. It is possible to use
mature feathers or even feathers that
have recently been moulted. Clear identification of the source
of the feathers must be made and contamination with foreign
genetic sample (cage dust or sand) must be avoided. Bloody
feathers should be submitted in a sterile tub. The vane
(feathered end) of the feather may be shortened. Dry feathers
may be sent in a sealed plastic bag.
Egg shells:
Isolation of DNA from egg membrane is possible; therefore
the egg shell should be mostly intact. A drop of blood taken
from the egg shell with a sterile Swab is even more suitable.
Please make sure the egg shell is from the desired individual.
Please note:
In order to avoid false or inconclusive results, the sample
material must be protected from contamination with other
samples which may contain DNA.
- The sample material (blood or feather pulp) can be
stored at 4-8 °C for several days.
- Dry feathers can be stored at room temperature
for several weeks.
- Detailed identification must accompany the sample at
submission, including the accurate avian species (scientific
name if possible), ring number and the date of collection.
296
15.5 Parentage verification/ genetic fingerprint
 General Information
Parentage verification is sometimes required to verify that the parents are the true
parents of the offspring. Parentage verification is done using microsatellite analysis.
Principle:
A genome contains a large number of DNA “microsatellite” segments, which are
multiple repeated copies of short DNA sections. The number of copies and the length
of the microsatellites vary from one individual to another. The human genome is
estimated to contain up to 100,000 of these microsatellite gene sites. Each individual
therefore possesses a unique genome and there are practically no two identical
individuals (except monozygotic twins).
In principle, offspring inherit 50% of its genetic sample from its mother and 50% from
its father. This means that any variation of the genome (e.g. in the highly variable
microsatellite sequence) that is not inherited from the mother must be inherited from
the father.
For example, in the case of paternity testing, if the mother is known, and microsatellites
are found in the offspring that do not match either the mother or claimed father, then
fatherhood can be ruled out with a high probability.
Detection reliability increases with the comparison of several microsatellite gene sites.
This is why we examine 17 microsatellites in horses, 10 in cats and 9 in dogs
(19 (ISAG 2006) as recommended by ISAG(International Society for Animal Genetics).
297
Parentage Verification
membrane Swabs
PCR (3)
For parentage verification sample sample from the
offspring is required as well as sample material from each
of the suspected parents. Please ensure the samples are
clearly and correctly labeled!
Example: The mother is known, but there are two different
fathers considered
Submit the sample samples clearly marked as:
1. Offspring
2. Mother
3. Potential father A
4. Potential father B
Genetic Fingerprint/
DNA Profile
membrane Swabs
PCR (3)
The ‘genetic fingerprint’ is the only forgery-proof means
of identification of an individual. It is much more reliable
than tattoos and implanted microchips. It uses the
individual variability of the genetic information and allows
unquestionable identification after death. The results of
the ‘genetic fingerprint’ are electronically stored at our
laboratory and can be recalled at any time if necessary
(loss of the animal, damage caused by animals, stolen
animals, etc.). The animal owner will receive a certificate
with the DNA profile of his animal.
Each individual has a unique genome (with the exception
of identical twins). Therefore a DNA profile of two submitted
samples will determine whether they are from the same
animal. Genetic identity determination is the method of
choice for forensic purposes (damage, theft, etc).
This genetic test is possible in dogs, cats, and horses.
298
Sequence analysis
PCR (1)
DNA-sequence analysis in molecular biology and
bioinformatics is an automatic computer analysis of
characteristic features, especially genes in DNA-strand.
Information is gained by DNA-sequencing on the sequence
and position of base pairs.
When compared for similarities in the international
sequence data banks, information can be found about
the organism species and about differences (mutations)
in the nucleic acid sequence, compared to the standard
sequence.
This method is used to analyze many inherited diseases,
but is also used in single cases to characterise or to
differenciate PCR products from test results. Such
species differentiation is possible after consultation
with the laboratory.
299
16 Microbiology
16.1 Bacteriology tests
16.1.1 Testing Times and Charges
Please follow the special instructions for sample handling and material s.  Chapter 2.3
 Overview of testing times and charges
Bacteriological examinations require a variable amount of sample material and time,
depending on the required number of tests, requirements for bacterial growth, and how
long any antibiotic sensitivity testing takes.
1. 1. Culture test bacteriology
Bacterial culture for
Time period* Bacteriology, aerobic (1
Mon - Sat 2 - 3 days
Price contains
Ear Swab (1)
Mon - Sat 2 - 3 days Mycology culture (Malassezia)
Cervical Swab, mare (1
Mon - Sat 2 - 3 days Mycology culture
Taylorella equigenitalis (CEM)**(1)
Mon - Sat min 7 days
Milk samples, cattle (1) Mon - Sat 2 - 3 days Mycology culture
Urine samples (1)
Mon - Sat 1 - 2 days Sensitivity test, bacterial count
Bacteriology, anaerobic (1)
Mon - Sat min 3 days
Blood culture, aerobic (1)
and anaerobic
Intestinal pathogens
from faecal sample (1)
Mon - Sat 10 days
Salmonellas (1)
Mon - Sat 2 - 3 day
Clostridium detection (1)
faeces(quantitative)
Mon - Fri 2 - 3 day
Mycobacterium (3
Mon - Fri 8 weeks
Mon - Sat 2 - 4 days
* The duration of bacteriological cultures depends on the bacteria to be demonstrated
and their growth rate. Most animal pathogenic bacteria are detected within the times
stated above. In special cases it may be necessary to cultivate for a longer period of time
(e.g. Nocardia: approx. 7 days).
** This test requires export to Canada and takes a minimum of 14 days.
300
16 Microbiology
16.1.2 General bacteriology tests
Bacteriology (aerobic)
Swab, body fluids, tissue
bacterial culture test (1)
Aerobic bacterial culture allows for the identification of a
large number of pathogenic bacteria.
Examination steps:
Exceptions:
- Ear Swab (1):
- the sample is cultured on selective agar plates depending
on the type and requirements of the sample material
- enrichment of the pathogen in broth. This allows for
growth of inhibited pathogens or pathogens from a Swab
that contains only limited numbers of bacteria
- aerobic incubation of the culture for a minimum of 48
hours (longer if required). Urine cultures usually only
requires 24 hours of incubation
- daily assessment of the cultures and further differentiation
in the case of detection of pathogenic and facultative
pathogenic bacteria
The examination of ear Swabs includes aerobic bacterial
culture (see above), as well as a yeast culture for detection
of malassezia.
- Cervical Swab,
mare (1):
Examination of cervical Swab in the mare includes additionally aerobic bacterial culture (see above), a mycological
culture and pathogen differentiation.
Please note:
The examination for Taylorella equigenitalis (CEM:
contagious equine metritis) must be requested separately.
Submission in transport medium is necessary and the
sample must reach the lab within 48 hours. Please ensure
correct labelling of the sample, including the date of
sampling!
- Milk samples, cattle (1):
Examination includes aerobic bacterial culture, mycological
culture, differentiation (bacterias) and antibiogram, for all
inclusive price.
- Urine samples (1):
Bacterial urine examination includes identification and
quantification of bacteria. A sensitivity test is peformed to
detect the effect of antibacterial substances on the
pathogens in the urine.
301
16 Microbiology
Bacteriology (anaerobic) Swabs, body fluids, tissue
parts and others
bacteriology culture (1)
The examination for anaerobic organisms is recommended
in addition to the aerobic culture from the following sample
materials: abscess material, pus, wound Swabs (especially
from bite wounds), body fluids (aspirates, synovial fluid,
cerebrospinal fluid, etc.), Swabs from inner organs and
serous membranes, and nail bed infection. Please note that
Swabs must be sent in transport medium!
Examination steps:
- culture on special nutrient medium
- enrichment of the bacteria in nutrient broth
- anaerobic incubation of the culture for a minimum
of 72 hrs (longer if required)
- regular assessment of the cultures and further
differentiation in the case of detection of pathogenic
and facultatively pathogenic anaerobic bacteria
Blood Culture
blood must be sent in special
container
bacteriology culture
test (1)
In case of bacteraemia or suspected bacteraemia, blood
is collected from the patient in a sterile manner and
transferred into special blood culture bottles directly in the
surgery. These bottles, plus the necessary blood collection
set, are provided by the lab free of charge on request.
The bottles are incubated for 10 days. A detection system
recognises and reports any bacterial growth.
Handling:
302
- Always use one aerobic and one anaerobic bottle for
culture
- Thorough disinfection of the collection site is necessary
to prevent contamination with bacteria from the skin
- Use a syringe or collection set for blood collection
- Fill each bottle with 3-10 ml (ideally 8-10 ml) of blood.
First fill the aerobic bottle and then the anaerobic bottle.
If you are not using a blood collection set, please inject the
blood through the rubber plug into the bottle.
- Collect the blood and submit your sample at the beginning
of the week, if possible
- Inoculated bottles should be stored at room temperature
(not in the fridge).
16 Microbiology
MRS Screening
(methicillin resistant
staphylococci)
Swab, body fluid
Cultures examination (1)
303
16 Microbiology
16.2 Faecal tests
Bacteriology,
faeces, rectal Swab
enteropathogenic germs
culture test (1)
Faecal samples or rectal Swabs are tested with help of
selective medium and enrichment method for the intestinal
pathogens under examination.
- Salmonellas
- Thermophile Campylobacter species,
Campylobacter jejuni, Campylobacter coli
- Yersinia enterocolitica
- Different pathogens of different animal species
and facultative pathogens Enterobacteriaceae
(e.g. Klebsiella, haemolytic and mucoid E. coli-strains,
Proteus spp.)
- Coagulase positive Staphylococci
(Staphylococcus aureus,
Staphylococcus pseudintermedius)
- Pseudomonas aeruginosa
- Yeasts (semiquantative confirmation of
abnormal increase)
In carnivores, if no pathogens were detected, the composition of faecal flora will be semiquantatively estimated.
A quantative increase of Gram positive or Gram negative
bacteria can prove dysbiosis of large intestinal flora.
Salmonella-detection
faeces, rectal Swab
culture test (1)
Culture test of faecal samples exclusively to confirm
Salmonella. Collective faecal samples can be used
for this test
304
16 Microbiology
16.2 Faecal tests
(quantitative without
pathogen differentiation)
¼ faecal tube
bacterial culture test (1)
In carnivores a quantitative increase of Clostridium
perfringens is a sign of intestinal flora imbalance.
The faecal sample is precisely diluted, followed by
anaerobic culture on a selective medium to determine
the number of Clostridium per gram of faeces.
Enterotoxin
¼ faecal tube
ELISA (2)
C. perfringens enterotoxin can cause diarrhoea
in cats and dogs.
Elastase
3 g faeces
ELISA (1)
Canine faecal elastase-1 is produced in the pancreas and
released along with the pancreatic juices into the intestines
during digestion. It is stable in the intestines and can be
detected unaltered in a faecal sample for some period of
time. To rule out EPI it is usually sufficient to test once for
elastase, but borderline results should be re-tested or
verified using TLI testing from blood.
Species:
s.  Chapter 7.3 Exocrine Pancreatic Diseases
Dog only
Indication:
Suspected exocrine pancreatic insufficiency
Please note:
Enzyme substitution does not have to be discontinued before
testing as this does not affect the results. The dilution effect of
liquid faeces may lead to false low values.
305
16 Microbiology
16.2 Faecal tests
Faecal digestion test
3 g faeces
Microscopy (1)
Detection of undigested dietary components in the faeces:
fatty acid globules, neutral fats, muscle fibres and starch.
Species:
Test is possible in carnivores, omnivores and birds
Indication:
Suspected maldigestion e.g. due to exocrine pancreatic
Insufficiency
- Faecal digestion is dependent on the composition of the
diet, e.g. fatty acid globules and muscle fibres can be
found when feeding raw meat
- Diarrhoea (i.e. reduced faecal passage time) will lead to
poor faecal digestion results.
General Virology
(Virology faecal testing)
min. ½ faecal tube
Electron microscopy (3)
Viruses which are excreted in the faeces can be detected
and classified using electron microscopy
s.  Also Chapter 13, Infectious diseases
Indications:
Corona-, rota- and parvovirus detection
Occult blood
Faeces (1/3 faecal tube)
Chromatography (2)
To prevent false positive tests, no meat should be fed for
three days prior to sample taking.
306
16 Microbiology
16.2 Faecal tests
 Faecal tests - organ profiles
Diarrhoea Profile C
faeces (min. 1 full faecal tube )
Bacteriological
faeces examination
Culture test for intestinal pathogens
Mycologic faeces
examination
(Semiquantitative, culture)
Parasitological
faeces examination
Testing for coccidial oocysts, cestodes, nematodes,
(Flotation)
Giardia
(Antigen detection, ELISA)
Cryptosporidia
(Antigen detection, ELISA)
Diarrhoea Profile E
faeces (min. 1 full faecal tube) Bacteriological faecal
examination,mycological
faecal examination,
parasitological faecal
examination, Giardias,
canine faecal elastase-1,
Cryptosporidia
Diarrhoea Profile E corresponds to ‘Diarrhoea Profile C’
but also includes canine faecal elastase-1:
Cryptosporidia (Ag)
2-3 g faeces
ELISA (1)
Cryptosporidia (Ag)
Staining and ELISA (
Reptiles)
2 - 3 g faeces
ELISA (1)
(1)
(1)
307
16 Microbiology
16.3 Mycology tests
16.3.1 Testing Times and Charges
1. Mycological culture:
Dermatophytes
Mon - Fri 4 weeks
Yeasts and moulds Mon - Sat 2 - 3 days
Yeasts in faeces, quantitatively Mon - Fri 2 - 3 days
* The duration of mycological culture depends on the organism to be demonstrated
and their growth rate. Most animal pathogenic fungi are detected within the times
stated above. In special cases it may be necessary to cultivate for a longer period
of time (e.g. Cryptococcus neoformans: 7 days).
308
16 Microbiology
16.3.2 General mycology tests
Dermatophytes/
Skin fungi
Skin scrapings, Hair
Culture test (1)
Dermatomycosis is a fungal infection which is restricted
to the superficial skin layers. Two of the most common
dermatomycotic infections are caused by Trichophyton and
Microsporum.
Sample sample:
- Skin scrapings are most effective for testing due to
dermatophyte hyphae which invade the skin
- Plucked hair may also be used (after clipping or cutting)
- Pre-incubated dermatophyte cultures can be submitted
for species identification
Collection of sample
- The sample should be taken in the transitional area
between affected skin and healthy skin
- Disinfection with 70 % alcohol prior to collection will
prevent bacterial overgrowth of the dermatophyte culture.
Send the sample in dry tube.
Examination:
1. Culture on special agar plates.
2. Regular assessment of the culture and differentiation of
the fungal species in the case of dermatophyte growth.
Please note:
Dermatophytes grow very slowly.
The sample will be incubated for up to 4 weeks.
309
16 Microbiology
16.3.2 General mycology tests
Yeasts and Moulds
Swabs, body fluids, faeces
Culture test (1)
Yeasts and moulds may participate in various infectious
diseases, such as external otitis, genital infections, mastitis,
and air sac infections.
Sample collection:
Use a Swab in transport medium as used for bacterial
culture. When taking mucous membrane Swabs from the
mouth, nasopharynx or genitals, pay attention to membranous or fibrous coverings, because often the pathogen
can be isolated from these areas. For diagnosis of avian
aspergillosis, an air sac Swab can be submitted; however a
biopsy sample is even more suitable for this test.
Examination:
1. Culture on special plates.
2. Regular assessment of the culture and differentiation.
of the fungal species in the case of growth of pathogenic
or facultatively pathogenic yeasts or moulds.
Please note:
: Mycological examination is routinely included in the
examination of ear Swabs, cervical Swabs from mares,
and milk samples. In these cases no special request
is necessary.
Yeasts in faecal sample
(quantitative)
faeces
faeces culture test (1 )
Various immunosuppressive influences or antibiotic
therapies can lead to excessive multiplication of intestinal
yeasts, especially Candida spp., resulting in diarrhoea.
In order to make a diagnosis, a quantitative test for the
pathogen is necessary.
Examination:
310
1. Quantitative dilution of the faecal sample.
2. Culture on special plates.
3. Estimation of the number of colonies. Calculation of
the number of yeasts per gram of faeces
4. Identification of pathogen species 64.
17 Parasitology
17.1 Endoparasites
 Parasites in faeces
Please follow the special instructions for sample handling and assessment of findings:
s.  Chapter 2.3
Because of intermittent parasite shedding (oocysts, eggs, larvae) we recommend
sending a collective faecal sample taken over 3 days. (In case of ELISA tests, a single
sample is sufficient.)
In animal herds (exception: fattening pigs and poultry) individual samples should be
taken and tested from multiple animals (not a collective faecal sample from multiple
animals!) When possible, faeces should be taken from the rectum or collected fresh.
Test samples should be sent to the laboratory in chilled, sealed tubes as soon as
possible.
Parasites or parasite parts shed with faeces should be sent without preservative
(not fixed in formalin!) or in a tube in saline solution, separate from the faecal sample.
Endoparasites
(bird/small pets)
min. 3 g faeces
Detection of:
Coccidia oocysts (including: Toxoplasma oocysts),
Cestodes and Nematodes
Endoparasites
(reptiles, monkeys)
min. 3 g faeces
Detection of:
- Flagellates: trophozoites and cysts,
- Ciliates: trophozoites and cysts
- Amoebas: trophozoites and cysts,
- Trematode eggs
- Cestodes
- Nematodes
- Coccidia oocysts
- Pentastomides eggs
flotation test (1)
native preparation
(stained or unstained),
flotation method (1)
311
17 Parasitology
17.1 Endoparasites
Endoparasites
(hedgehog)
min 5 g faeces
Detection of:
- Trematode eggs
- Cestodes
- Nematodes
- Coccidia oocysts
- Lung worm larvae
Endoparasites
(ruminants)
min 10 g faeces
Detection of:
- Trematode eggs
- Cestodes
- Nematodes
- Coccidia oocysts
Flotation, Sedimentation
and migration test (1)
Flotation, Sedimentation
and migration test (1)
Interpretation guidelines in horses:
- Strongylidae: by means of eggs, differentiation between
small (Cyathostomids) and large Strongylidae is possible
- Anoplocephala: as tapeworms are not shed with faeces
continually and in relatively small amounts, sensitivity of
coproscopy is not sufficient here. Detection probability
will be increased if more animals from the herd are tested
repeatedly.
Please note:
McMaster Egg
Counting Technique
(horses, ruminants,
New World camelids)
312
For coccidia oocyst and trematodes eggs (large liver fluke)
detection in the horse, different sedimentation methods
must be applied. For lung worm larvae the Baermann
migration method is required.
20 g faeces
17 Parasitology
17.1 Endoparasites
Detection of:
quantitative detection of coccidia oocysts (ruminants,
New World camelids), and nematode eggs.
Results of this quantative test will be oocysts/eggs
per gramm of faeces and should give guidance for or
against antiparasitic treatment. In order to combat
increasing antihelminthic resistance, this test should
be peformed before any antiparasitic treatment is
administered. This is in order to protect the activity of
antiparasitic medication used in veterinary medicine.
The effectiveness of antihelminth treatment can be
measured by performing an egg count reduction test.
Lungworms
min. 5 g faeces Baermann-Wetzel Migration test (1)
Sensitivity of this method is highly dependent on larval
density in the faeces and on the activity of the larvae.
Therefore it is important to send sufficent sample material.
Trematodes eggs
Eggs shedding is often very low or highly fluctuating,
especially in ruminants. It is important to send sufficient
sample material. In case of clinical suspicion of
Fasciola hepatica and negative faecal result, an antibody
detection test is recommended from serum (horses
and cattle) or milk (cattle).
Giardia (Ag)
2-3 g faeces
ELISA (1)
Cryptosporidia (Ag)
2-3 g faeces
ELISA (1)
313
17 Parasitology
17.2 Ectoparasites
Ectoparasites
Skin scraping, hair
Collect sufficient sample material from several different
sites within and bordering the affected area. In case of
suspected mite infestation, skin scrapings should
be taken at hairless or shaved sites, deep enough to
cause slight capillary bleeding.
Sarcoptes: s.  Chapter 7
Identification
of ectoparasites
Mikroskopie (1)
Send one or more ectoparasites without preservative,
or fixed in 70 % alcohol.
 Blood parasites and haemotropic bacteria
- Babesias
- Leishmania
- Micro-, Macrofilaria
- Theileria
- Trypanosoma
- Ehrlichia
- Haemobartonella
314
18 Histopathology
18.1 Histopathology and cytology tests
Please note general information on histological and cytological test and fine needle
aspiration.
s.  Chapter 2, General Advice
For fine needle aspirate evaluation, prepare one or more smears and let them air dry.
Prepare them as soon as possible after collection. Send the smear(s) together with
remaining, unfixated sample by the fastest method of transport possible.
Send tissue samples fixated in formalin.
Large samples should be sectioned before placing into formalin, so that complete
fixation is possible. It is also possible to pre-fixate for 1-3 days and to send the moist
sample in a closed container with special packaging. When sending tissue samples and
aspirate always send the history and details of the sample collection site.
c-Kit mutation detection: smear, tissue
Canine mast cell tumors
Molecular biology (3)
Agar gel electrophoresis, sequencing and analysis of the
receptor tyrosine kinase genome to identify any mutations,
specifically the tandem mutation in exon 11. Exons 8 and 9
are also examined. The starting material is the tumour tissue
submitted, or the resulting paraffin capsule following prior
histopathological examination.
 Skin Profile
s.  Chapter 3, Profile
 Immunohistological/immunohistochemical examinations
Detection of specific antibodies for cell typing or pathogen specific differentiation after
histopathological examination has been performed. Interpretation, prognosis, or advice
on possible therapy is available.
 Obductions
Are not performed
315
18 Histopathology
18.2 Biological Fluids
 Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
Please bear in mind that the sample may deteriorate leading to changes in the test
results as early as four hours after sampling. (For cytological tests, a cell smear of the
sediment can be prepared if necessary; centrifuge at 1000 R/min. for 5 minutes.) Various
pathogens can be detected in the CSF by PCR.
Indications for collection
- Detection/exclusion of CNS inflammations
- Confirmation of diagnosis of “idiopatic Epilepsy“
Contraindications for
collection:
- before myelography performance
- increased intracranial pressure, e.g. by cerebral oedema,
hydrocephalus, brain haemorrhage
Brain and meningeal disease may have all kinds of causes. Often they are bacterial
(e.g. borreliosis) or viral (e.g. tickborne encephalitis). Neoplastic disease must also be
considered. Changes in cell count, cell type and protein content can give valuable clues
about the nature of the problem. Normal CSF is a clear fluid. If the CSF sample obtained
is cloudy, a bacteriological examination is indicated.
Please note that cerebrospinal fluid may deteriorate within four hours after sample
collection, leading to changes in the test results. The preparation of a smear from
sediment is recommended for cytological examinations (centrifuge at 1000 RPM
for 20 minutes).Various pathogens can be identified in CSF using the PCR technique.
CSF Profile 1
s. Chapter 15, Molecular biology tests
s. Chapter 13, Infectious diseases
1 ml Cerebrospinal fluid
Microscopy
(hemocytometer)
Turbidimetry (1)
Cell count (leukocytes, erythrocytes), total protein
Please note:
316
cell count should be performed as soon as possible
(maximum of 4 hours after blood sample was taken).
As CSF is normally very low in protein, any cells present
will lyse very quickly. Therefore test results may be
affected by duration of transport.
18 Histopathology
CSF Profile 2
approx. 3 ml Cerebrospinal fluid
CSF Profile 2 + Bacteriology (aerobic and anaerobic)
CSF Profile 3
approx. 3 ml Cerebrospinal fluid
CSF Profile 2 + bacteriology (aerobic + anaerobic)
Aspirate Profile 1
approx. 3 ml Aspirate
Microscopy,
Photometry (1)
Cytology, total protein, specific gravity
Please note:
Lysis of cells may occur as early as a few hours after
sampling, influencing the test results. Results may further
be influenced by transport, therefore samples should be
sent cold.
For cytology it is recommended to prepare a smear of the
sediment as soon as possible after sampling (centrifuge at
1500 RPM for 3-5 minutes).
Aspirate Profile 2
approx. 3 ml Aspirate
Microscopy,
Photometry, culture (1)
Cytology, total protein, specific gravity, bacteriology (aerobic + anaerobic)
Please note:
be influenced by transport, therefore samples should be
sent cold.
For cytology it is recommended to prepare a smear of the
sediment as soon as possible after sampling (centrifuge at
1500 RPM for 3-5 minutes).
Culture and sensitivity will be performed on any bacteria
found. This is not included in the profile price, and will be
added to the bill.
317
18 Histopathology
 Synovia
Joint fluid is normally amber gold, clear, viscous and poor in cells. In joint diseases,
analysis of cell and protein content can give valuable information about the type and
origin of a disease. Traumatic, acute infammatory, infectious processes and
degenerative joint disease can be differentiated by this analysis.
Synovia Profile 1
1 ml Synovial fluid
Flow cytometry,
Photometry(1)
Cell count, Total protein, colour, viscosity, turbidity
Synovia Profile 2
2 ml Synovial fluid
Flow cytometry,
Photometry,
Microscopy
Synovia profile 1 + cytology
Please note:
be influenced by transport. For cytology it is recommended
to prepare a smear of the sediment as soon as possible
after sampling (centrifuge at 1500 RPM for 3-5 minutes).
Synovia Profile 3
2 ml Synovial fluid
Flow cytometry,
Photometry,
Microscopy, culture
Synovia profile 2 + Bacteriology (aerobic + anaerobic)
Please note
318
be influenced by transport. For cytology it is recommended
to prepare a smear of the sediment as soon as possible
after sampling (centrifuge at 1500 RPM for 3-5
minutes) Culture and sensitivity will be performed on any
bacteria found. This is not included in the profile price, and
will be added to the bill.
Notes
319
Notes
320

Manual - IDEXX

Transcription

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