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Waste Collection
A report
With support from
ISWA Working Group on Collection and
Transportation Technology
Written by Thomas Kogler
2007
KOGLER
Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1
INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
Waste generation ........................................................................................................3
Urbanisation ...............................................................................................................5
Waste management in the European Union ...............................................................7
Scope and research questions ...................................................................................10
2
TRADITIONAL WASTE COLLECTION SYSTEMS ...........................................13
2.1
2.1.1
2.1.1.1
2.1.1.2
2.1.1.3
2.1.1.4
2.1.1.5
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.1.3.1
2.1.3.1.1
2.1.3.1.2
2.1.3.1.3
2.1.3.1.4
2.1.3.1.5
2.1.3.2
2.1.3.3
2.1.3.3.1
2.1.3.3.2
2.1.4
2.2
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.2.1
2.2.3
2.2.3.1
2.2.3.2
2.2.3.3
2.2.4
2.2.4.1
2.2.4.1.1
2.2.4.1.2
2.2.4.2
2.2.4.2.1
2.2.4.2.2
Waste collection systems .........................................................................................13
Collection methods...................................................................................................15
Simple emptying ......................................................................................................15
Exchange method .....................................................................................................15
One-way method ......................................................................................................16
Non-systematic collection ........................................................................................16
Special collection .....................................................................................................16
Container systems ....................................................................................................17
Vehicles ....................................................................................................................19
Vehicles for simple emptying method .....................................................................19
Rear-loading trucks ..................................................................................................19
Side-loading trucks...................................................................................................21
Front-loading trucks .................................................................................................22
Vacuum collection vehicles .....................................................................................24
Multi-chamber trucks ...............................................................................................26
Container vehicles ....................................................................................................27
Special vehicles and latest inventions ......................................................................28
Vehicles with subdivided build-up...........................................................................29
Vehicles with subdivided driving cab ......................................................................30
Personnel ..................................................................................................................32
Household waste collection......................................................................................33
Separated collection of recyclables ..........................................................................37
Kerbside collection...................................................................................................39
General features........................................................................................................40
Drop-off systems ......................................................................................................42
General features........................................................................................................42
Drop-off sites............................................................................................................42
Drop-off recycling centres .......................................................................................44
Waste tarifs...............................................................................................................45
Traditional fee systems.............................................................................................45
Flat Fee Systems.......................................................................................................45
Container Tag Fee Systems......................................................................................45
Alternative fee systems ............................................................................................46
Individual billing systems ........................................................................................46
Coin systems ............................................................................................................49
I
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Table of Contents
2.2.4.2.3
2.2.4.3
2.3
2.3.1
2.3.2
2.3.3
2.3.4
2.3.5
2.3.5.1
2.3.5.2
Card Systems............................................................................................................49
Case study for individual billing system ..................................................................50
Developments in waste management .......................................................................51
Collection method ....................................................................................................52
Vehicles ....................................................................................................................52
Personnel ..................................................................................................................53
Route planning and supervision systems .................................................................53
Route planning .........................................................................................................53
Supervision systems .................................................................................................54
3
ALTERNATIVE WASTE COLLECTION SYSTEMS AND CONCEPTS ...........57
3.1
3.1.1
3.1.2
3.2
Deep Collection........................................................................................................60
Hydraulic underground compactors .........................................................................63
Vacuum suction systems ..........................................................................................64
4
THE AUTOMATED WASTE COLLECTION SYSTEM OF ENVAC .................65
4.1
4.2
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.2.3
4.2.4
4.2.4.1
4.2.5
4.2.6
4.2.7
4.3
4.3.1
4.3.2
4.3.3
4.3.3.1
4.3.3.2
4.3.3.3
4.3.4
General explanation of the system ...........................................................................65
Technical description ...............................................................................................65
Waste collection terminal.........................................................................................68
Waste transport pipes – Pipe network ......................................................................74
Waste discharge valves ............................................................................................75
Charging stations......................................................................................................76
Waste inlets ..............................................................................................................77
Air inlet valves .........................................................................................................79
Separated collection with vacuum collection systems .............................................80
Function....................................................................................................................81
Case studies ..............................................................................................................85
Denmark ...................................................................................................................86
Norway .....................................................................................................................86
Spain.........................................................................................................................87
Seville.......................................................................................................................87
Victoria-Gasteiz .......................................................................................................87
Mallorca ...................................................................................................................88
China ........................................................................................................................89
5
COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT WASTE COLLECTION SYSTEMS ...............90
5.1
5.2
5.2.1
5.2.2
5.2.3
5.2.3.1
5.2.3.2
Criteria for comparison ............................................................................................90
Quantifiable criteria..................................................................................................92
Costs .........................................................................................................................92
Traffic load ...............................................................................................................96
Noise.........................................................................................................................99
Traditional collection with rear loading trucks ......................................................100
Vacuum suction systems ........................................................................................100
II
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Table of Contents
5.2.3.3
5.2.4
5.3
5.3.1
5.3.2
5.4
Exkursus – Project SYLVIE ..................................................................................101
Safety for collection workers .................................................................................102
Non-quantifiable criteria ........................................................................................106
Hygiene ..................................................................................................................106
Unpleasant odour....................................................................................................109
Collection systems and trends in waste management ............................................112
6
CONCLUSIONS ....................................................................................................114
7
APPENDIX ............................................................................................................118
7.1
Summary of Västra Hammarby Sjöstad study: ......................................................118
8
REFERENCES.......................................................................................................119
III
KOGLER
List of Figures
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 1: Trend of municipal waste generation, GDP and private consumption
expenditure (PCE) in OECD countries
Fig. 2: Household waste volumes in European cities
Fig. 3: Urban population projections for 2020
Fig. 4: Containers in different sizes (120l, 240l and 1,100l)
Fig. 5: Rear-loading truck
Fig. 6: Side-loading truck
Fig. 7: Front-loading truck
Fig. 8: Schematic depiction of collection activity with vacuum collection vehicles
Fig. 9: Multi-chamber truck
Fig. 10: Container vehicles
Fig. 11: Collection vehicle with subdivided build-up
Fig. 12: Vehicle with subdivided driving cab
Fig. 13: Correlation of efficiency and costs in waste collection (adapted)
Fig. 14: Collection systems (adapted)
Fig. 15: Drop-off site in a Viennese neighbourhood, Vienna 1998
Fig. 16: Individual billing system
Fig. 17: Fleet consumption (24 vehicles) in the city of Hamburg (adapted)
Fig. 18: Innovative concepts: Attractiveness of markets
Fig. 19: Deep collection containers
Fig. 20: Cross section of a deep collection container
Fig. 21: Emptying of deep collection containers
Fig. 22: Hydraulic underground compactor in normal and emptying position
Fig. 23: Schematic depiction of the major components of an AWCS (adapted)
Fig. 24: Air exhausters in waste collection terminal
Fig. 25: Cyclone waste separator
Fig. 26: Containers in waste collection terminal
Fig. 27: Container ready for pick-up
Fig. 28: Waste collection terminal
Fig. 29: Schematic depiction of an out-door charging station
Fig. 30: Waste inlet (outdoor)
Fig. 31: Waste inlet with surrounding
Fig. 32: Waste inlet in the centre of the Spanish city Seville
Fig. 33: Indoor waste inlets
Fig. 34: Three way diverter valve in different positions
Fig. 35: Scheme of a suction system
Fig. 36: Product life cycle
Fig. 37: Waste inlets in the historic city centre of Victoria-Gasteiz
Fig. 38: Schematic depiction of transport occurring in kerbside and
vacuum suction systems
Fig. 39: Regional traffic load
Fig. 40: Methods for improved container handling
Fig. 41: Work related fatalities per 1000 gainfully employed men
Fig. 42: Work related accidents per 1000 gainfully employed men
Fig. 43: Comparison of collection systems regarding worker’s safety
IV
4
5
6
17
20
22
23
25
26
28
29
31
38
40
43
47
56
59
60
61
61
63
66
69
70
71
72
74
76
77
78
78
79
80
83
84
87
97
98
103
103
104
106
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List of Figures
Fig. 44: Comparison of hygiene in different waste collection systems
Fig. 45: Comparison of level of unpleasant odour occurring in different
waste collection systems
V
109
111
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List of Tables
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
1: Average price levels for collection vehicles
2: Investment costs for individual billing systems for 10,000 bins
3: Waste generation in “pay-per-kg” municipalities and reference municipalities
4: General information on the Stockholm region Hammarby Sjöstad
5: Comparison of total operating and capital costs for the region
Hammarby Sjöstad
Table 6: Comparison of operating- and investment costs per dwelling
Table 7: Comparison of costs per dwelling in Södra Station, Stockholm
Table 8: Traffic load in collection area
Table 9: Outdoor noise for the whole area of Hammarby Sjöstad –
Manual waste handling
Table 10: Outdoor noise for the whole area of Hammarby Sjöstad –
Vacuum suction system
Table 11: Collection systems and trends in waste management
VI
24
48
50
92
93
94
95
97
100
100
112
KOGLER
Terms and Definitions
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS (GLOSSARY)
Since the chosen topic deals with many terms and concepts it is of great importance to
define certain terms that are frequently used in the underlying thesis.
In both the English and the German language, there are many different words for the
things we throw away, e.g.: trash, waste, garbage, rubbish, refuse and so on. In order
to be able to discuss problems regarding waste scientifically it is of great importance
that these different terms, mentioned above, are clearly defined.1
Waste
Abfall
“Waste is unwanted or undesired material left over after the completion of a process.
‘Waste’ is a human concept: in natural processes there is no waste, only inert end
products. Waste can exist in any phase of matter (solid, liquid, or gas). When released
in the latter two states, gas especially, the wastes are referred to as emissions. It is
usually strongly linked with pollution.”2
Waste management
Abfallwirtschaft
“Waste management is the collection, transport, processing or disposal of waste
materials, usually those produced by human activity, in an effort to reduce their effect
on human health or local amenity. A sub focus in recent decades has been to reduce
waste materials' effect on the environment and to recover resources from them.”3
“Waste management encompasses the sum of all measures of waste avoidance, nonharmful treatment, recovery, reuse and final disposal of wastes of all types while
giving due consideration to ecological and economic aspects.”4
Solid waste management
Abfallwirtschaft
“Solid waste management may be defined as the discipline associated with the control
of generation, storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing and disposal of
solid wastes in a manner that is in accord with the best principles of public health,
economics, engineering, conservation, aesthetics and other environmental
considerations and that is also responsive to public attitudes.”5
1
2
3
4
5
BÖHMER, G.: Solid waste and the hierachy in solid waste management systems, Diplomarbeit an der
Wirtschaftsuniversität Wien, Wien 1995, p. 2
BIOCRAWLER: http://www.biocrawler.com/biowiki/Waste, 25.10.2005
WIKIPEDIA: http://www.wikipedia.org, 25.10.2005
BILITEWSKI, B., HÄRDTLE, G., MAREK, K.: Waste Management, Springer, Berlin 1997, p. 259
TCHOBANOGLOUS, G. et al.: Integrated solid waste management – Engineering principles and management issues,
MC Graw-Hill, New York et al. 1993, p. 7
VII
KOGLER
Solid waste services
Müllabfuhr
Solid waste services include the collection, transportation and disposal of solid waste.
In everyday language the less comprehensive term refuse collection is more common.6
“In a narrow sense, the German concept of ‘Müllabfuhr’ corresponds to refuse
collection and does not comprise the disposal of solid wastes, but since the collection
and transportation authorities are usually responsible for the disposal as well, the terms
‘Müllabfuhr’ and refuse collection can be interpreted as the overall services rendered
by the waste authorities or companies.”7
Waste collection systems
Sammelsysteme
A collection system is “defined as a combination of technology and human labour,
specially:
• Collection method
• Container system
• Vehicles and
• Personnel”8
Landfilling
Deponierung
Landfilling is the controlled disposal on or in the earth’s mantle and it includes
monitoring of the incoming waste stream, placement and compaction of the waste and
installation of environmental monitoring and control facilities.9
Municipal solid wastes
Kommunale Abfälle
Municipal solid waste “includes all the wastes generated from residential households
and apartment buildings, commercial and business establishments, institutional
facilities, construction and demolition activities, municipal services and treatment
plant sites”10
6
7
8
9
10
JENKINS, R.R.: The economics of solid waste reduction – The impact of user fees, Edward Elgar Publishing,
Hampshire 1993, p. 1
BÖHMER, G.: Solid waste and the hierachy in solid waste management systems, Diplomarbeit an der
Wirtschaftsuniversität Wien, Wien 1995, p. 105
VIII
KOGLER
Commercial solid wastes
Gewerbliche Abfälle
Commercial solid wastes are “wastes that originate in wholesale, retail, or service
establishments, such as office buildings, stores, markets, theatres, hotels and
warehouses, which are usually discarded with residential solid waste.”11
Industrial wastes
Industrielle Abfälle
Industrial wastes are “wastes generally discarded from industrial operations or derived
from manufacturing processes.”12
Recyclables
Altstoffe
Recyclable resources are “materials that still have useful physical or chemical
properties after serving a specific purpose and therefore can be re-used or recycled for
the same or other purposes.”13
Residual waste
Restmüll
Residual waste is mostly solid waste from private households not including bio-waste,
potential recyclable and household hazardous waste (HHW).
Organic waste
Biogener Abfall
Organic waste is the “biodegradable component of municipal waste (e.g. food and
garden waste).”14
Bulky waste
Sperrmüll
Bulky waste refers to “large worn-out or broken household, commercial and industrial
items such as furniture, lamps, bookcases, filing cabinets and other similar items”15
11
12
13
14
15
BILITEWSKI, B., HÄRDTLE, G., MAREK, K. .: Waste Management, Springer, Berlin 1997, p. 21
IX
KOGLER
Hazardous wastes and substances
gefährliche Abfälle
Hazardous wastes are “wastes that by their nature may pose a threat to human health
or the environment, the handling and disposal of which is regulated by federal law.
Hazardous wastes include radioactive substances, toxic chemical, biological wastes,
flammable wastes and explosives.”16
Waste Transportation
Mülltransport
The term transportation refers to the physical act of transporting the collected waste to
waste treatment facilities. These may be: recycling centres, incineration plants,
chemical or physical treatment facilities or both, landfill or other facilities such as
transfer stations.17
Kerbside collection
Holsystem
Kerbside collection is defined as collection of waste from the source, i.e. from
households, commercial and industrial premises.18
Drop-off system
Bringsystem
This term refers to the collection of waste from certain special collection centres and
sites. “In drop-off systems, accumulated recyclables are taken by the consumer (waste
producer) to a central location and placed into individually marked receptacles.”19
16
17
18
19
X
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1
Introduction
INTRODUCTION
Waste collection lies at the hub of an integrated waste management system. The way
that waste materials are collected (and subsequently sorted) determines which waste
management options can subsequently be used. Moreover, the selected collection
method will significantly influence the quality of recovered materials.20
“Collection of unseparated and separated solid waste in urban areas is difficult and
complex because the generation of residential and commercial industrial solid waste
takes place in every home, every apartment building and every commercial and
industrial facility as well as in the streets, parks and even vacant areas.”21
“Waste collection is also the contact point between the waste generators and the waste
management system and this relationship needs to be carefully managed in order to
have an effective system.”22
The collection-transfer-transportation of waste is often underestimated in terms of its
importance within waste management systems. “It does, after all, account for 60 to
80% of the total cost of waste disposal and thus any improvement in its organization
and implementation would result in considerable savings”.23 This stresses the
importance of new, innovative concepts in order to achieve cost savings in the
collection and transportation of waste.
“Waste collection in high density areas like big cities has become a more and more
challenging task for the local authorities.”24 The following trends, effecting waste
collection and transportation in urban areas can be observed:25
• “Increasing waste volumes every year
• Source separation of several fractions, due to an increase in recycling
• Increasing traffic volumes and congestion
• Increasing traffic related emissions of pollutants and noise
20
21
22
23
24
25
WHITE, P., et al.: Integrated solid waste management – A lifecycle inventory, Black Academic & Professional, Boston et
al. 1995, p. 87
WHITE, P., et al.: Integrated solid waste management – A lifecycle inventory, Black Academic & Professional, Boston et
al. 1995, p. 87 f
ÖJDEMARK Ch.: A modern concept for waste collection in cities, in: 13th European Water, Wastewater and Solid Waste
Symposium at IFAT Munich 2005, VKS Service GmbH (Ed.), p. 117
1
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Introduction
• Higher hygienic standards and lower noise levels
• Improved quality of life
• Improved working conditions for the collectors and operators”26
Although the importance of these trends vary in different countries, collection systems
of tomorrow will have to meet these requirements so as to contribute to a better living
environment in densely populated areas.27
The background of these trends and their effects on waste collection will be presented
in the following paragraphs.
Increasing waste volumes and source separation are trends directly influencing waste
collection systems. Since according to VOGEL, the objectives of waste collection
systems are waste removal with a minimum of resource use and environmental impact
with adherence to hygienic and health standards.28 It is clearly visible that increasing
waste volumes are challenging waste collection in a sense that the generated waste has
to be collected through suitable collection schemes.
Source separation is an accepted means of reducing residual waste. The
implementation in the member states of the European Union legislation and the setting
of targets strongly influenced waste collection activities.29
Increasing traffic volumes and congestion, increasing traffic related emissions of
pollutants and noise, higher hygienic standards and lower noise levels and finally
improved quality of life are issues strongly related to urbanisation processes.30
More details regarding these issues are provided in the following chapters.
26
27
28
29
30
VOGEL, G.: Abfallwirtschaft 3 – Bereitstellung und Sammlung von Abfällen, in: Skriptenreihe des Institutes für
Technologie und Warenwirtschaftslehre der Wirtschaftsuniversität Wien, VOGEL, G. (Hrsg.), Wien 1994, p. 28
PIEBER, M.: Waste collection from urban households – In Europe and Australia, in: Waste Management World, JulyAugust 2004, p. 123
COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL AND THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT: A Thematic
Strategy on the urban environment, Brussels Jan. 2006, p. 3
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/urban/pdf/com_2005_0718_en.pdf
2
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Introduction
1.1 Waste generation
“Waste generation in the EU is estimated at more than 1.3 billion tonnes per year and
is increasing at rates comparable to economic growth. For example, both GDP and
municipal waste grew by 19% between 1995 and 2003. One consequence of this
growth is that despite large increases in recycling, landfill - the environmentally most
problematic way to get rid of waste - is only reducing slowly.”31
The generation of construction and demolition waste and municipal waste are closely
linked to economic activity.32
Increasing waste volumes are not solely observed in the European Union. The direct
correlation of municipal waste generation, private consumption expenditure (PCE) and
GDP is also true for OECD countries.33
For the period 1980 to 1995, figure 1 “shows how the growth in municipal waste has
closely followed increases in GDP and consumer spending (the absolute increase of all
three factors has been around 40%). Total municipal waste production in 1995 was
485 million tonnes. On a per capita (relative) basis, the increase in municipal waste
from 1980-1995 has been 25%, that is, from 410 kilograms per capita to 510 kilograms
per capita.”34
31
32
33
34
COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN UNION: New waste strategy: Making Europe a recycling society,
Brussels Dec. 2005, p. 1
http://europa.eu.int/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/05/1673&format=HTML&aged=1&language=EN&guiLang
uage=en
EEA: Environment in the European Union at the turn of the century, Copenhagen 1999, p. 205
http://reports.eea.europa.eu/92-9157-202-0-sum/en/
OECD: Strategic waste prevention, OECD reference manual, Paris Aug. 2000, p. 26
http://www.olis.oecd.org/olis/2000doc.nsf/4f7adc214b91a685c12569fa005d0ee7/c12568d1006e03f7c125692e004f054a/$
FILE/00081387.PDF
http://www.olis.oecd.org/olis/2000doc.nsf/4f7adc214b91a685c12569fa005d0ee7/c12568d1006e03f7c125692e004f054a/$
FILE/00081387.PDF
3
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Introduction
Fig. 1:
Trend of municipal waste generation, GDP and private consumption expenditure
(PCE) in OECD countries
Source:
http://www.olis.oecd.org/olis/2000doc.nsf/4f7adc214b91a685c12569fa005d0ee7/c12568d1006e03f7c125692e004f0
54a/$FILE/00081387.PDF
As indicated in figure 1, “waste generation is still linked to economic activity,
meaning that, as Europe’s economy grows, the waste problem will grow with it.”35
The most important issue in this context is to de-link waste generation from economic
growth.36
Figure 2 shows the developments of household waste volumes in selected European
cities, stressing the importance of sufficient and sustainable waste management
strategies and waste collection systems.
Increased municipal waste generation affects collection systems in a sense that the
waste generated has to be “handled in an environmentally and economically
sustainable manner.”37 If more waste is generated, the interrelated elements of
collection systems such as removal intervals, number of containers etc. have to be
adapted accordingly.
35
36
37
EEA: http://themes.eea.eu.int/environmental_issues/waste/indicators, 25.10.2005
EEA: Environment in the European Union at the turn of the century, Copenhagen 1999, p. 205
WHITE, P. et al.: Integrated solid waste management – A lifecycle inventory, Blackie Academic and Professional, Glasgow
1994, p. 324
4
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Introduction
Fig. 2:
Household waste volumes in European cities
Source:
VOGEL, G.: Dynamic comparison of key figures in waste management, Presentation at the Viennese Waste
Management Conference, Vienna 2001, p. 3
“The unsustainable trends in waste generation […] are causes for concern because the
generation of waste can be a symptom of environmentally inefficient use of resources.
Furthermore, waste management generates emissions to air, water and soil as well as
noise and other nuisances which contribute to environmental problems and cause
economic costs.”38
1.2 Urbanisation
Additionally to the growing amounts of municipal waste within the European Union,
urbanisation processes are a problem as well. More than two thirds of Western
Europe’s population are living in congested urban areas with more than 300,000
inhabitants.39
38
39
COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN UNION: Taking sustainable use of resources forward: A thematic strategy on the
prevention and recycling of waste, communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the
European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, Brussels Dec. 2005, p. 3
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/com/2005/com2005_0666en01.pdf
WÜRZ, W.: Integrierte Logistiksysteme für die Stadtentsorgung, in: Müll-Handbuch, Kennzahl 2531, Lieferung 6, Erich
Schmidt Verlag, Berlin 1999, p. 3 f
5
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Introduction
Latest studies on urbanisation and environmental issues, published by the European
Environmental Agency (EEA) predict an increase in urban population as we can see in
figure 3.40
“It is forecast that 80% of Europeans will be living in urban areas by 2020 and in
seven countries the proportion will be 90% or more. The pressures of extensive urban
development (urban sprawl) are closely coupled with issues of transport and
consumption. Urban sprawl can also lead to economic segregation, seen in areas of
inner-city dereliction and extensive peripheral estates, with sub-standard housing.
Urban expansion can also place pressure on inner city and urban green areas, which
may be vulnerable to fragmentation and conversion unless adequately protected by
planning guidelines.”41
Fig. 3:
Urban population projections for 2020
Source:
EEA: EEA-Signals 2004 – A European Environment Agency update on selected issues, Copenhagen 2004, p. 7
http://reports.eea.europa.eu/signals-2004/en/ENSignals2004web.pdf
40
41
EEA: EEA-Signals 2004 – A European Environment Agency update on selected issues, Copenhagen 2004 p. 7
EEA: EEA-Signals 2004 – A European Environment Agency update on selected issues, Copenhagen 2004, p. 7
6
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Introduction
“Most cities are confronted with a common core set of environmental problems such
as poor air quality, high levels of traffic and congestion, high levels of ambient noise,
poor-quality built environment, derelict land, greenhouse gas emissions, urban sprawl,
generation of waste and waste-water.”42
In order to improve these developments mentioned above and to achieve a sustainable
urban development the European Union issued within the framework of the 6th
Environment Programme the ‘Thematic Strategy on Urban Development’. The
objectives and measures of the mentioned strategy will be presented in the next
chapter.
1.3 Waste management in the European Union
“In the last 30 years waste has been at the centre of EU environment policy […]”43
“EU environment legislation has helped improve the way we dispose waste of and
recycle specific waste streams, such as municipal waste, packaging, cars and electric
and electronic equipment.”44
“The legal framework […] includes horizontal legislation on waste management, e.g.
the Waste Framework Directive, the Hazardous Waste Directive, as well as the Waste
Shipment Regulation. These are complemented by more detailed legislation
concerning waste treatment and disposal operations, such as the Landfill and
Incineration Directives and legislation to regulate the management of specific waste
streams (waste oils, PCBs/PCTs and batteries). Recycling and recovery targets have
been set for some key waste flows, i.e. packaging (Packaging Directive), end-of-life
vehicles (ELVs) and waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE).”45
Some Directives strongly influenced waste collection and transportation. E.g. the
Packaging Directive, that “aims to harmonize national measures concerning the
management of packaging and packaging waste in order, on the one hand, to prevent
any impact thereof on the environment of all Member States as well as of third
countries or to reduce such impact, thus providing a high level of environmental
42
43
44
45
COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL AND THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT:: A Thematic
Strategy on the urban environment, Brussels Jan. 2006, p. 3
COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE EUROPEAN
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS: Taking sustainable use of
resources forward: A thematic strategy on the prevention and recycling of waste, Brussels Dec. 2005, p. 3
COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN UNION: New waste strategy: Making Europe a recycling society, Dec. 2005, p. 1
uage=en
7
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Introduction
protection and, on the other hand, to ensure the functioning of the internal market and
to avoid obstacles to trade and distortion and restriction of competition within the
Community.”46
“The Member States must introduce systems for the return and/or collection of used
packaging to attain the following targets no later than 31 December 2008:
• 60% as a minimum by weight of packaging waste will be recovered or
incinerated at waste incineration plants with energy recovery
• Between 55 and 80% by weight of packaging waste will be recycled
• The following recycling targets for materials contained in packaging waste must
be attained: 60% by weight for glass, 60% by weight for paper and board, 50%
by weight for metals, 22.5% by weight for plastics and 15% by weight for
wood.”47
Besides directives and decrees, there are other important instruments of the European
Union, dealing with environmental issues such as the so called Action Programs (as
already mentioned in chapter 1.2).
The latest one is the 6th Environment Action Programme48 which includes seven
‘Thematic Strategies’ presented by the EU Commission. Among these are two of
importance for waste collection.49
1) Thematic Strategy on Urban Development
2) Thematic Strategy on Prevention and Recycling of Waste
1) ‘The Thematic Strategy on Urban Development’
The goal of the strategy is “to improve the environmental performance and quality of
urban areas and to secure a healthy living environment for Europe’s urban citizens,
reinforcing the environmental contribution to sustainable urban development while
taking into account the related economic and social issues.“50
46
47
48
49
50
European Parliament and Council Directive 94/62/EC, on packaging and packaging waste, 20 December 1994, Article 1
SUMMARY WASTE PACKAGING DIRECTIVE: http://europa.eu.int/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/l21207.htm, 02.04.2006
The 6th Environment Action Programme, Decision No 1600/2002/EC by the European Parliament and the Council, July
2002, http://ec.europa.eu/environment/newprg/index.htm
COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL,THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE EUROPEAN
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS: Towards a thematic strategy on the
urban environment, Brussels Feb. 2004, p. 4
8
KOGLER
Introduction
“In order to fulfil the mandate set out in the 6th Environmental Action Programme, the
Thematic Strategy for the Urban Environment will focus on four cross-cutting themes
which are essential to the long-term sustainability of towns and cities, which have
clear connections to the economic and social pillars of sustainable development and
where the most significant progress can be achieved.”51
The four major themes are sustainable:52
• Urban management
• Urban transport
• Construction
• Urban design
To what extent several collection systems are able to contribute to the objectives
outlined by the strategy on urban development will be one of the scopes investigated in
this underlying thesis.
51
52
9
KOGLER
Introduction
2) ‘The Thematic Strategy on Prevention and Recycling of Waste’
“This strategy sets objectives and outlines the means by which the EU can move
towards improved waste management.”53
The following measures are proposed by the strategy:
• “Focussing on waste policy on improving the way we use resources
• Mandatory national waste prevention programmes, which take account of the
variety of national, regional and local conditions, to be finalised three years after
the entry into force of the directive
• Improving the recycling market by setting environmental standards that specify
under which conditions certain recycled wastes are no longer considered waste
• Simplifying waste legislation by clarifying definitions, streamlining provisions
and integrating the directives on hazardous waste and on waste oils […].”54
The impact of this strategy on waste collection and transportation are clearly visible.
These aims, mentioned above, can only be met by the members of the European Union
through clearly defined legal guidelines, i.e. through issuing regulations and decrees.
This on the other hand indirectly affects waste collection and transportation as well
since changes in legislation such as the already mentioned Packaging Directive can
strongly influence the organisation of waste collection and transportation.55
Concluding, as discussed in the latter chapters, there are current trends and problems
directly influencing waste collection and transportation such as growing municipal
waste volume, urbanisation processes and legislation at European and national level.
1.4 Scope and research questions
The aim of the underlying thesis is to depict traditional and alternative waste collection
systems in industrialized countries56 and further to compare them by means of different
criteria. Moreover the author wants to give a general overview of latest trends in
53
54
55
56
COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN UNION: New waste strategy: Making Europe a recycling society, Brussels Dec.
2005, p. 2
uage=en
lecture notes by the author from KERI, CH.: Abfallwirtschaft im internat. Kontext unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des
Managements gefährlicher Abfälle, Lehrveranstaltung WU-Wien im SS 2006
especially Western Europe
10
KOGLER
Introduction
Municipal Solid Waste Collection (MSW) and transportation especially in urban areas.
Special focus will be put on the Automated Waste Collection System (AWCS)
developed by the Swedish company ENVAC. Other important facts to be investigated
are how these different solutions and concepts are suitable for meeting current
demands and trends in modern waste management and logistics. As well as how these
alternative waste collection systems can be implemented in urbanisation processes.
The following questions are of interest:
• Are there new, innovative concepts in waste collection and transportation that
are able to replace ‘traditional’ collection systems?
• Which waste collection system is more efficient according to costs, collection
quota, worker safety etc.?
• Can waste collection still be rationalized? And if, how?
• To which extent are waste collection systems able to meet current trends57 in
waste management?
In chapter one current trends affecting MSW collection in European countries
particularly growing waste volumes and urbanisation processes and their impacts on
waste collection are discussed. Moreover, waste management in the European Union is
presented and the importance of waste collection and transportation activities is
highlighted.
Chapter two mainly deals with traditional collection systems and waste transportation.
Important concepts are introduced and defined. Moreover, different collection vehicles
and containers are presented and discussed. After a brief explanation of household
collection and the differences between kerbside and drop-off systems, the different
fractions collected are discussed. The last part of the chapter deals with latest
developments in waste logistics and rationalisation possibilities.
The third chapter’s scope is to present alternative waste collection systems. After the
definition of alternative systems and concepts, market outlooks for this sector are
provided. In the course of the chapter, especially deep collection and underground
compactors are specifically presented and discussed.
The scope of chapter four is to explain the Automated Waste Collection System
(AWCS) developed and constructed by the Swedish company ENVAC. Furthermore,
the author will provide full technical explanation of the system and discuss pros and
cons. Moreover function, the emptying cycle and the possibility of the separated
collection of recyclables are described. Finally, some case studies are presented in
57
regarding the trends presented on page 1
11
KOGLER
Introduction
order to provide the reader with possible applications. The information presented in
this chapter will be used in chapter five, where traditional and alternative waste
collection systems are compared.
As already mentioned above, chapter five deals with the comparison of the presented
waste collection systems and concepts by means of different characteristics. These
criteria will be divided into two main groups, presented below:
a) Quantifiable criteria:
• Noise
• Costs
• Traffic load
• Safety for workers
b) Non quantifiable criteria:
• Unpleasant odour
• Hygiene
Finally, in chapter six all the information and results will be discussed and analysed.
12
KOGLER
2
2. Traditional waste collection systems
TRADITIONAL WASTE COLLECTION SYSTEMS
2.1 Waste collection systems
“Waste collection systems are part of a waste management strategy.”58 There are
different waste collection systems that are used in order to arrange transport and
separated collection of waste efficiently. According to the existing literature dealing
with waste collection and transportation there are different ways of distinguishing and
categorising collection systems.
One way of describing and categorising waste collection systems is the following
approach by BILITEWSKI et al. “Any kind of collection system is defined as a
combination of technology and human labour such as:
• Vehicles
• Personnel”59
In a community different waste sources occur (industry, households and commercial
establishments). It is impossible to collect all the different wastes generated with only
one system. In order to meet local needs and requirements a variety of collection
systems is used. It is of great importance to evaluate the community’s needs and then
to select the appropriate combination of waste collection systems.60
The selection of an appropriate collection system depends on the following
characteristics:
• “Waste composition
• Existing collection system
• Existing waste preparation and disposal system
• Willingness of the population to cooperate and pay
• Processing opportunities
58
59
60
SALHOFER, St.: Kommunale Entsorgungslogistik – Planung, Gestaltung und Bewertung entsorgungslogistischer Systeme
für kommunale Abfälle, Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlin 2001, p. 103
13
KOGLER
• Marketing opportunities”61
The following requirements have to be met by any collection system: 62
• High quality of collected material
• High collection quota
• Convenience
“Practical experience, as well as surveys, suggest that when people are comfortable
with the collection system they are more motivated to participate, which in turn leads
to better collection results.”63
LECHNER identifies the following important prerequisites regarding waste collection
systems: 64
• Distance to the drop-off centres
• The system has to be simple and thus easy to understand otherwise the
participation will be low
• The handling of the containers has to be easy
• Avoidance of malodour and vermin
• Design (colours, arrangement of containers…)
Finally, no matter which system is applied, “the overall objectives are: safe removal,
adherence to health standards, meeting public and private needs and efficiency.”65
The next chapter will chronologically discuss the four major components of a
collection system (as defined by BILITEWSKI et al.).
61
62
63
64
65
LECHNER, P.: Kommunale Abfallentsorgung, Facultas Verlags- und Buchhandels AG, Wien 2004, p. 302
14
KOGLER
2.1.1 Collection methods
According to BILITEWSKI et al. there are five different types of collection methods:
• “Simple emptying
• Exchange system
• One-way system
• Non-systematic collection
• Special collection systems”66
“Each collection method has compatible or dedicated container systems and vehicles
with appropriate loaders.”67
2.1.1.1 Simple emptying
The simple emptying collection method is mainly used for waste from residential areas
and small-scale commercial waste. In this case, there are certain different kinds of
containers that are emptied mechanically into a specific collection vehicle. When the
emptying process is over, the container is put back on its original position. This
method can be used in both, kerbside and drop-off collection systems.68
The simple emptying method is by far the dominating collection method for MSW and
waste from non producing companies.69
2.1.1.2 Exchange method
The exchange method is mostly used for “high density waste such as construction
debris and sludge, as well as for low-density waste from facilities that generate large
quantities of waste.”70 Examples are manufacturing plants, hotels, offices, institutions
and so on. The difference to the simple emptying method is that the containers, used
for waste collection, are not emptied into a collection truck. As the name implies, the
containers are simply exchanged with empty ones. This method requires different
kinds of vehicles, according to the containers used for collection. 71
66
67
68
69
70
71
BILITEWSKI, B., HÄRDTLE, G., MAREK, K.: Waste Management, Springer, Berlin 1997, p. 65 f
WÜRZ, W.: Verfahrenstechnik, Konzeptionen und Organisation der Entsorgungslogistik, in: Müll-Handbuch, Kennzahl
2070, Lieferung 3, Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlin 2005, p. 3
15
KOGLER
These vehicles will be presented in chapter 2.1.3.
2.1.1.3 One-way method
The third collection method, the one-way method uses bags that are only in use for one
collection cycle. These containers are mostly made of plastic or sometimes paper. The
advantage of this method is that the bags do not have to be returned and cleaned by the
collection staff. The disadvantages are for instance that the collection staff has to carry
and lift (sometimes over stairs) the bags from the facilities to the collection vehicle,
which means higher physical demands and moreover the volume is limited.72
Furthermore, it can not be in the interest of sustainable waste management to be seen
to add to the waste arising. “There is roughly a 3% increase in waste volume caused by
the bag material alone.”73 Under special circumstances, e.g. in hospitals, it is of great
importance, due to hygiene, that certain kinds of waste are collected in one-way safety
containers but long term use in residential areas is highly questionable.74
2.1.1.4 Non-systematic collection
“The non-systematic collection method is used for collecting bulky waste of various
shapes and sizes. In order for collection crews to easily load bulky waste onto their
trucks, it must be set out by the kerb, either in containers or as is.”75
2.1.1.5 Special collection
Special collection methods are according to BILITEWSKI et al. are vacuum extraction
and hydraulic flushing methods. The method of vacuum extraction will be presented in
detail in chapter 4. The hydraulic flushing method was introduced in the late 1960’s in
Switzerland and the United States. The idea behind this system is to flush kitchen
waste (bio-waste) with tap water into the sewage system. “The volume of wastewater
is not significantly increased by garbage disposal, but a greater physical and biological
demand is placed on the sewage treatment plant due to an increase in solid waste
mass.”76
72
73
74
75
76
16
KOGLER
“This system has not gained wide acceptance in Europe. This may in part be due to the
widespread knowledge that compost makes a good fertilizer and washing it down the
drain is a waste of a resource.”77
For this reason this concept will not be presented in detail.
2.1.2 Container systems
Containers play an important role within waste management and waste collection
systems. They operate as receptacles for the waste generated and ensure efficient and
mechanised waste collection.78 “The decision to set up a particular container system
influences linked elements in the process chain of waste management, for instance the
design of lifting devices and trucks has to be planned accordingly.”79
“Containers are mostly used for the collection of residual waste and organic waste, for
full service and ‘normal’ kerbside collection respectively and for recyclables (paper,
glass, metal, plastic) with ‘normal’ kerbside and ‘bring’ system collection.”80
As indicated in figure 4, there are many different standardised containers in use which
vary in size (from 120 to 1,100 litres) and shape.81
Fig. 4:
Containers in different sizes (120l, 240l and 1,100l)
Source:
Community of Harsewinkel: http://www2.harsewinkel.de, 29.03.2006
77
78
79
80
81
BACH, H.: Quantitative Abfallanalytik, in: Skriptenreihe des Institutes für Technologie und Warenwirtschaftslehre der
Wirtschaftsuniversität, Wien 2003, p. 21
17
KOGLER
In the 1970s plastic containers with capacities of 120, 240 and occasionally 360 litres
were developed. These containers are mostly used in households with separate
collection of waste and recyclables.82
The 1,100 litre containers are used in locations where large quantities of waste are
generated, such as businesses, multi-family dwellings, markets etc. The container is
usually made of sheet metal and equipped with four wheels, thus enabling better
handling for the collection crew.83
As far as worker’s safety is concerned, it has to be noted that wheeled bins are
preferred in collection systems. These bins are easier to handle for the collection crews
and lead to fewer injuries. In order to secure safe packaging and transportation of
household wastes it is preferable that bins are used instead of sacks.84
In conclusion, the following advantages and disadvantages for container collection of
waste can be noted.
Advantages:
• “High collection performance
• Standardised system
• Enhanced hygiene (i.e. no loose waste on the street, less dust)
• Improved worker safety
• Many types and sizes of containers available
• Accepted basis for a collection fee system (clearly understandable for
citizens)”85
Disadvantages:
• “Investment in containers necessary
• Investment in special purpose vehicles necessary
• Container and special trucks need maintenance
82
83
84
85
ISWA-WGCTT: Position paper on questions to consider regarding the working conditions of waste collectors, when
planning collection schemes, not published, July 2005, p. 1
ISWA= International Waste Association, WGCTT= Working Group on Collection and Transportation Technologies
18
KOGLER
• Workers need special training”86
Another important issue in connection with container systems is the question of
removal intervals. It is of great importance to coordinate and plan emptying cycles for
different fractions within collection systems. More information on removal intervals
will be provided in chapter 2.2.
Strongly linked to containers are collection vehicles that will be discussed in the next
chapter.
2.1.3 Vehicles
Vehicles have always played an essential part in waste management in the 20th
century87. It is nearly impossible to imagine waste collection without collection
vehicles. There is a large variety of different collection vehicles that are used in all
kinds of waste collection activities, depending on the size of the city or region and the
type of settlement.88
“For cost-saving reasons, new collection truck technologies have been developed over
the last few years.”89 This chapter tries to give a concise overview of all kinds of
collection vehicles used in waste management. In the following chapters waste trucks
are subdivided into three groups:
• Vehicles for simple emptying method
• Container vehicles
• Special vehicles
2.1.3.1 Vehicles for simple emptying method
2.1.3.1.1 Rear-loading trucks
Rear-loading trucks pick up containers with a pneumatic or hydraulic lift-and-tilt
device from the rear and empty them into the vehicle (see figure 5). Since new
86
87
88
89
WÜRZ, W.: 100 Jahre Entwicklung der Sammlung und des Transportes kommunaler Abfälle, in: Müll-Handbuch, Kennzahl
2101, Lieferung 1, Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlin 2004, p. 10 f
GENTER, CH.: Innovative waste management products – European market survey, in: Technology review 147,
Helsinki 2003, p. 18
19
KOGLER
containers in different sizes have been developed in the last few years, various kinds of
chutes have had to be installed on the vehicles.90
These vehicles are mainly used for collecting household waste, household-like
commercial waste and bulky waste. Rear-loading trucks “either have rotary drums or
enclosed cargo compartments with various self-contained compactors.”91
Fig. 5:
Rear-loading truck
Source:
PIEBER, M., IFAT Munich, April 2005
The rear-loading vehicle has been in use for many years and is still the most common
collection vehicle in municipal solid waste collection in urban areas. Due to narrow
streets and the limited space for the collection process, side and front loading vehicles
can not work efficiently in urban areas.92
Advantages:
• “Suitable for narrow inner city areas
• Not much operational space required
• Loose material can also be collected”93
90
91
92
93
20
KOGLER
Disadvantages:
• High labour costs because at least 2 (sometimes up to 5) workers are needed to
collect and empty the waste containers (see chapter 2.1.4)94
• Multiple collection runs due to the fact that rear-loading trucks only have one
container or chamber that is fixed and can not be changed. This is time
consuming and also more expensive95
• Worker safety concerns (see chapter 5.2.4) since workers have to work on the
street and workers have to manoeuvre the heavy waste containers96
2.1.3.1.2 Side-loading trucks
Over the last few years, new collection vehicles were developed and built in order to
improve waste collection and transportation. One of the most promising vehicles is the
so called side-loading truck that enables waste collection (emptying of bins) with no
additional personnel. This works because the emptying process is operated from the
side of the vehicle with adjustable lifting and shaking devices. The driver uses a
joystick to steer the discharging arm, which can be adjusted up to 3 metres crossways
and up to 1.5 meters along the vehicle. This enables the driver to empty containers that
are lined up along a street.97
Figure 6 shows a side-loading truck in the middle of the emptying process. Sideloading trucks are mainly in use in suburban and rural areas where there is enough
space for the truck to empty the bins and where the driver is not hampered by too
many parked cars, which would make the collection process impossible.98
Latest technologies aim at a fully automated collection process where a camera system
replaces the joystick steering. The system works with the help of ‘code stickers’ that
help to identify the position of the container. The driver’s job is to stop the vehicle
alongside the container. The arm grabs the container, empties it and puts it back
automatically.99
94
95
96
97
98
99
WÜRZ, W.: Rationalisierung bei Sammlung und Transport von Abfällen, in: Müll-Handbuch, Kennzahl 2530, Lieferung 6,
Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlin 1999, p. 3
21
KOGLER
Another interesting project in this context is a side loading truck with a sub-divided
driving cab that will be discussed in chapter 3.2.1.1.
Fig. 6:
Side-loading truck
Source:
www.rollinsmachinery.ca, 28.10.2005
Pros and cons of side-loading trucks are presented in the next chapter since they are
identical with those of front-loading trucks.
2.1.3.1.3 Front-loading trucks
Another new solution for the collection and transportation of waste is the so called
front-loading truck that provides several advantages for the collection process. Figure
10 illustrates a front-loading truck that is lifting a special container. The collection
process is less sophisticated and cheaper because no additional workforce are needed.
The driver is the one that empties the container and then puts it back in its original
place. Due to certain disadvantages (to be listed below) and according to major waste
service companies, front-loading trucks are not used for municipal solid waste, only
for industrial and specific commercial waste.100
100
22
KOGLER
Fig. 7:
Front-loading truck
Source:
www.etg-entsorgung.de, 03.11. 2005
For both, front- and side-loading trucks, the following pros and cons can be noted.
Advantages:
• “Only one driver necessary
• No strenuous container handling
• Full worker safety (worker does not leave the driver’s cab)
• Flexible through exchangeable containers (body-swap)”101
Disadvantages:
• “Not applicable in narrow inner city street areas
• Collaboration of citizens necessary
• Container evacuation can be time-consuming (if more than one attempt to lift
the container is needed)
• Loose material can not be collected
• Requires adequate operational space”102
101
102
23
KOGLER
In conclusion one can say that side- and front-loading trucks reduce costs compared to
conventional rear-loading trucks because only one person is needed to empty the bins.
But, on the other hand the investment costs for side- and front-loading trucks are much
higher than those of a rear-loading truck, see table 1.103
Type of truck
Investment cost
Side-loading truck
220,000 EUR
Front-loading truck
Rear-loading truck
180,000 EUR
140,000 EUR
Table 1: Average price levels for collection vehicles
Source:
Moreover, the use of side- and front-loading trucks is limited, because as already
mentioned, there are problems especially in cities where parked cars block the
collection process. That leads to the assumption that rear-loading trucks will not be
completely replaced by side- and front-loading trucks.104
The current market share of side-loading trucks in Europe amounts to 12% in terms of
vehicles. According to the study on “Innovative waste management products”, the
market share of side-loading trucks will continue to grow over the next few years since
many waste management/disposal contractors are substituting old rear-loading trucks
with side-loading ones (existing market volume of 700 trucks per year). 105
2.1.3.1.4 Vacuum collection vehicles
With vacuum collection vehicles, waste is collected by suction from a plurality of
tanks installed at the bottom of gravity chutes of a housing complex, or at the bottom
of post type intakes installed on the ground.106
As illustrated in figure 12, waste is deposited through gravity chutes, installed in
buildings or special waste inlets. The size of the storage tanks varies between 1 and
2m3. A docking station is provided at each inlet or along the waste pipeline joining a
103
104
105
106
DATABASE ON JAPANESE ADVANCED ENVIRONMENTAL EQUIPMENT: http://www.gec.jp/JSIM_DATA/index.html,
21.03.2006
24
KOGLER
plurality of storage tanks. After setting the inside of each storage tank at a negative
pressure, a secondary air valve is opened, so that the waste may be brought from the
tanks to the tank side of the suction vehicle. After accomplishing the suction work, a
suction operation from the next storage tank begins, with the outlet gate closed.107
Fig. 8:
Schematic depiction of collection activity with vacuum collection vehicles
Source:
http://www.aarhuskommune.dk/portal/borger/affald/midtbyaffald/loesninger/mobilsug, 21.03.2006
Advantages:
• “This system minimizes the workers’ labour burden and improves the work
environment by preventing lumbago, etc.
• The driver of the vacuum truck manages the entire emptying process by
connecting to the docking point
• Since waste from several places is collected at a docking station in one
location, the waste collecting work can be performed from a road side, without
the suction vehicle requiring access to the residence areas, so that a safe and
comfortable environment may be maintained”108
Disadvantages:
• Higher investment costs compared to rear-loading trucks
• Higher costs for installation of docking stations and tanks
More information regarding the different fields of appliance and implementation in
collection systems are provided in chapter 3.1.2.
107
108
21.03.2006
21.03.2006
25
KOGLER
2.1.3.1.5 Multi-chamber trucks
Multi-chamber trucks have been developed in order to enable simultaneous collection
of different fractions. This offers cost reduction because of the reduced number of
collection runs.109
The description multi-chamber truck derives from the horizontally or vertically
divided chambers. This allows the collection of more than one fraction with one
collection run and is especially interesting for municipal solid waste since the number
of collection runs can be reduced and thus cost savings can be achieved. These trucks
are operated as rear-loaders or side-loaders.110
An example of a multi-chamber truck with a hydraulic lift and tilt device is depicted in
figure 9. This vehicle was constructed in cooperation between VOGEL and the
Austrian company ‘MUT Maschinen und Transportanlagen’. It was patented111 in 1978
and especially designed for the simultaneous collection of bulk articles and waste. The
underlying collection vehicle had been in use in Vienna for the collection of glass and
stained glass and led to very satisfactory results in the collection process.112
Fig. 9:
Multi-chamber truck
Source:
VOGEL, Vienna 2003
109
110
111
112
WÜRZ, W.: Ein Blick zurück und einer in die Zukunft, in: Müll-Handbuch, Kennzahl 2010, Lieferung 5, Erich Schmidt
Verlag, Berlin 2004, p. 9
BROSOWiTSCH, J. und VOGEL, G.: Patent AT 357106 B: Fahrzeug zum Transport von Massengütern, insbesondere
Müll, Wien 1980
26
KOGLER
Advantages:113
• Cost savings due to reduced collection costs resulting from reduced number of
collection runs
Disadvantages: 114
• Problems are caused if the vertically divided chambers are not equally filled
with waste due to differences in the specific weight of the waste fractions
• As a consequence, since the filling degree of the chambers can not be predicted
precisely the truck has to stop the collection turn if one chamber is full even
though there is still enough space within the other chamber
Due to the several disadvantages mentioned above, multi-chamber trucks do not have
any future in the MSW collection business according to leading waste management
service companies.115, 116
2.1.3.2 Container vehicles
Vehicles used for exchanging methods (swapping containers) or so called container
vehicles can be catagorised by the way the container is loaded or unloaded:117
• Hook and lift vehicles
• Roll off vehicles
• Lift off vehicles
• Dump vehicles
“The loading and unloading of boxes, large containers and bins is accomplished by
internal lift- and set-down systems, roll-off systems with hook receptors and slide-off
systems with winches.”118 Different kinds of container vehicles are presented in
figure 10 below.
113
114
115
116
117
118
GENTER, CH.: Innovative waste management products – European market survey, in: Technology review 147, Helsinki
2003, p. 19
2003, p. 19
2003, p. 19
27
KOGLER
Fig. 10: Container vehicles
Source:
The vehicles presented in this chapter are mainly for collection of construction and
demolition wastes and commercial wastes. However, these vehicles are also used for
long distance transport of waste from transfer stations to waste treatment facilities.119
Since the use of these vehicles for household collection is quite limited, they will not
be discussed in detail.
2.1.3.3 Special vehicles and latest inventions
Vehicles within this section can be used for both collection methods. Collection
vehicles with so called swap bodies are used mainly for exchanging containers, but
there are also vehicles that can be used for simple emptying. There are plenty of
combinations on the market; there are for example side-loading trucks and frontloading trucks that can change their build up. In recent years there have been several
changes in the structures of waste collection and transportation. Since in most
European countries the collection of recyclables in separate containers is obligatory,
the collection systems and especially transportation had to be re-thought in order to
arrange waste collection efficiently. This new situation led to the development of new
collection vehicles such as the side-loader and the front- loader (see chapters 2.2.3.1.2
and 2.2.3.1.3).120
119
120
WEHKING, K.H. et al.: Innovative Fahrzeugkonzepte für die Entsorgungswirtschaft,
in: Müll und Abfall, 36 (2004) 12, p. 602
28
KOGLER
This chapter will deal with the latest concepts in this area and discuss advantages and
disadvantages of these new collection vehicles.
2.1.3.3.1 Vehicles with subdivided build-up
The idea behind this vehicle is the combined transportation of solid waste (e.g.
residual waste) and individual goods (unit loads). This is possible through the
separation of the build-up into two parts. As illustrated in figure 11, the build-up
consists of two different, non interrelated parts for waste collection. The vehicle was
specially designed for small and medium sized business enterprises, where two
different collection vehicles often had to be used in order to arrange the collection of
solid waste and individual goods.121
Fig. 11: Collection vehicle with subdivided build-up
Source:
In the front space individual goods such as batteries, fluorescent tubes, Styrofoam etc.,
can be stored. The back space is more or less a simple body for waste such as residual
waste. The loading of the piece good compartment works from the side with hydraulic
platforms that can lift up to 1500 kilograms. This part of the vehicle consists of 8
storing positions that are not fixed in height and breadth, i.e. the interior space can,
depending on the goods transported, be adapted individually.122
121
122
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The following advantages can be achieved through this new collection vehicle:123
• Combined transport of MSW and individual goods whereas with other vehicles
there have to be two independent transport vehicles
• Cost reduction through lower transportation and personnel costs
• Less traffic and pollution through reduced number of collection runs
Furthermore, there are also safety installations such as a safety railing that protects the
loading personnel. The vehicle has a length of about 11 meters and has a maximum
payload of approximately 9.5 tons. In September 2004 the first prototype of this
special collection vehicle was finished. The first test runs were very satisfactory
according to the developers and they hope that this recently designed collection
vehicle will soon play an important role in combined waste collection.124
2.1.3.3.2 Vehicles with subdivided driving cab
Another new development in waste transportation and collection is the new concept
which is depicted in figure 12. The idea behind this new side-loading truck is that the
space, usually occupied for the second person inside the driving cab, is actually “a
waste of space”. Exactly this gained space is used in order to install a loading area
with a volume of 560 litres. The emptying process works like a normal side-loading
truck with the difference that the emptying process is easier, more concise and thus
results in better handling of the containers. Furthermore, the driver does not have to
twist his upper body in order to empty the containers like in the case of conventional
side-loading trucks.125
123
124
125
30
KOGLER
Fig. 12: Vehicle with subdivided driving cab
Source:
Additionally, the vehicle is equipped with a hook lift that means that the underlying
collection truck operates as a ‘swap body truck’ combined with a hook lifter. This has
certain advantages for the municipal collection of waste. So it is possible for the
vehicle to drag its own swap-body. The collection truck can leave the empty swapbody somewhere in the collection area and fill its container. When the container is full
it can drive back to the place where it dropped the empty container off, exchange it
and continue the collection process. At the end of the collection run it transports both
full containers to a collection centre or a final waste treatment facility. Thus, the two
processes of waste collection and the transport are separated.126
All these enumerated additional features of this vehicle have certain advantages:127
• Better working conditions for the driver
• Less collection runs
• Less traffic and pollution
• Separation of transport and collection
This vehicle has not yet been produced, but negotiations are continuing with certain
companies that are interested in this promising concept.128
126
127
128
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KOGLER
The innovative vehicle concepts discussed above are promising ways of improving
collection of waste in certain ways. On the one hand the presented vehicles can reduce
collection costs and avoid additional traffic. On the other hand, if applied by waste
collection enterprises it can lead to new and more efficient ways and process chains in
transportation and collection of waste.129
Although, these methods help to improve waste collection and transportation it should
be noted that in the opinion of the author gas is combusted and traffic is produced in
order to fulfil collection activities. Likewise vehicles of this type lead to a loss of jobs
in the collection business.
2.1.4 Personnel
In order to operate collection systems efficiently it is necessary to have loading
personnel that empty the waste bins, especially for non-systematic, one way and
exchange method (if a rear-loading truck is used). The number of loaders per vehicle
depends on many factors such as the size and different types of containers used,
containers per kilometre and the collection system applied.130
For example “in Vienna, the common collection vehicle is a rear loader with a team of
two, three or five workers.”131 Five workers are sometimes necessary in inner city
districts where the containers have to be lifted over steps.
The collection with a five-worker team works as follows: 132
• Two workers move in front of the vehicle and get the containers out of the
buildings onto the pavements
• One worker is riding the vehicle and empties the containers
• The other two workers are behind the vehicle and return the waste containers to
the houses
More information regarding shift systems and worker safety are provided in the
chapters 2.4.4 and 5.4.4.
129
130
131
132
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KOGLER
2.2 Household waste collection
Household waste collection plays an important role in municipal solid waste
collection. “Waste collection is also the contact point between the waste generators (in
this case households) and the waste management system and this relationship needs to
be carefully managed to have an effective system. This householder-waste-collector
link needs to be a customer-supplier relationship (in the total quality sense). The
householder needs to have his/her solid waste collected with a minimum of
inconvenience, whilst the collector needs to receive the waste in a form compatible
with planned treatment methods.”133
When organising waste collection, the following organisational aspects have to be
considered:134
• How can collection runs be planned?
In general, route selection is based on experience but latest developments in
computer-based planning hold potential in cost and time reduction.135
Latest developments regarding route planning are presented in chapter 2.4.5.1
• According to which criteria are collection runs arranged?136
The following criteria can be used:
-
Number of containers
Waste volume
Container volume etc.
Moreover, measured data, which have to be gathered in the target area such as
-
Journey time from the repository to the collection area
Collection time
Duration of breaks etc. are important as well.
Together with the criteria mentioned above, these measured data provide a
good basis for route planning.
133
134
135
136
WHITE, P. et al.: Integrated solid waste management – A lifecycle inventory, Black Academic & Professional, Boston et al.
1995, p. 87 f
33
KOGLER
• How is the collection of different fractions organised?137
If the various fractions are pre-sorted by the waste generator the following
options occur:
-
Additive collection – different fractions are collected separately
and independently (with different trucks)
-
Alternating collection – different fractions that are collected in
different collection routes with the same vehicle
-
Integrated collection - collection of different fractions with one
vehicle within one collection run (see chapter 2.2.3.1.4 Multi
chamber trucks)
• Which types and sizes of containers are emptied during a collection tour?138
• How is container handling arranged?139
- Who of the collection crew is responsible for which part of the
collection process (especially in full service)?
- How are the containers taken out of the buildings?
- Does the driver help to empty the waste bins? etc.
After dealing with the organisational questions discussed above, the following
logistical questions have to be considered as well before implementing a specific
collection system:
• “Which locations for storage, transfer, disposal and material recovery facilities
are to be selected?
• What kind of capacity is required for the above mentioned facilities?
• Which towns or districts will be assigned to which facilities?
• In what order does the collection proceed in the individual towns or
subdivisions?
137
138
139
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KOGLER
• How can collection routes be integrated into a disposal plan?
• What type of containers, dumping devices, vehicles and crews are to be
selected?”140
Another important issue in household waste collection as well as MSW are removal
intervals. “When waste and recyclables are collected separately, the removal intervals
must be correlated to the types of collection systems used. While taking public health
concerns into account, the time interval between waste removal can be reduced, since
there is less garbage and the separate collection of recyclables occurs at the same
time.”141
The frequency of removal also depends on climate and waste composition. Due to
sanitary considerations, waste has to be collected daily in hot, southern regions. In
countries with a moderate climate such as Austria for example, residual waste is
usually collected once a week in urban areas and two to four weeks in rural areas. The
other important factor namely the waste composition has to be taken into consideration
as well. When removing dry recyclables such as glass and paper the only factors
determining the removal intervals are container sizes and waste quantities. Whereas,
bio-waste for instance should be removed weekly regardless of the collection system
used.142
As already mentioned earlier, the volume of a container plays an important role in this
context. The larger the volume, the more waste can be disposed of, i.e. the removal
intervals are lower.143 This in turn means that there is less traffic and the costs for
waste collection and transportation are lower. But, on the other hand, it is not always
possible to use large bins. E.g. the space in yards of big apartment houses in cities can
be limited. Even though it would decrease costs for collection to use larger waste
containers it is sometimes simply impossible to do so.144
The following waste fractions occur in households:145
• Hazardous wastes:
- batteries
- chemicals for cleaning
- mineral oils etc…
140
141
142
143
144
145
1995, p. 77 ff
35
KOGLER
• Bulky waste:
- used/broken furniture
- bicycles etc…
• Recoverable resources (recyclables):
- glass
- paper
- light packaging
- scrap metal
• Biowaste
• Residual waste
All these different kinds of waste are subject to waste management and have to be
collected and disposed efficiently. The reason why all these different fractions are
collected separately lies in the conservation of primary raw materials and the reduction
of overall waste quantity.146 “This can be accomplished through use and/or reuse of the
waste material as a secondary raw material in the production process. Considerable
quantities of energy can also be conserved at the same time.”147
In general there are two ways of achieving recovery of recyclables: 148
1) The recyclable materials are collected altogether with other fractions and
separated afterwards in central sorting plants149
2) The recyclables are separated at source
Since the discussion of sorting plants and in general waste treatment is not part of the
underlying study, option number 1 will not be discussed in this thesis. The second
option, namely the separation of the generated waste at the source, will be subject to
further discussion in the following chapter.
146
147
148
149
In Germany there are currently discussions regarding the collection of household waste without source separation since
the quality of separately collected recyclables is sometimes not satisfying. Critics of the separated collection claim that
latest inventions in sorting technology are able to achieve better results in this context.
Verlag, Berlin 2004, p. 10 f
36
KOGLER
2.2.1 Separated collection of recyclables
In this option the waste producer separates the recyclables from the waste generated
and places them in special containers. These containers are either placed in central
locations close to the user (drop-off system) or at the place of waste production
(kerbside system). The recyclables can be subdivided into dry components paper,
cardboard, glass, metals, plastics, textiles and wet components (e.g. organic, kitchen).
Both components are suitable for material recovery. 150
Due to the fact that for each fraction, containers have to be provided on a collection
route and, these two different waste streams have to be treated separately, the
collection effort rises with the number of fractions subject to waste collection. This
implies, either the usage of expensive specialist collection vehicles (e.g. multichamber vehicles) and multiple containers or more collection runs. Both leads to a
higher collection effort and thus to higher costs compared to the collection of less
fractions with larger volumes.151
150
151
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KOGLER
The correlation of collection effort and costs can be expressed in a graph presented in
figure 13.
Fig. 13: Correlation of efficiency and costs in waste collection (adapted)
Source:
As depicted in figure 13, the costs of waste collection rise exponentially. Background
of these considerations is the secondary law of thermodynamics stating that no process
can reach an efficiency of 100%. The closer the degree of efficiency moves towards
100% the more effort and costs are needed in order to achieve a higher degree of
efficiency. E.g. if a waste collection quota of 70% is already realised for a certain
fraction, the costs for the increase of efficiency increases in proportion compared to
the rise of efficiency. Or in other words, it makes sense to collect a specific percentage
of waste that can be collected with an ‘adequate’ collection effort. But it does not
make sense to collect e.g.: each can from the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean.152, 153
152
153
Technologie und Warenwirtschaftslehre der Wirtschaftsuniversität Wien, VOGEL, G. (Hrsg.), Wien 1994, p. 12 f
VOGEL, G.: Der Beitrag der Ressourcenökonomie zur Minimierung der Entropieproduktion der irreversiblen
Wirtschaftsprozesse im offenen System Erde, in: Schriftenreihe des Institutes für Technologie und Warenwirtschaftslehre
der Wirtschaftsuniversität Wien, VOGEL, G. (Hrsg.), Wien 1984, p. 52 f
38
KOGLER
The quantity of different recyclables is determined by various factors:
• “Level of consumption, production and packaging
• Standard of living
• Type of residence (yard space, degree of self-sufficiency)
• Local conditions
• Type and capacity of waste and recyclables containers”154
This converges with VOGEL who describes certain influencing factors on quality and
quantity of waste generation in households:155
• Income
• Persons per household
• Removal intervals and container size
• Education
• Information and motivation
• Settlement structure
• Legal framework
• Number of fractions subject to collection etc…
After the discussion of general issues and the importance of separated collection of
recyclables the next chapters will deal with the organization of waste collection.
2.2.2 Kerbside collection
In Figure 14 one can see how kerbside collection and drop-off systems differ in terms
of arrangement of the service itself and the different types of transport that occur
within these systems. Waste transport play an important role in waste management
issues, because no matter which of the two presented collection systems is applied, the
collected waste has to be collected and transported. Within kerbside collection the
collection vehicles have to pick up the waste from the households and finally transport
them to a collection centre or to a final waste treatment facility.156
154
155
156
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KOGLER
Fig. 14: Collection systems (adapted)
Source :
BEIGL, P.: Vergleich der Umweltauswirkungen und der Kosten von kommunalen Entsorgungssystemen – unter
besonderer Berücksichtigung der Transporte bei der Abfallentsorgung, Diplomarbeit an der Universität für
Bodenkultur, Wien 2002, p. 13
2.2.2.1 General features
“With kerbside collection, containers for collecting recyclables are provided to each
household and appropriate space must be made available at each residence.”157
In other words, waste is picked up from the individual waste producer.
One can distinguish between:
a) Full service:
The households are equipped with a combination of containers which are emptied
regularly by the waste collection company. The collection crew gets the waste
containers from the resident’s premises, empties them and puts them back again. 158
157
158
40
KOGLER
b) ‘Normal’ kerbside collection:
With ‘normal’ kerbside collection, the residents are obliged to place the waste bins or
bags outside on the ‘kerb’, where they are collected and emptied by the removal
company.159
“Residual and organic waste are usually collected by methods with which
householders are comfortable, with most cities/regions offering a full service or at
least ‘normal’ kerbside collection. Recyclables such as paper, glass, plastics or metal
and special wastes such as hazardous waste are usually not as ‘comfortably’ collected
as residual or organic waste.”160
Organic waste and residual waste are collected in a full service system in Gothenburg,
for instance. In the cities of Hamburg and Copenhagen, organic waste,
lightweight/plastic, paper and glass are collected in a full service system. Madrid is the
only city in Spain offering full service for lightweight/plastic and residual waste. Other
cities such as the Italian cities Forli and Bologna, the Spanish cities of Barcelona,
Seville, Valencia and the Australian city of Brisbane usually offer ‘normal’ kerbside or
drop-off collection systems. The residents are asked to put their waste in bags or
containers out on the kerb or bring it to drop-off sites within the city or region.161
In general it can be said that with kerbside collection the collection quota is much
higher compared to drop-off systems. The reason lies in the higher user-friendliness
and convenience for the waste producer.162
The following advantages and disadvantages of kerbside collection can be noted.
Advantages:163
• High user comfort
• Higher collection quota compared to drop-off system
159
160
161
162
163
PIEBER, M.: Waste collection from urban households – In Europe and Australia, in: Waste Management World, JulyAugust 2004, p. 113 f
41
KOGLER
Disadvantages:164
• Higher costs through higher investments in vehicles and containers
• Higher operational costs mainly due to the use of smaller containers
• Often lower quality of recyclables
2.2.3 Drop-off systems165
2.2.3.1 General features
“In drop-off systems, accumulated recyclables are taken by the consumer to a certain
location and placed into individually marked receptacles.”166
Depending on the fraction collected, drop-off collection can be subdivided into:167
• Drop off sites (in most cases glass, packaging waste,…)
• Drop-off recycling centres (household hazardous wastes, bulky wastes,…)
2.2.3.2 Drop-off sites
Drop-off sites for recyclables should be located conveniently for the residents to
deposit their recyclables. The site should be highly visible and allow for traffic
volume.168
Some important prerequisites that should be met by any drop-off site are as follows: 169
• Regular emptying in order to reduce malodour and overfilling
• Not too far to walk for the households (approximately 100 to 150 metres in
densely populated areas)
• Easy access for consumers and collection vehicles
164
165
166
167
168
169
also called bring systems
42
KOGLER
Additionally, the form and function of drop-off sites should be aesthetically pleasing
and blend in with the existing surroundings in order to integrate such sites in the
community environment.170
In Vienna, drop-off sites consist of receptacles for recyclables such as paper, bio
waste, scrap metal, light packaging and glass. There are approximately 2,300 drop-off
sites equally distributed around the city.171
An interesting fact is that the longer the distance for the consumer to deposit of his/her
materials is, i.e. the further away the drop-off centre is located, the less material is
collected/the lower the collection quota becomes.172
A typical drop-off site is depicted in figure 15.
Fig. 15: Drop-off site in a Viennese neighbourhood, Vienna 1998
Source:
170
171
172
City of Vienna, Municipal Department 48
MA48: www.wien.gv.at/ma48, 18.12.2005
ÖSTERREICHISCHES STATISTISCHES ZENTRALAMT (Hrsg.): Umweltverhalten der Österreicher, Ergebnisse des
Mikrozensus 1988, Beiträge zur österr. Statistik, Heft 1000, Wien 1990, p. 12
43
KOGLER
2.2.3.3 Drop-off recycling centres
“A drop-off recycling centre contains receptacles for residential recyclables and other
containers for household hazardous waste. The drop-off centre should be fenced in and
secure. During opening hours, qualified personnel should be on hand to ensure a
smooth collection process. The large space and personnel requirements limit the
location density (1 drop-off recycling centre for every 30,000 to 50,000 residents).
Distances to the drop-off recycling centre that are too far for the users result in a
relatively low collection rate.”173
In Vienna for example, waste collection centres for bulky wastes, recoverables and
hazardous substances from households, as well as reusable objects were first
introduced in 1988. These recycling centres are free-of-charge for households and
small Viennese businesses, delivering not more than 1m3 per day and provide a
convenient opportunity for the population to deposit wastes that are unfit for kerbside
collection or drop off sites. The municipal department for waste collection in Vienna
(MA 48) currently operates 19 of these centres. 1.8 million people made use of this
service in 2002. Approximately 47,710 tonnes of recoverables and compost, 56,590
tonnes of construction waste and 22,424 tonnes of bulky waste were disposed in 2002.
They are financed from the revenues generated by the waste collection fees, payable
by the landowners.174
“The city of Copenhagen has a number of multi-storey dwellings that employ a
caretaker. These caretakers are the local contacts for household hazardous waste
collection and inhabitants can hand their household hazardous wastes directly to their
caretaker, who places them in suitable interim storage until collection.”175
In conclusion, the following pros and cons regarding drop-off systems can be noted.176
Advantages:
• Lower costs compared to kerbside collection
• Lower investments costs
173
174
175
176
MA48: www.wien.gv.at/ma48, 16.12.2005
44
KOGLER
Disadvantages:
• Often not easy to find suitable sites for the containers
• Problems with cleanliness due to illegal disposals
According to the facts provided in this chapter, drop-off systems play an important
role in urban waste collection schemes.177
2.2.4 Waste tarifs
Waste collection and transportation are connected with costs, which have to be paid by
the users of the services. There have been some debates on this topic in recent years.
Those discussions were mostly centred on customized pricing. The following chapters
will discuss different kinds of fee systems occurring in waste management services.
2.2.4.1 Traditional fee systems
2.2.4.1.1 Flat Fee Systems
With this fee system, for each unit (resident, square metres or per container), a flat fee
has to be paid. This has certain consequences due to the dumping behaviour of some
waste generators. First of all, since the user can dump as much as possible without
having to pay more, this systems leads to reduced amounts of illegal dumping.
Likewise, if large containers are used, quite a high collection quota can be reached.
Big negative effect of this system is that it is not suitable to reward the residents’
efforts in waste avoidance and recovery.178
2.2.4.1.2 Container Tag Fee Systems
This system works completely different than the flat fee system described above. With
this fee system, the fee that has to be paid depends on the number of pickups relative
to the container size. The generator attaches a tag to the container, thus indicating the
waste collection company that it should be picked up. This means that the resident
only has to pay for the service used. Another advantage of the system is that in
comparison to the flat fee system, the resident is encouraged to prevent waste thus
he/she can directly influence the fee that has to be paid.
177
178
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KOGLER
But there are also some problems connected with this fee system. If the monetary
incentives are too high, it might encourage the resident to illegally dump waste some
where else.179
An example of a container tag fee system is the so called ‘Züri Bag’ which is in use in
the Swiss city Zürich since 1993. The originator-based bag charge is a central feature
of the new Waste Material Regulation in Zürich. Together with a ground charge based
on room count and levied on property owners, it must cover 100% of the cost of
removing waste from households. Only material which cannot be recycled, the socalled incinerator waste, finds its way into the ‘Züri-Bags’. Useful materials, however,
can be left at the collection points of Zürich Recycling free of charge. By these means,
the Waste Department offers the people of Zürich a financial incentive through the
sack charge and an additional motivation to support Zurich Recycling.180
The ‘Züri-Bags’ are available in different sizes (from 17 to 110 litres). The fees range
from 0.73 EUR for a 17 litre bag to 3.38 EUR for a 110 litre bag.181
Since November 2005 the citizens are asked to dispose of their bags in the appropriate
containers provided by the municipality at anytime. Before that, it was only allowed to
put the bags out on the kerb on predetermined time and days.182
One can see that both systems do have advantages as well as disadvantages.
“The flat fee system does not take into consideration the variable cost factors, while
the container system ignores the fixed share of the costs. Thus it follows that for
neither fee system does the user fees accurately reflect the incurred costs.”183
The next chapter will deal with the discussion of alternative fee systems, providing
solutions for ‘pay as you throw’ collection schemes.
2.2.4.2 Alternative fee systems
2.2.4.2.1 Individual billing systems
These systems try to consider both, variable and fixed costs in waste collection
processes. The fixed part is represented by a flat fee, charged per resident or
container. The variable cost share is calculated by the actual quantity or volume of
179
180
181
182
183
City of Zürich: Implementing an ecological waste management, http://www.eaue.de/winuwd/109.htm, 18.03.2006
PAULI, U.: Waste management in Zürich, Presentation at the Viennese Waste
Entsorgung und Recycling Zürich: www.erz.ch, 18.03.2006
46
KOGLER
each user. 184 A question that might arise here is how is it possible to know, how much
waste each resident disposed? The answer to this question is that the containers are
weighed during or just before the emptying process takes place. This requires
technological solutions that are computer based. According to BILITEWSKI et al.
“these solutions are technologically expensive and can only be implemented costeffectively if they are sufficiently computer integrated.”185
Such a solution is the computerized waste disposal system (CWDS) which works as
indicated in figure 16.
Fig. 16: Individual billing system
Source:
Each bin is equipped with a transponder chip containing specific information, e.g.
identity and location. The collection truck is equipped with an identification system on
board that consists of several elements:186
• “Scanning aerials
• Sensors to detect the bin’s presence
• Lifting and emptying sensors
• Weighing system
• Onboard computer”187
184
185
186
187
in waste management literature these systems are also called ‘pay as you throw systems’
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KOGLER
During the emptying process, the bin’s chip is scanned and the weight of the container
automatically registered. The gained information is sent to the on-board computer that,
through using special software, implements the data and transmits it to the local
server.188
On the basis of the collected data, the waste generator gets his/her customized invoice
mailed on an annual, semi-annual, or quarterly basis. Thus, “individual billing systems
implement the ‘polluter pays’ principle189.”190
Another advantage of this system is that the waste management company can use the
collected data to optimize collection runs and thus save money which in turn can be
passed on to the customers. Ultimately, it is of great importance for waste management
because of the availability of exact numbers that can be used for detailed studies on
waste collection processes.191
The costs for the installation of an individual billing system described above are as
follows:
Purchased item
Costs in EUR
Investment per truck
30,000-40,000 EUR
Transponder chips for 10,000 bins one truck
can serve
Total sum of investment for 10,000 bins
50,000 EUR
80,000-90,000 EUR
Table 2: Investment costs for individual billing systems for 10,000 bins
Source:
The market outlook for these fee systems are very good, the study mentioned above
predicts a volume of approximately 8 million EUR, growing very rapidly.
A major market is Germany with an individual billing system for approximately 6
million bins.192
This system only works in rural areas or residential areas, where each
resident/household has control over his/her/their ‘own’ containers.
In large cities, each house has a certain specified number of containers. Each resident
188
189
190
191
192
The polluter-pays-principle=The principle that those causing pollution should meet the costs to which it gives rise
EEA-Glossary: www. eea.eu.int, 21.03.2006
48
KOGLER
of the apartment building has access to the containers, thus it is impossible to find out
who disposed of what and how much. The fee system that is subject to investigation in
the next chapter can cover these requirements as well.
2.2.4.2.2 Coin systems
The mentioned limited appliance of individual billing systems in large apartment
buildings is one great disadvantage which does not occur in the coin systems. As the
name already indicates, in this fee system, coins are used to open a specially equipped
container with a coin lock. When the resident wants to dispose of waste, he/she has to
deposit a coin and then the container opens a space for a pre-determined volume of
waste. Through adopting behaviour that leads to waste avoidance, reuse and/or
recovery, individual waste generators can save money.193
The main idea behind this system is that waste fees are customized meaning people
that throw away more have to pay more (using the service more extensively). A
second idea behind it is that people should pay more attention to the composition of
their residual waste for instance. That means that a lower contamination level194 occurs
than found in residual containers due to the fact that waste generators avoid throwing
away fractions that do not belong in the containers since they have to pay for them. If
introduced blanket cover, the number of bad throws is estimated to be reduced by 50
percent.195
2.2.4.2.3 Card Systems
Another fee system to be presented is a card system used by the Swedish company
ENVAC. Actually this concept is very similar to the coin system already presented
earlier. Instead of using a coin, an ID-card is used to open the waste inlets. The waste
is disposed and the data is stored on the card/computer. This system helps to identify
who and more important how often someone uses the waste collection service. This is
truly customized pricing in a sense that no one can abuse this system through
disposing waste on the account of someone else which is the case in individual billing
systems in rural areas. Thus fraud is limited in this fee system, although people can
still dispose of their wastes somewhere else illegally in order to save money.196
193
194
195
196
“The contamination level can be defined as the percentage of non-targeted material that is collected by a given method”.
1995, p. 100
Schmidt Verlag, Berlin 1999, p. 6
ENVAC: www.envac.net, 12.03.2006
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KOGLER
2.2.4.3 Case study for individual billing system
In Denmark payment for household waste treatment is usually based on a pay-perhouse fee (flat fee system). During the 1990s, the polluter-pays-principle was
introduced in 18 Danish municipalities. The goal of this trial was to prevent waste
generation and to increase the recycling rate for household waste.197
Some important facts are that the municipalities were not required to collect
biodegradable wastes from households separately. Because of the fact that the pay-perkg fee only applies for mixed household waste, particularly the recycling of glass and
paper and the home composting was particularly stimulated. In addition some
municipalities lowered the fee for source separated organic waste below the fee for
mixed household waste in order to provide an incentive for household waste
recycling.198
Fraction
Average households in
“pay-per-kg”
municipalities
Average households in
reference municipalities
Mixed household waste
325 kg/year
729 kg/year
Paper and cardboard
105 kg/year
67 kg/year
Glass
Biodegradable waste
Total
38 kg/year
124 kg/year
592 kg/year
36 kg/year
44 kg/year
876 kg/year
Table 3: Waste generation in “pay-per-kg” municipalities and reference municipalities
Source: JACOBSEN, H., KRISTOFFERSEN, M.: Case studies on waste minimisation practices in Europe, European
Environment Agency, Copenhagen 2002, p. 36
The difference of 284 kg in total household waste generated in the two municipalities
can be explained by the overestimated amounts of mixed household waste from the
reference municipality.199
“This is the case if the mixed household waste contains waste other than the waste
from the daily household activities, that is, garden waste, bulky waste, commercial
waste and similar items that are covered by other collection schemes. In municipalities
with ‘pay-per-kg-fees’ this waste will rarely end up with the mixed household waste,
as households will attempt to avoid the fee by reducing the amounts of mixed waste.
197
198
199
JACOBSEN, H., KRISTOFFERSEN, M.: Case studies on waste minimisation practices in Europe, European Environment
Agency, Copenhagen 2002, p. 35
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In the reference municipalities the waste often ends up with the mixed waste if there is
sufficient space in the dustbin.”200
The results of the case study show that:201
• The amount of mixed household waste was clearly reduced
• More waste was collected through recycling schemes (especially paper and
cardboard)
• Pay-per-kg fees did not change consumer behaviour therefore no reduction
(prevention) in waste generation can be expected
• Administrative work increased, due to writing out the individual accounts for
each household plus making up the account in case of change of addresses
• Despite the fact that ‘pay-per-kg fees involve a great risk of illegal dumping,
there were no signs of large-scale illegal tipping
2.3 Developments in waste management
Till the early 1970s waste collection was from a logistical and operational point of
view relatively easy to handle and far away from the complex and multilayer process it
is today. As discussed in chapter 2.2.1, the separated collection of potential recyclables
leading to the diversification of waste streams results in a higher complexity of the
whole process. This in turn stresses the importance and the need for rationalisation,
improvement and invention of new waste collection and transportation systems.202
As already mentioned in chapter 2.1, according to BILITEWSKI et al. the “collection
of waste is a combination of technology and human labour, specially:
• Vehicles and
• Personnel”203
200
201
202
203
Agency, Copenhagen 2002, p. 35 f
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KOGLER
In any rationalisation process, regarding waste collection and transportation, these
factors have to be examined thoroughly because each element withholds considerable
potential for cost saving and improvement of efficiency.204
There are new developments in each of the elements mentioned above. In the
following paragraphs new concepts will be chronologically presented and discussed.
2.3.1 Collection method
Among the new developments in this sector are vacuum suction systems. These new
concepts and systems will be thoroughly discussed in chapter 4.
2.3.2 Container systems
Containers play an essential part in waste management (compare chapter 2.1.2). There
are some new systems able to reduce collection time and frequency of collection. One
interesting concept is the so called DU-Container, which was developed by the
German company Edelhoff. These containers are available in different sizes and
shapes from 40 to 3.000 litres. The special feature of this system is a new bearing area
which leads to an easier handling and faster process of emptying the containers.
Another important fact in this context is that containers of different sizes can be
emptied with one vehicle, i.e. even though there are for instance different container
sizes within one collection route, only one vehicle is needed to empty all the
containers. Whereas with other container systems more collection runs would have
been necessary, or the use of more than one collection vehicle which automatically
leads to more traffic and higher costs.205
Also the new concepts for deep collection and hydraulic underground containers
provide good solutions and possibilities for rationalisation in this context.206
2.3.3 Vehicles
As an essential part of waste collection, vehicles are subject to constant technical
improvements and inventions.207 Latest developments in this important part of most
collection systems were already discussed in chapter 2.1.3.3.
204
205
206
207
Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlin 1999, p. 5 f
ECO SIR: http://www.ecosir.com/, 07.11.2005
2101, Lieferung 1, Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlin 2004, p. 1 ff
52
KOGLER
2.3.4 Personnel
High acquisition costs for new collection vehicles and connected costs for depreciation
and interest require a high degree of utilisation of the vehicles. Since one working day
consists of 8 hours, an optimum of utilisation can only be reached through the
appliance of shift systems. In the German city of Berlin for example, the responsible
authorities started to operate waste collection in a two-shift-system. The aim of this
measure is a 50% reduction of the vehicle fleet and the corresponding reduction of
repair shop capacities finally leading to considerable cost savings.208
2.3.5 Route planning and supervision systems
2.3.5.1 Route planning
Route planning has been in the focus of rationalisation processes over the last few
years. Whereas in many regions, waste collection is still based on experiences that
were made over many years, especially in larger cities, new software solutions
arranging collection and transportation in a more efficient way are employed.209
These systems are used for the planning, recording and guiding of waste collection
trips. With the help of route planning systems, the driver of a waste collection truck is
able to choose the best route in order to collect the waste bins in the most efficient way
thus optimizing runtime and costs. Route planning is usually performed by GPS210. If a
route is recorded, a typical collection run is executed while the GPS system
permanently determines the collection vehicle’s actual position and stores all data.
Afterwards, the recorded collection run can be analyzed and optimized by special
software.211
In the German city of Dortmund, the responsible company for waste collection was
able to realise considerable savings in time and costs through using latest route
planning software. The collection tours for 1,100 litre containers could be reduced
from 21 to 18 tours, the tours for 80 to 240 litre containers was reduced from 25 to 20.
This ended up in a reduction of staff- and vehicle usage of approximately 17%. Hand
in hand with these savings, the labour expenses for route planning were reduced by
nearly 70% from 6 to 2 persons.212
208
209
210
211
212
Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlin 1999, p. 2 f
GPS= Global Positioning System
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Advantages of route planning systems:213
• Reduction of costs through optimizing routes which results in reduce fuel and
time consumption
• Trucks and staff are employed more efficiently which increases productivity
The connected costs for such a system per truck are approximately 5,000 EUR
including soft- and hardware (without installation costs).214
2.3.5.2 Supervision systems
Supervision systems check and control truck data in order to optimize truck
maintenance. Interesting data in this context is mileage, number of collected bins etc…
Through analyzing the data collected, important conclusions on the change of tyres,
hydraulic oil or the engine can be drawn since the time of maintenance of these parts is
strongly connected to the truck’s load. With the help of telematics supervision systems
the data mentioned above is collected on board the collection vehicle and transmitted
via GSM or GPRS to a control centre. This allows service personnel to constantly
control the truck’s status and to plan maintenance and repair at an early stage.
Additionally, supervision systems can also be used for tracking of trucks which can
furthermore be used to schedule collection trips. Often the supervision activities of the
whole truck fleet are outsourced to specialized service providers.215
In conclusion, supervision systems have the following advantages:216
• Lead to increased productivity through reduced downtimes of trucks
• Better fleet management can be achieved
Investment costs in supervision systems are approximately 2,000 EUR per truck
(without installation costs and control centre).217
213
214
215
216
217
2003, p. 22
2003, p. 22
2003, p. 22
2003, p. 22
2003, p. 22
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KOGLER
“According to waste management service companies, the use of route planning and
supervision systems offers a series of advantages that will lead to an increasing
demand. These systems are also used for controlling collection truck drivers.”218
An example of the successful implementation of supervision systems is the German
city of Hamburg, where the first systems were installed in 2001. The City Cleaning
Department Hamburg (SRH), operates 670 vehicles and employs 2,600 employees.
The whole fleet drives approximately 10 million km each year and for this 3,7 million
litres of diesel fuel are required.219
Through the implementation of new telematics systems, the Cleaning Department
hoped to considerably decrease diesel consumption and improve economic efficiency
of the fleet. Additionally, to the purchase of the supervision systems, the drivers had to
attend a specialised training course in order to get to know the system.220
218
219
220
Helsinki 2003, p. 22 f
LEOWALD, B.: Telematics systems at the city cleaning department Hamburg, in: 13th European Water, Wastewater and
Solid Waste Symposium at IFAT Munich 2005, VKS Service GmbH (Ed.), p. 125 f
Solid Waste Symposium at IFAT Munich 2005, VKS Service GmbH (Ed.), p. 125
55
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The graph in figure 17 illustrates the reduction of diesel consumption of the waste
collection fleet in Hamburg.
Fig. 17: Fleet consumption (24 vehicles) in the city of Hamburg (adapted)
Source:
LEOWALD, B.: Telematics systems at the city cleaning department Hamburg, in: 13th European Water, Wastewater
and Solid Waste Symposium at IFAT Munich 2005, VKS Service GmbH (Ed.), p. 135
As we can see in figure 17 above, the consumption of the fleet (24 vehicles) could be
lowered by 18%. It is estimated that with telematics systems, the total fuel
consumption of the whole fleet could be lowered by 7% which corresponds to 245,000
litres a year in the case of the City Cleaning Department of Hamburg.221
In conclusion it can be said that modern telematics systems offer a plurality of
possibilities to the fleet management, to design the fleet management more
economically effective and thereby lowering costs. The purchasing and operating costs
would then be paid off in a short time depending on the extent of utilisation.222
221
222
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3
3. Alternative waste collection systems and concepts
ALTERNATIVE WASTE COLLECTION SYSTEMS AND CONCEPTS
“Environmental rules and their implementation are still the major drivers for the
development of new markets and innovative concepts for waste management products
and services. Additionally, cost savings and quality improvements play an important
role”223 as well.
In this chapter different new collection systems and concepts are introduced and
discussed. Most of these “alternative” systems are already in use and have proven that
they work well and that their implementation can help to optimize waste collection
processes.
The presented traditional systems have more or less been applied and used for
centuries. There have been some changes of course but the basic structure and the way
of collecting waste is more or less still the same.224
Before latest trends in waste collection are discussed it is of great importance to
explain where the main difference between alternative and traditional waste collection
system lies.
Alternative waste management products or services are not a defined group of
products or services. In the course of this thesis, alternative waste collection systems
are defined as:
Innovative concepts for waste collection and transportation that, consist of one or
many different products and/or services, creating benefits for the customer in terms of
costs, quality, efficiency, etc.225
If one takes a closer look at the waste management literature, it is not easy to find
proper descriptions of alternative waste collection systems such as vacuum extraction,
for instance. BILITEWSKI et al. dedicate in their book “Waste Management (1997)”
only ¾ of a page to this topic. In the collected edition “Müllhandbuch”226, within a
chapter called ‘meanders’, one can read that “these systems were not able to achieve
acceptance and are of no big practical value.”227 Moreover, WÜRZ claims that with
223
224
225
226
227
Helsinki 2003, p.1
= German waste management literature; English translation: Handbook of Waste
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KOGLER
this system the “necessary separated collection of waste can not be operated without
traditional waste logistics.”228
Within the same collected edition one article deals invariably with pneumatic transport
of waste in pipes.229 This article was written in 1970 and is based on literature
published in 1966. Within the last 30 years there have been many changes in the field
of pneumatic waste transport, especially regarding technological progress. Also the
explanation of other alternative waste collection systems, e.g. deep collection and
hydraulic underground compactors could not be found in standard German waste
management literature.
It is of great interest to find out whether these assertions are still true and traceable and
referring to the status-quo in this field.
The following two categories will be used to structure alternative waste collection
systems:
• Container systems
• Vacuum suction systems
In figure 18, one can see an overview of the latest innovative waste concepts also
including sorting and incineration plants. This chart was published as part of a study
carried out by GENTER with the aim to investigate and present latest concepts in the
sector of waste management and to identify trends, chances and attractiveness of
markets.
228
229
ERBEL, A.: Pneumatischer Mülltransport in Rohrleitungen, in: Müll-Handbuch, Kennzahl 2350, Lieferung 21, Erich
Schmidt Verlag, Berlin 1970
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Fig. 18: Innovative concepts: Attractiveness of markets
Source:
Among the concepts with the highest growth rates in the next 3 years are route
planning and supervision as well as individual billing systems. This is not surprising
since optimisation of collection routes still contains a high potential for cost savings
(see chapter 2.3.5).
The matrix in figure 18 shows an interesting aspect. Suction systems are predicted to
have a high market growth and likewise a market volume of 50 to 100 million Euros
over the next 3 years. GENTER et al. obviously see certain trends especially suction
systems gaining more acceptance and attention in the future. The description of
vacuum suction systems and possible applications of such systems will play an
essential part in chapter 4.
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3.1 Container systems
3.1.1 Deep Collection
Companies such as Molok230 or EcoSir231 produce all different kinds of containers for
deep collection. The size of containers varies from 800 to 5,000 litres. The term deep
collection refers to the special depth of the containers which are installed in about 1 ½
meters below surface in order to achieve more volume and a higher bulk density.232
As one can see in Figure 19, the containers used for deep collection do not have a
different design from other containers used for waste disposal. The most striking
distinction between ‘conventional’ and deep collection containers can only be seen in
Figure 20, where the cross section of the deep collection container is illustrated.233
Fig. 19: Deep collection containers
Source:
230
231
232
233
ECO SIR: www.ecosir.com, 04.11.2005
MOLOK :http://www.molok.com/, 07.11.2005
ECO SIR: http://www.ecosir.com/, 07.11.2005
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Fig. 20: Cross section of a deep collection container
Source:
The emptying of deep collection containers works either with special vehicles with a
hydraulic crane that lifts the collection bags or a collection truck equipped with a
mobile suction system (see chapter 2.1.3.1.4). Both emptying methods are illustrated
in figure 21 below.234
Fig. 21: Emptying of deep collection containers
Source:
234
RIS International et al.: Sustainable community design report – Appendix 5 solid waste and demolition waste,
Toronto 2004, p. 18
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KOGLER
These containers are especially interesting for city centres where space is limited and
the emptying intervals should be as low as possible due to traffic relief and noise level
reduction. But these systems can also be used in rural areas, parks, housing areas, one
family houses and hospitals.235
An example of the implementation of a deep collection system, emptied by mobile
suction trucks236, is the Swedish city of Gothenburg. This system is mainly applied in
residential areas with a low population density and about 10% of the houses are
connected to this system.237
The system offers the following advantages: 238
• Fast emptying through special bags
• Improved hygiene
• High bulk density - due to the vertical design, gravity forces the waste to
compact itself
• Equalizes heavy fluctuations in waste quantities due to the higher capacity
• Saves space through special depth
• Lower emptying cycles through higher capacity
• Suitable for collection of all fractions
• Less odour - since oldest waste is on the bottom where it is cooler
• Usable also under extreme climate conditions
Disadvantages:
• Special collection vehicles have to be used in order to empty the containers. This
means additional investments and a larger fleet of vehicles
• Higher initial investment due to the work necessary when implementing the
system
235
236
237
238
MOLOK: http://www.molok.com/, 07.11.2005
see chapter 2.1.3.1.4
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3.1.2 Hydraulic underground compactors
This special container system allows for the collection of waste in large containers that
are placed underground. Additionally, these containers are equipped with a compactor
that reduces the volume of the waste. Figure 22 shows what the container system looks
like. On the left hand side one can see the inlets for the underground compactor where
waste can be deposited. On the right hand side the underground container is already
hydraulically lifted and ready for the emptying process. The collection vehicle, usually
a hook and lift or a roll on roll off truck, can load the full containers and replace them
with empty ones. After the process is done, the full container is transported to a
treatment or a collection facility and the empty one is lowered underground. 239
Fig. 22: Hydraulic underground compactor in normal and emptying position
Source:
Advantages of the system are:240
• Space economisation
• Reduced odour
• Improved city square design
• Suitable for collection of all fractions
• Lower emptying cycles
• Compaction of waste deposited
239
240
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Disadvantages:241
• Space needed for emptying process is larger compared to traditional collection
• Initial investment is higher than the use of traditional containers
The presented system is especially suitable for city centres and cities in general. The
system is already in use in many European cities such as Copenhagen, Helsinki,
Stockholm, Seville and Tampere for instance.242
3.2 Vacuum suction systems
The systems presented in this chapter are mostly new ideas for rationalizing and
improving traditional systems respectively and certain features of collection systems in
general. In this context the only systems that combine both, namely transportation243
and collection, are vacuum extraction systems and for the sake of completeness,
hydraulic flushing methods. The most promising system in this context is the
Automated Waste Collection System (AWCS) developed by the Swedish company
ENVAC. Despite the fact that there are more companies that offer a vacuum extraction
system, ENVAC is market leader in this sector and there is a lot of information
available on their system.244 The next chapter should provide the reader with detailed
explanation of function and usability of the system.
241
242
243
244
within collection area (living area)
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4
4. The Automated Waste Collection System of ENVAC
THE AUTOMATED WASTE COLLECTION SYSTEM OF ENVAC
4.1 General explanation of the system
Whereas all other alternative waste collection systems can be seen as special features
improving traditional waste collection. The Automated Waste Collection System is, as
already discussed in the latter chapter, a system that can be used instead of the
traditional ways of waste collection and transportation which is inspired by the idea of
disposal of liquid waste through channel systems. The following chapters deal with a
detailed explanation of the system as well as the different possibilities of
implementation. In addition, at the end of the chapter some case studies are briefly
discussed.
The system itself has many different fields of appliance and the possibilities of
implementation are extensive.
Another important fact is that the system is not only available for household waste
collection. There are smaller systems for hospitals, kitchens and official buildings as
well.
In the underlying thesis, the functioning of the system used for larger installations such
as residential areas and city centres is of interest. ENVAC installs these systems for
the collection of 1, 2, or 3 fractions, depending on the requirements of the region or
community. These systems require different features and technologies but in general
they all consist of the same basic structure. In the next chapters, the technical
background of the system will be analysed.
4.2 Technical description
In general the system consists of four major components: 245
245
1) Waste collection terminal -
where waste is collected after pneumatic
transport. It also includes all equipment that
performs and supervises the collection
process.
2) Waste transport pipes -
which connect the collection terminal with
the buildings and sites where waste
originates.
ENVAC: General description of Vacuum Waste collection system 500 for one fraction, Stockholm 2001, p. 7 f
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KOGLER
3) Waste discharging valves -
which separate the waste transport
pipes from the charging stations situated in
the streets or inside the buildings.
4) Air inlet valves -
situated at the end of each waste transport
pipe branch, admit the transport air into the
system.
Fig. 23: Schematic depiction of the major components of an AWCS (adapted)
Source:
SALVANY SABATÉ, J.: Sorting different fractions with automated waste collection, Presentation at the Viennese
Waste Management Conference, Vienna 2005, p. 2
Figure 23 above illustrates the four major components mentioned above. As we can
see, there are two different ways of disposing of the waste. On the left hand side the
waste inlet is situated on the street and the second possibility is that chutes with inlets
are installed inside buildings and the residents can dispose of their waste inside their
own buildings. More information on the different designs of the refuse inlets are
provided in chapter 4.2.5 and 4.2.7.
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In designing the system, the following criteria are of great importance:
• Transport distance246
For determining the size of the exhausters and motors, the transport distance is the
main criteria. Problems in this context are long distances, as the need for negative
pressure increases more power is required. Therefore the optimum size for the
exhauster and the motor has to be found. Another important fact is that different
types of waste (fractions) require different transportation speed.
• Number of discharge valves247
If the number of discharge valves in a system is too high, the time taken to collect
the wastes from all the valves increases. The system could therefore be divided in
several areas by sectioning valves to make it possible to maintain one part without
disturbing the whole system.
• Transport capacity248
Depending on the average transport distance to the collection plant, the amount of
waste per valve opening and the total amount of waste transported to the plant of the
system could take several hours per day. Due to the fact that waste is not generated
evenly during the day there must be some spare capacity to avoid overload at the
charging stations. The plant must also handle all waste collected and have sufficient
capacity to store it for at least one day.
• Waste inlets249
The size of waste cannot be bigger than the transport pipe or the diameter of the
pipe at the charging station. That means that the door size is limited. The used
diameter of the hatch in systems installed for residual waste is 280 mm. For offices
and commercial buildings where bigger bags are used for waste disposal, the door
has a size of 400 x 500 mm. The doors have to be interlocked with the discharge
valve in such a way that the door cannot open when the valve is opened due to
safety reasons.
246
247
248
249
ENVAC: General description of Vacuum Waste collection system 500 for one fraction, Stockholm 2001, p. 3
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KOGLER
“Each system can serve up to approximately 8,000 households and the maximum
distance from the inlets to the collection station is approximately 2 km.”250
The next chapters deal with the 4 main parts that are subject to detailed description
according to technology and equipment used.
4.2.1 Waste collection terminal
F-container251
The F-container works as both storage and transport unit. It has a vacuum tight
connection to a waste pipe and the docking device. The container is equipped with a
filter that prevents waste from clogging and damaging the fans during collection
processes. The container is constructed of steel. At the bottom it is equipped with a
frame for roll on- roll off, loading and unloading on trucks.
Air exhausters252
Air exhausters are used to create the appropriate air volume and partial vacuum in the
waste transport pipes. The size and number of air exhausters needed depends mainly
on the transport distance of waste in the transport pipes. According to the company’s
experiences, a distance longer than 1,7 km for a certain system is not recommended
from an economical point of view.
250
251
252
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Fig. 24: Air exhausters in waste collection terminal
Source:
PIEBER, M., Göteborg, May 2006
Usually, two or three exhausters are connected in series. One of them is a stand-by
unit. The exhausters are connected to electrical motors via flexible couplings.
Cyclone waste separator253
Another important technical part installed in waste collection terminals is a cyclone
waste separator, as depicted in figure 25. This machine is used for the primary
separation of the waste from the transport air.
253
ENVAC: General description of Vacuum Waste collection system 500 for one fraction, Stockholm 2001, p. 7 f
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Fig. 25: Cyclone waste separator
Source:
It is constructed of steel and equipped with waste level sensors. Via a feeding hopper,
its lower part is vacuum tight connected to the waste compactor or directly into a
container.
Rotating separator254
The rotating separator is situated on the top of the cyclone for the separation of light
waste particles and coarse dust from the transport air.
Waste compactor255
This is another essential part situated below the cyclone separator. The task of the
compactor is to introduce and compact the waste in the containers.
Waste containers256
As all other waste collection systems, containers are used in the automated waste
collection system as well. The size and number of waste containers depends on the
quantity of waste collected.
254
255
256
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Fig. 26: Containers in waste collection terminal
Source:
Normally, the containers should have sufficient capacity to store the waste generated
in one day. The steel containers are connected to the waste compactor and at the
bottom they are equipped with frames for roll on roll off loading and unloading on
trucks.
Container handling system257
This system is used when two or more containers are required. During the loading
cycle the container is connected to the compactor. When the container is full, it is
manually operated from a control box, disconnected from the compactor and
transported by the container handling system to a free place for temporary storage.
257
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Fig. 27: Container ready for pick-up
Source:
An empty container is then transported to the loading position and connected to the
compactor. In figure 27 we can see a full container, situated in the waste collection
terminal, ready for pick-up. The full containers are loaded on lorries and transported to
final disposal facilities.
Filter installation for the transport air258
The filter installation consists of cassette bag type filters for dry filtration which can be
installed downstream of the air exhausters.
Air-flow velocity control device259
The air-flow velocity control consists of a regulating valve, vent pipe, pressure gauges,
etc. This equipment automatically controls the speed of the transport air in the
transport pipes.
Installation for compressed air260
For activating all waste and air inlet valves along the pneumatic transport pipe
network, compressed air is used, which in turn is generated in the collection terminal
258
259
260
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and distributed in plastic pipes that run along the transport pipes to all valves.
Pipes and valves261
There are different pipes and valves within the terminal such as:
• Non-return valves above the exhauster
• Various stop cut off valves
• Pipes which connect the different main units within the terminal, together with
the corresponding supports, attachments etc.
Central control panel262
This unit controls and supervises the automatic waste collection process. All valves,
situated along the transport pipe network, are connected via electrical cables.
The main components of the panel are:
• Microcomputer with a screen and a keyboard for all automatic functions
• Push buttons and switches for the operation of the system
• Indication lamps
• Mimic panel indicating each waste and air inlet valve showing the development
of the collection process in the connected area
Motor control panel263
The motor control panel is fully interfaced with the central control panel. It contains
all the necessary components for the operation of the electrical motors, such as
breakers, fuses, switches, relays, ammeters, etc.
Control panel for the container handling system264
This control panel contains all electrical components which are necessary for the
container handling.
261
262
263
264
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Waste collection terminal building265
The waste collection terminal can be situated in separate aboveground or underground
buildings. It is of great importance that transportation trucks have free access to the
building in order to enable fast loading and unloading.
Fig. 28: Waste collection terminal
Source:
The room where the air exhausters are installed is insulated in order to reduce the
noise level. Before being expelled in the free atmosphere, the sound level of the
exhaust air is further reduced by a baffle type silencer.
4.2.2 Waste transport pipes – Pipe network
The waste transport pipes are normally manufactured in mild carbon steel. In pipes
where large quantities of waste are transported, certain parts e.g. the bends must be
manufactured in alloyed steel or Ni-hard metal. All joints in the transport pipe network
are welded. The transport pipes are normally installed underground at a depth of
approximately 1 metre. Electrical cables and compressed air tubes, which connect all
valves of the system with the collection terminal, are installed together with the
transport pipes.266
265
266
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In most cases the pipes are installed in trenches. The planning of the trenches can
almost always follow the height variations of the terrain, as inclinations of 20 degrees
in both pipe directions are permitted. In order to avoid damages to the external
polyethylene protection of the pipes, ditches with a sand bed are required. When
ground conditions are unfavourable (acid, high moisture content), a cathodic
protection of the transport pipes might be necessary. Within the pipes, waste is
transported and this leads to erosion. Due to the heterogeneous composition of the
waste, factors must be determined empirically. It is of great importance that these
factors are correctly evaluated when designing a transport pipe network. On the
outside, the transport pipes are exposed to the same corrosions as all other steel pipes
e.g. water, gas, etc. For this reason an adequate protection of the external surface of the
transport pipe network is required.267
The main parts of the pipe network are:268
• Sectioning valves that divide the system into subsystems in order to avoid
interference from non active parts of the system
• Electrical cables for transmission of electronic signals between the collection
terminal and all waste discharge and air inlet valves
• Compressed air tubes that connect the compressor in the collection terminal
with all the waste discharge and air inlet valves
4.2.3 Waste discharge valves
The waste discharge valves separate the waste transport from the vertical chutes.
Normally they are installed under the charging stations and they are closed and opened
only for 7 to 10 seconds during the discharge cycles (usually 2 or 3 times a day).
Only one valve can be open at a time. When the valves are closed, the waste which
falls by gravity within the discharging station is retained by the closing element of the
valve. When a valve opens, the waste falls by gravity/suction in to the air stream in the
transport pipe.269
The valves are operated by the compressed air generated in the collection terminal and
the closing elements are actuated by compressed air cylinders. The operation of the
valves is controlled by the computer in the central control panel in the collection
terminal. Electronic terminals in the valve rooms verify and execute the orders
267
268
269
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transmitted form the central control panel.270
4.2.4 Charging stations
The charging stations which connect the waste discharge valves are only subject to a
slight partial vacuum during the short time the waste discharge valves are open. The
charging station is normally constructed in concrete or steel.271
Figure 29 shows a typical charging station situated on street level.
Fig. 29: Schematic depiction of an out-door charging station
Source:
In order to assure an obstruction-free passage of the waste in the charging stations and
within the transport pipes, the following measures are of great importance:272
• “The inside diameter of the discharging station should not exceed the diameter
of the waste discharge valves
• The diameter of the waste loading doors should be 50 mm less than the
discharge valves”273
270
271
272
273
76
KOGLER
In existing residential areas of one-family houses and in existing areas where it is
impossible to install vertical waste chutes within the buildings, the charging stations
are situated on street level. These charging stations are normally close to pavements or
other open spaces, at comfortable walking distance from the dwelling.274
4.2.4.1 Waste inlets
“The limited volume inlet for the charging station is designed for use in residential
areas. It accommodates only a limited volume of refuse at a time. The design of the
inlet depends on the type of material it will be used for. For waste the volume will be
limited to approximately 30 litres. The waste is placed in the hopper, a small metal
container just inside the inlet door. This momentarily holds the waste until the inlet
door is closed and the refuse is disposed into the storage section. The waste inlet is
made in painted cast aluminium. The total weight is approx. 150 kg.”275
Fig. 30: Waste inlet (outdoor)
Source:
ENVAC: Technical description Feeding system 500, Stockholm 2001, p. 4
The design of the waste inlets differs within a wide range of possible installations.
Depending on the surrounding, the inlets are installed in order to suit the local
appearance.276 In the figures 31, 32 and 33 different types of waste inlets are depicted.
Normally the walking distance between inlets is approximately 70-100 metres
depending on the areas’ infrastructure.277
274
275
276
277
ENVAC: General description Feeding system 500, Stockholm 2001, p. 4
there are inlets for commercial and residential users (indoor and outdoor)
ENVAC: General description of Vacuum Waste collection system 500 for two fractions, Stockholm 2001, p. 4
77
KOGLER
Fig. 31: Waste inlet with surrounding
Source:
Fig. 32: Waste inlet in the centre of the Spanish city Seville
Source:
own chart, by the author, Seville 2005
78
KOGLER
Fig. 33: Indoor waste inlets
Source:
As partly discussed in chapter 4.3, the inlets can also be installed inside buildings. As
we can see in figure 33, the residents can dispose of their waste through choosing the
right inlet according to the fraction deposited.
4.2.5 Air inlet valves
The air inlet valves are situated at the end of each waste transport pipe branch. They
are installed under the street or basement level in the buildings in close connection to
the last waste discharge valve of the branch. The valves are normally closed or opened
only for 1 or 2 minutes during the discharge cycles. Only one valve can open at a
time.278
The valves are operated by compressed air and the closing elements are activated by
compressed air cylinders. The operation of the valves is controlled by the central
control panel in the collection terminal and the electronic terminals in the air inlet
valves room verify and execute the received orders.279
The sound level caused by the air which enters the valve at high speed is considerable
and therefore they are equipped with silencers (see chapter 5).280
This description is accurate for the so called ENVAC System 500 for one fraction.
278
279
280
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KOGLER
As already mentioned earlier in this study, there are several systems in use. In general,
the basic structure is the same in all the systems but there are additional units if two or
three fractions are collected. How the separated collection of recyclables is realised by
the AWCS is described in the next chapter.281
4.2.6 Separated collection with vacuum collection systems
As already mentioned above, vacuum collection systems can be extended to transport
several different types of pre-sorted waste. In general the systems are mainly designed
to take care of fractions that represent large volumes or cause bad odour.282
There are two different ways of realizing separated collection of recyclables with
Automated Waste Collection Systems:
a) Installation of additional inlets283
In order to collect pre-sorted waste, one or more inlets are installed, one for each
fraction. In the collection terminal additional containers, one for each type of waste are
installed. The inlets are emptied under the control of a computer which also directs the
waste to the appropriate container. This means that the different fractions are collected,
transported and stored separately.
In figure 34 we can see a three way diverter valve. “The pneumatic three-directional
pipe diverter valve is incorporated in the pipe system to direct the waste from a
common waste transport pipe to the two cyclone separators or to the F-container.”284
Fig. 34: Three way diverter valve in different positions
Source:
281
282
283
284
PIEBER, M., Göteborg, Mai 2006
ENVAC: Technical description of Terminal system 500, Stockholm 2001, p. 9
80
KOGLER
There are different ways of installing additional inlets:285
• If the inlets are situated inside a building and each fraction is given a chute of its
own running through all floors in the building. This solution offers maximum
service for the inhabitants
• Another option is that for the main fractions there is one chute running through
all the floors. Additional inlets for the other fractions are situated on the entrance
level only
• The third option is to install one inlet for the main fraction running through all
floors and to install inlets for all other fractions out-door. That means that outdoor inlets are evenly positioned throughout the area
• The chute selection methods presented above could be mixed in order to get the
best solution for each project/collection area
b) Bag selection286
This method has been tested in Sweden with satisfying results for the company
ENVAC. The fractions tested are ‘wet waste’ (organic kitchen waste for compost),
‘dry waste’ (for combustion) and newspapers (for recycling). The different fractions
tested are deposited in bags of different colours: black for ‘wet waste’, white for ‘dry
waste’ and blue for newspaper. The bags are all deposited in one and the same inlet.
The mixed bags are then transported altogether to the same container in the collection
station. With the help of an optical measuring system, the bags are automatically
divided into different containers for further treatment. According to the company’s
information, the test went extremely well with bags of a thickness of 0.08 mm. This
thickness is slightly higher than that of standard waste collection bags.
4.2.7 Function
The underlying chapter will provide detailed explanation of function and the transport
cycle of vacuum suction systems.
The following steps are chronologically taken in a transport cycle:287
Before the transport cycle starts, all valves are in the closed position.
“The system will be started with different methods.
285
286
287
ENVAC: Functional Description –Stationary vacuum collecting system, Stockholm 2005, p. 6
81
KOGLER
Time-based:
The collection cycle starts at preset times independent of the
amount of waste actually in the system. The collection cycle is
controlled by start times for the different branches.
Level based:
The collection cycle starts when the volume of waste in one or
more specific gravity chutes triggers a level switch. The collection
cycle then either collects the waste from all inlets, from inlets
specified in a program or only inlets with a level indication.
Combination:
These two different collection modes can be combined and the
system may then, for example, start at a predefined time and
collect the waste only from the inlets with a level indication.
One or more levels indicators may also interrupt a predefined
collection cycle in another part of the system. When the wastes
from these inlets have been collected, the system resumes the
interrupted collection cycle.“288
“The sequence of a waste transport cycle is as follows:
1) The exhauster is started and a static negative depressure is created in the
horizontal pipe system.
2) The air-inlet valve of the first branch is opened and an air stream is created
in the pipe, with a velocity of about 18-24 m/s.
3) After a short period, the first discharge valve opens and the waste bags fall
down by gravity suction in the horizontal transport pipe.
4) The waste is transported at a velocity of 50-70 km/h to the collection station.
In the collection station the diverter valve directs the waste from a common
waste transport pipe to the cyclone-separators or to the F-container. The
waste is separated from the transport air in the cyclone or in the F-container.
The separated residual waste and paper, passes from the lower part of the
cyclone to the compactor which compresses the refuse into a container.
5) After a period of 7-10 seconds, the first discharge valve closes.
6) After a few seconds, the second discharge valve on the same branch opens
and the above mentioned procedure is repeated.
7) The air inlet valve of the first branch closes and after a short interval the
corresponding valve of the second branch opens.
8) The procedure is repeated until all branches and discharge valves are
emptied.
288
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KOGLER
9) The control equipment registers that the transport cycle is finished.
10) The valve, which connects the horizontal waste pipe system with the
exhausters, is closed.”289
The cycle is illustrated in figure 35 below.
Fig. 35: Scheme of a suction system
Source:
The market for suction systems is very attractive regarding the market volume and the
prospects of the future. There are only a few players in this niche area and thus the
competitive pressure is quite low.290 The market for vacuum suction systems is still in
the growth phase according to GENTER.
289
290
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KOGLER
Fig. 36: Product life cycle
Source:
Finally some pros and cons of suction systems should be discussed.
Advantages:
• Enhancement of living conditions291
• “Fully automatic system without manual physical work
• Availability 24 hours, 365 days a year
• Elimination of waste and waste bins in the streets and in the backyards
• Elimination of more than 70% of the waste collection vehicle driving and
emissions
• Support of source separation of several fractions
• Quiet, clean and hygienic
• Lowers the total collection cost over the system life time
• Results in a better use of public spaces and building surfaces”292
• Lower operation and maintenance costs293
291
292
293
MARTINEZ ORGADO, C. : Incentives for the Lawful disposal of Wastes in Mallorca, Presentation at the Viennese Waste
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KOGLER
Disadvantages:
• Higher initial investment costs (compared to other collection systems)294
• Potential loss of jobs in waste collection sector
• Use of plastic bags which increases waste (compare chapter 2)
• Only applicable in high density areas295
• Retrofitting of existing buildings is not possible296
• Implementation not always possible depending on the subsoil (cables, sewage
system, underground system etc.)
• Noise impact during construction phase
• Problems regarding landlords (how achieve a mandatory participation, who pays
for implementation?)297, 298
4.3 Case studies
The system has been in use for over 40 years and is increasingly used in more and
more countries now that governments start to see that the solution provided by
ENVAC is a modern and efficient way to deal with growing waste management
issues.299
In the beginning of the 1960s the system was installed in northern European countries
such as Sweden, Norway and Denmark. In the last few years, southern Europe and
especially Spain has realized the system’s potential and advantages and thus started to
implement it in its urbanisation processes. Additionally non European countries have
realized that this waste collection system provides a good solution for waste collection
and transportation. Several countries in Asia, among these Singapore, Hong Kong,
South Korea, Malaysia and others have already installed several systems. 300
The following pages should provide the reader with different fields of application and
furthermore illustrate the diverse areas of implementation for the system.
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
See chapter 5.2.1
this is only true for large installations that are used in cities, small installations for kitchens or hospitals do not have
anything to do with the density of a region.
only true for systems that are installed in buildings with gravity chutes
Interview with ZERZ, H. J., Leiter der Müll- und Altstoffsammlung der MA48, 30.01.2006
this problem is according to the interview with Mr. ZERZ one of the most important as far as the implementation of vacuum
suction systems in Vienna is concerned
ENVAC: www.envac.net, 15.12.2005 and information received from ENVAC
ENVAC: www.envac.net, 15.12.2005 and information received from ENVAC
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KOGLER
4.3.1 Denmark
In Denmark’s capital, Copenhagen there are many suction systems in operation. Latest
projects include Havnestad, which is a new residential district only 2 km away from
the centre of Copenhagen. In this area more than 1,000 new apartments are being built.
This new residential area is only one out of many new projects in Denmark.
Approximately 4,300 apartments will be built over the next three years. The estimated
amount of waste to be collected each day is about 1.5 tons a day. Although there are
many systems in Denmark that collect 2 different fractions, in this case there is only
one fraction collected. All waste handling facilities including the waste terminal are
located underground, which in turn creates more space on the ground level that can be
used in order to improve quality and standard of living of the residents accommodated
there.301
The property owners and residents in Havnestad/Denmark have found a unique
financial solution. A local waste company finances the installation plus maintenance
and operation of the system. “The residents pay an annual rent in addition to the
charge for waste collection, which is considerably lower than for traditional waste
collection.”302
Another system was installed along the quay in Nyhavn, in the old part of the city of
Copenhagen. This system was started in 1996 and consists of 8 inlets. The particular
aspect of this installation is that both municipal and commercial waste (from nonproducing companies) is collected. Namely waste from 150 apartments and about 120
restaurants and bars. During summertime the system has to manage a total of
approximately 60 tons of waste a week.303
4.3.2 Norway304
The airport Gardermoen in Oslo is equipped with a suction system for 3 different
fractions305. The interesting fact about this system is that from the inception of the
planning process, environmental infrastructure was taken into considerations. So the
waste collection system by ENVAC was part of the construction plans from the very
beginning. According to the company, the main reasons why the system was chosen
were minimization of traffic in the area and the improvement safety and hygiene
conditions. In total, around 1,730 metres of pipes were installed and there are exactly
68 inlets in use.
301
302
303
304
305
ENVAC :www.envac.net, 15.12.2005
The fractions collected are: 2 different types of paper and incinerable
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KOGLER
4.3.3 Spain
4.3.3.1 Seville
The monumental city centre of Seville, Santa Cruz was equipped with a vacuum
suction system in the year 2002. The historic centre, which is very crowded with
people, especially tourists, consists of very narrow streets. That’s the reason why the
city council decided to install a vacuum suction system. The system has a capacity of
3,700 apartments and 42 inlets that are equally distributed in the area. In total, there
are 3,700 metres of pipes and there is only one fraction to be collected.306
4.3.3.2 Victoria-Gasteiz
Another example of the installation of a suction system into a historic centre is the city
of Victoria-Gasteiz in the Basque Country. Here again, the system was built in order to
replace the complicated task of manual waste collection which was quite difficult due
to the commercial activities and narrow streets in this area. This project with 180 inlets
and a pipe network of 4,200 metres started to operate in 2002.307
Fig. 37: Waste inlets in the historic city centre of Victoria-Gasteiz
Source:
306
307
87
KOGLER
4.3.3.3 Mallorca
The Spanish city of Palma de Mallorca, decided to install an automated waste
collection system in 1999. The system was installed in the historical centre of the city
which is the largest in Europe. The collection station is situated 100 metres from the
sea and is placed underground. In total, there are 345 inlets in the streets, with a
combination of commercial, domestic and mixed waste inlets.308
The following problems occurred through the implementation of the system:
•
“Ignorance of the correct performance on the part of the citizens
• Lack of co-operation from some citizens (they put the garbage bags around the
collection boxes instead of inside them)
• High noise level in the external aeration systems
• Request to change the site of a number of collection boxes
• Public works in numerous streets to build the required 9,1 km network of
subterranean pipes” 309
Nearly all of these problems could be solved. First of all, an information and
advertising campaign, including the following actions, was started:
• “Edition and distribution of brochures
• Door-to-door visits to every household affected by the new area
• Intense informative campaign in the most relevant media Mallorca
• Organization of a set of meetings and conferences with community associations,
trade unions, business and other social associations”310
Some of the collection points were relocated and silencers were installed in order to
reduce the noise levels.311 This case study stresses the importance of communication
regarding the usage and the working of the system. If people do not know how to use
the system, participation and thus collection quotas will be low.
308
309
310
311
88
KOGLER
4.3.4 China
The last case study to be presented in this paper is the Hong Kong Science Park. This
project will occupy an area of 22 hectares and provide a gross floor area of 330,000
square metres. The development will be completed in 3 phases. The last phase is
scheduled to be completed in 2009. The Hong Kong Science Park is a state of the art
campus that is used as a hub for innovative and technology enterprises. The installed
automated waste handling system is the first in Asia to feature a double chute system.
This means that two fractions namely recyclable paper and combustables are collected
separately. Another interesting feature of the system are the stainless steel pipes and
waste chutes in order to prevent corrosion due to its close proximity to the sea.312
In the presented case studies, the author tried to present different kinds of projects with
partly totally different scenarios. It can be seen from the case studies that such suction
systems can be installed in newly erected residential areas, old and historic city centres
and commercial buildings such as hospitals, offices and airports.
Another important fact to be made clear at this point is that the systems don’t have to
be large installations, serving many buildings and apartments. The case studies
provided above show that often there are also small systems installed with only two or
three inlets for instance.
Another interesting aspect that can be derived from the case studies above is that
countries with a very limited amount of space have discovered the possibility of
underground collection of waste by vacuum suction systems.313
312
313
for example large cities in China, Korea and Singapore
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KOGLER
5
5. Comparison of different waste collection systems
COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT WASTE COLLECTION SYSTEMS
5.1 Criteria for comparison
In order to rate collection systems, they have to be seen as part of complete waste
logistics system. Thereby, ecologic, economic and social criteria can be used. In the
following chapters, the different criteria are divided into two main groups, namely
quantifiable and non-quantifiable aspects. Each main group consists of a specific
number of sub-criteria. Quantifiable criteria are defined in a sense that there can be
measured by objective criteria. Example given: noise by decibel [dB], costs in Euro
[EUR] or worker safety in number of accidents per year. Whereas non quantifiable
criteria are rather subjective such as odour and hygiene which can only be rated in a
ranking with better or worse than other collection systems. At the end of chapter 5, the
gained conclusions will be used in order to provide the reader with a ranking according
to the criteria described above.
As opposed to the often precise calculations of waste treatment facilities for diverse
options of recycling and waste disposal, the collection of waste often deals with
inappropriate and partially old numbers, because there are only a few studies on the
different effects of collection systems.314
For this reason, the numbers and figures of this chapter are mainly taken from the
study Hammarby Sjöstad – Västra Sjöstaden – comparison of manual waste
handling and stationary vacuum suction for three fractions, Stockholm 2004 carried
out by SWECO, a Swedish business consultant. The company was assigned, by the
request of the City of Stockholm and Real Estate Administration, to calculate the
operating and investment costs of manual waste handling and a stationary vacuum
suction system. The target area was a newly constructed residential area in the centre
of Stockholm, named Hammarby Sjöstad.315
Due to corresponding data availability, the comparisons focus on traditional waste
collection (manual handling) and vacuum suction systems.
314
315
BACH, H., et al.: Optimierungspotentiale in der Entsorgungslogistik – Studie im Auftrag des Bundesministeriums für
Verkehr, Innovation und Technologie Wien, Institut für Technologie u. Warenwirtschaftslehre d. Wirtschaftsuniv. Wien,
2003, p. 119
SWECO VIAK AB: Hammarby Sjöstad – Västra Sjöstaden – comparison of manual waste handling and stationary vacuum
suction for three fractions, Stockholm 2004, p. 1
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KOGLER
The study mentioned above offers a holistic view on both collection systems including
all details. The following consequences were investigated:
a) “Consequences for nature and environment
• Acidification potential [kmol H+/year]
• Global Warming potential [kg CO2/year]
• Eutrophication potential [kg O2/year]
• Photochemical ozone potential [kg C2H4/year]
• Particles from vehicles [g/year]
• Traffic load in region [km/year]
• Energy housekeeping
• Material housekeeping in life cycle perspective
b) Consequences for the working environment
• Musculoskeletal ergonomics
• Hygiene
c) Consequences for the living environment
• Noise
• Odour
• Fire safety
• Traffic load inside living area
• Impact during construction phase” 316
Some of these criteria, mentioned above are subject to closer examination in the
following paragraphs. The other results will be summarized in a table in appendix 7.1.
316
AXELSSON, S.: Economic Analysis and Environmental Assessment - Hammarby Sjöstad – Summary,
Stockholm 2004, p. 17 f
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KOGLER
As a start, the area itself will be described in detail:
General Data
No. of dwellings
2,095
Waste Amounts
[ton/year]
Combustible waste
Paper waste
Organic waste
471
175
218
Driving distances
[km]
Driving up distance (from garage to region)
To treatment plant
Return distance (from region to garage)
4
8
4
Table 4: General information on the Stockholm region Hammarby Sjöstad
Source:
Stockholm 2004, p. 5
5.2 Quantifiable criteria
5.2.1 Costs
Costs play an important role in political decision making processes. All the different
measures presented in chapter 2.3 are based around being able to rationalise waste
collection and transportation mostly focus on the primary goal of cost reduction. That
is the reason why costs will be the first factor to be investigated in this chapter.
Likewise, it is of interest to find out whether it is true that vacuum suction systems are
generally more expensive solutions for waste collection.
Rental income for saved space on the ground floor:
A very interesting approach that was used by the authors of the Hammarby Sjöstad
study was the calculation of rental income for saved space (not occupied by waste
bins) through the installation of a vacuum suction system. The place that is not used if
a vacuum suction system is applied can actually be used for other things such as
parking lots or other infrastructural installations. Thus the total amount of square
metres saved has to be taken into consideration if two collection systems are
compared. In the case of the region Hammarby Sjöstad, a total of 1,366 m2 can be
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KOGLER
released if a stationary vacuum suction system is chosen.317
“According to information from the housing developer JM/Ms Annelie Svensson, the
rental incomes for premises on the ground floor in Hammarby Sjöstad range from
EUR 128 – 181/ m2 per year, depending on location. The calculation is supplemented
with an average rental income of EUR 160 /m2 per year on the ground floor (1,366 m2
for a total of 52 waste rooms / service places) that could be leased in the event of
vacuum suction being used. By way of comparison, a parking lot in a garage costs
around EUR 1,920 per year.”318
Preliminary
Calculation
52 service places,
3 Fractions
2,095 Apartments
Manual waste
handling
Stationary vacuum
suction, primary
and secondary
networks
%
Investment
collection system
[EUR]
Operating costs,
Collection system
[EUR/year]
Total operating and
capital cost
(6% cost of capital)
[EUR/year]
2,949,835
271,696
486,031
4,728,408
87,904
431,415
+37.6%
-67.6%
-11.2%
Table 5: Comparison of total operating and capital costs for the region Hammarby Sjöstad
Source:
319
SWECO VIAK AB: Hammarby Sjöstad – Västra Sjöstaden – comparison of manual waste handling and stationary
vacuum suction for three fractions, Stockholm 2004, p. 3
Table 5 illustrates the total operating and capital costs for the region Hammarby
Sjöstad in the Swedish capital Stockholm. As one can see, the investment costs are
approximately 38% higher for a stationary vacuum suction system. As opposed to the
operational costs being three times lower compared to manual waste handling. Table 6
summarizes the costs for the same calculation (6% cost of capital and 30 year’s
depreciation) focusing on the costs per apartment (dwelling). The calculated
differences of the example of table 6 are identical with the figures in table 5 and were
therefore omitted.
317
318
319
Preliminary calculation (6% cost of capital, 30 year’s depreciation, no rental income), excl. VAT. Operating costs for the
year 2005
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KOGLER
Preliminary
calculation
per apartment
(dwelling)
Investment
collection system
Per apartment,
EUR320
Operating costs,
collection system
Per apartment,
EUR/year
Total operating
and capital costs,
6% cost of capital
per apartment,
EUR/year
Manual waste
handling
1,406 EUR
130 EUR/year
232 EUR/year
Stationary vacuum
suction, primary
and secondary
networks
2,254 EUR
43 EUR/year
206 EUR/year
Table 6: Comparison of operating- and investment costs per dwelling
Source:
321
SWECO VIAK AB: Hammarby Sjöstad – Västra Sjöstaden – comparison of manual waste handling and stationary
vacuum suction for three fractions, Stockholm 2004, p. 4
Another comparison of costs, occurring in manual waste handling and stationary
suction systems, was carried out by BoDAB; a company specialising in operations and
maintenance for housing in Greater Stockholm. The study compares the existing
automated waste installation in the Södra Station (Southern Station) area in Stockholm
with a hypothetical system for manual waste collection in the same area according to
regulations and rates in 1999.322, 323
320
321
322
323
Original currency SEK (Swedish Crowns), converted by the author with the exchange rate: 1 EUR = 9,37589 SEK,
15.03.2006
Preliminary calculation (6% cost of capital, 30 year’s depreciation, no rental income) comparison per apartment, excl. VAT.
Operating costs for the year 2005
BoDAB: City planning with and without Vacuum waste handling, Stockholm 1999, p. 1
General data of the installation: 3,240 dwellings and three office buildings by means of 178 gravity chutes.
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KOGLER
Preliminary
calculation
per
apartment
(dwelling)
Investment
collection
system
Per
apartment,
[EUR]
Operating
costs,
collection
system
Per
apartment,
[EUR/year]
Capital
investment
for
equipment
[EUR/year]
Rent loss
due to
garbageand
valve rooms
[EUR/year]
Total annual
costs
[EUR/year]
Manual
waste
handling
1,259
EUR
64
EUR/year
39
EUR/year
104
EUR/year
207
EUR/year
Stationary
vacuum
suction,
primary and
secondary
networks
1,479
EUR
52
EUR/year
82
EUR/year
18
EUR/year
152
EUR/year
%
+14.9%
-18.8%
+52.4%
-82.7%
-26.6%
Table 7: Comparison of costs per dwelling in Södra Station, Stockholm
Source:
BoDAB: City planning with and without Vacuum waste handling, Stockholm 1999, p. 3 (adapted)
After the presentation of two different studies dealing with the same subject one can
see that both results are quite similar. No matter which study dealing with the
comparison of costs between traditional manual waste handling and stationary vacuum
suction systems was carried out, the following similarities can be seen:324
• Higher investment costs for suction systems
• Lower operating costs
• Lower costs per year/dwelling for stationary suction systems
According to the results presented in the study: Hammarby Sjöstad showed that no
matter which depreciation time and yield for capital cost is used, stationary vacuum
suction systems were in total always cheaper than manual waste handling. If the rental
income for saved space on the ground floor is taken into account, the operating costs
can be even lower compared to manual waste handling. This results in lower total
costs for stationary suction systems.325
324
325
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KOGLER
Concluding, it can be stated that with vacuum suction systems a decrease in costs can
be achieved when the number of dwellings increases (through optimised degree of
utilization), whereas in traditional waste collection the opposite is true.326
5.2.2 Traffic load
Waste collection activities increasingly contribute to traffic load in urban areas. The
separate collection of recyclables generally leads to more transport since several
fractions are often collected separately in different collection runs (additive
collection). Even if the share of waste transportation is quite low in comparison to the
transportation of cargo, the collection activities within densely populated areas lead to
a high traffic load and considerable emissions of exhaust gas pollution. For this reason,
many cities are currently trying to implement measures aiming at the reduction of
traffic load and emissions caused by waste collection activities.327
As presented in the introduction, increasing traffic volumes and congestion are trends
waste collection is faced with, especially in inner city areas.328 The aim of this chapter
is to find out which collection systems are able to decrease traffic load and congestion
in the collection area and regionally.
If traffic load is compared, one has to differentiate between traffic generated in the
collection area329 and traffic generated in the region330. If a stationary vacuum system
is applied, the number of collection runs within the collection area is almost zero (see
table 8). Although this does not mean that other transport is not involved in waste
disposal if a vacuum suction system is applied. As presented in chapter 4, the waste
transported to the waste collection terminal still has to be distributed to final treatment
facilities (compare figure 38). For this reason there is still transport connected with the
usage of a vacuum suction system.
326
327
328
329
330
ERBEL, A.: Pneumatischer Mülltransport in Rohrleitungen, in: Müll-Handbuch, Kennzahl 2350, Lieferung 21, Erich
through collection activities
through transfer to final treatment facilities
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Collection vehicle movements inside collection
area
Stationary vacuum
system
Manual collection
system
0
1,115 km/year
Table 8: Traffic load in collection area
Source:
Table 8 shows the transport, occurring through collection processes in the collection
area Hammarby Sjöstad. Since the collection process is automated and there are no
collection vehicle movements inside the collection area.
Figure 38 illustrates the different transport occurring in the two systems, namely
traditional, manual waste handling and a stationary vacuum system stressing the fact
that also in vacuum suction systems collection vehicles are used in order to transport
the waste generated to final treatment facilities.
Fig. 38: Schematic depiction of transport occurring in kerbside and vacuum suction systems
Source:
by the author and BEIGL, P.: Vergleich der Umweltauswirkungen und der Kosten von kommunalen
Entsorgungssystemen – unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Transporte bei der Abfallentsorgung, Diplomarbeit
an der Universität für Bodenkultur, Wien 2002, p. 13
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Figure 39 below illustrates that in the case of the region Hammarby Sjöstad, regional
traffic load could not be significantly reduced through implementing a vacuum suction
system.
Fig. 39: Regional traffic load
Source:
Although, according to the study carried out by BoDAB, in Södra Station, Stockholm
the “transport from the area to the refuse incineration station are reduced by half since
the refuse is better compacted in the automated refuse installation and the container
trucks have a better loading capacity.”331 This indicates that if a suction system is
applied, the reduction of regional traffic load can vary depending on the region.
It can be concluded that even though there are no collection activities with collection
vehicles in the collection area, if a vacuum suction system is applied, there are still
waste transport activities in the region through transfer of waste to final treatment
facilities. But in total, vacuum suction systems reduce traffic load considerably
compared to manual waste handling.
Strongly correlated to traffic load, is noise caused by vehicle movements in the
collection areas. The impact of noise caused by collection activities is subject to
detailed discussion in the next chapter.
331
BoDAB: City planning with and without Vacuum waste handling, Stockholm 1999, p. 3
98
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5.2.3 Noise
A very important prerequisite to be met by any collection system is noise reduction. A
system has to be as quiet as possible and limit disturbance to the residents. Especially
in large cities the noise produced by traffic and especially heavy traffic can reach
considerable levels (see table 9). The noise generated during waste collection and
transportation with collection vehicles originates mostly from container handling
although compaction and reversing create considerable noise too.332
For example the city of Melbourne in Australia issued a code333 dealing with the
management of noise during waste collection. Likewise, the Danish waste disposal
company R98334, is working on measures that can be applied in order to reduce noise
levels regarding waste collection.335 Also the city of Vienna launched a project dealing
with noise level reduction in waste collection activities (see chapter 5.2.4.2.).
Depending on the collection method and system, different noise levels and durations
occur. In the following subchapters traditional waste collection with rear loading
trucks and vacuum suction systems are subject to detailed investigation regarding
noise.
332
333
334
335
ERIKSEN, S.: Reduction of noise nuisance due to waste collection for the inhabitants of Copenhagen, in: 13th European
Water, Wastewater and Solid Waste Symposium at IFAT Munich 2005, VKS Service GmbH (Ed.), p. 115 f
The city of Melbourne: The management of noise from waste collection – A code of practice, Melbourne 2005,
http://www.melbourne.vic.gov.au/rsrc/PDFs/Noise/WasteCollectionCodeofConduct.pdf
The R98 is a Danish private, non-profit waste disposal company
ERIKSEN, S.: Reduction of noise nuisance due to waste collection for the inhabitants of Copenhagen, in: 13th European
Water, Wastewater and Solid Waste Symposium at IFAT Munich 2005, VKS Service GmbH (Ed.), p. 115 f
99
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5.2.3.1 Traditional collection with rear loading trucks
In the following paragraphs different levels of noise pollution occurring in traditional
waste collection systems will be discussed.
Type of noise
source
By collection
point for rear
loading truck
Vehicle
movements in
area
Total noise
impact for the
whole area per
week
Duration of
the noise
event
[time]
Noise level
Noise sources
[dBA]
[No. of]
4 min
75-88
130
2.5
46 min
75
The whole area
2.9
10. 8 h
75-88
Number of
noise events
[per source &
week]
Table 9: Outdoor noise for the whole area of Hammarby Sjöstad – Manual waste handling
Source:
5.2.3.2 Vacuum suction systems
Type of noise
source
Duration of
the noise
event
[time]
Noise level
Noise sources
[dB(A)]
[No. of]
Air inlet valve (1
metre distance)
10 sec
55-72
20
280
Outdoor inlet (1
metre distance)
5 sec
55-72
156
2,184
4.0 h
55-72
Total
noise
impact for the
whole area per
week
Number of
noise events
[per source &
week]
Table 10: Outdoor noise for the whole area of Hammarby Sjöstad – Vacuum suction system
Source:
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Tables 9 and 10 indicate that in traditional waste collection the total time of noise
impact per week for the region Hammarby Sjöstad, is approximately 2.7 times longer
compared to the utilisation of a stationary vacuum suction system. In addition, the
noise level in dB(A) is higher as well.
In conclusion one can say that with stationary vacuum collection systems noise
pollution can be reduced.
5.2.3.3 Exkursus – Project SYLVIE
An interesting project, dealing with noise reduction among waste collection vehicles in
the city of Vienna is the project “SYLVIE”.336 The EU-sponsored project is aiming at
noise reduction occurring/generated through waste collection and other activities of
vehicles belonging to the Vienna municipal department for waste management MA48.
Furthermore, the project should achieve noise reduction in a chosen part of Vienna
through a cooperative method. In this project, noise itself is not only seen as a
technical problem, but also as a social phenomenon. Through “SYLIVIE”, all
stakeholders involved should develop a special awareness about noise and the
problems connected with it.337
The following measures are taken:338
• Purchase of more silent vehicles
• Noise level check of the complete fleet
• Modification of the audio-warning beepers339 of 477 vehicles
• Purchase of silent tyres with the aim to lower noise levels below 74 dB(A) at a
speed of 50 km/h
Measures to be taken by the drivers: 340
• Avoid unnecessary reversing
• Appliance of all technical possibilities, regarding each type of vehicle
• To switch off the audio warning beeper of all vehicles with a swap-body
equipped with a rear-view camera
336
337
338
339
340
Abbreviation for the German term: Systematische Lärmsanierung von innerstädtischen Wohnvierteln
Projekt Sylvie: http://www.plansinn.at/sites/sylvie/, 16.03.2006
Project Sylvie: http://www.plansinn.at/sites/sylvie/, 16.03.2006
indicating when the vehicle is reversing
Project Sylvie: http://www.plansinn.at/sites/sylvie/, 16.03.2006
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• Usage of the switch to lower the sound of the audio warning beeper
• Usage of legal possibilities, i.e. switching off the audio warning beeper and
simultaneously switch-on flashing warning lights between 10 o’clock pm and
5 o’clock am
• Over time change of gears in order to reduce the noise level of the engine
This project shows on one hand that noise pollution is regarded as an important factor
harmful to public health and immediate measures have to be taken in order to reduce
noise levels. On the other hand, one can see that investments are taken in order to
achieve lower noise levels. One has to bear in mind that this money could be partly
used elsewhere if other waste collection systems (being quieter) were applied.
5.2.4 Safety for collection workers
“Waste collection is generally an area of business with a high rate of work injuries.”341
Thus, safety for workers has become a more and more important issue in waste
collection processes. In 1994, the Danish Working Environment Authority issued new
guidelines dealing with waste handling and working security in this field. The
following rules were issued:342
• “No manual lifting and carrying of containers or bags
• No manual loading of containers of bags onto collection vehicle
• No stairs or steps
• Maximum pulling/towing force for containers: 200 Newton
• If impossible to avoid carrying the maximum to be lifted are 75-litre bags (max.
20 bags per person and day)”343
Most of these rules were accomplished through the implementation of small cranes,
lifting the containers from cellars to the ground level or if the containers have to be
carried over steps, special aluminium ramps are installed in order to avoid heavy
lifting and carrying. In figure 40 below, both options for container handling are
presented.344
341
342
343
344
NILSSON, P.: The influence of new working standards on the collection of household waste, Presentation at the
Viennese Waste Management Conference, Vienna 2001, p. 6 f
102
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Fig. 40: Methods for improved container handling
Source.
Waste Disposal Company R98
Figures 41 and 42 below illustrate the comparison of the Swedish average and
conventional waste handling sector according to work related fatalities and accidents.
The figures show that work related fatalities are nearly double the Swedish average.
The number of work related accidents, measured in weeks of absenteeism, is by far
more than double as high as the Swedish average. These numbers stress the
importance of measures increasing worker safety and improved working conditions in
the conventional waste handling sector.
Fig. 41: Work related fatalities per 1000 gainfully employed men
Source:
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Fig. 42: Work related accidents per 1000 gainfully employed men
Source:
Similar numbers are presented in a study dealing with health and safety standards for
the U.K.:
• “The overall accident rate for the waste industry in 2001/02 is estimated to be
around 2,500 per 100,000 workers. This is around four times the national rate
(559 per 100,000 workers)
• The fatal injury accident rate for the waste industry in 2001/02 is estimated to be
around 10 per 100,000 workers. This is ten times the national rate (0.9 per
100,000 workers)
• The major injury accident rate for the waste industry in 2001/02 is estimated to
be around 330 per 100,000 workers. This is more than three times the national
rate (101per 100,000 workers)”345
Work related injuries mainly derive from handling heavy, sharp objects and awkward
loads. Those accidents resulting in fatal or major injuries derive from being struck by
waste collection vehicles, falling objects, trips and low falls are particularly
significant.346
If we consider the information presented in chapter 4, dealing with the explanation of
vacuum suction systems, we can see that with this system no such problems occur.
Since with stationary vacuum suction systems, no bags or containers have to be
emptied and lifted by a collection crew. The waste is disposed of by the residents in
345
346
Health and Safety Executive (ed.): Mapping health and safety standards in the UK waste industry, Research Report
RR240, Maidenhead U.K. 2004, p. 9
Health and Safety Executive (ed.): Mapping health and safety standards in the UK waste industry, Research Report
RR240, Maidenhead U.K. 2004, p. 10
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small bags and collected automatically and finally transferred through a pipe network
to the containers situated in collection terminal.347
On the contrary if other collection systems are applied, one has to differentiate
between waste collections with:
a) Waste collection with rear-loading trucks348
If rear-loading trucks are used in waste collection, sometimes up to 5 men (see chapter
2.2.4) are needed in order to fulfil the collection process. The collection process
involves lifting and dragging of containers and bags. Especially in inner cities where
space is limited, the workers have to carry the containers over steps which adds
additional working load to the collection crew. Furthermore, the personnel work
mainly on the open street which means an additional source of danger.349
b) Side- and Front loading trucks350
As already discussed in chapters 2.2.3.1.1 and 2.3.2.1.2 front- and side-loading
vehicles have certain advantages compared to rear-loading trucks especially regarding
worker safety. Since the containers are emptied automatically by the driver, without a
collection crew, no heavy lifting and carrying is necessary during the collection run.
Although it has to be noted that, side- and front-loading trucks can not be used in
densely populated areas.351
In conclusion one has to say that the highest level of worker safety can be achieved by
utilizing vacuum suction systems. Figure 43 illustrates the levels of worker safety in
different collection systems. Since there is no corresponding data available regarding
the exact numbers of workers health in different collection systems the length of the
bars hierarchically mirrors the results gained in this chapter.
347
348
349
350
351
The consequences drawn in this subchapter are based on the facts presented in chapter 2.1.3.1.1
PIEBER, M.: Waste collection from urban households – In Europe and Australia, in: Waste Management World, JulyAugust 2004, p. 117 f
The consequences drawn in this subchapter are based on the facts presented in chapter 2.1.3.1.2 and 2.1.3.1.3
see chapter 2.1.3.1.1 advantages of side-loading trucks
105
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Fig. 43: Comparison of collection systems regarding worker’s safety
Source:
own chart
5.3 Non-quantifiable criteria352
As mentioned earlier, non-quantifiable criteria, are determined subjectively. Since no
corresponding data was available for the comparison of quantifiable criteria regards
deep collection and underground compactors, these systems were not discussed in the
latter chapter. Anent non-quantifiable criteria, the information presented in chapter 3
will be used in order to implement these systems into the following comparison.
5.3.1 Hygiene
“Waste workers are at risk of being exposed to diseases such as hepatitis. Personal
hygiene is of the utmost importance to combat such risks. The use of personal
protection (such as gloves) alone is not enough - washing hands before eating or
smoking is essential. Food should not be consumed in the immediate workplace, but in
rooms provided for the purpose. Vaccination of workers against hepatitis is advisable
[…]. The health risks posed by micro organisms and dusts can be reduced by wearing
specified facemasks.”353
352
353
Due to the lack of corresponding data, the consequences drawn in this chapter are based on facts presented in the
chapters 2, 3 and 4
GREEDY, D.: A dangerous business – Health and safety issues for waste management operations, in: Waste
Management World, Sept. 2005, p. 34
106
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Furthermore, ISWA recommends that “waste collection is done in such a way, that
workers do not need to directly touch the waste. This can be done by securing waste in
bins or bags, so workers only handle waste properly binned or wrapped. At the same
time it is important that gloves, dust-mask, shovel and broom or other relevant
personal protection items like these are supplied to the worker”354
Another important issue in waste collection regarding hygiene is that “it must be
secured wherever practically possible, that collection workers are not exposed to dust
or micro organisms.”355
The information provided to the users of the waste removal systems plays an important
role as well. Information provided to the users should include guidelines for proper
wrapping and packing of waste.
Traditional systems
Rear-loading vehicles
In manual waste handling with rear-loading trucks workers are in contact with waste
during the collection activity. If bags are used, the problem is increased since bags can
easily be ripped. The use of solid containers improves hygienic conditions
considerably.356
Side- and front-loading vehicles
The utilisation of side- and front-loading trucks leads to better results in terms of
hygiene in waste collection. As presented in chapters 2.2.3.1.2 and 2.2.3.1.3 the
collection process is fulfilled by the driver, who manages emptying from the driving
cab. No collection crew is necessary in order to empty waste containers thus less direct
contact with waste.357 This leads to the assumption that if side- and front-loading
vehicles are applied, the level of hygiene is higher compared to manual waste
collection with rear-loading vehicles.
354
355
356
357
107
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Vacuum suction systems
In vacuum suction systems, hygiene is relatively high since waste does not need to be
touched by the workers. Waste is automatically transported through the pipe network
to the collection terminal, where it is compacted and stored in containers. The whole
process runs without manual collection activities.358 Hence, the level of hygiene is very
high in vacuum collection systems compared to other waste collection systems.
Deep collection
A higher degree of hygiene can be achieved with the utilisation of deep collection
since waste is collected at a depth of approximately 1 ½ metres. Through the larger
volume of the containers it is not so likely that containers are full and people dispose
of their wastes next to the containers. The special collection process, as described in
detail in chapter 3.1.1, enables enhanced hygienic conditions during the emptying
process. Both methods, namely the emptying with a hydraulic crane lifting the
collection bag and the utilization of mobile suction vehicles contribute to increased
hygiene in such waste collection activities.
Underground compactors
The explanation of the functioning of this collection system in chapter 3.1.2 showed
that one of the advantages of the system is that similar to deep collection, waste is
stored underground and emptied by container vehicles. The loading process is fully
automated thus a high level of hygiene is guaranteed. There is neither a high level of
dust generation nor is the worker directly in contact with the waste.359
358
359
108
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Fig. 44: Comparison of hygiene in different waste collection systems
Source:
own chart
Figure 44 summarizes the findings in this chapter in a sense that the length of the bars
hierarchically expresses the different levels of hygiene occurring in the collection
systems investigated.
5.3.2 Unpleasant odour
The avoidance of unpleasant odour is an important issue in urban waste collection
systems.360 Especially if the share of organic, easily decomposed materials is high, it
can lead to considerable malodour. In southern countries, with a hot climate, it is
recommended that household waste is collected daily in order to avoid odour
nuisance.361
“Odour nuisance mostly occurs even at very low concentrations and due to the
combined action of several substances, the determination of substances by means of
physical/chemical measurement methods is extremely costly or not possible at all.
Furthermore, the annoying effect of odours depends very much on the sensitivities and
the subjective attitudes of the affected persons. This requires consideration of a large
number of criteria when odours are to be detected/identified and assessed. Whether an
odour nuisance is significant and hence has harmful effects on the environment does
not only depend on the concentration of the pollutant but also on the type of odour, the
hedonic odour tone, the daily and seasonal distribution and the temporal pattern of
nuisance, the use of the affected area and some other criteria”362
360
361
362
Guideline on odour in ambient air (GOOA) - Determination and assessment of odour in ambient air, with background
information and interpretation of the GOAA, May 1999, p. 1
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In order to achieve a pleasant living environment and improved city air quality in
urban areas it is of importance to implement waste collection systems reducing smell
nuisance to an absolute minimum. In the following paragraphs the collection systems
are subject to investigation regarding smell nuisance originating from:363, 364
• Open exposure of waste
• Contamination of collection sites due to overflowing containers
Traditional systems
In manual waste handling unpleasant odour is a problem due to open exposure of
waste, especially at drop-off sites when receptacles are full and people place their
wastes next to the containers.365 In countries with a warm climate, where waste is
placed outside on the kerb in bags unpleasant odour is definitely an important factor to
be considered. On the other hand we have to distinguish between waste collection with
bags and containers. The latter option leads to better results concerning malodour
compared to the use of bags since most containers come with lids preventing
malodour.
Vacuum suction systems
In vacuum suction systems, fewer problems regarding smell nuisance can be noted
since the system is closed, there are filters and waste is stored below surface.
Likewise, the problem of collection site contamination (due to full containers), does
not occur in vacuum suction systems because if the capacity of the discharging station
is exhausted the emptying cycle is automatically initiated.366
Although as shown in the case of Mallorca (see chapter 4.3.3.3), if the public is not
fully informed about the function of the system it can lead to a problem regarding
unpleasant odour since people simply placed the bags next to the waste inlets. This
shows that even if the system in principal offers a high level of hygiene and smell
reduction, it still depends on the motivation and an informed population to allow it to
work efficiently.367
363
364
365
366
367
Interview with ZERZ, H. J., Leiter der Müll- und Altstoffsammlung der MA48, 30.01.2006
Management Conference, Vienna 2003, p. 12 f
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Deep collection
As already discussed in chapter 3.1.1 deep collection containers are suitable for
collecting large waste amounts on a smaller area compared to conventional waste bins.
This lowers the risk of overflowing bins and leads to a lower contamination level of
the collection site thus better results regarding unpleasant odour. Likewise, according
to VOGEL, overflowing waste bins have negative effects on the waste
accumulation.368 Additionally, one of the advantages of the system is that the waste
deposited is stored under the surface which leads to reduced smell nuisance as well.369
Underground compactors
Based on the facts provided in chapter 3.1.2, since waste is stored under surface and a
relatively large volume per site is provided, contamination of the collection site is
limited. In addition, the containers are closed, thus preventing open exposure of the
waste disposed of. Based on these facts, it can be assumed that the use of underground
compactors reduces unpleasant smell to a minimum.370
In figure 45 the findings of this subchapter are summarized.
Fig. 45: Comparison of level of unpleasant odour occurring in different waste collection
systems
Source:
368
369
370
own chart
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5.4 Collection systems and trends in waste management
To which extent are alternative collection systems able to meet current trends in waste
management?
The trends introduced in chapter 1 will be subject to further investigation. Each waste
collection system will be checked whether it is able to address these new trends. To
illustrate the results better, a grid will be used. As a basis for the comparison, the
explanations and facts provided in chapters 2, 3, 4 and 5 are used.
Table 11:
Source:
Collection systems and trends in waste management
own chart
According to the findings in the underlying thesis, all collection systems investigated
are able to ‘fulfil’ separated collection of recyclables and are able to deal with
increasing waste volumes.
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As far as increasing traffic volumes are concerned it has to be noted that collection
systems were investigated in a sense as to how they can contribute to a decrease in
traffic volumes and congestion in urban areas. Since in vacuum suction systems there
is no transport in the collection area (see figure 38 in chapter 5.2.2) these systems are
able to contribute to this aim. In all other collection systems investigated, collection
vehicles still play an important role, for this reason traditional collection, deep
collection and underground compactors do not address this issue.
Improved hygiene, working conditions and noise levels were carefully investigated in
the chapters 5.3.1, 5.2.4 and 5.2.3. The results are once more summarised in table 11.
Improved quality of life can be interpreted in a sense that noise reduction, integration
in urban structure and improved hygiene are factors determining this issue.
Since deep collection and underground compactors address at least two of these trends
mentioned above they are according to the author’s opinion able to improve quality of
life in urban areas. Based on the facts provided in chapter 4 and 5, with vacuum
suction systems, the highest improvement of quality of life in urban areas can be
achieved.
Concluding, as indicated in table 11, the collection systems being most suitable to
addressing these trends are vacuum suction systems.
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6
6. Conclusions
CONCLUSIONS
Traditional waste collection systems have been in use for centuries.371 As shown in
chapter 2, these systems consist of a number of inter related elements each playing
essential parts in waste collection processes.
As mentioned in chapter 1.4, part of the scope of this underlying thesis was to give a
general overview of latest developments and trends in waste collection and
transportation. The discussion of latest collection vehicles showed that front- and side
loaders have certain advantages compared to rear-loading trucks. Especially the
reduction of workers, resulting in cost savings and the improved worker safety are
among the most important advantages. Other latest developments such as vehicles with
subdivided build-ups and subdivided driving cabs are interesting and promising
concepts for increasing efficiency in waste collection as well.
The discussion of latest developments in waste collection was part of chapter 2.4. In
this context, route planning and supervision systems are particularly promising new
technologies enabling cost reduction and efficiency. The implementation of
supervision systems, as shown in the case study in the German city of Hamburg, can
lead to considerable reductions in fuel consumption, thus cost savings and in general
better fleet management.
The discussion of alternative waste collection such as deep collection and underground
compactors showed that these systems comprise of certain interesting features
particularly regarding improved waste collection activities.
In conclusion, regarding the criteria investigated and discussed in chapter 5, we can
see that in comparing to costs, in vacuum suction systems investment costs are nearly
twice as high as traditional waste collection. The total operating costs and capital costs
per year are lower for the operation of a stationary vacuum suction system. Depending
on depreciation time and interest for capital, the results vary372, but the total operating
costs were, according to the presented studies, always lower compared to manual
waste handling.
As far as traffic load is concerned, the presented numbers in chapter 5.2.2 show that
vacuum suction systems reduce traffic load in the collection area compared to manual
waste handling. Reduction of waste transport from the collection area to treatment
facilities can also be achieved but the results vary between different regions.
371
372
Depending on the studies and on the calculations, the difference in operational costs is 11.2 or 26.6 percent.
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6. Conclusions
Another criteria investigated in chapter 5.2.4 was noise caused by waste collection
activities. The tables presented, show that the total noise impact through the waste
collection process is lower if suction systems are applied. Likewise, the results show
that the noise level [dBA] is considerably lower in a region where a stationary vacuum
system is applied.
Safety for waste collection workers also played an essential part in the comparison of
the two presented systems. Since in vacuum collection systems no collection workers
are involved in the collection process, worker safety is less of an issue in this system.
Whereas, traditional manual waste handling still places high physical demands on the
workers, especially in kerbside collection if rear loaders are used. The manual
handling of the containers leads to a higher amount of worker related accidents. Better
results regarding worker safety can be achieved if rear- or side-loading vehicles are
used since container handling is automated. Although we should not forget that the use
of these vehicles is limited, especially in narrow inner city districts they can not be
used because of the limited space available.
Furthermore, as far as the levels of unpleasant odour and hygiene are concerned, the
facts presented in chapter 4 and 5 show that since vacuum suction systems are closed
systems, the problems of malodour and a low levels of hygiene do not exist. Waste is
stored underground and is emptied on a regular basis several times a day. In traditional
waste handling often severe illnesses, such as hepatitis can occur, for this reason
manual waste handling with rear-loading trucks bears the lowest level of hygiene. As
indicated in chapter 5.3.1 hygienic issues are important problems waste collection
workers are faced with.
Summing it up, suction systems such as the automated waste collection by ENVAC
are able to carry out waste collection efficiently and economically in regard to the
operating costs per year, more so than traditional waste collection systems. Another
important advantage of the system is reduced traffic load and improved working and
health conditions. Likewise, this system is the only one investigated that is able to
address the latest trends (as enumerated in chapter 5.4) affecting waste collection.
Although one has to say that suction systems will never fully replace traditional
manual waste collection. Especially in rural areas traditional collection will never be
replaced due to inefficiency in long distances between the sources. On the other hand,
in expanding cities, where new apartment complexes are built, suction systems could
be sustainable solutions, as the facts in the chapters 4 and 5 show.
As mentioned in chapter 3 waste management literature often does not fully cover
alternative waste collection systems. There are also often inappropriate descriptions of
systems, e.g. suction systems. One part of the underlying study was to examine
alternative waste collection systems and to find out whether current literature dealing
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6. Conclusions
with these issues is still up to date.
The following negative aspects considering vacuum suction systems were found in
literature dealing with waste collection systems:
•
•
•
•
Too expensive
Not appropriate and efficient
No separated collection is possible
Only practicable and efficient in new residential areas
The discussion of alternative systems in the chapters 4 and 5 showed that according to
latest studies and technological progress practically all of the disadvantages, regarding
vacuum suction systems, mentioned above, were confuted by practical examples and
that the presented innovative solutions are able to improve waste collection and
transportation if applied.
Another important ‘lesson learned’ is the fact that in urbanisation process, it is not
only the planning of the buildings that is important. It is primarily important to think
about other factors such as waste management from the very beginning. Because as
shown in the case studies in chapter 4.3 it is cheaper to integrate implementation of
vacuum suction systems in the planning process than installing them at a later point in
time.
“There will always be solid waste to manage. No matter how creative we are in
reducing the amount of solid waste, waste there will still be there and this must be
handled in an environmentally and economically sustainable manner.”373
“[…] solid waste management is changing and evolving rapidly and decisions need to
be taken about the future direction to take. Society needs to strive towards the total
quality goal of sustainable development.”374
373
374
1994, p. 324
1994, p. vii
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6. Conclusions
It is time to see and recognise the changes and new trends in waste collection and
transportation and to react accordingly. As already mentioned, environmental,
technical and civilisation issues have to be regarded in waste management and it is
time now to meet these new challenges.
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7
7. Appendix
APPENDIX
7.1 Summary of Västra Hammarby Sjöstad study375:
375
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8
8. References
REFERENCES
8.1 Books and studies
AXELSSON, S.: Economic Analysis and Environmental Assessment - Hammarby Sjöstad –
Summary, Stockholm 2004
BACH, H., et al.: Optimierungspotentiale in der Entsorgungslogistik: Studie im Auftrag des
Bundesministeriums für Verkehr, Innovation und Technologie Wien : Inst. für
Technologie u. Warenwirtschaftslehre d. Wirtschaftsuniv. Wien 2003
BoDAB: City planning with and without Vacuum waste handling, Stockholm 1999
BILITEWSKI, B./ HÄRDTLE, G./ MAREK, K.: Waste Management, Springer, Berlin 1997
ENVAC: General description of Vacuum Waste Collection System 500 for two fractions,
Stockholm 2001
ENVAC: General description of Vacuum Waste Collection System 500 for one fraction,
Stockholm 2001
ENVAC: Technical description Feeding system 500, Stockholm 2001
ENVAC: Functional Description –Stationary vacuum collecting system, Stockholm 2005
HEALTH AND SAFETY EXECUTIVE (ed.): Mapping health and safety standards in the
UK waste industry, Research Report RR240, Maidenhead, U.K. 2004
JACOBSEN, H., KRISTOFFERSEN, M.: Case studies on waste minimisation practices in
Europe, European Environment Agency, Copenhagen 2002
JENKINS, R.R.: The economics of solid waste reduction – The impact of user fees, Edward
Elgar Publishing, Hampshire 1993
LECHNER, P. (Hrsg.): Kommunale Abfallentsorgung (mit Beiträgen von Beigl, P., Binner,
E., Heiß-Ziegler, C., Huber-Humer, M., Iordanopoulos-Kisser, M., Lechner, P.,
Lebersorger, S., Mostbauer, P., Salhofer, S., Smidt, E., Stubenvoll, J., Wassermann,
G.), Facultas Verlags- und Buchhandels AG, Wien 2004
ÖSTERREICHISCHES STATISTISCHES ZENTRALAMT (Hrsg.): Umweltverhalten der
Österreicher, Ergebnisse des Mikrozensus 1988, Beiträge zur österr. Statistik,
Heft 1000, Wien 1990
RIS International et al.: Sustainable community design report – Appendix 5 solid waste and
demolition waste, Toronto 2004
119
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8. References
SALHOFER, St.: Kommunale Entsorgungslogistik - Planung, Gestaltung und Bewertung
entsorgungslogistischer Systeme für kommunale Abfälle, Erich Schmidt Verlag ,
Berlin 2001
SWECO VIAK AB: Hammarby Sjöstad – Västra Sjöstaden – comparison of manual waste
handling and stationary vacuum suction for three fractions, Stockholm 2004
TCHOBANOGLOUS, G. et al.: Integrated solid waste management – Engineering principles
and management issues, MCGraw-Hill, New York et al. 1993
WHITE, P. et al.: Integrated solid waste management: A lifecycle inventory, Blackie
Academic and Professional, London et al 1995
8.2 Books and Studies via Internet
CITY OF MELBOURNE (ed.): The management of noise from noise collection – A code of
practice, Melbourne 2005
http://www.melbourne.vic.gov.au/rsrc/PDFs/Noise/WasteCollectionCodeof
Conduct.pdf
COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN UNION: New waste strategy: Making Europe a
recycling society, Brussels Dec. 2005
http://europa.eu.int/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/05/1673&format=HT
ML&aged=1&language=EN&guiLanguage=en
COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN
PARLIAMENT, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE
AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS: A thematic strategy on the prevention
and recycling of waste, Brussels Dec. 2005
COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN
PARLIAMENT, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE
AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS: Towards a thematic strategy on the
urban environment, Brussels Nov. 2004
COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL AND THE
EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT: A Thematic Strategy on the urban environment,
Brussels Jan. 2006
EEA: Environment in the European Union at the turn of the century, Copenhagen 1999
120
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8. References
EEA: EEA-Signals 2004 – A European Environment Agency update on selected issues,
Copenhagen 2004
OECD: Strategic waste prevention, OECD reference manual, Paris Aug. 2000
http://www.olis.oecd.org/olis/2000doc.nsf/4f7adc214b91a685c12569fa005d0ee7/c125
68d1006e03f7c125692e004f054a/$FILE/00081387.PDF
8.3 Diploma and doctoral theses
BACH, H.: Die Entwicklung von Ökoinventaren für Sammelfahrzeuge zur Bewertung der
Umweltauswirkungen der Hol- und Bringsammlung von Haushaltsabfällen,
Dissertation der Universität Wien, Wien 2002
BEIGL, P.: Vergleich der Umweltauswirkungen und der Kosten von kommunalen
Entsorgungssystemen : unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Transporte bei der
Abfallentsorgung, Diplomarbeit am Institut für Wasservorsorge, Gewässerökologie
und Abfallwirtschaft (Abteilung Abfallwirtschaft) der Universität für Bodenkultur,
Wien 2002
BÖHMER, G.: Solid waste and the hierachy in solid waste management systems,
Diplomarbeit an der Wirtschaftsuniversität Wien, Wien 1995
8.4 Collected Editions and Articles in Magazines
ERBEL, A.: Pneumatischer Mülltransport in Rohrleitungen, in: Müll-Handbuch, Kennzahl
2350, Lieferung 21, Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlin 1970
ERIKSEN, S.: Reduction of noise nuisance due to waste collection for the inhabitants of
Copenhagen, in: 13th European Water, Wastewater and Solid Waste Symposium at
IFAT Munich 2005, VKS Service GmbH (Ed.), p. 115-117
GREEDY, D.: A dangerous business – Health and safety issues for waste management
operations, in: Waste Management World, Sept. 2005, p. 31-38
LEOWALD, B.: Telematic systems at the city cleaning department Hamburg, in: 13th
European Water, Wastewater and Solid Waste Symposium at IFAT Munich 2005,
VKS Service GmbH (Ed.), p. 117-126
ÖJDEMARK Ch.: A modern concept for waste collection in cities, in: 13th European Water,
Wastewater and Solid Waste Symposium at IFAT Munich 2005,
VKS Service GmbH (Ed.), p. 127-138
OTTEN, H.: Optimierungsmöglichkeiten in der Tourenplanung bei der regionalen
Hausmüllentsorgung, in: Müll-Handbuch, Kennzahl 2516, Lieferung 1, Erich Schmidt
Verlag, Berlin 1994
121
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8. References
PIEBER, M.: Waste collection from urban households – In Europe and Australia, in: Waste
Management World, July-August 2004, p. 111-123
WEHKING, K.H., et al.: Innovative Fahrzeugkonzepte für die Entsorgungswirtschaft, in:
Müll und Abfall, 36 (2004) 12, p. 600-602
WÜRZ, W.: Rationalisierung bei Sammlung und Transport von Abfällen, in: MüllHandbuch, Kennzahl 2530, Lieferung 6, Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlin 1999
WÜRZ, W.: Ein Blick zurück und einer in die Zukunft, in: Müll-Handbuch, Kennzahl 2010,
Lieferung 5, Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlin 2004
WÜRZ, W.: 100 Jahre Entwicklung der Sammlung und des Transportes kommunaler Abfälle,
in: Müll-Handbuch, Kennzahl 2101, Lieferung 1, Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlin 2004
WÜRZ, W.: Verfahrenstechnik, Konzeptionen und Organisation der Entsorgungslogistik, in:
Müll-Handbuch, Kennzahl 2070, Lieferung 3, Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlin 2005
WÜRZ, W.: Integrierte Logistiksysteme für die Stadtentsorgung, in: Müll-Handbuch,
Kennzahl 2531, Lieferung 6, Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlin 1999
WÜRZ, W.: Software für Tourenplanung und Behälterverwaltung, in: Müll-Handbuch,
Kennzahl 2518, Lieferung 6, Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlin 1999
8.5 Lecture Notes
BACH, H.: Quantitative Abfallanalysen, in: Skriptenreihe des Instituts für Technologie und
Warenwirtschaftslehre der Wirtschaftsuniversität, Wien 2003
KERI, CH.: Abfallwirtschaft im internat. Kontext unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des
Managements gefährlicher Abfälle, Lehrveranstaltung WU-Wien im SS 2006
VOGEL, G.: Beiträge zu einem Sustainable Development, in: Skriptenreihe des Instituts für
Technologie und Warenwirtschaftslehre der Wirtschaftsuniversität, VOGEL, G.
(Hrsg.), Wien 1994
VOGEL, G.: Abfallwirtschaft 3 – Bereitstellung und Sammlung von Abfällen in:
Skriptenreihe des Institutes für Technologie und Warenwirtschaftslehre der
Wirtschaftsuniversität, VOGEL, G. (Hrsg.), Wien 1994
VOGEL, G.: Der Beitrag der Ressourcenökonomie zur Minimierung der Entropieproduktion
der irreversiblen Wirtschaftsprozesse im offenen System Erde, in: Schriftenreihe des
Institutes für Technologie und Warenwirtschaftslehre der Wirtschaftsuniversität Wien,
VOGEL, G. (Hrsg.), Wien 1984
122
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8. References
VOGEL, G.: Techno-ökonomische Probleme des Umweltschutzes, in: Skriptenreihe des
Instituts für Technologie und Warenwirtschaftslehre der Wirtschaftsuniversität,
VOGEL, G. (Hrsg.), Wien 2003
8.6 Laws, Decrees and Standards
The 6th Environment Action Programme, Decision No 1600/2002/EC by the European
Parliament and the Council, July 2002
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/newprg/index.htm
Council Directive 94/62/EC on packaging and packaging waste, 15 December 1994
8.7 Talks and Interviews
ZERZ, H. J., Leiter der Müll- und Altstoffsammlung der MA48, 30.01.2006
8.8 Internet
BIOCRAWLER: http://www.biocrawler.com/biowiki/Waste, 25.10.2005
CITY OF ZÜRICH: Implementing an ecological waste management,
http://www.eaue.de/winuwd/109.htm, 18.03.2006
COMMUNITY OF HARSEWINKEL, GERMANY: http://www2.harsewinkel.de, 29.03.2006
DATABASE ON JAPANESE ADVANCED ENVIRONMENTAL EQUIPMENT:
http://www.gec.jp/JSIM_DATA/index.html, 21.03.2006
EEA: http://themes.eea.eu.int/environmental_issues/waste/indicators, 25.10.2005
EEA-GLOSSARY: www.eea.eu.int, 21.03.2006
ENTSORGUNG UND RECYCLING ZÜRICH: www.erz.ch, 18.03.2006
MA 48: www.wien.gv\ma48, 16.12.2005
MOLOK: www.molok.com, 07.11.2005
SUMMARY PACKAGING WASTE DIRECTIVE:
http://europa.eu.int/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/l21207.htm, 02.04.2006
PROJEKT SYLVIE: http://www.plansinn.at/sites/sylvie/, 16.03.2006
123
KOGLER
8. References
WIKIPEDIA: www.wikipedia.org, 25.10.2005
8.9 Other sources
BROSOWiTSCH, J. und VOGEL, G.: Patent AT 357106 B: Fahrzeug zum Transport von
Massengütern, insbesondere Müll, Wien 1980
ISWA-WGCTT: Position paper on questions to consider regarding the working conditions of
waste collectors, when planning collection schemes, not published, July 2005
MARTINEZ ORGADO, C.: Incentives for the Lawful disposal of Wastes in Mallorca,
Presentation at the Viennese Waste Management Conference, Vienna 2003
NILSSON, P.: The influence of new working standards on the collection of household waste,
PAULI, U.: Waste management in Zürich, Presentation at the Viennese Waste Management
Conference, Vienna 2001
SALVANY SABATÉ, J.: Sorting different fractions with automated waste collection,
VOGEL, G.: Dynamic comparison of key figures in waste management, Presentation at the
Viennese Waste Management Conference, Vienna 2001
124

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