Knowledge management and information

Bassins, Saint-Leu, Les Avirons et Étang-Salé. The
countries in the region. The version 3 of CoReMo
general principle is banning with derogations issued
(C3) is today used under the Windows operating
by prefectural order. Two main principles provide for
system through which simple, effective and standard
the delimitation of three levels of protection, namely
protocols have been worked out to count the benthic
management by geomorphologic unit (or reef unit)
populations (fixed fauna such as corals, mobile
and an increasing level of protection going from the
fauna) and the fish populations. The C3 software
periphery
of
package has today 320 registered users (Wickel et
protection (general perimeter), then the perimeter of
al. 2013), of whom 64 % are international users and
reinforced protection (taking of samples is forbidden,
25%
except in certain circumstances) and finally the
collected
perimeters of complete protection within which no
accordance with the GCRMN, Reserve Monitoring and
human presence is allowed except for the scientific
Reef Check protocols are stored with CoReMo. Within
follow-up and the monitoring (Tessier et al. 2007).
the framework of the current development of the
to
the
centre.
Knowledge
The
lowest
level
management
and
ultramarine.
CoReMo
on
the
In
Reunion
health
software
of
(version
Island,
the
4),
coral
the
data
reefs
in
interoperability
between the various databases is today necessarily
information
taken into account, particularly in view of the new
In parallel with the national data bases (Quadrige,
storage tools in use or being developed (BDROI).
Systeme
d’Information
sur
la
Nature
et
les
Paysages, etc.), the management of data concerning
the coastal sea environment is carried out locally
through
the
development
of
several
tools
for
banking, storing safely and sharing information.
BDROI
The pilot project for the reef data base in the Indian
Ocean (Base de Données Récifs – pilote Océan
Indien, BDROI), which is currently on-going, aims to
establish a data base for the ultramarine reef
CoReMo
ecosystems
The CoReMo project (Coral Reef Monitoring) is a
scalable. The project is funded and coordinated by
project developed by the Agency for Marine Research
the Initiative Française pour les RÉcifs CORalliens
and Valorisation (ARVAM) and funded initially within
(IFRECOR),
the framework of an agreement between Reunion
d’Histoire Naturelle (MNHN) and the Institut FRançais
Region, the Ministere d’Outre-Mer (MOM) and the
pour l’Exploitation de la MER (IFREMER). It aims to
European Union. The partnership with the World Fish
set up an interoperable data base using existing tools
Centre in Malaysia enables the CoReMo to ensure a
and national portals as well as those currently being
good degree of interoperability with the global
developed,
databases
the
“interconnect” and “interface” the different tools in
GCRMN and Reef Check programs. The result of a
order to map, monitor and manage better the
successful collaboration at regional level under the
ultramarines reef ecosystems.
ReefBase
and
FishBase,
through
aegis of the Indian Ocean Commission (IOC), the
project aims to develop a software package for the
monitoring of the health of the coral reefs using the
methods implemented by (i) the researchers and (ii)
by the non-researchers. This programe started in
1998 and enabled the production of a version II to
be used and developed under Access 97 by all the
that
the
which
is
secured,
State,
the
should
interoperable
Museum
allow
the
and
National
users
to
Sextant REMATA
Sextant REMATA is an infrastructure of reference
data for marine geography for Reunion Island,
Mayotte, and the French Southern and Antarctic
Territories. This secured server, dedicated to the
public sector services, should enable the pooling of
all the GIS layers concerning the work of the State at
152
sea in the Indian Ocean. This database, which
according to their importance with respect to a
integrates the marine environment and its coastal
certain state of health in a final indicator composed
fringe, will cover the Indian Ocean territories that fall
of 5 categories of health.
under
French
information
jurisdiction.
system,
implementation
of
which
maritime
This
is
and
geographical
useful
for
coastal
the
public
policies In Reunion Island, Mayotte and the French
Southern and Antarctic Territories, is coordinated by
the Prefecture of Reunion Island (DMSOI) and hosted
by the SEXTANT server of IFREMER. It is called
Sextant REMATA. An agreement, adapted to the
Indian Ocean context, has been worked out in
consultation with the three Prefectures. It was signed
on 28 February 2012 and the secured portal, Sextant
REMATA, is operational.
Within the framework of the Water Framework
Directive, an indicator was set up in 2013 (Ropert et
al. 2013) to define the state of the water bodies on
the reefs (from very good to bad). For the moment
this indicator only applies to the external slopes of
the fringing reefs around Reunion Island, but the aim
is to adapt it as far as possible for the flats of the
fringing reefs. It is calculated by using the surveys of
the sessile benthic species carried out by the RNMR
as part of its annual monitoring (7 stations on the
external slope). Moreover, the results from this
monitoring are integrated into the GCRMN.
For each of the parameters and metric measures, the
approach consisted of defining a relevant set of
references (state of the reference defined from
bibliographical data and opinions of experts), in
order to establish the indices and categories of state
of health. Given their ecological importance, some
may
be
considered
Battistini R., Bourrouilh F., ChevaLier J.P., Coudray J., Denizot M.,
Faure G., Fischer J.C., Guilcher A., Harmelin-vivien
M., Jaubert J., Laborel J., Montaggioni L., Masse
J.P., Mauge L.A., Peyrot C., Laussade M., Pichon M.,
Plante R., Plaziat J.C., Plessis Y.B., Richard G.,
Salvat B., Thomassin B.A., Vasseur P., Weydert P.,
1975.
Eléments
de
terminologie
récifale
indopacifique. Téthys, 7 : 1-111.
Biais G., Taquet M., 1992. La pêche locale aux abords de La réunion.
Repères océan, 2 : 1-78.
Bigot L., Quod J. P., Troadec R., Tessier E., Aichelmann C., Dutrieux
E., 1998. Etude de suivi du milieu marin de la baie
de La Possession et de la Pointe des Galets – Volet 2
& 3. Typologies et diagnostic environnemental
intégré. Définition du suivi 1998 – 2000. Rapport
technique ARVAM & IARE. 69p + annexes.
Bouchon C., 1978. Etude quantitative des peuplements à base de
Sclératiniaires des récifs coralliens de l’archipel des
Mascareignes (Océan Indien occidental). Thèse de
doctorat, Univ. Aix-Marseille 2.
Indicator for the External Slopes
parameters
References
as
“improving”
(vitality of the corals, number of acropora corals,
number of stag-horn and table corals, the proportion
of calcareous algae with respect to the total algal
population), while others are ‘downgrading” (the
cover in stiff algae, the cover in soft corals). Finally,
these different indices were combined and weighted
Bourmaud C., 2003. Inventaire de la biodiversité marine récifale à la
Réunion.
Rapport
Ecomar,
Mnhn,
Arvam,
Iremia/Etic/Wwf Marseille pour le compte de l’Apmr.
CAREX, ARVAM, 2002. Parc Marin Réunion - Conservation et
réhabilitation des récifs coralliens – Phase 1. Site
pilote d’Étang-Salé-les-Bains. Rapport pour le
compte de l'APMR. (65 p).
CAREX, ARVAM, 2005. Parc Marin de la Réunion - Cartographie des
récifs coralliens de la Réunion – Conservation et
Réhabilitation, Phase 2. Etude réalisée pour le
compte de l'APMR. 60 p + cartes + annexes.
Chabanet P., Bigot L., Naïm O., Garnier R., Tessier E., Moyne-Picard
M., 2001. Coral reef monitoring at Reunion island
(Western indian ocean) using the Gcrmn method.
Proc. 9th Intern.Coral Reef Symp., Bali.
Clua E., Legendre P., Vigliola L., Magron F., Kulbicki M., Sarramegna
S., Labrosse P., Galzin R., 2006. Medium scale
approach (MSA) for improved assessment of coral
reef fish habitat. Journal of Experimental Marine
Biology and Ecology. 333 (2006): 219-230.
Conand C., Cuet P., Mioche D., Naim O., 2002. Les récifs de la
réunion sous surveillance. Pour la Science, 298 : 7481.
Cuet P., Naim O., 1989. Les platiers récifaux de l'île de La Réunion.
Géomorphologie, contexte hydrodynamique et
peuplements benthiques, qualité des eaux et bilan
de la dégradation des écosystèmes récifaux.
David G., Mirault E., 2003. L’estimation socio-économique d’un
patrimoine naturel comme outil du développement
durable: l’exemple des récifs coralliens de l’île de la
Réunion. Pp. 95-102 In : Patrimoines et
développement dans les pays tropicaux. Actes des
IXes Journées de Géographie tropicale, 13-15
septembre 2001, la Rochelle.
De La Torre Y., 2004. Synthèse morphodynamique des littoraux de
La Réunion, état des lieux et tendances d’évolution
à l’échelle de l’île. BRGM/RP53307-FR, 118 p., 59
ill., 6 ann.
Despinoy M., 2000. Potentiel de la Télédétection haute résolution
Spatial et Spectrale en milieu intertropical : Une
approche transdisciplinaire à partir d’expériences
aéroportées à La Réunion et en Guyane française.
Thèse de doctorat, Université de La Réunion, 236 p.
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Ganier R., Quod J.P., Bigot L., 2001. Sentier sous-marin « Chez
Go » - Lagon de l’Ermitage – La Réunion. Diagnostic
de l’état initial du site et aide à la décision. Rapport
pour le compte de l’APMR, 26 pages + annexes
Guennoc P., Villain C., Thinon I., Le Roy M., 2008 - Cartographie
morphosédimentologique des fonds marins côtiers
de l'île de La Réunion, Rapport BRGM/RP56-579-FR
- 43 p.
Faure G., 1982. Recherche sur les peuplements de scléractiniaires
des récifs coralliens de l’archipel des Mascareignes
(océan Indien occidental). Thèse de doctorat,
Université aix-Marseille ii.
Lesser M. P., Mobley C. D. “Bathymetry, water optical properties,
and benthic classification of coral reefs using
hyperspectral remote sensing imagery.” Coral Reefs
[En ligne]. 11 July 2007. Vol. 26, n°4, p. 819–829.
Disponible
sur :
<
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00338-007-0271-5
>
(consulté le 14 June 2011)
Mobley C. D., Sundman L. K., Davis C. O., Bowles J. H., Downes T.
V., Leathers R. a, Montes M. J., Bissett W. P., Kohler
D. D. R., Reid R. P., Louchard E. M., Gleason A.,
2005. “Interpretation of hyperspectral remotesensing imagery by spectrum matching and look-up
tables.” Appl. Opt. [En ligne]. 10 June 2005. Vol.
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p. 3576–92.
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sur
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récifaux de l’archipel des Mascareignes (océan
Indien occidental). Thèse de doctorat es sciences,
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Montaggioni,
peuplements benthiques. Rapport non publié Laboratoire d’Écologie marine, Université de la
Réunion.
Nicet J.B., Pothin K., Tessier E., 2010. Plan de gestion de la Réserve
Naturelle Marine de La Réunion. Synthèse
thématique « Biodiversité et habitat ». Rapport
PARETO/RNMR, 53 pages.
Pennober G., Nicet J.B., Quod J.P., Caminade J.P., 2011. Images
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Symposium, Mombasa, Kenya, october 2011.
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1967. Essai de classement des grands types de
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(SW Madagascar).Rec Trav. Sta. Mar. Endoume.
Suppl. 6 : 3-24
Pinault M., 2013. Évaluation de la fonctionnalité de récifs artificiels à
vocation non extractive, dans un contexte d’habitats
naturels fragmentés – Côte Nord-Ouest de l’île de La
Réunion. Thèse doctorale de l’Ecole Pratique des
Hautes Etudes de Perpignan, réalisée à PARETO
ecoconsult en convention industrielle de formation
par la recherche: 297p + annexes.
Ropert M., Bigot L., Chabanet P., Cuet P., Nicet J.B., Maurel L.,
Scolan P., Cambert H., Cauvin B., Duval M., Le Goff
R., Pothin K., Mouquet P., Quod J.P., Talec P.,
Turquet J., Vermenot C., Zubia M., 2012. Fascicule
technique pour la mise en oeuvre du réseau de
contrôle de surveillance DCE "Benthos de Substrats
Durs" à La Réunion.
L.F., Faure G., 1980. Les récifs coralliens des
Mascareignes (Océan Indien). Collection des
Travaux du Centre Universitaire. Université de La
Réunion. 151pp.
Tessier E., Bigot L., Chabanet P., Conand C., Cauvin B., Cadet C.,
Quod J.P., Nicet J.B., 2007. Les récifs coralliens de
la Réunion en 2007 : État des lieux et réseaux de
suivi. Revue d’Ecologie n°63 : 85-102.
Mouquet P., Quod J.P., 2010. Spectrhabent-OI - Acquisition et
analyse de la librairie spectrale sous-marine.
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Biodiversité d’Outre-mer. 353 p.
Mouquet P., Bajjouk T., Maurel L., Cebeillac A., Le Goff R., Ropert
M., 2014. Atlas des résultats du traitement des
images hyperspectrales et des données Lidar sur les
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coralliennes de la Réunion 1998 - 2001. rapport
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des
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Pareto, 15 pages + annexes
154
CASE STUDY 1 Mapping the Marine Park of Reunion
Authors: Remi Garnier, Jean Pascal Quod, Lionel Bigot - ARVAM
Contact details: PARETO Ecoconsult, [email protected] +262 262 283908
In 2001s, the Marine Park of Reunion Island (originally an association that was managing what has
become today the Marine Natural Reserve of Reunion Island) wanted to put into place several underwater
trails inside the managed area. ARVAM (the Agency for Marine Research and Valorisation) carried out on
behalf of the project manager an ecological survey of the marine environment in question for this
innovative project of an underwater trail in the pilot sector of the lagoon at la Saline-l’Ermitage. Within the
framework of this study, a map of the geomorphology and of the associated marine biocenoses, a map of
the ecological sensitivity and finally a map showing the proposed tracks for the trail with the geographical
references were drawn up for this sector.
The maps were drawn up in accordance with the following method:

Positioning ground truth stations after a preliminary analysis of the IGN ortho photographs taken
during the 1997 survey and the vertical photographs taken at low altitude (200m) taken during a
special survey carried out for this mission (2001);

Gathering the ground truth data in order to work out the typology and the information from the
polygons under GIS. Parameters taken into account: geomorphology, substrates, dominant
population, cover by dominant populations, relief, depth and hydro-dynamism;

Visual interpretation of the IGN ortho photos and image-cutting under GIS, information from the
polygons based on the ground truth data (geomorphology and dominant populations);
Based on the geomorphology and the dominant populations a sensitivity map was drawn up. Based on
these maps, the tracks to put an underwater trail into place were proposed to the Marine Park.
155
CASE STUDY 2 Spectrahabent - OI
Author: Pascal Mouquet
Contact details: Agence des Aires Marines Protégées / Délégation Ifremer océan Indien, Rue Jean
Bertho, BP60 - 97822 Le Port Cedex, [email protected] , +262 262 43 36 84
Over the past few years, we have witnessed a boom in the new techniques for remote sensing based on
sensors that are more and more efficient (improvement in image resolution, miniaturisation, and lower
costs). These technological advances have allowed hyper-spectral imaging to become more widespread as
a form of basic support to the mapping of ecosystems.
The Spectrahabent-OI project, which was launched in Reunion Island and the other French islands in the
Indian Ocean is fully in line with this innovative trend. This project is the result of a cooperation agreement
between the French public authorities, namely the Prefecture of Reunion Island, the French Southern and
Antarctic Territories, the Agency for the Protected Marine Areas (AAMP), and IFREMER, with the
participation of ARVAM, Pareto Ecoconsult and SHOM. Its objective is to develop a method to analyse
hyper-spectral and Lidar data to map the subtidal benthic habitats in the reef zones of the French islands
in the Indian Ocean.
The first phase of the project consisted of collecting aerial and terrestrial data. In 2009, when launching
the Litto3D project in the Indian Ocean, the French government, through the DDE/DIREN (now called the
DEAL) and the AAMP, acquired further aerial imagery of the marine environment by adding a hyperspectral
sensor to what was initially planned, the LIDAR system. The images thus obtained cover in exhaustive
fashion all the French tropical islands in the Indian Ocean, with a resolution at ground level varying from
20cm to 2 metres, in a spectral range between 400 and 1000 mm out of 80 or 160 spectral bands.
In parallel with these aerial acquisitions, a phase of ground truths was carried out in Reunion Island,
Mayotte and the îles Éparses. It enabled the setting up of a bank of spectral signatures of the main types
of reef formation in the coral zones, at depths varying from 0 to 20 metres in diverse habitats (lagoons,
external slopes, volcanic flows, etc). The analysis of this spectral library enabled the characterisation of
the different types of essential constituents of a coral reef. These results were the subject of a report by
RST IFREMER published in August 2010. (Mouquet et Quod, 2010).
The work on the ground truths was also aimed at setting up a data base on the nature and variability of
the observed seabed, which is essential for the calculation of the algorithms to analyse the images as well
as to validate the results obtained. These data had been collected in the form of geo-referenced points or
zones and underwater photographs, using a semi-quantitative method derived from the MSA method (Clua
et al., 2006).
One of the main challenges in using the hyper-spectral data from the reef environment is the correction of
the light signal, which was greatly affected by its passage through a column of water (surface effects, indepth attenuation) and so the production of reference images with a reflectance on the sea-bed.
Once this necessary stage had been carried out, more “traditional” methods for analysing images could be
used: classification and spectral untangling. The principle underpinning this last method is to compare and
156
match the spectra of the image pixels with those of a spectral matching library made up a mixture of a
limited number of pure spectra (sand, algae, coral, grasses) in specified proportions (look-up table – LUT;
Lesser and Mobley, 2007; Mobley et al., 2005). The aim is to measure how far the pure spectra,
representing the broad categories of constituents, contribute to the formation of the spectrum observed in
the pixel. By breaking down the respective proportions of the components inside every pixel, it is possible
to grasp their percentage of the overall recovery.
The work developed within the Spectrhabent project was taken up and enriched by the Bioindication
project (Onema /IFREMER), of which one component focused essentially on the use of these data to map
the reef flats of Reunion Island by producing an indicator and summary maps that describe the state of the
water bodies in the reefs as part of the monitoring carried out by the DCE
The results obtained from the hyper-spectral and Lidar data show a real potential for innovation and
contribute to characterising and understanding better the spatial heterogeneity that is so typical of these
reef zones.
The Spectrhabent-OI and Bioindication projects were supported by public funds and as such are fully in
line with the perimeter of the INSPIRE Directive. In addition to being presented in map form in an atlas
with a scale of 1/5000e, all the mapping data thus produced have been uploaded to the Sextant
infrastructure and are directly and freely accessible, viewable and downloadable through the Sextant
Océan Indien portal.
157
158
CASE STUDY 3 REEFSAT monitoring of coastal areas by remote sensing
Authors Stéphanie Goutorbe, Erwann Lagabrielle, Gwenaëlle Pennober, Christophe Revillion
Contacts: UMR 228 ESPACE DEV, Université de La Réunion, IRD, Parc Technologique Universitaire, 2 rue
Joseph Wetzell, CS 41095, 97495 Ste-Clotilde Cedex, La Réunion ([email protected] ,
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected])
Monitoring changes by remote sensing
Satellite imagery has become an indispensable means for monitoring the environment, preventing and
monitoring natural disasters and, more generally, assessing the impact of public policy. Since the 1970s,
improvements in the spatial resolution of satellite data, their accessibility and their replicability has
enabled the widening of the range of applications of remote sensing to include detecting changes in the
state of surfaces and more widely the spatio-temporal monitoring of dynamic phenomena. Detecting
changes consists, therefore, of identifying the differences in the state of an object or phenomenon in a
given lapse of time decided by the user. Remote sensing of changes depends on using multi-temporal data
sets that have been collected from satellite or airborne sensors. As from the year 2000, the increasing
number of Very High Spatial Resolution (VHSR) sensors has given more opportunities to detect changes in
terms of spatial resolution and temporal frequency. Research carried out in Reunion Island over the past
twenty years has shown how useful satellite imagery can be in monitoring dynamic phenomena in the
coastal areas. In this paper we present some applications of satellite imagery in monitoring (1) coral reefs,
(2) urbanisation and (3) the turbidity of coastal waters.
Study area
Located in the inter-tropical zone of the South-West Indian Ocean, Reunion Island originated from a
volcanic hot spot. Given its relative youth, the relief of Reunion Island (maximum altitude being 3060 km)
is typical of high islands, with steep slopes and small alluvial plains. Four units of fringing reefs border the
leeward south and west coasts (Naim et al., 2009). On these coastal catchment areas urban and
agricultural zones have spread out and become denser very quickly in the last two decades, which has
caused the quality of the coastal waters to deteriorate. These change factors have caused damage to the
coral ecosystem, the extent of which remains variable (Scopelitis et al., 2009). Since 2007 a marine
natural reserve regulates water sports and fishing activities on the three reef units on the west of the
island.
Application 1: monitoring the coral reefs
Coral bleaching, which is a process of pigmentation loss in coral colonies, is a phenomenon that signals the
deterioration of the reef and is the result of climate change and man-made pressures on the reefs and
associated catchment areas. Various approaches using remote sensing exist throughout the world to
detect the extent of coral bleaching episodes (Andrefouet et al., 2000). Pennober and Borius (2010) have
developed and tested an operational chain of obtaining and processing images aimed at monitoring on a
large scale the health of these ecosystems. The method that has been tested in Reunion Island consists of
defining the bleaching by the degree of variability that it shows over time: that is, an increase in the nonpermanent shine on the surface of the corals through an object-oriented classification (i.e. OBIA) of multitemporal images coming from airborne and/or satellite Very High Spatial Resolution sensors. The method
was validated during a bleaching episode in 2006 on the Ermitage reef on the west coast of Reunion
Island. This method complements the monitoring on the ground.
159
Application 2: Monitoring of urbanisation
Thanks to their wide spatial cover, high replicability and low cost compared to aerial photographs, images
from remote sensing are privileged data for identifying differences in land use at different dates. The
maximum temporal range between images coming from satellite sensors is now three decades for SPOT
images and forty years for LANDSAT images. For the study on changes in land use In Reunion Island, High
Spatial Resolution (HSR) SPOT 1 to SPOT 4 satellite data were used (Lagabrrielle et al., 2007). The results
from this study have revealed that the urban area for the whole island has almost tripled in the period
1990-2000, with a growth of more than 450% in the coastal situated between 0 and 150 metres in
altitude (Figure 1). Urban growth has been located in preference along the main roads and near the coast,
in particular on the west coast of Reunion Island upstream of the coral reefs. This quantitative study of the
dynamics of urban spaces has encouraged awareness concerning the magnitude and the speed of the
changes to the territory. A second study carried out in Reunion Island showed the contribution of the data
obtained through metric resolution remote sensing to the quick and low-cost survey of buildings (Durieux
et al., 2008), in particular in those adjacent to the coastal zones (Figure 2).
Application 3: Monitoring of the turbidity of coastal waters
Remote sensing enabls the characterisation of turbidity and the measurement of the terrigenous load in
marine waters, in particular close to coasts and estuaries. For studies at the regional level, low and
medium resolution images may be used for this topic, such as the images coming from the MODIS satellite
of which the resolution varies between 250 and 500 metres (Katlane et al., 2012). At the local level, the
HSR and VHSR are preferred. With this finer scale, the images obtained in the visible spectrum and mainly
in the blue, green and yellow wavelengths enable a clearer distinction of the coastal turbid plumes
(Doxaran et al., 2002). The latter approach is particularly suited to Reunion Island, because of the
relatively small size of the study zone. Monitoring of the turbidity of the coastal waters on the west of the
island was carried out within the framework of the CHARC project (on the relation between the sharks and
their environment). To do this, the SPOT 4 and SPOT 5 images from the SEAS-OI (satellite assisted
monitoring of the environment in the Indian Ocean) were used. The results from this study show that the
turbidity of the coastal waters on the west coast of the island is very pronounced around the mouths of the
main rivers (Rivière des Galets, Riviere Saint-Étienne) and that it remains confined to a coastal band about
ten kilometres long at most (Figure 3).
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Lagabrielle E, Metzger P, Martignac C, Lortic B, Durieux L (2007) Les dynamiques d'occupation du sol à la Réunion (1989-2002).
M@ppemonde 86 (2007.2) : http://mappemonde.mgm.fr/num14/articles/art07205.html
Naim O, Cuet P, Mangar V (2000) The Mascarene Islands. Coral reefs of the Indian Ocean: their Ecology and Conservation, 353 -381.
Pennober G, Borius A (2010) Détection à Très Haute Résolution Spatiale du blanchissement corallien sur les récifs de l’île de La Réunion.
Télédétection 9:5–17. http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00551480/. Accessed 12 Jun 2014
Scopélitis J, Andréfouët S, Phinn S, et al. (2009) Changes of coral communities over 35 years: Integrating in situ and remote-sensing
data on Saint-Leu Reef (la Réunion, Indian Ocean). Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 84:342–352. doi: 10.1016/j.ecss.2009.04.030
160
Figure 1: Evolution (%) of urbanisation between 1989 and 2002 depending on the altitude, produced using SPOT 1 and
SPOT 4 images.
Figure 2: Mapping of buildings produced from (A) a SPOT 5 image, (B) segmented into sub-objects and (C) in which
individual buildings have been extracted. For more details about the method, see the article by Durieux et al., (2008).
Figure 3: Extraction of the marine turbidity in the sea facing St. Paul in the south of Reunion Island from (A) a SPOT 5
dated 8 January 2013, and (B) the green channel of the satellite image.
161
Madagascar
Authors: Tantely Fanomezana Tianarisoa
Contacts: Lot 2ICB Ambohimarina – Ambohimanga
Rova, 103- Antananarivo- Madagascar
Tél.: +261 33 11 835 23
E-mail: [email protected]
Figure 4-61: Map of the Indian Ocean, showing the
Exclusive Economic Zones of Madagascar (yellow).
Island Ecosystems
Geology
Madagascar is a continental island that was formed
through a process of plate tectonics and continental
drift. Madagascar was a part of the Gondwana and
moved south-southeastward relative to the African
coast along the Davies Fracture zone and came to
rest 400 km off Mozambique, approximately 135-125
Figure 4-62: Map of Madagascar.
tectonically passive since movement between the
two landmasses ceased in the early Creataceous. The
sedimentary zone, mainly confined to the west,
south and northern tip of Madagascar, can be
broadly divided into recent drift deposits, continental
deposits and ocean deposits:
-
Sandstones
(mainly
continental
facies):
mya, before the beginning of the late Cretaceous.
These are mainly composed of sand eroded
The late phase of Madagascar’s geological history
from the Precambrian basement rocks.
encompasses its progressive isolation and drift to its
present position, from the late Cretaceous.
The rifting event between Africa and Madagascar
created three large sedimentary basins: Ambilobe,
Mahajanga, and Morondava, which have been
-
Mesozoic
Limestones
facies):
The
categorized
into
plus
Marls
limestones
two
distict
(marine
have
been
age
group,
separated by sandstone deposits and often
also bands of basalts and lavas.
162
-
-
Tertiary Limestones plus Marls and Chalks
Taolagnaro to near Toamasina and from the
(marine facies): Tertiary limestones are less
eastern Masoala peninsula to Vohemar, in
deeply eroded and occur mainly in Southern
the south in the Mandrare river basin, and
and Western Madagascar, generally nearer to
also along the west and the northwestern
the coast than the Mesozoic limestones.
lowlands.
Unconsolidated
Sands
(recent
and
Drift
deposits): These form a broad plain around
the western and southern of Madagascar and
a narrow band along the esat coast.
-
Alluvial and lake deposits (Recent and Drift
deposits): These are finer grained than the
unconsolidated sands.
-
Mangrove swamp: Often linked to alluvial
deposits, such as large river estuaries, or to
unconsolidated coastal sands.
composed of metamorphic and igneous rocks, with
some restricted rock types. Volcanic rocks are also
widespread throughout the island (Brenon 1972,
Storey et al. 1995):
Precambrian Basement Rocks (Metamorphic
and
Igneous
quartzites,
marbles
and
ultrabasics): Are a broad category of ancient,
mainly
metamorphic
crystalline
rocks
rocks,
such
including
as
all
granites,
migmatites, and schists.
-
Ultrabasics: The most significant being about
15 km north northeast of Moramanga (about
10 km west of the Park National Mantadia).
This
area
is
an
outcrop
of
nickel-rich
ultrabasics.
-
-
-
According to the atlas developed by Moat & Smith et
al in 2007, 15 types of terrestrial ecosystems have
been identified (cf table below). The Malagasy
ecosystem serves as home to approximately 12,000
species of plants, 370 species of reptiles, 244 species
of amphibians, 283 species of birds, 154 species of
fish and 99 species and subspecies of lemurs.
Table 4-24 Terrestrial ecosystems
The bulk of the island's center and east coast is
-
Terrestrial
Ecosystems
Plateau grassland-wooded
grassland mosaic
Wooded grassland-bushland
mosaic
Degraded humide forest
Humide forest
Western dry forest
Cultivation
South western dry spiny
forest thicket
Wetlands
South western dry spiny
forest
Western sub-humid forest
Mangroves
South western coastal
bushland
Tapia forest
Littoral forest
Western humid forest
Area in 2005
% terrestrial
cover
246687 km²
41.67%
135739 km²
58058 km2
47737 km2
31970 km²
23522 km²
22.93%
9.81%
8.06%
5.40%
3.97%
18355 km²
5539 km²
3.10%
0.94%
5427 km²
4010 km²
2433 km²
0.92%
0.68%
0.41%
1761 km²
1319 km²
274 km²
72 km²
0.30%
0.22%
0.05%
0.01%
Quartzites: The main outcrop of quartz is in
Freshwater
central Madagascar, forming the mountains
The island is divided into two large asymmetric
of
basins, namely the wider, but gentler, western slope,
the
Itremo
massif
to
the
west
of
Ambositra (and the outlying Ibity massif)
and the narrower but steeper eastern slope. Three
Marble (Cipolin): The most substantial areas
other
of
characteristics: the slope of the Montagne d'Ambre,
marble
occur
in
central
Madagascar,
small
watersheds
have
their
own
around area of the Itremo Massif.
the slope of Tsaratanana in the North, and the slope
Lavas (volcanic and eruptive rocks): The
of southern Madagascar. Hydrological regimes vary
older group of lavas and basalts occur along
dependent on the slope. In northern and eastern
the eastern lowland belt from north of
Madagascar, watershed runoff is ongoing throughout
163
the
year,
while
in
the
southern
and
western
Malagasy of the Nil Crocodile Crocodilus niloticus
Madagascar the surface flows in some rivers are
madagascariensis
seasonal.
increasingly threatened by overexploitation. It is now
The data on the biodiversity of inland waters were
is
endemic
and
has
become
considered by IUCN as vulnerable.
collected in lentic environments (lakes, marshes,
There are 132 Malagasy waterbird species, of which
swamp). These cover 0.3% of the territory and are
16 are threatened according to IUCN classification
composed of 3,429 open water bodies covering
(2009).
2
65
species
are
migratory
species
that
2,000 km in lotic environments (streams and rivers)
regularly visit Madagascar, 32 species are essentially
that are divided into six major watersheds of varying
marine species that rarely visit the country, and two
importance
d'Ambre,
nesting migratory species of Madagascar statutes
Tsaratanana eastern side, west side and southern
threatened Glareola ocularis and Ardeola idae. These
side), then subdivided into 256 ponds covering a
two species migrate to the islands of the Indian
total length of 3 000 km (Ministry of Water, 2009).
Ocean and East Africa, including Mozambique, Kenya
Malagasy
(Northeast,
aquatic
flora
Montagne
belongs
to
the
phylum
Pteridophyta in classes Filicopsida, Lycopsyda and
sphenopsida, and at the junction of seed plants in
the class Liliopsida and Magnoliopsida. In the class
Liliopsida, families comprise 92 genera and 284
species. No family of aquatic plants is endemic
Malagasy with the exception of the Scholleropsis
lutea
species,
Pontederiaceae,
belonging
which
is
to
usually
the
and Tanzania, with a high concentration between
April and October at the Wetlands of these countries
(Stevenson and Fanshawe 2003). Of relevance to the
waterfowl Malagasy, is the rediscovery of the species
Aythya
species
innotata
in
the
(Onjy),
wetland
a
critically
endangered
Bemanevika,
Northern
Madagascar.
family
found
in
the
streams and ponds of western Madagascar.
Freshwater fish fauna are characterized by relatively
poor species numbers compared to the African
continent, their richness in endemic and marine
forms, and the abundance of euryhaline species,
particularly in the western part of the island (families
of Atherinidae, Mugilidae, Gobiidae and Siluridae).
111 of the 154 freshwater species are endemic with
16 families whose Cichlids are most represented with
39 species followed by Bedotidés with 32 species.
Half
are
Teleostei
Perciformes
while
28%
are
Atheriniformes and 12% are Ciprinodontiformes. The
ranges are limited and inaccessible except in the
lower reaches.
Among reptiles, there are four species of freshwater
turtles in Madagascar. Three are indigenous, while
the fourth, which is Erymnochelys madagascariensis,
is endemic and critically endangered. Subspecies
164
Fisaka / Mitsio Islands (129 species), Nosy Sakatia /
Nosy Be (125 species), Bay Befotaka / Nosy Be (123
species) and Andavakalovo / Archipelago Nosy Hara
(122 species). Madagascar has a high level of
endemism, an endemic genus (Horastrea) and at
least
eight
species
have
never
been
observed
elsewhere.
For molluscs, 525 species have been identified
(including
382
Scaphopode,
2
gastropods,
139
Cephalopods
bivalves,
and
1
1
Chiton),
belonging to 92 families and 193 genres. The Banc
de Marie / Mitsio Islands is the richest site with 93
Marine
Madagascar’s coral reefs have an estimated total
length of 3540km, with the principal concentrations
of emergent reefs in the east (Cap d’Ambre to
Toamasina,
417
km),
southwest
(Androka
species. South Eastern Nosy Sakatia / Nosy Be, Nosy
Kisimany / Bay Ampasindava and Nosy Fanihy / Nosy
Be counted in the 89-91 species.
to
Regarding Fish, 463 identified species belong to 65
Morombe, 458 km), and northwest (Mahajanga to
families and 191 genera. Nosy Hao / Nosy Hara
Cap d’Ambre, 578 km) (Gabrié et al. 2000).
Archipelago, Nosy Tanikely / Nosy Be, Nosy Ankarea
A Rapid Assessment Program (RAP) covered 30 sites
in the Northwest in 2002, and 130km of coastline in
the northeast of Madagascar in 2007, and an
environmental assessment in the South western
between 2006 and 2009 has provided information on
the biodiversity and health of reef and associated
biodiversity (Gough et al., 2009). These survey help
/ Islands Mitsio, Nosy Kivinjy / Nosy Be are among
the richest sites with between 152 and 166 species.
Eight species belong exclusively to the waters of
Madagascar,
including
two
new
species
of
POMACENTRIDEAE collected for the first time. Four
other species are known only to Madagascar and the
Comoros / St. Brandon's Shoals.
to catalyze conservation action and improve marine
In the North West:
conservation planning.
281 species of corals have been identified (275
The literature review combined with the results of
the RAP reveals a total of 788 species of reef fish,
similar to the figure Islands neighbors (Mauritius,
Seychelles, Maldives and Chagos) and 380 of coral
species, the highest in the Western Indian Ocean and
scleractinian
species
and
six
non-scleractinian
species) belonging to 61 Genera and 17 Families.
Species of particular interest include: Monospecific
genera endemic to the regional level: Craterastrea
laevis, Anomastrea irregularis, Horastrea indica and
Gyrosmilia
interrupta;
Species
Indonesia:
Anacropora
pillai
In the North West:
irregularis;
Rare
The site diversity of coral species is comparable to
Psammocora albopicta and species Echinopora sp.
Red Sea.
near shore reefs of the northern Great Barrier Reef of
Australia. 318 coral species were identified, including
seven new scleractinian species. The richest sites are
Nosy Ankarea / Mitsio Islands (143 species), Nosy
species
observed
in
and
Turbinaria
recently
described:
296 species of 114 genera of fish are listed.
Ambodivahibe AMP and Loky bay with Nosy Ankao
site
contain
echinoderms,
the
3
highest
species
of
diversity.
crinoïdes,
Regarding
18
sea
165
cucumber species, 27 ophiuroids, 10 echinoids and
pollution
control
(sewage,
sediment
other
10 asteroids are observed.
pollutants), that are more likely the key factors.
In the South west
There are 385 fish species that belong to 182 genera
Andavadoaka, the evaluation highlighted: Typical
and 57 families; 235 species of molluscs that belong
coral reef fronts show a coverage rate of 20% with
to 112 genera and 71 families; 164 species of stony
high algal cover (35-80 %) dominated by Lobophora,
corals that belong to 55 genera and 17 families,
Turbinaria and Dictyota species. Coral cover in
including 19 not observed elsewhere in Madagascar,
shallow sites that are heavily exploited by fishing
and at least four genres, probably species, new to
remains stable at around 5-10% over the five years
science (Harding 2006).
of follow-up since 2004. Similarly, algal cover also
remains high at around 60-80%.
A Salary and Ranobe coral cover (hard corals) shows
characteristic variability between sites, exceeding
30% for sites beyond 20m depth, while sites less
than 10m deep are usually degraded (WWF, 2006b).
South of Toliara (Fanombosa, Ambohibola, Androka,
Itampolo, Ambola), the study showed increasing
species richness and reef health as one moves away
from the south of Toliara (WWF, 2006a), which is
attributed to the reducing influence of tourism,
fisheries and sedimentation. The coverage rate of
hard
corals
varies,
with
a
maximum
60%
at
Ambohibola Fanombosa and a minimum 10% at
Androka.
Seagrasses and algae
Seagrass
and
algal
assemblages,
despite
their
importance, are little known in Madagascar. The
seagrass species that are common in the South-West
Based on a comparison of the status of coral reefs
Indian Ocean include: Thalassodendron ciliatum,
described
Thalassia
in
the
literature
in
1978
with
new
hemprichii,
Syringodium
isoetifolium,
assessments in 2008, the Great Reef of Toliara
Cymodocea rotundata and C. serrulata, Halodule
suffered a severe degradation. Coverage of hard
wrightii and H. uninervis, Halophila ovalis and H.
coral on the reef slope significantly decreased with
stipulacea,
almost total loss of architectural species and their
species are found in deep waters. Algal diversity is
replacement by algae. This degradation also extends
represented by the following three major taxonomic
over the reef flat and lagoon. The biomass of target
groups: The rhodophyta or red algae, the largest
fish from local fishermen has reduced (Harris et al,
group with 44 species of 12 families; chlorophyta or
2009). An increase in the average temperature of
green
about 1°C in the region over the past 40 years may
dominated by Rhodomelacea and Hypneacea; the
have contributed to this decline. However, it is a
phaeophytes or brown algae, with 11 species
Zostera
algae,
with
capensis.
32
species
Rather
of
Halophila
10
families
substantial increase in the population over the last
few decades, coupled with a complete lack of any
form of management, strong exploitation, and no
166
Mangroves
and Taolagnaro), a total of seven species were
Madagascar’s mangroves are of Indo-Pacific origin
observed. Marine mammals observed in Madagascar
and phytogeographic has eight mangrove species
are
belonging
Rhizophoraceae,
classification. The blue whale is critically endangered
Avicenniaceae and Sonneratiaceae. The total area of
(EN), humpback whales, sperm whales and dugongs
mangrove is estimated to be over 320,000ha, of
are
which 98% are on the west coast, from Antsiranana
(bottlenose
to south of Toliara. The most important mangroves
dolphin, humpback dolphin, Fraser, Risso's dolphin)
are associated with major rivers like Mahajamba
are classified Data Deficient (DD). The remaining
Loza, Bombetoka, Tsiribihina and Mangoky. On the
species of marine mammals are at low risk (LR). It is
east coast, the total area of mangroves is only about
important to note here that some species of dolphins
2500ha,
in the DD category, particularly humpback dolphin
to
the
which
are
families
mainly
located
between
listed
in
four
vulnerable
categories
(VU).
dolphin
Five
of
species
Indo-Pacific,
the
IUCN
of
dolphins
large
common
and the bottlenose dolphin are vulnerable to human
Antsiranana and North Mananara.
activities including hunting intentional and accidental
in the coastal areas of southwestern Madagascar
catches.
Marine turtle
Five species of sea turtles are observed in Malagasy
waters, namely; Chelonia mydas (green turtle),
Eretmochelys imbricata (hawksbill), Caretta caretta
(loggerhead
turtle),
Dermochelys
coriacea
(leatherback turtle), Lepidochelys olivacea
(olive
ridley), and to a lesser degree Dermochelys coriacea
(leatherback turtle). Madagascar is an important
Species
place for the nesting, feeding and migration of these
turtles, which are listed endangered or critically
Marine mammals
Malagasy
marine
mammals
are
diverse
and
represented by 28 species, including 27 cetacean
endangered in the Red list of Threatened IUCN
species
species and one species of the order Sirenia of
In terms of relative abundance, the green turtle
Dugong dugong. To date, there have been confimed
(Chelonia
observations of 15 species of cetaceans including
followed
three
dolphins
imbricata),
including
caretta), which is rarely seen. Only four of the five
whales and four dolphins, are suspected of using the
species recorded in the region breed in Madagascar.
Malagasy seas because of their presence in the
The nesting season takes place during rains from
region of the Indian Ocean.
December to March, can be spread throughout the
baleen
(Odontoceti).
whales
Other
(baleen)
cetacean
and
12
species,
Observations made at west coast study sites (e.g.
Anakao, Andavadoaka, Nosy Be) reveal the presence
of 14 species of marine mammals. At the other three
sites on the east coast (Bay Antongil Sainte Marie
mydas)
by
the
and
is
most
hawksbill
the
frequently
turtle
loggerhead
observed,
(Eretmochelys
turtle
(Caretta
year in the Northeast and Northwest, with a low of
June
to
September.
Many
nesting
sites
are
abandoned by turtles, or show a gradual decrease in
frequentation as is the case of Nosy Ve south of
167
Toliara and Barren Islands off the
west coast
(Rakotonirina, 2011 ).
Mapping of Coral Reefs and Associated
Ecosystems
Seabirds
Madagascar hosts a large number of migratory birds,
concentrated along its coastal wetlands, including the
Sanderling (Calidris ferruginea), the Terek Terek
(Xenus
cinereus),
the
Greater
Sand
Plover
(Charadrius leschenaultii) and the Crab Plover Drome
(Dromas ardeola).
The two most important seabird-breeding sites were
recently discovered in the North of the country (Le
Corre and Bemanaja, 2009). The first site is Nosy
Manampaho, which is on the east coast 60km from
Antsiranana, and is home to the largest colony of
Sooty Terns Onychoprion fuscata to Madagascar with
21,800 pairs. The second site is Nosy Foty, which is
on the west coast 30km from Antsiranana in the
central area of Nosy Hara Marine Park. It houses the
largest colony of terns ridge Thalasseus bergii in
Madagascar and all the Western Indian Ocean. Its
population has increased from 1,000 pairs in July
1997 to 10 840 in July 2008.
168
Status of Coral Reefs and Associated
Shallow
5.15
23.4
8.63
2
55.33
5.5
Ecosystems
Deep
2.15
36.51
5.63
2.83
48.17
4.72
Status of Reef Benthos
According to McClanahan (2009), all benthic-cover
variables, with the exception of sand, were different
between regions. Hard-coral cover was around 30%
and did not vary between the east and northwest,
but was higher than in the southwest region. Erect
fleshy algal cover displayed the opposite pattern,
with high cover (42%) in the southwest and low
cover (3%) in the east and northwest. Calcareous
green algae cover was highest in the east and
Middle west region
The barrier reef of Barren Isles was turf algae
dominated (62% cover), while the patch and fringing
reefs were hard coral dominated with 56% and 59%
hard coral cover respectively (Cripps, G. 2010). The
turf algae cover for these sites ranges from 16% to
29%. Macroalgae cover is negligible on the barrier
reef; for the other sites it ranged from a minimum of
3% to a maximum of 17%.
coralline algae cover was highest in the west. Soft
North western region
coral and sponge had higher cover in north and were
The Marine RAP survey of northwestern Madagascar
uncommon in the southwest.
(McKenna et al. 2006) assessed 30 sites that are
Available benthic cover data were synthetized to
show some specificity by regions
potential areas for marine conservation. Hard coral
cover in shallow and deep reef ranged from 25% to
37% respectively. Mean cover for each benthic
category is presented in the following table.
Shallow
reef
Deep
reef
HC
25.1
6
36.9
35
SC
13.51
52
15.58
75
SP
3.6
08
1.1
85
MA
7.14
48
6.82
75
TA
11.96
72
CA
1.0
62
1.2
15
15.82
RB
10.4
44
6.27
5
SD
OT
18.9 8.11
88
08
12.4 3.67
8
5
Hard Coral (HC), Soft Coral (SC), Sponge (SP), Macro Algae (MA),
Turf Algae (TA), Calcareous Algae (CA), Rubble (RB), Sand (SD),
Other (OT)
North eastern and eastern Madagascar
A marine RAP survey (Mc Keena, S., & al., 2006) was
conducted in 23 sites on the North East coast of
Madagascar
Coral bleaching of Pocillopora in 2011.
Coral reef monitoring was completed for benthic
cover at ten sites across three main reef types in
Andavadoake (MPA) in 2006 (Harding et al. 2006).
Mean values of cover for all benthic categories
du
Phoque
(approximately 11 º 57,905 'S, 49 º 27,568' E) and
4m with a predominance of Acropora and Pocillopora.
This increases to 35% on the bottom 6-12m with a
predominance of Galaxea. From 12m, corals begin to
become scarce.
recorded in shallow reef present medium biodiversity
levels for hard corals (25%). Soft coral cover is
Shallow
HC
SC
TA
31
r
e
e
16
f
around 7.5% (see table).
HC
Pointe
Loky Bay. Mean hard coral cover was around 32% at
South west region
SD
between
SC
SP
All Algae
SP
MA
CA
.
8
17 3 4.25
3.75
5.1
.
9.5 5 2.55
4
6.25
RB
SD
OT
9.4
5 7
8
7
7.66
34
OT
18.7
Deep
9.5
169
Hard Coral (HC), Soft Coral (SC), Sponge (SP), Macro Algae (MA),
Turf Algae (TA), Calcareous Algae (CA), Rubble (RB), Sand (SD),
Other (OT)
Middle west region
The mean fish biomass of the reefs surveyed in the
Barren Isles is 1636 kg/ha ± 590 (Cripps, G. 2010).
According to Maharavo (2006) hard coral cover in
The estimated reef fish biomass ranged from 1329
the shallow reef flat in Iles aux Nattes (East) is lower
kg/ha (std. err. ±444) for the fringing reef, to 2270
(27.5%) than hard coral cover in the the outer
kg/ha (std. err. ±902) for the barrier reef. The outer
slopes (40%).
barrier, patch and outer fringing reefs had high
Hard Coral cover (%)
Shallow reef
Deep reef
Iles aux Nattes Sud ouest
37
40
Iles aux Nattes Sud
18
40
Hard coral Mean cover
27.5
40
proportions of herbivore biomass, ranging from 727
kg/ha to 905 kg/ha. The fringing reef sites had lower
herbivore
biomasses
of
470
and
764
kg/ha
respectively. The biomass of carnivorous fish ranged
from a maximum 601 kg/ha (outer barrier reef) to a
Status of Reef Fish
minimum 182 kg/ha (outer fringing reef).
North western region
North eastern region
Conservation International’s RAP Fish survey in
According to the RAP survey carried out in 2010,
2002, at 24 survey sites along the northwestern
which covered 125km of the Norteastern coastline of
coast
Madagascar
of
Madagascar
gives
a
comprehensive
(Ambodivahibe
to
Vohemar),
the
description of the reef fishes status in this region
diversity of reef fish is relatively high in the
(McKenna S.A. and G.R Allen, eds. 2003). Table
Northeast costline, with a total of 271 species from
shows mean counts of target species ranged from 2
19 families. This represents 74% of the 367 species
to 36 (mean =13.41 ± 1.54). The estimated biomass
reported for Madagascar since 1891 (Allen 2005).
of target fi sh ranged from 3.11 ton/km2 to 1720.17
ton/km2
(mean
abundance
of
182.3
±
individuals,
5.69).
the
In
terms
most
of
important
families were Caesionidae, Lutjanidae, Lethrinidae,
Scaridae, Haemulidae, and Serranidae. The high
abundance of Casionidae and Lutjanidae was due to
the proclivity of these families to produce large
aggregations. This was especially true for Pterocaesio
spp. and Lutjanus lutjanus. In terms of species,
Scolopsis
bimaculatus,
Plectorhinchus
Pterocaesio
gaterinus,
Pterocaesio
Mean values of total reef fish biomass in the east
coast locations (Masoala Peninsula and Mananara)
range from 475 to 634 kg/ha (Harding S., et al
2006). In terms of contributions by individual fish
families,
highest
biomass
was
recorded
for
Acanthurids (144 – 441 kg/ha.), which made up
more than 30% of total biomass at Cap Masoala.
Status of Reef Macroinvertebrates
pisang,
pisang
are
South western region
ranked as the most abundant reef fish species in the
Mean counts for assessed macro-invertebrates at
North western Madagascar.
Andavadoake site (Harding, S., & al. 2006) are
presented in the Table below. In 2006, a few macro-
No of survey site
No.target
Approx.fish
Biomass
species
count
(ton/km2)
invertebrate targets were more notable by their
absence,
particularly
Crown
of
Thorns
starfish
24
24
24
Min
2
6
3.11
Max
36
894
1720.17
Avg
13.41
189.5
182.3
A high density of large anemones (Heteractis sp.)
Std
1.54
5.8
5.69
was recorded at one patch reef site but were either
(Acanthaster plancii) and Lobsters (Panulirus spp.),
which were not recorded along transects at any site.
absent or rarely recorded at other sites.
170
In terms of Echinoderms herbivorous sea urchins
grasses in Madagascar is likely to exceed that of
(Diadema, Echinometra and Echinothrix), the sea
coral reefs, estimated at 3000km2.
star
Linckia
spp.
and
the
sea
cucumber
Pearsonothuria graeffei were recorded most often.
Large gastropod molluscs, such as the giant triton
(Charonia tritonis) and horned helmet shell (Cassis
cornuta), were not seen at any of the nine sites.
However, medium sized gastropods were observed.
The conch (Lambis spp.), and two species of large
cowrie - the Tiger (Cypraea tigris) and Egg Cowrie
(Ovula ovum), were recorded.
Barrier
Patch
Fringing
Mean /Ha
Mean /Ha
Mean/Ha
to
published
literature,
12
seagrass
species are known for Madagascar. They are typical
of East Africa, namely Thalassodendron ciliatum,
Thalassia
hemprichii,
Syringodium
isoetifolium,
Cymodocea rotundata and C. serrulata, Halodule
uninervis, and H. wrightii, Halophila ovalis and H.
stipulacea,
Zostera
capensis.
All
species
are
associated with mud, sand, muddy sand, and coarse
sand
Table 4-25 Densities of selected macro-invertebrates for 3
reef types at Andavadoaka (no. individuals / hectare).
Acanthaster plancii
According
substrates,
while
only
T.
hemprichii,
S.
isoetifolium and Thalassodendron ciliatum colonising
rubble
substrate
where
the
sediment
layer
is
minimal. At mid depths on the edges of reefs (8-12
m), or among coral patches on sand, Halophila ovalis
0
0
0
Holothuria atra
17.78
0
0
Total Holothurians
44.44
80
30
Lobster
0
0
0
Anemone
0
645.71
25
Status of Mangroves
Tridacna
53.33
11.43
25
The lack of a universal definition of mangroves is the
Octopus
4.44
0
0
origin of the differences in the estimation of its size.
Charonia tritonis
0
0
0
Thus, Lebigre (1990) suggests an area of 370,000
Cassis cornuta
0
0
0
Lambis
13.33
5.71
10
Cypraeidae
57.78
11.43
5
forms
extensive
patches,
often
mixed
with
H.
stipulacea. No seagrasses have been found on the
deeper reefs.
ha, Mayaux et al. (1999) propose an area of 453,000
ha,
and
Lebigre
(2011)
estimate
the
area
of
mangrove swamps to 421 000 ha.
The largest areas (> 25,000 ha) of mangrove are
found in the deltas of Madagascar’s major western
rivers
-
Bombetoka
Mahajamba,
mangrove),
Betsiboka
(including
Mahavavy,
the
Besalampy,
Tsiribihinina and Mangoky - which account for over
75% of all of Madagascar’s mangroves.
Rasolofoharinoro et al. (1998) estimate a decrease in
mangrove area from 294km² to 110km² between
1986 and 1995. Localised studies also suggest that
Status of Seagrass
the
phenomenon
of
mangrove
degradation
The full extent of Madagascar’s seagrass meadows is
predominates over reconstruction (Rajerison, Roger
unknown, since they have never been mapped and
and Jeannoda 2008; Totozafy, Roger and Jeannoda,
are difficult to distinguish in aerial photographs or
2008).
satellite images. Based on the surface area of clear
and protected shallow marine waters the area of sea
171
Mangroves serve as timber, firewood, fence, canoes
Key Drivers of Change Influencing the
house building for locals. For house construction,
Value of Coral Reefs and Associated
villagers
use
the
species
Avicennia
marina
for
framing and Bruguiera gymnorhiza and Rhizophora
mucronata for the construction of pillars and walls.
national
geographic
institute
Foibe
Taosarintanin’i Madagasikara (FTM) state that the
length of Madagascar’s coast is 5,603km, including
the coastlines of the larger inhabited islands (Nosy
Be, Ile Ste Marie etc.). An imbalance between
sediment
intake
sedimentary
and
influx,
loss,
due
extreme
to
terrestrial
rainfall,
erosion
upstream and degradation of coastal mangroves (Be
Totozafy
1994)
has
modified
the
shape
and
characteristics of many of Madagascar’s beaches as
is well illustrated at Masoarivo, on the west coast of
Madagascar. It has been suggested that in region of
Masoala such processes may discourage female
turtles from nesting or make it impossible for young
turtles
to
dig
their
way
out
of
the
nest
(Randriamanantsoa, 2008).
cities
directly
or
indirectly
receive
discharged untreated effluents as well as solid waste
from sewage. Coastal water pollution has been
demonstrated by various water quality monitoring
results (eg Project UNEP / GEF WIO-LaB), and is
characterized by a strong presence of chemical
contaminants (heavy metals) and bacteria. There are
five main pollutants that affect Malagasy coastal
waters: Telluric pollution, chemical pollution, oil
pollution, Toxic Algea; and, bacterial pollution.
Telluric pollution
Telluric pollution mainly results from sediments
carried in aquatic water bodies enter the marine
ecosystem and cover and smother the reef flat and
adjacent mangroves (Mong & al. 2008). Mid and
south-western regions of the country are particularly
from large rivers, like the Betsiboka, Sofia, Onilahy
One third of Malagasy industries are located in
coastal areas (Mong & al. 2008). The main sources of
industrial pollution are from energy industries, such
as the oil refinery and shipyard at Toamasina, with
chemical effluents like naphthenic origin, sulfides and
thiophenol, and from mining (mica, quartz, iron,
chrome, graphite), with solid waste and sludge
of
coastal
impacted by telluric pollution as the sediment load
Status of Water Quality
suspensions
Water quality, Run-off and Waste
All
Status of Beaches
The
Ecosystems
mineral
(Anonymous,
and Fiherenana, is discharged into the sea (Bemiasa,
2009 and Maharavo, 2004).
Chemical Pollution
In the Bay of Toliara, traces of contaminants were
found in sediments (Mong, 2008) and water quality
on reefs was: Magnesium Mg (320 mg/kg), Cuivre
Cu (0,3 mg/kg), Manganèse Mn (0,6 mg/kg).
2003).
Defecation on beaches in many large coastal cities is
In the sediments of the Bay of Taolagnaro (South
a
pollution
eastern), concentrations of heavy metals found far
(Rasoamananto et al., 2008) and risks contaminating
beyond the limit: Chromium (12 mg / mg), copper
the food chain and affecting public health.
(15 mg / kg), lead (10 mg / kg), Mercury (0.05 mg /
significant
factor
of
bacterial
kg), nickel (12 mg / kg), Titanium (79mg/kg), Zinc
(21 mg / kg) (Mong & al., 2008).
In areas of Mahajanga and Nosy-Be (North western),
pollution by heavy metals is obvious. Nosy-Be has
highly superior values for particular rates of arsenic,
172
nickel, zinc, chromium, cadmium, and copper. A
most
strong
(RATSIFANDRIAMANANA, 2013).
presence
of
manganese,
probably
from
petroleum products (diesel, gasoline, motor oil and
drain) is observed. Some concentrations slightly
higher in mercury are found in some points.
cases
in
the
hot
season
Bacterial pollution
Beaches and drinking
water at the Taolagnaro
(Southeastern) have relatively high levels of bacterial
The discharge of untreated domestic wastewater
pollution (Mong et al. 2008). In the Great Bay of
coupled with chemical runoff from agricultural lands,
Toliara (Southwestern) is exposed to pollution from
has resulted in the critical abiotic condition (high
sewage and wastewater (Rasoamananto et al. 2008).
turbidity, low salinity, variation of the dissolved
The
oxygen content) of many of the country’s bays
surroundings show a strong bacterial presence,
(Mong & al. 2008).
which is probably due
Madagascar’s coast is also exposed to accidental
hydrocarbons spills, caused by poor facilities and
equipment or accidents on land or at sea. In 2008,
damage to the pipeline from the former refinery in
Toamasina and, in 2011, a damaged ship fuel tank
were the source of fuel / heavy oil spillages in the
vicinity of the port of Toamasina (east coast of
Madagascar). In 2009, the stranding of a hull
damaged tanker caused pollution of beaches in the
port
of
Mahajanga
to
(Nortwestern)
direct
and
discharges of
untreated municipal wastewater. Pollution affects the
quality of artisanal fishing catch, particularly filter
feeders
(mussels,
oysters),
and
fish
at
some
agglomeration areas, which are often implicated in
cases
of
food
contamination
poisoning
due
to
bacteriological
(RATSIFANDRIAMANANA,
2013).
Annual average germ abundance varies with season,
with the contamination of seawater increasing in hot
and rainy seasons.
south of Madagascar and it took over a month, with
Coastal Development
community support, to remove the worst of the tar
In
(OLEP, 2009). In addition, oil exploration around
estimated to be over 22 million (INSTAT 2012) with
Madagascar is increasing and can pose serious
approximately a third living within 100km of the
pollution risks (OMNIS 2009).
coast. There are 13 coastal regions, subdivided into
Dinoflagellates, proliferating on algae covering dead
coral after natural disturbances (cyclones, heavy
etc)
or
human
the
population
of
Madagascar
was
43 coastal districts, with a total area of 404,519 km 2.
Proliferation of Toxic Algae
rain,
2012,
disturbances
(coastal
Much of Madagascar is sparsely populated with an
average density of approximately 32 inhabitants/km2
and 22 inhabitants per km2 in coastal areas.
development, dumping of materials, etc) are sources
Coastal
of toxicity for marine fauna and their predators.
airports,
There are eight types of marine fauna poisoning in
reclaimed from the sea and reefs) can detriment
the
coral reefs and mangroves. Tourism has an impact
SW
Indian
Ocean:
carchatoxisme
(sharks)
roads,
development
construction
fish)
infrastructure (construction of hotels, marinas, etc.)
swordfish),
and tourism activities on reefs (trampling flats,
(fish
broken coral and collection agencies especially corals
ciguatera
(reef
fish)
bonitos,
tétrodotoxisme
ball)
xanthitoxisme (crabs). Sharks, sardines and turtles
are most commonly poisoned in Madagascar, with
the
embankments
ichtyoallyenotoxisme
(tunas,
of
of
(ports,
both
scombrotoxisme
terms
and
chélonitoxisme (sea turtle) clupéotoxisme (sardines)
(herbivorous
in
urbanization
development
of
tourist
and shells).
Coastal erosion, as a result of changes in coastal
hydrodynamic conditions, is most serious along the
173
west
coast,
particularly
in
Mahajanga
Fishing
(Middle
The small-scale fishery in Madagascar, which covers
West), Morondava (Middle West) and Manakara
subsistence, artisanal and recreational fishing, is
(southeastern) regions. In the Betsiboka estuary
largely concentrated on the country’s west coast,
(southwest)
mangrove
constituting 36% and 27% of the workforce in the
swamps is attributed to sedimentation due to soil
provinces of Toliara (South west) and Mahajanga
erosion taking place in the hinterlands, particularly
(North west) respectively. Reefs have been raided for
during rainy season (eg. Gafilo 2004).
a wide range of resources that can be either sold or
(Northwestern),
as
the
well
as;
extensive
Maintirano
growth
of
consumed such algae, corals, shellfish, sea urchins,
sea cucumbers, octopus and fish, resulting in the
rapid decline of some species.
Overfishing of certain fish species groups, such as
herbivores fish is a particular concern given their role
in controlling the proliferation of algae that compete
with corals.
Direct use - extractive
Mining and oil and gas
Growing global energy demands have led to an
increase
in
exploration
exploration
is
taking
of
oil
place
in
and
gas.
Active
Madagascar
and
exploration concessions off the coast and onshore
sedimentary
basins
of
Small fishing gear is particularly destructive to
Madagascar and in parts of the east coast. Currently,
marine resources due to their low selectivity and
exploration results indicate significant reserves of
capture of juvenile shrimp and fish and include: the
heavy oil and the possibility of lighter crude oil and
‘vonosaha’, tulle net made of 1-2 mm mesh that is
gas. Oil and gas exploration can pose a risk to
deployed in channels to capture small juveniles
marine
the
(90%) 2.1 g; the ‘sihitra’, or mosquito, net used by
potential impacts of oil spills, chronic losses, noise
women and children along the shore; the ‘valakira’
disturbance and collisions with cetaceans and the
barrage system, that is used in estuaries. The
development of infrastructure that lead to negative
extensive use of such gear is evident in Ambaro Bay
impacts on local and commercial fisheries.
(Northwest) since the 1990s (Razafindrainibe et al.,
ecosystems
cover
and
the
whole
fisheries
west
through
Massive corals in lagoons are mined for manufacture
1993, De Rodelec et Caveriviere, 2008).
of lime or as building materials (Maharavo 2009).
The intensity of exploitation of resources far exceeds
This may subsequently cause an imbalance in the
the tolerances of many reef sites (Maharavo, 2009).
functioning of the reef ecosystem as a whole.
To the north and south of Toliara, a large number of
174
fishermen (150,000) have destroyed the corals by
nesting in Madagascar has been observed all over
trampling during the collection of Eucheuma algae at
the country (Rakotonirina 1989, Rakotonirina and
low tide. The degradation of the reef could eventually
Cooke 1994).
result in an imbalance in the functioning of the reef
ecosystem as a whole.
The
combined
effects
overexploitation,
damage
of
global
sedimentation,
and
due to trampling, could
disappearance
of
many
coral
warming,
physical
result in the
reef
areas
in
Madagascar (Anon 2009, Maharavo 2009).
Direct use – non-extractive
Tourism:
Massive influxes of tourists, often to a relatively
small area, can have a huge impact on the marine
ecosystem. They add to the pollution, waste, and
water needs of the local population, putting local
infrastructure
and
habitats
under
enormous
pressure. This is evident at the Reef of Foulpointe
Sea turtles poaching
(East), which is currently threatened by trampling on
Illegal catches of sea turtles are common off coastal
the reef by tourists and visitors (Maharavo, 2004).
regions in Madagascar; they are observed along the
remote coastal areas or even in protected areas such
as Marine Parks (GE CNGIZC, 2013). Their catches
Shipping
are between 10 to 38 turtles per week in Mahajanga
Madagascar is served by 6 international ports:
(North west) and meats are sold around 5000 ariary/
Toamasina,
kg (1.5€). The period between the end of February
Toliara,
and November 2012, 180 to 300 individuals are
navigation:
Vohémar,
captured only in this region. The exploitations are
Manakara,
Taolagnaro,
more extensive in the following regions: Region of
Maintirano, Port Louis, Antsohihy, Sambava and
SAVA and DIANA (North east, North) : Ambilobe,
Antalaha (ASCLME, 2012). Madagascar marine zone
Vohémar, Nosy Be, Nosy Iranja kely, North of Iranja
is also an important transport corridor for oil from
Be, Nosy Hara Marine park; Region of SOFIA, BOENY
the Gulf, which increases the potential risk of oil
(North west): Moramba Bay, zone of Marovasa Be
spillage and damage to the marine ecosystem. For
and Anjajavy, Baly Bay; Region of ANDROY, ANOSY
example, as recently as April 2014 the oil tanker
and ATSIMO-ANDREFANA (South and South west).
‘Tromso’, containing 11,000 m3 of oil, was grounded
Besides, turtle nests are systematically poached in
on the reef at the entrance to the pass of the Bay of
sea turtle zones (Petit 1930, Rakotonirina 1989,
Diego Suarez in the North of Madagascar.
Rakotonirina and Cooke 1994, Sagar 2001, Metcalf
and Grey 2001). The pillage is practiced even in
remote or isolated areas where there is no tradition
of turtle exploitation, such as the Masoala peninsula
(Rakotonirina 1989). The decline of sea turtles
and
Mahajanga,
Ehoala,
and
Antsiranana,
12
ports
Maroantsetra,
Morombe,
Nosy-be,
of
coastal
Mananjary,
Morondava,
Outbreaks and Diseases
Invasive algae
Turbinaria has become invasive on coral reefs in the
region of Toliara (south west). Although the effects
of this invasion are unstudied, light reduction is likely
175
to have negative effects on the growth of corals, and
causing the flooding of low-lying coastal areas and
this
coastal erosion and the modification of coastal
is
compounded
here
by
overfishing
and
bleaching events (McClanahan et al., 2009).
ecosystems. This is particularly evident particularly
along the west coast of Madagascar, including;
Invasive Cnidaria
Mahajanga
At certain times of the year along the west coast
West), Morondava (Middle West) (ASCLME, 2012).
jellyfish proliferate. This phenomenon is observed
(Northwestern),
Maintirano
(Middle
regularly in the Toliara region during the hot season
Management Responses and Protected
and has also been observed in 2009 near Anjajavy
Areas
on the northwest coast (REEM, 2012).
Code of Protected Areas Amendment
Echinoderms
A recent national effort for marine conservation is
On the reefs of Southwest, there is a proliferation
the amendment of the Code of Protected Areas in
spiny sea urchin (Diadema spp.), which is likely due
Madagascar. It has been amended in light of the
to
The
principles developed by the International Union for
Acanthaster
Conservation of Nature (IUCN), which includes new
plancii is rare, and has only been identified around
categories Cat. III, Cat. V, Cat. VI (www.iucn.org).
the islands of Nosy Tanikely and Nosy Ve (REEM,
The amendment also emphasizes good governance
2012). In the region of Nosy Be, in the late 90s,
and the participation of all stakeholders (authorities
industrial shrimp fishermen found the proliferation of
and
sea urchins, Salmaciella erythracis, whose thorns
management of protected areas and promotes the
contaminate catch (Cooke et al. 2003).
sustainable use of natural ressources through the
the
overfishing
proliferation
of
the
of
keystone
coral
predators.
predator,
local
communities,
all
sectors)
in
the
creation of protected areas. As a result, four new
Natural and Environmental Disasters
marine protected areas were established; Soariake
Cyclones:
(Southwest);
The North and East coasts of Madagascar are most
Ankarea (Northwest), Ankivonjy (Northwest): Cat V.
affected
by
tropical
cyclones,
mainly
between
November and May, that result in heavy rain and
strong winds and flooding (Heath 2010). In addition
to the destructive impact of cyclonic waves, cyclones
indirectly impact the marine ecosystem by increasing
the sedimentation of terrigenous material at the
embouchures and deposition at the reefs Climate
Variability and Change
Cat
VI,
Velondriake
(Southwest),
National strategy for pollution management
Finalized in June 2010, the national strategy for
pollution management aims to preserve the integrity
of environment by ensuring that the nature and scale
of socio-economic activities do not exceed the
resilience and renewal capacity of the ecosystems. It
provides the basis for policy and legal framework for
the management of pollution and a framework for
Mean annual rainfall is predicted to decrease by 5%
the
coordination
by 2100, but increase by up to 10% in summer in
government
Atsimo Andrefana, Anosy and Androy. In addition,
accompanied
while the total annual number of cyclones remains
includes among other activities, the creation of
unchanged, their intensity is increasing, as is their
regional
frequency in northeast and southwest of the island.
mapping centres.
and
and
activities
by
a
local
management
and
of
relevant
responsibilities.
national
pollution
action
plan,
observatories
It
is
which
and
The sea level is also rising at a rate of between 7.2
and 21.6 mm on all coastal zones of the island and
176
Fishery reserves and Locally managed marine
areas
An effective strategy in expanding Madagascar’s
coastal management efforts is the development of
Locally Managed Marine areas (LMMA) and fishery
reserves, which are frameworks for managing marine
and coastal resources in collaboration with local
authorities.
The
establishment
of
LMMAs
has
emerged as a solution to many of the traditional
challenges of small-scale fishery management in
developing countries. Locally centred approaches
have proven to be cost-effective, resilient and more
socially
acceptable
alternatives
to
resource
management.
Social convention: DINA
DINA is an effective tool in the implementation of
community
management
of
natural
resources
especially in the context of weak or under capacity
formal governance. Rakotoson and Tanner (2006)
have demonstrated the importance of incorporating
DINA in current government legislation to ensure the
Figure 4-63 The Marine Protected Areas of Madagascar
agreement and support of local communities in the
Integrated management of marine and coastal
regulation of natural resource use and conservation,
zones (ICZM) regulations
including marine resource use and conservation
The decree 2010-137 covers the regulation of ICZM.
(Andriamalala, G. and al. 2010)
Article 5 of the Decree defines its objectives as:
Marine Protected Areas
(1) Serving as a strategic tool ideal for sustainable
The
development; (2) Improving governance processes
(SAPM) supports the categorisation of protected
by making them more fair, transparent and dynamic,
areas by their periods of establishment and their
by and for the benefit of communities and the
management types (table). This is primarily:
nation; (3) Improving the economy, health and
quality
of
life
of
the
littoral
inhabitants;
(4)

Improving environmental quality, to ensure the
maintenance or restoration, promotion of economic,
social and ecological diversity and productivity of a
given area; (5) Ensuring the ecological integrity
conservation of coastal ecosystems in order to be
taken into account in all development projects and
development.




System of Protected
Areas of Madagascar
The National Network of Protected Areas
managed by "Madagascar National Parks" and
their extensions;
Protected Areas with Temporary Status;
New Protected Areas (NAP);
The Important Sites for Conservation (priority
sites to become Protected Areas); and
Potentials Sites for Conservation (sites with high
probability to become Protected Areas).
Madagascar currently has 16 marine protected areas,
which
include
LMMA
and
fishery
reserves.
It
177
represents an area of approximately 849.000 ha.
There are four different types of MPAs according to
the classification of the IUCN:

7
MPAs
are
national
parks
(category
II),
corresponding to areas managed mainly for

ecosystem protection and recreation.
Nosy Hara MPA is the only area for protecting a
Mong,
5
MPA
are
designated
for
their
significant
ecological, biological, cultural and scenic value
and
its
associated
nature
conservation
and
potential values.

McKenna, S.A. & Allen, G.R. (eds). 2005. A rapid marine biodiversity
assessment of Northwest Madagascar. Bulletin of
the Rapid Assessment Program 31.
MEF, 2009. Quatrième Rapport National de la Convention sur la
Diversité Biologique, Madagascar. Ministère de
l’Environnement et des Forêts. Antananarivo.
specific natural monument (category III)

Maharavo J., 2003: A Basic Stock Assesment of Coral Reef Fishes for
the Northwest Coast of Madagascar. In McKenna
S.A. & Allen, G.R. (eds). A Rapid Marine Biodiversity
Assessment of Northwest Madagascar. RAP Bulletin
of Biological Assessment 31.
2
MPAs
are
protected
managed
resource
(category VI) areas. These are protected areas
managed mainly for the sustainable use of
natural ecosystems.
In December 2010, temporary protection status was
granted to the 9 MPAs through the publication of
inter-ministerial
order
52005-2010
to
raise
awareness about the importance of these MPAs
References
Ahamada, S., J. Bijoux, J., Bigot, L., Cauvin, B., Kooonjul, M.,
Maharavo, J., Meunier, S., Moine-Picard, M., Quod,
J.-P. & Pierre-Louis R., 2004. Status of the Coral
Reefs of the South West Indian Ocean Island States.
Pp. 189-212 in Wilkinson, C. (ed.). Status of coral
reefs of the world: Volume 1. Australian Institute of
Marine Science, Townsville, Queensland, Australia.
Anonyme. 2008: Assessing the impacts of climate change on
Madagascar’s biodiversity and
livelihoods: a
workshop report. MEEFT/CI/WWF/MacArthur/USAID.
Antananarivo.
Be Totozafy S., Roger E. & Jeannoda V. 2008. Régénération
naturelle et dynamique spatiale de la mangrove de
Masoarivo. Pp. 111-126 in Jeannoda, V & Roger, S.
(Eds). Honko : Recueil d’articles sur les mangroves
de Madagascar. Antananarivo.
Cooke A., Lutjeharms J.R.E. & Vasseur P. 2003. Marine and coastal
ecosystems. Pp. in Goodman S.M. & Benstead J.P.
(eds): The natural history of Madagascar. University
of Chicago Press. Chicago, IL.
Gough, C., Harris, A., Humber, F. & Roy, R., 2009. Biodiversity and
health of coral reefs at pilot sites south of Toliara.
WWF Marine resource management project MG
0910.01.
Harding S., Randriamanantsoa, B., Hardy, T. & Curd, A., 2006:
Coral Reef Monitoring and BiodiversityAssessment to
Support the Planning of a Proposed MPA at
Andavadoaka. Blue Ventures Conservation.
Harris A., G. Manahira, A. Sheppard, C. Gough & C. Sheppard.
2009. Demise of Madagascar’s once great barrier
reef: change in coral reef condition over 40 years.
Atoll Research Bulletin 574.
Y.,
Rejo, R., Randriamanarivo, R., Ranaivoson, J.,
Rakotoarinjanahary, H., Ralaimaro, J. & Manera, J.
Y. 2008. Rapport national sur les activités
terrestres, sources de pollution, et niveaux de
pollution des eaux et des sédiments. United Nations
for Environmental Program. Centre National de
Recherche
sur
l’Environnement.
The
Global
Environmental Fund. Antananarivo.
Obura, D., Di Carlo, G., Rabearisoa, A. & Oliver, T.(eds). 2011. A
rapid marine biodiversity assessment of the coral
reefs of northeast Madagascar. Rapid Bulletin of
Biological Assessment 61.
Obura D. & Oliver T. 2011. Coral reef health and status (NE
Madagascar). In Obura D., Di Carlo, G., Rabearisoa,
A. & Oliver, T. (eds). A Rapid Marine Biodiversity
Assessment of the coral reefs of northeast
Madagascar. RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment
61.
Rajerison T., Roger E. & Jeannoda V. 2008. Caractérisation
écologique et évolution spatiotemporelle des
mangroves du Nord Ouest de Madagascar: cas de
Mariarano et de Boanamary (Mahajanga II). Pp.
127-138 in Jeannoda, J. &. Roger, E. (eds). Honko:
Recueil d’articles sur les mangroves de Madagascar.
Rakotonirina, B.P. 2011. Etude ethno-biologique des tortues marines
à Madagascar (Sud Ouest de l’Océan Indien). Thèse
de Doctorat en Biologie Marine. Institut Halieutique
et des Sciences Marines. Université de Toliara.
Rasoamananto, I., Ralijaona, C. & Bilstad, T. 2008: Microbial
Pollution in the Bay of Toliara. University of Toliara,
Madagascar.
SAPM/REBIOMA. 2009. Atlas numérique du Système des Aires
Protégées.
Short, F.T., Carruthers, T.J.B., Dennison, W.C. & Waycott, M. 2007.
Global seagrass distribution and diversity: A
bioregional model. Experimental Marine Biology and
Ecology 350: 3-20.
Webster, F.J. & McMahon, K. 2002. An assessment of coral reefs in
Northwest Madagascar. Pp. 1902-200 in : Linden,
O., Souter, D., Wilhelmsson, D. & Obura, D. (eds.).
Coral reef degradation in the Indian Ocean. Status
reports 2002. CORDIO/ SAREC Marine Science
Program.
WWF. 2006a. Diagnostic marin et ébauche de schéma global
d’aménagement en vue de la création d’une aire
protégée marine au sud de Toliara. World Wildlife
Fund for Nature. MG0885: Toliara Coral Reef
Conservation Project. Toliary, Madagascar.
Le Corre, M. & Bemanaja E., 2009.
ASCLME 2012. National Marine Ecosystem Diagnostic Analysis.
Madagascar. Contribution to the Agulhas and Somali
Current Large Marine Ecosystems Project (supported
by UNDP with GEF grant financing).
Andriamalala, G. and Gardner, C. J. 2010. L’utilisation du dina
comme outil de gouvernance des ressources
naturelles: leçons tirés de Velondriake, sud-ouest de
Madagascar. Tropical Conservation Science Vol. 3
(4): 447-472.
Ralison H.O., Rakotondrazafy H.H., Leone M., Rakoto Ratsimba H.,
2011. Aires Marines Protégées et Changement
178
Climatique - Les expériences du Parc National Marin
Nosy Hara. WWF. 36 pages.
IUCN 2004. Gestion des Aires Marines Protégées : Un manuel pour
l’Océan Indien Occidental. Programme Régional de
l’Afrique de l’Est de l’UICN, Nairobi, Kenya, xii
+172pp
Cripps,
G.
2010. Feasibility study on the protection and
management of the Barren Isles ecosystem,
Madagascar. Blue Ventures Conservation Report
(2009), for WWF and the "Réseau interdisciplinaire
pour une gestion durable de la biodiversité marine:
diagnostic environnemental et social autour des
tortues marines dans le sud-ouest de l’Océan Indien
". 272 pp
179
Table 4-26: The Marine Protected Areas of Madagascar.
Denomination
Type
Area (Ha)
Ambodivahibe
MPA
11400
Ankarea
MPA
173690
Ankivonjy
Extension APMC Kirindy
Mitea
MPA
196659
National Park
17330
Cat. UICN
V
V
V
II
Status
Temporary protection
status
Temporary protection
status
Temporary protection
status
Date of
creation
Management
2008
Conservation International
2012
WCS
2012
WCS
Effective
2010
Madagascar National Park
Lokobe
National Park
725
II
Effective
1997
Madagascar National Park
Masoala
MPA
13182
II
Effective
1997
Madagascar National Park
Nosy Antafana
MPA
1000
II
Effective
1989
Madagascar National Park
Nosy Hara
MPA
125515
III
2004
Madagascar National Park
Nosy Mangabe
MPA
520
II
Effective
Temporary protection
status
1997
Madagascar National Park
Nosy Tanikely
MPA
179
II
2011
Madagascar National Park
Nosy Ve
MPA
1964
Ranobe Bay
MPA
42401
VI
Effective
Temporary protection
status
Temporary protection
status
2009
WWF
Sahamalaza-Iles Radama
National Park
26035
II
2007
Madagascar National Park
Soariake
MPA
45081
VI
2010
WCS
Nosy Ve - Androka
MPA
92080
V
2009
Madagascar National Park
Velondriake
MPA
101176
V
Effective
Temporary protection
status
Temporary protection
status
Temporary protection
status
2010
Blueventures
SAGE
177
CASE STUDY 1 Mapping of reef habitats in Cap Masoala (Northern Madagascar) by remote sensing using high resolution imagery
Authors:
Tantely TIANARISOA (WCS Madagascar, [email protected], +261331183523)
Bemahafaly
RANDRIAMANATSOA
(WCS
Madagascar,
[email protected],
+261321187996)
Located in the northeast of Madagascar, on a large peninsula named MASOALA, Vinanivao
has considerable reef with exceptional marine diversity. Pleiades Imagery was used to map the area, which is a
fusion of panchromatic mode in 70cm resolution, resampled to the ground in 50cm and multispectral mode in
2.8m resolution, resampled to 2m. The fusion of these two types of products therefore provides imagery with
50cm resolution.
The definition of the training site and groundtruthing fieldwork were done in collaboration with Mr. Bemahafaly
Randriamanantsoa (Marine Biologist of Wildlife Conservation Society Madagascar). The technical process was a
multi-spectral classification with ERDAS Imagine 11 Software. To increase the reliability of the mapping, inventory
data from groundtruthing work were integrated to conduct a supervised image classification. 91% of pixels were
correctly classified, with a kappa 0.85. After analyzing the confusion matrix, percentage of correctly classified
pixels and the Kappa index allows us to conclude that the result of the classification is statistically acceptable.
The reef complex Vinanivao consists of a fringing reef ranging from 600m to 2300m from the shore. 10 natural
units were observed and mapped (Figure)
1. Sedimentary terrace, which extends around the mouth with the river Fampotabe.
2. Channels and lagoons, with a depth ranging from 20 to 70 m which are covered with drooping soft
corals, sponges and Antipatharians.
3. Sandy terrace, extending along the coast to a depth of 5-10 m. These are sometimes muddy bottoms
colonized by Gobies dishes and fish, and benthic organisms such as fixed sponges and some Alcyonarians.
4. Deep sandy mud terrace, extending from the coast to a depth of 15-40 m to the submerged coral reef.
It especially meets the sea urchins (Clipeasteridés, Spatangidés) and sea cucumber (sea cucumber), and
molluscs.
5. Rock and detrital lift. Rocks are found along the coast while the detrital lift is located on the reef front.
The reef is a conglomerate block small to medium size, welded by calcareous algae.
6. Terrace coral reefs correspond to areas of patch corals, micro-atolls. Algal blooms are found in some
area. We note the frequent presence of sea turtles and rays.
7. Seagrass beds, almost mono-specific with a height of 30 to 50cm, which are located between the coral
reef and the coastline.
8. Reef flat, of compact reef areas, are populated by coral fish (Dascyllus sp., And Labridae). Tabular and
branching Acropora sp. are populated by a high density of commercial fish (Lutjans, Plectorhynchus sp.
Parrots). It should be noted that the sandy bottoms, of 5-15 m around the benches, are also a favorable
zones for collecting sea cucumbers.
9. Reef front forms the outer edge of the reef. This is a zone where waves are strong.
10. The outer slope is the outermost part of the reef that slopes out strongly seaward. It is colonized mainly
by dominant Porites and soft corals.
178
179
CASE STUDY 2 Mapping of marine and coastal habitats in Nosy
Hara (North western - Madagascar) by remote sensing using
Landsat imagery
Authors:
Tantely TIANARISOA (WCS Madagascar, [email protected], +261331183523)
Anjara ANDRIAMANALINA (WWF, [email protected] +261344984812)
Nosy Hara is located in the province of Diana on the west coast of Madagascar, just south of Cap d’Ambre and
directly west of the large bay of Diego Garcia. The coastline is highly convoluted with large bays fringed by beach
and mangroves and river estuaries draining the flat/rolling hills of the hinterland. The islands that are grouped
around the main island of Nosy Hara are karst limestone and the tops of the islands have the typical ‘tsingy’ or
eroded sharp limestone pillars typical of northern Madagascar. These are set on a 20km wide shallow flat platform
that extends out about 15km from shore. The platform bears a series of small banks capped with coral reefs and
an outer edge (about 5-10m deep) fringed by coral with a sharp drop to a sandy bottom.
Landsat 7 imagery covering the area was acquired, and the main features of this are a panchromatic band with 15
m spatial resolution, Visible (reflected light) bands in the spectrum of blue, green, red, near-infrared (NIR), and
mid-infrared (MIR) with 30 m spatial resolution (bands 1-5, 7). The mapping was supervised multi-spectral
classification with ERDAS Imagine 11 Software. Data from groundtruthing work were integrated into the process.
Ten units were identified and mapped (figure):
1. Mangroves, which are an open or closed trees or bushes occurring on shores between the limits of high
and low tide;
2. Waterbodies, which includes sea, rivers and lake;
3. Forests with a continuous stand of trees up to 10m in height, and interpenetrating crown;
4. Seagrasses, which form extensive beds and meadows. They are in mixed beds with CYMODOCEACEAE and
HYDROCHARITACEAE;
5. Deep reef system;
6. Shallow reef system;
7. Tanne, which is a zone periodically submerged and generally hypersaline bare or poorly vegetated,
growing at the expense of mangroves;
8. Mud, shallow marine area under the influence of sedimentation
9. Bare soil, land without forest cover
10. Sandbar and beach on the coast or in the open sea
180
181
Island Ecosystems
Mauritius
The
Republic
of
Mauritius
forms
part
of
the
Authors: Ranjeet Bhagooli* and Rebecca Klaus
Mauritius, Rodrigues, Saint Brandon, Agalega and
Contact details*: University of Mauritius, Reduit,
Mauritius, [email protected], +230-4037916
the disputed British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT),
Mascarene Islands and is comprises of the islands of
the Chagos Archipelago.
Mauritius
island
is
predominantly
volcanic
and
composed of basaltic rocks or different types of
pyroclastics. The island is 65 km long and 45 km
wide, and covers an area of 1,864.8 km2, comprised
of coastal plains, undulating uplands, ranging from
300 m
to
600 m,
and
three
mountain
ranges,
ranging up to 800 m above sea level. The highest
peak is Piton de la Petite Rivière Noire situated in the
south west at 828 m. Almost the entire coastline is
surrounded by fringing coral reefs, with shallow
lagoons 2-3 m deep and deeper ~6 m in the north.
The island of Rodrigues is situated 560 km to the
east of Mauritius. The island is 18 km long by 6.5 km
wide and covers an area of 108 km2 with a maximum
height of 398 m and a 67 km coastline. Although
Figure 5-64: Map of the Indian Ocean, showing the
Exclusive Economic Zones of Mauritius (green).
Rodrigues is a volcanic island it is also the only
Mascarene island with carbonate deposits and karst
limestone caves. The island is also surrounded by a
large carbonate platform encircled by a reef barrier
that encloses a shallow <2m depth lagoon covering
an area of 240 km2 with several intra-lagoonal islets.
The St Brandon Archipelago, located 1,100 km east
of the coast of Madagascar and 390 km to the northnortheast of Mauritius, consists of 60 small, low-lying
coralline islands and sand cays less than 4.6 m
above mean sea level.
The archipelago is situated
south of the Nazareth Bank on the Mascarene
Plateau, a major discontinuous mid-ocean ridge
stretching from Reunion to Seychelles (Turner et al.
2000a). The archipelago is orientated north-south
extending over 67 km, and is 22 km wide. The
islands are sheltered by a bow-shaped reef that
Figure 5-65: Map of the island of Mauritius.
encloses a series of sand-floored lagoonal shallows
182
covering 280 km2. The shoals also comprise the St
Brandon Sea, a shallow area typically less than 30 m
depth on its western side covering 1,020 km2
bringing the total area of this shallow bank to 1,300
km2.
Agalega consists of two islands, situated 1,000 km
north of Mauritius island covering an area of 26 km2.
The North island is where the capital is located, and
is 12.5 km long and 1.5 km wide and South island
7 km long and 4.5 km wide.
Terrestrial
Mauritius island is roughly 30% forested (370 km2),
but <2% is good quality native forest. Deforestation
rates continue to increase from +0.3% per annum
between 1990 and 2000, and +0.5% per year
between 2000 and 2005 (FAO 2006). The remaining
land consists of urban areas, agricultural lands,
plantation forestry, deer-ranches or highly degraded
vegetation, as a result of invasive alien plants and
animals. In the 1990s, approximately 48% of total
land area was devoted to agriculture, 90% of which
was sugar cane which used significant quantities of
fertiliser (600kg yr-1ha-1) and pesticides (7.4kg ha1 yr-1) (Dwivedi and Venkatasamy 1991). Sugar
cane fields have been since be sold for residential
development, but the crop still covers a significant
proportion of the islands. On Rodrigues the land is
mostly steeply sloping, and much of the island has
been
stripped
of
native
vegetation.
Terracing
introduced in 1966 has been poorly maintained and
overgrazing and terrace damage by cattle has
caused further loss of soil and the silting of rivers
and lagoon channels (Turner and Klaus 2005).
Terrestrial
biodiversity
is
characterised
by
high
species diversity and levels of endemism (Table 5-1).
There are 267 endemic species out of a total of 685
species of indigenous plants recorded. Eighty-nine
Figure 5-66: Map of Rodrigues, St Brandon and Agalega.
percent
(89%)
of
Mauritian
endemic
flora
is
considered to be under threat, while 61 indigenous
species are already extinct. Mauritius previously
183
harboured 52 native species of forest vertebrate, 24
from
of which are now extinct. The remaining native
Radiocarbon dating of the cored material from the
species include bats, land birds, reptiles, butterflies
south of the lagoon indicated that the platform
and land snails. Of the three native bat species, only
interior had filled in by ~2000 cal. (calibrated) yr BP,
one remains common in Mauritius, one species is
and the reef rim caught up with sea level in the past
extinct, and one is found in Rodrigues. Of the 30 bird
~1000 yr. This suggests that there was active reef
species, only 12 species have avoided extinction, and
growth at the platforms margin prior to present sea
of the 17 species of reptiles, only 12 have escaped
level being attained. The transport of sediment into
extinction, 11 of which are endemic. There are 39
the lagoon therefore only probably become important
native species of bufferfly, 5 of which are endemic
during the final stages of the platform’s evolution.
and 125 known native species of land snails, 43
species are already extinct.
the
reef
rim
(O’Leary
and
Perry
2010).
Around St Brandon, the main reef has a very broad
reef flat, extending up to several hundred metres
Marine
wide and characterised by a large algal ridge
The coastal and marine environment of Mauritius was
(UNEP/IUCN 1988). The marine ecosystem around
originally described by Pichon (1971), Salm (1976)
St. Brandon is reportedly ecologically intact with
and Montaggioni & Faure (1980).
abundant
The island of Mauritius island is encircled by an
almost
reef,
giving
rise
fish,
corals
and
a
high
abundance of sharks.
Mauritian waters support some 1,656 known species
of lagoons, 1-6 m depth. There is also a
of marine flora and fauna. There are 43 genera and
portion of barrier reef in the southeast of the island.
160 species of scleractinian corals from 16 families
Lagoons support seagrass beds and coral patches
have so far been recorded (Pillay 2008). There are
and some are backed by mangroves and wetland.
435 seaweeds (Bolton et al. 2012) and five seagrass
The coastline of Mauritius, which extends over a
species
length of 322 km, comprises of different shore types,
Thalassodendron ciliatum, Halodule uninervis and
namely, sandy shores, rocky shores, muddy shores,
Syringodium isoetifolium appear to be the most
mixed shores, calcareous limestone shores, cliffs and
common species. There are 786 species of fish, at
coastal wetlands.
least
2
fringing
reef
to
243 km
continuous
large
The island of Rodrigues has the most substantial and
best-developed reef in the Mascarenes. The lagoon-
42
(Paupiah
species
commercially.
et
of
There
al.
which
are
7
2000),
are
although
commonly
species
of
sold
Penaeid
shrimps and two species of deepwater shrimp.
reef platform around Rodrigues has been described
The First International Marine Biodiversity Workshop
as a carbonate platform surrounded by a near
for Rodrigues (Lynch and Oliver 2001) held in
continuous reef barrier which encloses the platform's
Rodrigues
peripheral margin (O’Leary et al., 2009 and O’Leary
Capricorn Programme, provided the opportunity for
and
during
2001
during
the
Shoals
of
2010).
Coring
studies
showed
that
taxonomists from Australia, Belgium, Ireland, New
platform
was
formed
through
the
Zealand, South Africa, Tanzania and Wales (UK) to
progradation of the reef seawards (O’Leary and Perry
work with colleagues from within the western Indian
2010), which is in contrast to the classic “bucket-fill”
Ocean region, supported by the Shoals of Capricorn
model
where
staff. The workshop identified over 1000 species and
as
a
inventories were made for algae (Coppejans et al.
function of the lagoonward transport of sediment
2004; de Clerck et al. 2004), corals (Fenner et al.
Perry
Rodrigues
of
platform
carbonate
formation
platform
occurs
evolution,
predominantly
184
2004), isopods (Bruce 2004); amphipods (Myers
habitats (Error! Reference source not found.;
2004), shelled molluscs (Oliver and Holmes 2004a;
Error! Reference source not found.).
Oliver et al. 2004; Schwabe 2004); echinoderms
(Rowe and Richmond 2004) and fish (Heemstra et al.
2004). The results of the workshop were published in
a special edition of the Journal of Natural History
(Oliver
and
Holmes
2004b).
Other
research
completed during this time included a study of the
biodiversity and biomass of zooplankton (Gallienne et
al. 2004) and an investigation of the evolution of the
Rodrigues reef system (Rees et al. 2005). The
studies to date have revealed Rodrigues hosts 160
coral species, 139 species of macroalgae, 2 species
of seagrass, 494 species of fish, 109 species of
bivalve mollusc and 74 species of echinoderms.
The next comprehensive map of the shallow subtidal
habitats of Mauritius was produced using Landsat
4TM satellite image (Klaus 1995)
Figure 5-69.
Satellite based remote sensing and field surveys
were used in collaborations between the University of
Wales
Bangor,
Rodrigues
University
and
the
of
Mauritius,
Mauritius
Shoals
Institute
of
Oceanography to map different parts of Mauritius
(Daby 1990; Klaus 1995; Dykes 1996; Orme 1997;
Eastwood 1998), as described in Turner and Klaus
(2005).
The Mauritius Oceanography Institute (MOI) mapped
A total of 17 marine mammal species have been
recorded in Mauritian waters, mostly as they migrate
to and from Antarctica to warm tropical waters for
calving. Two species of sea turtles are encountered
in the shallow coastal waters of Mauritius, the
the habitats of the South Eastern coast of Mauritius
during the PRE-COI project by digitistising aerial
photography (Bedal
et
al. 2005). MOI is also
currently under taking a major project to map beach
erosion and lagoon dynamics.
hawksbill, Eretmochelys imbricata and the green
Borstad Associates (1999) used high resolution (4 m
Chelonia mydas.
Although sea turtles reportedly
by 4 m pixels) Compact Airborne Spectrographic
bred on the beaches of Mauritius, this is no longer
Imager (CASI), with an 11-channel spectral bandset
the case. St. Brandon is an important seabird site
to map the reefs and lagoons of Mauritius. The CASI
with
numbers
was mounted in a Dornier 228 aircraft operated by
however appear to be in decline due to poaching and
the Mauritius Coast Guard, and flown over the island
introduced rats. Nesting sea turtles, though still
during April and May 1996. Ground truthing surveys
common are in decline (Republic of Mauritius 2006).
were carried out at various locations and the data
eight
breeding
species.
Seabird
Mapping of Coral Reefs and Associated
Ecosystems
There
have
used to produce habitats maps. An example of the
true colour composite of the CASI data and the
resulting habitat map are shown Error! Reference
been
several
initiatives
that
have
source not found..
mapped the coral reefs and associated ecosystems of
Mauritius (Table 3-4). The first attempt to map the
The University of Mauritius completed a national
geomorphology
shallow
inventory of wetlands and their classifications (Nigel
sublittoral habitats around Mauritius and Rodrigues
and Rughooputh 2007). The Ministry of Environment
was achieved by Montagionni and Faure (1980). The
and Sustainable Development produced GIS maps of
authors
27
six pressure zones around the coast of Mauritius as
transects around Mauritius and 12 transects around
part of an effort to develop an Integrated Coastal
Rodrigues to determine the dominant habitat types
Zone
and used aerial photography to delineate the main
Republic of Mauritius (Landell Mills 2009) (see Figure
and
completed
distribution
spot
check
of
the
dives
along
Management
(ICZM)
Framework
for
the
5-73 and Case Study 1).
185
Non-governmental
organizations,
such
as
Reef
2004). The map (Error! Reference source not
Conservation and the Mauritius Marine Conservation
found.) was used as the basis for developing a
Society, have also produced GIS maps of some
Geographical Information System (GIS) (Turner and
coastal areas around Mauirtius.
Chapman 2004). The classification scheme was also
A feasibility study was done by Mauritius Marine
Conservation
Society
(MMCS)
in
2010
for
the
establishment of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) on
South West Coast of Mauritius. The study, supported
by ReCoMaP and Princess Tuna Ltd, covered the
coastline between Le Morne and Albion and identified
specific areas in the lagoon for establishment of
used to map the reefs around St Brandon using SPOT
imagery (Tyack 2002) (Figure 5-72) and Landsat TM
imagery (Turner and Klaus 2005). O’Leary et al.
(2009) mapped seven geomorphic or physiographic
zones within the Rodrigues lagoon, which included
the reef crest, sand apron, outer lagoon basin, patch
reefs, sand banks, inner lagoon and coastal basin.
‘protection zones’ (see Case Study 2). Reef a local
A new biotope map was produced for the South East
NGO based in the north east of Mauritius undertook
Marine Protected Area (SEMPA) by ground-truthing a
habitat mapping work as part of the baseline to
new QuickBird satellite image acquired in 2008 (Kaly
establsih Voluntary Marine Areas (Case Study 3).
et al., 2007; Klaus et al., 2008; Klaus, 2011a; Klaus
During
the
Shoals
of
Capricorn
Project
the
distribution of the shallow subtidal biotopes were
mapped around Rodrigues using a Landsat 7ETM+
(Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus) satellite image
et al. in submission). Rapid assessment surveys to
characterise the habitats and assess the current
status of resources were completed at >150 sites
(Klaus et al., 2008 Klaus et al. in submission).
(Chapman 2000; Chapman & Turner 2000, 2001,
Table 5-27. Number of flowering plant species and faunal species in Mauritius
Species
Flowering plants
Number of native species
Total
Endemic
691
Mammals
5
Birds
30
Reptiles
17
Butterflies
39
Snails
125
Source: Baider et al., 2010 reported in MEO, 2010
273
2
24
16
5
81
Number of extinct species
Total
Endemic
61
2
18
5
4
43
29
1
15
5
1
36
Number of existing species
Total
Endemic
630
3
12
12
33
82
244
1
9
11
4
45
186
Figure 5-67: An example of one of the maps produced by Montagionni & Faure (1980) for Mauritius using the aerial
photography. The lagoon transects are indicated by the lines. The different habitats are shown by the different shading patterns.
Figure 5-68: The overview maps produced by Montagionni & Faure (1980) for Rodrigues using aerial photography. The lagoon
transects are indicated by the lines. The different habitats are shown by the different shading patterns.
187
Figure 5-69: A section of the habitat map prepared for Mauritius using ground-truthed Landsat 4TM satellite data showing the
lagoon at Le Morne Brabant (Klaus 1995).
188
Mauritius mosaic 2
Balaclava
Figure 5-70: Example of the CASI imagery from 1996 showing (a) the true colour composite image and (b) the classified habitat
map (Borstad Associates 1999). (Borstad Associates 1999).
189
Figure 5-71: The biotope map of Rodrigues, prepared using ground-truthed Landsat 7ETM+ satellite image of Rodrigues
(Chapman 2000).
Figure 5-72: A section of the biotope map of St Brandon, prepared using spectral signatures derived from the ground-truthing
surveys from Rodrigues (Tyack 2002).
190
Figure 5-73: The habitat map prepared for the Le Morne ICZM pressure zone (Landell Mills 2009).
191
Status of Coral Reefs and Associated
sites (11 stations) in the northern lagoon and 2 sites
in the south. Between 2008 and 2012, the 2
Ecosystems
southern sites were surveyed by the South East
Long term coral reef monitoring programmes have
Marine Protected Area (SEMPA) project (Klaus et al.
been established around Mauritius and Rodrigues,
2008). Around this same time, a long term coral reef
but there are no long term coral reef monitoring
monitoring programme was also established for
programmes for either St Brandon or Agalega.
SEMPA which included sites inside and outside
different zones within the MPA. Shoals Rodrigues
Around Mauritius island coral reef monitoring is
carried out by staff from Albion Fisheries Research
Centre (AFRC) at 13 sites and at two depths (reef
continues
to
maintain
both
these
monitoring
programmes.
flat and reef slope) (AFRC 2010). The surveys, which
Status of Reef Benthos
commenced in 1998, employ the standard Global
The reefs around Mauritius avoided the mass coral
Coral
(GCRMN)
bleaching in 1997/1998 (Turner et al. 2000b; Klaus
cover,
2004). Coral cover has however been declining since
macroinvertebrate abundances and fish. The surveys
then (Error! Reference source not found.a) due
are repeated annually and the data compiled into the
to multiple factors, including algal blooms and coral
COREMO database and results published in the AFRC
bleaching,
annual reports. Coral‐reef monitoring is also carried
impacted (AFRC 2010). The back reef of Ile aux
out within the Balaclava MPA, where there are 7
Benitiers for example had coral cover of 1% in 2010
fixed stations and Blue Bay, where there are 5
compared to 61% in 2000, which was as a result of
stations. These surveys use the same methods.
minior coral bleaching events in 2003/2004 and a
Reef
methodology
Monitoring
to
Network
assess
benthic
and
some
sites
being
very
heavily
more major event in 2009 (AFRC 2010). At Anse la
Around Rodrigues the first coral reef monitoring
programme was established in 1999 during the
Shoals of Capricorn Programme (Vogt et al. 1999)
and these surveys were repeated in 2000 (Lynch et
al. 2000). More detailed coral reef surveys were
carried out in 2001 at 12 sites around the island
using 100 m permanently marked underwater video
transects
and
sea
urchin
abundance
was
also
Raie and Poudre d’Or, all corals died reportedly due
to occurrence of algal blooms in 2009. In contrast,
sites like Belle Mare, Bambous Virieux, Baie du
Tombeau have shown resilience to coral bleaching
and still have about 50% coral cover. At the fore reef
stations, the average percentage coral cover is about
20% (AFRC 2010).
assessed along 5 m of the transect tape in a 2 m
The reefs around Rodrigues have thus far avoided
wide belt (Clark 2001). A long term coral reef
the mass mortality associated with a widespread
monitoring programme was established by Shoals
coral bleaching events. Although the reefs have not
Rodrigues’ in 2002. Surveys are undertaken annually
been devoid of anthropogenic impacts and there
at stations on the reef flat (1 m depth) and the reef
have been minor bleaching events reported since the
slope (6 m – 12 m depth). Initially, 6 sites (9
1997/1998 (Hardman et al. 2004; Hardman et al.
stations) were established and these were monitored
2008c; Hardman et al. 2009), coral cover has
twice a year. From 2008 onwards, sites were
remained relatively stable on both the shallow back
surveyed
reef
once
a
year
between
October
and
February. In 2005, additional sites were added to
sites
and
on
the
forereef
slopes
(Error!
Reference source not found.b).
allow comparisons between areas inside and outside
of the 4 northern Marine Reserves, resulting in 7
192
(a)
increases in Acanthuridae and Scaridae, and large
80
70
Percent Cover (%)
piscivores such as Emperors, Trevally and Snappers
MAURITIUS
were rare. The lack of predatory species is most
60
likely due to overfishing (Hardman et al. 2009)
50
Declines in the catches of predatory species such as
40
30
Lethrinus harak have been reported (Hardman et al.
20
2006;
10
differences in the fish communities between the
0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Total hard coral (fore reef)
Total hard coral (shore reef)
Total hard coral (back reef)
1988).
There
were
significant
seasons and over time. Assessment of the length of
12 key fish species indicates that the majority of
individuals at both reef slope and reef flat sites of all
(b)
species were juveniles.At both the reef flat and reef
80
slope sites, the majority of key fish species observed
RODRIGUES
70
Percent Cover (%)
Pearson
were below the published length of maturity (Froese
60
and Pauly 2007), a further indication of overfishing
50
due to intense fishing of adult individuals.
40
30
Status of Reef Macroinvertebrates
20
Routine monitoring of in Rodrigues has revealed that
10
abundances of key macroinvertebrates species are
0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2010 2012
Total hard coral (fore reef)
generally low with the exception of the sea urchin,
Echinometra mathaei. Abundances of E. mathaei
Total hard coral (back reef)
have been recorded to exceed 450 individual per 100
Figure 5-74 Coral reef cover data for 2002 to 2010 for (a)
Mauritius (Source: AFRC, 2010) and (b) Rodrigues (Source:
Shoals Rodrigues).
m2
Status of Reef Fish
and sea cucumbers were typically extremely rare. A
Underwater census survey techniques are used by
high abundance E. mathaei was reported by Faure
AFRC
the
(1982) from surveys completed during the 1970s.
abundance and distribution of fishes at the long term
The lack of molluscs and crustaceans does however
coral reef monitoring sites around Mauritius and
suggest that local consumption may be resulting in
Rodrigues respectively. The surveys around Mauritius
over harvesting (Hardman et al. 2009).
and
Shoals
Rodrigues
to
determine
have shown that Pomacentrids (Damsel fishes) were
consistently
abundant
and
dominanted
the
communities both on the back reef and fore reef
slopes. Acanthurids (Surgeon fishes) were normally
encountered,
as
were
Labridae
(Wrasses)
and
Scaridae (Parrotfishes). Balistidae (Triggerfishes) and
predators such as Serranidae and Lethrinidae were
nearly always absent.
at
some
sites
(Hardman
et
al.
2009).
Commercially valuable gastropod molluscs, bivalves
Status of Seagrass
There is no routine monitoring of seagrass beds
around Mauritius island. There is routine monitoring
of seagrass beds as part of the coral reef monitoring
programme for SEMPA and these have also recently
been added to the annual monitoring programme
supported by Shoal Rodrigues. These data thus far
show that seagrass cover is generally low, but
Fish communities in Rodrigues exhibit a similar
stable. Athough there are seasonal changes in
composition
density and biomass.
dominated
(Hardman
by
et
al.
Pomacentridae,
2009)
with
and
are
seasonal
193
Status of Mangroves
Status of Water Quality
Two mangrove species are found in Mauriitus of
Contamination of coastal waters with suspended
Rhizophora mucronata and Bruguiera gymnorrhiza,
solids, nutrients and coliform bacteria has been
the former of which is the most abundant species
reported
(Fagoonee 1990) and occurs as pure stands (Poonyth
UNEP/IUCN 1988, Hartnoll et al. 1994, Thomassin et
1998). The available habitat for this particular
al. 1998; Daby et al. 2002). UNEP/IUCN (1988)
species is narrow due to low tidal range and
reported extensive siltation and death of coral
topographic features (Kathiresan 2010). Bruguiera
communities due to suspended solids from sewage
gymnorrhiza mangrove is only found in a few
outfalls on the west coast of Mauritius at Pointe
locations, including Pointe la Fayette, Trou D’eau
Moyenne, Pointe aux Sables, and Roche Bois. Daby
Douce, Ferney and Mahebourg (Appadoo 2003).
et al. (2002) reported the findings of a long term
2
by
various
authors
(Oscore
1983,
Mangrove areas decreased from 20 km in 1987 to
study of pollution around the island both as a result
only 14 km2 in 1994 due to harvesting for firewood,
of sewage outfalls and natural seepages of ground-
construction purposes and to provide boat passage.
water contaminated with domestic and industrial
Since 2007 mangroves have been protected, and
waste percolating through fissures in the volcanic
AFRC
have
replanted
0.25
km
2
of
mangrove.
rocks into the lagoons. Lagoon water in proximity to
Replanting schemes have also been implemented in
existing sewage outfalls were found to have the
Rodrigues, even though it is uncertain whether or not
highest levels of total coliforms, faecal coliforms and
they were originally native to the island.
faecal streptococci with the highest contamination as
a result of human faecal matter being recorded at
Status of Beaches
There are 99 beaches that have been declared a
public beachs in Mauritius, and 12 in Rodrigues
(Beach
Authority
2011).
Significant
changes
in
coastline morphology have occurred as a result of
both natural and anthropogenic events (Figure 5-75).
Coastal erosion is a major concern and one of the
main causes of coastal degradation in Mauritius (NCC
1998, Gopaul 1989, Baird 2003).
Pointe aux Sables and Trou d'Eau Douce (Daby et al.
2002).The AFRC currently monitors water quality at
20 sites around Mauritius Island (AFRC 2010).
Parameters monitored include nitrate-nitrogen (NO3N), phosphate (PO4 and PO3) and chemical oxygen
demand
(COD)
and
coliform
bacteria.
Microphytoplankton and chlorophyll content have
also been studied in some of the lagoons of Mauritius
(Sadally et al. 2012, in press a and b). At Belle Mare
and Flic en Flac, Sadally et al. (2012) reported 14
families of diatoms, eight families of dinoflagellates,
and one family of cyanobacteria
194
Figure 5-75 Flic en Flac sandy beach patterns on the west side of Mauritius Island in years 2004 (A), 2009(B), 2012(C) and
2014(D).
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 5-76 (a) Landsat 5TM satellite image showing plumes from two on shore sewage outtfalls to the south of Port Louis. (b)
Sewage works where the water is coloured by dyes from clothing factories. (c) Public advisory notice against bathing in the
lagoon at Point aux Sable upgraded from (c) not recommended in 2002 to (d) banned in 2003 (Photo credit a,b Rebecca Klaus
and c,d John R. Turner) (Turner et al. 2000a).
195
Key Drivers of Change
lagoon, and in embayments (Pearson 1988) where
currents are weak, as well as in deeper areas, and
Water quality, Run-off and Waste
sheltered channels, which can contain material of
Coastal water quality is affected by both point and
50% terrigenous origin (Cross and Judge 1990).
non-point sources (Daby et al. 2002, Thomassin et
al. 1998). Factors contributing to the degradation of
coastal water quality include agriculture, animal
farming, domestic and industrial effluents. One of the
mainstays of the Mauritian economy, sugar-cane
farming creates an indirect pressure on coastal water
quality from fertilisers and pesticides. Only a quarter
of the population is connected to mains sewerage
the remainder uses septic tanks, which can overflow
due to poor maintenance and leak into ground-water
resources.
Heavy rain and flash flooding carries sediment,
pollutant and nutrient loaded runoff from agricultural
lands, and contaminated ground-water via water
ways and natural seepages into the nearshore
marine environment. In Mauritius issues related to
the poor management of domestic waste water are
compounded by industrial effluent discharges (Figure
5-76). The release of industrial effluents has been
associated with fish kills as a result of thermal
pollution or wastes with a high biological oxygen
demand.
sources has been an ongoing serious problem in
Rodrigues (Turner and Klaus 2005). Baissac (1968)
commented in 1956 “Except for one or two deep
channels, the lagoon is shallow, much silted up and
frequently very turbid". Over 95% of the islands land
area is affected by soil erosion, which is facilitated by
the clay texture of the soil, the sloping terrain and
intense rainfall (Gade 1985). Over 50% of the lagoon
sediment is of marine origin, periods of heavy rainfall
mm
Coastal Development
The ecological history of the Mascarene islands, and
historical
changes
in
land
use
patterns
were
described by Cheke (1987) and Turner and Klaus
(2005). Rapid deforestation during early colonial era
resulted in the destabilisation of top soils and
erosion, resulting in wind and rain-borne sediment
input onto reefs. Coastal erosion as result of coastal
development is a major concern in both Mauritius
Soil erosion and and siltation derived from terrestrial
(>30
Nutrient indicator macroaglae in proximity to a sewage
outfall on Mauritius (Photo credit Rebecca Klaus).
per
day)
bring
episodic
inputs
of
terrestrially-derived sediments, and streams and
rivers carry up to 412 mg/l of eroded soil into the
lagoon (Lynch et al. 2003b). Siltation is particularly
and Rodrigues.
In Mauritius, coastal development for hotels and
private residential homes for the domestic and
tourist market has placed significant pressure on
coastal and nearshore habitats. Over 90% of hotels
in Mauritius have beach frontages and very few are
situated inland. Although the larger hotels are
required to treat waste-water and recycling it for
irrigation
(GoM
2007),
smaller
hotels
are
not
required to do so. Larger coastal hotels also often
create swimming beaches by removing seagrass and
corals as well as dredging boating channels causing
further, albeit localised, damage.
evident in the northern and western parts of the
196
In 2002 the Government took the decision to open
(e.g.
the market to foreign buyers on a restricted basis
groupers), using basket traps, large nets, gill nets
through establishing an Integrated Resort Scheme
and octopus using harpoons. In Mauritius there were
(IRS) which permitted the construction and sale of
2,256 registered artisanal fishermen in 2010, and
luxury villas to foreigners, and was accompanied by
total production amounted to 831 tonnes (AFRC
residents permit. Eleven IRS projects have been
2010), 515 tonnes from the lagoon and 316 tonnes
completed
from off-lagoon areas. In Rodrigues there are about
since
construction
it
commenced,
activities
are
and
although
regulated,
lethrinids,
siganids,
mullets,
scarids
and
the
1,500 registered fishers of whom 36 % are women.
intensificatio of development has placed additional
An estimated 4000 additional people are engaged in
pressure on coastal and marine resources.
part-time
fishing
activities,
and
the
annual
production was estimated at 1,600 tonnes per year
in 2008 (CSO 2010) (Error! Reference source not
found.).
The Government is implementing efforts to reduce
pressure on the lagoonal fisheries resource and
encourage
off-lagoon
fisheries
targeting
pelagic
resources. In this context, Fish Aggregating Devices
(FADS) have been installed around both islands. The
scheme
has
not
been
considered
particularly
successful however as some of the FADS are situated
too far offshore to be accesible by artisanal fishers.
Basket trap fisher in Rodrigues (Photo credit SEMPA).
The FADS are however benefiting the sport fishers.
Direct use - extractive
Sports fishing is an important tourist attraction in
Sand for use in constrcution activities was orginally
Mauritius and increasingly so in Rodrigues, although
mined from the lagoons around both Mauritius and
there are fewer operators. The total catch of this
Rodrigues. A moratorium was put in place in 2000 in
fishery is estimated at 400 tonnes per year and
recognition of the damage caused by this activity and
consist mainly of bill-fishes and tunas and sharks.
it is now banned on both Mauritius and Rodrigues.
Building materials are now derived from other land
The banks fishery supplies the majority of the frozen
based sources and or imported.
fish consumed in Mauritius. There are three main
types of banks fishery: (i) the banks fishery for
Fishery resources are exploited in the lagoon and
frozen fish, which involved seven boats and the catch
offshore areas around Mauritius, Rodrigues, St.
which comprises mainly Lethrinids (92%), amounted
Brandon,
outer
to 1,478 tonnes, (ii) St Brandon inshore fishery,
islands. There are four main types of fisheries in
which involves 8 motherships and 20 boats fishing
Mauritius namely: artisanal fishery, sports fishery,
close to the islands, and catches were 366 tonnes;
banks fishery, and tuna fisheries. These fisheries
(iii) the semi-industrial fishery, which involves 8
target
boats and landed 249.7 tonnes from Albatross,
Chagos
more
than
Archipelago
forty-two
and
fish
other
species
and
contribute 1.3% of the country’s GDP.
Artisanal fishing is limited to the lagoon and off
lagoon areas and targets multiple species of fin-fish
Nazareth, Saya de Malha and Soudan banks and (iv)
the
drop-off
Carbunculus,
fishery
(Etelis
Pristipomoides
coruscans,
Etelis
filamentosus,
197
Pristipomoides auricilla, Polysteganus baissaci and
FADs. The total landings from FADs and sport
Epinephelus morrhua).
fishermen
are
estimated
at
around
650
tons
annually. Species caught are big eye tuna, skipjack,
25000
yellow fin tuna, dorado, wahoo and sharks. Industrial
tuna fishing is carried out by licenced foreign long
Total Catch (tonnes)
20000
liners and purse-seiners and the catch about 10000
tons yearly in the EEZ of Mauritius. The species
15000
caught are mainly the skipjack tuna and yellow fin
10000
tunas. Other fisheries resources include the deep
water shrimp
5000
Over the last 16 years, the total fish catch (lagoon
0
and off lagoon) has decreased by nearly two-thirds,
with a catch of 19,690 tons in 1993 and 6,978 tons
Year
Figure 5-77. Total lagoon and off lagoon fish catch in for
Mauritius (1993–2009) (Source: Ministry of Fisheries and
Rodrigues, Fisheries Division) .
in 2009 as shown in Figure 5-77. Analysis of
artisanal fisheries statistics in Rodrigues indicated
that the total fish catch from the Rodrigues lagoon
almost halved between 1999 and 2006, whereas the
2500
catch of octopus declined by two-thirds between
1994 and 2006 (Hardman et al. 2013). Export of
Total Catch (tonnes)
2000
octopus has also fallen from 411 tonnes in 1992 to
1500
106 tonnes in 2010 (CSO 2010).
1000
500
Total
Octopus
Other Fish
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
1994
0
Off Lagoon
Figure 5-78. Total fish and octopus catch in Rodrigues
(1994-2008) (Source: CSO-Digest of Statistics on
Rodrigues, 2009)
Other fish of commercial interest on the sandy
bottom of the banks include small pelagics such as
horse mackerel and lizard fish, the potential yield of
Crown of thorms starfish in Rodrigues (Photo credit Rebecca
Klaus)
which is estimated to be in the region of 13,000 to
Direct use – non-extractive
26,000 tons per annum. Their exploitation would
Coastal tourism is a significant part of the Mauritian
necessitate trawling facilities (AFRC 2010).
economy, with over 1 million visitors per annum to
The tuna fishery in Mauritius is split into the coastal
'artisanal' and offshore industrial tuna fishery (AFRC
2010). Tuna and tuna-like species are caught by
local fishermen near the coast and mainly around
Mauritius and over 60,000 per annum visitors to
Rodrigues (CSO 2010). Tourists are offered a wide
range of marine-based activities including SCUBA
diving
and
snorkeling,
undersea
walks
and
198
submarine
dives,
kite
surfing,
surfing,
wake
One of two cyclones pass Mauritius every year,
boarding, sailing and water ski-ing. While each of
typically resulting in four to five days of intense wind
these activities individually consitute a relatively low
and rain. Few cyclones have however actually hit
impact, the number of tourists and the cumulative
Mauritius. Since 1786, there were hits by cyclones in
impact of these types of activities is potentially quite
1892, 1960, 1994, and 2002, with wind sped varying
substantial.
between 216 and 297 km h-1. Flash flooding and
heavy downpours result in sediment laden runoff,
Outbreaks and Diseases
The
reefs
of
Mauritius
have
been
subject
to
numerous outbreaks of the Crown-of-Thorns starfish
(Acanthaster
Fagonnee
planci)
et
al.
(Fagoonee
1985,
&
Fagoonee
West
1983,
1990).
COTs
which reduces light levels in the water column and
causes siltation smothering filter feeding organisms.
2
densities increased from 30 per 10,000 m in 1971 to
416 per 10,000 m2 in 1980 at Trou aux Biches
(Fagoonee
1990).
Contributory
factors
included
declines in the predator numbers, in particular
the
gastropod mollusc (Charonia tritonis) and land-based
sources
of
pollution
pesticides,
and
(agricultural
industrial
fertilisers
chemicals)
and
and
sedimentation (Fagoonee 1990).
Interviews with dive operators in 1999 revealed that
there was another severe outbreak on the west coast
which started
in 1983 and continued through until
1987 and dive operators were undertaking 200 dives
per annum just to remove COTs from their dive sites
(Klaus 2004). Feeding scars and adult COTs were
observed at 34% of sites (12 of 35 sites) around
Mauritius in
Coral disease in Mauritius (Photo credit Ranjeet Bhagooli)
Climate Variability and Change
Increases in seawater temperature and sea levels,
storm frequency and intensity, changes in rainfall
patterns, all have potentially significant impacts on
marine and coastal ecosystems.
April 1999, and were particularly
McSweeney et al. (2009) predicted an increase in the
abundant in the lagoon at Trou d’Eau Douce (south-
average temperature of between 0.7 and 0.9°C by
east) (Turner et al., 2000, Klaus 2004). Other sites
2030, between 1.2°C and 1.7°C by 2060, and
were distributed around the whole coast e.g. Le
between 1.4°C and 2.8°C by 2090. Between 1950-
Morne (Ile aux Benitiers) (south west), Trou aux
2010 there has already been an increase in the
Biches (north east), and Grand Baie (north west)
minimum of 2°C, and the maximum of 1.1°C
(Klaus 2004).
(Acclimate 2011).
Coral diseases have been recorded, including white
McSweeney et al. (2009) also predicted an overall
plague, coral ‘tumour’ and brown band, in Mauritian
reduction of average rainfall, between -7.02% and -
reefs have been made (R. Baghooli pers. obs.).
7.88% in 2030, between -11.09% and -13.96% in
Natural and Environmental Disasters
The most significant natural and environmental risks
for Mauritius and Rodrigues are coastal flooding,
2050, and between -20.96% and -22.22% in 2080.
The average annual rainfall has decreased by 0.260
mm during the past 70 years, from 2.26 mm
storm surges, cyclones and tsunamis.
199
between 1931 and 1960, 2.00 mm between 1971
In Mauritius, although the Fisheries Reserves were
and 2000 (Acclimate, 2011).
originally established under Presidential Proclamation
Sea level rise will range between 7.8 cm and 8.2 cm
in 2030, between 14.6 cm and 16.2 cm in 2050, and
between 29.2 cm and 34.6 cm in 2080. By 2100, it
will
range
between
41.7
cm
and
48.6
cm
(McSweeney et al. 2009). Sea levels have already
risen by 7.8 cm in Mauritius and 6.7 cm in Rodrigues
between 1950 and 2001 representing an average
+1.56 mm and +1.34 mm per year of respectively
(Acclimate 2011).
2000) to full MPA status, although no substantive
change was effected regarding their management
and there are no management plans in place for the
Fishing Reserves (PMU 2011). In addition there are
two officially gazetted Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)
in Mauritius, and a UNESCO Man and Biosphere
Reserve at Bel Ombre (Republic of Mauritius 2010a).
In Rodrigues there are also four Marine Reserves and
one multiple-use Marine Protected Area, the newest
Management Responses & Protected
Areas
South-East Marine Protected Area (SEMPA). There
are currently no protected areas designated on
Agalega or St Brandon, although access to the area
The Government of Mauritius and the Rodrigues
Regional
(rather than Ministerial), they were upgraded (in
Assembly
have
implemented
various
is however controlled through a system of permits.
measures in reocgnition of the need to protect
The two MPAs in Mauritius were gazetted under
coastal and marine biodiversity, reduce fishing effort
section 7 of the Fisheries & Marine Resources Act
and
1998, with MPA regulations defined in the Fisheries
improve
communities.
catches
These
for
fisheries
measures
have
dependent
included
a
combination of seasonal and permanent closures, the
creation of different types of marine protected areas
and no-take zones, gear restrictions and licence buyback schemes. For example, in recognition of the
drastic declines in sea cucumbers, a moratorium was
implemented banning sea cucumber fishing between
2009 and 2011, which was then extended. Seasonal
closures have been implemented for the mullet
fishery and more recently for octopus in Rodrigues.
Following is a breif summary of the protected areas
within Mauritian waters.
and Marine Resources (Marine Protected Areas)
(Amendments) Regulations 2007.
Blue Bay MPA in south‐east Mauritius was initially
gazetted as a National Park in 1997 under the
Wildlife and National Parks Act in 1993, before being
declared a MPA and designated a Marine Park in June
2000 (under the Fisheries and Marine Resources
(FMR) Act 1998). It also achieved RAMSAR (The
Convention on Wetlands) status in 2008. Blue Bay
covers an area of 3.53 km2 and has two Strict
Conservation Zones(~0.38 km2) and a Conservation
Zone (1.46 km2), where fishing is not permitted, with
the exception rod and line fishing from shore. The
Marine Protected Areas
management
of
prohibited, were declared under the Fisheries Act 75
stakeholder
Steering
of 1984. There were six Fishing Reserves declared in
participation, which was established by the Ministry
Mauritius (Port Louis, Poudre d’Or, Poste Lafayette,
in January 2006. This Committee meets every
Trou d’Eau Douce, Grand Port Zone A, Grand Port
quarter to discuss issues but the function and
Zone B, and Black River) and five in Rodrigues
mandate are not fully clear (PMU 2011).
Fishing
Reserves
where
seine
net
fishing
is
(Pointe Venus to Pointe la Gueule, Pointe la Gueule
to Pointe Manioc, Baie Topaze, Anse Quitor, and
Grande Passe).
Blue
Bay
includes
Committee
a
multi-
with
local
Balaclava MPA covers an area of 4.85 km2 and has a
single Conservation Zone (1.67 km2), and a Multiple
200
Use Zone (3.13 km2) and Ski Lane (0.3 km2). The
Voluntary no-take areas was an initiative launched
zoning plan for Balaclava has not been implemented
by the NGO Reef Conservation on the north/ east
due to conflicts with fishers and a number of new
coast of the island, with funding from EU/COI
hotels that have been constructed since the original
ReCoMaP project planned. Initially the plan was to
zoning was developed in 2000 (MFR, 2009; Reef
establish 10 VNTAs but Reef faced various challenges
Conservation, 2011).
in implementing these areas as a result of the
Both
MPAs
attract
domestic
and
international
tourism. Permits are issued to tour operators for
glass‐bottom boats, ski‐boats and other ‘permissible
activities’. In 2009, a full assessment of biodiversity
was conducted as part of ‘Création du Réseau des
Aires
Marines
Protegées
des
pays
de
la
COI’
Mauritian fishers’ habit of requesting compensation
for lost fishing grounds and limited support from the
Fisher Associations and from Government. Since then
progress has been made with two areas Anse La Raie
and Roche Noire (see Case Study 3).
Ramsar
Two Ramsar sites Blue Bay and Rivulet Terre Rouge
programme.
Four Marine Reserves were identified by the local
fishing community in the north of Rodrigues with the
support of the NGO Shoals Rodrigues. These areas
were legally gazetted by the RRA in 2007 under the
Fisheries and Marine Resources Act and include
Grand Bassin (14.1 km2), Passe Demi (7.2 km2),
Passe Cabri (1.5 km2) and Rivière Banane (1.5 km2).
Between 2010 and 2012, a joint Management Plan
Estuary Bird Sanctuary. The latter is a tidal mudflat
located in the north east of the island, near Port
Louis Harbour that is used by around 1,000-1,200
migratory migrating shorebirds every year. Sixteen
of the 49 offshore islets are protected due to their
conservation importance, seven as Nature Reserves,
eight as National Parks and one as an Ancient
Monument (Republic of Mauritius, 2006; 2010a).
was developed for the Marine Reserves by a group of
Islets National Parks
local stakeholders with the support of GEF SGP and
In 2001, the National Parks and Conservation Service
ReCoMap. This is one of first management plans in
(NPCS) established the Islets National Park Task
the region to have been written by local marine
Force to drive the creation of the Islets National Park
resource users. The final draft Management Plan will
(INP). In 2003-2004 and as Phase I of the project,
be presented to the RRA in April 2013.
the
The UNDP-GEF funded programme ‘Partnerships for
Marine Protected Areas in Mauritius and Rodrigues’
that was implemented jointly by the Government of
Mauritius
and
Rodrigues
Regional
Assembly
established SEMPA, which is the newest MPA in
Mauritian waters. SEMPA is a multiple use MPA
covering a total area of 43 km2. The area includes
Anse Quitor and Grande Passe were already declared
fishing reserves and now included within SEMPA.
The UNDP-GEF funded programme ‘Partnerships for
Marine Protected Areas in Mauritius and Rodrigues’
also developed management plans for Balaclava,
Blue Bay and SEMPA.
NPCS
Strategic
developed
Plan
for
the
sixteen
Islets
islets,
National
as
well
Park
as
management plans for nine of the islets and a
marine area around them of up to 1 km from the
shoreline. In 2009, Phase II of the project saw the
development of management plans for the five
remaining islets of the Islets National Park, as well as
Ilot Fourneau and Ile aux Benitiers, which were not
part of the INP.
World Heritage
Aapravasi Ghat and Le Morne were ascribed as
UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2006 and 2008
respectively. Aapravasi Ghat is found in Port Louis
and its Buffer Zone of 28.9 ha covers part of Port
201
Louis Harbour. Le Morne peninsula at the extreme
Knowledge
south-western tip of Mauritius is surrounded by a
information
lagoon and is a famous tourist attraction. A Planning
Policy
Guidance
was
issued
related
to
the
management and control development in the Core
Zone
and
Buffer
Zone
of
Le
Morne
Cultural
Landscape in 2007. The Core Zone and Buffer Zone
management
and
Despite the large number of GIS projects, there is
currently no regular use of GIS data for informing
decision-making.
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206
CASE STUDY 1 Mapping the marine resources of Belle Mare, Mauritius
Authors: Aftaab Meethoo, Reza Badal and Ranjeet Bhagooli*
Contact details: *University of Mauritius, Reduit, [email protected], +230-4037916.
Belle Mare (BM) (Figure 1) is located on the east coast of Mauritius, extending from Valtur Hotel, in the north, to
south of Surcouf Hotel and is surrounded by corals, sandy beaches and fringing reefs. The reef is found about
850 m from the shoreline and has one well-developed pass and two blind passes. The coastal soil is very sandy
and it has very poor sediment retention properties.
Acquisition of the image
Black and white aerial photographs at 1:10000 that had been taken during a flight survey in 1999 were bought
from the Ministry of Housing and Land. The images were compared with 2009 Google Earth images and the
most reliable ones were selected19. To e n s u r e good resolution of a particular site, different print screens were
taken at the same altitude and each print screen had a little overlap. T hese images were edited individually in
the software Paint to remove unwanted areas and were then stitched together using the software Photoshop to
give a whole view of the entire site.
Georeferencing
Georeferencing involves assigning rectified values of latitude and longitude to points on a digital image or map.
Points are geoferenced to a system of Geographic Coordinates or to a projection system, such as Universal
Transverse Mercator (UTM). ARC GIS 9.2 was used to georeference the images using the shape file roads,
coastline and buildings of Mauritius bought from the Ministry of Housing and Land (MOHL). These maps were
based on the Geodetic System 1984 (WGS 84) projection and it was used to assign coordinates on the
stitched image of the sites. The process of georeferencing was done by joining three reference points on the
image of Google Earth to the corresponding points on the maps that were bought from the MOHL, which already
had coordinates. Before ground-truthing, a number of representative GPS points were selected by drawing
transect lines from shore to reef. Along each transect several GPS points were selected and exported in an
excel sheet from the Arc GIS. This was done on Google Earth. The distance between the two transects was
approximately 15 m.
Ground-truthing
The field survey involved snorkeling and the use of a GPS and 1 m x 1 m quadrat. At different pre-defined GPS
points, the quadrat was deployed, and the observation was recorded on a data sheet. During the survey, 210
GPS coordinates were verified. A l though the main aim of the study was to compare differences between live and
dead coral cover at the three sites, the percentage of other marine features, like macroalgae, coral rubble and
sand, was also recorded and included in the maps.
Processing the maps
The maps were prepared using Arc GIS 9.2. Different excel sheets containing GPS points for different marine
resources and features were imported and the data was overlaid on the georeferenced images and interpolated.
19
2009 images were selected because the different patterns at sea were reasonably visible.
207
The various marine resources were represented by different c o l o u r
polygons and layers ( e . g . roads,
buildings and coastline) and added to the map. These layers, in the form of shapefiles, were brought from the
MOLH and updated by using the 2009 Google Earth images. From the attribute table, the area of different
polygons was noted and, the legend, title and scale were added and the print size adjusted to A4. The same
methods were used for the three study sites.
Marine Resources
Marine resources in Belle Mare are illustrated in Figure 2 and show that live coral over the lagoon was 57%,
while dead coral cover was 10%. Near the shoreline, exposed and underwater sand could be found. F u r t h e r
f r o m t h e s h o r e l i n e , a large area of macroalgae was observed that extended from the northernmost part of
Belle Mare to the end of the study area. Inbetween, s o m e macroalgal patches and areas of sand and live corals
could be observed. Macroalgae were much more abundant in the southernmost part of Belle Mare and nearly
extended up to the reef area. Live corals covered most of the lagoonal water and dead corals were present in
smaller numbers in a r e a s near the reef. Seven hotels were located in the area but built up areas were distant
from the shoreline.
(a)
(b)
Figure
1:
(a)
Map
of
Mauritius
showing
the
location
of
the
study
site
http://www.exoticmauritius.com/maps.html) and (b) Map of Belle Mare (Source: Google Earth).
Belle
Mare
(Source:
208
Figure 2: GIS map showing marine resources at Belle Mare. Marine resources quantified are live corals, seagrasses, sand, rock
and boulders, and turf algae.
209
CASE STUDY 2 Feasibility of establishing a new Marine Protected Area in the SouthWest of Mauritius
Authors: Imogen Webster
Contact details: Mauritius Marine Conservation Society (MMCS), c/o Mauritius
Underwater Group, Railway Road, Phoenix, Mauritius, Email: [email protected], Tel: (+230) 483 7781.
The Government of Mauritius "National Environmental Policy, 2007", and the
"National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan", both recognised the need to create new Marine Protected Areas
(MPAs), and stressed the importance of community participation in their implementation. One of four regions
identified by as a priority area for protection by the Government of Mauritius (AFRC 2008) and as a regional
priority (RAMP-IOC 2009) was the southwest region of Mauritius. In this context the Mauritius Marine Conservation
Society (MMCS) proposed to assess the feasibility of establishing a co-managed MPA on the south-west coast.
MMCS has been promoting marine conservation in Mauritius for more than 30 years, and has concentrated their
efforts in the south-west region in recent years. MMCS's work helped to highlight the ecological and economic
importance of the region and the magnitude of the threat posed by the urban and tourism developments in recent
decades.
In 2009 MMCS was awarded funding to undertake the feasibility by the Regional Programme for the Sustainable
Management of the Coastal Zones of the Countries of the Indian Ocean (ReCoMAP), an initiative supported by the
Indian Ocean Commission financed by the European Union. The project allowed MMCS to collect the baseline data
necessary to develop a zoning plan along a stretch of coast extending 40km from Flic en Flac to the village of Le
Morne, which borders both the Black River Gorges National Park and the UNESCO World Heritage site at Le Morne
Brabant.
Two main types of survey were completed within the study area: an assessment of the marine biodiversity and a
socio-economic study. Photo-interpretation of aerial and satellite images was used to identify and map the main
units of the coral reef (ARVAM 2009) (Figure 1). Ground-truthing surveys were completed at 122 sites to validate
the mapped polygons and to create thematic layers illustrating the distribution and status of the habitats (ARVAM
2009). MMCS also compiled their observation data on the distribution of focal species groups including cetaceans
(Stenella longirostris and Tursiops aduncus) and sea turtles (Cadinouche, 2010).
Socio-economic studies were completed in several different phases (Olivier, 2009). Initial consultation meetings
were held with village councils and local communities in the region. A series of stakeholder consultation meetings
were then organised with fishermen and tourist operators during which participatory mapping techniques were
used to capture useage patterns, problems and issues. More in-depth individual interviews were then conducted
with fishermen, tourist operators, tourists and Mauritian users to consolidate and confirm the observations. The
results of the socio-economic studies revealed that the majority of local stakeholders recognised the importance
and were strongly supportive and willing to participate in a co-managed MPA.
The results of both the biodiversity and socio-economic surveys were entered into the GIS mapping software and
used to create maps illustrating the local biological, social and economic situation and to develop a zoning (Figure
2). The study concluded that the establishment of a co-managed MPA in the south-western region was feasible
210
(Thomassin 2011), with the proviso that co-management implies the coordination of decisions on zoning and
regulations.
Surveys revealed that the majority of the coral habitats within the south-west region were already severely
degraded, emphasising the urgent need for greater protection. This area is still heavily used for fishing and tourist
activities. A recent study of food fish biomass and coral cover in the lagoon of Ile aux Benitier and adjacent reef
found low coral cover; dominance of herbivorous fishes on the reef and the absence of apex predators such as
sharks and large groupers or snappers (Bidet 2014) all characteristics of an over-exploited area in need of
conservation management if it is to recover.
References
ARVAM, 2009. Gestion durable des ressources marines du Sud Ouest de Maurice: Cétacés-Récifs-Volet suivi des récifs coralliens. Rapport pour le
compte de la MMCS. 21 p.
Cadinouche A, 2010. Etat de la mégafaune marine (Cétacés-Tortues) de la zone côtière du sud-ouest de Maurice. MMCS. 23 p.
Ollivier S., 2009. Etude préliminaire des aspects biologiques, écologiques et socio-économiques de la côte Sud-Ouest de Maurice, en vue de futurs
plans de conservation du milieu marin. Mémoire de Master. Université de Perpignan, MMCS, 43 p.
Thomassin A. 2011. Recommandations finales dans: Etude de faisabilité pour la mise en place d'une ou plusieurs AMP sur la côte sud-ouest de
Maurice rédigé pour MMCS/ProGeCo. 54p.
RAMP-COI, 2009. Priorisation et stratégie de WIOMER. Compte-rendu de l’atelier. 24-27 Novembre 2009, Antananarivo, Madagascar.
211
Figure 1: Habitat map prepared for the area between Albion and Le Morne SW Mauritius (after ARVAM 2009)
212
Figure 2: Areas proposed for protection between Albion and Le Morne (after Thomassin, 2011)
213
CASE STUDY 3: Using mapping to help set up Voluntary Marine
Conservation Areas (VMCAs) in Mauritius.
Authors: Natalie Summers, Celine Miternique, Kathy Young
Contact details: Reef Conservation, Les Flammants Br. Rd., Pereybere, Mauritius.
Email: [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]
Reef Conservation is a Mauritian Non-Governmental Organisation that works with the local community to protect
the marine environment, through advocating good practises that minimise impacts and encourage sustainable
resource use. Over the past 5 years, Reef Conservation, have been supporting coastal communities to establish
Voluntary Marine Conservation Areas (VMCAs) within the lagoons of Roche Noire and Anse La Raie, in the north of
Mauritius.
Local interest in establishing VMCAs was initially assessed through consulting with communities all around
Mauritius. The Roches Noire lagoon was selected as the first pilot site based on the positive response of the local
fishing community. The Anse La Raise lagoon was selected as the second pilot site given the presence of healthy
remnant coral communities within an otherwise heavily degraded lagoon. The VMCAs to be protected within both
lagoons were chosen by local users whose livelihoods depend on the marine resource.
In Roche Noire, Reef Conservation held meetings with the local fisher community to explain the concept of VCMAs,
and gather information and support. Participatory techniques were used to create a map showing the distribution
of key habitats and resource use patterns. The participatory map was verified through field surveys by Reef
Conservation staff. This verified map was discussed with the fishers and local community and used to identify a
potential high priority site for protection (Figure 1). The main criterion for the selection of the VMCA within Roche
Noire was the presence of a rich habitat that would benefit from a reduction in human impacts. The area selected
by the local community and fishers is characterised by a large lagoonal seagrass bed with a reef composed of
massive corals.
The Roches Noires VMCA was officially inaugurated in 2011, and since then local community members have been
trained and are actively involved in ongoing programmes to monitor sedimentation rates, coral recruitment and
seagrass health. Observations of resource use patterns within the Roches Noires VMCA during 2013 revealed that
while the VMCA was generally respected, amateur fishermen were line-fishing and snorkelling for octopus inside
the VMCA. Mapping resource use patterns within the lagoon helped identify management needs and the next step
will be a communication campaign specifically targeting amateur fishermen.
In Anse La Raie lagoon mapping and scientific monitoring surveys were completed before community engagement
(Figure 2a). The surveys identified healthy remnant patches of live coral within the lagoon, with between 30% and
60% live coral cover, and degraded areas with less than 2% live coral cover (Figure 2b). The Anse La Raie lagoon
has multiple users (fishing, kite-surfing, glass bottom boat and other water sports). A combination of participatory
mapping and direct observations was used to generate the map of usage patterns (Figure 2c). Further consultation
with the different user groups identified the boundary of the VMCA. The area selected for protection encompasses
both the healthy patches of live coral and part of the degraded area where restoration efforts could be established.
A management committee is being set up for Anse La Raie.
Overall, both VMCAs have a good chance of being successful in Mauritius as local community members supportive
and keen to protect areas. The VMCAs approach to protecting marine ecosystems is still new to Mauritius. Success
214
will depend upon the active participation the local communities in monitoring, education, sensitisation and
management. The challenge now will be encouraging the local communities to take greater ownership of the
management of these areas.
(a)
(b)
Figure 1: Map of Roche Noire lagoon showing (a) the distribution of habitats and other key features and (b) useage patterns in
proximity to the Roche Noire VMCA.
215
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 2: Maps of the Anse La Raie lagoon showing the distribution (a) of survey points within the lagoon (b) the main habitats
mapped from the survey and 7 study sites and; (c) lagoon useage patterns created from a combination of direct field
observations and local knowledge.
216
(Stoddart, 1984). The granitic inner islands are
Seychelles
Authors: Helena E. Sims
Contacts: La Misere, Mahe, Seychelles,
[email protected], +248 2519404
composed of pre-Cambrian rock, about 650 million
years old (Braithwaite 1984) and rise from the
Seychelles Bank, which form the Northern arc of the
Mascarene ridge. The Seychelles Bank is the remant
of a former reef which is now encrusted with
coralline algae and fine to coarse bioclastic sands
with
coarser
sediments
in
the
shallow
waters
(Spencer et al. 2009).
The larger granitic islands are characterized by
steep, rugged mountainous interiors with peaks
reaching 914m on Mahe, 867m on Silhouette and
427m
on
Praslin
(Spencer
et
al.
2009).
The
landscapes are formed from smooth, bare rock
surfaces (glacis) with lower slopes filled with red
lateritic soil, surrounded by plateaus and sea level
wetlands, although some high altitude wetlands are
also present on some islands (Spencer et al. 2009).
There are three types of granite, grey, pink and
white granite all of which have similar mineralogical
Figure 6-79: Map of the Indian Ocean, showing the
Exclusive Economic Zones of Seychelles (green).
properties (ASCLME 2012). The granite extends into
the subtidal and provides a suitable substrate for the
growth of corals and other organisms (ASCLME,
2012).
All the other islands in the Seychelles archipelago are
coralline, and include calcareous sand cays, coralline
islands, atolls and raised coral atolls. The majority of
the coralline islands are formed from patchy reefs,
whilst others are composed of partly fossilized reefs
that have emerged from the sea floor (e.g. Aldabra
and Assumption). Aldabra is the largest of these
coralline islands and the world’s largest atoll, with a
land area composed of four main islands covering
130km2 enclosing a large shallow lagoon.
Figure 6-80: Map of the islands of the Seychelles.
Island Ecosystems
The Seychelles is an archipelago of 155 coralline and
granitic islands formed during the Cretaceous period,
217
salt tolerant shrubs, low trees, herbs and grasses
(Stattersfield et al. 1998).
Seychelles hosts some of the largest seabird colonies
in the world (Bijoux et al. 2003). The inner islands of
Aride, Cousin, Cousine and Bird island host large
numbers of brown noddy (Anous stolidus), white tern
(Gygis
alba),
sooty
tern
(Sterna
fuscata)
and
Audubon’s shearwater (Puffinus iherminieri). The
Seychelles black parrot, the country’s national bird,
is found in the inner islands. On the outer islands,
Aldabra is renowned for the large colonies of nesting
seabirds, including the lesser and greater frigatebird
and red footed boobies (Skerrett, 1995). The last
flightless bird species in the Indian Ocean - the white
throated rail (Dryolimnas cuvieri aldabranus) can
also be found here. Aldabra also hosts over 150,000
giant tortoises (Geochelone gigantea), the largest
population worldwide. There are more than 20 lizard
species, of which 14 species and subspecies are
endemics (GoS 2012) and a high diversity of
arthropods.
Figure 6-81: Map showing the Providence and Cerf and
Farqhuar atoll in the Seychelles.
Terrestrial
Seychelles has approximately 1700 taxa of flora,
including 376 native and 136 endemic species
(Senterre et al. 2013). The diversity of native flora
on the outer islands is half that of the inner islands.
Forest cover in Seychelles is estimated at 40,600ha
(90% of the total land area) (GoS 2012). Important
families of trees include Sapindaceae, Moraceae and
Tilliacae. There is one endemic family of tree, the
critically
endangered
jellyfish
tree,
Medusagyne
oppositifolia (Gerlach 2008). Vegetation on the outer
islands is xertiic, and consists of dense thickets of
Aldabra tortoise Geochelone gigantea (Photo credit Rebecca Klaus)
Freshwater
Wetlands are found primarily on the granitic islands
and can be classified into two main groups based on
their height above sea level (Bijoux et al. 2008a).
High altitude wetlands occur in depressions above
200m and are freshwater whilst coastal wetlands are
brackish water wetlands which can be completely or
218
plants and endemic species including the Seychelles
moorhen, Gallinula chloropus, 2 subspecies of
terrapin, and 7 species of caecilians (Beaver, 1995;
GoS,
2012).
Healthy
marshes
support
endemic
insects from the family Rhagovelia, Nepidae and
Notonectidae (Bijoux et al. 2008). The black paradise
flycatcher, Terpsiphone corvina, found on La Digue
feeds on insects which breed in the marshland of the
island. A total of 17 freshwater fish species have
been recorded in the Seychelles, two of which are
endemic
(UNEP,
2004).
The
golden
panchax,
Pachypanchax playfairii, is an endemic fish in the
ecoregion. The tilapia, Orechromis mossambicus, is
introduced and is now considered invasive.
Most of the outer islands lack freshwater systems
apart from Aldabra, where there are freshwater
ponds,
ephemeral
pools
and
crevices
and
subterranean caverns with small reservoirs of water,
which are more common during the rainy seasons
(Fosberg & Renvoize 1980). Brackish pools are also
present on some islands (e.g. Assumption) as a
result of mining activities. Permanent freshwater
fauna is restricted to invertebrates in the outer
islands. Five species of Heteroptera have been
recorded (Micronecta praetermissa, Anisops vitrea,
Mesovelia vittigera, Limnogonus cereiventris and
Microvelia diluta) (Polhemus, 1993). The landlocked
pools of these islands also support cyanobacteria and
Figure 6-82: Map showing Cosmoledo and Astove, and
Aldabra and Assumption.
temporarily isolated from the sea (Bijoux et al.
algae and other organisms that feed on them
(Braithwaite et al. 1989).
2008a). There is an estimated 50 to 60 ha remaining
Marine
out of approximately 100m of wetlands on Mahe, the
Seychelles’s coral reefs occupy an area greater than
reduction
the total landmass at 1690km2 (Spalding et al.
owing
to
coastal
development
and
reclamation (Bijoux et al. 2008a).
2001). The majority of the reefs are located in the
The majority of marsh-edge plants are native species
but most of the aquatic plants have been introduced
and
are
invasive
such as the
water hyacinth,
Eichornia crassipes (Beaver, 1995). The Seychelles
marshes are described as having a high diversity of
outer islands. Reefs around the inner islands can be
classified as granitic reefs, which consists of granitebased boulders with coral growth, or carbonate reefs,
which include
fringing
reefs, platform or atolls
(Stoddart 1984). The diversity of reef types around
the outer islands include true atolls, raised atolls,
219
submerged or partially submerged atolls, platform
Kalugina-Gutnik
and banks, and are therefore highly varied (Bijoux et
include:
et
al.
1992).
Cymodocea
Seagrass
rotundata,
species
Cymodocea
2
al. 2008). The Providence-Cerf bank covers 300km ,
serrulata, Enhalus acocroides, Halodule uninervis,
which
of
Halophila ovalis, Syringodium isoetifolium, and, most
Providence and Cerf, is the single largest reef system
commonly, Thalassodendron ciliatum, and Thalassia
in the Seychelles (Spencer et al. 2000).
hemprichii.
stretches
40km
between
the
island
Around the inner granitic islands the seagrass beds
extend seaward from the beach to a distance of 5 to
300m and to a depth of 15 to 20m (Bijoux et al.
2008). The majority of the outer islands have
extensive
Astove,
seagrass
and
beds,
Cosmoledo.
particularly
The
most
Aldabra,
extensive
seagrass bed is on the Providence-Cerf bank and
consists of Thalassia hemprichii and Thalassodendron
ciliatum (Bijoux et al. 2008).
Mangrove forests and coastal wetlands are found
throughout the islands and occupy an estimated
Soft coral on the outer reef of Aldabra (Photo credit Rebecca Klaus)
Seychelles reefs host an estimated 300 species of
coral (Veron & Stafford 2000) and the highest
diversity of marine fish and reef associated species in
the region (UNEP 2004). A total of 1196 marine fish
species
belonging
to
140
families
have
been
recorded, 749 of which are reef associated (UNEP
2004).
The
Seychelles
clownfish,
Amphiprion
fuscocaudatus is endemic to the islands (Bijoux et al.
2003). Fish community level diversity is high due to
variation in the marine habitats and fishing effort
(Bijoux et al. 2008). There are also over 18 species
of shark, including the whale shark (Rhincodon
typus) that aggregate in the Seychelles during the
months of August to October.
29km2 (Bijoux et al. 2008). There are a total of eight
species of mangroves in the Seychelles (Rhizophora
mucronata, Bruiguiera gymnorhiza, Ceriops tagal,
Sonneratia alba, Lumnitzera racemosa, Avecenia
marina,
Xylocarpus
granatum
and
Xylocarpus
mulocuensis). Port Launay Ramsar site on Mahe
hosts all the mangrove species found on the granitic
islands. The faunal assemblages associated with
these
mangroves
typically
have
a
low
species
diversity and high abundance (Pulfrich et al. 2006).
Species found close to the shore include gastropods
Cerithium
(Pithocerithium)
(Quidnipagus
palatam,
G.pectinatum,
Anadara
divergens),
and
Metapograpsus,
crabs
morum,
Gafrarium
antiqyata
from
Sesarma,
the
bivalves
tumidum,
and
Ctena
genera
Scylla,
Macrophthalmus,
Uca,
Soft bottom habitats including seagrass beds are
including Scylla serrata and Cardisoma carnifex
common in the lagoons of the outer islands and
(Pulfrich et al. 2006).
inter-tidal habitats of the inner granitics and are
important feeding grounds for shore and migrant
seabirds and important habitats for demersal fish
(ASCLME 2012). A total of eight species of seagrass
are found in the Seychelles, six of which are found
around Mahe (Spalding et al. 2001; Aleem 1984;
Shoreline types include both rocky and sandy shores.
Rocky shores are the main intertidal habitat in the
inner island group (ASCLME 2012) but can also be
found around the raised atolls of the outer islands
like Aldabra, Cosmoledo and St. Pierre. The sandy
220
beaches of the inner island are important nesting
to the geological base of the inner islands being
grounds
granitic as well as carbonate (Bijoux et al.
for
Hawksbill
turtles,
Eretmochelys
2008).
imbricata, while the beaches of the outer islands are
Phototrophic sponges are however found only in the
important
outer islands and not around the inner islands.
Chelonia
nesting
mydas.
grounds
The
for
leatherback
Green
turtles,
(Dermochelys
coriacea) and loggerhead (Caretta caretta) turtle also
forage in the Seychelles’ waters.
The Caridean shrimp is the most widely studied order
of Crustacea in Seychelles with 165 species recorded
(Bijoux
et
al.
2008). The
Brachyuran
decapod
The remainder of the Seychelles EEZ is >2000m
crustacean is also well studied with 22 species of sea
depth, and the seafloor at these depths is most likely
spiders (Pycnogonida) and the spiny and slipper
dominated by fine soft bottom sediments (Bijoux et
lobster (Palinuridae & Scyllaridae respectively). To
al. 2008). Seagrass beds and stable sands, make up
date 50 species of Serpulids and 21 species of
over 50% of the Mahe plateau (Bijoux et al. 2008).
Tuberllaria have been recorded in Seychelles (Bijoux
et al. 2008).
The composition of bivalve fauna on the Mascarene
Ridge was found to be uniform but taxonomic
richness around individual islands is highly variable
(Bijoux et al. 2008). Studies on the phylum Mollusca
are limited but bivalve fauna is considered under
represented (Bijoux et al. 2008). Offshore sampling
of Le Constant Bank identified 55 bivalve species
dominated by a new species, Limopsis sp.
There are 33 species of Echinoidea and one endemic
(Echinocyamus grandis) and 32 species of Asteroidea
Sea cucumber -Theleonata ananas (Photo credit Rebecca Klaus)
Holothuridae are abundant on the Seychelles reef
flats, in seagrass beds, and shallow sand flats, with
(Bijoux et al.
2008). Population explosions of the
crown starfish, Acanthaster planci, are a concern and
this is currently being monitored.
2008).
Two orders of marine mammals occur in Seychelles.
There are some 351 species of sponges in the
In the order Sirenia there is one species of Dugong
Seychelles from four classes, approximately 18% of
(Dugong dugong) observed around Aldabra, while in
which are endemic and 10% regionally restricted
the order of Cetacea ithere are 7 dolphin species and
(Bijoux et al.
19
some 35 species recorded (Bijoux et al.
2008). The inner islands are more
whales,
including
the
Sperm
(Physester
diverse in sponges than the Amirantes with 135 and
macrocephalus), Humpback (Megaptera novaengliae)
95 species recorded respectively), which may be due
and Right (Eubalanea glacialis) whale.
221
Mapping of Coral Reefs and Associated
84% cover around these islands and encompassing
Ecosystems
densities from low through to high (Hamylton et al.
During the Pre-COI project benthic mapping was
carried out in 1997 around Mahe and the islands in
the Ste Anne Marine Park (Bigot et al. 1999). A
desktop
study
information.
was
Different
done
to
existing
Thalassodendron ciliatum (Hamylton et al. 2010).
Bijoux (2008) mapped shallow benthic communities
in five Marine National Parks including Baie Ternay,
mapped by digitising orthophotos and a preliminary
Port Launay, Ste Anne, Curieuse and Ile Cocos.
map was prepared. Ground truthing surveys were
Ortho-photos from 1999 were used as the base
then carried out by SCUBA and any anomalies were
image for the mapping of each park. Google Earth®
corrected.
were
photos were also used as visual guides. Ground
identified, their vulnerabilities were assessed based
truthing was carried out at each site using a
on the magnitude of anthropogenic threats and/or
systematic transect method. The mapping was of
impacts, before being colour coded and transfered
both the biotic and abiotic environment. Mapping by
onto the maps.
Bijoux (2008) revealed large areas of dense macro-
the
different
categories
on the outer islands were Thalassia hemprichii and
were
Once
benthic
compile
2010). The two most abundant species of seagrass
reef
types
In 2005, the Golden Shadow Expedition, undertaken
by the Khaled bin Sultan Living Oceans Foundation,
the Cambridge Coastal Research Unit of Cambridge
University and the Seychelles Centre for Marine
Research and Technology - Marine Parks Authority
(SCMRT-MPA), conducted mapping on the Amirantes.
algae and seagrass in many of the MPAs. Curieuse
MNP had the highest cover of macro-algae (64%)
and seagrass (37%). This was the only location
where Thalassodendron ciliatum was found in dense
patches and extensive beds of the rare Enhalus
acocroides were also discovered here.
Remote sensing data was acquired for 13 Amirantes
In 2010 mapping work was also completed as part of
islands and a seaplane with a mounted Compact
the ‘Modelling Integrated Coastal Zone Management
Airborne Spectrographic Imager (CASI), flying at
Scenarios in the Seychelles’ project implemented by
1,000m covered 270km2 across 133 predetermined
the Green Islands Foundation as a management tool
parallel survey lines (Spencer et al. 2009). For
for planning and ICZM funded through ReCoMaP. GIS
Desroches, Landsat imagery was used to create
mapping was carried out on the Grande Anse Praslin
habitat maps while underwater surveys with video
bay area and around Denis Island using methods
transect were used at other selected islands. Ground
similar to those used by Bijoux in 2008.
truthing surveys were conducted by snorkelling and
diving and terrestrial surveys included beach profiles,
A team from Cambridge University mapped the
vegetation surveys, sediment samples, soil samples
Aldabra lagoon in 2010 (Hamylton et al.
and collections of insects and plant and bird life
Ground-truthing
observations (Spencer et al. 2009). Over 1500
camera and underwater photography. Video footage
ground
When
was recorded at 486 sites and analysed to estimate
ground-truthed, the overall accuracy of the maps
the percent cover across 4 benthic classes (live coral,
ranged from 66-77% (Hamylton et al.
2010). The
bare carbonate sand, macroalgae and dead coral). A
results showed that seagrass was the most widely
total of 287 photographs were taken as additional
represented shallow habitat class, ranging from 13-
reference points (Hamylton et al. 2012). Regression
reference
points
were
recorded.
surveys
employed
a
2012).
drop-video
analysis of the video survey data results was used to
222
model the predicted benthic cover across the lagoon,
areas. The main plan provides information and
using QuickBird satellite images acquired in 2001.
guidelines on different map types and legends
The results were validated using regression between
illustrating the main sensitive coastal regions to
the modelled benthic habitats and the photographs.
erosion or other environmental harzards, such as
Depth was also measured using HawkEye single
cyclones and tsunamis.
beam bathymetric sonar and used to derive the
water depth of each image pixel.
Other mapping work is ongoing around Ste Anne
Marine National Park by MCSS (2014), the outer reef
Environmental sensitivity mapping was carried out to
of Aldabra, and around North and Denis Island under
complement
UNDP-GEF-GoS PA project (2013/14).
the
Seychelles
National
Oil
Spill
Contingency Plan. The mapping ranged from sitespecific bays and shores to larger, less accessible
Table 6-1 Marine habitat mapping studies in Seychelles
ID
Year
Organisation
Image
Mapping method
Reference
1
2009
Cambridge Coastal Research
Unit (CCRU)
Quickbird and Landsat
Classification
Hamylton et al. (2012) Aldabra
lagoon habitat map
2
2012
UNDP-SIF
Geo-Eye
Classification
Outer
reef
(ongoing)
3
2004
CCRU/SNPA/DoE
CASI, Landsat
Classification
Spencer et al. (2009) + various
others
4
2004
CCRU/SNPA/DoE
CASI, Landsat
Classification
Spencer et al. (2009) + various
others
5
1999
ARVAM and Government of
Seychelles
Orthophoto
Digitisation
Bigot et al. (2003)
6
2008
J. Bijoux MSc
Orthophoto
Digitisation
J. Bijoux MSc thesis
7
2008
J. Bijoux MSc
Orthophoto
Digitisation
J. Bijoux MSc thesis
8
2008
J. Bijoux MSc
Orthophoto
Digitisation
J. Bijoux MSc thesis
9
2008
J. Bijoux MSc
Orthophoto
Digitisation
J. Bijoux MSc thesis
10
2008
J. Bijoux MSc
Orthophoto
Digitisation
J. Bijoux MSc thesis
11
2008
J. Bijoux MSc
Orthophoto
Digitisation
J. Bijoux MSc thesis
12
2008
J. Bijoux MSc
Orthophoto
Digitisation
J. Bijoux MSc thesis
13
2011
Green Island Foundation
Orthophoto
Digitisation
14
2011
Green Island Foundation
Orthophoto
Digitisation
habitat
map
223
Figure 5-83: Maps showing the subtidal habitats around Mahe, as prepared during the PRE-COI project
224
Figure 5-84: Maps showing the marine and terrestrial habitat of Alphonse, Bijoutier and St Francois. Produced using Compact
Airborne Spectrographic Imager (CASI) (Spencer et al., 2009).
225
concentrations were highest at the Eastern and
Status of Coral Reefs and Associated
Ecosystems
Western margins of the lagoon (Hamylton et al.
2012). Live coral cover inside the lagoon is highly
localized and greatest in the northwestern quadrant,
where it ranges from 40 to 60% and favours Porites
Status of Reef Benthos
Before 1998, the Seychelles reefs were described as
knoll communities (Hamylton et al. 2012).
having a high structural complexity dominated by
Status of Reef Fish
branching
Coral
and
massive
corals,
with
live
cover
bleaching
significantly
changed
coral
reef
ranging from 4 to 60% (Jennings et al. 1995;
habitat complexity and diversity. Decline in the
Engelhardt, 1998; Pittman 1997). During 1998 a
abundance
severe coral bleaching event occurred, together with
observed just one year after the bleaching event of
a crown-of-thorns (Acanthaster planci) outbreak, and
1998 (Spalding & Jarvis 2002). Underwater visual
resulted in the mortality of 80% to 95% of corals
censuses recorded a decrease in the number of fish
around the inner islands (Engelhardt 1998, 2004).
found on reefs with an absence of fish from lower
Bleaching related mortality was more variable around
the outer islands. Coral cover was reduced from 51%
to 7% on the west reef of Alphonse and from 64% to
3% on the north of St. Pierre (Spalding and Jarvis,
and
diversity
of
corallivores
were
size classes (Graham et al. 2007), which is thought
to be due to the loss of reef structure post-bleaching
affecting reef fish recruitment and survival (Bijoux et
al. 2008).
2002). Bleaching intensity on Aldabra was lower than
Graham et al. (2007) reported localised extinctions,
around other outer islands and mostly in branching
a significant reduction in species richness, reduced
and
distinctness in taxonomy and species loss in key
tabular
corals.
Subsequent
bleaching
was
recorded in 2002 and 2003 (Engelhardt, 2004).
functional groups of reef fish around sites of the
Coral monitoring found that live cover increased from
3% in 2000 to 10.2% by 2004, showing a slow rate
of recovery (Engelhardt 2004). Recovery rates on the
granitic reefs was generally faster than on carbonate
reefs (Payet et al. 2005). Coral cover on the
carbonate reefs is generally lower compared to
granitic sites (Engelhardt 2004; Payet et al.
2005)
due to the stability of the substratum on granitic
reefs, higher water quality and flow, and enhanced
displacement of sediments, which all contribute to
higher
rates
of
coral
recruitment
(Engelhardt 2004; Payet et al.
thought
that
there
is
less
and
growth
2005). It is also
grazing
by
main
inner
islands.
Families
Monoaenthidae,
Chaetodontidae and Pomacentridae were heavily
impacted. Species with possible local extinction
included:
hardwicke,
Chaetodon
lineolatus,
Labrichthys
Thalassoma
unilineatus
and
Plectroglyphidodon johnstonianus. Other species with
abundance reduced to critically low levels were
Chaetodon trifascialis, Oxymonocanthus longirostris,
Chaetodon meyeri, Chaetodon melannotus, Chromis
ternatensis and Plectroglyphidodon dickii. Research
to monitor the recovery of these reefs is ongoing.
There are substantial variations of reef fish species
urchins
and abundance between reef habitats on Aldabra.
(Diadema sp. and Echinotrix sp) on granite reefs due
Fish surveys on Aldabra have recorded 287 species
to the complexity and three-dimensional nature of
from 35 families (Teleki et al. 1999). A by Wendling
the reefs limiting access (Payet et al. 2005).
et al. 2003 as part of the SEYMEMP programme
The inner lagoon of the Aldabra World Heritage Site
consists
largely
of
macroalgae
(64%),
and
showed that Lutjanidae, Serranidae and Lehtrinidae
were the 3 main families, representing 91% of the
226
carnivorous fish around six of the outer islands. The
forests, which serve as habitats for multiple species
highest densities were observed around Alphonse
of sea birds, remain largely unthreatened.
and Desroches.
Status of Beaches
Status of Reef Macroinvertebrates
The Seychelles Landscape and Waste Management
Approximately 24 species of sea cucumber are
Agency oversees beach cleaning on the islands of
exploited in the Seychelles and sea cucumber density
Mahe, Praslin, La Digue and Cerf Island. On other
surveys in the Amirantes and the Mahe plateau in
islands private hotels and/or island owners carry out
2004 have shown that shallow water high value
beach cleaning, which normally involves the removal
species are overexploited (Aumeerudy et al. 2005).
of litter, debris, dead organisms and algae, and the
stockpiling of seaweed on dunes to decay naturally.
Status of Seagrass
Seychelles does not currently have a seagrass-
In 2004, a national beach-monitoring programme
monitoring programme so the status of seagrass
was launched to profile key beaches around the main
beds has yet to be determined. This is a gap given
inner islands and gain a better understanding of
the presence of regionally significant seagrass beds
shoreline
of ecological importance throughout the Seychelles.
Unfortunately, with the exception of Mahe, studies of
Mangroves once covered most shores of the granitic
but
and
coastal
erosion.
beach dynamics have been limited. Beach dune
Status of Mangroves
islands
changes
their extent
has
been
dramatically
rehabilitation programmes have also been carried out
to mitigate erosion effects.
reduced. The reduction in mangroves on the main
The GIS unit of the MLUH has developed sensitivity
islands is due to reclaimation works, clearance for
maps, which show coastal areas that are sensitive to
coastal development and construction and to unclog
erosion and natural disasters such as tsunamis,
river mouths (Bijoux et al.
2008). Seychelles does
storms and flooding events. Several beaches and
not currently have a monitoring programme for
coastlines have had erosion mitigation measures,
mangrove cover or health so the status of has yet to
including
be determined.
rehabilitation
On the Western coast of Mahe there is a continuous
belt of original mangrove forest ranging from Port
Launay to Port Glaud. On the second largest island,
Praslin, only small isolated mangrove swamps remain
near the river mouths of Grande Anse, Anse Lazio
and Anse Takamaka (Bijoux et al.
neighbouring
island
of
Curieuse
has
2008). The
a
diverse
mangrove forest consisting six species.
The most extensive mangrove forests in the outer
islands are found in the lagoon of Aldabra and
Cosmoledo. Mangrove forests can also be found in St
Francois, Farquhar, Poivre, St. Joseph, Cosmoledo
and Cerf (Bijoux et al.
2008). As anthropogenic
impacts on these outer islands are minimal these
sea
walls
of
coastal
and
breakwaters
vegetation
in
and
cleared
beachfronts. Nevertheless, the prevalence of coastal
erosion is likely to exacerbate in the future as a
results of global climate change combined with the
local
natural
monsoonal
cycles
and
increased
development on the coasts (ASCLME, 2012).
Status of Water Quality
Coastal waters are generally low in nutrients and,
around the inner islands, are lower than regional
guidelines (ASCLME 2012). Waters around the inner
islands are subject to pollution, which increases
during the rainy season when run-off is greatest.
Land based pollution, in the form of sedimentation
and nutrients, is one of the largest threats to the
marine ecosystems within a radius of 5km of the 4
main inner islands (Payet 2006) due to the fact that
227
over 90% of the Seychelles population inhabit the
organic input and pathogenic bacteria loading in the
coastal strip of these islands (Shah 1995).
marine environment (Bijoux et al. 2008).
Pollution from pesticides and fertilizers in Seychelles
In 2009 a waste management agency was recreated
is minimal as agriculture is relatively small scale and
under the Ministry of Environment and Energy, which
the use of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) has
focused on minimizing waste and recycling. Marine
been banned, and analyses have shown that the
litter is minimal on the beaches of the Seychelles
concentration of POPs in the sediments are very low
although companies are contracted out to carry out
(ASCLME 2012). With the exception of zinc, copper,
regular cleaning of beaches and river outlets around
and chromium, the concentration of heavy metals,
the main islands of the Seychelles.
recorded in Port Victoria, was also found to be quite
low (Radegonde, 2008).
Within the inner islands, sedimentation by soil
erosion is a key pollution source during the rainy
seasons and this has been exascerbated by coastal
developments and reduced vegetation (Bijoux et al.
2008). Small-scale oil spills and leaks have also
occurred in the past around the port area in Victoria,
Mahe. However, no major spills have occurred to
date and the Seychelles has developed a National Oil
Spill Contingency Plan to mitigate potential spills.
Coastal Development
With limited availability of flat land and protected
areas in higher altitudes, there is increasing pressure
to develop on the coast. Consequently, reclamation
Direct Drivers of Change Influencing
work has been carried out on the coast of all three
the
main populated islands (ASCLME, 2012). In addition
Value
of
Coral
Reefs
and
Associated Ecosystems
to siltation and smothering effects, reclamation work
alters the coastal and near shore hydrodynamics of
Water quality, Run-off and Waste
the area and can result in both erosion and accretion
Seychelles waters are affected by land-based sources
of the coast.
of pollution from domestic (septic tanks and soak
away pits), agricultural (fertilizers and pesticides)
and industrial (tuna canning factory) sources.
The Seychelles developed a sewerage system for its
capital Victoria and neighbouring suburbs in the early
1990’s. Over 97% of the population use flush toilets
and waste water treatment works. However, only
highly populated areas are connected to the sewage
network and areas outside the sewage network use
soakaways. It is estimated that only 60% of these
systems are effective (Gonzalves & Mussard, 2009),
as they often overflow in heavy rainfall and increase
228
Dredging, reclamation and sedimentation are closely
2005 fisheries generated approximately 30% of GDP
associated and identified as a major threat to the
and accounted for 97% of visible exports (Strategy
reefs of the inner islands. Reclamation work along
2017). Fisheries around the main granitic islands are
Mahe’s East coast has resulted in significant loss of
believed to be fully and/or locally over-exploited and
mangrove and reef habitats and interrupted the
declines in sharks, lobsters, sea cucumbers and
largest, continuous fringing reef of the granitic
marine molluscs are of particular concern. By-catch
island, which stretched some 27km from the North
from industrial long-lines and purse seine fisheries is
East bay to Anse Marie Louise (Lewis, 1963).
a major issue and measured in thousands of tonnes
(Bijoux et al 2008). Destructive fishing methods (use
The first reclamation work began in the late 1960s to
of explosives and bottom trawling, spear guns and
create the Seychelles International Airport area. This
pelagic drift nets) are illegal in Seychelles.
was followed by a second project on Mahe’s East
coast in 1986, for a new port facility, followed by two
more phases in the early 2000s (UNEP, 2008).
Although several techniques were used to minimise
the effects of silt smothering, such as silt screens
and filter cloths, there is little research on the
impacts of the reclamation on neighbouring reefs.
Small and large-scale reclamation is currently the
main threat to mangrove areas in the Seychelles.
Important wetlands in the inner islands include Port
Launay and Cap Ternay on Mahe, Curieuse and La
Plaine Hollandaise. The loss of wetlands to coastal
development is most significant around the three
main islands of the Seychelles where development
pressures have fragmented the wetlands. The largest
Mangals are now found on the outer islands like
Cosmoledo and Aldabra.
The Emperor Red Snapper (Lutjanus sebae) is the
most important commercial species in Seychelles
(ASCLME, 2012). This species is mainly caught
offshore targeted by hook and line. The average
catch dramatically increased in recent years due to
artisanal fishermen targeting the species (ASCLME,
2012), recent assessments of reveal that the stock is
overexploited. Stocks of rabbitfish, Siganus sutor,
There is a proliferation of mangroves on Mahe’s East
are
coast, especially in the lagoons created by ongoing
aggregations is significantly reducing the abundance
reclamation work. The most dominant species in this
of these species. Research to better understand the
area are Avicennia marina followed by Rhizophora
spatial dynamics of critical species (Epinephelus
mucronata. There are signs this area will be able to
polyphekadion,
support a greater diversity of mangroves in the
punctatus and Siganus sutor) in relation to MPAs and
future as new mangrove species are now settling on
the development of species specific plans is ongoing
this coast (Bijoux et al. 2008).
(Robinson et al. 2007).
Direct use - extractive
severely
depleted
E.
fishing
fuscoguttatus,
on
spawning
Plectropomus
Shark fishery data is lacking, although historical and
Fisheries
anecdotal information suggests that inshore shark
The fisheries sector is one of the two main pillars of
are
the Seychelles economy, the other being tourism. In
artisanal fishermen and caught as bycatch in the
severely
depleted.
Shark
are
targeted
by
229
semi-industrial and industrial fishery. Data is limited,
export of wild live fish, the masterplan reinforces this
but a severe decline in the abundance of sharks on
and facilitates the export of farmed live fish.
the plateau has been observed. The use of nets to
target sharks was banned in 1998. The number of
shark caught as bycatch in longline fisheries has
increased, and the high value of shark fins has
reduced their release from bycatch. Shark harvest
from by-catch has been estimated at some 50%. A
national plan of action for the management of shark
fisheries is now being implemented (NPOA 2007).
Mining
Mining activities include mining of granite rock from
the land, coral aggregates from the sea floor, and, in
the past, gravel from riverbeds, for construction
(Bijoux et al.
2008). Sand and rubble mined from
the coastal waters and supralittoral zone (mostly on
Mahe, Praslin and La Digue) was also used in the
construction industry. However, this demand is now
The sea cucumber fishery exploits 24 species of sea
met using coral materials from reclamation projects
cucumber. As a result of increased demand from
on Mahe and Praslin.
Asian markets studies indicate overexploitation in
two of the high value shallow water species, and
three species are fully exploited (Aumeerudy et al.
2005). In an attempt to control the fishery the
Seychelles Fishing Authority (SFA) introduced limited
licenses for this fishery. Studies on the Mahe plateau
and Amirantes have also determined the Maximum
Sustainable Yield and Total Allowable Catch for these
species and this is reflected in a management plan.
The Seychelles was once reputed for its black tiger
prawn from the Coetivy island prawn farm, which
began in the early 1990s. The farm shut down in
and
aquaculture
is
generally
not
well
developed. Indeed, the only aquaculture operation is
small-scale Ocean Farm Ltd, which produces black
pearls from the black lip oyster, and giant clams for
the aquarium trade.
of
Sand
and
Gravel
Act
(1982)
regulates the extraction of beach and river sand and
gravel.
Nevertheless,
chronic
sedimentation
of
coastal waters that can be associated with mining
and reclamation works is still regarded as a key
factor limiting the recovery of coral reefs on the East
coast of Mahe (Bijoux et al. 2008).
Oil exploration
recently been developing a National Aquaculture
Masterplan that will be finalised this year. The plan
takes an Ecosystem's Approach to Aquaculture to
ensure that any negative impacts of Aquaculture
development are reduced or avoided through proper
The
plan
in 1969. By 1994 there were 23,150km of seismic
profiles
and
27,911
km
calculated (Bijoux et al.
research
activities
of
aeromagnetic
lines
2008) and exploration
are
ongoing.
Petroleum
exploration, development and production is governed
by the Petroleum Mining Act of 1976 and a Petroleum
Taxation Act is in the process of being enacted.
Direct use – non-extractive
SFA, in consultation with multiple stakeholders, has
planning.
Removal
Exploration for hydrocarbons in the Seychelles began
Aquaculture
2008
The
also
makes
provisions
for
conservation, such as coral farming licences to
prospective commercial or conservation agencies,
The tourism industry grew rapidly with the opening
of the Seychelles International airport in the 1970s,
and by 2005 this sector accounted for approximately
20% of GDP. Although the country promotes ecotourism, as opposed to mass tourism, there are
indirect impacts on the environment including anchor
damage on reefs, trampling on corals by divers and
snorkelers, and general disturbance/stress factors of
human presence in biologically sensitive areas.
and, although the Seychelles has long banned the
230
Growth in the country’s SCUBA diving industry has
The GEF SEYMEMP project (2001-2004) revealed
spurred visitor interest in the sighting of key species
coral disease presence at between 70-80% of sites in
like whale shark and turtles. Whale sharks aggregate
the inner granitic islands, with the most significantly
in the Seychelles waters in August to October and
affected sites being exposed to high nutrient input
the value of the species to ecotourism is estimated at
from natural and anthropogenic sources.
US$4.99m annually (Row at & Engelhardt, 2007). A
national whale shark encounter policy has been
A study around Alphonse and St Francois identified
developed to ensure that ecotourism impacts are
three coral diseases, namely the Orange Patch,
minimal. Lighting guidelines on turtle encounters and
Brown Patch and Black Patch disease (ICS). It was
nesting beaches have also been developed.
hypothesized that a sponge causes Orange and
Brown Patch, and a bacteria causes Black Patch. The
Nuisance species & coral diseases
The reefs of the Seychelles have been variously
affected by outbreaks of the Crown of Thorns
(Acanthaster
planci),
long-spined
sea
urchins
study revealed that these diseases occur in areas of
low mixing with relatively high sedimentation, sea
surface temperatures and nutrient input.
(Diadema sp. And Echinometra sp.), and the mollusc
Invasive Alien Species
Drupella sp, which are thought to correlate with the
In 2005 a survey was carried out by the IUCN to
ENSO system (Wendling et al. 2004).
detect possible marine invasive species in the vicinity
The first reported A. planci outbreaks occured in
1996 and affected fringing reefs in north Mahé
(Engelhardt, 2004). Localised outbreaks continued
until mid-1998 but thereafter declined following the
reduction in hard coral cover as a result of the mass
coral bleaching. A recent outbreak was recorded in
2014 off the west coast of Mahe (Engelhardt, 2014).
COTS densities were up to 20 times higher than
usual, with 60-70% hard coral mortality (Engelhardt,
2014). Some 600 starfish were removed in an
attempt to control this outbreak.
of the Victoria Harbour and Ste Anne Marine National
Park. The results of the survey indicated four nonindigenous
species,
including
two
amphipods;
Stenothoe valida, which has a global distribution;
and, Ertchonius braziliensis, which is native of Brazil.
The study also revealed a species of sponge; Mycale
cf. Cecilia, documented from the Caribbean; and, the
freshwater tilapia, Oreochromis mossambicus, now
found in many of the rivers in Seychelles.
Invasive species in wetlands are more prominent and
include the water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes) and Water
in
Hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes). These species are
northern Mahe were ten times higher than moderate
particularly problematic as they spread rapidly and,
densities on healthy reefs. Sites where there were
by covering water surfaces, block the penetration of
high densities of black spined sea urchins around
sunlight and reduce the concentration of dissolved
Mahe and Praslin had lower densities of coral recruits
oxygen in the wetland (Bijoux et al, 2008).
In
2000,
black-spined
sea
urchins
densities
size classes <2 and 2-5cm (Wendling et al. 2004).
Coral recruitment rates were highest in areas where
the sea urchins were of medium density and lower
urchins
showed
relatively
fewer
coral
recruits
(Engelhardt, 2001). A study by Wendling et al.
(2004) examined the effects of sea urchin grazing on
reefs at 9 sites around the North of Mahe.
Natural and Environmental Disasters
The
Seychelles islands are
located outside
the
cyclone belt, and being of granitic and carbonate
nature are not exposed to as many natural disasters
as the Mascarene Islands to the south (Chang-Seng
& Guilland, 2008). Nonetheless, the islands often
experience the effects of passing cyclones, and
231
tropical depressions and storms, and severe rainfall,
lagoon in Victoria. Recorded damage included 22
flooding and landslides are not uncommon. Between
boats sunk, 116 houses and all 11 of Victoria’s
1862 and 2008 there have been 89 significant
bridges destroyed, and over 70 people killed (Chang-
natural disasters recorded, which include two major
Seng & Guilland, 2008). Other landslides occurred in
tsunamis, 19 cyclone/storm events and 14 floods.
2004 at Vista Do Mar Estate in the North of Mahe
The first tsunami recorded in Seychelles occurred in
1883 and was caused by the Krakatoa eruption in
Island where 40 houses were affected following
sustained heavy rainfall over a two-day period.
Java (Chang-Seng & Guilland, 2008). The Seychelles
The Seychelles has national emergency response
was also impacted by the Indian Ocean tsunami in
plans for tsunamis, floods and cyclones, which were
2004 when water levels reached up to four metres
designed as an early warning system by the GoS and
above mean sea level. Reefs around Praslin were
with the UNDP in November 2007 following the
particularly badly impacted with close to 100%
December 2006 tsunami and flooding events.
damage, while there was little damage around Mahe
(Obura & Abdulla, 2008). Water elevations were
higher on leeward shores, suggesting that the
tsunami wave was refracted across the Seychelles
bank and converged on the western side of the
islands (Spencer et al. 2009).
Climate Variability and Change
The Seychelles climate has been analysed using both
short term (1972-2006) and long term datasets.
Results show that overall temperatures are warming
between +0.33 to +0.82 degrees with stronger air
and SST interaction at the 3-4 year El Nino Cycles
Tropical cyclones that have affected the islands
(Chang-Seng & Guilland, 2008). Analyses of isotopes
include; tropical depression ‘Ikonjo’ in 1990, which
extracted from coral cores from Beau-Vallon Bay,
affected
particularly
Mahe, Seychelles and SST have a consistent upward
Desroches, and the inner islands, including Mahe;
trend, which suggests an increasingly warm and wet
tropical depression ‘O1S’ of 2002, which affected the
climate (Chang-Seng & Guilland, 2008).
both
the
outer
islands,
three main granitic islands; and, tropical cyclone
‘Bondo’ which impacted Providence and Farquhar in
2006 (Chang Seng & Guilland, 2008).
Studies have shown that the frequency of cyclones
between 1960 and 2005 in the Western Indian Ocean
has decreased, but that the frequency of tropical
The heaviest rainfalls in the Seychelles occur during
depressions is increasing (Chang-Seng & Guilland,
the NW monsoon (December and March), with
2008). Increased storm frequencies and rainfall will
January recording the most floods (Chang-Seng &
enhance coastal flooding. In turn, increased flushing
Guilland, 2008). However, one of the most dramatic
will increase sediment loads on the reefs and
flooding events occurred in 1997 during the SE
decrease water quality.
monsoon
period.
Other
notable
rainfall
events
included the 2004 Aux Cap following the December
2004 tsunami, which caused widespread flooding in
the capital of Victoria and the 2012 floods on the
East Coast of Mahe (Chang-Seng & Guilland, 2008).
It is predicted that the country will experience longer
drought periods but increased rainfall in the rainy
season. Reduced rainfall due to changes in climate
can have drastic effects on the ecology, particularly
in the outer drier coralline islands such as Aldabra
Severe rainfall events often lead to landslides and
where there is a high level of endemism (Bijoux et
mudflows, the most severe of which ocurred in 1862
al.
and that is referred to as the ‘Avalasse’. The mudflow
rainfall on Aldabra has been a factor in the extinction
extended 610m and up to 122 metres into the
of the land snail Rhachistia aldabrae (Gerlach, 2007).
2008). It has been postulated that declining
232
The annual sea level anomaly is +1.46 +/- 2.11mm
There are more than 25 terrestrial Protected Areas in
SE per year. The ENSO impacts on tropical cyclone
the Seychelles, which encompass over 47% of the
activities in the SWIO region shows that El Nino is
total land area of the country. These PAs are
characterized by SST warming and favours less
primarily designated under three Acts; the National
intense tropical cyclones while La Nina favours
Parks and Nature Conservancy Act (CAP 141); the
increased intensity in tropical cyclones (Chang-Seng
Fisheries Act (CAP 82); and, the Protected Area Act
& Guilland, 2008). Any sea level rise as estimated by
(CAP 185). The Wild Animals and Birds Protection Act
the IPCC reports will have drastic effects as 85% of
targets the conservation and protection of any wild
settlements and infrastructure is located on the coast
land or sea bird, their eggs and nests. Protection in
(Bijoux et al. 2008). Many of the outer islands and
certain marine areas can also involve exclusion zones
sand cays are low lying and could also disappear.
where certain types of fishing gears or fishing vessels
Bleaching has been identified as the most significant
are prohibited.
threat to Seychelles’ coral reefs (Sheppard, 2003). A
There are more than 14 MPAs managed by various
wide-scale extinction of coral species in the western
institutions
Indian Ocean is anticipated given the occurrence rate
Governmental Organisations which include; 6 Marine
of bleaching events (Sheppard, 2003). Due to its
National Parks (MNPs) managed by the Seychelles
location, the Seychelles is more vulnerable to local
National Parks Authority (SNPA); 4 Special Nature
extinction
Reserves (SNR), managed by individual NGOs; 4
of
coral
species
and
reef-associated
government
and
Non-
Shell Reserves (SR), managed by the Seychelles
organisms with low external sources of larvae.
Furthermore, the inner islands of the Seychelles are
located on a shallow plateau that accumulate warm
water over warmer months but have low cool river
water input (Payet et al.
including
2005). The reefs around
Fishing Authority (SFA); one Protected Area (PA)
(African Banks), managed under the mandate of the
Ministry of Land Use and Housing; and, multiple
Areas of Outstanding Beauty.
the outer islands have better mixing of cooler waters
The classification of protected areas in Seychelles
from localized upwelling and may be at a lower risk.
according to the IUCN categories are being updated.
Phase shifts from coral to algal dominated reefs have
been recorded around the inner islands following the
1998 mass bleaching event (Graham et al.
2006).
Reef structure loss due to high coral mortality from
bleaching also lead to reduced wave damping and
increased coastal erosion (Sheppard et al. 2005).
All 6 Marine National Parks (MNPs) and the Praslin
National Park are IUCN category II while all the
Special Nature Reserves (SNR) are IUCN category Ia.
The latter includes Aldabra atoll, Aride and Cousin
Island and the Veuve Reserve on La Digue. The
African bank is IUCN category Ib while nature
reserves (e.g. Vallée de Mai) are IUCN category VI.
Management Responses and Protected
Four protected areas of Seychelles are also listed
Areas
under the international list of IUCN, including;
At present, respective departments (EIA, Coastal
Aldabra
Management) at the Ministry of Environment and
Convention
Energy are responsible for the coastal and marine
Importance (Ramsar); the Vallee de Mai Nature
environment and there is no overarching plan for the
Reserve, listed under the World Heritage Convention;
Seychelles, although initiatives to develop a national
and Port Launay Coastal Wetlands and Mare Aux
ICZM plan are underway.
Cochons high altitude wetland, listed under Ramsar.
Atoll,
listed
and
under
Wetlands
the
of
World
Heritage
International
233
Aldabra was listed as a Ramsar site in 2010. It
The Seychelles endorsed a national Protected Areas
comprises of seven wetland types that include;
Policy in 2013 under the UNDP-GEF/GoS PA project.
shallow marine waters; coastal saline lagoon areas;
The updated policy seeks to promote a partnership
mangrove swamps ; and, marine subtidal seagrass
approach (public-private-NGO) in establishing and
beds. These habitats support numerous vulnerable
effectively managing a more comprehensive and
and endangered species at different stages of their
representative protected area system, and identify
life cycle, including; the green turtle Chelonia mydas;
best practices in Protected Area management and
the Aldabra giant tortoise Geochelone gigantean; 40
the classification of Seychelles’ PAs in line with
species of endemic flora ; fauna, like the Madagascar
International Criteria. The policy will also help ensure
sacred ibis Threskiornis aethiopicus abbotti; and, the
the country meets its obligations under international
only population of the endemic insectivourous bat
treaties and conventions it has signed and ratified.
species, Chaerephon pusillus and Triaenops pauliani.
There are currently a number of legislative reviews
The Mare Aux Cochons is a high altitude freshwater
that are ongoing in the country. These include the
wetland also listed as a Ramsar site in 2010. Species
review of all legislation pertaining to protected areas,
of global conservation value that are found in this
the review of the Town and Country Planning Act
wetland include ; the vulnerable Seychelles frog
(TCPA)
(Soglossus sechellensis) ; the Seychelles tree frog
development
(Tachycnemis
development of Land Use Plans for the main islands.
endangered
seychellensis) ;
Vateriopsis
the
seychellarum;
critically
and,
the
The Port Launay Coastal wetland was the first
a
new
of
a
Physical
Planning
BioSecurity
Act,
Act,
the
and
the
These ongoing efforts are funded and developed
through
Seychelles Scops Owl (Otus insularis).
into
the
UNDP-GEF/GoS
projects
in
the
Seychelles (www.pcusey.sc for more information).
wetland listed as a Ramsar site in 2004. The wetland
National initiatives
consists of large mud flat areas during low tide and
There are multiple national and regional policies,
freshwater habitats that are fed by rivers from the
strategies and action plans, which sometimes include
Mare Aux Cochons high altitude Ramsar site. The
donor-funded
wetland supports all seven species of mangroves in
conservation in the Seychelles. These include the:
the
Seychelles
and
is
an
important
spawning,
nursery and feeding site for several fish species
including
the
Golden
Panchax
(Pachypanchax
playfairii). The site is an important foraging area for
the critically endangered Sheath-Tailed Bat (Coleura
seychellensis) and
also supports the
vulnerable
Seychelles Swiftlet (Collocalia elaphra).

projects
to
support
biodiversity
The National Biodiverity Strategy and Action
Plan helps ensure that the Seychelles fufils its
obligations
in
the
implementation
of
the
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and
assists the Seychelles in achieveing the goals of
the Seychelles National Sustainable Development
Strategy
2012-2020.
The
first
NBSAP
was
Although wetlands are listed as ecologically sensitive
adopted in 1998, followed by the Environment
areas
(Impact
Management Plan of the Seychelles (EMPS 2000-
Assessment) Regulation of 1996 and the government
2010), and then the Seychelles Sustainable
also endorsed a national wetland policy in 2002,
Development Strategy (2012-2020). The NBSAP
legislation pertaining to the protection of wetland
is being updated to ensure there is an integration
and mangrove in the Seychelles is sparse.
of these and other plans, programmes and
in
the
Envrionment
Protection
policies that are called for in article 6(b).
234

The
Seychelles
Protected
Areas
Policy

(2013) was developed under the GoS/UNDP/GEF
(2007): A minimum number of licences (25 in
Project ‘Strengthening Seychelles’ Area policy”
2010) are granted with closed and open seasons
because although the country has a strong legal
defined in the management plan.
and
policy
framework
for
environmental

initiated
specific to protected areas was the Conservation
conservation for sustainable development by
Policy in the Seychelles (1971) derived from
providing
Seychelles
knowledge, and empowering institutions and
Tourism
Parks
Policy
and
(1969)
Nature
and
the
national policy framework for the elaboration of
and
financial
to
promote
focus
on
support,
good
ecosystem
generating
governance
in
coastal ecosystem management (WEBSITE).

Seychelles National Oil Spill Contingency
Plan consists of guidelines and maps for oil spill
coordination, guidance and management of PAs.
responders showing important coastal resources
The National Fisheries Policy (2005) was
and environmentally sensitive areas.
sustainable exploitation of marine resources,
enhanced food security and supply integrated
into the economy and maximum value-added
from fisheries and other related activities.
Other strategies:


Biodiversity

Management into Production Sector Activities

UNDP-GEF
Mainstreaming
Project (2008-2015) is a six-year project funded
by GEF. Activities funded under the project
include the identification of Key Biodiversity


Areas and the development of co-management

systems for artisanal fisheries around Praslin.
Spawning aggregation research: The Western
Indian
Ocean
Science
Association
funded
a
project in 2006 to design of a management


framework for grouper spawning aggregation to

protected key areas and species. Other projects

on
spawning
aggregation
are
ongoing
and
include the identification of rabitfish spawning
aggregation areas at Cousin Island and Praslin.

2008
legislation and guidelines for the establishment,
revised in 2005 to include goals such as the

in
individuals
Conservancy
Ordinance (1969). The policy seeks to provide a

Mangroves For the Future projects were
management, the only official national policy
National

Sea Cucumber fishery Management Plan
Large Pelagic Species Fisheries Research:
Since 2000, the French Government has funded
projects
aimed
at
improving
the
economic
viability of the semi-industrial longline fishery.
Data on swordfish and tuna fishing grounds and
techniques in decreasing the predation rate by


Seychelles National Climate Change Strategy
(2009).
The
National
Wetland
Conservation
and
Management Policy (2005)
Seychelles National Plan of Action for the
Management of Sharks.
Monitoring and tagging of whale sharks
(ongoing).
Monitoring of Sea turtle nesting beaches
(ongoing).
Action plans for species conservation for most
endemic birds and sea turtles and the Sheath
tailed bat.
Environmental
Management
Plan
of
the
Seychelles (2000-2010)
Seychelles Sustainable Development Strategy
(2011-2020)
National Biodiversity and Strategic Action Plan of
the Seychelles (Currently being updated).
The Sustainable Land Management Action Plan
(2011-2020)
The National Policy on Disaster Management
(2010)
The National Biosafety Framework (2011)
The National Strategy for Plant Conservation
(2005-2010)
Knowledge
management
and
information
There have, and continue to be, projects that include
analyses to determine priority conservation species
and priority areas that are summarised below.
false killer whales are being investigated.
235
Biodiversity
Report
and
Conservation
(GoS-ED):
The
Wildlife
Management
Trade
and
National and regional database centres have
been developed through multiple projects to allow for
Conservation Section of the GoS-ED compiles an
the
annual national report based on information on
documents. The main ones are summarised below.
biodiversity
and
conservation
management,
key
species distribution, abundance, and status and
trends, supplied by eNGOs and institutions that
manage Protected Areas and any other de-facto
wildlife conservation areas in the Seychelles.
GEF BD Project): are areas characterised by the
presence of threatened species and/or habitats, or
which have particularly high levels of biodiversity and
therefore
(2008)
KBA
important
analysis
of
to
the
conserve.
Gerlach’s
Seychelles
and
storage
of
important
The Seychelles National Bureau of Statistics
(http://www.nsb.gov.sc/) was established in 2010
and
collects,
compiles,
analysis
and
publishes
statistical information. It also coordinates, monitors
and supervises the National Statistical System.
Identification of Key Biodiversity Areas (UNDP-
are
organisation
islands
identifies 48 sites of conservation importance, which
includes all the current PAs but also 36 unprotected
sites which merit protection. 12 of these unprotected
areas are already in zones planned for protection, 3
sites are private property that are managed as
reserves (North, Fregate, Bird and Denis islands) and
16 sites need legal protection (Gerlach, 2008).
Identification of priority areas for expansion of
the PA System is funded under a GoS/UNDP/GEF
project in coordination with a Marine Spatial Planning
exercise that involves the ‘Debt-for-adaptation’ fund.
The Seychelles Bureau of Standards: The SBS is
a government regulatory agency responsible for the
administration
of
laboratory
testing,
product
certification, the development and implementation of
standards, and the management and dissemination
of science and technology information. The Bureau
also has a mandate to co-ordinate scientific research
carried out in the Seychelles and to issue research
permits. Publicly available copies of research reports
are then kept at the Centre for Industrial, Scientific
and Technical Information Documentation (CISTID)
of the SBS, which serves as the national centre for
industrial, scientific and technical information.
The Seychelles National Oceanographic Centre
(NODC) is housed at Seychelles Fishing Authority
and accessed at http://www.nodc-seychelles.org/en/
A systematic conservation planning approach is being
GIS Centre MLUH/ED (www.webgis.gov.sc) at the
used, along with decision support tools like MARXAN
Ministry of Land Use and Housing has a geodatabase
software, to identify priority areas for protection.
funded by the UNDP-GEF BD project that will support
The Seychelles Marine Ecosystem Management
Programme (SEYMEMP) focused on assessing the
ecological effects of the 1998-bleaching event on the
sharing with the central environmental indicators
database to be developed in partnership with other
government departments.
marine and coastal ecosystems of the Seychelles.
The Seychelles Clearing House and Information
Species management plans were developed for the
Sharing
coral reefs including whale sharks and turtles and
supports the coordination and participation of the
key reef fish species. Existing MPAs were reviewed
Seychelles in implementing the Convention for the
alongside legislation and policies and capacity within
protection, management and development of the
management institutions. One of the main outputs of
marine and coastal environment of Eastern Africa. It
the project was the development of an Integrated
integrates information held by multiple organisations.
System
(http://seychellesgpt.sc/Portal/)
Marine Protected Area Systems Plan.
236
Agulhas and Somali Large Marine Ecosystems
Project (ASCLME/SWIOFP), funded by UNDP-GEF,
collected information on the oceanography, climate,
biodiversity, and economies of nine countries in the
South West Indian Ocean. Transboundary Diagnostic
Analyses and Strategic Action Programmes (SAP)
Chang-Seng, D., Guillande, R. (2008). Disaster risk profile of the
Republic of Seychelles. United Nations Development
Programme. Pp 131.
Christopher, S. (1970). The endemic flora of the Seychelles Islands
and its conservation. Biological Conservation.
2(3) :170-177.
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238
Case
Study
1:
Benthic
habitat
mapping of the Seaward reefs of
Aldabra Atoll
Authors: Philip Haupt and Rebecca Klaus
Contacts: Seychelles Islands Foundation, P O
Box 853, Victoria, Mahe, Seychelles,
Phone: + 248 4321 735; Fax: +248 4324 884: Email: [email protected]; [email protected]
Introduction
Aldabra Atoll is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (WHS) managed by Seychelles Islands Foundation
(SIF). SIF is in the process of developing a benthic habitat map for the seaward reefs of Aldabra to
facilitate MPA planning and management decisions as part of the Government of Seychelles,
UNDP-Global Environmental Fund (GEF) project entitled "Strengthening Seychelles' Protected Area
System through NGO management modalities". The current MPA extends to 1 km beyond the
Mean High Water Mark. Understanding the rich and geomorphological diverse marine habitats and
ecosystem of Aldabra, with channels draining more than a million litres of water between the
lagoon and sea, the expansive coral reefs, and abundant marine life, is needed to provide evidence
based rationale for expanding the MPA offshore. Currently limited knowledge is available to
underpin the management of this remarkable marine WHS. Furthermore, benthic habitat maps are
critical for long term monitoring of large scale habitat change, and scientific inquiry.
Fieldwork
In December 2012, a ground truthing survey was completed by SIF and Bangor University. The
objective of the survey was to collect data to use to derive meaningful habitat classes, (e.g. >80%
live coral cover or 60% seagrass – 40% sand), using statistical analysis. These habitat classes
would then be used to inform the processing of the remotely sensed imagery, and to validate the
habitat map of the reef map.
Aldabra’s isolation, large size (34 km by 17 km), and inhospitable coastline, with a highly dynamic
interplay of tides and shallow reef crest, currents and ceaseless wave action, conspire to make any
marine survey work on the the outer reef very
challenging. To address this challenge the survey
team used a combination field survey methods
which included detailed SCUBA diver surveys,
unmanned
towed
video
camera
(Seaviewer
Dropcam) surveys, and walked video camera
surveys.
The Atoll was divided into 83 transects, located
1 km apart, which covered the whole extent of the
Atoll. On thirty of the 83 transects detailed dive
surveys were conducted, at two depths (5 m and 15 m) to collect high resolution data on the
habitat and fish species within the same area. A visual assessment of the site to derive a habitat
assessment score, based on rugosity of the landscape, the number of coral growth forms,
239
composition of seafloor, and high level overview of live cover. Underwater photographs were taken
of the benthic cover using a camera mounted to PVC frame. The abudance of a select number of
fish species representing key functional feeding groups (herbivores, piscivores, coralivores, etc)
were recorded at each site. Once divers were back on the boat a description was completed for
each site.
A Seaviewer Dropcam video data system was used to collect georeferenced data from 315 sites
selected to be representative of particular
habitat types around the atoll (based on
random
stratified
site
selection
of
an
unsupervised classification of the imagery)
and the 83 systematic transects. The shallow
lagoon reefs (inaccessible to boat on the low
tide or under high swells) were recorded
using underwater video (GoPro) cameras
mounted on PVC poles and time synched with
a GPS. Transects were then walked across
the shallow lagoon reefs during spring low
tides.
Field data processing
The videos data sets were converted into sequential images for analysis using Coral Point Counts
with Excel extensions, to quantify the compositional benthic cover. Statistical analysis was then
conducted
to
derive
a habitat
classification
scheme
using
systematic ecological
habitat
classification principles. The data were then grouped using agglomerative cluster analysis and
habitat classification descriptions derived using SIMPER analysis in statistical software, R. The
classifications were reassigned to video transects using a GIS (Quantum GIS and Idrisi). The
processed data were subset into (i) ground truthing, and (ii) accuracy assessment. The first to
provide the information needed for creating a supervised habitat classification, the second would
be used to test the accuracy of the resulting benthic habitat map, and provide information on
where it could be improved.
Imagery
SIF acquired GeoEye satellite imagery, which has a resolution of 2m and consists of the three
visible bands and Near Infra-red. The imagery was selected owing to the particularly calm
conditions that prevailed during the day when the single image covering the atoll was recorded.
This allowed benthic features that are normally hidden by wave action to be visible. The imagery
was geometrically and radiometrically corrected. Atmospheric correction, watercolumn correction,
sunglint removal were applied (using Idrisi), which significantly improved image quality. At this
point an unsupervised classification is available, and the supervised classification is due over the
next few months.
240
Figure 6-85: The initial draft results of the unsupervised habitat classification of the outer reef of Aldrabra Atoll
Seychelles.
Acknowledgements
SIF gratefully acknowledge the support of the GEF, the Seychelles Government, UNDP, School
Ocean Sciences, Bangor University (Wales), WIOMSA and all the individuals who made the project
possible. The team was led by Philip Haupt (GEF Project Coordinator for SIF) and Dr Rebecca Klaus
(School Ocean Sciences, Bangor University Wales) who acknowledge the support received from the
SIF CEO, Dr Frauke Fleischer Dogley, and head office staff. The collaboration has facilitated a
growing relationship between the partners, who have expanded their involvement in marine
research on Aldabra. The GEF project manager, Michelle Etienne, was able to not only to visit the
site for project implementation evaluation, but actively participated as a volunteer to help collect
survey data. The Island Manger, Joel Souayve, and the Aldabra reef mapping team are thanked for
their contribution in the project. The team included two rangers, Michel Malbrook and Shanni
Etienne, and three volunteers, Arjan de Groene, Lotte Reiter, and Calum Ferguson, two skippers
Jude Brice (senior skipper), and Murvin Green (skipper), and a medical doctor, Dr Naomi Adeline.
241
Case Study 2: Mapping of Mangrove at Baie Laraie, Curieuse Marine
National Park
Authors: Sylvanna ANTHAa & April J BURTb
Contacts: aSeychelles National Parks Authority, P O Box 1240, Laurier Avenue, Mahe, Seychelles,
[email protected], +248 2726110,
b
Global Vision International, c/o SNPA, PO Box 1240, Laurier
Avenue, Mahe, Seychelles, [email protected], +248 575770
Seven species of mangrove are present in the Seychelles, of which six have been seen on Curieuse
(SNPA 2012). Mangrove systems play an important role in ensuring a high level of water quality and
clarity, essential for corals to thrive in, by trapping sedimentation and land run-off. Mangroves are
essential nurseries for fish, sharks and crustaceans and they are important habitats for birds, algae
and bryozoans. Mangroves supply essential nutrients for marine creatures such as fish and
shrimps. Additionally, they are a crucial buffer zone for protecting inland areas from high wave
action – such as tsunamis (Lewis 2005, Yoshihiro et al. 2002).
The mangrove forest on Curieuse is of particular interest (Fig. 1). In 1910, a causeway was built at
Baie Laraie in a failed endeavour to rear sea turtles. The wall had a lasting, positive impact on the
bay as it reduced wave intensity, providing a suitable environment for mangrove seedlings to settle
and grow. In December 2004, a tsunami damaged the wall allowing bigger waves to enter the bay
more frequently, causing an influx of sediment. This is altering the mangrove population structure by
decreasing abundance and species richness (SNPA 2012).
Figure 1: Orthophoto
map
showing
mangroves
at
Baie
Laraie, Curieuse
242
A mangrove monitoring project was started at Baie Laraie, in the Curieuse Marine National Park in 2011. The main aim of
the project was to provide baseline data that will guide mangrove rehabilitation project in that general area. This will allow
selection of optimal site for mangrove planting. The current surveys have been developed to help determine mangrove
distribution pattern in relation to hydrology and salinity. At the start of the project, work were undertaken to enable
mapping of the area, by assessing the species composition in the mangrove forests around Baie Laraie. Surveys were
started from the most Eastern inland point of the mangroves, and survey was done in a westerly direction (270°) by 3
surveyors, spaced 3 metres apart. At every 2 metres, the number and species of mangroves were recorded, to the left and
right of transects. This was carried out to the edge of the mangroves on the seaward and landward side. Transects ran
parallel, approximately 10 metres apart, and marked by GPS and visual tags, every 25 metres, to ensure they can be
followed again, accurately. The data collected only provide information of which species are more abundant, and the
distribution of these species. Subsequent studies to assess salinity, soil temperature and inundation will show zonation
patterns and indicate specific species niches. The map below (Fig. 2) shows an approximate diagram of transects
completed in the mangroves. The map indicates that the species distribution and abundance surveys have recorded a
thorough representation of the Curieuse Island mangrove forest. Figure 3 is a map that shows species distribution based on
personal observation (April J Burt, 2011).
Figure 2: Map showing the mangrove survey progress on Curieuse Island in 2011(GVI, 2011)
243
Figure 3: Map showing basic species distribution of mangroves. Colour denotes the main species found in that area, not the
only species. Rhizophora mucronata, Avicennia marina, Xylocarpus granatum, Xylocarpus molluccensis, Bruguiera
gymnorhiza & Lumnitzera racemosa.
While preliminary data has been collected and work is being carried out to collect additional data on the mangrove system
at Baie Laraie, no ground truthing work has been carried out by GVI or SNPA.
References
Lewis R R 2005, Ecological engineering for successful management and restoration of mangrove forests. Ecological Engineering
24:403-418
Seychelles National Parks Authority (SNPA) 2012 Curieuse mangroves – a manual for field study. Seychelles. DRAFT
Yoshihiro M, Michimasa M, Hitonori Nanao, Motohiko K, Toyohiko M, Nobuyuki K and Daijiro K 2002 Coastal erosion due to long-­­term human impact on
mangrove forests. Wetlands Ecology and Management 10:1-9
244
Zanzibar
Authors: Narriman S. Jiddawi & Saleh A.S. Yahya
Contacts: Institute of Marine Sciences, P.O. Box
668, Zanzibar, Tanzania ([email protected])
Island Ecosystems
Zanzibar is a part of the United Republic of Tanzania
and it consists of two major islands, Unguja (1,666
km2) and Pemba (988km2), as well as numerous
smaller islands. The islands are located between 4
and 6.5 degrees south of the equator.
Terrestrial
The terrestrial vegetation of Unguja includes coral
rag forests, mangrove forests, forest plantations,
mixed
wood
vegetation,
agroforestry
systems,
agriculture land, and settled areas. Unguja’s natural
vegetation is a mosaic: coral rag soil in the east is
associated with coral rag thickets, while the deep
fertile soil in the west harbours the plantation
forests, mixed wood vegetation and agroforestry
systems, higher closed forests. Coastal vegetation
varies depending on the local environment and
human activities and is categorized into coral rag
based vegetation (palm fringes, bush vegetation, and
coastal forest) and deep soil based vegetation (crops
Figure 7-86: Map of the Indian Ocean, showing the
Exclusive Economic Zones of the Tanzania (purple).
of various kinds). Coastal thickets cover just over
one
third
of
the
total
land
area
of
Unguja.
Agricultural land occupies nearly a third of the total
land area of Zanzibar (Macemp 2009).
Clove cultivation is the source of the Zanzibar’s
traditional
agricultural
wealth
and
main
export
resource, and nearly four million clove trees are
grown across the islands (Government of Zanzibar
2013). Cloves and coconuts are the main species
grown on Unguja’s more fertile west coast. However,
Pemba is the most fertile island and the main crops
here include cassava, yams and sweet potates. Arre
Jozani, in Unguja, and Ngezi, in Pemba, represent
Zanzibar’s two major forests. The forests cover an
area of 605km2 and are the source of firewood and
charcoal for local communities but remain threatened
by the encroachment of unplanned settlements and
Figure 7-87: Map of the islands of the Zanzibar.
agricultural expansion.
Pemba is classified as one of the 218 Endemic Bird
Areas of the World (Stattersfield et al. 1998), and
245
the forest of Ngezi alone harbor about 161 bird
least 168 coral species (Richmond, 2012). Pemba’s
species, including some globally endangered species
reefs are the most diverse and important in East
like Fischer’s Tura co (Catry et al. 2000). According
Africa, with Misali reef having no less than 42 genera
to Catry et al. (2000) at least six known endemic
(Grimsditch et.al. 2009). These reefs have significant
birds species of the world are found in Pemba,
educational and scientific value, are one of the most
including
important tourist attractions in Tanzania, and also
the;
white-eye
(Zosterops
vaughani);
Pemba sunbird (Nectarinia pembae); Pemba scops
provide
owl (Otus pembaensis); African goshawk (Accipiter
artisanal fisheries.
achiro pembaensis); Pemba black-bellied starling
(Lamprotornis
corruscus
vaughani;
and,
Pemba
green pigeon (Treron pembaensis). The eastern
coast of Unguja is also identified as sheltering
endemic, threatened or restricted bird species (Catry
et al. 2000).
fish
habitats
that
significantly
support
Seagrass ecosystems often occur in close connection
to coral reefs and mangroves but have received
limited scientific attention compared to mangroves
and coral reefs. There are 12 seagrass species
around
Zanzibar,
which
include:
Thalassia
hemprichii, Thalassia ciliatum Cymodocea serrulata,
Freshwater
C.
Zanzibar has no large rivers or lakes, although there
Thalassodendron ciliatum, Syringodium isoetifolium,
are
large
Enhalus acoroides, and Halophila spp (Eklof at al.
underground aquifers. Potable water resources are
2005). Seagrasses cover wide areas of near-shore
largely derived from these acquifers, which are fed
soft bottoms and are found intertidally as well as
by seasonal rains filtering through the limestone rock
subtidally, sometimes down to about 40m (Gullstrom
of the islands (MACEMP, 2009). There are some
et al. 2006). Due to their high primary production
reported fresh water species, which are also used in
and a complex habitat structure, seagrass beds
aquaculture such as tilapia species Oreochromis
support a variety of benthic, demersal and pelagic
niloticus.
organisms (Oliveira et al. 2005). Many fish and
some
streams,
and
Unguja
has
Zanzibar is famous for the attractiveness of its
and
marine
environments,
high
marine
biodiversity and rich marine and coastal resources.
The
Halodule
uninervis,
shellfish species, including
Marine
coastal
rotundata,
coastal
and
marine
environments
those
H.
wrightii,
of commercial
interest, are attracted to seagrass habitats for
foraging and shelter, especially during their juvenile
life stages.
include
Mangrove forests are an essential component of the
mangrove forests, coral reefs, sandy beaches, and
coastal ecosystem of Zanzibar with 11,214ha in
seagrass beds. These coastal ecosystems interact to
Pemba and 5,274ha in Unguja (Shunula, 1996). The
sustain a tremendous diversity of marine life, which
main species of mangroves in Zanzibar are listed in
is an important source of sustenance for the coastal
Table 1 below. Mangrove stands are important for
communities of the islands.
protection against coastal erosion and as crucial
It is estimated that Zanzibar has a total of 90 km 2
coral reefs. These reef form a continuous wall
fringing the east of Zanzibar and patch reefs that
fringe small islets; sand banks mostly dominate the
western side of the islands. The preliminary species
list given for the Islands indicates that there are at
breeding grounds for fish, crustaceans and molluscs.
However,
mangroves
have
been
harvested
for
charcoal and as the principal source of building
materials for houses and traditional fishing crafts. As
a result, Unguja’s mangrove stock has declined
catastrophically.
246
Several marine mammals (8 dolphins, 3 whales and
Bay, Zanzibar has increased in the past few years
1 dugong) are found in Zanzibars waters (Berggren
and the area is becoming known for some of the best
et al. 2007, Stensland et al.1998, Amir et.al.2002).
boat-based dolphin watching sites in Zanzibar (Amir
Interest in the small resident populations of Indo-
et al. 2012, Amir and Jiddawi, 2001).
Pacific bottlenose and humpback dolphins in Menai
Table 7-28: Mangrove species in Zanzibar (Shunula 1996)
Species
Local Name
Uses
R. mycronata
mkoko
Poles, fuel wood, fixed stake fish traps and tannin
R. gymnorrhiza
mshinzi
Pole, fuel wood and tannin
A. marina
mchu
Dug-out cones, fuel wood, carts, posts, beds, furniture
C. tagal
mkandaa
Pole, fuel wood, furniture and tannin
S. alba
mlilana
Fuel wood, fixed stake fish traps, boat ribs
X. granutum
mkomafi
Dhow buildings, furniture poles, medicine
X. moluccensis
msikundazi
Furniture, hole handles
H. littoralis
mkandaa dume
Dhow masts, bedstead, furniture, mortar and pestles
L. racemosa
kilalamba dume
Fuel wood, medicine, fixed stake fish traps
A mangrove stand at Kisakasaka, Zanzibar (Photo credit: Jiddawi.N.S)
247
Mapping of Coral Reefs and Associated
Ecosystems
Given the availability of satellite data since the
1970’s and the criticality of nearshore resources to
the economies of both Zanzibar’s main islands, it is
remarkable how little effort has gone into mapping
nearshore
habitats
and
tracking
any
long-term
changes in their extent and quality. Indeed, prior to
current
mapping
efforts,
no
map
of
Pemba’s
nearshore habitats was produced.
Mapping of Unguja’s nearshore habitats has typically
occurred as a by-product of research projects with a
different
specific
purpose.
The
first
published
example is by Gullström et al. (2006), which tracked
changes
in
seagrass-dominated
submerged
vegetation in Chwaka Bay, using Landsat data from
1986 to 2003. Although this study was limited to
Chwaka Bay, it demonstrated the potential to use
remote sensing as a tool to monitor seagrass
dynamics. A later study by Gullström et al. (2008)
used the maps of Chwaka bay to study the effects of
nearshore
habitat
structure
on
the
local
fish
community, but did not in itself expand mapped
coverage of the nearshore environment.
Knudby
and
Nordlund
(2011)
also
conducted
mapping of seagrasses around Chumbe Island using
IKONOS data. Chumbe Island, and neighbouring
Bawe Island, was the focus of another study by
Knudby et
al. (2010a), which used
supervised
classification of IKONOS data to develop habitat
maps
for
the
two
islands,
and
in
turn
used
environmental attributes derived from those maps to
make predictions concerning the spatial distribution
of fish biodiversity around the islands.
While Knudby et al. (2010b) conducted a study
specifically
focused
on
habitat
mapping,
using
supervised classification and visual interpretation to
demonstrate the potential of LandSat data for longFigure 7-88 Mangrove at Pemba and Unguja
term monitoring of nearshore habitats, the spatial
extent of the study area was limited to Chumbe and
248
Bawe Islands. Therefore, to date, the only study that
1999, following the bleaching and mortality event of
has produced a map with complete coverage of
1998, the amount of dead coral was 40% and the
Unguja’s nearshore environment was by Knudby et
amount of ‘substrate’ (rubble, rock or sand) was
al. (2014). The study used multiple Landsat images
53% in some places (Muhando 1998; 1999; 2005).
and field observations in an ensemble classification
In Unguja, Acropora, and some species of Porites,
system to depict the spatial distribution of the
were affected, while species such as Diploastrea and
following classes: Coral, Sparse seagrass (<40%
Pachyseris were seemingly unaffected (Muhando and
cover), Dense seagrass (>40% cover), Algae, Sand,
Mohammed 2002).
Pavement, Deep Water, Mangrove, and Land. The
resulting map and classification is the same used to
produce
the
map
of
Pemba
included
in
this
publication.
The reefs on the southwestern side of Unguja
generally have lower live coral cover (12–29%), due
to the rampant use of destructive fishing methods.
Mnemba (northeast) and the eastern fringing reefs
Status of Coral Reefs and Associated
had 11% or less coral cover due to their exposure to
Ecosystems
strong wave action (Horrill et al. 1994). Coral size
Tanzania and Zanzibar hold the oldest long term
monitoring sites in the WIO Islands region. Coral reef
monitoring is conducted by a number of government
and non-government institutions on the islands of
Unguja and Pemba.
Coral reef monitoring in Tanzania started in the late
1980s and the main objective was to assess the
damage caused by the use of destructive resource
harvesting practices, mainly dynamite and drag nets
2005,
1998,
1999).
Coral
reef
assessments on Zanzibar commenced at Fumba at
the SW tip of Unguja island in what is now the Menai
Bay Conservation Area (Horrill et al. 1994). Swedish
scientists
Sida/SAREC
programme
and
students
regional
focused
participating
marine
at
the
in
science
Institute
of
the
support
Marine
Science (e.g. Nzali et al. 1998, Johnstone et al.
1998,
Lindahl
1998).
history of coral reef mortality, on Pemba’s reefs
shows a lower numbers of corals sized 2.5 to 5
centimetres and 1.6 to 3.2 metres than is usual for a
healthy reef ecosystem (Grimadich et.al. 2009).
Status of Reef Fish
Status of Reef Benthos
(Muhando,
class distributions, which is an indicator of the
Coral
reef
monitoring
In Zanzibar, as in the rest of Tanzania, over 90% of
the marine fisheries are artisanal (Jiddawi and
Öhman 2002) using a variety of traditional vessels,
hook-and-line, basket traps and nets, to catch
mainly small to medium-sized reef fish of the
families;
Serranidae,
Lutjanidae,
Mullidae,
Lethrinidae,
Scaridae,
Siganidae,
Labridae,
and
Acanthuridae (Richmond 2002). Smaller fish, like the
Pomacentridae and Chaetodontidae are not directly
targetted by fishers as they have low economic
value, but if caught as by-catch they are used as bait
or taken for home consumption.
The
most
destructive
catch
methods,
including
contributed extensive information on the intensity
poison, dynamiting, and spear guns, continue to be
and trends of damage to reefs, including coral
used in some areas but are on the decline. An
degradation after the 1998 coral bleaching and
effective means of marine fisheries regulation has
mortality event (Muhando 1999, Mohammed et al.
been the introduction of no-take areas and over 70%
2000)
of Zanzibar’s reefs are now under some form of legal
This monitoring indicated that while Misali Reef was
dominated by live hard coral (74% in 1990), by
protection. The highest diversity and biomass of reef
fish has been recorded in the Marine Protected Areas
249
of Mnemba and Chumbe Islands, in Unguja, and
Status of Beaches
Misali Island, in Pemba.
Sandy beaches in Unguja cover a distance of 113.5
Spawning aggregations occur in some fish species
and areas, notably the Giant Grouper Epinephelus
lanceolatus
in
southern
Unguja
(Samoilys
et
al.2013). Reef fish populations in Pemba varied
greatly by site, from over 250 individuals per 250 m2
(Misali) to 50 individuals per 250 m2 (Msuka Bay).
Small-bodied herbivorous Acanthuridae (surgeonfish)
and Scaridae (parrotfish) were most common. Very
few commercially valuable Serranidae (groupers),
Haemulidae (sweetlips) or Mullidae (goatfish), and
no sharks, were seen, indicating overfishing of large
bodied
predators,
herbivores
and
commercially
valuable species (Grimadich et.al. 2009).
km (Mohamed & Betlem, 1996). The longest beaches
are Bwejuu (17km), Pwani Mchangani (11.5km),
Nungwi
(9km),
Bububu
(4.5km)
and
Mazizini
(4.5km) (Mohammed, 1996). Beaches are used as
boat landing sites; boat building or repairs; sand
extraction; rope
recreational
making;
activities.
seaweed drying; and,
White
sandy
beaches,
especially along the east coast of Unguja attract
many tourists (Shaghude and Jiddawi 2012). Most of
the beaches are important nesting sites for Green
turtles and Hawksbill turtles (Khatib and Jiddawi,
2004) and there is a danger posed to nesting turtles
as
a
consequence
of
coastal
developments,
particularly in the context of the widespread violation
Status of Reef Macroinvertebrates
of the set back distance for building and the
Many macro-invertebrate taxa are an important part
extraction of sand leaving beaches vulnerable to
of the
erosion.
diet and
incomes of Zanzibar’s
coastal
communities with collection by women, particularly
during the spring tides (Jiddawi et al. 2011). This
Key Drivers of Change Influencing the
activity has intesified recently due to the rising value
Value of Coral Reefs and Associated
of shellfish as a result of tourism (Jiddawi, 2011,
Ecosystems
Nordlund et.al.2011). In Zanzibar, the species of
Despite their importance, Zanzibar’s coral reefs and
highest economic importance and greatest food
associated
security to coastal households, are cockles (Anadara
anthropogenic
sp.), oysters (Pinctada sp.), mussels (Modiolus sp.),
overexploitation; the extraction of sand and gravel
sea snails (Chicoreous sp.), tiger shells, (Trapezium
for
sp). bullmouth or red helmet shell (Cypraea cassis
disposal; and, climate change. These directly or
rufa), spider conch (Lambis lambis), true harp
indirectly contribute to coral degradation, disease
(Harpa harpa) (Richmond 2012; Jiddawi, 2011).
and bleaching (Jiddawi et al. 2010, Jiddawi, 2012).
Status of Seagrass
Status of Water Quality
ecosystems
stresses
construction;
human
are
experiencing
that
and
include;
domestic
fish
waste
Monitoring of seagrass beds is not carried out on a
routine basis although there are a number of recent
studies that have mapped these habitats.
Water quality, Run-off and Waste
Fishing, aquaculture, tourism, and other key socioeconomic activities, are especially sensitive to the
Status of Mangroves
quality of the aquatic environment. Public health is
Monitoring of mangroves is not carried out on a
also critically dependent on water quality and the
routine basis although there are a number of recent
pollution
studies that have mapped these habitats.
sedimentation or the improper discharge of waste
of
water
bodies
from
excessive
such as sewage, solid waste and industrial and
agrochemicals, can seriously impact human health.
250
Although over two-thirds of households in Zanzibar
Eutrophication, also from excess nutrients, degrades
have access to piped water, much of the population
water quality through oxygen depletion and general
depends on spring or well water that is often
organic over-loading.
brackish as a result of the intrusion of saltwater into
water supplies at no less than 135 saltwater intrusion
sites (Rijaal et al. 2009). Rainfall is lowest in the
eastern coasts, which have been classed as ‘water
poor’ and rely on water derived from rainwater held
in aquifers that float as freshwater lenses on the
underlying seawater (Gossling 2001). The Water
Policy recognises the role of women as the ones who
bear the burden of water collection, scarcity and
contamination, particularly in these eastern rural
areas.
Waste
Coastal Development
Most major developments in Zanzibar occur in the
coastal zone and include hotels, resorts, guesthouses
and villas as well as small new towns and emerging
new informal settlements. The growth rate in urban
areas is around 4%, and an estimated 60% of
Zanzibar Town’s settlements are informal and unplanned with settlers coming from rural areas,
Pemba island, and, increasingly, mainland Tanzania.
Unguja and Pemba Islands have five ports, including
Malindi port, which is one of the principal ports in
poorly
Tanzania and handles around 90% of Zanzibar’s
developed in Zanzibar with few hotels having sewage
trade. The port was refurbished in 2009 but there
treatment facilities and the only general sewerage
are plans to build another port at Mpiga duri
system (in Zanzibar Stone Town) was constructed in
Maruhubi (Unguja) which will facilitate Zanzibar’s
the 1920s and serves just 19% of the population
economic development and the growth of trade
(ZSP, 2000). The discharge of untreated waste into
(ZRG, 2010).
coastal
management
infrastructure
waters has led to
is
significant
levels of
pollution especially in areas with high population
centres, which has had a serious impact on reefs and
associated flora and fauna as well as human health.
Studies indicate that the coastal waters fronting the
Zanzibar municipality have high levels of coliforms,
Although
Zanzibar’s
Water
Policy
(SMZ,
2004)
emphasises the need for water conservation tourist
accommodation units consume 16 times more water
than average household daily use and very few
hotels implement water conservation strategies.
nutrients and other pollution indicators (Mohammed
Direct use - extractive
et al. 2009).
Fishing accounts for about 6% of GDP and represents
Poor land-use practices, including largescale forest
and grassland clearance, overgrazing and mining,
have resulted in more rapid runoff and greater soil
erosion
Excessive
and
sedimentation
sediment
loads
of
coastal
can
waters.
reduce
light
penetration, such that light dependent plants are
unable to survive, and can smother corals and other
organisms. Similarly, the discharge of agricultural
runoff can contaminate coastal waters with excessive
a vital source of nutrition, employment, trade and
income for Zanzibar’s coastal communities. Most
fishing is artisanal and occurs within territorial waters
(12
nautical
miles)
with
fish
products
locally
consumed and contributing to about 98% of animal
protein in the diet of the low-income population
(DFMR, 2006). The number of fishers has increased
to 34,000 in 2013 when total annual catch was
28,000 tons (Fish statistics, 2013).
nutrients and pesticide residues. Coastal habitats,
According
such as mangroves and coral reefs, are easily
dominated by reef fish, including; spine foot (Tasi),
degraded by excess agricultural discharges and
parrot fish (Pono), emperors (Changu), groupers
sewage
(Chewa), goat fish (Mkundaji) and surgeon fish
borne
nutrients
and
organic
matter.
to
Jiddawi
(2012),
finfish
catch
is
251
(Puju/Kangaja).
Small
pelagics
like
mullet
fish
(Mkizi), anchovy (Dagaa), sardine (Saradini), and
Figure 7-89: Number of fishers in the different regions of
Unguja and Pemba in 4 different years
mackerel (Vibua), constitue about 24% of catch.
According to Jiddawi et al. (2010), the open access
Large pelagics, like trevally (Kolekole/Karambisi),
nature of fisheries poses the biggest threat to
tuna
(Jodari/sehewa),
sustained
king
fish
swordfish
(Nduaro/Mbasi),
utilization of fish resources.
Artisanal
(Mzia),
fishers complain of declines in fish catches and
constitute about 13% of catch. Shellfish and mid
change in catch composition, size, and diversity.
water fish, like shark (papa), ray (Taa), octopu
They report an acute shortage of formerly common
(Pweza), squid (Ngisi) and lobster (Kamba koche),
fishes (e.g. eagle ray, manta ray, swordfish, sharks,
make up approximately 28% of catch.
and groupers) and an increase in fishing effort.
(Nguru/Kanadi)
and
baracuda
Overexploitation of near shore fish stocks and fishing
grounds has also comprised reefs and seagrasses are
Lobsters
3%
Octopus/Squid
6%
now less productive as a result of destructive fishing
Others
13%
with beach seine, spear gun and dragnets.
Reef fish
35%
Sharks/Rays
6%
Seaweed farming, involving the culture of Eucheuma
cotonii and E. Spinosium (De La Torre-Castro and
Jiddawi 2005, Jiddawi and Ngazy, 1998), is also an
important
economic
activity,
especially
among
coastal women. Seaweed was traditionally harvested
Small pelagic
24%
Figure 3 Groups of fish caught in Zanzibar with
percent composition
through the collection of wild stock in intertidal areas
when production was around 260 tons annually.
Commercial farming was introduced in Paje and
Jambiani villages in 1989 and production is now
13,000 tons annually. During the southern monsoon
season farmers may lose a lot of their seaweed as it
is washed from their lines, and it is possible to see
people attempting to recover bags of seaweed that
have been washed ashore (Jiddawi et al. 2010).
31000000
29000000
27000000
Catch (tonnes)
Large Pelagic
13%
25000000
23000000
21000000
19000000
17000000
2012
2011
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
Year
252
Figure 7-90: Total fish catches in Zanzibar 2000 to 2012
(Statistics Department, 2012)
200000
180000
160000
140000
120000
No of Tourists
100000
80000
60000
40000
20000
0
Years
Figure 7-91 The number of tourist coming in Zanzibar
between 1994 to 2012
Direct use – non-extractive
The tourism sector contributes to 80 percent of the
foreign earnings and about 26% of Gross Domestic
Product (GDP). The industry supports more than
11,500
employees,
and
a
further
45,000
are
indirectly engaged in tourism activities. Tourism has
been growing at a rate of 10% per annum for the
last ten years. In 2004 there were 3,089 hotel and
guesthouse rooms, by 2012 this had increased to
6491 hotel and guesthouse rooms accomodating
nearly 200,000 tourists annually (ZCT 2004, ZCT
2012).
Figure 7 Tourism Zones in Unguja and Pemba
Outbreaks of Nuisace Species and Diseases
Crown-of-Thorn Starfish (Acanthaster planci) are
coral feeder asteroids commonly found in the Indo-
253
Pacific. They are a normal part of the coral reef
A study to explore the mucus bacterial composition
ecosystem in low densities, but above a threshold
of white syndrome affecting corals in Zanzibar was
become very damaging to corals as they consume at
first done in 2006 (Piskorska, et al. 2007), and
a faster rate than the corals recover. According to
bacteria-induced
Ussi and Muhando (2007) Zanzibar has experienced
Zanzibar in 2002 by Rosenberg and Ben-Haim
numerous starfish outbreaks in the last decade.
(2002). Black, white and yellow band bacteria have
A study was conducted between 2006 and 2008 to
assess the impact of these starfish outbreaks at
Murogo and Mnemba reefs in Unguja. The results
revealed much starfish densities at Murogo (30 to
3125 starfish per hector) at above threshold rates
where starfish were observed to consume corals at a
bleaching
was
first
found
in
also been documented in Zanzibar (McClanahan et
al. 2004, Harvell et al. 2007). In his countrywide
study, Mohammed (in prep.) has discovered White
Syndrome
in
Echinopora,
several
Acropora
coral
genera
(mostly
table
including
Acropora),
Lobophyllia, Merulina and Pachyseris.
rate (cm2 day-1) of 114, 232 and 244 for young, sub
Climate Variability and Change
adults and adult corals respectively (Ussi, 2014).
Zanzibar, like many small islands in the developing
Ongoing attempts to collect and kill crown of thorns
are made by different organisations. In 2008, for
example there was an initiative to mobilize groups of
students and local institutions to collect crown of
thorns on reefs close to Stone Town. Chumbe Island
Coral Park have also systematically collected and
starfish within the protected reef and park rangers
continue to be vigilant, monitoring the reef and
arrangingstarfish collections when they note feeding
scars on the corals (Muhando et al.2008).
world, is vulnerable to a number of natural hazards
including flooding, drought, and tropical storms that
are influenced by variability to the climate. In
particular, Zanzibar is projected to be at increased
risk of severe flooding and coastal erosion as a result
of climate change (Watkiss et al. 2012, Rijaal et al.
2009). Since the 1997-98 El Niño there has also
been
concern
among
MPA
managers,
tourism
operators, and policy-makers, about the impact of
coral bleaching as a result of climate change. In this
regard,
research
initiatives
have
been
geared
In Tanzania coral diseases do not yet represent a
towards monitoring changes in coral reefs and their
major threat. However, with increasing seawater
functionality (Obura et al. 2002).
temperatures and deteriorating water quality, the
Zanzibar annual mean temperature time series (1961 - 2005)
region is increasing susceptible to coral disease.
y = 0.0423x - 57.902
R2 = 0.5755
28.0
Mohammed and Jiddawi (2014) reported that an
27.5
27.0
investigation of coral reef diseases prevalence in
that the prevalance of infectious diseases are very
low. However, Algae, sponges, corallimorpharians
and
soft
corals
overgrowing
hard
corals
(compromised health) is a big concern on some
reefs, especially those close to major cities which
have high human influence like Chapwani, close to
Stone town. The least affected sites are Misali Island
Temperature (C)
coral reefs of Tanzania and preliminary results show
26.5
26.0
25.5
25.0
24.5
24.0
23.5
23.0
1961
1965
1969
1973
1977
1981
1985
1989
1993
1997
2001
2005
2009
Years
Annual mean
Linear Trend
Figure 8 Temperature Zanzibar 1961-2005
Source: Tanzania Meteorological Agency
(+1.9°C).
in Pemba and Kizimkazi reefs in Unhuja probably
because their location is far from sewage outlets.
254
Management Responses and Protected
Areas
Zanzibar
has
established
a
number
of
MPAs,
including:
Chumbe Island Coral Park (CHICOP), which is an
award-winning
private
nature
reserve
that
was
developed from 1991 for the conservation and
sustainable management of uninhabited Chumbe
Island off Zanzibar, one of the last pristine coral
islands in the region.
PECCA Area extends from North (Ras Kigomasha) to
South (Kangani & Panza). It covers an area of
₋
approx. 1000 sq. km and supports the lives of
187,000 coastal inhabitants.
Jozani-Chwaka Bay Conservation Area is 35 km
southeast of Zanzibar town and includes the Jozani
Forest Reserve and Chwaka Bay mangrove. The
Jozani Forest Reserve was first declared in 1960 and
in 2003 there was a proposal to upgrade the status
of the forest to a National Park and expand it to
include shallow water areas and the mangrove
system at Chwaka Bay (Tobey and Torrell, 2006).
The Menai Bay Conservation Area (MBCA) is situated
off the southwest coast of Unguja. It was established
in 1997 and covers an area of about 470 km2. It has
a population of 27,500 people, who mostly depend
on fisheries and its related activities. Plans are
underway to extend the area.
Mnemba Island Conservation area (MIMCA) was
established in 2010. It is located northeast to north
west of Unguja Island and has an area of 573 km2.
It supports the livelihoods of 80,000 people and has
a core area, which is fully protected while the
remaining area is for multiple use.
255
through
(http://www.smole.or.tz/reports.htm)
environmentally sound land management and socioeconomic development. A component of SMOLE is
strengthening natural resources management, which
is implemented by the Department of Environment
and
by the
Department
of Forestry and
Non-
renewable Natural Resources.
In early 2011, the development of the Tanzania’s
Sensitivity Atlas (TANSEA) was started with initial
support from Statoil Tanzania in order to support the
Environmental
Figure 9, The different Marine Conservation areas in anzibar
Knowledge
management
and
Impact
exploration-drilling
Assessment
for
their
programme
(http://www.tansea.org). The long-term goals of the
TanSEA project are to establish a comprehensive and
information
accurate coastal GIS data system for Tanzania for oil
The Ocean Data and Information Network for Africa
spill contingency planning and research. Statoil is
(ODINAFRICA), at the Institute of Marine Sciences,
present in southern offshore Tanzania where it has
brings
related
made several gas discoveries. Currently Statoil has
institutions from twenty-five countries in Africa to
been assiting in mapping the coral reef areas of
build and maintain an archive of marine and coastal
Zanzibar.
together
more
than
40
marine
data. One of its orodusts is the African Marine Atlas,
which was officially launched on 23 February 2007.
The African Marine Atlas provides substantial maps,
images, data and information to coastal resource
The Western Indian Ocean (WIO) Fisheries Database
provides direct access to a suite of parameters
related to fisheries in the WIO region, including
Zanzibar. The database promotes understanding of
biological
and
socio-economic
aspects
of
fisheries, and provides data from fisheries monitoring
and information relating to fisheries management
systems,
policy,
legislation,
governance
and
institutional capacity. The database is accessible
through
the
internet
(www.wiofish.org),
and
is
managed and updated by regional nodes in close
collaboration with the national nodes.
The
development
objective
of
the
Sustainable
Management of Land use and Environment (SMOLE)
is
to
help
reduce
poverty
in
Amir, O. A. Berggren, P. and Jiddawi, N. S. (2012). Recent records
of marine mammals in Tanzanian waters. J.
Cetacean Res. Manage, 12 (2): 249 – 253
Amir O.A, Berggren P and Jiddawi N.S (2002) The Incidental Catch
of dolphins in gillnet fisheries in Zanzibar. Western
Indian Ocean J. Mar. Sci. Vol 1 No 2 pp 155-163.
managers, planners and decision-makers.
the
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Zanzibar, Tanzania. IMS/WIOMSA. pp551-560
Anon. (2012) Water equity in tourism. Zanzibar case study.
Mwambao community coastal Network. 36pp
Bergman, K. C. and M. C. Öhman. (2001). Coral reef community
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258
CASE STUDY 1 Chumbe Island Coral Park
Authors: Ulrike Kloiber1, Anders Knudby and Lina Mtwana Nordlund
1
Contacts:
PO
Box
3203,
Zanzibar,
Tanzania
([email protected];
[email protected]).
Chumbe Island Coral Park Ltd. (CHICOP) is a private company established in 1992 with
the aim of protecting and managing Chumbe Island, a coral rag island located 12km off
the southwest coast of Unguja (Figure 1).
Chumbe Island is considered to be the first privately
managed marine protected area (MPA) in the world, gazetted
in 1994 under the Zanzibar Fisheries Act of 1988. The Legal
Gazettement order of the Government of Zanzibar defines
the Chumbe Reef Sanctuary (CRS) as a No-Take-Area where
extractive
and
destructive
activities
such
as
fishing,
anchorage, and the collection of specimens are not allowed.
Permitted uses inside the CRS include recreation (swimming,
snorkeling,
underwater
photography),
education
and
research. Chumbe Island is therefore classified as a Category
II protected area under IUCN’s WDPA listings (Spalding et al.
Figure 1. Location of Chumbe Island, Unguja/Zanzibar
2001). It also actively protects, manages and monitors the
intertidal zone in the CRS, which is a rare phenomenon in the
Western Indian Ocean region (Nordlund et al. 2013a).
The CRS covers approximately 0.3 km2 of predominantly coral reef habitat on the west side of Chumbe Island. As
indicated in the habitat classification map (Figure 2), derived from IKONOS satellite imaginary (Knudby &
Nordlund 2011), the unprotected east side of the island faces a large shallow lagoon where sand and seagrass
habitats dominate over a fragmented reef that consists of sparse and small coral bommies. The northern section
of the CRS represents the densest and most diverse Scleractinian coral cover in the MPA (Figure 3) and is also the
shallowest region. Moving south, the reef crest gets deeper and larger Porites colonies become more dominant
(Figure 4). Baseline surveys in the CRS identified over 200 coral species from 55 genera and at least 432 reef fish
species (Kloiber 2013). A study comparing coral reefs around Zanzibar further confirmed that the CRS has a high
number of ‘unique’ and locally rare taxonomic units (Zvuloni 2010).
As part of the current management plan (2006-2016) a long-term monitoring program was specifically designed
for the CRS (Tyler et al. 2008) and aims at providing evidence of management effectiveness and allows changes in
the reef ecosystem to be measured over time.
259
Figure 2. Habitat classification map of Chumbe Island derived from IKONOS satellite imaginary (Knudby & Nordlund, 2011).
Although the MPA lost approximately 30% of its Acropora species during the 1998 El Niño coral bleaching event,
recovery and new growth became evident within few years and the former coverage of the ‘reef canopy’ has been
naturally restored (McClanahan et al. 2009). The CRS also appears amongst the most resilient reefs in the
Western Indian Ocean region and is likely to be less affected by environmental stress, temperature changes and
other causes of coral mortality linked to climate change (Maina et al. 2008). A related study concludes that the
management status of MPA’s in the region needs to be re-prioritized based on areas that are both likely to survive
climate change related thermal stress and have a high level of biodiversity. Chumbe Island ranks among the
highest performers in both these categories (McClanahan et al. 2007).
260
Figure 3. The Chumbe Reef Sanctuary (CRS) hosts about 90% of East Africa’s hard coral species. Copyright @ Markus Meissl.
Management and protection of the island is solely funded by non-consumptive ecotourism, based on an eco-lodge
with seven state-of-the-art eco-bungalows (Figure 5). This also supports comprehensive, environmental education
programs targeting local school children, fishermen, community members and government representatives (Figure
6). After operating successfully for nearly two decades, CHICOP continues showcasing sustainable private marine
conservation funded by ecotourism.
(a)
(b)
Figure 4(a). Large Porites colonies are dominating in the southern part of the Chumbe Reef Sanctuary. (b) The Chumbe Island
Ecologde viewed from the historical lighthouse. Copyright @ Markus Meissl.
The sustainable management and promotion of key ecosystem services for the region is recognized on many
levels, including being mentioned in the UN Secretary General’s report to the General Assembly on protection of
coral reefs for sustainable livelihoods and development in 2011, which states that: ‘‘A noted example for PES
(Payment for Ecosystem Services) within the context of coral reefs habitat is the private, non-profit Chumbe
Island Coral Park Ltd (CHICOP) in Tanzania’’ (Nordlund et al. 2013b).
261
Figure 6. A local student explores the Chumbe Reef Sanctuary guided by an Environmental Educator from CHICOP. Many
students don’t know how to swim and have never seen live coral through a snorkelling mask. Copyright @ Markus Meissl.
References
Kloiber, U. 2013. Chumbe Island Coral Park - Conservation and Education, Status report 2013. 1-43, Zanzibar, Tanzania. Available from:
http://www.chumbeisland.com; [accessed 17.06.2014]
Knudby A, Nordlund L. Remote sensing of seagrasses in a patchy multi- species environment. Int J Remote Sensing 2011;32(8): 2227–2244.
Maina J, Venus V, McClanahan T, Ateweberhan M. Modelling susceptibility of coral reefs to environmental stress using remote sending data and GIS
models. Ecol. Modelling 2008;212:180–199.
McClanahan TR, Ateweberhan M, Graham NAJ, Wilson SK, Ruiz Sebastian C, Guillaume MMM, et al. Western Indian Ocean coral communities:
bleaching responses and susceptibility to extinction. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 2007; 337:1–13.
McClanahan, T., Muthiga, NA, Maina, J, Kamukuru, AT, & Yahya, SA. (2009). Changes in northern Tanzania coral reefs during a period of increased
fisheries management and climatic disturbance. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 19(7), 758-771.
Nordlund LM, de la Torre-Castro M, Erlandsson J, Conand C. Muthiga N, Jiddawi N, Gullström M. 2013a. Intertidal management in the Western
Indian Ocean – current status and future possibilities. AMBIO. Available online 28 Dec 2013, doi: 10.1007/s13280-013-0465-8.
Nordlund, L.M., Kloiber, U., Carter, E., Riedmiller, S., 2013b. Chumbe Island Coral Park—governance analysis. Mar. Policy. 41,110–117.
Spalding M, Ravilious C, Green E. World atlas of coral reefs. Berkeley: University of California Press; 2001.
Tyler, E.H.M., Nyange, O., Hamad, R., Peters, M. and Lanshammar, F. (2008) Chumbe Island Coral Park Coral Reef Monitoring Programme. Results
and Recommendations from the first two years (2006 to 2008).
Zvuloni A, van Woesik R, Loya Y. Diversity partitioning of stony corals across multiple spatial scales around Zanzibar Island, Tanzania. PLoS ONE
2010; 5(3): e9941.
262
CASE STUDY 2 Mapping of nearshore habitats for Unguja and Pemba
Authors: Anders Knuby1, Saleh A.S. Yahya2, Mohammed Nur Mohammed3, Martin Gullstrom, Gustav Palmqvist,
Karolina Wiktrom, Alan Koliji, Rebecca Klaus.
Contact details: 1Department of Geography, Simon Fraser University ([email protected]); 2Institute of Marine
Sciences, P.O. Box 668, Zanzibar, Tanzania; 3P.O. Box 1558, Zanzibar, Tanzania
The nearshore environment that surrounds Unguja, Pemba and their associated islets includes coral reefs,
seagrass beds, tidal flats and mangrove stands, among other habitat types. As illustrated in this chapter, the size
and relatively difficult access to these areas, especially those in the subtidal zone, means that remote sensing
technology, aerial photography and satellite imagery, is the only cost-effective method for mapping. Interpretation
of such data sources by image-processing algorithms relies fundamentally on the relationship between surface
type (e.g. mangrove) and surface spectral reflectance (e.g. dark green). However, for areas submerged during
image acquisition, the depth and transparency of the water modifies the spectral composition of the reflected
sunlight, so the spectral reflectance signature of the substrate is not observed by the remote sensing instrument.
As a result, a bright sandy seafloor can be indistinguishable from darker seafloor types such as coral and seagrass
when submerged under several tens of meters of water.
For production of the maps in this case study, ‘depth-invariant indices’, first developed by Lyzenga (1978) to
quantify the broadband reflectance of a surface, were used to partially correct for this effect. In addition, a very
significant problem for Unguja and Pemba is the presence of clouds, which completely or partly obscure the view
of nearshore habitats from space. In the Landsat TM/ETM+ image archive, which was used for this study and
contains regular imagery from the present back to 1984, not a single cloud-free satellite image is available for
Unguja or Pemba. To deal with this problem, the approach adopted here relied on the fact that although clouds are
present in all images, all areas around the two islands are cloud-free in at least one available image. Coupled with
the fact that clouds can be identified with high accuracy and removed from the analysis, this allowed a large set of
satellite images to be used in combination to produce a complete map of the nearshore environments around
Unguja and Pemba. A supervised classification was produced separately for cloud- and shadow-free areas in each
image, and an ‘ensemble’ classification was then produced by combining eligible areas in each single-image
classification through a voting system. An additional result of using ensemble classification was that higher
classification accuracy was achieved (Knudby et al. 2014). Field calibration data used for the classification of each
satellite image were collected from 2007 to 2014 by a range of people including Danish, Swedish, and Zanzibari
researchers.
All field observations were classified into one of the following categories, which were used as the basis for map
production: Land, Mangrove, Deep water, Hard coral, Sparse seagrass (<40% cover), Dense seagrass (>40%
cover), Algae, Pavement, Sand, and Soft coral. The overall accuracy of the resulting maps is >70%, with
confusion primarily between spectrally similar classes (e.g. sand and sparse seagrass; sparse and dense seagrass;
sand and pavement, algae and seagrass). The resulting maps, presented on the next page, constitute the only
complete and up-to-date source of spatial information for the nearshore habitats around Unguja and Pemba..
263
Figure 1: Ground truthing surveys completed by Dr Saleh and Mohammed Nur around Pemba May 2014.
264
Figure 2: New habitat map prepared using the survey data completed around Pemba May 2014.
265
Figure 3: Habitat map of Unguja prepared using the same image processing methods as used for Pemba (Knudby et al. 2014)
266
the reefs in this region and will continue to have the
Future Perspectives
greatest
influence
on
the
long-term
outlook.
Degradation as result of climate change related
Background
impacts is unlikely to be linear however, and will
The islands within the SWIO region are responsible
more likely occur in a series of abrupt steps
for >14,000km2 of coral reef ecosystems. The
punctuated by intervals of relatively minor change
condition of these highly unique, diverse and fragiles
and potential recovery if the systems permit.
ecosystems
compared
has
to
settlement.
already
their
The
declined
condition
prior
cumulative
significantly
to
impact
European
of
human
resource use pressures has reduced the overall
Specific climate change threats that present a high
risk to the coral reefs and associated ecosystems
are:
resilience of the ecosystem, in turn reducing its
Increasing sea water temperatures
ability to recover from future disturbances.
The
Predicting a long-term outlook for the reefs and
associated ecosystems in this region is complex
given the inherent variability in the socio-ecological
system given differences in the local situation within
each of the island nations within this region. In
last
Inter-governmental
Panel
on
Climate
Change (IPCC) report predicted that when CO2 levels
exceeded 400ppm temperatures would be 1°C higher
than pre-industrial levels. Evidence of this degree of
change is already being recorded in the SWIO
islands.
developing this report, consideration has been given
The most recent IPCC report has shown that sea
to the current state of the environment and common
temperatures in the Western Indian Ocean have
trends in environmental, economic and social values,
increased
factors affecting those values, the effectiveness of
confidence) (p value< 0.05; (Overall summary
existing protection and management measures, the
resultant resilience of the ecosystem and, the risks
the ecosystem is facing.
by
0.60°C
over
1950–2009
(high
The degree of impact that future climate change will
have on coral reefs will be contingent on whether or
not
the
wider
global
society
decides
to
act
Likely trends in key factors
collectively to reduce atmospheric CO2. It also
The common factors most likely to have a significant
depends on how the atmosphere–ocean system
role in determining the future outlook and conditions
respond
on the reefs in SWIO include climate change, coastal
warming. Furthermore it depends upon how flora and
development, runoff and fisheries. These factors
fauna that compose and live in association with coral
typically
geographic
reefs react to a rapidly changing climate. If coral reef
biophysically
associated organisms can acclimatise or even adapt
complex. The cumulative and collective interaction
to increasing temperatures then they may be able to
between these factors, further complicates the ability
persist as long into the future as they have done in
to predict the most likely sequence of events.
the past.
Climate variability and change
The
Coral reefs are one of the world’s ecosystems that
ecosystems in the SWIO islands region is at a
are extremely vulnerable to climate change, and the
crossroad. Decisions made by the Governments in
reefs in the SWIO Islands region are no exception.
this region over the next few years will determine its
Climate variability has already significantly impacted
long-term
scales
operate
and
are
at
both
across
different
socially
and
on
future
a
of
physico-chemical
the
future.
coral
Future
reefs
basis
and
predictions
to
such
associated
of
climate
272
change will continue to dominate the outlook over
In some countries, efforts are underway to trial and
the next few decades. Limiting the extent and
implement
persistence of the damage will depend to a large
remedy the damage done during the last mass
degree on the extent to which climate change is
bleaching. These projects found that reef restoration
addressed worldwide and on the resilience of the
costs
ecosystem in the immediate future.
(median cost), compared to $19,791 USD per meter
With atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide
between close to 400ppm, key groups of species and
habitats of the SWIO region have low or moderate
vulnerability to climate change. If the atmospheric
concentration of carbon dioxide increases beyond
these levels then there will be serious consequences
for the SWIO region.
Several major management initiatives to further
address the key threats to the coral reef ecosystems
for
significantly
building
restoration
less,
artificial
$1290
techniques
USD
per
breakwaters,
to
meter
making
it
build breakwaters in tropical environments. This
study supports the role of coral reefs in risk
reduction, including shoreline erosion and flooding,
and can be used by managers and policy makers to
motivate greater reef protection and restoration.
Final thoughts
•
Marine protected areas (MPAs) and fisheries
management
areas
can
help
increase
ecosystem resilience and aide the recovery of
scales within the SWIO region. These actions and the
coral reefs after climate change impacts such
degree to which they are effectively implemented
the SWIO region in the future.
reef
significantly cheaper to restore reefs rather than
are already underway at both national and regional
could significantly influence the resilience of reefs in
coral
as mass coral bleaching;
•
MPAs are unable to protect corals directly
from thermal stress
suggesting that they
For example, many of the countries in the region
need to be complemented with additional
have
and alternative strategies;
established
Integrated
Coastal
Zone
Management (ICZM) Committees and have been
developing
and
contemporary
implementing
framework
for
a
consistent
effective
•
of
planning
ahead
and
reefs
can
recover
from
major
and
disturbance, and the benefits of isolation
planning.
from chronic anthropogenic pressures can
Countries in the SWIO region are recognising the
importance
Isolated
starting
to
outweigh the costs of limited connectivity ;
•
Networks of highly protected areas nested
implement Strategic Environmental Assessments
within a broader management integrated
and use tools such as Marine Spatial Planning to
framework of ocean and coastal management
future proof national development strategies and
to
plans.
catch
At
Partnership
the
regional
(GLISPA)
level
has
the
been
Global
engaging
Island
with
control
anthropogenic threats (fishery
limits
increasing
level commitments and on-the-ground action for
global scales;
resources.
Countries
are
also
increasingly
gear
restrictions)
can
contribute to preserving coral reefs under
governments and local partners to advance highisland conservation and sustainable use of natural
and
•
human
pressure
at
local
and
Locally, controlling the input of nutrients and
sediments
from
land
is
an
important
management
strategy
recognising the importance of MPAs as means to help
complementary
anticipate and mitigate for the anticipated impact of
because nutrient enrichment can increase the
climate change..
susceptibility of corals to bleaching
and
272
coastal pollutants enriched with fertilizers
can increase acidification.
•
In the long term, limiting the amount of
ocean warming and acidification is central to
ensuring the viability of coral reefs and
dependent communities.
References
Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Anthony, K., Berkelmans, R., Davis, S.,
Fabricius, K., Lough, J., Marshall, P., Van Oppen,
M.J.H., Negri, A. & Willis, B. 2007, Vulnerability of
reef-building corals on the Great Barrier Reef to
climate change. In: Climate change and the Great
Barrier Reef: a vulnerability assessment, eds J.E.
Johnson & P.A. Marshall, Great Barrier Reef Marine
Park Authority and Australian Greenhouse Office,
Townsville, Australia, 271-307.
De’ath, G., Lough, J.M. & Fabricius, K.E. 2009, Declining coral
calcification on the Great Barrier Reef. Science
(Washington), 323: (5910) 116-119.
Pandolfi, J.M., Bradbury, R.H., Sala, E., Hughes, T.P., Bjorndal, K.A.,
Cooke, R.G., McArdle, D., McClenachan, L.,
Newman, M.J.H., Paredes, G., Warner, R.R. &
Jackson, J.B.C. 2003, Global trajectories of the longterm decline of coral reef ecosystems. Science, 301:
(5635) 955-958.
Pandolfi, J.M., Jackson, J.B.C., Baron, N., Bradbury, R.H., Guzman,
H.M., Hughes, T.P., Kappel, C.V., Micheli, F., Ogden,
J.C., Possingham, H.P. & Sala, E. 2005, Are U.S.
coral reefs on the slippery slope to slime? Science,
307: (5716) 1725-1726.
Wilkinson, C. 2008, Status of coral reefs of the world: 2008. Global
Coral Reef
272
Temperature changes and and increased frequency
Table
8-29).
Temperatures
have
increased
by
0.672°C in all months, with an increase of 0.846°C in
the coolest month and 0.618°C in the warmest
months.
of
bleaching
composition
is
and
very
likely
potentially
to
the
alter
species
productivity
of
coastal fisheries (Jury et al., 2010). There may be a
significant lag between the loss of coral communities
and the subsequent changes in the abundance and
Predictions of further warming using the best-case
scenario (RCP2.6), indicate that temperatures will
increase further by >1°C above present day values
by 2050 and will remain at around this level by
2100. Using the worst case scenario model (RCP8.5),
temperatures will be >2°C above present day values
by 2050 and >3.5°C above present day values by
2100.
community structure of fish (Graham et al., 2007).
Some of these potential changes can be adverted or
reduced by interventions such as the establishment
of marine protected areas and changes to fishing
management (McClanahan et al., 2008; Cinner et al.,
2009; Jury et al., 2010; MacNeil et al., 2010).Niño
Elevated temperatures can also have other more
Warmer temperatures will lead to an increasing
subtle
effects
frequency of positive thermal anomalies which have
processes, such as growth and reproduction. Indeed
triggered mass coral bleaching and mortality events
it is known that while growth rates may increasing in
across the region over the past two decades (Baker
parallel
et al., 2008; Nakamura et al., 2011). Trends in
skeletal material laid down may be weaker. Hence
changes in SST and surface salinity show variations
the
with location, and demonstrate faster rates at higher
weakened skeletons may not be as effective as
latitudes.
providing shoreline protection. These influences will
with
reef
on
physiological
temperatures,
frameworks
and
the
life
history
density
constructed
of
from
the
these
also likely be further compounded by the process of
It is known that periods of heat stress over the past
20 years have triggered mass coral bleaching and
ocean acidification which also weakens calcifying
organisms.
mortality on coral reef ecosystems within this region
(McClanahan et al., 2007; McClanahan et al., 2009a;
Increasing ocean acidification
McClanahan et al., 2009c; McClanahan et al., 2009b;
In the last century, the pH of the ocean has already
Ateweberhan and McClanahan, 2010; Ateweberhan
decreased by 0.1 units (i.e. become more acidic).
et al., 2011).
Ocean
acidification
affects
the
growth
of
most
species that build shells or skeletons, including
Steadily increasing
sea temperatures have
also
produced anomalous growth rates in long-lived corals
such as Porites (McClanahan et al., 2009b), both in
this region and in other seas (e.g. Red Sea Dullo et
al, 2009).
Differences
ocean acidity. This likely to also cause composition
shifts in plankton and impacts to calcareous forms of
macroalgae
such as
Halimeda. Coral
reefs are
expected to be increasingly dominated by fleshy and
in
the
susceptibility of
reef-building
corals to stress from rising sea temperatures has
also resulted in changes to the composition of coral
(McClanahan
corals. Coral reef habitats may erode with increasing
et
al.,
2007)
and
benthic
turf macroalgae. Acidification is also expected to
affect
the
growth
of
coralline
algae,
which
consolidates coral rubble into reef limestone.
fish
communities (Graham et al., 2008; Pratchett et al.,
2011a).
270
Rising sea level
Catchment runoff
Sea-level rise threatens the very existence of low-
The nearshore areas around the populated islands
lying islands and coastal zones and their inhabitants.
within the SWIO region are already being affected by
Sea levels in the western Indian Ocean region have
land-based sources of pollution, whether from point
already risen by about 3mm annually since 1991.
sources or diffuse sources. Without advances in
Sea level rise is a threat to islands and cays that are
agricultural
important for nesting seabirds and marine turtles. It
programs, there will continue to be increases in
is
sediment and nutrient inputs into nearshore coastal
also
important
in
the
context
of
coastal
and
additional
government
systems. Sediment laden nutrient rich run-off can
infrastructure and low lying urban centres.
impact reefs in many different ways. The end result
Cyclones
A global meta-analysis revealed that coral reefs
reduce wave energy on coastlines by 97% on
average,
practices
with
attenuating
the
86%
of
reef
crest
the
energy.
responsible
The
for
shoreline
protection offered by reefs is particularly crucial to
islands that depend on these structures as their first
line of defence.
of sustained exposure to poor quality is often a
reduction
of
hard
coral
cover,
which
may
be
associated with an increase in nutrient indicator
macroalgae, and a phase shift. Run-off has also been
associated with an increased prevalence of coral
diseases and crown-of-thorns starfish outbreaks.
Where the run-off also include chemicals (e.g.
pesticides) these will also find their way into the food
Global climate change or climate wierding will result
chain, invertebrates, marine turtles and marine
in the reduced predictability of weather events,
mammals; and a reduced ability for coral reefs to
changes in precipitation and increased severity of
recover from bleaching or crown-of-thorns starfish
storms. Tropical storms and cyclones are generally
outbreaks.
poorly
captured
by
General
Circulation
Models
(GCMs) potential changes in intensity and tracks of
tropical cyclones in the future are very uncertain.
Whilst evidence indicates that tropical cyclones are
likely to become, on the whole, more intense under a
warmer climate is a result of higher sea‐surface
temperatures, there is great uncertainty in changes
in frequency, and changes to storm tracks and their
interactions with other features of climate variability
(such as the El Niño Southern Oscillation) which
introduces
uncertainty
at
the
(Christensen et al. 2007).
regional
scale
The uncertainty in
potential changes in tropical cyclones contributes to
Coastal development
Coastal development, which is primarily driven by
population growth, associated with changes in land
use,
expansion
of
mining
and
industry,
urban
infrastructure and port development. These also
present a very real risk in the SWIO islands, as with
other islands nations where land is at a premium.
The highest risk threats associated with coastal
development are clearing or modifying wetlands,
mangroves and other coastal habitats and litter, such
as plastic bags, washing out to sea and being
ingested by species of conservation concern.
uncertainties in future wet‐season rainfall. Potential
A main factor driving habitat loss is the increasing
increases in tropical cyclone activity, which may not
human population in the SWIO island catchments.
be captured in the GCM projections, may add to the
Without
projected increases in wet‐season rainfall
environmental management, growth could increase
region (Christensen et al. 2007).
in the
adequate
planning
and
careful
pollution and sedimentation, decrease water quality
and change the natural drainage channels.
271
Direct use - extractive
becoming an increasingly popular tool to increase
Industrial and semi-industrial fishing in the SWIO
landings. While these may increase the catches they
targets mainly predators, while the coastal and
do not prevent damage to corals, which do not have
artisanal fisheries are mostly multi-species. Unless
sufficient time to recover between closures.
carefully
managed
at
sustainable
levels,
the
overfishing of any feeding-guild has the potential to
affect the ecological balance within the food web.
The lack of information about some target species,
the fate of non-retained catch and the incidental
catch of species of conservation concern means that
the ecosystem level impacts of fishing are not well
understood.
Direct use – non-extractive
Direct use non-extractive values, such as commercial
marine tourism, shipping, some scientific research
and
recreation
(excluding
fishing)
poses
some
threats to the but these are not as high or very high
compared
to
many
of
the
other
human
use
pressures. The increased popularity of the region and
economic development may increase use, especially
Improvements in the management of all fisheries is
from recreation and shipping, which would increase.
being made, but not rapidly. For example, the
International tourism cannot however be relied upon
compulsory use of turtle excluder devices in prawn
as the panacea for the economic challenges that the
trawl nets seems to have helped stop the decline of
island nations in the SWIO region face, as was
loggerhead
turtles.
by
demonstrated during the global financial crisis when
foreign
domestic
against
tourism numbers dropped dramatically. Furthermore,
or
management
Illegal
fishing
fishers,
arrangements
pressure,
can
work
to
protect
the
excessive, rapid and poorly planned expansion of the
ecosystem. Changes in global fisheries production
tourism sector can degrade the quality of the product
patterns are likely to increase demand for wild
that first attracts many tourist to islands.
caught seafood.
Overall summary
In the SWIO region changes are already driving a
The degree of impact that future climate change will
diversification in the species targeted and the areas
have on coral reefs will be contingent on whether or
fished (including remote and deeper water) and
not
increase the likelihood of illegal fishing. A lack of
collectively to reduce atmospheric CO2. It also
information about the hunting of highly threatened
depends on how the atmosphere–ocean system
species like dugongs, dolphins, sharks and rays, and
respond
sea
the
warming. Furthermore it depends upon how flora and
sustainability of the activity. Even though these
fauna that compose and live in association with coral
activities are illegal in many countries, quantifying
reefs react to a rapidly changing climate. If coral reef
the numbers of threatened species which are illegally
associated organisms can acclimatise or even adapt
hunted is difficult and often concealed.
to increasing temperatures then they may be able to
turtles
creates
uncertainty
about
Lower risk extractive activities, such as the targeting
of lower order predators (e.g. coral trout), filter
feeders
and
detritivores
cucumbers) and
(e.g.
prawns
octopus. However the
and
sea
the
wider
on
a
global
society
physico-chemical
decides
basis
to
to
act
such
persist as long into the future as they have done in
the past.
The
future
of
the
coral
reefs
and
associated
physical
ecosystems in the SWIO islands region is at a
impacts of reef gleaning activities for certain species
crossroad. Decisions made by the Governments in
continue to pose a major threats to the ecosystem
this region over the next few years will determine its
due to trampling. Temporary fisheries closures are
long-term
future.
Future
predictions
of
climate
272
change will continue to dominate the outlook over
In some countries, efforts are underway to trial and
the next few decades. Limiting the extent and
implement
persistence of the damage will depend to a large
remedy the damage done during the last mass
degree on the extent to which climate change is
bleaching. These projects found that reef restoration
addressed worldwide and on the resilience of the
costs
ecosystem in the immediate future.
(median cost), compared to $19,791 USD per meter
With atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide
between close to 400ppm, key groups of species and
habitats of the SWIO region have low or moderate
vulnerability to climate change. If the atmospheric
concentration of carbon dioxide increases beyond
these levels then there will be serious consequences
for the SWIO region.
Several major management initiatives to further
address the key threats to the coral reef ecosystems
for
significantly
building
restoration
less,
artificial
$1290
techniques
USD
per
breakwaters,
to
meter
making
it
build breakwaters in tropical environments. This
study supports the role of coral reefs in risk
reduction, including shoreline erosion and flooding,
and can be used by managers and policy makers to
motivate greater reef protection and restoration.
Final thoughts
•
Marine protected areas (MPAs) and fisheries
management
areas
can
help
increase
ecosystem resilience and aide the recovery of
scales within the SWIO region. These actions and the
coral reefs after climate change impacts such
degree to which they are effectively implemented
the SWIO region in the future.
reef
significantly cheaper to restore reefs rather than
are already underway at both national and regional
could significantly influence the resilience of reefs in
coral
as mass coral bleaching;
•
MPAs are unable to protect corals directly
from thermal stress
suggesting that they
For example, many of the countries in the region
need to be complemented with additional
have
and alternative strategies;
established
Integrated
Coastal
Zone
Management (ICZM) Committees and have been
developing
and
contemporary
implementing
framework
for
a
consistent
effective
•
of
planning
ahead
and
reefs
can
recover
from
major
and
disturbance, and the benefits of isolation
planning.
from chronic anthropogenic pressures can
Countries in the SWIO region are recognising the
importance
Isolated
starting
to
outweigh the costs of limited connectivity ;
•
Networks of highly protected areas nested
implement Strategic Environmental Assessments
within a broader management integrated
and use tools such as Marine Spatial Planning to
framework of ocean and coastal management
future proof national development strategies and
to
plans.
catch
At
Partnership
the
regional
(GLISPA)
level
has
the
been
Global
engaging
Island
with
control
anthropogenic threats (fishery
limits
increasing
level commitments and on-the-ground action for
global scales;
resources.
Countries
are
also
increasingly
gear
restrictions)
can
contribute to preserving coral reefs under
governments and local partners to advance highisland conservation and sustainable use of natural
and
•
human
pressure
at
local
and
Locally, controlling the input of nutrients and
sediments
from
land
is
an
important
management
strategy
recognising the importance of MPAs as means to help
complementary
anticipate and mitigate for the anticipated impact of
because nutrient enrichment can increase the
climate change..
susceptibility of corals to bleaching
and
273
Park Authority and Australian Greenhouse Office,
Townsville, Australia, 271-307.
coastal pollutants enriched with fertilizers
can increase acidification.
•
In the long term, limiting the amount of
ocean warming and acidification is central to
ensuring the viability of coral reefs and
dependent communities.
References
Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Anthony, K., Berkelmans, R., Davis, S.,
Fabricius, K., Lough, J., Marshall, P., Van Oppen,
M.J.H., Negri, A. & Willis, B. 2007, Vulnerability of
reef-building corals on the Great Barrier Reef to
climate change. In: Climate change and the Great
Barrier Reef: a vulnerability assessment, eds J.E.
Johnson & P.A. Marshall, Great Barrier Reef Marine
De’ath, G., Lough, J.M. & Fabricius, K.E. 2009, Declining coral
calcification on the Great Barrier Reef. Science
(Washington), 323: (5910) 116-119.
Pandolfi, J.M., Bradbury, R.H., Sala, E., Hughes, T.P., Bjorndal, K.A.,
Cooke, R.G., McArdle, D., McClenachan, L.,
Newman, M.J.H., Paredes, G., Warner, R.R. &
Jackson, J.B.C. 2003, Global trajectories of the longterm decline of coral reef ecosystems. Science, 301:
(5635) 955-958.
Pandolfi, J.M., Jackson, J.B.C., Baron, N., Bradbury, R.H., Guzman,
H.M., Hughes, T.P., Kappel, C.V., Micheli, F., Ogden,
J.C., Possingham, H.P. & Sala, E. 2005, Are U.S.
coral reefs on the slippery slope to slime? Science,
307: (5716) 1725-1726.
Wilkinson, C. 2008, Status of coral reefs of the world: 2008. Global
Coral Reef
Table 8-29: Regional changes in sea surface temperature (SST) over the period 1950–2009 using the Ocean regionalization.
A linear regression was fitted to the average of all 1×1 degree monthly SST data extracted from the HadISST1.1
data set [Rayner et al., 2003] for each sub-region over the period 1950–2009. All SST values less than -1.8 C,
together with all SST pixels that were flagged as being sea ice, were reset to the freezing point of seawater (-1.8
C) to reflect the sea temperature under the ice. Separate analyses were also done to explore trends in the
temperatures extracted from the coldest-ranked and the warmest-ranked month of each year (Table SM30-2). The
table includes the slope of the regression (°C decade ), the p-value for the slope being different from zero and the
total change over 60 years (i.e., the slope of linear regression multiplied by 6 decades) for each category. The pvalues that exceed 0.05 plus the associated slope and change values have a gray background, denoting the lower
statistical confidence in the slope being different from zero (no slope). Note, changes with higher p-values may
still describe informative trends although the level of confidence is lower that the slope is different from zero.
Rank
Coastal Boundary Systems (CBS)
E Indian / SE Asia /W
Pacific
1
Western Atlantic
2
Eastern Indian Ocean
3
Western Indian Ocean
4
Caribbean / GulfofMexico
5
Sub-Tropical Gyres
Indian Ocean
1
South Atlantic
2
North Pacific(west)
3
South Pacific(west)
4
Total South Pacific
5
South Pacific(east)
6
North Atlantic
7
Total North Pacific
8
North Pacific(east)
9
Coral Reef Provinces
Regression slope
°C/Decade
Coolest
All
Warmest
Month Months
Month
Total change over 60 years
Change over 60 years
Coolest
All
Warmest
Month
Months
Month
Coolest
Month
p-value
°C/Decade
All
Warmest
Months
Month
0.144
0.137
0.099
0.097
0.023
0.134
0.123
0.092
0.100
0.024
0.107
0.127
0.080
0.096
0.019
0.864
0.822
0.594
0.582
0.138
0.804
0.738
0.552
0.600
0.144
0.642
0.762
0.480
0.576
0.114
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.193
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.498
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.281
0.141
0.079
0.065
0.060
0.056
0.055
0.042
0.034
0.008
0.112
0.083
0.071
0.076
0.060
0.056
0.046
0.055
0.042
0.103
0.098
0.059
0.092
0.089
0.088
0.029
0.051
0.051
0.846
0.474
0.390
0.360
0.336
0.330
0.252
0.204
0.048
0.672
0.498
0.426
0.456
0.360
0.336
0.276
0.330
0.252
0.618
0.588
0.354
0.552
0.534
0.528
0.174
0.306
0.306
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.002
0.000
0.000
0.048
0.001
0.617
0.000
0.017
0.018
0.000
0.027
0.058
0.276
0.053
0.133
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.038
0.000
0.014
274
Coral Triangle & SEAsia
Western Indian Ocean
Eastern Indian Ocean
Eastern Pacific Ocean
Western Pacific Ocean
Caribbean / Gulf of Mexico
Basin Scale
Indian Ocean Basin
South Atlantic (combined)
Atlantic Ocean Basin
Total South Pacific
North Atlantic (combined)
Pacific Ocean Basin
Total North Pacific
1
2
3
4
5
6
0.137
0.091
0.081
0.079
0.072
0.026
0.131
0.100
0.097
0.094
0.073
0.024
0.098
0.102
0.116
0.101
0.073
0.023
0.822
0.546
0.486
0.474
0.432
0.156
0.786
0.600
0.582
0.564
0.438
0.144
0.588
0.612
0.696
0.606
0.438
0.138
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.106
0.000
0.107
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.382
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.023
0.000
0.203
1
3
4
6
2
7
5
0.130
0.076
0.060
0.055
0.045
0.043
0.030
0.108
0.074
0.068
0.048
0.061
0.052
0.052
0.106
0.101
0.091
0.075
0.090
0.046
0.046
0.780
0.456
0.360
0.330
0.270
0.258
0.180
0.648
0.444
0.408
0.288
0.366
0.312
0.312
0.636
0.606
0.546
0.450
0.540
0.276
0.276
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.002
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.041
0.000
0.115
0.198
0.000
0.248
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.006
0.006
275
Figure 8-92: Time series of temperature change relative to 1986–2005 (June to August and December to February)
The figures are averaged over land grid points in (a-b) East Africa (11.3°S to 15°N, 25°E to 52°E), (c-d)
Southern Africa (35°S to 11.4°S, 10°W to 52°E) and (e-f) for sea grid points in the Western Indian Ocean
(25°S to 5°N, 52°E to 75°E . Thin lines denote one ensemble member per model, thick lines the CMIP5
multi-model mean. On the right-hand side the 5th, 25th, 50th (median), 75th and 95th percentiles of the
distribution of 20-year mean changes are given for 2081–2100 in the four RCP scenarios.
276
Figure 8-93: Projected aragonite saturation state from 11 CMIP5 Earth System models under RCP8.
5 scenario: (a) time series of surface carbonate ion concentration shown as the mean (solid line) and
range of models (filled), given as area weighted averages over the Arctic Ocean (green), the tropical
oceans (red), and the Southern Ocean (blue); maps of the median model's surface ΩA in (b) 2010, (d)
2050, and (f) 2100; and zonal mean sections (latitude versus depth) of ΩA in 2100 over (c) the Atlantic
Ocean and (e) the Pacific Ocean, while the ASH (Aragonite Saturation Horizon) is shown for 2010 (dotted
line) and 2100 (solid line). Panel (a) also includes mean model results from RCP2.6 (dashed lines). As for
Figure 30-7, gridded data products of carbonate system variables [Key et al., 2004] are used to correct
each model for its present-day bias by subtracting the model-data difference at each grid cell following
[Orr et al., 2005]. Where gridded data products are unavailable (Arctic Ocean, all marginal seas and the
Ocean near Indonesia), results are shown without bias correction. Reprinted from Figure 6.29 in WGI.
277
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