Ebooks - The Digital Reader

Transcription

Ebooks
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Contents
Articles
E-book
1
Electronic paper
8
Electronic publishing
17
Public domain
19
Copyright
26
Intellectual property
47
Comparison of e-book readers
53
Sony
62
Amazon Kindle
76
Mobipocket
87
iLiad
89
References
Article Sources and Contributors
93
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
97
Article Licenses
License
98
E-book
1
E-book
An e-book (short for electronic book and also known as a digital book,
ebook, and eBook) is an e-text that forms the digital media equivalent
of a conventional printed book, sometimes restricted with a digital
rights management system. An e-book, as defined by the Oxford
Dictionary of English, is "an electronic version of a printed book which
can be read on a personal computer or hand-held device designed
specifically for this purpose".[1] E-books are usually read on dedicated
hardware devices known as e-Readers or e-book devices. Personal
computers and some cell phones can also be used to read e-books.
History
A user viewing an electronic page on an
eBook-reading device
Among the earliest general e-books were those in the Gutenberg
Project, started by Michael S. Hart in 1971. An early e-book
implementation were the desktop prototypes for a proposed notebook
computer, the Dynabook, in the 1970s at PARC, which would be a
general-purpose portable personal computer, including reading
books.[2] Similar ideas were expressed at the same time by Paul
Drucker.
Early e-books were generally written for specialty areas and a limited
audience, meant to be read only by small and devoted interest groups.
The scope of the subject matter of these e-books included technical
manuals for hardware, manufacturing techniques, and other subjects.
iLiad in sunlight
Numerous e-book formats emerged and proliferated, some supported
by major software companies such as Adobe's PDF format, and others
supported by independent and open-source programmers. Multiple
readers naturally followed multiple formats, most of them specializing
in only one format, and thereby fragmenting the e-book market even
more. Due to exclusiveness and limited readerships of e-books, the
fractured market of independents and specialty authors lacked
consensus regarding a standard for packaging and selling e-books.
E-books continued to gain in their own underground markets. Many
iLiad e-book reader equipped with e-paper
e-book publishers began distributing books that were in the public
display
domain. At the same time, authors with books that were not accepted
by publishers offered their works online so they could be seen by
others. Unofficial (and occasionally unauthorized) catalogs of books became available over the web, and sites
devoted to e-books began disseminating information about e-books to the public.
As of 2009, new marketing models for e-books were being developed and dedicated reading hardware was produced.
E-books (as opposed to ebook readers) have yet to achieve global distribution. Only three
E-book
2
e-book readers dominate the market, Amazon's Kindle model or Sony's
PRS-500 and Bookeen with Cybook Gen3 and Cybook Opus[3] . On
January 27, 2010 Apple, Inc. launched a multi-function device called
the iPad[4] and announced agreements with five of the six largest
publishers that would allow Apple to distribute e-books.[5] However,
not all authors have endorsed the concept of electronic publishing. J.K
Rowling, author of the Harry Potter series, has stated that there will be
no e-versions of her books.[6] [7]
Timeline
• 1971: Michael S. Hart launches the Gutenberg Project.
• 1985-1992 Robert Stein starts Voyager Company Expanded Books
and books on CD-ROMs.
• 1992: Charles Stack's Book Stacks Unlimited begins selling new physical books online.
• 1993: Zahur Klemath Zapata develops the first software to read digital books. Digital Book v.1 and the first
digital book is published On Murder Considered as one of the Fine Arts (Thomas de Quincey).
• 1993: Digital Book, Inc. offers the first 50 digital books in Floppy disk with Digital Book Format (DBF).
• 1993: Hugo Award for Best Novel nominee texts published on CD-ROM by Brad Templeton.
• 1993: Bibliobytes, a project of free digital books online in Internet.
• 1994: Online poet Alexis Kirke discusses the need for wireless internet electronic paper readers in his article "The
Emuse".
• 1995: Amazon starts to sell physical books in Internet.
• 1996: Project Gutenberg reaches 1,000 titles. The target is 1,000,000
• 1998 Kim Blagg obtained the first ISBN issued to an ebook and began marketing multimedia-enhanced ebooks on
CDs through retailers including amazon.com, bn.com and borders.com. Shortly thereafter through her company
"Books OnScreen" she introduced the ebooks at the Book Expo America in Chicago, IL to an impressed, but
unconvinced bookseller audience.
• 1998: Launched the first ebook Readers: Rocket ebook and SoftBook.
• 1998: Cybook / Cybook Gen1 Sold and manufactured at first by Cytale (1998–2003) then by Bookeen
• 1998-1999: Websites selling ebooks in English, like eReader.com and eReads.com.
• 1999: Baen Books opens up the Baen Free Library.
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1999: Webscriptions starts selling unencrypted eBooks.
2000: Stephen King offers his book "Riding the Bullet" in digital file; it can only be read on a computer.
2001: Todoebook.com, the first website selling ebooks in Spanish.
2002: Random House and HarperCollins start to sell digital versions of their titles in English.
2005: Amazon buys Mobipocket.
2005: Bookboon.com is launched, allowing people to download free textbooks and travel guide eBooks
2006: Sony presents the Sony Reader with e-ink.
2006: LibreDigital launched BookBrowse as an online reader for publisher content.
2006: BooksOnBoard, the largest independent ebookstore, opens and sells ebooks and audiobooks in six different
formats.
• 2007: Zahurk Technologies, Corp,launched the first digital book library on Internet 『BibliotecaKlemath.com',
『loslibrosditales.com' and 『digitalbook.us'
• 2007: Amazon launches Kindle in US.
E-book
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2007: Bookeen launched Cybook Gen3 in Europe.
2008: Adobe and Sony agreed to share their technologies (Reader and DRM).
2008: Sony sells the Sony Reader PRS-505 in UK and France
2008: BooksOnBoard is first to sell ebooks for iPhones.
2009: myebook.com launches as a free ebook creation and publishing platform for media rich ebooks.[8]
2009: Bookeen releases the Cybook Opus in the US and in Europe.
2009: Amazon releases the Kindle 2.
2009: Amazon releases the Kindle DX in the US.
2009: Barnes & Noble releases the Nook in the US.
2009: Bookboon.com achieves over 10 Million downloads in one year - placing the company as the world's
largest publisher of free eBooks
• 2010: Amazon releases the Kindle DX International Edition worldwide.
• 2010: Bookeen reveals the Cybook Orizon at CES.[9]
• 2010: TurboSquid Magazine announces first magazine publication using Apple's iTunes LP format.[10]
Formats
There are a variety of e-book formats used to create and publish e-books. A writer or publisher has many options
when it comes to choosing a format for production. Every format has its proponents and champions, and debates
over which format is best can become intense.
Comparison of e-books with printed books
Advantages
• Availability- There are over 2 million free books available for download as of August 2009.[11] Mobile
availability of e-books may be provided for users with a mobile data connection, so that these e-books need not be
stored on the device. An e-book can be offered indefinitely, without ever going "out of print".
• Portability and Storage- In the space that a comparably sized print book takes up, an e-reader can potentially
contain thousands of e-books, limited only by its memory capacity. If space is at a premium, such as in a
backpack or at home, it can be an advantage that an e-book collection takes up little room or weight.
• Language Accessibility- E-book websites can include the ability to translate books into many different languages,
making the works available to speakers of languages not covered by printed translations.
• E-Reader Attributes- Depending on the device, an e-book may be readable in low light or even total darkness.
Many newer readers have the ability to display motion, enlarge or change fonts[12] , use Text-to-speech software
to read the text aloud, search for key terms, find definitions, or allow highlighting bookmarking and annotation.
Devices that utilize E Ink can imitate the look and ease of readability of a printed work while consuming very
little power, allowing continuous reading for weeks at time.
• Costs- While an e-book reader costs much more than one book, the electronic texts are generally cheaper.
Moreover, a great share of books are available free of charge. For example, all fiction from before the year 1900
is in the public domain. Free samples are also available of many publications, and there are lending models being
piloted as well. E-books can be printed for less than the price of traditional new books using new on-demand book
printers.
• Security- Depending on possible digital rights management, e-books can be backed up to recover them in the case
of loss or damage and it may be possible to recover a new copy without cost from the distributor.
• Distribution- Compared to printed publishing, it is cheaper and easier for authors to self-publish e-books. Also,
the dispersal of a free e-book copy can stimulate the sales of the printed version.[13] An e-book can be purchased,
downloaded, and used immediately, whereas when one buys a book one has to go to a bookshop, or wait for a
3
E-book
delivery.
• Environmental Concerns- The production of e-books does not consume paper, ink, etc. Printed books use 3 times
more raw materials and 78 times more water to produce[14]
Drawbacks
• Changing Technologies- The formats and file types that e-books are stored and distributed in change over time,
for instance from advances in technology or the introduction of new proprietary formats. While printed books
remain readable for many years, e-books may need to be copied to a new carrier over time. PDF and epub are
growing standards, but are not universal.
• Availability of Works- Not all books are available as e-books.
• Aesthetic Appeal- Paper books can be bought and wrapped for a present and a library of books can provide visual
appeal, while the digital nature of e-books makes them non-visible or tangible. E-books cannot provide the
physical feel of the cover, paper, and binding of the original printed work.
• Power and Shelf Life- A book will never turn off or be unusable. The shelf life of a printed book exceeds that of
an e-book reader, as over time the reader's battery will drain and require recharging. Additionally, "As in the case
of microfilm, there is no guarantee that [electronic] copies will last. Bits become degraded over time. Documents
may get lost in cyberspace...Hardware and software become extinct at a distressing rate." [15]
• Durability- E-book readers are more susceptible to damage from being dropped or hit than a print book. Due to
faults in hardware or software, e-book readers may malfunction and data loss can occur. As with any piece of
technology, the reader must be protected from the elements (such as extreme cold, heat, water, etc.), while print
books are not susceptible to damage from electromagnetic pulses, surges, impacts, or extreme temperates.
• Artistry and Author's Vision- An author who publishes a book often puts more into the work than simply the
words on the pages. E-books may cause people "to do the grazing and quick reading that screens enable, rather
than be by themselves with the author's ideas." [16] . They may use the e-books simply for reference purposes
rather than reading for pleasure and leisure.[17]
• Costs- The cost of an e-book reader far exceeds that of a single book, and e-books often cost the same as their
print versions. Due to the high cost of the initial investment in some form of e-reader, e-books are cost prohibitive
to much of the world's population. Furthermore, there is no used e-book market, so consumers will neither be able
to recoup some of their costs by selling an unwanted title they have finished, nor will they be able to buy used
copies at significant discounts, as they can now easily do with printed books through Amazon's marketplace and
other online retailers.
• Security- Because of the high-tech appeal of the e-reader, they are a greater target for theft than an individual
print book. Along with the theft of the physical device, any e-books it contains also become stolen. If a e-book is
stolen, accidentally lost, or deleted, in the absence of a backup it may have to be repurchased.
• Limitations of Readers- The screen resolutions of reading devices are currently lower than actual printed
materials.[18] Because of proprietary formats or lack of file support, formatted e-books may be unusable on
certain readers. Additionally, the reader's interaction with the reader may cause discomfort, for example glare on
the screen or difficulty holding the device.
• Digital Rights Management and Piracy- Due to the digital rights management, customers cannot resell or loan
their e-books to other readers.[19] Additionally, the potential for piracy of e-books may make publishers and
authors reluctant to distribute digitally.[20]
• Environmental Concerns- E-book readers require various toxic substances to produce, are non-biodegradable, and
the disposal of their batteries in particular raises environmental concerns.
4
E-book
5
Digital rights management
See also Digital rights management on E-books
Anti-circumvention techniques may be used to restrict what the user may do with an e-book. For instance, it may not
be possible to transfer ownership of an e-book to another person, though such a transaction is common with physical
books. Some devices can phone home to track readers and reading habits, restrict printing, or arbitrarily modify
reading material. This includes restricting the copying and distribution of works in the public domain through the use
of "click-wrap" licensing, effectively limiting the rights of the public to distribute, sell or use texts in the public
domain freely.
Most e-book publishers do not warn their customers about the possible implications of the digital rights management
tied to their products. Generally they claim that digital rights management is meant to prevent copying of the e-book.
However in many cases it is also possible that digital rights management will result in the complete denial of access
by the purchaser to the e-book. With some formats of DRM, the e-book is tied to a specific computer or device. In
these cases the DRM will usually let the purchaser move the book a limited number of times after which he cannot
use it on any additional devices. If the purchaser upgrades or replaces their devices eventually they may lose access
to their purchase. Some forms of digital rights management depend on the existence of online services to
authenticate the purchasers. When the company that provides the service goes out of business or decides to stop
providing the service, the purchaser will no longer be able to access the e-book.
As with digital rights management in other media, e-books are more like rental or leasing than purchase. The
restricted book comes with a number of restrictions, and eventually access to the purchase can be removed by a
number of different parties involved. These include the publisher of the book, the provider of the DRM scheme, and
the publisher of the reader software. These are all things that are significantly different from the realm of experiences
anyone has had with a physical copy of the book.
Production
Some e-books are produced simultaneously with the production of a printed format, as described in electronic
publishing, though in many instances they may not be put on sale until later. Often, e-books are produced from
pre-existing hard-copy books, generally by document scanning, sometimes with the use of robotic book scanners,
having the technology to quickly scan books without damaging the original print edition. Scanning a book produces
a set of image files, which may additionally be converted into text format by an OCR program.[21] Occasionally, as
in some e-text projects, a book may be produced by re-entering the text from a keyboard.
As a newer development, sometimes only the electronic version of a book is produced by the publisher. It is also
possible to convert electronic book to a printed book by print on demand. However this is an exception as tradition
dictates that a book be launched in the print format and later if the author wishes, an electronic version is also
produced.
There are some parts of the industry where there are particularly notable leading firms. In the general field of
science-fiction and fantasy, Baen Books, an American publishing company established in 1983 by science fiction
publishing industry long-timer Jim Baen (1943–2006) has a well-established position. It is a science fiction and
fantasy publishing house that specializes in space opera/military science fiction and fantasy (though it does not
restrict itself to these subgenres). It is notable for releasing books without DRM in a variety of formats, before
hard-copy publication, and pre-releasing ebooks in parts before the hard-copy release. Many older titles are available
for free, especially the first book in a series.
E-books have their own bestseller lists, including those compiled by International Digital Publishing Forum,
BooksOnBoard and Fictionwise. There are two yearly awards for excellence in e-books. The longest-standing and
most inclusive of these is the EPPIE award, given by EPIC since 2000. The other is the Dream Realm Award, first
awarded to speculative fiction e-books in 2002.
E-book
6
e-Readers
e-Readers may be specifically designed for that purpose, or intended for other purposes as well. The term is
restricted to hardware devices and used to describe a category type.
Specialized devices have the advantage of doing one thing well. Specifically, they tend to have the right screen size,
battery lifespan, lighting and weight. A disadvantage of such devices is that they are often expensive when compared
to multi-purpose devices such as laptops and PDAs.
See also
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Accessible publishing
Blook
Biblical software
Bookboon
Calibre
Comparison of e-book formats
Digital edition
Digital library
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E-book reader
Electronic paper
Electronic Publishing
EVDO
Expanded Books
Flexible electronics
Issuu
Lexcycle Stanza
List of digital library projects
List of e-book readers
Memory hole
Networked book
Notetaking
OverDrive, Inc.
OpenReader Consortium
Project Gutenberg
RCA connector
Safari Books Online
Webserial
Virtual novel
E-book
7
References
• Doctorow, Cory (February 12, 2004). Ebooks: Neither E, Nor Books [22], O'Reilly Emerging Technologies
Conference
• James, Bradley (November 20, 2002). The Electronic Book: Looking Beyond the Physical Codex [23], SciNet
• Lynch, Clifford (May 28, 2001). The Battle to Define the Future of the Book in the Digital World [24], First
Monday - Peer reviewed journal on the Internet
• Pastore, Michael (January 28, 2008). 30 Benefits of Ebooks [25], Epublishers Weekly
• Flint, Eric (2000). "Building the Baen Free Library" [26]. Retrieved 2007-07-19.
External links
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Project Gutenberg [27]
The Online Books Page [28]
About the Google Book Settlement (GBS) and online books (rights) [29]
E-Books Spark Battle Inside Publishing Industry (Washington Post, 27 Dec 2009) [30]
References
[1] Noorhidawat, A and Gibb, Forbes. "How Students Use E-books-Reading or Referring?" Malaysian Journal of Library and Information
Science 13, no. 2 (2009): 1-14 Wilson Select Plus. Online Database.
[2] Personal Dynamic Media (http:/ / www. newmediareader. com/ book_samples/ nmr-26-kay. pdf) – By Alan Kay and Adele Goldberg
[3] http:/ / community. zdnet. co. uk/ blog/ 0,1000000567,10014045o-2000667842b,00. htm
[4] http:/ / www. apple. com/ ipad/
[5] http:/ / www. apple. com/ pr/ library/ 2010/ 01/ 27ipad. html
[6] Italie, Hillel (2007-02-04). [Rowling: No E-Book for Harry Potter VII "Rowling: No E-Book for Harry Potter VII"]. New York Times
(Associated Press). Rowling: No E-Book for Harry Potter VII. Retrieved 2009-01-28.
[7] "J.K. Rowling: No E-Book for Harry Potter" (http:/ / archive. newsmax. com/ archives/ articles/ 2007/ 2/ 5/ 114757. shtml). Associated Press.
2007-02-05. . Retrieved 2009-01-28.
[8] http:/ / www. myebook. com
[9] http:/ / www. engadget. com/ 2010/ 01/ 08/ bookeen-debuts-orizon-touchscreen-e-book-reader/
[10] http:/ / turbosquidmagazine. com
[11] http:/ / www. law. stanford. edu/ library/ blog/ ?tag=2-million-free-ebooks
[12] Harris, Christopher. "The Truth About Ebooks." School Library Journal 55, no. 6 (2009): 18. Wilson Select Plus. Online Database
[13] Giving It Away - Forbes.com (http:/ / www. forbes. com/ 2006/ 11/ 30/
cory-doctorow-copyright-tech-media_cz_cd_books06_1201doctorow. html)
[14] Siegel, Lucy, "Should we switch to reading books online?", The Observer Magazine, 30th August 2009.
[15] Darnton, Robert. "The Library in the New Age." 55, no. 10 (2008).
[16] Abel, David. "Welcome to the library. Say goodbye to the books. The Boston Globe, 4 Sept. 2009.
[17] Noorhidawat, A and Gibb, Forbes. "How Students Use E-books-Reading or Referring?" Malaysian Journal of Library and Infomation
Science 13, no. 2 (2009): 1-14 Wilson Select Plus. Online Database.
[18] For instance the screen resolution of Amazon Kindle is 167 ppi versus 600–2400 ppi for a typical laser printer.
[19] http:/ / gizmodo. com/ 369235/ amazon-kindle-and-sony-reader-locked-up-why-your-books-are-no-longer-yours
[20] Print Books Are Target of Pirates on the Web http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2009/ 05/ 12/ technology/ internet/ 12digital. html?fta=y
[21] The Book Standard is closed (http:/ / www. thebookstandard. com/ bookstandard/ news/ publisher/ article_display.
jsp?vnu_content_id=1002035592)
[22] http:/ / craphound. com/ ebooksneitherenorbooks. txt
[23] http:/ / www. scinet. cc/ articles/ ebook/ electronicbook. html
[24] http:/ / www. firstmonday. org/ issues/ issue6_6/ lynch/
[25] http:/ / epublishersweekly. blogspot. com/ 2008/ 02/ 30-benefits-of-ebooks. html
[26] http:/ / www. speculations. com/ ?t=189167
[27] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org
[28] http:/ / onlinebooks. library. upenn. edu/
[29] http:/ / www. truthdig. com/ report/ item/ 20090929_scanning_the_horizon_of_books_and_libraries/
[30] http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2009/ 12/ 24/ AR2009122403326. html
Electronic paper
8
Electronic paper
Electronic paper, e-paper or electronic ink display is a display
technology designed to mimic the appearance of ordinary ink on paper.
Unlike a conventional flat panel display, which uses a backlight to
illuminate its pixels, electronic paper reflects light like ordinary paper
and is capable of holding text and images indefinitely without drawing
electricity, while allowing the image to be changed later.
To build e-paper, several different technologies exist, some using
plastic substrate and electronics so that the display is flexible.
Anecdotal evidence suggests that e-paper is more comfortable to read
iLiad e-book reader equipped with an electronic
than conventional displays.[1] This is due to the stable image, which
paper display. It has a very high resolution and is
clear even in bright light.
does not need to be refreshed constantly, the wider viewing angle, and
the fact that it reflects ambient light rather than emitting its own light.
An e-paper display can be read in direct sunlight without the image appearing to fade. The contrast ratio in available
displays as of 2008 might be described as similar to that of newspaper, though newly-developed implementations are
slightly better.[2] There is ongoing competition among manufacturers to provide full-color capability.
Applications include electronic pricing labels in retail shops, and general signage,[3] time tables at bus stations,[4]
electronic billboards,[5] the mobile phone Motorola FONE F3, and e-Readers capable of displaying digital versions
of books and e-paper magazines. Electronic paper should not be confused with digital paper, which is a pad to create
handwritten digital documents with a digital pen.
Technology
Gyricon
Electronic paper was first developed in the 1970s by Nick Sheridon at Xerox's Palo Alto Research Center. The first
electronic paper, called Gyricon, consisted of polyethylene spheres between 75 and 106 micrometres across. Each
sphere is a janus particle composed of negatively charged black plastic on one side and positively charged white
plastic on the other (each bead is thus a dipole[6] ). The spheres are embedded in a transparent silicone sheet, with
each sphere suspended in a bubble of oil so that they can rotate freely. The polarity of the voltage applied to each
pair of electrodes then determines whether the white or black side is face-up, thus giving the pixel a white or black
appearance.[7] At the FPD 2008 exhibition, Japanese company Soken has demonstrated a wall with electronic
wall-paper using this technology.[8]
Electrophoretic
An electrophoretic display forms visible images
by rearranging charged pigment particles using an
applied electric field.
In the simplest implementation of an
electrophoretic display, titanium dioxide particles
approximately one micrometre in diameter are
dispersed in a hydrocarbon oil. A dark-colored
dye is also added to the oil, along with surfactants
Scheme of an electrophoretic display.
Electronic paper
and charging agents that cause the particles to
take on an electric charge. This mixture is placed
between two parallel, conductive plates separated
by a gap of 10 to 100 micrometres. When a
voltage is applied across the two plates, the
particles will migrate electrophoretically to the
plate bearing the opposite charge from that on the
particles. When the particles are located at the
Scheme of an electrophoretic display using color filters.
front (viewing) side of the display, it appears
white, because light is scattered back to the viewer by the high-index titanium particles. When the particles are
located at the rear side of the display, it appears dark, because the incident light is absorbed by the colored dye. If the
rear electrode is divided into a number of small picture elements (pixels), then an image can be formed by applying
the appropriate voltage to each region of the display to create a pattern of reflecting and absorbing regions.
Electrophoretic displays are considered prime examples of the electronic paper category, because of their paper-like
appearance and low power consumption.
Examples of commercial electrophoretic displays include the high-resolution active matrix displays used in the
Amazon Kindle, Barnes & Noble Nook, Sony Librie, Sony Reader, and iRex iLiad e-readers. These displays are
constructed from an electrophoretic imaging film manufactured by E Ink Corporation. Also the technology has been
developed by Sipix Microcup[9] and Bridgestone Quick Response Liquid Powder Display (QR-LDP).[10] [11] The
Motorola MOTOFONE F3 was the first mobile phone to use the technology, in an effort to help eliminate glare from
direct sunlight during outdoor use.[12]
Electrophoretic displays can be manufactured using the Electronics on Plastic by Laser Release (EPLaR) process
developed by Philips Research to enable existing AM-LCD manufacturing plants to create flexible plastic displays.
Development
In the 1990s another type of electronic paper was invented by Joseph Jacobson, who later co-founded the E Ink
Corporation which formed a partnership with Philips Components two years later to develop and market the
technology. In 2005, Philips sold the electronic paper business as well as its related patents to Prime View
International. This used tiny microcapsules filled with electrically charged white particles suspended in a colored
oil.[13] In early versions, the underlying circuitry controlled whether the white particles were at the top of the capsule
(so it looked white to the viewer) or at the bottom of the capsule (so the viewer saw the color of the oil). This was
essentially a reintroduction of the well-known electrophoretic display technology, but the use of microcapsules
allowed the display to be used on flexible plastic sheets instead of glass.
One early version of electronic paper consists of a sheet of very small transparent capsules, each about 40
micrometres across. Each capsule contains an oily solution containing black dye (the electronic ink), with numerous
white titanium dioxide particles suspended within. The particles are slightly negatively charged, and each one is
naturally white.[7]
The microcapsules are held in a layer of liquid polymer, sandwiched between two arrays of electrodes, the upper of
which is made transparent. The two arrays are aligned so that the sheet is divided into pixels, which each pixel
corresponding to a pair of electrodes situated either side of the sheet. The sheet is laminated with transparent plastic
for protection, resulting in an overall thickness of 80 micrometres, or twice that of ordinary paper.
9
Electronic paper
The network of electrodes is connected
to display circuitry, which turns the
electronic ink 'on' and 'off' at specific
pixels by applying a voltage to specific
pairs of electrodes. Applying a
negative charge to the surface
electrode repels the particles to the
bottom of local capsules, forcing the
black dye to the surface and giving the
Appearance of pixels
pixel a black appearance. Reversing
the voltage has the opposite effect - the particles are forced from the surface, giving the pixel a white appearance. A
more recent incarnation[14] of this concept requires only one layer of electrodes beneath the microcapsules.
Electrowetting
Electro-wetting display (EWD) is based on controlling the shape of a confined water/oil interface by an applied
voltage. With no voltage applied, the (coloured) oil forms a flat film between the water and a hydrophobic
(water-repellent), insulating coating of an electrode, resulting in a coloured pixel.
When a voltage is applied between the electrode and the water, the interfacial tension between the water and the
coating changes. As a result the stacked state is no longer stable, causing the water to move the oil aside.
This results in a partly transparent pixel, or, in case a reflective white surface is used under the switchable element, a
white pixel. Because of the small size of the pixel, the user only experiences the average reflection, which means that
a high-brightness, high-contrast switchable element is obtained, which forms the basis of the reflective display.
Displays based on electro-wetting have several attractive features. The switching between white and coloured
reflection is fast enough to display video content.
It is a low-power and low-voltage technology, and displays based on the effect can be made flat and thin. The
reflectivity and contrast are better or equal to those of other reflective display types and are approaching those of
paper.
In addition, the technology offers a unique path toward high-brightness full-colour displays, leading to displays that
are four times brighter than reflective LCDs and twice as bright as other emerging technologies.[15]
Instead of using red, green and blue (RGB) filters or alternating segments of the three primary colours, which
effectively result in only one third of the display reflecting light in the desired colour, electro-wetting allows for a
system in which one sub-pixel is able to switch two different colours independently.
This results in the availability of two thirds of the display area to reflect light in any desired colour. This is achieved
by building up a pixel with a stack of two independently controllable coloured oil films plus a colour filter.
The colours used are cyan, magenta and yellow, which is a so-called subtractive system, comparable to the principle
used in inkjet printing for example. Compared to LCD another factor two in brightness is gained because no
polarisers are required.[16]
Examples of commercial electrophoretic displays include Liquavista[17] , ITRI[18] , PVI and ADT.[19] [20]
10
Electronic paper
11
Electrofluidic
Electrofluidic displays are a variation of an electrowetting display. Electrofluidic displays place an aqueous pigment
dispersion inside a tiny reservoir. The reservoir comprises <5-10% of the viewable pixel area and therefore the
pigment is substantially hidden from view.[21] Voltage is used to electromechanically pull the pigment out of the
reservoir and spread it as a film directly behind the viewing substrate. As a result, the display takes on color and
brightness similar to that of conventional pigments printed on paper. When voltage is removed liquid surface tension
causes the pigment dispersion to rapidly recoil into the reservoir. As reported in the May 2009 Issue of Nature
Photonics, the technology can potentially provide >85% white state reflectance for electronic paper.
The core technology was invented at the Novel Devices Laboratory at the University of Cincinnati. The technology
is currently being commercialized by Gamma Dynamics.
Other bistable displays
• Kent Displays, manufacturer of cholesteric liquid crystal display (ChLCD).[22]
• Nemoptic, Nematic materials[23]
• TRED [24]
Other technologies
Other research efforts into e-paper have involved using organic transistors embedded into flexible substrates,[25] [26]
including attempts to build them into conventional paper.[27] Simple color e-paper[28] consists of a thin colored
optical filter added to the monochrome technology described above. The array of pixels is divided into triads,
typically consisting of the standard cyan, magenta and yellow, in the same way as CRT monitors (although using
subtractive primary colors as opposed to additive primary colors). The display is then controlled like any other
electronic color display.
Examples of electrochromic displays include Acreo[29] , Ajjer[30] , Aveso[31] and Ntera.[32]
Disadvantages
Electronic paper technologies have a very low refresh rate comparing with other low-power display technologies,
such as LCD. This prevents producers from implementing sophisticated interactive applications (using fast moving
menus, mouse pointers or scrolling) like those which are possible on handheld computers. An example of this
limitation is that a document cannot be smoothly zoomed without either extreme blurring during the transition or a
very slow zoom.
Another limitation is that an imprint of an image may be visible after
refreshing parts of the screen. Those imprints are known as "ghost
images", and the effect is known as "ghosting". This effect is
reminiscent of screen burn-in but, unlike it, is solved after the screen is
refreshed several times. Turning every pixel white, then black, then
white, helps normalize the contrast of the pixels. This is why several
devices with this technology "flash" the entire screen white and black
when loading a new image, in order to prevent ghosting from
happening.
An e-ink screen showing the "ghost" of a
previous image
Electronic paper
Applications
Several companies are simultaneously developing electronic paper and ink. While the technologies used by each
company provide many of the same features, each has its own distinct technological advantages. All electronic paper
technologies face the following general challenges:
• A method for encapsulation
• An ink or active material to fill the encapsulation
• Electronics to activate the ink
Electronic ink can be applied to both flexible and rigid materials. In the case of flexible displays, the base requires a
thin, flexible material tough enough to withstand considerable wear, such as extremely thin plastic. The method of
how the inks are encapsulated and then applied to the substrate is what distinguishes each company from each other.
These processes are complex and are carefully guarded industry secrets. The manufacture of electronic paper
promises to be less complicated and less costly than traditional LCD manufacture.
There are many approaches to electronic paper, with many companies developing technology in this area. Other
technologies being applied to electronic paper include modifications of liquid crystal displays, electrochromic
displays, and the electronic equivalent of an Etch A Sketch at Kyushu University. Advantages of electronic paper
includes low power usage (power is only drawn when the display is updated), flexibility and better readability than
most displays. Electronic ink can be printed on any surface, including walls, billboards, product labels and T-shirts.
The ink's flexibility would also make it possible to develop rollable displays for electronic devices. The ideal
electronic paper product is a digital book that can typeset itself and could be read as if it were made of regular paper,
yet programmed to download and display the text from any book. Another possible use is in the distribution of an
electronic version of a daily paper.
12
Electronic paper
13
Commercial applications
Education: digital schoolbooks
• In January 2007, the Dutch specialist in e-Paper edupaper.nl [33] started a
pilot project in a secondary school in Maastricht, using e-Paper as digital
schoolbooks to reduce costs and students' daily burden of books.
wristwatches
• In December 2005 Seiko released their Spectrum SVRD001 wristwatch,
which has a flexible electrophoretic display[34] and in March 2010 Seiko
released a second generation of his famous e-ink watch with an active
matrix display.[35]
• Phosphor of Hong Kong have launched 3 series of watches using flexible
electrophoretic display using eink technology.[36]
e-Books
• In September 2006 Sony released the PRS-500 Sony Reader e-book
reader. On October 2, 2007, Sony announced the PRS-505, an updated
version of the Reader. In November 2008, Sony released the PRS-700BC
which incorporated a backlight and a touchscreen.
• In November 2006, the iRex iLiad was ready for the consumer market.
Consumers could initially read e-Books in PDF and HTML formats, and in
July 2007 support for the popular Mobipocket PRC format was added, but
price was still a problem. With the introduction of the competing Cybook,
prices have decreased almost 50%.
The Motorola F3 uses an e-paper display
instead of an LCD.
• In late 2007, Amazon began producing and marketing the Amazon Kindle, an e-book with an e-paper display. In
February 2009, Amazon released the Kindle 2 and in May 2009 the larger Kindle DX was announced.
• In November 2009 Barnes and Noble launched the Barnes & Noble Nook, based on the Android operating
system. It differs from other big name readers in that it has a replaceable battery and a separate touch-screen
below the main reading screen.
Newspapers
• In February 2006, the Flemish daily De Tijd distributed an electronic version of the paper to select subscribers in
a limited marketing study, using a pre-release version of the iRex iLiad. This was the first recorded application of
electronic ink to newspaper publishing.
• In September 2007, the French daily Les Échos announced the official launch of an electronic version of the paper
on a subscription basis. Two offers are available, combining a one year subscription and a reading device. One
interesting point of the offer is the choice of a light (176g) reading device (adapted for Les Echos by Ganaxa) or
the iRex iLiad. Two different processing platforms are used to deliver readable information of the daily, one
based on the newly developed GPP electronic ink platform from Ganaxa, and the other one developed internally
by Les Echos.
• Since January 2008, the Dutch daily NRC Handelsblad is distributed for the iRex iLiad reader.
Electronic paper
Digital Photo Frame
• In the future as electronic paper displays improve and full high quality color is possible, the technology may
become incorporated in digital photo frame products. Existing digital photo frames require a constant power
supply and have a limited viewing angle and physical thickness that is inferior to a conventional photograph. A
digital photo frame using e-paper technology would address all of these shortcomings. A well-designed digital
photo frame using an electronic ink display could, in theory, run for months or years from batteries, because such
a device would require electricity only to briefly boot up to connect to a USB memory stick (or other storage
device) and change the display before powering off all components.
Information Board
• An extension of the Digital Photo Frame concept is to display other media such as webpages or other documents.
Examples include web pages such as news sites or status pages such as stocks or other information. The current
days weather forecast would be a good example for installation in a domestic location such as near the front door
in a hall way. Such a device could also be connected wirelessly allowing remote or automatic updates without
human intervention. Such a product will have a low physical and energy footprint compared to older technology.
At present (Q4 2009) no such product is available on the market despite the technology already existing to
manufacture it. Unlike digital photo frames, digital information boards could run acceptably with greyscale
epaper.
Displays embedded in smart cards
• Flexible display cards enable financial payment cardholders to generate a one-time password to reduce online
banking and transaction fraud. Electronic paper could offer a flat and thin alternative to existing key fob tokens
for data security. The world’s first ISO compliant smart card with an embedded display was developed by
Innovative Card Technologies, www.incard.com and nCryptone in 2005. The cards used display technology from
www.sipex.com and was manufactured by Nagra ID, www.nagraid.com.
Status displays
• Some devices, like USB flash drives, have used electronic paper to display status information, such as available
storage space.[37]
Cell phones
• Motorola's low-cost mobile phone, the Motorola F3, also uses an alphanumeric black/white electrophoretic
display.
• The Samsung Alias 2 mobile phone incorporates electronic ink from E Ink into the keypad, which allows the
keypad to change character sets and orientation while in different display modes.
Display makers
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Delta Electronics
LG
NEC
Plastic Logic
Prime View International, flexible EPLaR
i-Rex
Samsung
• Seiko Epson
14
Electronic paper
See also
•
•
•
•
•
•
E-book
E Ink
Electrofluidic
Flexible electronics
List of e-book readers
Display examples
Further reading
•
•
•
•
•
•
New Scientist - Electric paper (2003) [38]
New Scientist - E-paper may offer video images (2003) [39]
New Scientist - Paper comes alive (2003) [40]
New Scientist - Most flexible electronic paper yet revealed (2004) [41]
New Scientist - Roll-up digital displays move closer to market (2005) [42]
Electronista - Seiko Epson develops ultra-dense e-paper display (11-2007) [43]
• Unidym Press Room - Unidym and Samsung Electronics demonstrate the world's first colour
carbon-nanotube-based electrophoretic display (10-2008) [44]
External links
Epaper Central [45] - Electronic Paper News, Information, and Analysis
E-paper display market reaches $1.17 billion in 2014 [46]
Electronic Paper:Merging between Traditional Publishing & e-Publishing [47]
Wired article on E Ink-Philips partnership, and background [48]
Bosner, Kevin. How Electronic Ink Will Work [49] at HowStuffWorks. Retrieved on 2007-08-26.
MIT ePaper Project [50]
Xerox PARC epaper project [51]
Gamma Dynamics - Commercializing a New Pigment-Based Electrowetting Display [52]
Office of Tomorrow [53]
Tanaka, Naoki (2007-12-06). "Fuji Xerox Exhibits Color Electronic Paper w/ Optical Writing System" [54]. Japan:
Tech-On!. Retrieved 2007-12-10.
• The Future of Electronic Paper [55] - Past, present and future of e-paper including an interview with Nick
Sheridon, Father of E-paper at Xerox
• Fujitsu Develops World's First Film Substrate-based Bendable Color Electronic Paper featuring Image Memory
Function [56].
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
References
[1] "Kindle not ready to surrender to iPad" (http:/ / www. latimes. com/ business/ la-fi-apple-books29-2010jan29,0,7543562. story). . Retrieved
2010-01-31.
[2] "IRex Takes On The Kindle" (http:/ / www. forbes. com/ 2008/ 09/ 23/ amazon-irex-ebook-tech-intel-cx_ag_0923ebook_print. html). .
Retrieved 2008-11-06.
[3] "SiPix pricing labels" (http:/ / www. sipix. com/ applications/ pricinglabels. html). . Retrieved 2008-01-13.
[4] Graham-Rowe (2007). "Electronic paper rewrites the rulebook for displays". Nature Photonics 1: 248. doi:10.1038/nphoton.2007.53. Photo
(http:/ / www. diginfo. tv/ archives/ fujitsu_03-thumb. jpg)
[5] "magink e-paper billboards" (http:/ / www. magink. com/ product. php). . Retrieved 2008-01-13.
[6] Crowley, J. M.; Sheridon, N. K.; Romano, L. " Dipole moments of gyricon balls (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ S0304-3886(01)00208-X)"
Journal of Electrostatics 2002, 55, (3-4), 247.
[7] New Scientist. Paper goes electric (1999) (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ mg16221864. 700-paper-goes-electric. html)
[8] Techon. Soken electronic wall-paper (http:/ / techon. nikkeibp. co. jp/ english/ NEWS_EN/ 20081104/ 160670/ )
15
Electronic paper
[9] http:/ / www. sipix. com/
[10] http:/ / www2. bridgestone-dp. jp/ global/ adv-materials/ QR-LPD/
[11] http:/ / thecoolgadgets. com/ bridgestone-flexible-epaper-quick-response-liquid-powder-technology/
[12] "Motorola Introduces MOTOFONE - New, Market-Defining Mobile Designed to Keep Everyone Connected" (http:/ / www. motorola. com/
mediacenter/ news/ detail. jsp?globalObjectId=7076_7025_23). . Retrieved 2007-12-03.
[13] Comiskey, B.; Albert, J. D.; Yoshizawa, H.; Jacobson, J. " An electrophoretic ink for all-printed reflective electronic displays (http:/ / dx.
doi. org/ 10. 1038/ 28349)" Nature 1998, 394, (6690), 253-255.
[14] New Scientist. Roll the presses (2001) (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ dn659-roll-the-presses. html)
[15] LiquaVista electrowetting display technologies http:/ / www. liquavista. com
[16] The Hindu : Technology for reflective full-colour display (http:/ / www. hinduonnet. com/ seta/ 2003/ 10/ 02/ stories/ 2003100200060200.
htm)
[17] http:/ / www. liquavista. com
[18] http:/ / www. itri. org. tw/ eng/ news-and-events/ feature-story-detail. asp?RootNodeId=050& NodeId=0502& FocusNewsNBR=52
[19] Blankenbach K, Schmoll A, Bitman A, Bartels F and Jerosch D 2008 Novel highly reflective and bistable electrowetting displays SID J. 16
237–44
[20] http:/ / www. iop. org/ Select/ article/ 0960-1317/ 19/ 6/ 065029/ jmm9_6_065029. pdf?request-id=37ba45f3-e740-4c0d-8c35-dcf2d9af1f10
[21] "Gamma Dynamics Technology" (http:/ / www. gammadynamics. net/ technology. html). Gamma Dynamics LLC. . Retrieved 2009-05-06.
[22] http:/ / www. kentdisplays. com/
[23] http:/ / www. nemoptic. com
[24] http:/ / www. treddisplays. com/
[25] Huitema, H. E. A.; Gelinck, G. H.; van der Putten, J. B. P. H.; Kuijk, K. E.; Hart, C. M.; Cantatore, E.; Herwig, P. T.; van Breemen, A. J. J.
M.; de Leeuw, D. M. " Plastic transistors in active-matrix displays (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1038/ 414599a)" Nature 2001, 414, (6864), 599.
[26] Gelinck, G. H. et al. " Flexible active-matrix displays and shift registers based on solution-processed organic transistors (http:/ / dx. doi. org/
10. 1038/ nmat1061)" Nature Materials 2004, 3, (2), 106-110.
[27] Andersson, P.; Nilsson, D.; Svensson, P. O.; Chen, M.; Malmström, A.; Remonen, T.; Kugler, T.; Berggren, M. " Active Matrix Displays
Based on All-Organic Electrochemical Smart Pixels Printed on Paper (http:/ / www3. interscience. wiley. com/ cgi-bin/ abstract/ 99018467/
ABSTRACT)" Adv Mater 2002, 14, (20), 1460-1464.
[28] New Scientist. Read all about it (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ dn837. html)
[29] http:/ / www. acreo. se/ templates/ Page____793. aspx?mode=print
[30] http:/ / www. ajjer. com/ available_technology. html
[31] http:/ / www. avesodisplays. com/
[32] http:/ / www. ntera. com/
[33] http:/ / edupaper. nl/ inhoud/ welcome
[34] "The first watch that uses flexible e-paper hits the stores" (http:/ / www. akihabaranews. com/ / en/ news-10749-The+ first+ watch+ that+
uses+ flexible+ e-paper+ hits+ the+ stores. html) 2005-12-01
[35] "Baselworld 2010 - Seiko Press Conference - Future Now, EPD Watch (http:/ / www. seikowatches. com/ baselworld/ 2010/ precon/
0402-epd. html) 2010-04-01
[36] http:/ / www. phosphorwatches. com/ default. asp
[37] "LEXAR ADDS INNOVATIVE STORAGE CAPACITY METER WITH ELECTRONIC PAPER DISPLAY FROM E INK" (http:/ / www.
eink. com/ press/ releases/ pr90. html). . Retrieved 22 Jan 2010.
[38] http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ mg16221864. 700-paper-goes-electric. html
[39] http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ dn4202
[40] http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ mg17924141. 200
[41] http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ dn4602
[42] http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ channel/ mech-tech/ mg18524907. 100
[43] http:/ / www. electronista. com/ articles/ 07/ 11/ 16/ seiko. ultra. dense. e. paper/
[44] http:/ / www. unidym. com/ press/ pr_081016. html
[45] http:/ / www. epapercentral. com
[46] http:/ / www. printedelectronicsworld. com/ articles/ e_paper_display_market_reaches_1_17_billion_in_2014_00001704. asp
[47] http:/ / sites. google. com/ site/ hantarto/ epublishing
[48] http:/ / www. wired. com/ news/ technology/ 0,1282,42056,00. html
[49] http:/ / www. howstuffworks. com/ e-ink. htm
[50] http:/ / www. media. mit. edu/ micromedia/ elecpaper. html
[51] http:/ / www2. parc. com/ hsl/ projects/ gyricon/
[52] http:/ / www. gammadynamics. net/ index. html
[53] http:/ / mi-lab. org/ projects/ office-of-tomorrow/
[54] http:/ / techon. nikkeibp. co. jp/ english/ NEWS_EN/ 20071206/ 143736/
[55] http:/ / www. TheFutureOfThings. com/ articles/ 1000/ the-future-of-electronic-paper. html
[56] http:/ / www. fujitsu. com/ global/ news/ pr/ archives/ month/ 2005/ 20050713-01. html
16
Electronic publishing or ePublishing includes the digital publication of e-books and electronic articles, and the
development of digital libraries and catalogues. Electronic publishing has become common in scientific publishing
where it has been argued that peer-reviewed paper scientific journals are in the process of being replaced by
electronic publishing. Although distribution via the Internet (also known as online publishing or web publishing
when in the form of a website) is nowadays strongly associated with electronic publishing, there are many non
network electronic publications such as Encyclopedias on CD and DVD, as well as technical and reference
publications relied on by mobile users and others without reliable and high speed access to a network.
After an article is submitted to a journal for consideration, there can be a delay ranging from several months to more
than two years[1] before it is published in a journal, rendering journals a less than ideal format for disseminating
current research. In some fields such as astronomy and some parts of physics, the role of the journal in disseminating
the latest research has largely been replaced by preprint repositories such as arXiv.org. However, scholarly journals
still play an important role in quality control and establishing scientific credit. In many instances, the electronic
materials uploaded to preprint repositories are still intended for eventual publication in a peer-reviewed journal.
There is statistical evidence that electronic publishing provides wider dissemination.[2] A number of journals have,
while retaining their peer review process, established electronic versions or even moved entirely to electronic
publication.
Electronic publishing is increasingly popular in works of fiction as well as with scientific articles. Electronic
publishers are able to provide quick gratification for late-night readers, books that customers might not be able to
find in standard book retailers (erotica is especially popular in eBook format), and books by new authors that would
be unlikely to be profitable for traditional publishers.
While the term "electronic publishing" is primarily used today to refer to the current offerings of online and
web-based publishers, the term has a history of being used to describe the development of new forms of production,
distribution, and user interaction in regard to computer-based production of text and other interactive media.[3]
Examples
Electronic versions of traditional media:
•
•
•
•
•
CD-ROM
E-book
Electronic journal
Online newspaper
Online magazine
New media:
• File sharing
• Podcast
• Collaborative software
17
Business models
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Online advertising
Open access (publishing)
Pay-Per-View
Print on demand
Subscriptions
Self-publishing
Non-Subsidy Publishing[4]
Technology vendors
•
•
•
•
•
•
DocQ
Issuu
Eastgate Systems
eMeta Corporation
InformIT
Ingenta
• Pressmart Media
• Safari Books Online
• Zmags
External links
• Electronic publishing [5] at the Open Directory Project
References
[1] G. Ellison (2002). " The Slowdown of the Economics Publishing Process (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1086/ 341868)". Journal of Political
Economy 110 (5): 947-993
[2] Online Or Invisible? (http:/ / www. idemployee. id. tue. nl/ g. w. m. rauterberg/ publications/ CITESEER2001online-nature. pdf) by Steve
Lawrence of the NEC Research Institute
[3] A good example of this use of the term can be found in the work of Walter Bender and his Electronic Publishing Research Group at the MIT
Media Lab.
[4] The term "non-subsidy publisher" is used to distinguish an electronic publisher that uses the traditional method of accepting submissions from
authors without payment by the author. It is, therefore, to be distinguished from any form of self-publishing. It is traditional publishing,
probably using a non-traditional medium, like electronic, or POD. See also: Subsidy Publishing vs. Self-Publishing: What's the Difference?
(http:/ / www. writing-world. com/ publish/ esub. shtml)
[5] http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Business/ Publishing_and_Printing/ Publishing/ Electronic/
18
Public domain
19
Public domain
Intellectual property law
Primary rights
Copyright • Patent • Trademark • Industrial design rights • Utility model • Geographical indication • Trade secret • Authors'
rights • Related rights • Moral rights
Sui generis rights
Database right • Mask work • Plant breeders' right • Supplementary protection certificate • Indigenous intellectual property
Related topics
Criticism • Orphan works • Public domain • more
Works are in the public domain if they are not covered by intellectual property rights at all, if the intellectual
property rights have expired,[1] and/or if the intellectual property rights are forfeited or unclaimed.[2] Examples
include the English language, the formulae of Newtonian physics, as well as the works of Shakespeare and the
patents over powered flight.[3]
In a general context public domain may refer to ideas, information and works that are "publicly available", but in the
context of intellectual property rights public domain refers to ideas, information and works which are intangible to
private ownership and/or which are available for use by members of the public, subject to respect for moral rights.[4]
Defining the public domain
The concept of public domain rarely receives any attention from
intellectual property lawyers, and if it does it is treated as little
more than that which is left when intellectual property rights, such
as copyright, patents and trademarks, expire or are abandoned.[5]
Contemporary scholarship on the public domain can be traced to
the publication of David Lange's seminal work "Recognising the
Public Domain" in 1981. While Lange makes no attempt to define
the public domain, he points out that it "tends to appear amorphous
and vague". Pamela Samuelson moreover points out that the public
Newton's own copy of his Principia, with hand-written
domain is "different sizes at different times in different
corrections for the second edition
countries".[6] The term public domain may also be interchangeably
used with other imprecise and/or undefined terms such as the "public sphere" or "commons", including concepts
such as "commons of the mind", the "intellectual commons" and the "information commons". [7]
Definitions of the boundaries of the public domain in relation to copyright, or intellectual property more generally,
regard the public domain as a negative space, that is, it consist of works that are no longer in copyright term. More
subtle definitions of the public domain move beyond those works that no longer receive legal protection under
intellectual property law and incorporates all aspects of works which are not covered by the intellectual property
doctrine, such as insubstantial parts of a copyrighted work or the statutory defined permitted acts and exceptions to
copyright. A less legalistic definition of the public domain comes from Lange, who focused on what the public
domain should be: "it should be a place of sanctuary for individual creative expression, a sanctuary conferring
affirmative protection against the forces of private appropriation that threatened such expression".[8] Patterson and
Lindberg in "the Nature of Copyright: A Law of User's Rights" (1991) described the public domain not as a
"territory", but rather as a concept: "There are certain materials - the air we breathe, sunlight, rain, ideas, words,
numbers - not subject to private ownership. The materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all to
Public domain
20
use no less than matter necessary for biological survival."[9]
Value of the public domain
In attempting to map the public domain Pamela Samuelson has
identified eight “values” that can arise from information and works in
the public domain,[11] though not every idea or work that is in the
public domain necessarily has a value.[12] Possible values include:
• Building blocks for the creation of new knowledge, examples
include data, facts, ideas, theories and scientific principle.
• Access to cultural heritage through information resources such as
ancient Greek texts and Mozart’s symphonies.
A didgeridoo, or yirdaki, which is widely thought
to be a stereotypical instrument of the Indigenous
Australians, was traditionally played by people of
only the eastern Kimberley region and Arnhem
Land (such as the Yolngu), and then by only the
[10]
men.
• Promoting education, through the spread of information, ideas and
scientific principles.
• Enabling follow-on innovation, through for example expired patents and copyright.
• Enabling low cost access to information without the need to locate the owner or negotiate rights clearance and pay
royalties, through for example expired copyrighted works or patents, and non-original data compilation.
• Promoting public health and safety, through information and scientific principles.
• Promoting the democratic process and values, through news, laws, regulation and judicial opinion.
• Enabling competitive imitation, through for example expired patents and copyright, or publicly disclosed
technologies that do not qualify for patent protection.[13]
Buddhist monk Geshe Konchog Wangdu reads
Mahayana sutras from an old woodblock copy of the
Tibetan Kanjur.
Public domain
21
The public domain and traditional knowledge
Traditional knowledge includes pre-existing, underlying traditional culture, or
folklore, and literary and artistic works created by current generations of
society which are based on or derived from pre-existing traditional culture or
folklore. Traditional culture and folklore tends to be trans-generational, old
and collectively "owned" by groups or communities. Often traditional culture
and folklore is of anonymous origin and expressions of this pre-existing
traditional culture is generally not protected by current intellectual property
laws and is treated as being in the public domain.[14] In contrast contemporary
literary and artistic works based upon, derived from or inspired by traditional
culture or folklore may incorporate new elements or expressions. Hence these
works may be "new" works with a living and identifiable creator, or creators.
Papirus Oxyrhynchus, with fragment of
Plato's The Republic
Such contemporary works may include a new interpretation, arrangement,
adaptation or collection of pre-existing cultural heritage that is in the public
domain. Traditional culture or folklore may also be "repackaged" in digital formats, or restoration and colorization.
Contemporary and tradition based expressions and works of traditional culture are generally protected under existing
copyright law, a form of intellectual property law, as they are sufficiently original to be regarded as "new" upon
publication. Once the intellectual property rights afforded to these new works of traditional knowledge expire, they
fall into the public domain.[15]
The public domain, as defined in the context of intellectual property rights, is not a concept recognised by
indigenous peoples. As much of traditional knowledge has never been protected under intellectual property rights,
they can not be said to have entered any public domain. On this point the Tulalip Tribes of Washington State, United
States, has commented that "...open sharing does not automatically confer a right to use the knowledge (of
indigenous people)... traditional cultural expressions are not in the public domain because indigenous peoples have
failed to take the steps necessary to protect the knowledge in the Western intellectual property system, but form a
failure of governments and citizens to recognise and respect the customary laws regulating their use".[16]
The public domain in the information society
Colorization in 1986. From Night of the Living Dead.
Colorization in 2004 from the same film.
According to Bernt Hugenholtz and Lucie Guibault the public domain is under pressure from the "commodification
of information" as item of information that previously had little or no economic value, have acquired independent
Public domain
economic value in the information age, such as factual data, personal data, genetic information and pure ideas. The
commodification of information is taking place through intellectual property law, contract law, as well as
broadcasting and telecommunications law.[17]
Public domain in copyrightable works
Works not covered by copyright law
The underlying idea that is expressed or manifested in the creation of a work generally cannot be the subject of
copyright law (see idea-expression divide). Mathematical formulæ will therefore generally form part of the public
domain, to the extent that their expression in the form of software is not covered by copyright; however, algorithms
can be the subject of a software patent in some jurisdictions.[18] [19]
Works created before the existence of copyright and patent laws also form part of the public domain. For example,
the Bible and the inventions of Archimedes are in the public domain, but copyright may exist in translations or new
formulations of these works.
Expiration of copyright
The expiration of a copyright is more complex than that of a patent. Historically the United States has specified
terms of a number of years following creation or publication; this number has been increased several times. Most
other countries specify terms of a number of years following the death of the last surviving creator; this number
varies from one country to another (50 years and 70 years are the most common), and has also been increased in
many of them. See List of countries' copyright length. Legal traditions differ on whether a work in the public domain
can have its copyright restored. Term extensions by the U.S. and Australia generally have not removed works from
the public domain, but merely delayed the addition of works to it. By contrast, a European Union directive
harmonizing the term of copyright protection was applied retroactively, restoring and extending the terms of
copyright on material previously in the public domain.
Government works
Works of the United States Government and various other governments are excluded from copyright law and may
therefore be considered to be in the public domain in their respective countries.[20] In the United States, when
copyrighted material is enacted into the law, it enters the public domain. Thus, the building codes, when enacted, are
in the public domain.[21] They may also be in the public domain in other countries as well. "It is axiomatic that
material in the public domain is not protected by copyright, even when incorporated into a copyrighted work."[22]
Definition
The definition of public domain is not uniform and may not only include completed works, but also permitted uses
of works still covered by intellectual property rights, such as for example the right to excerpt short quotations in a
review. This definition divides areas of private property from areas of the public domain. For example, Mozart's plot
is public property, and Britney Spears's music is private property.[23]
Public domain in patents
In most countries the term for patents is 20 years, after which the invention becomes part of the public domain.
22
Public domain
Public domain in trademarks
A trademark registration may remain in force indefinitely, or expire without specific regard to its age. For a
trademark registration to remain valid, the owner must continue to use it. In some circumstances, such as disuse,
failure to assert trademark rights, or common usage by the public without regard for its intended use, it could become
generic, and therefore part of the public domain.
Some works may never fully lapse into the public domain. A perpetual crown copyright is held for the Authorized
King James Version of the Bible in the UK.[24] While the copyright of the play Peter Pan, or the Boy Who Wouldn't
Grow Up by J. M. Barrie has expired in the United Kingdom, it was granted a special exception under the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988 (Schedule 6) [25][26] that requires royalties to be paid for performances within the UK,
so long as Great Ormond Street Hospital (to whom Barrie gave the rights) continues to exist.
Because trademarks are registered with governments, some countries or trademark registries may recognize a mark,
while others may have determined that it is generic and not allowable as a trademark in that registry. For example,
the drug "acetylsalicylic acid" (2-acetoxybenzoic acid) is better known as aspirin in the United States—a generic
term. In Canada, however, "aspirin" is still a trademark of the German company Bayer. Bayer lost the trademark
after World War I, when the mark was sold to an American firm. So many copy-cat products entered the marketplace
during the war that it was deemed generic just three years later.[27]
Generic trademarks
Trademarks currently thought to be in danger of being generic include iPod, Jell-O, Band-Aid, Rollerblade, Google,
Spam, Hoover, and Sheetrock. Google vigorously defends its trademark rights. Although Hormel resigned itself to
genericide,[28] it has fought attempts by other companies to register "spam" as a trademark in relation to computer
products.[29]
When a trademark becomes generic, it is as if the mark were in the public domain. Trademarks which have been
genericized in particular places include: Formica, Escalator, Trampoline, Raisin Bran, Linoleum, Dry Ice, Shredded
Wheat (generic in US), Mimeograph, Yo-Yo, Kerosene, Cornflakes, Cube Steak, Lanolin, and High Octane, [30] as
well as Aspirin (generic in the United States, but not in Canada), Allen wrench, Beaverboard, Masonite, Coke,
Pablum, Styrofoam, Heroin, Bikini, Chyron, Crapper, Weedwhacker, Kleenex, Hoover (England), Linux (generic in
Australia) and Zipper.
Public domain works
Several artists and advocates of the public domain have created projects that call attention to the issue, supporting the
free and public use of space and items such as software. Examples include Richard Stallman in his GNU Manifesto
and Amy Balkin in her website This is the Public Domain [31].
•
•
•
•
•
•
List of countries' copyright length
List of films in the public domain in the United States
List of public domain tangos
Public domain film
Public domain music
Public domain software
23
Public domain
See also
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Berne Convention
Catholic Public Domain Version
Copyfraud
Copyleft
Copyright status of work by the U.S. government
Copyright Term Extension Act
Creative Commons
Creativity techniques
Cultural environmentalism
Eldred v. Ashcroft
Fair dealing
Fair use
Free software
Indigenous intellectual property
Orphan works
Public Domain Enhancement Act
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Public Domain (film)
Rule of the shorter term
Street Performer Protocol
Tales from the Public Domain
The Uneasy Case for Copyright
Traditional Knowledge Digital Library
Transaction cost
External links
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Public Domain Calculators for Various Countries [32]
Flowchart to determine Public Domain status of a work in the U.S. [33]
Public Domain Dedication [34]
Public Domain Works - an open registry of artistic works that are in the public domain [35]
Stanford Copyright Renewal Database [36]
Catalog of Copyright Entries Information [37]
GNU.org [38]
References
[1] Boyle, James (2008). The Public Domain: Enclosing the Commons of the Mind (http:/ / www. google. com/ books?id=Fn1Pl9Gv_EMC&
dq=public+ domain& source=gbs_navlinks_s). CSPD. pp. 38. ISBN 0300137400, 9780300137408. .
[2] Graber, Christoph Beat; and Mira Burri Nenova (2008). Intellectual Property and Traditional Cultural Expressions in a digital environment
(http:/ / www. google. com/ books?id=gK6OI0hrANsC& dq="public+ domain"+ intellectual+ property& lr=& as_brr=3&
source=gbs_navlinks_s). Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 173. ISBN 1847209211, 9781847209214. .
[5] Ronan, Deazley (2006). Rethinking copyright: history, theory, language (http:/ / www. google. com/ books?id=dMYXq9V1JBQC&
dq=statute+ of+ anne+ copyright& lr=& as_brr=3& source=gbs_navlinks_s). Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 103. ISBN 9781845422820. .
24
Public domain
[10] "History of the Didgeridoo Yidaki" (http:/ / www. aboriginalarts. co. uk/ historyofthedidgeridoo. html). Aboriginalarts.co.uk. . Retrieved
2009-08-09.
[11] Guibault, Lucy; & Bernt Hugenholtz (2006). The future of the public domain: identifying the commons in information law (http:/ / www.
google. com/ books?id=KJmNGglq0nwC& dq=public+ domain& lr=& as_brr=3& source=gbs_navlinks_s). Kluwer Law International. pp. 22.
ISBN 9041124357, 9789041124357. .
ISBN 9041124357, 9789041124357. .
ISBN 9041124357, 9789041124357. .
source=gbs_navlinks_s). Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 173-174. ISBN 1847209211, 9781847209214. .
ISBN 9041124357, 9789041124357. .
[18] Patentability of Mathematical Algorithms under US Manual of Patent Examining Procedure (http:/ / www. uspto. gov/ web/ offices/ pac/
mpep/ documents/ 2100_2106_02. htm#sect2106. 02)
[19] USPTO Notice of Public Hearings and Request for Comments on Patent Protection for Software-Related Inventions 1994 (http:/ / www.
uspto. gov/ web/ offices/ com/ hearings/ software/ notices/ notice94. html)
[20] Copyright Office Basics (http:/ / www. copyright. gov/ circs/ circ01. pdf)
[21] http:/ / en. wikisource. org/ wiki/ Veeck_v. _Southern_Building_Code_Congress_Int'l,_Inc. / Opinion_of_the_Court
[22] Nimmer, Melville B., and David Nimmer (1997). Nimmer on Copyright, section 13.03(F)(4). Albany: Matthew Bender.
[24] (Coogan & Metzger 1993, p. 618)
[25] http:/ / www. jenkins-ip. com/ patlaw/ cdpasc6. htm
[26] "Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (c. 48)" (http:/ / www. opsi. gov. uk/ acts/ acts1988/ Ukpga_19880048_en_28. htm). Office of
Public Sector Information. 1988. p. 28. . Retrieved September 2, 2008.
[27] Aspirin (http:/ / www. worldofmolecules. com/ drugs/ aspirin. htm), World of Molecules
[28] SPAM and the Internet (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070115105048/ http:/ / www. spam. com/ ci/ ci_in. htm) (Waybacked)
[29] Kieren McCarthy (January 31, 2005). "Hormel Spam trademark case canned" (http:/ / www. theregister. co. uk/ 2005/ 01/ 31/ spam_ruling/
). . Retrieved September 2, 2008.
[30] Source: Xerox ad, reprinted in Copyright, Patent, Trademark, ..., by Paul Goldstein, 5th ed., p. 245
[31] http:/ / thisisthepublicdomain. org
[32] http:/ / wiki. okfn. org/ PublicDomainCalculators
[33] http:/ / www. bromsun. com/ practices/ copyright-portfolio-development/ flowchart. htm
[34] http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ publicdomain/
[35] http:/ / www. publicdomainworks. net
[36] http:/ / collections. stanford. edu/ copyrightrenewals/ bin/ page?forward=home
[37] http:/ / www. digital. library. upenn. edu/ books/ cce/
[38] http:/ / www. gnu. org
25
Copyright
26
Copyright
Primary rights
Sui generis rights
Related topics
Copyright is the set of exclusive rights granted to the author or creator of an original work, including the right to
copy, distribute and adapt the work. These rights can be licensed, transferred and/or assigned. Copyright lasts for a
certain time period after which the work is said to enter the public domain. Copyright applies to a wide range of
works that are substantive and fixed in a medium. Some jurisdictions also recognize "moral rights" of the creator of a
work, such as the right to be credited for the work.
The Statute of Anne 1709, full title "An Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by vesting the Copies of Printed
Books in the Authors or purchasers of such Copies, during the Times therein mentioned", is now seen as the origin
of copyright law.[1] Since the 19th Century copyright is described under the umbrella term intellectual property along
with patents and trademarks.
Copyright has been internationally standardized, lasting between fifty and one hundred years from the author's death,
or a shorter period for anonymous or corporate authorship. Generally, copyright is enforced as a civil matter, though
some jurisdictions do apply criminal sanctions.
Justification
The British Statute of Anne was the first act to directly protect the rights of authors.[2] Under US copyright law, the
justification appears in Article I, Section 8 Clause 8 of the Constitution, known as the Copyright Clause. It empowers
the United States Congress "To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to
Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries."[3]
According to the World Intellectual Property Organisation the purpose of copyright is twofold:
"To encourage a dynamic creative culture, while returning value to creators so that they can lead a
dignified economic existence, and to provide widespread, affordable access to content for the public."[4]
Copyright
27
Copyright as property right
Copyright as a property law was initially conceived of as a "chose in action",
that is an intangible property, as opposed to tangible property. Tangible
property is attached to the legal ownership of a physical item, hence the
purchase of a book buys ownership of the book, but not the underlying
copyright in the book's content.[5]
The Statute of Anne specifically referred to copyright in terms of property
(see literary property), albeit limited in time. Many contemporaries did not
believe that the statute was concerned with property "in the strict sense of the
word". The question of whether copyright is property right dates back to the
Battle of the Booksellers. In 1773 Lord Gardenston commented in Hinton v.
Donaldson that "the ordinary subjects of property are well known, and easily
conceived... But property, when applied to ideas, or literary and intellectual
compositions, is perfectly new and surprising..."[6]
Newspaper advert: "United States and
Foreign Copyright. Patents and
Trade-Marks A Copyright will protect
you from Pirates. And make you a
fortune.
It was in the 19th century that the term intellectual property began to be used
as an umbrella term for patents, copyright and other laws.[1] [7] The expansion
in the scope of copyright and copyright term are mirrored in the rhetoric that
has been employed in referring to copyright. Courts, when strengthening copyright, have characterised it as a type of
property. Companies have strongly emphasised copyright as property, with leaders in the music and movie industries
seeking to "protect private property from being pillaged" and making forceful assertions that copyright is absolute
property right.[8] With reference to the expanding scope of copyright, one commentator noted that "We have gone
from a regime where a tiny part of creative content was controlled to a regime where most of the most useful and
valuable creative content is controlled for every significicant use."[9]
Exclusive rights granted by copyright
Copyright is literally, the right to copy, though in legal terms "the right to control copying" is more accurate.
Copyright are exclusive statutory rights to exercise control over copying and other exploitation of the works for a
specific period of time. The copyright owner is given two sets of rights: an exclusive, positive right to copy and
exploit the copyrighted work, or license others to do so, and a negative right to prevent anyone else from doing so
without consent, with the possibility of legal remedies if they do.[10]
Copyright initially only granted the exclusive right to copy a book, allowing anybody to use the book to, for
example, make a translation, adaptation or public performance.[9] At the time print on paper was the only format in
which most text based copyrighted works were distributed. Therefore, while the language of book contracts was
typically very broad, the only exclusive rights that had any significant economic value were rights to distribute the
work in print.[11] The exclusive rights granted by copyright law to copyright owners have been gradually expanded
over time and now uses of the work such as dramatization, translations, and derivative works such as adaptations and
transformations, fall within the scope of copyright.[9] With a few exceptions, the exclusive rights granted by
copyright are strictly territorial in scope, as they are granted by copyright laws in different countries. Bilateral and
multilateral treaties establish minimum exclusive rights in member states, meaning that there is some uniformity
across Berne Convention member states.[12]
The print on paper format means that content is affixed onto paper and the content can’t be easily or conveniently
manipulated by the user. Duplication of printed works is time-consuming and generally produces a copy that is of
lower quality. Developments in technology have created new formats, in addition to paper, and new means of
distribution. Particularly digital formats distributed over computer networks have separated the content from its
means of delivery. Users of content are now able to exercise many of the exclusive rights granted to copyright
Copyright
28
owners, such as reproduction, distribution and adaptation.[11]
Works subject to copyright
The type of works which are subject to copyright has been expanded over time. Initially only covering books,
copyright law was revised in the 19th century to include maps, charts, engravings, prints, musical compositions,
dramatic works, photographs, paintings, drawings and sculptures. In the 20th century copyright was expanded to
cover motion pictures, computer programs, sound recordings, dance and architectural works.[9]
Copyright law is typically designed to protect the fixed expression or manifestation of an idea rather than the
fundamental idea itself. Copyright does not protect ideas, only their expression and in the Anglo-American law
tradition the idea-expression dichotomy is a legal concept which explains the appropriate function of copyright
laws.[13]
Related rights and neighboring rights
Related rights is used to describe database rights, public lending rights (rental rights), artist resale rights and
performers’ rights. Related rights may also refer to copyright in broadcasts and sound recordings.[14] Related rights
award copyright protection to works which are not author works, but rather technical media works which allowed
author works to be communicated to a new audience in a different form. The substance of protection is usually not as
great as there is for author works. In continental European copyright law a system of neighboring rights has thus
developed and the approach was reinforced by the creation of the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers,
Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations in 1961.[15]
History
Early European printers' monopoly
First page of John Milton's
1644 edition of
Areopagitica, in it he
argued forcefully against
the Licensing Order of
1643.
The origin of copyright law in most European countries lies in efforts by the church and
governments to regulate and control the output of printers.[16] Before the invention of the
printing press a writing, once created, could only be physically multiplied by the highly
laborious and error-prone process of manual copying out and an elaborate system of
censorship and control over scribes existed.[17] Printing allowed for multiple exact copies
of a work, leading to a more rapid and widespread circulation of ideas and information
(see print culture).[16] Pope Alexander VI issued a bull in 1501 against the unlicensed
printing of books and in 1559 the Index Expurgatorius, or List of Prohibited Books, was
issued for the first time.[17]
In Europe printing was invented and widely established in the 15th and 16th
centuries.[16] While governments and church encouraged printing in many ways, which
allowed the dissemination of Bibles and government information, works of dissent and
criticism could also circulate rapidly. As a consequence, governments established
controls over printers across Europe, requiring them to have official licences to trade and
produce books. The licenses typically gave printers the exclusive right to print particular works for a fixed period of
years, and enabled the printer to prevent others from printing the same work during that period. The licenses could
only grant rights to print in the territory of the state that had granted them, but they did usually prohibit the import of
foreign printing.[16] The notion that the expression of dissent or subversive views should
Copyright
29
be tolerated, not censured or punished by law, developed alongside the rise of printing
and the press. The Areopagitica, published in 1644 under the full title Areopagitica: A
speech of Mr. John Milton for the liberty of unlicensed printing to the Parliament of
England, was John Milton's response to the British parliament re-introducing
government licensing of printers, hence publishers. In doing so Milton articulated the
main strands of future discussions about freedom of expression. By defining the scope of
freedom of expression and of "harmful" speech Milton argued against the principle of
pre-censorship and in favour of tolerance for a wide range of views.[18]
As the "menace" of printing spread governments established centralised control
mechanism[19] and in 1557 the British Crown thought to stem the flow of seditious and
Title page of Index
heretical books by chartering the Stationers' Company. The right to print was limited to
Librorum Prohibitorum, or
the members of that guild, and thirty years later the Star Chamber was chartered to
List of Prohibited Books,
curtail the "greate enormities and abuses" of "dyvers contentyous and disorderlye
(Venice 1564).
persons professinge the arte or mystere of pryntinge or selling of books." The right to
print was restricted to two universities and to the 21 existing printers in the city of London, which had 53 printing
presses. The French crown also repressed printing, and printer Etienne Dolet was burned at the stake in 1546. As the
British took control of type founding in 1637 printers fled to the Netherlands. Confrontation with authority made
printers radical and rebellious, with 800 authors, printers and book dealers being incarcerated in the Bastille before it
was stormed in 1789.[19]
Early British copyright law
In England the printers, known as stationers, formed a
collective organisation, known as the Stationers'
Company. In the 16th century the Stationers' Company
was given the power to require all lawfully printed
books to be entered into its register. Only members of
the Stationers' Company could enter books into the
register. The standard wording of an entry in the
Register was: "(Date),(Publisher's name) entered for his
copy under the hands of (two Authorised Members/
Wardens of the Company) a book called (full title), (no.
of volumes), by (author's name), (registration fee in
pence)". This meant that the Stationers' Company
achieved a dominant position over publishing in 17th
century England (no equivalent arrangement formed in
Scotland and Ireland). But the monopoly came to an
end in 1694, when the English Parliament did not
renew the Stationers Company's power.[16]
The Statute of Anne came into force in 1710
In 1707 the parliaments of England and Scotland were
united as a result of the Anglo-Scottish Union. The new
parliament was able to change the laws in both countries and an important early piece of legislation was the
Copyright Act of 1709, also known as the Statute of Anne, after Queen Anne. The act came into force in 1710 and
was the first copyright statute. Its full title was "An Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by vesting the Copies of
Printed Books in the Authors or purchasers of such Copies, during the Times therein mentioned".[16]
Copyright
30
The coming into force of the Statute of Anne in April 1710 marked a historic moment in the development of
copyright law. As the world's first copyright statute it granted publishers of a book legal protection of 14 years with
the commencement of the statute. It also granted 21 years of protection for any book already in print.[20] The Statute
of Anne had a much broader social focus and remit than the monopoly granted to the Stationers' Company. The
statute was concerned with the reading public, the continued production of useful literature, and the advancement
and spread of education. The central plank of the statute is a social quid pro quo; to encourage "learned men to
compose and write useful books" the statute guaranteed the finite right to print and reprint those works. It established
a pragmatic bargain involving authors, the booksellers and the public.[21] The Statute of Anne ended the old system
whereby only literature that met the censorship standards administers by the booksellers could appear in print. The
statute furthermore created a public domain for literature, as previously all literature belonged to the booksellers
forever.[22]
According to Patterson and Lindberg, the Statute of Anne:
"... transformed the stationers' copyright - which had been used as a device of monopoly and an
instrument of censorship - into a trade-regulation concept to promote learning and to curtail the
monopoly of publishers... The features of the Statute of Anne that justify the epithet of trade regulation
included the limited term of copyright, the availability of copyright to anyone, and the price-control
provisions. Copyright, rather than being perpetual, was now limited to a term of fourteen years, with a
like renewal term being available only to the author (and only if the author were living at the end of the
first term)."[22]
When the statutory copyright term provided for by the Statute of Anne began to expire in 1731 London booksellers
thought to defend their dominant position by seeking injunctions from the Court of Chancery for works by authors
that fell outside the statute's protection. At the same time the London booksellers lobbied parliament to extend the
copyright term provided by the Statute of Anne. Eventually, in a case known as Midwinter v. Hamilton
(1743–1748), the London booksellers turned to common law and starting a 30 year period known as the battle of the
booksellers. The battle of the booksellers saw London booksellers locking horns with the newly emerging Scottish
book trade over the right to reprint works falling outside the protection of the Statute of Anne. The Scottish
booksellers argued that no common law copyright existed in an author's work. The London booksellers argued that
the Statute of Anne only supplemented and supported a pre-existing common law copyright. The dispute was argued
out in a number of notable cases, including Millar v. Kincaid (1749–1751) and Tonson v. Collins (1761–1762).[23]
Common law copyright
When Donaldson v Beckett reached the House of Lords in 1774 Lord Camden was most strident in his rejection of
the common law copyright, warning the Lords that should they vote in favour of common law copyright, effectively
a perpetual copyright, "all our learning will be locked up in the hands of the Tonsons and the Lintots of the age".
Moreover he warned that booksellers would then set upon books whatever price they pleased "till the public became
as much their slaves, as their own hackney compilers are". He declared that "Knowledge and science are not things
to be bound in such cobweb chains."[24] In its ruling the House of Lords established that copyright was a "creature of
statute", and that the rights and responsibilities in copyright were determined by legislation.[25] There is however still
disagreemnt over whether the House of Lords affirmed the existence of common law copyright before it was
superseded by the Statute of Anne. The Lords had traditionally been hostile to the booksellers' monopoly and were
aware of how the doctrine of common law copyright, promoted by the booksellers, was used to support their case for
a perpetual copyright. The Lords clearly voted against perpetual copyright,[26] and eventually an understanding was
established whereby authors had a pre-existing common law copyright over their work, but that with the Statute of
Anne parliament had limited these natural rights in order to strike a more appropriate balance between the interests
of the author and the wider social good.[27] According to Patterson and Livingston there remains confusion about the
nature of copyright ever since. Copyright has come to be viewed as a natural law right of the author as well as the
statutory grant of a limited monopoly. One theory holds that copyright's origin occurs at the creation of a work, the
Copyright
other that it origin exists only through the copyright statute.[28]
Early French copyright law
In pre-revolutionary France all books needed to be approved by official censors and authors and publishers had to
obtain a royal privilege before a book could be published. Royal privileges were exclusive and usually granted for
six years, with the possibility of renewal. Over time it was established that the owner of a royal privilege has the sole
right to obtain a renewal indefinitely. In 1761 the Royal Council awarded a royal privilege to the heirs of an author
rather than the author's publisher, sparking a national debate on the nature of literary property similar to that taking
place in Britain during the battle of the booksellers.[29]
In 1777 a series of royal decrees reformed the royal privileges. The duration of privileges were set at a minimum
duration of 10 years or the life of the author, which ever was longer. If the author obtained a privilege and did not
transfer or sell it on, he could publish and sell copies of the book himself, and pass the privilege on to his heirs, who
enjoyed an exclusive right into perpetuity. If the privilege was sold to a publisher, the exclusive right would only last
the specified duration. The royal degrees prohibited the renewal of privileges and once the privilege had expired
anyone could obtain a "permission simple" to print or sell copies of the work. Hence the public domain in books
whose privilege had expired was expressly recognised.[29]
After the French Revolution a dispute over Comédie-Française being granted the exclusive right to the public
performance of all dramatic works erupted and in 1791 the National Assembly abolished the privilege. Anyone was
allowed to establish a public theatre and the National Assembly declared that the works of any author who had died
more than five years ago were public property. In the same degree the National Assembly granted authors the
exclusive right to authorise the public performance of their works during their lifetime, and extended that right to the
authors' heirs and assignees for five years after the author's death. The National Assembly took the view that a
published work was by its nature a public property, and that an author's rights are recognised as an exception to this
principle, to compensate an author for his work.[29]
In 1793 a new law was passed giving authors, composers, and artists the exclusive right to sell and distribute their
works, and the right was extended to their heirs and assigns for 10 years after the author's death. The National
Assembly placed this law firmly on a natural right footing, calling the law the "Declaration of the Rights of Genius"
and so evoking the famous Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. However, author's rights were
subject to the condition of making depositing copies of the work with the Bibliothèque Nationale and 19th Century
commentators characterised the 1793 law as utilitarian and "a charitable grant from society".[29]
31
Copyright
Early US copyright law
The Statute of Anne did not apply to the American
colonies. The colonies' economy was largely agrarian,
hence copyright law was not a priority, resulting in only
three private copyright acts being passed in America
prior to 1783. Two of the acts were limited to seven
years, the other was limited to a term of five years. In
1783 several authors' petitions persuaded the Continental
Congress "that nothing is more properly a man's own
than the fruit of his study, and that the protection and
security of literary property would greatly tends to
encourage genius and to promote useful discoveries." But
under the Articles of Confederation, the Continental
Congress had no authority to issue copyright, instead it
passed a resolution encouraging the States to "secure to
the authors or publishers of any new book not hitherto
printed... the copy right of such books for a certain time
not less than fourteen years from the first publication; and
to secure to the said authors, if they shall survive the term
first mentioned,... the copy right of such books for
another term of time no less than fourteen years.[30]
Three states had already enacted copyright statutes in
1783 prior to the Continental Congress resolution, and in
the subsequent three years all of the remaining states
The Copyright Act of 1790 in the Columbian Centinel
except Delaware passed a copyright statute. Seven of the
States followed the Statute of Anne and the Continental
Congress' resolution by providing two fourteen year terms. The five remaining States granted copyright for single
terms of fourteen, twenty and twenty one years, with no right of renewal.[31]
At the Constitutional Convention 1787 both James Madison of Virginia and Charles Pinckney of South Carolina
submitted proposals that would allow Congress the power to grant copyright for a limited time. These proposals are
the origin of the Copyright Clause in the United States Constitution, which allows the granting of copyright and
patents for a limited time to serve a utilitarian function, namely "to promote the progress of science and useful arts".
The first federal copyright act, the Copyright Act of 1790 granted copyright for a term of "fourteen years from the
time of recording the title thereof", with a right of renewal for another fourteen years if the author survived to the end
of the first term. The act covered not only books, but also maps and charts. With exception of the provision on maps
and charts the Copyright Act of 1790 is copied almost verbatim from the Statute of Anne.[31]
At the time works only received protection under federal statutory copyright if the statutory formalities, such as a
proper copyright notice, were satisfied. If this was not the case the work immediately entered into the public domain.
In 1834 the Supreme Court ruled in Wheaton v. Peters, a case similar to the British Donaldson v Beckett of 1774,
that although the author of an unpublished work had a common law right to control the first publication of that work,
the author did not have a common law right to control reproduction following the first publication of the work.[31]
32
Copyright
International copyright law
Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works
The Berne Convention was first
established in 1886, and was
subsequently re-negotiated in 1896
(Paris), 1908 (Berlin), 1928 (Rome),
1948 (Brussels), 1967 (Stockholm) and
1971 (Paris). The convention relates to
literary and artistic works, which
includes films, and the convention
requires its member states to provide
protection for every production in the
literary, scientific and artistic domain.
Berne Convention signatory countries (in blue).
The Berne Convention has a number of
core features, including the principle of
national treatment, which holds that each member state to the Convention would give citizens of other member
states the same rights of copyright that it gave to its own citizens (Article 3-5).[32]
Another core feature is the establishment of minimum standards of national copyright legislation in that each
member state agrees to certain basic rules which their national laws must contain. Though member states can if they
wish increase the amount of protection given to copyright owners. One important minimum rule was that the term of
copyright was to be a minimum of the author's lifetime plus 50 years. Another important minimum rule established
by the Berne Convention is that copyright arises with the creation of a work and does not depend upon any formality
such as a system of public registration (Article 5(2)). At the time some countries did require registration of
copyright, and when Britain implemented the Berne Convention in the Copyright Act 1911 it had to abolish its
system of registration at Stationers' Hall.[32]
The Berne Convention focuses on authors as the key figure in copyright law and the stated purpose of the convention
is "the protection of the rights of authors in their literary and artistic works" (Article 1), rather than the protection of
publishers and other actors in the process of disseminating works to the public. In the 1928 revision the concept of
moral rights was introduced (Article 10bis), giving authors the right to be identified as a such and to object to
derogatory treatment of their works. These rights, unlike economic rights such as preventing reproduction, could not
be transferred to others.[32]
The Berne Convention also enshrined limitations and exceptions to copyright, enabling the reproduction of literary
and artistic works without the copyright owners prior permission. The detail of these exceptions was left to national
copyright legislation, but the guiding principle is stated in Article 9 of the convention. The so called three-step test
holds that an exception is only permitted "in certain special cases, provided that such reproduction does not conflict
with a normal exploitation of the work and does not unreasonably prejudice the legitimate interests of the author".
Free use of copyrighted work is expressly permitted in the case of quotations from lawfully published works,
illustration for teaching purposes, and news reporting (Article 10).[32]
33
Copyright
34
European copyright law
In the 1980s the European Community started to regard copyright as an element in the creation of a single market.
Since 1991 the EU has passed a number of directives on copyright, designed to harmonise copyright laws in member
states in certain key areas, such as computer programmes, databases and the internet. The directives aimed to reduce
obstacles to the free movement of goods and services within the European Union, such as for example in rental
rights, satellite broadcasting, copyright term and resale rights.[33] Key directives include the 1993 Copyright
Duration Directive, the 2001 InfoSoc Directive, also known as Copyright Directive, and the 2004 Directive on the
enforcement of intellectual property rights.
Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)
Important developments on copyright at international level in the 1990s include the 1994 Agreement on
Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, known as TRIPS Agreement. TRIPS was negotiated at the
end of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and contains a number of
provisions on copyright. Compliance with the TRIPS Agreement is required of states wishing to be members of the
World Trade Organisation (WTO). States need to be signatory of the Berne Convention and comply with all its
provisions, except for the provision on moral rights (Article 9(1)). States need to bring computer programs and
databases within the scope of works covered by copyright law (Article 10). States need to provide for rental rights in
at least computer programs and films (Article 11). Where copyright term, that is duration of copyright, is calculated
other than by reference to the life of a natural person, States need to give a minimum term of 50 years calculated
from either the date of authorised publication or the creation of the work.[33]
Copyright law by country
Europe
France · Germany · Ireland · Netherlands · Poland · Serbia · Spain · Switzerland · Turkey · United Kingdom
North America
Canada · United States
Indian subcontinent, South East Asia and Australia
Australia · Hong Kong · India · Japan · New Zealand · Pakistan · Phillippines · Thailand
Central Asia and Russia
Russia · Tajikistan
Middle East
Egypt · Iran · Jordan
Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement
The Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA) is a proposed plurilateral trade agreement which is claimed by its
proponents to be in response "to the increase in global trade of counterfeit goods and pirated copyright protected
works."[34] The scope of ACTA is broad, including counterfeit physical goods, as well as "internet distribution and
information technology".[35]
In October 2007 the United States, the European Community, Switzerland and Japan announced that they would
negotiate ACTA. Furthermore the following countries have joined the negotiations: Australia, the Republic of Korea,
New Zealand, Mexico, Jordan, Morocco, Singapore, the United Arab Emirates and Canada.[35] [36] [37] The ACTA
negotiations have been largely conducted in secrecy, with very little information being officially disclosed. However,
on 22 May 2008 a discussion paper about the proposed agreement was uploaded to Wikileaks, and newspaper
reports about the secret negotiations quickly followed.[37] [38] [39] [40]
Copyright
Copyright by country
Copyright laws have been standardized to some extent through international conventions such as the Berne
Convention. Although there are consistencies among nations' intellectual property laws, each jurisdiction has
separate and distinct laws and regulations about copyright.[2] The World Intellectual Property Organization
summarizes each of its member states' intellectual property laws on its website (see WIPO Guide to Intellectual
Property Worldwide [41] and National copyright laws in the See also section below).
A copyright certificate for proof of the
Fermat theorem, issued by State
Department of Intellectual Property of
Ukraine
Obtaining copyright
Copyright law is different from country to country, and a copyright notice is required in
about 20 countries for a work to be protected under copyright.[42] Before 1989 all
published works in the US had to contain a copyright notice, the (c) symbol followed by
the publication date and copyright owner's name, to be protected by copyright. This is no
longer the case and use of a copyright notice is now optional in the US, though they are
still used.[43]
In all countries that are members of the Berne Convention copyright is automatic, and
© is the copyright symbol
need not be obtained through official registration with any government office. Once an
in a copyright notice
idea has been reduced to tangible form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium
(such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape, or a computer file), the copyright holder is entitled to
enforce his or her exclusive rights. However, while registration isn't needed to exercise copyright, in jurisdictions
where the laws provide for registration, it serves as prima facie evidence of a valid copyright. The original copyright
owner of the copyright may be the employer of the author rather than the author himself, if the work is a "work for
hire".
35
Copyright
Copyright enforcement
Copyrights are generally enforced by the holder in a civil law court, but there are also criminal infringement statutes
in some jurisdictions. While central registries are kept in some countries, which aid in proving claims of ownership,
registering does not necessarily prove ownership, nor does the fact of copying (even without permission) necessarily
prove that copyright was infringed. Criminal sanctions are generally aimed at serious counterfeiting activity, but are
now becoming more commonplace as copyright collectives such as the RIAA are increasingly targeting the file
sharing domestic Internet user. (See: File sharing and the law)
Copyright infringement
Copyright infringement, or copyright violation, is the unauthorized use
of works covered by copyright law, in a way that violates one of the
copyright owner's exclusive rights, such as the right to reproduce or
perform the copyrighted work, or to make derivative works.
For electronic and audio-visual media, unauthorized reproduction and
distribution is also commonly referred to as piracy. An early reference
to piracy in the context of copyright infringement was made by Daniel
An unskippable anti-piracy film included on
movie
DVDs equates copyright infringement
Defoe in 1703 when he said of his novel The True-Born Englishman
with theft.
[44]
that "Its being Printed again and again, by Pyrates"
. The practice of
labeling the act of infringement as "piracy" predates statetory copyright
law. Prior to the Statute of Anne 1709, the Stationers' Company of London in 1557 received a Royal Charter giving
the company a monopoly on publication and tasking it with enforcing the charter. Those who violated the charter
were labeled pirates as early as 1603.[45]
Copyright term
Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions. The length of the term can depend on several
factors, including the type of work (e.g. musical composition or novel), whether the work has been published or not,
and whether the work was created by an individual or a corporation. In most of the world, the default length of
copyright is the life of the author plus either 50 or 70 years. In the United States, the term for most existing works is
a fixed number of years after the date of creation or publication. In some countries (for example, the United States[46]
and the United Kingdom[47] ), copyrights expire at the end of the calendar year in question.
The length and requirements for copyright duration are subject to change by legislation, and since the early 20th
century there have been a number of adjustments made in various countries, which can make determining the
duration of a given copyright somewhat difficult. For example, the United States used to require copyrights to be
renewed after 28 years to stay in force, and formerly required a copyright notice upon first publication to gain
coverage. In Italy and France, there were post-wartime extensions that could increase the term by approximately 6
years in Italy and up to about 14 in France. Many countries have extended the length of their copyright terms
(sometimes retroactively). International treaties establish minimum terms for copyrights, but individual countries
may enforce longer terms than those.[48]
36
Copyright
37
First-sale doctrine and exhaustion of rights
Copyright law does not restrict the owner of a copy from reselling legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted
works, provided that those copies were originally produced by or with the permission of the copyright holder. It is
therefore legal, for example, to resell a copyrighted book or CD. In the United States this is known as the first-sale
doctrine, and was established by the courts to clarify the legality of reselling books in second-hand bookstores. Some
countries may have parallel importation restrictions that allow the copyright holder to control the resale market. This
may mean for example that a copy of a book that does not infringe copyright in the country where it was printed
does infringe copyright in a country into which it is imported for retailing. The first-sale doctrine is known as
exhaustion of rights in other countries and is a principle that also applies, though somewhat differently, to patent and
trademark rights. It is important to note that the first-sale doctrine permits the transfer of the particular legitimate
copy involved. It does not permit making or distributing additional copies.
Limits and exceptions to copyright
Fair use and fair dealing
Copyright does not prohibit all copying or replication. In the United States, the fair use doctrine, codified by the
Copyright Act of 1976 as 17 U.S.C. § 107 [49], permits some copying and distribution without permission of the
copyright holder or payment to same. The statute does not clearly define fair use, but instead gives four
non-exclusive factors to consider in a fair use analysis. Those factors are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
the purpose and character of the use;
the nature of the copyrighted work;
the amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to the copyrighted work as a whole; and
the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.[50]
In the United Kingdom and many other Commonwealth countries, a similar notion of fair dealing was established by
the courts or through legislation. The concept is sometimes not well defined; however in Canada, private copying for
personal use has been expressly permitted by statute since 1999. In Australia, the fair dealing exceptions under the
Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) are a limited set of circumstances under which copyrighted material can be legally copied
or adapted without the copyright holder's consent. Fair dealing uses are research and study; review and critique;
parody and satire; news reportage and the giving of professional advice (i.e. legal advice). Under current Australian
law it is still a breach of copyright to copy, reproduce or adapt copyright material for personal or private use without
permission from the copyright owner. Other technical exemptions from infringement may also apply, such as the
temporary reproduction of a work in machine readable form for a computer.
In the United States the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act Codified in Section 10, 1992) prohibits action against
consumers making noncommercial recordings of music, in return for royalties on both media and devices plus
mandatory copy-control mechanisms on recorders.
Section 1008. Prohibition on certain infringement actions
No action ever may be brought under this title alleging infringement of copyright based on the manufacture,
importation, or distribution of a digital audio recording device, a digital audio recording medium, an analog
recording device, or an analog recording medium, or based on the noncommercial use by a consumer of such
a device or medium for making digital musical recordings or analog musical recordings.
Later acts amended US Copyright law so that for certain purposes making 10 copies or more is construed to be
commercial, but there is no general rule permitting such copying. Indeed making one complete copy of a work, or in
many cases using a portion of it, for commercial purposes will not be considered fair use. The Digital Millennium
Copyright Act prohibits the manufacture, importation, or distribution of devices whose intended use, or only
significant commercial use, is to bypass an access or copy control put in place by a copyright owner. An appellate
Copyright
court has held that fair use is not a defense to engaging in such distribution.
Educational use is regarded as "fair use" in most jurisdictions, but the restrictions vary wildly from nation to
nation.[51]
Recent Israeli District Court decision dated Sep. 2, 2009 [52] [53] accepted the defence of fair use for a site linking to
P2P live feeds of soccer matches. The main reasoning was based on the public importance of certain sporting events,
i.e. - the public's rights as counter weight to the copyright holders rights.
Licensing, transfer and assignment
Copyright may be bought and sold much like other
properties.[54] In the individual licensing model the
copyright owner authorizes the use of the work against
remuneration and under the conditions specified by the
license. The conditions of the license may be complex
since the exclusive rights granted by copyright to the
copyright owner can be split territorially or with respect
to language, the sequence of uses may be fixed, the
number of copies to be made and their subsequent use
may also be specified. Furthermore sublicenses and
representation agreements may also be made.[55]
A contractual transfer of all or some of the rights in a
DVD: All Rights Reserved
copyrighted work is a known as a copyright license. A
copyright assignment is an immediate and irrevocable transfer of the copyright owner's entire interest in all or some
of the rights in the copyrighted work. Copyright licensing and assignment cover only the specified geographical
region. There are significant differences in national copyright laws with regards to copyright licensing and
assignment.[56]
Copyright licenses, as a minimum, define the copyrighted works and rights subject to the license, the territories or
geographic region in which the license applies, the term or length of the license, and the consideration (such as a one
of payment or royalties) for the license. The exclusive rights granted by copyright law can all be licensed, but they
vary depending on local law. Depending on how the work may be used different licenses need to be acquired. For
example, the activity of distributing videocassettes of a motion picture will require the license for the right to
reproduce the motion picture on a videocassette and the right to distribute the copies to the public. Because the ratio
of a television screen is different from that of a wide-screen cinema, requiring the cutting of the wide-screen "ends",
it may also be necessary to obtain a license for the right to modify the motion picture. If the motion picture is to be
edited or modified the copyright owner may include control over or approval of the editing process, or of the final
result. Existing contractual agreements between the copyright owner and the director, may also require approval
from the director to any changes made to the copyrighted work.[57]
Different types of exclusive licenses exist, such as licenses that excludes the licensor from use of the licenced
copyrighted work in the relevant region and for the stated time period. Or exclusive licenses may prevent the licensor
from licensing other parties in the geographic region and during the license term. There are also various types of
non-exclusive licenses, including the right of first refusal should the licensor elect to offer future licenses to third
parties. If a licensing agreement does not specify that the license is exclusive it may nonetheless be deemed
exclusive depending on the language of the contract. Depending on local laws the owner of an exclusive license may
be deemed the "copyright owner" of that work and bring charges for copyright infirngement.[58]
The term or length of the copyright license is not allowed to exceed the copyright term specified by local law.
Licenses may establish various pay arrangements, such as royalties as a percentage of sales or as a stepped up or
38
Copyright
39
down percentage of sales, e.g. 5 percent of sales up to 50,000 units, 2.5 percent of sales in excess thereof. The trigger
for royalty payments may be sales, or other factors, such as the number of "hits" or views on a website. Minimum
royalty payments are arrangements whereby a minimum up-front payment is made and then recouped against the
percentage of sales. The up-front payment may be non-refundable if sales royalties do not reach the amount of the
payment.[59] Minimum royaltie payment arrangements may be accompanied by marketing duties for the licensee,
e.g. best effort and reasonable effort to market and promote the copyrighted work.[60]
Compulsory licensing
In some countries copyright law provides for compulsory licenses of copyrighted works for specific uses. In many
cases the remuneration or royalties received for a copyrighted work under compulsory license are specified by local
law, but may also be subject to negotiation. Compulsory licensing may be established through negotiates licenses
that provide terms within the parameters of the compulsory license.[61] Article 11bis(2) and Article 13(1) of the
Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works provide the legal basis for compulsory licenses.
They state that member states are free to determine the conditions under which certain exclusive rights may be
exercised in their national laws. They also provide for the minimum requirements to be set when compulsory
licenses are applied, namely that they must not prejudice the author to fair compensation.[62]
Future rights under pre-existing agreements
It is commonplace in copyright licensing to license not only new uses which may be developed, as well as works
which are not yet created. However, local law may not always recognise that the wording in licensing agreements
does cover new uses permitted by subsequently-developed technology.[56] Whether a license covers future, as yet
unknown, technological developments is subject to frequent disputes. Litigation over the use of a licensed
copyrighted work in a medium unknown when the license was agreed is common.[57]
Orphan works
An orphan work is a work under copyright protection whose copyright owner is difficult or impossible to contact.
The creator may be unknown, or where the creator is known it is unknown who represents them.[63]
Public domain
Works are in the public domain if their kind is not covered by
intellectual property rights or if the intellectual property rights
have expired,[64] have been forfeited, or have never been
claimed.[65] Examples include the English language, the formulae
of Newtonian physics, as well as the works of Shakespeare and the
patents over powered flight.[64]
Copyright and competition law
Newton's own copy of his Principia, with hand-written
Copyright is typically thought of as a limited, legally-sanctioned
corrections for the second edition
monopoly.[56] Because of this, copyright licensing may sometimes
interfere too much in free and competitive markets.[66] These
concerns are governed by legal doctrines such as competition law in the European Union, anti-trust law in the United
States, and "anti-monopoly law" in Russia and Japan.[66] Competition issues may arise when the licensing party
unfairly leverages market power, engages in price discrimination through its licensing terms or otherwise uses a
Copyright
40
licensing agreement in a discriminatory or unfair manner.[56] [66] Attempts to extend the copyright term granted by
law – for example, by collecting royalties for use of the work after its copyright term has expired and it has passed
into the public domain – raise such competition concerns.[56]
In April 1995 the US published "Antitrust Guidelines for the licensing of Intellectual Property" which apply to
patents, copyright and trade secrets. In January 1996 the European Union published Commission Regulation
No.240/96 which applies to patents, copyright and other intellectual property rights, especially regarding licenses.
The guidelines apply mutatis mutandis to the extent possible.[67]
Copyright and traditional knowledge
Traditional knowledge includes pre-existing, underlying
traditional culture, or folklore, and literary and artistic works
created by current generations of society which are based on or
derived from pre-existing traditional culture or folklore.
Traditional culture and folklore tends to be trans-generational, old
and collectively "owned" by groups or communities. Often
traditional culture and folklore is of anonymous origin and
expressions of this pre-existing traditional culture is generally not
protected by current intellectual property laws and is treated as
being in the public domain.[68] In contrast contemporary literary
and artistic works based upon, derived from or inspired by
traditional culture or folklore may incorporate new elements or
expressions. Hence these works may be "new" works with a living
and identifiable creator, or creators. Such contemporary works
may include a new interpretation, arrangement, adaptation or
collection of pre-existing cultural heritage that is in the public
domain. Traditional culture or folklore may also be "repackaged"
in digital formats, or restoration and colorization. Contemporary
and tradition based expressions and works of traditional culture are
generally protected under existing copyright law, a form of
intellectual property law, as they are sufficiently original to be
regarded as "new" upon publication. Once the intellectual property
rights afforded to these new works of traditional knowledge
expire, they fall into the public domain.[69]
Hansel and Gretel is a fairy tale of Germanic origin,
recorded by the Brothers Grimm in 1812. The tale has
been adapted to various media, most notably the opera
Hänsel und Gretel (1893) by Engelbert Humperdinck
and a stop-motion animated feature film based on the
opera. Artwork by Arthur Rackham, 1909
The public domain, as defined in the context of intellectual property rights, is not a concept recognised by
indigenous peoples. As much of traditional knowledge has never been protected under intellectual property rights,
they can not be said to have entered any public domain. On this point the Tulalip Tribes of Washington state, United
States, has commented that "...open sharing does not automatically confer a right to use the knowledge (of
indigenous people)... traditional cultural expressions are not in the public domain because indigenous peoples have
failed to take the steps necessary to protect the knowledge in the Western intellectual property system, but form a
failure of governments and citizens to recognise and respect the customary laws regulating their use".[69]
Copyright
Definition of "copy"
There are different approaches to the issue of what is a "copy" of a copyright-protected work. For example, several
important rights under United States copyright law exist only for "copies" of works—material objects in which the
work is embodied.[70] A three-dimensional counterpart of a two-dimensional drawing is usually not a "copy" of the
drawing, under United States copyright law. Thus, the copyright in a drawing of the approach to the Triboro Bridge
is not infringed when the bridge approach is built.[71]
The copyright law of England is different: a copyright in a drawing is infringed by manufacture of the depicted
object.[72] As the House of Lords held in British Leyland Motor Corp. v. Armstrong Patents Co., the manufacture of
a tailpipe corresponding to a blueprint of the tailpipe infringes the copyright in the blueprint, and unless a defense
applies (as it did in that case) the tailpipe "copyist" is liable for copyright infringement damages.
See also
•
•
•
•
Copyfraud
Copying
Copyright education
Copyright in architecture
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Copyright infringement
Copyright infringement of software
Copyright on the content of patents
Copyright on typefaces
Copyright on religious works
Digital rights management
Digital watermarking
Entertainment law
File sharing and the law
UK government policy on illegal file sharing
File Sharing in Europe
Freedom of panorama
List of copyright treaty membership
List of copyright acts
List of copyright case law
List of countries' copyright length
Model release
Moral rights (copyright law)
Paracopyright
Photography and the law
Production music
Public domain
Reproduction fees
Related rights
Rent-seeking
Software copyright
Threshold pledge system
41
Copyright
Treaties and International Agreements
•
•
•
•
•
•
Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works of 1886
Universal Copyright Convention of 1952
Rome Convention of 1961
The WTO Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), of 1994
WIPO Copyright Treaty of 1996
WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty of 1996
Sui generis
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Alternative Compensation System
Anti-copyright
Copyleft
Copynorm
Copyright aspects of downloading and streaming
Copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing
Copyright-free
Creative Commons
•
•
•
•
•
•
Creative Commons Licenses
Creative Commons International
Crypto-anarchism
Database right
Digital freedom
Free Culture: How Big Media Uses Technology and the Law to Lock Down Culture and Control Creativity by
Lawrence Lessig
Opposition to copyright
Permission culture — neologism by Lawrence Lessig.
The Uneasy Case for Copyright: A Study of Copyright in Books, Photocopies, and Computer Programs by
Stephen Breyer.
Good Copy Bad Copy (documentary)
•
•
•
•
Further reading
• Dowd, Raymond J. (2006). Copyright Litigation Handbook (1st ed. ed.). Thomson West. ISBN 0314962794.
• Gantz, John & Rochester, Jack B. (2005). Pirates of the Digital Millennium. Financial Times Prentice Hall.
ISBN O-13-146315-2.
• Ghosemajumder, Shuman. Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models [73]. MIT Sloan School of
Management, 2002.
• Lehman, Bruce: Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure (Report of the Working Group
on Intellectual Property Rights, 1995)
• Lindsey, Marc: Copyright Law on Campus. Washington State University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-87422-264-7.
• Mazzone, Jason. Copyfraud. http://ssrn.com/abstract=787244
• Nimmer, Melville; David Nimmer (1997). Nimmer on Copyright. Matthew Bender. ISBN 0-8205-1465-9.
• Patterson, Lyman Ray (1968). Copyright in Historical Perspective. Vanderbilt University Press.
ISBN 0826513735.
• Pievatolo, Maria Chiara. Publicness and Private Intellectual Property in Kant's Political Thought. http://bfp.sp.
unipi.it/~pievatolo/lm/kantbraz.html
42
Copyright
• Silverthorne, Sean. Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers? [74]. Harvard Business School Working
Knowledge, 2004.
• Sorce Keller, Marcello. "Originality, Authenticity and Copyright", Sonus, VII(2007), no. 2, pp. 77–85.
• Steinberg, S.H. & Trevitt, John (1996). Five Hundred Years of Printing (4th ed. ed.). London and New Castle:
The British Library and Oak Knoll Press. ISBN 1-884718-19-1.
• Story, Alan; Darch, Colin & Halbert, Deborah, ed (2006). The Copy/South Dossier: Issues in the Economics,
Politics and Ideology of Copyright in the Global South [75]. Copy/South Research Group.
ISBN 978-0-9553140-1-8.
External links
•
•
•
•
Copyright [76] at the Open Directory Project
Collection of laws for electronic access [77] from WIPO - intellectual property laws of many countries
Copyright [78] from UCB Libraries GovPubs
About Copyright [79] at the UK Intellectual Property Office
References
[1] Brad, Sherman; Lionel Bently (1999). The making of modern intellectual property law: the British experience, 1760-1911 (http:/ / www.
google. com/ books?id=u2aMRA-eF1gC& dq=statute+ of+ anne+ copyright& lr=& as_brr=3& source=gbs_navlinks_s). Cambridge
University Press. pp. 207. ISBN 9780521563635. .
[2] Broussard, Sharee L. (September 2007). The copyleft movement: creative commons licensing (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_7081/
is_3_26/ ai_n28457434?tag=content;col1). Communication Research Trends. .
[3] Article I, Section 8, Clause 8, United States Constitution
[4] "Copyright and Related Rights" (http:/ / www. wipo. int/ copyright/ en/ ). World Intellectual Property Organisation. . Retrieved 7 February
2010.
[5] Coyle, Michael (23 April 2002). "The History of Copyright" (http:/ / www. lawdit. co. uk/ reading_room/ room/ view_article. asp?name=. . /
articles/ The History of Copyright. htm). Lawdit. . Retrieved 6 March 2010.
[7] " property as a common descriptor of the field probably traces to the foundation of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) by
the United Nations." in Mark A. Lemley, Property, Intellectual Property, and Free Riding (http:/ / www. utexas. edu/ law/ journals/ tlr/
abstracts/ 83/ 83Lemley. pdf), Texas Law Review, 2005, Vol. 83:1031, page 1033, footnote 4.
[8] Peter K, Yu (2007). Intellectual Property and Information Wealth: Copyright and related rights (http:/ / www. google. com/
books?id=tgK9BzcF5WgC& dq=statute+ of+ anne+ copyright& lr=& as_brr=3& source=gbs_navlinks_s). Greenwood Publishing Group.
pp. 345–346. ISBN 9780275988838. .
pp. 346. ISBN 9780275988838. .
[10] Jones, Hugh; and Benson, Christopher (2002). Publishing law (http:/ / www. google. com/ books?id=CIsb4fsmJD8C& dq=uk+ copyright+
law& source=gbs_navlinks_s). Routledge. pp. 12–13. ISBN 9780415261548. .
[11] WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights (http:/ / www. google. com/ books?id=LvRRvXBIi8MC& dq=copyright+
transfer+ and+ licensing& as_brr=3& source=gbs_navlinks_s). World Intellectual Property Organisation. 2004. pp. 17. ISBN 9789280512717.
.
transfer+ and+ licensing& as_brr=3& source=gbs_navlinks_s). World Intellectual Property Organisation. 2004. pp. 9. ISBN 9789280512717. .
[13] Simon, Stokes (2001). Art and copyright (http:/ / www. google. com/ books?id=h-XBqKIryaQC& dq=idea-expression+ dichotomy& lr=&
as_brr=3& source=gbs_navlinks_s). Hart Publishing. pp. 48–49. ISBN 9781841132259. .
[14] The way ahead – A Strategy for Copyright in the Digital Age (http:/ / www. ipo. gov. uk/ c-strategy-digitalage. pdf). Intellectual Property
Office and Department for Business Innovation & Skills. October 2009. pp. 10. .
[15] MacQueen, Hector L; Charlotte Waelde and Graeme T Laurie (2007). Contemporary Intellectual Property: Law and Policy (http:/ / www.
google. com/ books?id=_Iwcn4pT0OoC& dq=contemporary+ intellectual+ property& source=gbs_navlinks_s). Oxford University Press.
pp. 38. ISBN 9780199263394. .
43
Copyright
pp. 34. ISBN 9780199263394. .
[17] de Sola Pool, Ithiel (1983). Technologies of freedom (http:/ / www. google. com/ books?id=BzLXGUxV4CkC& pg=PA15&
dq=Areopagitica+ freedom+ of+ speech+ britain& lr=& as_brr=3& cd=36#v=onepage& q=& f=false). Harvard University Press. pp. 14.
ISBN 9780674872332. .
[18] Sanders, Karen (2003). Ethics & Journalism (http:/ / www. google. com/ books?id=bnpliIUyO60C& dq=Areopagitica+ freedom+ of+
speech+ britain& lr=& as_brr=3& source=gbs_navlinks_s). Sage. pp. 66. ISBN 9780761969679. .
[19] de Sola Pool, Ithiel (1983). Technologies of freedom (http:/ / www. google. com/ books?id=BzLXGUxV4CkC& pg=PA15&
dq=Areopagitica+ freedom+ of+ speech+ britain& lr=& as_brr=3& cd=36#v=onepage& q=& f=false). Harvard University Press. pp. 15.
ISBN 9780674872332. .
dq=statute+ of+ anne+ copyright& lr=& as_brr=3& source=gbs_navlinks_s). Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 13–14. ISBN 9781845422820. .
[22] Jonathan, Rosenoer (1997). Cyberlaw: the law of the internet (http:/ / www. google. com/ books?id=HlG2esMIm7kC& dq=statute+ of+
anne+ copyright& lr=& as_brr=3& source=gbs_navlinks_s). Springer. pp. 34. ISBN 9780387948324. .
[25] Rimmer, Matthew (2007). Digital copyright and the consumer revolution: hands off my iPod (http:/ / www. google. com/
books?id=1ONyncVruj8C& dq=statute+ of+ anne+ copyright+ scotland& as_brr=3& source=gbs_navlinks_s). Edward Elgar Publishing.
pp. 4. ISBN 9781845429485. .
[26] Marshall, Lee (2006). Bootlegging: romanticism and copyright in the music industry (http:/ / www. google. com/
books?id=25luX89BlA0C& dq=statute+ of+ anne+ copyright+ scotland& lr=& as_brr=3& source=gbs_navlinks_s). Sage. pp. 15.
ISBN 9780761944904. .
[28] Jonathan, Rosenoer (1997). Cyberlaw: the law of the internet (http:/ / www. google. com/ books?id=HlG2esMIm7kC& dq=statute+ of+
anne+ copyright& lr=& as_brr=3& source=gbs_navlinks_s). Springer. pp. 34–35. ISBN 9780387948324. .
pp. 141–142. ISBN 9780275988838. .
pp. 142. ISBN 9780275988838. .
pp. 143. ISBN 9780275988838. .
pp. 37. ISBN 9780199263394. .
pp. 39. ISBN 9780199263394. .
[34] http:/ / www. med. govt. nz/ templates/ ContentTopicSummary____34357. aspx
[35] "What is ACTA?" (http:/ / www. eff. org/ issues/ acta). Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF). . Retrieved 1 december 2008.
[36] Geiger, Andrea (2008-04-30). "A View From Europe: The high price of counterfeiting, and getting real about enforcement" (http:/ / thehill.
com/ business--lobby/ a-view-from-europe-the-high-price-of-counterfeiting-and-getting-real-about-enforcement-2008-04-30. html). The Hill. .
[37] Pilieci, Vito (2008-05-26). "Copyright deal could toughen rules governing info on iPods, computers" (http:/ / www. canada. com/
vancouversun/ story. html?id=ae997868-220b-4dae-bf4f-47f6fc96ce5e& p=1). Vancouver Sun. . Retrieved 2008-05-27.
[38] "Proposed US ACTA multi-lateral intellectual property trade agreement (2007)" (http:/ / wikileaks. org/ w/ index.
php?title=Proposed_US_ACTA_multi-lateral_intellectual_property_trade_agreement_(2007)& oldid=29522). Wikileaks. 22 May 2008. .
[39] Jason Mick (23 May 2008). "Wikileaks Airs U.S. Plans to Kill Pirate Bay, Monitor ISPs With Multinational ACTA Proposal" (http:/ / www.
dailytech. com/ article. aspx?newsid=11870). DailyTech. .
[40] Weeks, Carly (2008-05-26). "Anti-piracy strategy will help government to spy, critic says" (http:/ / www. theglobeandmail. com/ servlet/
story/ LAC. 20080526. COPYRIGHT26/ / TPStory/ National). The Globe and Mail. . Retrieved 2008-05-27.
[41] http:/ / www. wipo. int/ about-ip/ en/ ipworldwide/ country. htm
44
Copyright
[42] Fries, Richard C. (2006). Reliable design of medical devices (http:/ / www. google. com/ books?id=nO0yEZmE3ZkC& dq=copyright+
notices& lr=& as_brr=3& source=gbs_navlinks_s). CRC Press. pp. 197. ISBN 0824723759, 9780824723750. .
[43] Fries, Richard C. (2006). Reliable design of medical devices (http:/ / www. google. com/ books?id=nO0yEZmE3ZkC& dq=copyright+
notices& lr=& as_brr=3& source=gbs_navlinks_s). CRC Press. pp. 196. ISBN 0824723759, 9780824723750. .
[44] Oxford English Dictionary
[45] T. Dekker Wonderfull Yeare 1603 University of Oregon (http:/ / www. luminarium. org/ renascence-editions/ yeare. html)
[46] 17 U.S.C. § 305 (http:/ / www. law. cornell. edu/ uscode/ 17/ 305. html)
[47] The Duration of Copyright and Rights in Performances Regulations 1995, part II (http:/ / www. opsi. gov. uk/ si/ si1995/
Uksi_19953297_en_3. htm), Amendments of the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988
[48] Nimmer, David (2003). Copyright: Sacred Text, Technology, and the DMCA (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=RYfRCNxgPO4C).
Kluwer Law International. p. 63. ISBN 978-9041188762. OCLC 50606064. .
[49] http:/ / www. law. cornell. edu/ uscode/ 17/ 107. html
[50] 17 U.S.C. § 107 (http:/ / www. law. cornell. edu/ uscode/ 17/ 107. html)
[51] International comparison of Educational "fair use" legislation (http:/ / teflpedia. com/ index.
php?title=Copyright_in_English_language_teaching)
[52] FAPL v. Ploni, September 2, 2009 (http:/ / info1. court. gov. il/ Prod03/ ManamHTML5. nsf/ 03386E2BD41B4FF74225762500514826/
$FILE/ DC517C1BE60D537E42257486003ED1E6. html?OpenElement)
[53] a more thorough analysis of the FAPL v. Ploni decision (http:/ / blog. ericgoldman. org/ archives/ 2009/ 09/ israeli_judge_p. htm)
.
transfer+ and+ licensing& as_brr=3& source=gbs_navlinks_s). World Intellectual Property Organisation. 2004. pp. 100.
ISBN 9789280512717. .
transfer+ and+ licensing& as_brr=3& source=gbs_navlinks_s). World Intellectual Property Organisation. 2004. pp. 10–11.
ISBN 9789280512717. .
transfer+ and+ licensing& as_brr=3& source=gbs_navlinks_s). World Intellectual Property Organisation. 2004. pp. 10–11.
ISBN 9789280512717. .
.
.
transfer+ and+ licensing& as_brr=3& source=gbs_navlinks_s). World Intellectual Property Organisation. 2004. pp. 101.
ISBN 9789280512717. .
[63] The work and operation of the Copyright Tribunal: second report of session 2007-08, report, together with formal minutes, oral and written
evidence (http:/ / www. google. com/ books?id=kKw6n5kCFlkC& dq=copyright+ orphan+ works& source=gbs_navlinks_s). Great Britain:
Parliament: House of Commons: Innovation, Universities & Skills Committee. 2009. pp. 28. ISBN 9780215514257. .
[66] Kenneth L. Port (2005). Licensing Intellectual Property in the Information Age (2nd ed.). Carolina Academic Press. pp. 425–566.
ISBN 0-89089-890-1.
.
source=gbs_navlinks_s). Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 173–174. ISBN 1847209211, 9781847209214. .
45
Copyright
[70] See 17 U.S.C. § 101 (http:/ / www. law. cornell. edu/ uscode/ 17/ 101. html) (defining "copy").
[71] See Muller v. Triboro Bridge Authority (http:/ / docs. law. gwu. edu/ facweb/ claw/ ch3a. htm), 43 F. Supp. 298 (S.D.N.Y. 1942).
[72] See LB (Plastics) Ltd. v. Swish Products Ltd., [1979] R.P.C. 551, [1979] F.S.R. 145 (H.L.). Excerpted version available at Swish (http:/ /
docs. law. gwu. edu/ facweb/ claw/ ch3a. htm#Swish).
[73] http:/ / shumans. com/ p2p-business-models. pdf
[74] http:/ / hbswk. hbs. edu/ item. jhtml?id=4206& t=innovation
[75] http:/ / copysouth. org/ en/ documents/ csdossier. pdf
[76] http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Society/ Law/ Legal_Information/ Intellectual_Property/ Copyrights/
[77] http:/ / www. wipo. int/ clea/ en/
[78] http:/ / ucblibraries. colorado. edu/ govpubs/ us/ copyrite. htm
[79] http:/ / www. ipo. gov. uk/ types/ copy. htm
46
47
Primary rights
Sui generis rights
Related topics
Intellectual property (IP) is a term referring to a number of distinct types of creations of the mind for which
property rights are recognised--and the corresponding fields of law.[1] Under intellectual property law, owners are
granted certain exclusive rights to a variety of intangible assets, such as musical, literary, and artistic works;
discoveries and inventions; and words, phrases, symbols, and designs. Common types of intellectual property
include copyrights, trademarks, patents, industrial design rights and trade secrets in some jurisdictions.
Although many of the legal principles governing intellectual property have evolved over centuries, it was not until
the 19th century that the term intellectual property began to be used, and not until the late 20th century that it
became commonplace in the United States.[2] The British Statute of Anne 1710 and the Statute of Monopolies 1623
are now seen as the origin of copyright and patent law respectively.[3]
Objectives
Financial incentive
These exclusive rights allow owners of intellectual property to benefit from the property they have created, providing
a financial incentive for the creation of and investment in intellectual property, and, in case of patents, pay associated
research and development costs.[4] Some commentators, such as David Levine and Michele Boldrin, dispute this
justification.[5]
Economic growth
The existence of IP laws is credited with significant contributions toward economic growth. Economists estimate
that two-thirds of the value of large businesses in the U.S. can be traced to intangible assets. "IP-intensive industries"
are estimated to generate 72 percent more value added (price minus material cost) per employee than
"non-IP-intensive industries".[6]
A joint research project of the WIPO and the United Nations University measuring the impact of IP systems on six
Asian countries found "a positive correlation between the strengthening of the IP system and subsequent economic
growth." [7] Other models would not expect that this correlation necessarily mean causation, such as the Nash
equilibrium, which predicts they patent holders will prefer operating in countries with strong IP laws. In some of the
cases, as was shown for Taiwan[8] after the 1986 reform, the economic growth that comes with a stronger IP system
might be due to an increase in stock capital from direct foreign investment.
Rights and justice
Ayn Rand supported copyrights and patents, noting in Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal that they are the legal
implementation of the base of all property rights: a man's right to the product of his mind. An idea as such cannot
be protected until it has been given a material form. An invention has to be embodied in a physical model before it
can be patented; a story has to be written or printed. But what the patent or copyright protects is not the physical
object as such, but the idea which it embodies. Although it is important to note, that a discovery cannot be patented,
only an invention. She argued that the term should be limited. If it were held in perpetuity, it would lead to the
opposite of the very principle on which it is based: it would lead, not to the earned reward of achievement, but to the
unearned support of parasitism.
Economics
Intellectual property rights are the recognition of a property in an individual creation. Intellectual property rights are
usually limited to non-rival goods, that is, goods which can be used or enjoyed by many people simultaneously—the
use by one person does not exclude use by another. This is compared to rival goods, such as clothing, which may
only be used by one person at a time. For example, any number of people may make use of a mathematical formula
simultaneously. Some objections to the term intellectual property are based on the argument that property can only
properly be applied to rival goods (or that one cannot own "property" of this sort).
Since a non-rival good may be simultaneously used (copied, for example) by many people (produced with minimal
marginal cost), monopolies over distribution and use of works are meant to give producers incentive to create further
works. The establishment of intellectual property rights, therefore, represents a trade-off, to balance the interest of
society in the creation of non-rival goods (by encouraging their production) with the problems of monopoly power.
Since the trade-off and the relevant benefits and costs to society will depend on many factors that may be specific to
each product and society, the optimum period of time during which the temporary monopoly rights should exist is
unclear.[9]
According to economist George Reisman, patents do not constitute monopolies. "[Patents] reserve markets, or parts
of markets, to the exclusive possession of the owners of the patents, ..., and they do so by means of the use of
physical force inasmuch as it is against the law to infringe on these rights. None of these constitutes monopoly,
however, because none of them is supported by the initiation of physical force... The fact that the government is
ready to use force to protect patents ... is fully as proper as that it stands ready to use force to protect [for example]
farmers and businessmen in the ownership of their physical products, and to come to their rescue when they are set
upon by trespassers or attacked by robbers." [10]
History
Modern usage of the term intellectual property goes back at least as far as 1888 with the founding in Berne of the
Swiss Federal Office for Intellectual Property (the Bureau fédéral de la propriété intellectuelle). When the
administrative secretariats established by the Paris Convention (1883) and the Berne Convention (1886) merged in
1893, they also located in Berne, and also adopted the term intellectual property in their new combined title, the
United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property. The organisation subsequently relocated to
Geneva in 1960, and was succeeded in 1967 with the establishment of the World Intellectual Property Organization
(WIPO) by treaty as an agency of the United Nations. According to Lemley, it was only at this point that the term
really began to be used in the United States (which had not been a party to the Berne Convention),[2] and it did not
enter popular usage until passage of the Bayh-Dole Act in 1980.[11]
"The history of patents does not begin with inventions, but rather with royal grants by Queen Elizabeth I
(1558-1603) for monopoly privileges... Approximately 200 years after the end of Elizabeth's reign, however, a patent
represents a legal [right] obtained by an inventor providing for exclusive control over the production and sale of his
48
mechanical or scientific invention... [demonstrating] the evolution of patents from royal prerogative to common-law
doctrine." [12]
In an 1818 collection of his writings, the French liberal theorist, Benjamin Constant, argued against the
recently-introduced idea of "property which has been called intellectual."[13] The term intellectual property can be
found used in an October 1845 Massachusetts Circuit Court ruling in the patent case Davoll et al. v. Brown., in
which Justice Charles L. Woodbury wrote that "only in this way can we protect intellectual property, the labors of
the mind, productions and interests are as much a man's own...as the wheat he cultivates, or the flocks he rears." (1
Woodb. & M. 53, 3 West.L.J. 151, 7 F.Cas. 197, No. 3662, 2 Robb.Pat.Cas. 303, Merw.Pat.Inv. 414). The statement
that "discoveries are...property" goes back earlier. Section 1 of the French law of 1791 stated, "All new discoveries
are the property of the author; to assure the inventor the property and temporary enjoyment of his discovery, there
shall be delivered to him a patent for five, ten or fifteen years."[14] In Europe, French author A. Nion mentioned
propriété intellectuelle in his Droits civils des auteurs, artistes et inventeurs, published in 1846.
The concept's origins can potentially be traced back further. Jewish law includes several considerations whose
effects are similar to those of modern intellectual property laws, though the notion of intellectual creations as
property does not seem to exist – notably the principle of Hasagat Ge'vul (unfair encroachment) was used to justify
limited-term publisher (but not author) copyright in the 16th century.[15] The Talmud contains the prohibitions
against certain mental crimes (further elaborated in the Shulchan Aruch), notably Geneivat da'at (‫תעד תבינג‬, literally
"mind theft"), which some have interpreted[16] as prohibiting theft of ideas, though the doctrine is principally
concerned with fraud and deception, not property.
Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, drafters of the Copyright Clause, were both quite skeptical to the monopolies
of copyright, and monopolies of patents, and wrote extensively on the subject.[17] [18]
Stable ownership is the gift of social law, and is given late in the progress of society. It would be curious then,
if an idea, the fugitive fermentation of an individual brain, could, of natural right, be claimed in exclusive and
stable property. If nature has made any one thing less susceptible than all others of exclusive property, it is the
action of the thinking power called an idea, which an individual may exclusively possess as long as he keeps it
to himself; but the moment it is divulged, it forces itself into the possession of every one, and the receiver
cannot dispossess himself of it. Its peculiar character, too, is that no one possesses the less, because every
other possesses the whole of it. He who receives an idea from me, receives instruction himself without
lessening mine; as he who lights his taper at mine, receives light without darkening me. That ideas should
freely spread from one to another over the globe, for the moral and mutual instruction of man, and
improvement of his condition, seems to have been peculiarly and benevolently designed by nature, when she
made them, like fire, expansible over all space, without lessening their density in any point, and like the air in
which we breathe, move, and have our physical being, incapable of confinement or exclusive appropriation.
Inventions then cannot, in nature, be a subject of property.
—Thomas Jefferson, to Isaac McPherson 13 Aug. 1813 Writings 13:333--35[19]
Criticism
The term itself
Richard Stallman argues that, although the term intellectual property is in wide use, it should be rejected altogether,
because it "systematically distorts and confuses these issues, and its use was and is promoted by those who gain from
this confusion." He claims that the term "operates as a catch-all to lump together disparate laws [which] originated
separately, evolved differently, cover different activities, have different rules, and raise different public policy
issues."[20] Stallman advocates referring to copyrights, patents and trademarks in the singular and warns against
abstracting disparate laws into a collective term.
49
The laws
Some critics of intellectual property, such as those in the free culture movement, point at intellectual monopolies as
harming health, preventing progress, and benefiting concentrated interests to the detriment of the masses,[21] [22] and
argue that the public interest is harmed by ever expansive monopolies in the form of copyright extensions, software
patents and business method patents.
Some libertarian critics of intellectual property have argued that allowing property rights in ideas and information
creates artificial scarcity and infringes on the right to own tangible property. Stephan Kinsella uses the following
scenario to argue this point:
[I]magine the time when men lived in caves. One bright guy—let’s call him Galt-Magnon—decides to
build a log cabin on an open field, near his crops. To be sure, this is a good idea, and others notice it.
They naturally imitate Galt-Magnon, and they start building their own cabins. But the first man to invent
a house, according to IP advocates, would have a right to prevent others from building houses on their
own land, with their own logs, or to charge them a fee if they do build houses. It is plain that the
innovator in these examples becomes a partial owner of the tangible property (e.g., land and logs) of
others, due not to first occupation and use of that property (for it is already owned), but due to his
coming up with an idea. Clearly, this rule flies in the face of the first-user homesteading rule, arbitrarily
and groundlessly overriding the very homesteading rule that is at the foundation of all property
rights.[23]
Other criticism of intellectual property law concerns the tendency of the protections of intellectual property to
expand, both in duration and in scope. The trend has been toward longer copyright protection[24] (raising fears that it
may some day be eternal[25] [26] [27] [28] ). In addition, the developers and controllers of items of intellectual property
have sought to bring more items under the protection. Patents have been granted for living organisms,[29] and colors
have been trademarked[30] . Because they are systems of government-granted monopolies copyrights, patents, and
trademarks are called intellectual monopoly privileges, (IMP) a topic on which several academics, including Birgitte
Andersen[31] and Thomas Alured Faunce[32] have written.
See also
• List of intellectual property-related topics
Further reading
• Krattiger et al 2007 "Intellectual Property Management in Health and Agricultural Innovation: A Handbook of
Best Practices", Managing Innovation for a Better World [33]
• Arai, Hisamitsu. "Intellectual Property Policies for the Twenty-First Century: The Japanese Experience in Wealth
Creation", WIPO Publication Number 834 (E). 2000. [34]
• Boldrin, Michele and David K. Levine. "Against Intellectual Monopoly", 2008. [35]
• Hahn, Robert W., Intellectual Property Rights in Frontier Industries: Software and Biotechnology, AEI Press,
March 2005.
• Branstetter, Lee, Raymond Fishman and C. Fritz Foley. "Do Stronger Intellectual Property Rights Increase
International Technology Transfer? Empirical Evidence from US Firm-Level Data". NBER Working Paper
11516. July 2005. [36]
• Connell, Shaun. "Intellectual Ownership". October 2007. [37]
• Gowers, Andrew. "Gowers Review of Intellectual Property". Her Majesty's Treasury, November 2006. [38] ISBN
9-780118-4083-9.
• Kinsella, Stephan. "Against Intellectual Property". Journal of Libertarian Studies 15.2 (Spring 2001): 1-53. [39]
50
• Lai, Edwin. "The Economics of Intellectual Property Protection in the Global Economy". Princeton University.
April 2001. [40]
• Lee, Richmond. Scope and Interplay of IP Rights [41] ACCRALAW offices.
• Lessig, Lawrence. "Free Culture: How Big Media Uses Technology and the Law to Lock Down Culture and
Control Creativity". New York: Penguin Press, 2004. [42].
• Lindberg, Van. Intellectual Property and Open Source: A Practical Guide to Protecting Code. O'Reilly Books,
2008. ISBN 0-596-51796-3 | ISBN 9780596517960
• Maskus, Keith E. "Intellectual Property Rights and Economic Development". Case Western Reserve Journal of
International Law, Vol. 32, 471. journals/jil/32-3/maskusarticle.pdf [43]
• Mazzone, Jason. "Copyfraud [44]". Brooklyn Law School, Legal Studies Paper No. 40. New York University Law
Review 81 (2006): 1026. (Abstract.)
• Miller, Arthur Raphael, and Michael H. Davis. Intellectual Property: Patents, Trademarks, and Copyright. 3rd
ed. New York: West/Wadsworth, 2000. ISBN 0-314-23519-1.
• Mossoff, A. 'Rethinking the Development of Patents: An Intellectual History, 1550-1800,' [45] Hastings Law
Journal, Vol. 52, p. 1255, 2001
• Rozanski, Felix. "Developing Countries and Pharmaceutical Intellectual Property Rights: Myths and Reality" [46]
• Rand, Ayn. "Patents and Copyrights" in Ayn Rand, ed. 'Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal,' New York: New
American Library, 1966, pp. 126-128
• Reisman, George. 'Capitalism: A Complete & Integrated Understanding of the Nature & Value of Human
Economic Life,'] Ottawa, Illinois: 1996, pp. 388-389
Schechter, Roger E., and John R. Thomas. Intellectual Property: The Law of Copyrights, Patents and Trademarks.
New York: West/Wadsworth, 2003, ISBN 0-314-06599-7.
• Schneider, Patricia H. "International Trade, Economic Growth and Intellectual Property Rights: A Panel Data
Study of Developed and Developing Countries". July 2004. [47]
• Shapiro, Robert and Nam Pham. "Economic Effects of Intellectual Property-Intensive Manufacturing in the
United States". July 2007. [48]
• Vaidhyanathan, Siva. The Anarchist in the Library: How the Clash Between Freedom and Control Is Hacking the
Real World and Crashing the System. New York: Basic Books, 2004.
• Burk, Dan L. and Mark A. Lemley (2009). The Patent Crisis and How the Courts Can Solve It. University of
Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226080611.
References
[1] Intellectual Property Licensing: Forms and Analysis, by Richard Raysman, Edward A. Pisacreta and Kenneth A. Adler. Law Journal Press,
1999-2008. ISBN 973-58852-086-9
[2] " property as a common descriptor of the field probably traces to the foundation of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) by
the United Nations." in Mark A. Lemley, Property, Intellectual Property, and Free Riding (http:/ / www. utexas. edu/ law/ journals/ tlr/
abstracts/ 83/ 83Lemley. pdf), Texas Law Review, 2005, Vol. 83:1031, page 1033, footnote 4.
[4] Prudential Reasons for IPR Reform (http:/ / www. uclan. ac. uk/ health/ schools/ school_of_nursing/ research_projects/ files/
health_innova_IPR_reform_report. pdf), University of Melbourne, Doris Schroeder and Peter Singer, May 2009
[5] Levine, David; Michele Boldrin (2008-09-07). Against intellectual monopoly (http:/ / www. dklevine. com/ papers/ imbookfinalall. pdf).
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521879286. .
[6] Economic Effects of Intellectual Property-Intensive Manufacturing in the United States (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080216195041/
http:/ / www. the-value-of-ip. org/ ), Robert Shapiro and Nam Pham, July 2007 (archived on archive.org).
[7] Measuring the Economic Impact of IP Systems (http:/ / www. wipo. int/ portal/ en/ news/ 2007/ article_0032. html), WIPO, 2007.
[8] Lo, S-T. (2004). "Stregthening (sic) Intellectual Property Rights: Experience from the 1986 Taiwanese Patent Reforms" (http:/ / www.
international. ucla. edu/ article. asp?parentid=10985). UCLA, Dept. of Economics.. .
51
[9] Padraig Dixon and Christine Greenhalgh, The Economics of Intellectual Property: A Review to Identify Themes for Future Research (http:/ /
www. oiprc. ox. ac. uk/ EJWP0502. pdf), Oxford Intellectual Property Research Centre, Oxford, United Kingdom, November 2002.
[10] Reisman, George. 'Capitalism: A Complete & Integrated Understanding of the Nature & Value of Human Economic Life,' (http:/ /
capitalism. net/ Capitalism/ CAPITALISM_Internet. pdf) Ottawa, Illinois: 1996, pp. 388-389 (pdf, 14 MB).
[11] Mark A. Lemley, "Property, Intellectual Property, and Free Riding" (http:/ / papers. ssrn. com/ sol3/ papers. cfm?abstract_id=582602)
(Abstract); see Table 1: 4-5.
[12] Mossoff, A. 'Rethinking the Development of Patents: An Intellectual History, 1550-1800,' (http:/ / papers. ssrn. com/ sol3/ Delivery. cfm/
SSRN_ID863925_code345663. pdf) Hastings Law Journal, Vol. 52, p. 1255, 2001
[13] (French) Benjamin de Constant de Rebecque, Collection complète des ouvrages publiés sur le gouvernement représentatif et la
constitution actuelle de la France: formant une espèce de cours de politique constitutionnelle (http:/ / books. google. fr/
books?id=DaRRsO85314C& pg=RA2-PA346& dq=travail+ constant+ date:0-1830& lr=lang_fr& as_brr=1& as_pt=ALLTYPES&
ei=wD-cSZDmIqDkzQSp8pnqAQ& client=firefox-a& hl=en#PRA2-PA296,M1), P. Plancher, 1818, p. 296.
[14] A Brief History of the Patent Law of the United States (http:/ / www. ladas. com/ Patents/ USPatentHistory. html)
[15] Jewish Law and Copyright (http:/ / www. jlaw. com/ Articles/ copyright1. html)
[16] The New York Sun (http:/ / www. nysun. com/ article/ 22289?page_no=3) Fighting for Intellectual Property Rights.
[17] "Thomas Jefferson's copyright term (fwd)" (http:/ / onlinebooks. library. upenn. edu/ webbin/ bparchive?year=1999& post=1999-02-11$2).
11 Feb 1999. .
[18] Mike Masnick (February 21st 2008). "On The Constitutional Reasons Behind Copyright And Patents" (http:/ / www. techdirt. com/ articles/
20080220/ 020252302. shtml). techdirt. .
[19] Thomas Jefferson. "Thomas Jefferson to Isaac McPherson" (http:/ / press-pubs. uchicago. edu/ founders/ documents/ a1_8_8s12. html).
University of Chicago. . - (copyfraud)
[20] Richard M. Stallman. "Did You Say “Intellectual Property”? It's a Seductive Mirage" (http:/ / www. gnu. org/ philosophy/ not-ipr. xhtml).
Free Software Foundation, Inc. . Retrieved 2008-03-28.
[21] On patents - Daniel B. Ravicher (August 6, 2008). "Protecting Freedom In The Patent System: The Public Patent Foundation's Missi..."
(http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=d0chez_Jf5A). .
[22] Joseph Stiglitz (October 13, 2006). "Authors@Google: Joseph Stiglitz - Making Globalization Work." (http:/ / www. youtube. com/
watch?v=UzhD7KVs-R4#t=16m05s). .
[23] N. Stephan Kinsella, Against Intellectual property (http:/ / mises. org/ books/ against. pdf) (2008), p. 44.
[24] E.g., the U.S. Copyright Term Extension Act, Pub.L. 105-298.
[25] Mark Helprin, Op-ed: A Great Idea Lives Forever. Shouldn’t Its Copyright? (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 05/ 20/ opinion/ 20helprin.
html) The New York Times, May 20, 2007.
[26] "Against perpetual copyright" (http:/ / wiki. lessig. org/ index. php/ Against_perpetual_copyright). .
[27] Eldred v. Ashcroft Eldred v. Ashcroft, 537 U. S. 186 (2003) (http:/ / www. law. cornell. edu/ supct/ html/ 01-618. ZS. html)
[28] Mike Masnick (May 21st 2007). "Arguing For Infinite Copyright... Using Copied Ideas And A Near Total Misunderstanding Of Property"
(http:/ / www. techdirt. com/ articles/ 20070521/ 015928. shtml). techdirt. .
[29] Council for Responsible Genetics, DNA Patents Create Monopolies on Living Organisms. (http:/ / www. actionbioscience. org/ genomic/
crg. html) Accessed 2008.12.18.
[30] For example, AstraZeneca holds a registered trademark to the color purple, as used in pill capsules. AstraZeneca, Nexium: Legal (http:/ /
www. purplepill. com/ common/ legal. aspx/ ). Accessed 2008.12.18.
[31] Birgitte Andersen. Intellectual Property Right’ Or ‘IntellectualMonopoly Privilege’: Which One Should PatentAnalysts Focus On?
CONFERÊNCIA INTERNACIONAL SOBRE SISTEMAS DE INOVAÇÃO E ESTRATÉGIAS DE DESENVOLVIMENTO PARA O
TERCEIRO MILÊNIO • NOV. 2003
[32] Martin G, Sorenson C and Faunce TA. Balancing intellectual monopoly privileges and the need for essential medicines Globalization and
Health 2007, 3:4doi:10.1186/1744-8603-3-4. http:/ / www. globalizationandhealth. com/ content/ 3/ 1/ 4 "Balancing the need to protect the
intellectual property rights (IPRs) ("which the third author considers are more accurately described as intellectual monopoly privileges
(IMPs)) of pharmaceutical companies, with the need to ensure access to essential medicines in developing countries is one of the most
pressing challenges facing international policy makers today.")
[33] http:/ / www. ipHandbook. org
[34] http:/ / www. wipo. int/ freepublications/ en/ intproperty/ 834/ index. html
[35] http:/ / www. dklevine. com/ papers/ imbookfinalall. pdf
[36] http:/ / www. weblog. ipcentral. info/ IPRs%20& %20Tech%20Trans. pdf
[37] http:/ / rebirthoffreedom. org/ freedom/ property/ intellectual-ownership/
[38] http:/ / www. hm-treasury. gov. uk/ d/ pbr06_gowers_report_755. pdf
[39] http:/ / www. mises. org/ journals/ jls/ 15_2/ 15_2_1. pdf
[40] http:/ / www. dklevine. com/ archive/ refs4122247000000000481. pdf
[41] http:/ / www. philstar. com/ Article. aspx?articleId=320467& publicationSubCategoryId=66
[42] http:/ / www. free-culture. cc/ freeculture. pdf
[43] http:/ / www. law. case. edu/ student_life/
[44] http:/ / ssrn. com/ abstract=787244
52
53
[45] http:/ / papers. ssrn. com/ sol3/ Delivery. cfm/ SSRN_ID863925_code345663. pdf
[46] http:/ / www. stockholm-network. org/ downloads/ publications/
Developing_Countries_and_Intellectual_Property_Rights_Myth_and_Reality_6. pdf
[47] http:/ / www. mtholyoke. edu/ ~pschneid/ images/ Schneider_JDEJuly2004. pdf
[48] http:/ / www. the-value-of-ip. org/ |date=|accessdate=2008-04-09
An ebook reader, also called an ebook device or ereader, is an
electronic device that is designed primarily for the purpose of reading
digital books and periodicals and uses e-ink technology to display
content to readers. The main advantages of these devices are
portability, readability of their screens in bright sunlight, and long
battery life. Any Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) capable of
displaying text on a screen is also capable of being an e-book reader,
but without the advantages of an electronic ink display.
Commercially available devices based on
electronic paper
display
Devices sold directly by the manufacturer
Manufacturer
Model
Intro
Date
Size
Screen
Operating
diag.in Weight Resolution Shades
System
Wifi
Touchscreen
directory
Text-to-Speech integrated organization
dictionary
ES600
Stereo
April
6
2009
International
240g
600 × 800
16
Card
memory
Reader
capability
Linux 2.6
user
Web
replaceable Browser
battery
RAM 128
pixels (167
SDHC
MB;NAND Memory
Yes
ppi)
Enterprise Co.,
amount of
Yes
N/A
Yes
Yes
2 GB
N/A
Yes
No
N/A
Yes
Yes
Yes
N/A
[1]
Ltd(TAIWAN)
Condor
Technology
[2]
eGriver
[3]
IDEO
April
6
2010
600 × 800
16
Linux 2.6
pixels (167
No
ppi)
Associates
Optional
No
RAM 64
Yes
Yes
SDHC
MB;NAND Memory
minimum
1 GB
Condor
Technology
[2]
eGriver
[3]
Touch
April
6
2010
600 × 800
16
Linux 2.6
pixels (167
Optional
Yes
Yes
RAM 128
Yes
Yes
ppi)
Associates
iRex
Digital
Technologies
Reader 800
2010-1
8.1
768 ×
1024
pixels (160
ppi)
SDHC
MB;NAND Memory
2 GB
16
Linux
128 MB
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
SDHC
[5]
Wolder
[4]
Boox-S
2010
6
54
600 × 800
16
Linux 2.6
pixels (167
Electronics
RAM 128
No
No
Yes
Yes
ppi)
Onyx
[6]
International
Boox
2010
6
600 × 800
[5]
16
Linux 2.6
RAM 128
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
ppi)
[7]
italica GmbH
Paperback
2010
600 × 800
6
N/A
512 MB
pixels (167
60
SDHC
MB; Flash
SDHC
MB; Flash
Yes
512 MB
8
Linux
512MB
pixels (166
4GB SD
Card
Yes
ppi)
Sony
Reader
Daily
Barnes & Noble
7.1
2009-12
283 g
600 ×
(10 oz)
1024
Edition
pixels (167
PRS-900
ppi)
nook
6
2009-11
600 × 800
16
MontaVista
Linux
16
Android/Linux
pixels (167
Story
6
2009-10
600 × 800
Yes (bottom
8
16GB
2GB
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
available)
2 GB
No
Yes
(unknown Micro-SD
Linux
pixels (167
DOU or
SDHC
Yes
screen)
ppi)
Iriver
2GB
No
(firmware
1.3)
SDHC
32 GB
ppi)
Sony
Reader
Touch
6
2009-08
600 × 800
8
pixels (167
Edition
MontaVista
512MB
Memory
Linux
(380MB
Stick
ppi)
Available)
PRS-600
Yes
Yes
PRO
Duo™ &
SD Card
(16GB
max)
[8]
iPapyrus Inc.
iPapyrus
2009
6
[5]
600 × 800
8
Linux
Optional
pixels (167
6
ppi)
Hanvon
WISEreader
2009
5
[9]
600 × 800
Optional
Optional
RAM 128
Yes
Yes
SD
MB; Flash
Optional
Yes
2000 MB
8
Linux 2.6
8
Win CE 5.0
pixels (200
N516
ppi)
Hanvon
WISEreader
2009
5
[10]
600 × 800
pixels (200
N518
Yes
ppi)
Hanvon
WISEreader
2009
5
[11]
600 × 800
8
Win CE 5.0
pixels (200
N520
No
ppi)
Hanvon
5
WISEreader
[12]
600 × 800
8
Win CE 5.0
pixels (200
N526
Yes
ppi)
PocketBook
PocketBook
6
301
600 × 800
16
Linux
pixels (166
No
ppi)
RAM 64
SD,
Mb;
SDHC
HDRAM
512 Mb
Sony
Reader
Pocket
5
2009-08
600 × 800
8
pixels (200
Edition
MontaVista
512MB
Linux
(480MB
ppi)
Available)
No
PRS-300
Bookeen
Cybook
Opus
5
2009-08
600 × 800
4
Linux
Micro
pixels (200
SD,
ppi)
SDHC
Yes
Elonex
eBook
6
55
600 × 800
2009-07
4
pixels (200
ppi)
Endless ideas
BeBook
5
600 × 800
Mini
pixels (200
(Hanlin V5
ppi)
8
SD up to
4GB per
OEM
clone)
specs, but
No
16GB
SDHC
has
worked
Endless ideas
BeBook
6
4
SD up to
One
4GB per
(Hanlin V3
OEM
clone)
specs, but
16GB
SDHC
has
worked
Interead
COOL-ER
6
600 × 800
2009-06
8
Linux
pixels (167
No
No
ppi)
Samsung
Papyrus
5
RAM 128
SD (up
MB; 1 GB
to 4GB)
storage
8
2009-06
Amazon
Kindle DX
9.7
2009-06
540 g
825 ×
(18.9
1200
oz)
pixels (150
16
Linux
4GB (3.3
Yes
Available)
Yes
No
ppi)
Amazon
Kindle 2
6
600 × 800
2009-02
16
Linux
pixels (167
2 GB (1.4
No
No
Yes
Yes
Available)
Limited
No
ppi)
Foxit Software
eSlick
2009
6
180 g
4
SD 4GB
(6.4
oz)
Sony
Reader
PRS-700
6
2008-10
283 g
600 × 800
8
(10 oz) pixels (167
MontaVista
Linux
Yes
ppi)
Sony
Reader
2008
6
PRS-505
250 g
600 × 800
(9 oz)
pixels (167
8
MontaVista
sd card
Linux
and
ppi)
memory
stick
iRex
Digital
Technologies
Reader
2008
10.2
1024 ×
1280
1000
pixels (160
ppi)
16
SD Card
Yes
Yes
No
Jinke
Hanlin V5
2008
5
56
600 × 800
8
SD up to
pixels (200
4GB per
ppi)
OEM
specs, but
16GB
SDHC
has
worked
Amazon
Kindle
2007
6
600 × 800
4
pixels (167
Yes
ppi)
Cybook
Bookeen
2007
6
Gen3
600 × 800
4
SD Card
pixels (167
ppi)
Jinke
Hanlin V3
2007
6
600 × 800
12
SD up to
pixels (167
4GB per
ppi)
OEM
specs, but
16GB
SDHC
has
worked
Sony
Reader
2006
6
PRS-500
600 × 800
8
pixels (167
MontaVista
Linux
ppi)
Jinke
Hanlin V2
2006
6
600 × 800
4
pixels (167
ppi)
iRex
iLiad
2006
8.1
768 ×
Technologies
16
1024
pixels (158
ppi)
Sony
Librié
Manufacturer
Model
2004
6
4
N/A
Intro
Size
Screen
Operating
Date
[in]
Weight Resolution Shades
System
Wifi
Touchscreen
directory
Text-to-Speech integrated organization
dictionary
Supported File Formats
capability
amount of
Card
memory
Reader
user
Web
replaceable Browser
battery
Model
Manufacturer
Stereo
International
Enterprise
CO., Ltd.
[1]
(TAIWAN)
[]
ES600
Wolder
[4]
Electronics
total #
of
.epub .pdb .arg .azw .djvu .html .lbr
formats
[5]
iPapyrus
[5]
6
[5]
Boox-S
.lit
.mobi .opf .pdf .pdg .tr3 .txt .xeb .mp3
8
Yes
Onyx
Boox 60
[6]
International
iPapyrus
[8]
Inc.
57
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
No
Partial
(no
DRM)
?
?
?
No
No
Partial
(no
DRM)
No
No
No
No
14
?
Yes
No
?
?
No
?
No
No
?
?
?
?
14
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
?
Yes
?
Yes
No
Yes
Yes Yes
?
?
No
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
?
?
?
Yes
?
?
Yes
?
?
?
?
?
Yes
?
?
?
?
Yes
Yes
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
Yes
?
No
Yes
Yes
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
No
No
Yes
No
No
Yes
No
No
Yes
No
No
Yes
Condor
Technology
[2]
Associates
eGriver
[3]
IDEO
18
Condor
Technology
[2]
Associates
eGriver
[3]
Touch
8
italica
[7]
GmbH
Paperback
Sony
Reader
Daily
Edition
PRS-900
?
Barnes &
Noble
nook
4
Iriver
Story
Sony
Reader
Touch
Edition
PRS-600
?
Yes
?
Hanvon
WISEreader
[9]
N516
?
Yes
No
Hanvon
WISEreader
[10]
N518
?
Yes
No
Hanvon
WISEreader
[11]
N520
?
Yes
No
Hanvon
WISEreader
[12]
N526
?
Yes
No
No
No
No
?
No
No
No
No
Yes No
?
?
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
No
?
Yes
?
Yes
Yes Yes
Yes Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No Yes
No Yes
No Yes
No Yes
No
No Yes
?
?
?
?
?
?
No
No
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
No
No
Yes
No Yes
?
No
?
No Yes
?
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No Yes
No Yes
No Yes
No Yes
No
Yes
?
Yes
?
?
?
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
?
Yes
?
Yes
?
Yes
?
Yes
?
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
PocketBook
PocketBook
301
Sony
Reader
Pocket
Edition
PRS-300
58
?
Yes
?
Yes
?
?
Yes
?
Yes
?
Yes
Yes
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
Yes
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
Yes
?
?
Yes
?
Yes
?
?
?
?
Yes
?
?
?
?
Yes
?
Yes
?
Cybook
Opus
Elonex
eBook
Endless ideas
BeBook
Mini
(Hanlin V5
clone)
?
Yes
?
?
?
?
Yes
?
BeBook
One
(Hanlin V3
clone)
?
Yes
?
?
?
?
Yes
?
Model
Manufacturer
Interead
COOL-ER
Samsung
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
Yes
?
Yes
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
Yes
?
Yes
3
Bookeen
Endless ideas
Yes
total #
of
formats
Yes
Yes
?
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
?
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
.lit
?
Yes
?
?
?
?
Yes
?
?
?
?
Papyrus
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
Amazon
Kindle DX
12
?
?
?
Yes
?
Yes
?
?
Yes
?
Amazon
Kindle 2
12
?
?
?
Yes
?
Yes
?
?
Yes
?
Foxit Software
eSlick
?
Yes
Yes
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
Sony
Reader
PRS-700
?
Yes
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
Sony
Reader
PRS-505
?
Yes
?
?
?
?
?
?
Yes
?
iRex
Technologies
Digital
Reader 800
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
iRex
Technologies
Digital
Reader
1000
?
?
?
?
?
Yes
?
?
?
?
Jinke
Hanlin V5
?
Yes
?
?
?
Yes
Yes
?
Yes
?
Amazon
Kindle
?
?
?
?
Yes
?
?
?
?
Yes
?
Bookeen
Cybook
Gen3
?
Yes
?
?
?
?
Yes
?
?
Yes
?
Jinke
Hanlin V3
19
Yes
?
?
?
Yes
Yes
?
Yes
?
Yes
9
Yes
Yes
Yes
?
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
?
Yes
Yes
?
Yes
Yes
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
Yes
?
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
?
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
?
Yes
?
?
?
Yes
?
Yes
?
Yes
?
Yes
?
Yes
?
?
?
?
?
Yes
?
Yes
?
Yes
?
Yes
Sony
Reader
PRS-500
Jinke
Hanlin V2
iRex
Technologies
iLiad
Sony
Librié
Model
Manufacturer
59
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
Yes
?
?
?
Yes
Yes
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
total #
of
formats
?
?
?
Yes
?
?
Yes
?
?
?
?
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
?
?
Yes
?
Yes
?
?
?
?
.lit
This list is missing many of the 1st and 2nd generation E-reader devices from the 1990s to 2005.
Rebranded devices
• Hanlin V3 -> BeBook (EU): BeBook, Koobe (HU), Astak EZ Reader (US), Lbook (UA) Papyre (Spain)
• Netronix EB001 -> PocketBook (UA), Astak Mentor EZ Reader, Cybook Gen3 (200Mhz version)
• Netronix EB600 -> Cool-er, PocketBook+, Elonex eBook, eSlick, Astaka Mentor EZ Reader, Cybook Gen3
(400Mhz version), PocketBook (UA, EU), INVES-BOOK 600 (ES)
• Onyx Boox 60 [13] -> BeBook Neo [14], Wolder Boox [15]
• Hanvon WISEreader N520 -> Elonex eBook 511 EB
• Ambiance ADB-106 -> Energybook 2060
Announced devices or prototypes
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Kobo eReader by Kobo (May 2010)[16]
QUE proReader by Plastic Logic (May 17, 2010)[17]
txtr, (October 2009), 6 inch reader from Wizpac
Readius by Polymer Vision (Autumn 2008) UPDATE: Polymer Vision filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in July
2009. This ebook reader will not be coming to market in its current form.
Alex by Spring Design (January 2010)[18]
Skiff Reader (2010), 11.5 inch device [19] by Skiff [20]
eDGe by enTourage (Coming in 2010)[21]
Slate by Hewlett-Packard (June-September 2010)[22]
E6 Slider by Samsung (Spring 2010)[23]
Samsung E61 with QWERTY design (early 2010)[24]
Gorld 600TW by Shenzhen
Takeop - an eBook project by Mircea Batranu (proj-2007/ prez-2009)[25]
60
Device using an LCD screen
•
•
•
•
•
URBook 5" and 7" using TFT Transflective screen [26] expected to release April 2010
miBook miBook [27] using a 7" TFT screen
ECTACO jetBook using a TFT Transflective screen[28]
eBook - JE100 JoinTech [29] using a TFT Color Screen Touch Panel LCD
eBookwise 1150 [30] Back-lit 5.5" diagonal 4-bit grayscale LCD touch screen
Discontinued models and products
• Cybook / Cybook Gen1 Sold by Cytale (1998 - 2003) then by Bookeen (2003 - 2007), now replaced with the
Cybook Gen3 and the Cybook Opus
• Franklin eBookMan - 1999(?)-2002 (last model), although new eBookMans are available from Ectaco [31]
• Apple Newton MessagePad - 1993-1998
Other mobile text viewers
Some portable multimedia players and smartphones include a text viewer, e.g.
several Cowon players, including the Cowon D2 and the iAUDIO U3 and
Mobipocket Reader for Symbian OS and Windows Mobile mobile phones and
devices. Adobe Reader mobile also turns Windows Mobile devices (for example,
Samsung Omnia) into suitable e-Book viewers. Apple's iPhone, iPad and iPod
Touch are also acquiring status as e-book readers through the Lexcycle Stanza
and eReader [32] apps. A recent Windows Mobile phone from HTC, the HD2
model, has a larger screen with higher resolution than the iPhone, and is also
becoming a popular ebook platform. WordPlayer or FBReader turns Android
phones into e-book readers. PalmOS based devices and smartphones are also
usable for reading books. PalmOS supports PalmDoc, iSilo, Mobipocket reader,
PDF, HTML conversion, text format, Handstory, TealDoc among many other
software titles, in addition to on-the-device word processing.
A Symbian OS smartphone used as
an e-book reader
There are also mobile devices capable of wordprocessing. Conversely, fully
functional tablet notebooks (with screens that turn 180 degrees and lie with the back to the keyboard) and
subnotebooks are used as e-book-readers.
See also
• Comparison of e-book formats - includes both device and software formats
External links
•
•
•
•
•
List of the main e-book readers and their general characteristics [33]
Comparison of eReaders [34]
How to compare e-book readers [35]
7 Things You Should Know About E-Readers [36], Educause, March 2010
News of the e-book readers on The Digital Reader [37]
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
"Stereo International Enterprise Co., Ltd(TAIWAN)" (http:/ / www. stereo. com. tw). .
"Condor Technology Associates" (http:/ / www. ctaindia. com). Ctaindia.com. . Retrieved 2010-04-05.
eGriver IDEO (http:/ / wiki. mobileread. com/ wiki/ EGriver_IDEO), eGriver Touch (http:/ / wiki. mobileread. com/ wiki/ EGriver_Touch)
"Wolder Electronics" (http:/ / www. wolder. com/ Wolder_Electronics/ Wolder_Electronics. html). Wolder.com. . Retrieved 2010-04-05.
Boox 60 (http:/ / www. onyx-international. com/ products) ( spanish (http:/ / www. wolder. com/ Wolder_Electronics/ Boox. html)), Boox-S
(spanish) (http:/ / www. wolder. com/ Wolder_Electronics/ Boox-s. html)
[6] "Onyx International" (http:/ / www. onyx-international. com/ ). Onyx International. . Retrieved 2010-04-05.
[7] "italica GmbH" (http:/ / www. italicareader. com). Italicareader.com. . Retrieved 2010-04-05.
[8] "iPapyrus Inc" (http:/ / www. ipapyrus. info/ ). iPapyrus Inc. . Retrieved 2010-03-03.
[9] "E-book Reader-products" (http:/ / www. hanvon. com/ en/ products/ ebook/ products-N516. html). Hanvon.com. . Retrieved 2010-04-05.
[13] http:/ / www. onyx-international. com/ products
[14] http:/ / mybebook. com/ 6-inch-ereaders/ c14/ p25/ bebook-neo-ereader/ product_info. html
[15] http:/ / www. wolder. com/ Wolder_Electronics/ Boox. html
[16] (http:/ / www. chapters. indigo. ca/ kobo/ kobo-promo. html?s_campaign=ereader&
pticket=ljjhwx45tdj42g2wpme3zy558FQINbeyZfO2uyffwm1MrPAtppQ=), accessed Apr 7, 2010, lists May as availability month when
pre-ordering.
[17] QUE proReader with 4GB & Wi-Fi (http:/ / buyque. barnesandnoble. com/ Home-and-Gift/ e/ 814311010036/ ), accessed Feb 14, 2010, lists
May 17, 2010 as availability date.
[18] Wed 30 Dec. "Alex is Coming!" (http:/ / www. bestereaders. net/ alex-is-coming/ ). The Best eReaders. . Retrieved 2010-01-02.
[19] "Skiff's Big-Screen E-Reader to Debut at CES" (http:/ / www. pcworld. com/ article/ 185832/
skiffs_innovative_big_screen_ereader_to_debut_at_ces. html). PCWorld. 2010-01-05. . Retrieved 2010-01-05.
[20] http:/ / www. skiff. com/
[21] Wed 30 Dec. "eDGe" (http:/ / www. ereadersales. net/ coming-soon-the-edge/ ). eReader Sales. .
[22] Tue 06 Apr. "The HP Slate" (http:/ / www. bestereaders. net/ the-hp-slate/ ). . Retrieved 2010-04-06.
[23] Wed 01 Jan. "First hands on: Samsung E6 e-book reader" (http:/ / www. crunchgear. com/ 2010/ 01/ 06/
first-hands-on-samsung-e6-e-book-reader/ ). .
[24] Samsung E61 — e-book reader with QWERTY keyboard and without touchscreen (february 2010): http:/ / www. samsung. com/ uk/ news/
newsRead. do?news_seq=17656& page=1
[25] Mircea Batranu. "takeop the product who change the world" (http:/ / mirceabatranu. wordpress. com/ produse/ ). .
[26] http:/ / www. ctaindia. asia
[27] http:/ / www. mibook. com/
[28] http:/ / www. jetbook. net/
[29] http:/ / www. jointech. com. hk/ products_JE100. html
[30] "1150 Reading Device" (http:/ / www. ebookwise. com/ ebookwise/ ebookwise1150. htm). eBookwise. . Retrieved 2010-01-02.
[31] http:/ / www. ectaco. com
[32] http:/ / www. ereader. com/
[33] http:/ / wiki. mobileread. com/ wiki/ E-book_Reader_Matrix
[34] http:/ / www. kindle-ready. com/ comparison-of-ereaders/
[35] http:/ / www. ereaderleader. com/ ereader-comparison/
[36] http:/ / net. educause. edu/ ir/ library/ pdf/ ELI7058. pdf
[37] http:/ / www. the-digital-reader. com/
61
Sony
62
Sony
Type
Public
[1]
TYO: 6758
[2]
NYSE: SNE
Industry
Conglomerate
Founded
1946 in Japan
Founder(s)
Masaru Ibuka
Akio Morita
Headquarters
Minato, Tokyo, Japan
Area served
Worldwide
Key people
Howard Stringer (Chairman, President & CEO)
(Executive Vice President and CFO)
Products
Consumer & professional electronic equipments
Communication & information-related equipments
Semiconductor
Electronic devices & components
Battery
Chemicals
Sony Pictures Entertainment
Sony Music
PlayStation
Blu-ray
Services
Financial services
Internet service
Revenue
▲ ¥7.730 trillion / $79.618 billion (2009)
Operating
income
▼ ¥ −227.8 billion / −$2.087 billion (2009)
Net income
▼ ¥ −98.9 billion / −$1.019 billion (2009)
Total assets
▲ $123.739 billion (2009)
Total equity
▲ $30.535 billion (2009)
Employees
180,500 (as of March 2008)
Subsidiaries
List of the subsidiaries
Website
Sony.net
[3]
[3]
[4]
[4]
[4]
[4]
[4]
[3]
[5]
, Ryoji Chubachi (Vice Chairman), Nobuyuki Oneda
Sony
Sony Corporation (commonly referred to as Sony)
(Japanese: ソニー株式会社 Sonī Kabushiki Gaisha)
(TYO: 6758 [1]) is a multinational conglomerate
corporation headquartered in Minato, Tokyo, Japan, and
one of the world's largest media conglomerates with
revenue exceeding ¥ 7.730.0 trillion, or $78.88 billion
U.S. (FY2008).[4] Sony is one of the leading
manufacturers of electronics, video, communications,
video game consoles, and information technology
products for the consumer and professional markets. Its
founders Akio Morita and Masaru Ibuka derived the
name from sonus, the Latin word for sound, and also
from the English slang word 'sonny', since they
considered themselves to be 'sonny boys', a loan word
into Japanese which in the early 1950s connoted smart
and presentable young men.[6]
Sony Corporation is the electronics business unit and the
parent company of the Sony Group, which is engaged in
business through its five operating segments –
electronics, games, entertainment (motion pictures and
music), financial services and other. These make Sony
one of the most comprehensive entertainment companies
in the world. Sony's principal business operations include
Sony Corporation (Sony Electronics in the U.S.), Sony
Pictures Entertainment, Sony Computer Entertainment,
Sony Music Entertainment, Sony Ericsson, and Sony
Financial. As a semiconductor maker, Sony is among the
Worldwide Top 20 Semiconductor Sales Leaders. The
company's current slogan is make.believe[7] . Their
former slogan was like.no.other[8] .
63
Sony City, Sony Corporation Headquarters in Minato, Tokyo
The Sony Building in the Ginza area of Chūō,
Tokyo
Sony
64
History
In late 1945, after the end of World War II, Masaru Ibuka started a
radio repair shop in a bomb-damaged department store building in
Nihonbashi of Tokyo. The next year, he was joined by his colleague,
Akio Morita, and they founded a company called Tokyo Tsushin
Kogyo
K.K.,[9]
(Tokyo
Telecommunications
Engineering
Corporation). The company built Japan's first tape recorder called the
Type-G.[9]
Masaru Ibuka, the co-founder of Sony
In the early 1950s, Ibuka traveled in the United States and heard about
Bell Labs' invention of the transistor.[9] He convinced Bell to license
the transistor technology to his Japanese company. While most
American companies were researching the transistor for its military
applications, Ibuka and Morita looked to apply it to communications.
Although the American companies Regency and Texas Instruments
built the first transistor radios, it was Ibuka's company that made them
commercially successful for the first time.
In August 1955, Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo released the Sony TR-55, Japan's first commercially produced transistor
radio.[10] They followed up in December of the same year by releasing the Sony TR-72, a product that won favor
both within Japan and in export markets, including Canada, Australia, the Netherlands and Germany. Featuring six
transistors, push-pull output and greatly improved sound quality, the TR-72 continued to be a popular seller into the
early sixties.
In May 1956, the company released the TR-6, which featured an innovative slim design and sound quality capable of
rivaling portable tube radios. It was for the TR-6 that Sony first contracted "Atchan", a cartoon character created by
Fuyuhiko Okabe, to become its advertising character. Now known as "Sony Boy", the character first appeared in a
cartoon ad holding a TR-6 to his ear, but went on to represent the company in ads for a variety of products well into
the mid-sixties.[9] The following year, 1957, Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo came out with the TR-63 model, then the
smallest (112 × 71 × 32 mm) transistor radio in commercial production. It was a worldwide commercial success.[9]
University of Arizona professor Michael Brian Schiffer, Ph.D., says, "Sony was not first, but its transistor radio was
the most successful. The TR-63 of 1957 cracked open the U.S. market and launched the new industry of consumer
microelectronics." By the mid 1950s, American teens had begun buying portable transistor radios in huge numbers,
helping to propel the fledgling industry from an estimated 100,000 units in 1955 to 5,000,000 units by the end of
1968.
Sony's headquarters moved to Minato, Tokyo from Shinagawa, Tokyo around the end of 2006.[11] [12]
Origin of name
When Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo was looking for a romanized name to use to market themselves, they strongly
considered using their initials, TTK. The primary reason they did not is that the railway company Tokyo Kyuko was
known as TKK.[9] The company occasionally used the acronym "Totsuko" in Japan, but during his visit to the United
States, Morita discovered that Americans had trouble pronouncing that name. Another early name that was tried out
for a while was "Tokyo Teletech" until Morita discovered that there was an American company already using
Teletech as a brand name.[13]
The name "Sony" was chosen for the brand as a mix of two words. One was the Latin word Sonus which is the root
of "sonic" and "sound" and the other was "sonny," a familiar term used in 1950s America to call a boy.[6] The first
Sony-branded product, the TR-55 transistor radio, appeared in 1955 but the company name didn't change to Sony
until January 1958.[14]
Sony
65
At the time of the change, it was extremely unusual for a Japanese company to use Roman letters instead of kanji to
spell its name. The move was not without opposition: TTK's principal bank at the time, Mitsui, had strong feelings
about the name. They pushed for a name such as Sony Electronic Industries, or Sony Teletech. Akio Morita was
firm, however, as he did not want the company name tied to any particular industry. Eventually, both Ibuka and
Mitsui Bank's chairman gave their approval.[9]
Products, technologies and proprietary formats
Sony has historically been notable for creating its own in-house standards for new recording and storage
technologies, instead of adopting those of other manufacturers and standards bodies. The most infamous of these was
the videotape format war of the early 1980s, when Sony marketed the Betamax system for video cassette recorders
against the VHS format developed by JVC. In the end, VHS gained critical mass in the marketplace and became the
worldwide standard for consumer VCRs and Sony adopted the format. While Betamax is for all practical purposes
an obsolete format, a professional-oriented component video format called Betacam that was derived from Betamax
is still used today, especially in the film and television industry.
In 1968 Sony introduced the Trinitron brand name for its line of aperture grille cathode ray tube televisions and
(later) computer monitors. Trinitron displays are still produced, but only for markets such as Pakistan, Bangladesh,
India and China. Sony discontinued the last Trinitron-based television set in the USA in early 2007. Trinitron
computer monitors were discontinued in 2005.
Sony launched the Betamax videocassette recording format in 1975. In 1979 the Walkman brand was introduced, in
the form of the world's first portable music player.
1982 saw the launch of Sony's professional Betacam videotape format and the collaborative Compact Disc format. In
1983 Sony introduced 90 mm micro diskettes (better known as 3.5-inch (89 mm) floppy disks), which it had
developed at a time when there were 4" floppy disks and a lot of variations from different companies to replace the
then on-going 5.25" floppy disks. Sony had great success and the format became dominant; 3.5" floppy disks
gradually became obsolete as they were replaced by current media formats. In 1983 Sony launched the MSX, a home
computer system, and introduced the world (with their counterpart Philips) to the Compact Disc or CD. In 1984
Sony launched the Discman series which extended their Walkman brand to portable CD products. In 1985 Sony
launched their Handycam products and the Video8 format. Video8 and the follow-on hi-band Hi8 format became
popular in the consumer camcorder market. In 1987 Sony launched the 4 mm DAT or Digital Audio Tape as a new
digital audio tape standard.
In addition to developing consumer-based recording media, after the
launch of the CD Sony began development of commercially based
recording media. In 1986 they launched Write-Once optical discs
(WO) and in 1988 launched Magneto-optical discs which were around
125MB size for the specific use of archival data storage.[15]
In the early 1990s two high-density optical storage standards were
being developed: one was the MultiMedia Compact Disc (MMCD),
backed by Philips and Sony, and the other was the Super Density disc
(SD), supported by Toshiba and many others. Philips and Sony
abandoned their MMCD format and agreed upon Toshiba's SD format
with only one modification based on MMCD technology, viz
EFMPlus. The unified disc format was called DVD which was
marketed in 1997.
Sony Discman
Sony
66
Sony introduced the MiniDisc format in 1993 as an alternative to Philips DCC or Digital Compact Cassette. Since
the introduction of MiniDisc, Sony has attempted to promote its own audio compression technologies under the
ATRAC brand, against the more widely used MP3. Until late 2004, Sony's Network Walkman line of digital portable
music players did not support the MP3 de facto standard natively, although the provided software SonicStage would
convert MP3 files into the ATRAC or ATRAC3 formats.
In 1993, Sony challenged the industry standard Dolby Digital 5.1
surround sound format with a newer and more advanced proprietary
motion picture digital audio format called SDDS (Sony Dynamic
Digital Sound). This format employed eight channels (7.1) of audio
opposed to just six used in Dolby Digital 5.1 at the time. Unlike Dolby
Digital, SDDS utilized a method of backup by having mirrored arrays
of bits on both sides of the film which acted as a measure of reliability
in case the film was partially damaged. Ultimately, SDDS has been
vastly overshadowed by the preferred DTS (Digital Theatre System)
and Dolby Digital standards in the motion picture industry. SDDS was
solely developed for use in the theatre circuit; Sony never intended to
develop a home theatre version of SDDS.
Sony's BRAVIA series HDTV
In 1998, Sony launched their Memory Stick format; flash memory
cards for use in Sony lines of digital cameras and portable music
players. It has seen little support outside of Sony's own products with
Secure Digital cards (SD) commanding considerably greater popularity
. This is due in part to the SD format's greater throughput (which
allows faster devices), higher capacities, and significantly lower price
per unit capacity compared to Memory Sticks available at the same
time. Sony has made updates to the Memory Stick format with
Memory Stick Duo and Memory Stick Micro.
Sony and Philips jointly developed the Sony-Philips digital interface
format (S/PDIF) and the high-fidelity audio system SACD. The latter
has since been entrenched in a format war with DVD-Audio. At
present, neither has gained a major foothold with the general public.
CDs are preferred by consumers because of ubiquitous presence of CD
drives in consumer devices.
In 1994 Sony launched the PlayStation (later PS one). This successful
console was succeeded by the PlayStation 2 in 2000, itself succeeded
by the PlayStation 3 in 2006. The PlayStation 2 has become the most
successful video game console of all time. It has sold a total of over
140 million units and still going. The PlayStation brand was extended
to the portable games market in 2005 by the PlayStation Portable (PSP)
and in 2009, the PSP go. Sony developed the Universal Media Disc
The Slimline PlayStation 2
(UMD) optical disc medium for use on the PlayStation Portable.
Although Sony tried to push the UMD format for movies, major-studio support for the format was cut back in spring
2006, though as of 2009 some major-studio titles continue to be released on UMD.
Sony
In 2004, Sony built upon the MiniDisc format by releasing Hi-MD.
Hi-MD allows the playback and recording of audio on
newly-introduced 1 GB Hi-MD discs in addition to playback and
recording on regular MiniDiscs. Recordings on the Hi-MD Walkmans
can be transferred to and from the computer virtually unrestricted,
unlike earlier NetMD. In addition to saving audio on the discs, Hi-MD
allows the storage of computer files such as documents, videos and
photos. Hi-MD introduced the ability to record CD-quality audio with
a linear PCM recording feature. It was the first time since MiniDisc's
introduction in 1992 that the ATRAC codec could be bypassed and
lossless CD-quality audio could be recorded on the small discs.
67
Sony's retail store, Sony Style
Sony was one of the leading developers and remains one of the
strongest proponents of the Blu-ray Disc optical disc format, which
eventually emerged as the market leader over the competing standard,
Toshiba's HD DVD, after a 2 year-long format war. The first Blu-ray
players became commercially available in June 2006, and Sony's first
Blu-ray player, the Sony BDP-S1, debuted in December 2006 with an
MSRP of US $999.95. By the end of 2007 the format had the backing
of every major motion picture studio except Universal, Paramount, and
Sony VAIO fashion show in 2008
Dreamworks.[16] [17] [18] The Blu-ray format's popularity continued to
increase, solidifying its position as the dominant HD media format, and
Toshiba announced its decision to stop supporting HD DVD on 19 February 2008.
On 10 September 2007 Sony unveiled Rolly, an egg-shaped digital robotic music player which has colour lights that
flash as it “dances” and has flapping wings that can twist to its tunes. Movements along with the music downloaded
from personal computers and Bluetooth can be set. Rolly, which went on sale in Japan on 29 September 2007, has
one gigabyte of memory to store tunes. Sony also developed dog-shaped robots called AIBO and humanoids and
QRIO.[19]
In summary, Sony has over the years introduced these standards: Umatic (~1968), Betamax (1975), Betacam (81),
Compact Disc (82), 3.5 inch Floppy Disk (82), Video8 (85), DAT (87), Hi8 (88), Minidisc (~90), Digital Betacam
(~90), miniDV (92), Memory Stick (98), Digital8 (99), PSP Universal Media Disc (~2003), HDV (~2004), Blu-ray
Disc (2006).
Sony
68
Management
On 22 June 2005, Nobuyuki Idei stepped down as Sony Corp. Chairman and
Group CEO and was replaced by Howard Stringer, then Chairman and CEO
of Sony Corporation of America, Corporate Executive Officer, Vice
Chairman and COO Sony Entertainment Business Group. Sony's decision to
replace Idei with the British Howard Stringer marked the first time that a
foreigner has run a major Japanese electronics firm. On the same date,
Kunitake Ando stepped down as President and was replaced by Ryoji
Chubachi.[20]
Manufacturing base
Slightly more than 50% of the electronics' segment's total annual production
during the fiscal year 2005 took place in Japan, including the production of
digital cameras, video cameras, flat panel televisions, personal computers,
semiconductors and components such as batteries and Memory Sticks.
Approximately 65% of the annual production in Japan was destined for other
regions. China accounted for slightly more than 10% of total annual
production, approximately 70% of which was destined for other regions.
Sony's current CEO, president and
chairman Sir Howard Stringer
Asia, excluding Japan and China, accounted for slightly more than 10% of total annual production with
approximately 60% destined for Japan, the US and the EU. The Americas and Europe together accounted for the
remaining slightly less than 25% of total annual production, most of which was destined for local distribution and
sale.[21]
Sony's Sales and Distribution by Geographical Regions in 2009[22]
Geographic Region
Total Sales ( Yen in
millions)
Japan
1,873,219
United States
1,827,812
Europe
2,307,658
Other Area
2,041,270
Global slowdown affects this year, Sony Corp suffered its first annual loss in 14 years and could be grimmer in
upcoming years too.[23]
On 9 December 2008, Sony Corp. said it will cut 8,000 jobs, drop 8,000 contractors and reduce its global
manufacturing sites by 10% to save $1.1 billion a year.[24] .
Sony
Controversy
Fictitious movie reviewer
In July 2000, a marketing executive working for Sony Corporation created a fictitious film critic, David Manning,
who gave consistently good reviews for releases from Sony subsidiary Columbia Pictures, which generally received
poor reviews amongst real critics.[25]
Malicious software (spyware)
In October 2005, it was revealed by Mark Russinovich of Sysinternals that Sony BMG's music CDs had installed a
rootkit on the user's computer as a DRM measure (called Extended Copy Protection by its creator, British company
First 4 Internet), which was difficult to detect or remove.[26] This constitutes a crime in many countries, and poses a
major security risk to affected users. The uninstaller Sony initially provided removed the rootkit, but in turn installed
a dial-home program that posed an even greater security risk. Sony eventually provided an actual uninstaller that
removed all of Sony's DRM program from the user's computer. Sony BMG faced several class action lawsuits
regarding this matter.[27] On 31 January 2007, the U. S. Federal Trade Commission issued a news release [28]
announcing that Sony BMG had agreed to settle Federal Trade Commission charges that Sony BMG committed
several offenses against United States federal law. This settlement required that Sony BMG allow consumers to
exchange the CDs through 30 June 2007, and to reimburse consumers for up to $150 for the repair of damage to their
computers that they may have incurred while removing the software.
Digital Rights Management
In 2006 Sony started using ARccOS Protection on some of their film DVDs, which caused compatibility problems
with some DVD players – including models manufactured by Sony. After complaints, Sony was forced to issue a
recall.[29]
In August 2007, security firm F-Secure reported that the MicroVault USB thumb drive installs a rootkit in a hidden
directory without consent on user computers. The directory is intended to protect fingerprint data, however it can be
used for malicious means as most virus scanners will not search for the directory or its contents.[30] Sony advised it
was conducting an investigation on the third-party product, and would offer a fix by mid-September.[31]
In September 2009 Sony had its Mexican office raided by police to recover over 6000 CDs, masters and artwork, by
the popular Latin American artist Alejandro Fernández. Fernández's lawyers claimed that Sony was in breach of
contract as Fernández had been contracted to Sony for seven albums and the recordings were an eighth album made
after the contract had expired.[32]
Controversial advertisements
Sony admitted in late 2005 to hiring graffiti artists to spray paint advertisements for their PlayStation Portable game
system in seven major U.S. cities including New York City, Philadelphia, San Francisco.[33] and Sydney Australia.
The mayor of Philadelphia filed a cease and desist order. According to Sony, they paid businesses and building
owners for the right to graffiti their walls.[34] As of early January 2006, Sony had no plans to keep or withdraw them.
In July 2006, Sony released a Dutch advertising campaign featuring a white model dressed entirely in white and a
black model garbed in black. The first ad featured the white model clutching the face of the black model. The words
"White is coming" headlined one of the ads. The ad has been viewed as racist by critics.[35] A Sony spokesperson
responded that the ad does not have a racist message, saying that it was only trying to depict the contrast between the
black PSP model and the new ceramic white PSP. Other pictures of the ad campaign include the black model
overpowering the white model.[36]
69
Sony
In November 2006, a marketing company employed by Sony created a website entitled "All I want for Xmas is a
PSP", designed to promote the PSP through viral marketing. The site contained a blog, which was purportedly
written by "Charlie", a teenager attempting to get his friend "Jeremy"'s parents to buy him a PSP, providing links to
t-shirt iron-ons, Christmas cards, and a "music video" of either Charlie or Jeremy "rapping". However, visitors to the
website soon discovered that the website was registered to a marketing company, exposing the site on sites such as
YouTube and digg, and Sony was forced to admit the site's true origin in a post on the blog, stating that they would
from then on "stick to making cool products" and that they would use the website for "the facts on the PSP". The site
has since been taken down. In an interview with next-gen.biz, Sony admitted that the idea was "poorly executed".[37]
Legal
In 2002, Sony Computer Entertainment America, marketer of the popular PlayStation game consoles, was sued by
Immersion Corporation of San Jose, California which claimed that Sony's PlayStation "Dual Shock" controllers
infringed on Immersion's patents. In 2004, a federal jury agreed with Immersion, awarding the company US$82
million in damages. A U.S. district court judge ruled on the matter in March 2005 and not only agreed with the
federal jury's ruling but also added another US$8.7 million in damages. This is likely the reason that the Sixaxis
controller for the PlayStation 3 had no rumble feature. The DualShock 3 has since been made available for the
PlayStation 3, reintroducing rumble capabilities. Microsoft Corp. was also sued for its Xbox controller, however,
unlike Sony, they settled out of court so they could continue using the technology for the follow-up Xbox 360.[38]
A California judge ordered Sony to pay Immersion a licensing fee of 1.37 percent per quarter based on the sales of
PlayStation units, Dual Shock controllers, and a selection of PlayStation 2 games that use Immersion's technology.
PS3 advertised features removed post sale
Sony announced that on 1 April 2010[39] it was electronically removing Linux [40] functionality from the first
generation PS3.[41] A class action has been taken out in California challenging the legality of "the disablement of
valuable functionality originally advertised"[42] .
Laptop batteries dysfunction
In April 2006, a Sony laptop battery exploded in Japan and caught fire. A Japanese couple in Tokyo sued both Sony
and Apple Japan for over ¥2 million ($16,700 USD) regarding the incident. The suit argues that the man suffered
burns on his finger when the battery burst into flames while being used, and his wife had to be treated for mental
distress due to the incident.[43]
On 14 August 2006, Sony and Dell admitted to major flaws in several Sony batteries that could result in the battery
overheating and catching fire. As a result they recalled over 4.1 million laptop batteries in the largest
computer-related recall to that point in history. The cost of this recall is being shared between Dell and Sony. Dell
also confirmed that one of its laptops caught fire in Illinois.[44] [45] This recall also prompted Japan's Ministry of
Economy, Trade and Industry to order the companies to investigate the troubles with the batteries. The ministry said
they must report on their findings and draw up a plan to prevent future problems by the end of August, or face a fine
under consumer safety laws.[46]
Ten days later on 24 August 2006, Apple Computer recalled 1.8 million Sony built batteries after receiving nine
reports of batteries overheating, including two customers who suffered minor burns, and additional reports of
property damage.[47]
On 19 September 2006, Toshiba announced it was recalling 340,000 Sony laptop batteries.[48] This recall, however,
is not related to the recalls by Apple and Dell, as the batteries are known to cause the laptops to sometimes run out of
power. No injuries or other accidents have been reported, according to Toshiba spokesman Keisuke Omori.[49]
70
Sony
On 23 September 2006, Sony announced its investigation[50] of a Lenovo ThinkPad T43 laptop which overheated
and caught fire in Los Angeles International Airport on 16 September, an incident that was confirmed by Lenovo.
On 28 September 2006, Lenovo and IBM made the global recall of 526,000 laptop batteries.[51]
On 28 September 2006, Sony announced a global battery exchange program in response to growing consumer
concerns.[52]
On 2 October 2006, Hewlett-Packard (HP) determined that it was not necessary for them to join the global battery
replacement program.[53]
On 3 October 2006, the Yomiuri Shimbun (a Japanese Newspaper) reported that Sony was aware of faults in its
notebook PC batteries in December 2005 but failed to fully study the problem.[54] [55]
On 16 October 2006, Fujitsu announced it was recalling 278,000 Sony laptop batteries.[56] It was also reported that
Fujitsu, Toshiba, and Hitachi may seek compensation from Sony over the battery recalls.[57]
On 25 April 2007, Acer announced that 27,000 batteries from TravelMate and Aspire series notebooks sold from
May 2004 to November 2006 were recalled due to 16 reports of overheating and explosions.[58]
On 24 August 2007, it emerged that some of Sony's batteries that were not recalled, and in use on Dell laptop
computers, may be at risk of catching fire and exploding; as another case of a Dell laptop with a Sony battery in it,
came to light.[59]
On 30 October 2008, the recall of an additional 100,000 batteries produced by Sony was announced by Dell,
Hewlett-Packard, and Toshiba due to around forty cases of batteries overheating being reported globally.[60]
CCD
Initially, in October 2005, it was reported by Sony that there were problems with the charge-coupled devices (CCD)
in 20 models of digital still cameras. The problems can prevent the cameras from taking clear pictures, and in some
cases, possibly prevent a picture to be taken at all. In late November 2006, the recall was broadened to eight
additional models of digital cameras sold between 2003 and 2005. The problem appears to manifest itself mostly
when the camera is used in areas with hot weather. The eight models affected are the following: DSC-F88, DSC-M1,
DSC-T1, DSC-T11, DSC-T3, DSC-T33, DSC-U40 and DSC-U50. Sony did indicate that they will repair or replace
the affected camera at no charge. Since Sony is one of the largest producers of CCD chips, this recall may affect
other manufacturer's and models of cameras, possibly as many as 100 models or more. Other manufacturers of
digital cameras, including Canon, Minolta, Nikon, Olympus or Fuji have indicated they will replace faulty CCDs in
their respective models of cameras if necessary.[61]
Virtualization disabled on VAIO laptops
Previously Sony has disabled hardware virtualization on their high end VAIO laptops. This means that the Windows
7 operating system as well as virtualization software such as VMWare, VirtualBox and others are unable to make use
of Intel's or AMD's virtualization technology embedded in their CPUs. Sony's senior manager for product marketing,
Xavier Lauwaert, responded that "our engineers and QA people were very concerned that enabling VT would expose
our systems to malicious code".[62]
However, with the new BIOS that are being released, most of the new laptops are now officially being enabled with
this feature. This includes Vaio Z models with BIOS R2170M3 and R4043M3.[63]
71
Sony
Environmental record
Sony has received numerous awards and much recognition for their environmental efforts throughout the world.
Their achievements in the way of energy and environmental conservation have earned them respect for their green
campaign[64] despite bad press from a low ranking on Greenpeace's greener electronics report.[65]
Improvement efforts
Since 1976, Sony has had an Environmental Conference.[66] Sony's policies address their effects on global warming,
the environment, and resources. They are taking steps to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases that they put out as
well as regulating the products they get from their suppliers in a process that they call "green procurement".[67] Sony
has said that they have signed on to have about 75 percent of their Sony Building running on geothermal power. The
"Sony Take Back Recycling Program" allows consumers to recycle the electronics products that they buy from Sony
by taking them to eCycle (Recycling) drop-off points around the U.S. The company has also developed a biobattery
that runs on sugars and carbohydrates that works similarly to the way living creatures work. This is the most
powerful small biobattery to date.[68]
Green TV
For sale in Japan on 30 July 2008, Sony's green product, new flat-panel 32-inch (810 mm) TV 150,000 yen (US$
1,400; € 900) Bravia KDL-32JE1 offers ecological consumers advantages of less energy consumption (70% less)
than regular models with the same image quality. Sony was able to reduce carbon dioxide emissions totaling 79
kilograms (174 pounds) a year, without sacrificing quality by developing a brighter back light and better filtering,
which produces light more efficiently. The TVs will have liquid crystal displays along with high-definition digital
broadcast capabilities.[69] [70] [71]
Criticism
In 2000, Sony was ridiculed for a document entitled "NGO Strategy" that was leaked to the press. The document
involved the company's surveillance of environmental activists in an attempt to plan how to counter their
movements. It specifically mentioned environmental groups that were trying to pass laws that held
electronics-producing companies responsible for the clean up of the toxic chemicals contained in their
merchandise.[72] In early July 2007, Sony ranked 14th on the Greenpeace chart "Guide to Greener Electronics." This
chart graded major electronics companies on their environmental work. Sony fell from its earlier 11th place ranking
due to Greenpeace's claims that Sony had double standards in their waste policies.[73]
In 2005, it was made public that the videogame Full Spectrum Warrior, developed by Sony Pictures Imageworks and
Pandemic Studios, was paid for in whole by the United States Department of Defense, for use as an urban combat
trainer. Not only was the simulation never used as intended, but the Army lost its full investment while Pandemic
Studios went on to release the simulation, now an entertainment game, through THQ and it became a success. The
wisdom of the Army's contract with both Sony and Pandemic was questioned in the press at the time.
72
Sony
73
Further reading
PlayStation Division is Under Review [74]
Made in Japan by Akio Morita and Sony, HarperCollins (1994)
Sony: The Private Life by John Nathan, Houghton Mifflin (1999)
Sony Radio, Sony Transistor Radio 35th Anniversary 1955–1990 – information booklet (1990)
The Portable Radio in American Life by University of Arizona Professor Michael Brian Schiffer, Ph.D. (The
University of Arizona Press, 1991).
• The Japan Project: Made in Japan. – a documentary about Sony's early history in the U.S. by Terry Sanders.
•
•
•
•
•
External links
•
•
•
•
•
•
Sony Japan [75] (Japanese)
Sony Global HQ [76]
Sony Australia [77]
Sony Canada [78]
Sony New Zealand [79]
Sony United Kingdom [80]
•
•
•
•
•
•
Sony USA [81]
Sony Computer Entertainment [82]
Sony Ericsson [83]
Sony Music Entertainment [84]
Sony Pictures [85]
Sony Playstation [86]
References
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[4]
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[31] Sony confirms security problem (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ technology/ 6975838. stm). BBC News.
[32] Pirated Artist Orders Police Raid on Sony Music Office (http:/ / torrentfreak. com/ sony-music-office-raided-090907/ )
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[40] playstation.com - Open Platform feature: (http:/ / www. playstation. com/ ps3-openplatform/ manual. html)
[41] Toms Hardware: (http:/ / www. tomshardware. com/ news/ Sony-Linux-PS3-Firmware-Update,10007. html)
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cand. 226894. 1. 0. pdf)
[43] "Japanese couple sues Sony and Apple over burning battery" (http:/ / www. engadget. com/ 2007/ 07/ 25/
japanese-couple-sues-sony-and-apple-over-burning-battery/ ). Engadget. 2007-07-25. . Retrieved 2007-07-25.
[44] "Dell Details on Notebook Battery Recall" (http:/ / www. direct2dell. com/ one2one/ archive/ 2006/ 08/ 14/ 1803. aspx). Direct2Dell.
2006-08-14. . Retrieved 2006-08-21.
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[48] "Toshiba Recalls 340,000 Batteries, Trouble for Sony" (http:/ / www. consolewatcher. com/ 2006/ 09/
toshiba-recalls-340000-batteries-trouble-for-sony/ ). Console Watcher. 2006-09-19. . Retrieved 2006-11-06.
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hle_bus-t229782. html). Reuters. 2006-09-23. Archived from the original (http:/ / money. excite. com/ ht/ nw/ bus/ 20060923/
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2006-09-28. . Retrieved 2006-09-28.
[52] Sony to Initiate Global Replacement Program for Notebook Computer Battery Pack (http:/ / www. sony. net/ SonyInfo/ News/ Press/
200609/ 06-090E/ index. html), Sony Press Release, 28 September 2006.
[53] HP and Sony Joint Statement on Recent Battery Issues. (http:/ / www. hp. com/ hpinfo/ newsroom/ press/ 2006/ 061002a. html),
Hewlett-Packard News Release, 2 October 2006.
74
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[54] "Sony knew of faults in PC batteries in Dec., failed to fully study fire cause" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20061021182435/ http:/ /
www. yomiuri. co. jp/ dy/ business/ 20061003TDY01006. htm). Daily Yomiuri Online. 2006-10-03. Archived from the original (http:/ / www.
yomiuri. co. jp/ dy/ business/ 20061003TDY01006. htm) on 2006-10-21. . Retrieved 2006-10-03.
[55] "Sony failed to fully study battery problem" (http:/ / www. forbes. com/ business/ feeds/ afx/ 2006/ 10/ 02/ afx3061270. html). Forbes.com.
2006-10-02. . Retrieved 2006-10-03.
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[57] "Fujitsu, Toshiba, Hitachi may seek compensation from Sony over battery recalls" (http:/ / www. suntimes. com/ business/
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[58] "Acer finally gets sucked into Sony battery recall" (http:/ / www. engadget. com/ 2007/ 04/ 25/
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[62] Sony Laptops Have Hardware Virtualization Disabled, Can't Run Windows 7's XP Mode (http:/ / gizmodo. com/ 5333727/
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[63] Vaio Z Windows 7 Bios and driver (http:/ / forum. notebookreview. com/ showthread. php?t=427883)
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75
Amazon Kindle
76
Amazon Kindle
The Kindle 2
Manufacturer
Foxconn for Amazon.com
Type
E-book reader
Release date
1st generation: November 19, 2007
2nd generation: February 9, 2009
Kindle DX: June 10, 2009
Operating
system
Linux-2.6.10
Power
3.7 V, 1530 mAh lithium polymer, BA1001
model
CPU
Freescale 532 MHz, ARM-11
Storage capacity
(total/user available) 256 MB/180 MB (original) or 2 GB/1.4 GB (Kindle 2) or 4 GB/3.3 GB (Kindle DX) internal flash memory
Display
6 in diagonal,
3.6 in (91 mm) × 4.8 in (122 mm),
600 × 800 pixels or 0.48 megapixels,
167 ppi
density,
4-level grayscale (original)
or 16-level grayscale (Kindle 2)
electronic paper
Input
USB 2.0 port (micro-B connector),
SD card (original model only),
3.5 mm stereo headphone jack
built-in speaker,
AC power
adapter jack
Connectivity
Amazon Whispernet using EVDO/CDMA AnyDATA wireless modem
Dimensions
8.0 × 5.3 × 0.8 in (203 × 135 × 20.3 mm) (original) 8.0 × 5.3 × 0.36 in (203 × 135 × 9.14 mm) (Kindle 2)
Weight
10.2 oz (290 g)
Amazon Kindle is a software and hardware platform developed by Amazon.com (subsidiary Lab126) for the
rendering and displaying of e-books and other digital media.[1] Three hardware devices, known as "Kindle", "Kindle
2", and "Kindle DX" support this platform. Kindle software applications exist for Windows, iPhone OS, BlackBerry
and Mac OS X. Amazon's first hardware device, the Kindle First Generation, was released only in the United States
on November 19, 2007.
Amazon Kindle
77
The Kindle hardware device uses an E Ink brand electronic paper display that features 16 shades of gray. It
downloads content over Amazon's Whispernet using the Sprint EVDO in the USA. Newer Kindle 2 devices use
AT&T's network and its roaming partners that provides international wireless access.[2] The Kindle hardware device
is used without a computer connection, and Amazon Whispernet is accessible without any monthly fee or wireless
subscription.[3] All Kindle models provide free access to the Internet in the U.S. over cellular networks.
On March 3, 2009, Amazon.com launched an application called Kindle for iPhone in the iTunes App Store, allowing
iPhone and iPod Touch owners to read Kindle content on those devices. Through a technology called
"Whispersync", customers can connect reading progress, bookmarks and other information across Kindle hardware
devices and other mobile devices.[4] [5]
Amazon announced the Kindle DX on May 6, 2009. This device has a larger screen than its predecessors and
supports simple PDF files. It also is the thinnest Kindle to date and offers an accelerometer, which enables the user
to seamlessly rotate pages between landscape and portrait orientations when the Kindle DX is turned on its side.[6] It
is marketed as more suitable for displaying newspaper and textbook content.[7]
Amazon released the Kindle for PC free of charge, allowing users to read Kindle books on a Windows PC.[8]
Amazon also released a version for the Macintosh.[9]
History
Original Kindle
Amazon released the Kindle First Generation on November 19, 2007,
and it sold out in five and a half hours.[10] The device remained out of
stock for five months until late April 2008.[11]
The Kindle First Generation device features a 6 inch (diagonal) 4-level
grayscale display and retailed for US$399. Amazon subsequently
lowered the price to $359. The 250MB of internal memory in the
Amazon Kindle First Generation can hold approximately 200
non-illustrated titles, and the memory is expandable with an SD
memory card.[12] This model is no longer available as a new item,
because the Kindle 2 replaced the original version.
On the Kindle First Generation, the Whispernet only works in the
United States, but content can be downloaded from Amazon over the
Internet. Amazon did not sell the Kindle First Generation outside the
United States.[12] Plans for a launch in the UK and other European
The Kindle 1
countries were delayed by problems with signing up suitable wireless
network operators.[13] Another hardware decision which has been
questioned is the non-availability of WiFi functionality on the Kindle. Instead, the device relies on Sprint's EVDO,
AT&T's 3G network, or 1xRTT data services for Internet access,[14] which, critics argue, does provide a large
amount of geographical coverage, but also drives the price of the device up considerably.[15]
Amazon Kindle
Kindle 2
On February 9, 2009, Amazon announced the Kindle 2. It became available for purchase on February 23, 2009. The
Kindle 2 features a 16-level grayscale display, improved battery life, 20 percent faster page-refreshing, a
text-to-speech option to read the text aloud,[16] and overall thickness reduction from 0.8 to 0.36 inches (9.1mm).[17]
The Kindle 2 has 2GB of internal memory of which 1.4GB is user-accessible. Amazon estimates that the Kindle 2
will hold about 1500 non-illustrated books. Unlike the Kindle First Generation, Kindle 2 does not have a slot for SD
memory cards.[16] [18] To promote the new Kindle, author Stephen King made UR, his then-new novella, available
exclusively through the Kindle Store.[19] On October 22, 2009, Amazon stopped selling the original Kindle 2 in
favor of the international version it had introduced earlier in the month.
According to an early review by iFixIt, the Kindle 2 features a Freescale 532MHz, ARM-11 90 nm processor, 32MB
main memory, 2GB moviNAND flash storage and a 3.7V 1530mAh lithium polymer battery.[20] On November 24,
2009, Amazon released a firmware update for the Kindle 2 that it said increases battery life by 85% and introduces
native PDF support.[21] There is concern about the specific hardware choices made for the device.[22] For example,
the Kindle 2 lacks the memory expansion slot which was part of the original Kindle, which not only affects the
potential number of e-books which can be stored on the device, but also removes potential capabilities to import
e-books onto the device via memory card.
There are concerns that the Kindle 2's contrast in small text is poor compared to the original Kindle.[23] Side-by-side
comparisons show slight differences attributable to factors such as slightly darker background and different fonts on
the two devices.[24] Some Kindle 2 users have reverted back to the original Kindle due to this issue.[25]
The Kindle 2 was criticized for its high original retail price of US$359, compared to the $185.49 it allegedly costs to
manufacture.[26] On July 8, 2009, Amazon reduced the price of the Kindle 2 to $299. On October 7, 2009, Amazon
further reduced the price of the Kindle 2 to $259.[27]
Kindle 2 international version
On October 7, 2009, Amazon announced an international version of the Kindle 2 that works in over 100 countries. It
became available October 19, 2009. The international Kindle 2 is physically very similar to the U.S.-only model
although it uses a different mobile network standard. The original Kindle 2 uses the Sprint network while the
international version uses AT&T's U.S. mobile network and roams on 3G, EDGE and GPRS on GSM networks in
other countries.[28] On October 22, Amazon lowered the price on the international version to $259 from $279 and
ceased selling new versions of the U.S.-only model.
The Kindle International Wireless version has restricted access to the experimental web browser. In most countries,
Amazon restricts Kindle owners from accessing any web content apart from Amazon's e-book store (to view and
purchase books and magazine subscriptions) and the English Wikipedia.[29]
Similar to an iPod/iPhone, the Kindle 2 does not have a removable battery. If the battery fails on a Kindle 2, the
whole unit must be sent to Amazon for repair.[30]
78
Amazon Kindle
79
Kindle DX
The Kindle DX
Manufacturer
Foxconn for Amazon.com
Type
e-book reader
Release date
June 10, 2009
Operating
system
Linux-2.6.22.19
Power
Lithium polymer, 3.7 V, 1530 mAhr, 5.66 Wh, P/N 170-1012-00
CPU
Freescale 532 MHz i.MX31L, ARM-11
Storage capacity
4 GB internal flash memory (82.5% user-accessible)
Display
9.7 in diagonal (5.4" (137 mm) x 7.9" (201 mm)),
824 × 1200 pixels or 0.99 [31]
megapixels,
150 ppi,
16-level grayscale
electronic paper
Input
USB 2.0 port (micro-B connector),
3.5 mm stereo
headphone jack,
built-in stereo speakers,
AC power adapter jack
Connectivity
Amazon Whispernet (Sprint)using EVDO/CDMA AnyDATA wireless modem E727NV WN2, with fallback
[31]
to 1xRTT
Dimensions
10.4 × 7.2 × 0.38 in (264 × 183 × 9.7 mm)
Weight
18.9 oz (540 g)
On May 6, 2009, Amazon announced the Kindle DX,[32] which retails for $489.[33] It is the first Kindle model with
an accelerometer, automatically rotating pages between landscape and portrait orientations if the device is turned on
its side, unless automatic rotation is disabled by the user. It is slightly over 1⁄3 inch (about 8.5 mm) thick, has a 4 GB
(3.3 GB user-accessible) storage capacity, holding approximately 3500 non-illustrated e-books, a 9.7 inch (24.6 cm)
display with 1200 x 824 pixel resolution, and a battery life of up to one week while using wireless or two weeks
offline. The DX adds support for PDF files natively, built-in stereo speakers and 1xRTT wireless technology as a
fallback option for when EVDO connectivity is not available. Like the Kindle 2, it does not have an SD memory
card slot. The model was released on June 10, 2009.[34]
Amazon Kindle
Kindle DX International
Since January 19, 2010, the Kindle DX International ships in 100 countries.[35]
Kindle sales
Specific Kindle sales numbers are not released by the company, but Jeff Bezos, founder and CEO of Amazon.com,
stated in a shareholders' meeting that "millions of people now own Kindles."[36] According to anonymous inside
sources, over three million Kindles have been sold as of December 2009[37] , while external estimates as of Q4-2009
place the number at about 1.5 million.[38]
Downloadable content
Overview
Content from Amazon and some other content providers is primarily encoded in Amazon's proprietary Kindle format
(AZW). It is also possible to load content in various formats from a computer by simply transferring it to the Kindle
via USB (for free) or by emailing it to a registered email address provided by Amazon (for a fee); the email service
can convert a number of document formats to Amazon's AZW format and then transmit the result to the associated
Kindle over Whispernet.
Kindle Terms of Use forbid transferring Amazon e-books to another user or a different type of device.[39] Users can
select reading material using the Kindle itself or through a computer at the Amazon Kindle store and can download
content through the Kindle Store, which upon the initial launch of the Kindle had more than 88,000 digital titles
available for download. This number continued steadily increasing to more than 275,000 by late 2008. As of April
19, 2010, there were more than 500,000 books available for download.[40] In late 2007, new releases and New York
Times best sellers were being offered for approximately US$10, with first chapters of many books offered as free
samples. Many titles, including some classics, are offered free of charge or at a low price, which has been stated to
relate to the cost of adapting the book to the Kindle format . Magazines, newspapers and blogs via RSS are provided
by Amazon per a monthly subscription fee or a free trial period. Newspaper subscriptions cost from US$5.99 to
$14.99 per month; magazines charge between $1.25 and $10.99 per month, and blogs charge from $0.99 to $1.99 per
month.[41] Amazon e-book sales overtook print for the first time on Christmas Day of 2009.[42]
In addition to the Kindle store, paid content for the Kindle can be purchased from various independent sources such
as Fictionwise, Mobipocket and Webscriptions. Public Domain titles are also obtainable for the Kindle via content
providers such as Project Gutenberg and World Public Library.
The device is sold with electronic editions of its owner's manual and the New Oxford American Dictionary. Users are
able to purchase different dictionaries from the Kindle store as specified in the included manual.[43] [44] The Kindle
also contains several free experimental features including a basic web browser.[45] Users can also play music from
MP3 files in the background in the order they were added to the Kindle. Operating system updates are designed to be
received wirelessly and installed automatically during a period in sleep mode in which wireless is turned on.[46]
File formats
The original Kindle supported only unprotected Mobipocket books (MOBI, PRC), plain text files (TXT), topaz
format books (.tpz) and Amazon's proprietary DRM-restricted format (AZW). Version 2.3 firmware upgrade for
Kindle 2 (U.S. and International) added native Portable Document Format (PDF) support.[21] Earlier versions did not
fully support PDF, but Amazon provided "experimental" conversion to the native AZW format,[47] with the caveat
that not all PDFs may format correctly.[48] It does not support the EPUB ebook standard. Amazon offers an
email-based service that will convert JPEG, GIF, PNG and BMP graphics to AZW.[49] Amazon will also convert
HTML pages and Microsoft Word (DOC) documents through the same email-based mechanism, which will send a
80
Amazon Kindle
Kindle-formatted file to the device directly for $0.15 per MB or to a personal e-mail account for free. These services
can be accessed by sending emails to <kindleusername>@kindle.com and to <kindleusername>@free.kindle.com for
Whispernet-delivered and free email-delivered file conversion, respectively. The file that the user wants to be
converted needs to be attached to these emails. Users could also convert PDF and other files to the first-generation
Kindle's supported formats using third-party software. The original Kindle supported audio in the form of MP3s and
Audible audiobooks (versions 2, 3 and 4), which had to be transferred to the Kindle via USB or on an SD card.
A book may be downloaded from Amazon to a limited number of devices at the same time. The limit ranges from
one to six devices, depending on an undisclosed amount of licenses set by the book publisher. When the limit is
reached, the users has to unregister some devices in the manage your Kindle page in order to ad new devices.[50]
E-books of unencrypted .MOBI files, .TXT files, or .AZW formats can be transferred to the Kindle over a USB
connection and read, but any other e-book formats are not supported. The original Kindle and the Kindle 2 firmware
before the 2.3 firmware update cannot read e-books or files in the PDF format. However, PDFs and several other file
formats can be converted using a number of downloadable applications, free conversion by email, or a similar
method that sends the converted content to the owner's Kindle for a fee.[12]
Amazon owns Mobipocket,[51] [52] and the Kindle AZW file format and DRM scheme are similar to the Mobipocket
file format and DRM scheme,[53] yet Kindle is not able to read DRM-protected Mobipocket books without resorting
to third-party conversions tools.
Initially, Kindle 1 only supported the ISO 8859-1 (Latin 1) character set for its content; Unicode characters and
non-Western characters were not supported. A firmware update in February 2009 added support for additional
character sets, including ISO 8859-16.
Kindle 2 added support for Audible Enhanced (AAX) format, but dropped support for Audible versions 2 and 3.
Using the experimental web browser, it was possible to download books directly on the Kindle (in MOBI, PRC and
TXT formats only). Hyperlinks in a Mobipocket file could be used to download e-books[54] but could not be used to
reference books stored in the Kindle's memory. Kindle DX added native support for PDF files.
The Kindle does not allow the user to organize books into folders.[55] There is an option to select whether
documents, subscriptions, books, or everything on the device appear on the home page. Another option orders the
items on the home page according to title, author, or download date. Books may also be tagged with one or more
keywords by inserting the tags into notes added to the book. Users can then search for books by tag.[56]
User-created annotations
Users can bookmark, highlight and look up content. Pages can be dog-eared for reference and notes can be added to
relevant content. While a book is open on the display, menu options allow users to search for synonyms and
definitions from the built-in dictionary. The device also remembers the last page read for each book. Pages can be
saved as a "clipping", or a text file containing the text of the currently displayed page. All clippings are appended to
a single file, which can be downloaded over a USB cable.[57]
Kindle Development Kit (KDK)
On January 21, 2010, Amazon announced the forthcoming release of their Kindle Development Kit.[58] Their aim is
to allow developers to build 'active content' for the Kindle, and a beta version was announced with a February 2010
release date.[59] A number of companies have already experimented with delivering active content through the
Kindle's bundled browser,[60] and the KDK promises 'sample code, documentation and the Kindle Simulator'
together with a new revenue sharing model for developers.
81
Amazon Kindle
Business model
Digital Text Platform
Concurrently with the Kindle device, Amazon launched the Digital
Text Platform, a system for authors to self-publish directly to the
Kindle. In open beta testing as of late 2007, the platform has been
promoted to established authors by e-mail[61] and by
advertisements at Amazon.com. Authors can upload documents in
several formats for delivery via Whispernet and charge between
$0.99 and $200.00 per download.[61] The authors receive 35% of
revenues based on their list price, regardless of discounts by
Amazon.[62]
In a December 5, 2009 interview with The New York Times, CEO
Jeff Bezos revealed that Amazon.com keeps 65% of the revenue
from all ebook sales for the Kindle.[63] The remaining 35% is split
between the book author and publisher. After numerous
commentators observed that Apple's popular App Store offers 70%
of royalties to the publisher, Amazon began a program that offers
70% royalties to Kindle publishers who agree to certain
conditions.[64]
The text can also be displayed in larger sizes
Other criticisms involve the business model behind Amazon's
[22] [65]
implementation and distribution of e-books.
Amazon
introduced a software application allowing Kindle books to be read on an iPhone or iPod Touch.[66] Amazon soon
followed with an application called "Kindle for PCs" that can be run on a Windows PC. Due to the book publisher's
DRM policies, there is no right of first sale with the e-books. Amazon states they are licensed, not purchased; so
unlike paper books, buyers do not actually own their e-books.[67] [68]
Remote content removal
On July 17, 2009, Amazon.com withdrew certain Kindle titles, Animal Farm and Nineteen Eighty-Four by George
Orwell, from sale, refunded the cost to those who had purchased them, and remotely deleted these titles from
purchasers' devices after discovering that the publisher lacked rights to publish the titles in question.[69] Notes and
annotations for the books made by users on their devices were left in a separate file, but "rendered useless" without
the content they were directly linked to.[70] [71] The move prompted outcry and comparisons to Nineteen Eighty-Four
itself. In the novel, books, magazines and newspapers in public archives that contradict the ruling party are edited or
destroyed, long after being published; the removed materials go "down the Memory Hole", nickname for an
incinerator chute.[72] (1984 was published in 1949, when books and other documents existed only in paper form:
text-editors, word-processors, and digital books were not even mentioned by science fiction authors.) Customers and
the press strongly noted the resemblance to the censorship in the novel, and described Amazon's action in Orwellian
terms. Some critics also argued that the deletion violated the Kindle's Terms of Service, which states in part:[73]
"Upon your payment of the applicable fees set by Amazon, Amazon grants you the non-exclusive right to keep
a permanent copy of the applicable Digital Content and to view, use and display such Digital Content an
unlimited number of times, solely on the Device or as authorized by Amazon as part of the Service and solely
for your personal, non-commercial use."
Amazon spokesman Drew Herdener stated that the company is "… changing our systems so that in the future we
will not remove books from customers' devices in these circumstances."[74] On July 23, 2009, Amazon CEO Jeff
82
Amazon Kindle
Bezos posted an apology about the company's handling of the matter on Amazon's official Kindle forum. Bezos said
the action was "stupid", and that Amazon "deserve[d] the criticism [it] received."[75]
On July 30, 2009, Justin Gawronski, a Michigan high-school senior, and Antoine Bruguier, a California engineer,
filed suit against Amazon in the United States District Court for the Western District of Washington. Gawronski
argued that Amazon had violated their terms of service by remotely deleting the copy of Nineteen Eighty-Four he
had purchased, in the process preventing him from accessing annotations he had written. Bruguier also had his copy
deleted without his consent, and found Amazon "deceit[ful]" in an email exchange. The complaint, which requested
class-action status, asked for both monetary and injunctive relief.[71] [76] The case was settled on September 25,
2009, with Amazon agreeing to pay $150,000 divided between the two plaintiffs, on the understanding that the law
firm representing them, KamberEdelson LLC [77], "...will donate its portion of that fee to a charitable
organization...".[78] The settlement also saw Amazon guaranteeing wider rights to Kindle owners over their eBooks:
For copies of Works purchased pursuant to TOS granting "the non-exclusive right to keep a permanent
copy" of each purchased Work and to "view, use and display [such Works] an unlimited number of
times, solely on the [Devices]. . . and solely for [the purchasers'] personal, non-commercial use",
Amazon will not remotely delete or modify such Works from Devices purchased and being used in the
United States unless (a) the user consents to such deletion or modification; (b) the user requests a refund
for the Work or otherwise fails to pay for the Work (e.g., if a credit or debit card issuer declines to remit
payment); (c) a judicial or regulatory order requires such deletion or modification; or (d) deletion or
modification is reasonably necessary to protect the consumer or the operation of a Device or network
through which the Device communicates (e.g., to remove harmful code embedded within a copy of a
Work downloaded to a Device).[79]
On September 4, 2009, Amazon offered to restore the deleted ebooks to affected users or offered an Amazon gift
certificate or check for $30.[80]
See also
• List of e-book readers
External links
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Official Kindle Store [81]
Source code to GPL portions of Kindle [82]
The Revolution Will Be Digitalized, City Journal, June 13, 2008 [83]
Video: Charlie Rose Interview with CEO Jeff Bezos about the Kindle November 19, 2007 [84]
Library use of Kindle [85]
Side by side comparison of the iPad and Kindle 2 [86]
Side by side comparison of the Nook and Kindle. [87]
83
Amazon Kindle
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21, 2010. . Retrieved 2010-01-21.
[60] "Play Sudoku and Crossword Puzzles on your Kindle 2 or DX" (http:/ / ereadnow. com/ 2009/ 12/
play-sudoku-and-crossword-puzzles-on-your-kindle-2-or-dx/ ). eBook Readers. January 21, 2010. . Retrieved 2010-01-21.
[61] Munarriz, Rick Aristotle (November 27, 2007). "Why Kindle Will Change the World" (http:/ / www. fool. com/ investing/ general/ 2007/
11/ 27/ why-kindle-will-change-the-world. aspx). Motley Fool. . Retrieved 2007-11-27.
[62] "Amazon DTP Support: Terms & Conditions" (http:/ / forums. digitaltextplatform. com/ dtpforums/ entry. jspa?externalID=2&
categoryID=12). DigitalTextPlatform.com. pp. online forum section. . Retrieved 2007-12-07.
[63] Solomon, Deborah (December 6, 2009). "Questions for Jeffrey P. Bezos: Book Learning" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2009/ 12/ 06/
magazine/ 06fob-q4-t. html). The New York Times. . Retrieved December 22, 2009.
[64] Amazon Fires Missile At Book Industry, Launches 70% Kindle Royalty Option (http:/ / www. businessinsider. com/
henry-blodget-amazon-fires-torpedo-at-book-industry-launches-70-kindle-royalty-option-2010-1)
85
Amazon Kindle
[65] Frommer, Dan. "Bad News for the Kindle: iPhone 3G + Apps (AAPL, AMZN)" (http:/ / www. businessinsider. com/ 2008/ 7/
bad-news-for-the-kindle-iphone-3g-apps-aapl-amzn-). BusinessInsider.com. pp. "Silicon Alley Insider" section. . Retrieved 2009-03-06.
[66] "Kindlenomics Zero: When e-Texts Have No Entry Cost" (http:/ / blogs. zdnet. com/ perlow/ ?p=9570). ZDNet.com. pp. "Tech Broiler"
blog. . Retrieved 2009-03-06.
[67] "Gizmodo – Amazon Kindle and Sony Reader Locked Up: Why Your Books Are No Longer Yours – Amazon:" (http:/ / gizmodo. com/
369235/ amazon-kindle-and-sony-reader-locked-up-why-your-books-are-no-longer-yours). Gizmodo. Gawker Media. March 21, 2008. .
Retrieved 4 July 2009.
[68] "Kindle owners find out about DRM's ever-present threat – Ars Technica:" (http:/ / arstechnica. com/ gadgets/ news/ 2009/ 04/
amazon-kindle-incidents-highlight-drm-limitations-once-again. ars). Gear & Gadgets. Ars Technica. April 16, 2009. . Retrieved 4 July 2009.
[69] Some E-Books Are More Equal Than Others (http:/ / pogue. blogs. nytimes. com/ 2009/ 07/ 17/ some-e-books-are-more-equal-than-others/ )
[70] Stone, Brad (July 18, 2009). "Amazon Erases Orwell Books From Kindle" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2009/ 07/ 18/ technology/
companies/ 18amazon. html). The New York Times: p. B1. .
[71] "Plaintiff's Complaint in JUSTIN GAWRONSKI and A. BRUGUIER v. AMAZON.COM, INC" (http:/ / www. prnewschannel. com/ pdf/
Amazon_Complaint. pdf). PR News Channel. July 30, 2009. .
[72] George Orwell, 1984, Part One, Chapter 4
[73] "Why Amazon went Big Brother on some Kindle e-books" (http:/ / arstechnica. com/ tech-policy/ news/ 2009/ 07/
amazon-sold-pirated-books-raided-some-kindles. ars). Ars Technica. 2009-07-17. . Retrieved 2009-07-19.
[74] Amazon says it won't repeat Kindle book recall – CNet News (http:/ / news. cnet. com/ 8301-13860_3-10290047-56.
html?tag=newsEditorsPicksArea. 0)
[75] "Amazon Chief Says Erasing Orwell Books Was 'Stupid'" (http:/ / bits. blogs. nytimes. com/ 2009/ 07/ 23/
amazon-chief-says-erasing-orwell-books-was-stupid/ ), The New York Times, July 23, 2009
[76] "Lawsuit: Amazon Ate My Homework" (http:/ / blogs. wsj. com/ digits/ 2009/ 07/ 30/ lawsuit-amazon-ate-my-homework/ ). The Wall Street
Journal. 2009-07-30. .
[77] http:/ / kamberedelson. com/
[78] http:/ / www. techflash. com/ seattle/ 2009/ 09/ amazon_settles_lawsuit_over_deleted_1984. html
[79] http:/ / assets. bizjournals. com/ cms_media/ pdf/ KindleCase1. pdf
[80] Amazon.com Offers to Replace Copies of Orwell Book (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2009/ 09/ 05/ technology/ companies/ 05amazon. html)
The New York Times September 4, 2009
[81] http:/ / www. amazon. com/ exec/ obidos/ tg/ browse/ -/ 133141011
[82] https:/ / www. amazon. com/ gp/ help/ customer/ display. html?ie=UTF8& nodeId=200203720
[83] http:/ / www. city-journal. org/ 2008/ eon0613gs. html
[84] http:/ / www. charlierose. com/ shows/ 2007/ 11/ 19/ 1/ a-conversation-with-amazon-com-ceo-jeff-bezos
[85] http:/ / www. libraryjournal. com/ article/ CA6512445. html
[86] http:/ / www. ereaderleader. com/ amazon-kindle-2-vs-apple-ipad/
[87] http:/ / lettergram. org/ ?p=11
86
Mobipocket
87
Mobipocket
Type
Public
Industry
Software
Founded
2000
Headquarters Paris
Key people
Thierry Brethes, Founder; Nathalie Ting, Founder; Martin Görner, CEO
Products
Mobipocket Reader
Website
mobipocket.com
[1]
Mobipocket SA is a French company incorporated in March 2000 which produces Mobipocket Reader software, an
E-Book reader for some PDAs, phones and desktop operating systems. The Mobipocket software package is free and
consists of various publishing and reading tools for PDA, Smartphones, cellular phones and e-book devices
(Symbian, Windows Mobile, Palm OS, webOS, Java ME, BlackBerry, Psion, Kindle and iLiad). An alpha release of
the java-based version of the mobipocket reader was made available for cellphones on June 30, 2008.[2] There is also
a reader for desktop computers running Microsoft Windows, which also works with computers running Mac OS X
and Linux using WINE [3] .
Mobipocket.com was bought by Amazon.com in 2005.[4] Amazon's acquisition was believed to be a result of Adobe
Systems's announcement that it would no longer sell its eBook packaging and serving software.[5]
The software provides:
• A personalized press review using the Mobipocket Web Companion, an automated content extraction tool
dedicated to press articles.
• eBooks, including for each book a biography of the writer. Each downloaded eBook is registered in the My
Mobipocket personal virtual library, from which a user has access to any previously downloaded eBook.
• A secure reading system, as a result of the encryption of eBooks (using DRM) and unique signature, a timestamp
added to each book at the time of purchase.
Depending on the device, different
functions are available. Those are
usually managing of books and their
metadata, assigning books to arbitrary
categories, auto-scroll, rotate by
90°/180°,
bookmarks,
custom
hyperlinks within one or between
different documents, highlighting,
Mobipocket on a Psion Series 5 PDA (with further information)
comments and by sketches. When
transferring documents to other device
types, functions that are not supported on the device will be ignored but the information one is reading will not be
altered or deleted.
As noted above, there is a reader for personal computers that works with either encrypted or unencrypted
Mobipocket books. It also allows import of different file formats, among them HTML, PDF, OEB , CHM , TXT and
Microsoft Office formats.
Unencrypted Mobipocket books can be read on the Amazon Kindle natively. By using third-party programs such as
Lexcycle Stanza, Calibre or Okular, unencrypted Mobipocket books can also be read on Mac OS X, the iPhone and
Mobipocket
Linux.
A user can thus create documents in the Mobipocket-format (.PRC)[6] and use personal comments, bookmarks and so
on on all devices supporting those features.
Note that there is no way to print or export the text itself nor the personalized additions[7] without manually
selecting, copying and pasting them piece by piece. According to Mobipocket support a print function will be
released soon; an export feature is planned but not yet in an advanced stage as consultation with publishers
continues.
See also
• Comparison of e-book formats: an overview of various e-book formats
• Amazon Kindle: Amazon's eBook device which can read DRM-free Mobipocket files
• BeBook: eBook reader by Endless Ideas BV, upgrade in September 2008 added capability to read Mobipocket
files
• Cybook Gen3: Bookeen eBook device which can read DRM-free and DRM Mobipocket files
• Irex iLiad: Irex' eBook device which natively supports Mobipocket files, and synchronizes with the desktop
Mobipocket reader
• Microsoft Reader: eBook reader for Windows PCs and Tablets, and Windows Mobile
• TomeRaider: an alternative ebook reader software with a large free ebook base including Wikipedia:TomeRaider
database.
External links
• Mobipocket.com [8] (United States)
• Mobipocket reader [9]
• Mobipocket reader 6.0 alpha for Java phones [10]
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
http:/ / www. mobipocket. com
http:/ / www. mobipocket. com/ dev/ beta/ j2me. asp
WineHQ - Mobipocket Reader (http:/ / appdb. winehq. org/ objectManager. php?sClass=application& iId=3197)
Franklin sells interest in company, retires shares - Philadelphia Business Journal. (http:/ / philadelphia. bizjournals. com/ philadelphia/ stories/
2005/ 03/ 28/ daily32. html)
[5] DRM Watch: Amazon.com Acquires Mobipocket (http:/ / www. drmwatch. com/ drmtech/ article. php/ 3499386)
[6] http:/ / wiki. mobileread. com/ wiki/ MOBI
[7] http:/ / www. angelfire. com/ ego2/ idleloop/ mbp_reader. html mbp reader: libre application for exporting mobipocket user notes and
drawings.
[8] http:/ / www. mobipocket. com/
[9] http:/ / www. mobipocket. com/ en/ DownloadSoft/ ProductDetailsReader. asp
[10] http:/ / www. mobipocket. com/ dev/ beta/ j2me. asp
88
iLiad
89
iLiad
[1]
Manufacturer
iRex Technologies
Screen
124×152 mm (W×H),
768×1024 pixels,
160 ppi density,
16-level grayscale
Electronic paper.
Operating
system
Linux (2.4 kernel)
Input
Wacom touchscreen,
Graphical user interface,
next/prev/quick access buttons.
CPU
400MHz Intel XScale.
Memory
64 MB RAM,
256 MB (128 MB available) internal
storage,
Expandable via USB, MMC or CF cards.
Networks
MyiRex account
Connectivity
WiFi 802.11g,
10/100 Mbit/s Ethernet LAN (via travel
hub),
USB port, audio jack.
Battery
Lithium Ion battery.
Physical size
155x217x16 mm (WxHxD)
Weight
389 g (13.7 oz)
The iLiad is an electronic handheld device, or e-Reader, which can be used for document reading and editing. Like
the Sony Reader or Amazon Kindle, the iLiad makes use of an electronic paper display.
iLiad
90
Description
Main specifications:
• an 8.1-inch (21 cm) electronic paper display, area for displaying
content is 124x165mm
• a resolution of 768x1024 pixels (160 dpi)
• 16 levels of grayscale
• a USB connector for external storage,
• a CompactFlash Type II slot for memory extension or other
applications
iLiad in sunlight
• a MultiMediaCard slot for MMC memory cards
• a 3.5 mm stereo audio jack for a headset
• WiFi 802.11g wireless LAN
• 10/100 Mbit/s wired LAN
• 390 grams (14 oz) weight
• 400MHz Intel XScale processor
• 64MB RAM
• 256MB internal flash memory (128 for user, 128 for system)
• Linux-based operating system (2.4 kernel)
• SDK is provided , so functionality is easily extended.[2]
It measures 155 mm × 216 mm × 16 mm (width × height × depth), the
size of an A5 document, or roughly a 6"×9" steno notebook. The
display used is an active matrix electrophoretic display, which uses E
Ink Vizplex Imaging Film manufactured by E Ink Corporation.
Underneath the E Ink screen is a digitizing tablet by Wacom which
requires a stylus for input. When it was introduced, the Iliad had
largest screen size of existing e-paper products, but the newer iRex
Digital Reader 1000's 10.2-inch (26 cm) display is now the largest in
production.
display
The iLiad is capable of displaying document files in a number of
formats, including PDF, Mobipocket, XHTML and plain text. It can
also display JPEG, BMP and PNG images, but not in color. As of May
3, 2007 Mobipocket is supported, making the mobipocket digital rights
management (DRM) content available on this platform [3] . iRex's
product page for the iLiad states that "Support for additional E-book
formats will become available over the coming months. [3] "
Through its wireless service, iDS, the iLiad can also directly download
content. Les Echos, a french financial newspaper, is distributed this
way, as is Dutch newspaper NRC Handelsblad, and additional content is expected. Users can connect to their
computer over a wireless network to sync new data onto the iLiad's internal memory or an inserted MMC, SD, or CF
card. More wireless and network functions are to be delivered in upcoming firmware updates.
The distributor of the iLiad is iRex Technologies, a Philips spin-off company. It was initially advertised in December
2005, to be launched in April 2006, but was delayed until July, when it started to be sold as a beta product. It was
released to the general public near the end of July, and since then has undergone considerable software revisions.
iLiad
91
Its list price in Europe is €649, and in US $699, however it is no longer available in North America due to FCC
regulation non-compliance.
Advanced features
One of the advanced features of the iLiad is the ability to add notes to existing documents. With the integrated
Wacom tablet and stylus, it is possible to write directly on almost any document and those notes will remain on that
document whenever it is viewed on the iLiad. Using the desktop software, those notes can be merged into the
original document. This provides malleability, an important feature of physical books that is missing from most
ebook products, allowing users to annotate, highlight, and personalize the text.
Third-party development
Because of its open Linux operating system, the iLiad is able to run third party applications created for it. Developers
and users wishing to create or run third party applications can request shell access from the manufacturer.
Developers have been able to improve on the device's functionality by porting viewers such as FBReader, and
programs such as abiword and stardict. Full screen PDF reading is made available by community-supported iPDF
releases. Programs for recreation, including audio playback, sudoku, and calendars, are rapidly growing community
content available for use on the iLiad. Independent users have also reported successful porting of mobile web
browsers to iLiad's Linux platform, although with limited functionality and many bugs.
iRex as a company has had a lukewarm relationship with its Open Source developers. Most of the complaints toward
iRex center around speed of release of SDKs and other information. They have, however, also been quite
forthcoming on some projects and some of the changes the community has made have been integrated back into the
company's software distribution, perhaps the most notable being that of stylus and input calibration, an external
development project led by Jay Kuri and published as part of the main distribution in early 2008.
Version 2
In September 2007, iRex Technologies released an update to the iLiad. While officially called "iLiad 2nd Edition", it
is generally noted to be a minor update to the original.
The update includes:
•
•
•
•
•
Redesigned backplane
Increased battery capacity
Software version 2.11
Updated travel charger
Included case
The 2.11 software, which contains stylus calibration, extended battery life, and other things, is also available to
first-generation iLiads.
iLiad
92
Book edition
In May 2008, iRex Technologies added a third installment to the iLiad line of products, this time branded under the
name iLiad Book Edition. This is the iLiad Version 2 without WiFi and a new silver look. The technical cutbacks
place it at the $599 (euro 499) price point, which is cheaper than the original. It also comes with 50 free classics,
including works from well-known writers Jules Verne, Charles Dickens, Lewis Carroll, and Leo Tolstoy.
See also
• List of e-book readers - similar devices
External links
•
•
•
•
•
•
The iLiad product page [4] containing a PDF specification
List of third-party applications [5]
French newspaper Les Echos on the iLiad [6]
Dutch specialist in e-Paper for education, training and knowledge management [7]
A discussion thread containing large device images [8]
Feedbooks: e-books and news for the iLiad [9]
• Dream reader: iRex iLiad [10] Some stats and photos of iRex iLiad. Include 11 photos of iLiad showing math
formulas in the comment section.
References
[1] http:/ / www. irextechnologies. com
[2] "http:/ / support. irexnet. com/ index. php?_m=knowledgebase& _a=viewarticle& kbarticleid=31"
[3] http:/ / www. irextechnologies. com/ products/ content/ books
[4] http:/ / www. irextechnologies. com/ shop/ products/ iliad. htm
[5] http:/ / wiki. mobileread. com/ wiki/ Iliad_Software
[6] http:/ / www. lesechos. fr/ epaper/ offre-irex. htm
[7] http:/ / www. edupaper. nl
[8] http:/ / www. mobileread. com/ forums/ showthread. php?t=5582
[9] http:/ / www. feedbooks. com/
[10] http:/ / mgccl. com/ 2007/ 10/ 28/ dream-reader-irex-iliad
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Acerawiki, Adashiel, Aesire, Ahabr, Aladin p, AlainV, Alanbly, Alex.tan, Alexf, Alhambra11, Alkalar, America2inc, Amontero, Amorymeltzer, Andrewmu, Andrus Kallastu, Andyjsmith,
Anetode, Angmering, Anna Frodesiak, Anna512, Anthony, Anthonyhcole, Apple2, Aquaihoi, Aragor, Arance36, Arnona-b, Arnos78, Artdhtml, Asialu, Asiftahir, Auntof6, Avihu, AxelBoldt,
Az1568, Babrinton, Bah23, Baileycw, Bajsejohannes, Balancer, BalfourCentre, Baradon, Beetstra, Bennodini, Betacommand, BevinBrett, Biasoli, Bihco, Bkatong, Bkobres, Blogbob, Bobo192,
Bogdangiusca, Bonadea, Bongwarrior, Bonsai8, Boockoo, Booyabazooka, Branko, Bravewolf, Breez187, BrennaLyons, Brighterorange, Bt227, Burn the asylum, Bvershbow, Caknuck,
Ccacsmss, Centrx, Ceyockey, Chalmers Stanley, Chimaeridae, Chocolateboy, Chris Roy, ChrisDHDR, Chuunen Baka, CitizenB, Ckatz, Closedmouth, Cloudz679, Cogburnd02, Comraderick,
Coolcaesar, Correogsk, CrQAZ, Crossmr, Cubic Hour, Cubs Fan, Cwitty, Cynergistics, Cyrius, Cyy006, DGG, DStoykov, DVD R W, Damian Yerrick, Danakin, Dancanm, Danny lost,
Darkimmortal, Darrenhusted, Darth Panda, David Haslam, David Levy, Davidbspalding, Davidrothman, Dbvisel, Dcoetzee, Deltabeignet, Denisgomes, Deor, Discospinster, Dissident, Dittobook,
Domokoscats, Donbert, Download, Downloadebooksfree, Drakkenfyre, DreamGuy, Drew444, Duke1919, Dusoft, Dyousif, Dysprosia, E-doc-s, Ebcbiz, Ebk lg, Ebookarray, Ebookbillboard, Ed
g2s, Edmapa, Ef1659, Einker, El C, Elikser, Emj, Engr irfan80, Ericlark, EthicsGradient, Eveda, Evolutionbook, Excirial, Extraordinary, Fabartus, Fan-1967, Fang Aili, Fatcatpress, Feedmelit,
Feneric, Feraudyh, Ferengi, Find100, Firefem, Flameeyes, Flowanda, Following specific instructions whispered by a mysterious cat, Foobar, FourtySixNtwo, Fra 011 011, Francis Schonken,
Fredrik, Fredzz22, Freeebooks, Freeresellebooks, FreplySpang, Fureon, Gagangambhir, Galoubet, Garagebandjunky7, Garydauphin, Gdo01, George The Dragon, Gheesh, Ghewgill,
Ginsengbomb, Girl2k, Girlwithgreeneyes, Godzil, Gogo Dodo, Gogogo0, Gokhanege, Goldenrowley, Goodwrite, Gravitan, Green caterpillar, Griffic, Guajero, Gurch, Gwernol, H, HFuruseth,
Haakon, Hamidhamid1985, Hbackman, Hede2000, Heikja-1, HellDragon, Henry W. Schmitt, Hermione1980, Hgaber, Hielor, Hispalois, Hjebasingam, Hoof Hearted, Hooverbag, Hpfreak26,
Hu12, Husond, Ibagli, Ifyr, Imaglang, Imran, Inductiveload, Inferno, Lord of Penguins, Interarticle, Irishguy, Itai, Iupolisci, J.delanoy, JRSP, Jacek Kendysz, JamesBWatson, Jamesontai,
Jaysweet, Jburnette, Jeff wannamaker, Jeffandmisty, Jeremykemp, Jerome Charles Potts, Jersyko, JetLover, Jic, Jiddisch, Joan Rocaguinard, Joeclark, JohnTechnologist, Jonytrav, Josephprymak,
JoshSteveenson1980, Jpbowen, Jpgordon, Jsgriswold, Jtbright, JzG, Kablammo, Keilana, Kibiusa, Kinu, Klilikakis, KnowledgeOfSelf, Kozuch, Kungming2, Kuru, LGagnon, Lascoot, Laurenjf,
Lcw27, LeaveSleaves, Lexieluthor, Lgcebs, LibrarianB, Lijnema, LilHelpa, Linkspamremover, Listlist, Litevsky, Love Krittaya, Luna Santin, M barnette author, Majurac, MakeRocketGoNow,
Mandel, Map nil, MarcoTolo, Mark Richards, Mark126, Marktanner83, Marsbound2024, Mattabat, Mazurek, McGeddon, McSly, Mecandes, Meelar, Mel Etitis, Metalslug, Mfolkes, Mhking,
Mhuhl, Michinari, Mikaey, Mike.lifeguard, Mikebru, Mikebrux, Mikeshk, Mikiher, Mild Bill Hiccup, Mindmatrix, Minghong, Missdejoir, Misza13, Mjpotter, Mmmpotatoes, Mobilegeek,
Moonwatcher13, Mopicoreau, Morbusgravis, Mr. Lefty, MrOllie, Mrwojo, Mwanner, Mylifecoach, Myriad1900, N.j.hansen, Nabeth, Nakon, Nathan8225, NawlinWiki, Nbarth, Nealmcb, Nebeto,
Netfreak, Netgaze, Netgazed, Netrat, Nick, Nick UA, Nigelj, Nikai, Nixdorf, Noisy, Nopetro, Notinasnaid, Nsaa, Nurg, Ohnoitsjamie, Oicumayberight, Olgerd, Olybrius, One, Ooza,
Open2universe, Osprey3, OverlordQ, Oxymoron83, OzAnt, PVB-ENG, Pamplemousse, Patrick, Pegship, Pegua, Pepso2, Perspective, Pgdn963, Pgk, Pietjepuk, Pinaki ghosh, Pion, Piotrus,
Pmsyyz, Polluks, Poweroid, Ppp, Prostosheva, ProtezBacakliCekirge, Purple Koopa, Qasimirshad, Qeny, Quercus basaseachicensis, Quillaja, Quinnanya, Qxz, RHaworth, RJASE1, Rags015,
RainbowOfLight, Ral315, Ramya.arjun, Ratfox, Ratish1234, Ravedid, Rboatright, Rdenis, Rebeccat79, RedWolf, Reddi, Reedy, Remark47, Resurgent insurgent, Retired username, RexNL,
Ripepette, Riversidewriter, Robbycharters, Roncaglia, Ronz, Roorky, RoyBoy, Rronline, Rufous, Russframe, Ryulong, SF007, SJP, ST47, SWAdair, Saber girl08, SageEvans, Sak8, Sam
Hocevar, Sander Säde, Sandstein, Scarian, Scuv, Seowens, SeventyThree, Shadow1, Shahidsidd, Shoobeye, Shoreu, Shrish, Signalhead, Siliconov, Sion20, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington,
Sirana, Skippi, Smimrans, SmokeyTheCat, Sofkins, Sorafune, Soumyasch, Spartaz, Spasemunki, Srleffler, Ste.thebest88, Stephen Gilbert, Stephenb, Sticky keys, Stwalkerster, Suffusion of
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TheAlphaWolf, TheDoctor10, Theconceptbook, Themiamikid, Thomas Blomberg, Thumperward, Tide rolls, Tiffany amber66, Tobias Bergemann, Todayifeelhatred, Tom W.M., TomasBat, Tony
Sidaway, Tormondo, TreasuryTag, Trusilver, Turnstep, TwoOneTwo, Tyrfan, Ugaruer, Urhixidur, Urod, Vamshi 12345, Vasu99a, Veinor, Versageek, Vinodxx, Viridae, VirtualTales,
Wat3rm0le, Wattpad, Wayned, Wayp123, Wbakker2, Website Facts, Weregerbil, Weyes, WhyBeNormal, Wiki alf, WikianJim, Wikigirl0129, William M. Connolley, Willthispasswordwork,
Wimt, Wingman1331, Wmahan, Wolfcm, Wongmas214, Wuhwuzdat, Wwwwolf, Wytukaze, Xezbeth, Xiaoshuang, Xlation, Xomid, Y Dude, Yesdontstop, Yoda47, Yong54321, Yoric,
Zanzibarfiction, Zaphraud, Zfr, ZimZalaBim, Zoeb, Zoicon5, Zsinj, Zundark, Zzuuzz, ‫لیقع فشاک‬, आशीष भटनागर, √2, 1132 anonymous edits
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Alphachimp, Alves, Alynna Kasmira, Aninhumer, Bash, Bellow5j, Berimon, Betterusername, Billlund, Blumpalump, Boud, Brett k, Brinerustle, Bumm13, Can't sleep, clown will eat me,
Carolynlowe, Chowbok, Conversion script, Crohnie, DAJF, DHN, DabMachine, Dandan11, Danh, Davegriner, DavidCary, DavidWBrooks, DerHexer, Dicklyon, Digsdirt, Dina, Dispenser, Dmn,
Dmsar, Donemjr, Dr. Zaret, Edithn, Edithnuss, Editor at Large, Eerocks, Einker, Electron9, Eliyak, Epolk, Erud, Esprit15d, Estoy Aquí, EuTuga, Euchiasmus, Explicit, Fothergill Volkensniff IV,
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