Challenges and Opportunities of Livestock Marketing in

Transcription

Challenges and Opportunities of Livestock
Marketing in Ethiopia
Proceedings of the 10th annual conference of the
Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP)
held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, August 21-23, 2003
Ethiopian Society of Animal Production
P.O. Box 80019, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Members of the Executive Committee of ESAP:
Dr Workneh Ayalew (ILRI, Addis Ababa), President
Dr Yoseph Shiferaw (EARO, Holetta), Vice-president
Ato Assefa Amaldegn (LMA, Addis Ababa), Secretary
Ato Mengistu Alemayehu (EARO, Holetta), Assist. Secretary
Dr Yilma Jobre (ILRI, Addis Ababa), Chief Editor
Dr Getachew Gebru (ILRI, Addis Ababa), Assist. Editor
Ato Olani Nemera (OADB, Addis Ababa), Accountant
W/ro Almaz Kahsay (QCSAE, Addis Ababa), Treasurer
Ato Dessalegn Gebre Medhin (NAIC, Addis Ababa), Auditor
Ato Alemayehu Reda (USAID, Addis Ababa), Liaison officer
ESAP Office Secretary:
W/ro Diribua Delelaw
Sponsors of the Conference:
Alemaya University,
Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization,
Ethiopian Science and Technology Commission,
Save the Children – USA, and
Global Livestock – Collaborative Research Support Program in California (GL-CRSP).
Correct citation:
ESAP (Ethiopian Society of Animal Production) 2003. Challenges and Opportunities of Livestock Marketing in Ethiopia. Yilma Jobre
and Getachew Gebru (Eds). Proc. 10th Annual conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP) held in Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia, August 22-24, 2002. ESAP, Addis Ababa. 407pp.
CONTENTS
Preface.................................................................................................................................................................................................. vii
Welcome Address ................................................................................................................................................................................ ix
Opening Address .................................................................................................................................................................................. xi
CHALLENGES
AND
OPPORTUNITIES
OF
LIVESTOCK MARKETING
IN
ETHIOPIA
Challenges and Opportunities of Livestock Marketing in Ethiopia
Belachew Hurrissa and Jemberu Eshetu..........................................................................................................................................1
Historical Development of Systematic Marketing of Livestock and Livestock Products in Ethiopia
Sintayehu GebreMariam..................................................................................................................................................................15
Influence of animal diseases and sanitary regulations on livestock export trade and cases of export restrictions
Wondwosen Asfaw............................................................................................................................................................................23
Critical Issues Impacting Livestock Trade in Kenya, Ethiopia and Sudan
Yacob Aklilu......................................................................................................................................................................................35
Opportunities and challenges of hides and skins trade in Ethiopia
Girma Mekonnen..............................................................................................................................................................................49
Imperative and Challenges of Dairy Production, Processing and Marketing in Ethiopia
Zegeye Yigezu ...................................................................................................................................................................................61
Poultry Marketing: Structure, Spatial Variations and Determinants of Prices in Eastern Shewa Zone, Ethiopia
Kenea Yadeta, Legesse Dadi, and Alemu Yami .............................................................................................................................69
Promotion of dairy marketing using farmers’ cooperatives: Lessons from India
Berhane Mekete1and Workneh Ayalew .........................................................................................................................................81
Challenges and opportunities to livestock and livestock products marketing in Southern Nations, Nationalities and
Peoples Region: A case study of Wolaita Zone
Million Tadesse ................................................................................................................................................................................89
ANIMAL BREEDING / REPRODUCTION
The effect of age and sex on growth performance and carcass characteristics of Horro lambs
Gemeda Duguma, Takele Kumsa, Ulfina Galmessa and Solomon Abegaz .................................................................................99
Effects of sire and dam breed genotypes on preweaning traits of calves in indigenous (Boran and Barka) and
indigenous X Bos Taurus crossbred cattle
Hailu Dadi ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 105
Reproduction efficiency of zebu and crossbred cows as measured by the inter-estrus and inter-service intervals at Bako
Gebregziabher Gebreyohannes, Azage Tegegne, M.L.Diedhiou and B.P. Hegde ................................................................... 111
Reproductive and growth performance of Fogera cattle and their F1 Friesian crosses at Metekel ranch, Ethiopia
Addisu Bitew and B.Prabhakar Hegede ...................................................................................................................................... 119
Performance of two and three way crossbred dairy cattle at Holetta Research Center in central highlands of Ethiopia:
Growth Rate
Gizachew Bekele, Zelalem Yielma, Taddese Bekele, Alemu G/wold, Sendros Demeke, Yohannes Gojjam and
Roman H/Silassie .......................................................................................................................................................................... 127
10th ESAP-Proceedings
iii
Body weight dynamics of zebu and crossbred cows in relation to postpartum reproduction under sub humid climate of
Bako
Gebregziabher Gebreyohannes, Azage Tegegne, M.L.Diedhiou and B.P. Hegde ................................................................... 133
Evaluation of the General Farm Characteristics and Dairy Herd Structure in Urban and Peri-Urban Dairy Production
System in the Addis Ababa Milk Shed
Yoseph Mekasha, Azage Tegegne, Alemu Yami and N.N. Umunna .......................................................................................... 139
PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
Managing Risk in Pastoral Systems: Research and Outreach Experiences of the Pastoral Risk management (PARIMA)
Project in Southern Ethiopia and Northern Kenya
Getachew Gebru, Solomon Desta, and D. Layne Coppock........................................................................................................ 147
The declining pastoral environment, vulnerability status and adaptation strategy
Bruke Yemane................................................................................................................................................................................ 155
Assessment of the Livestock Production System, Available Feed Resources and Marketing Situation in Belesa Woreda:
A Case Study in Drought Prone Areas of Amhara Region
Tessema Zewdu, Aklilu Agidie and Ameha Sebsibe.................................................................................................................... 165
Variations in nutrient intake of dairy cows and feed balance in urban and peri-urban dairy production systems in
Ethiopia
Yoseph Mekasha, Azage Tegegne, Alemu Yami and N.N. Ummuna ......................................................................................... 177
Milk Production, milk composition and body weight change of crossbred dairy cows in urban and peri-urban dairy
production systems in Ethiopia
Yoseph Mekasha, Azage Tegegne, Alemu Yami and N.N. Ummuna ......................................................................................... 185
Major Animal Health Problems based on the Opinion of Pastoralists, Agropastoralist, and Sedentary Farmers and
Condition of Animal Health Services in Shinille Zone of Somali National Regional State
Bekele Tafese, Eshetu Yimer and A. Yohanus ............................................................................................................................. 193
Traditional processing of camel meat and milk, and marketing of camels, milk and hides in After Zone of Somali
National Regional State, Ethiopia
Ahmed. Sh Mohamed, B.P Hegde and Bekele Tafesse ............................................................................................................... 201
On-Station and On-Farm Evaluation of the ‘Hay-Box Chick Brooder’ Using Different Insulation Materials at the Debre
Zeit Agricultural Research Center and Denbi Village, Adaa Wereda
Negussie Dana, Alemu Yami, Tadelle Dessie, Samuel W/Hana ................................................................................................ 211
FEED PRODUCTION
AND
USE
Integration of forage legumes in to maize based cropping systems in Western Ethiopia: Effect of intercropping of
Lablab purpureus and Vicia atropurpurea on maize grain and total forage yields
Diriba Geleti and Lemma Gizachew............................................................................................................................................ 219
Regrowth age and nitrgen application effects on yield and nutritional quality of Panicum coloratum
Diriba Geleti.................................................................................................................................................................................. 223
Evaluation of sorghum and millet green fodder for their nutritive value at two stages of growth
Kenea Feyissa, Mahendra Singh, M.L. Verma and Ashok Kumar ............................................................................................ 231
Plant growth characteristics and productivity of Napier Grass (Pennisetum Purpureum (L.) Schumach.) as affected by
plant height at cutting, sources and levels of fertiliser
Tessema Zewdu, R.M.T Baars and Alemu Yami ......................................................................................................................... 239
Effect of manure and nitrogen fertilization on establishment, herbage yield and seed productivity of perennial grasses
Getinet Assefa, Fekede Feyissa and Abreham Gebeyehu .......................................................................................................... 245
iv
Methods of Perennial Grass Establishment, Forage Productivity on Fallow Lands and Their Effect on The Subsequent
Barley Crop
Getnet Assefa, Abreham Gebeyehu, Fekede Feyissa and Berhane Lakew ............................................................................... 257
Potential of forages legumes to replace the traditional fallow-barley rotation system in the cool - high land of bale
Teshome Abate, Tekleyohannes Berhanu, Solomon Bogale and Dagnachew Worku .............................................................. 265
Effects of intra-row spacing and cutting height of Calliandra calothyrsus on maize grain yield in alley cropping system
Abebe Yadessa............................................................................................................................................................................... 269
Strategy of leguminous fodder tree seedlings to cope with poor nursery growing media
Abebe Yadessa............................................................................................................................................................................... 277
Effect of undersowing annual forage legumes on grain and dry matter stalk yield of Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) and
dry matter forage yield in the Eastern Amhara region
Samuel Menbere and Mesfin Dejene ........................................................................................................................................... 285
On-farm evaluation of different seeding rates of Oat and Vetch mixtures in barley-based double cropping system of the
Bale highlands
Tekleyohannes Berhanu, Teshome Abate, Solomon Bogale and Dagnachew Worku.............................................................. 293
ANIMAL NUTRITION
Effect of plant height at cutting on rumen organic matter and neutral detergent fibre degradation of Napier grass
(Pennisetum purpureum (L.) Schumach.) and their relationship with in vitro dry matter digestibility
Tessema Zewdu, R. M. T. Baars and Alemu Yami ...................................................................................................................... 301
Variations in dry matter yield and nutritive value of Panicum coloratum and Stylosanthes guianensis mixed pasture as
influenced by harvesting cycles
Diriba Geleti, Robert Baars and M. Y. Kurtu ............................................................................................................................. 311
The effect of protein and energy concentrate supplementation on milk yield in dromedary camels
Moges Dereje and Arega Peter Udén.......................................................................................................................................... 319
Effects of supplementation with L. purpureus, graded levels of L. pallida 14203 or S. sesban 1198 on feed intake and
live weight gain of Menz sheep
Solomon Melaku, Kurt J. Peters and Azage Tegegne................................................................................................................. 327
Effect of noug cake and Sesbania sesban supplementation on the growth performance and carcass characteristics of
Horro rams
Gebregziabher Gebreyohannes, Diriba Geleti, Lemma Gizachew, Yohannes Gojam and Gemeda Duguma....................... 355
Nutrient utilization efficiency of lactating crossbred dairy cows supplemented different levels of concentrate diets
Tadesse Bekele, Zelalem Yilma, Yohannes Gojjam and Alemu Gebre Wold............................................................................ 341
Milk yield and economic evaluation of two concentrate feeds to crossbred Boran x Friesian (BF) and Boran Jersey (BJ)
dairy cows at Holetta Research Center
Rehrahie Mesfin, Yohannes Gojam and Agajie Tesfaye............................................................................................................. 347
Dry matter intake, milk production and physical measurements of crossbred dairy cows supplemented with varying
levels of concentrate.
Zelalem Yilma, Tadesse Bekele, Yohannes Gojjam and Alemu G/Wold ................................................................................... 355
Effect of different legume supplementation on milk production performance of Borana Goats
Lemma Fita, Lemma Aberra, Nega Tolla and Tesfaye Alemu................................................................................................... 363
Effect of zinc and iodine supplementation on the intake and digestibility of nutrients by crossbred heifers
Tekleyohannes Berhanu and I.S. Agrawal .................................................................................................................................. 367
v
POSTERS
The status and prospects of kombolcha poultry breeding and multiplication center
Amsalu Asfaw ................................................................................................................................................................................ 375
Genetic Dilution of the Ethiopian Boran cattle
Nigatu Alemayehu, Getachew Gebru and Workneh Ayalew ..................................................................................................... 377
Closing Remark ................................................................................................................................................................................. 383
List of Participants............................................................................................................................................................................. 386
vi
Preface
This publication is the Proceedings of the 10th Annual Conference of ESAP held between 22 and 25 August
2002 in Addis Ababa at the Headquarter of the Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organisation. It is the tenth
publication of this series of Proceedings of ESAP with the theme. The theme of this Conference, ‘Marketing
of Livestock and Livestock Products: challenges and opportunities’, was decided in a joint meeting of the outgoing and incoming executive committees of ESAP as well as members of the editorial board of the Ethiopian
Journal of Animal Production (EJAP) on 28 September, 2001. The decision was made, in accordance with the
constitution of ESAP, to provide a common forum for exchange of ideas on a focal issue for advancement of
animal production in Ethiopia. The purpose was to draw the attention of members of ESAP, other
researchers and policy makers to the dire need to identifying policy and institutional options for improving
the efficiency of livestock marketing in Ethiopia. This decision went in line with the consensus built during
the 9th annual Conference of ESAP, as well as in similar recent forums, that technical and policy support is
needed to help transform the dominant traditional livestock production systems into market-oriented and
integrated production operations.
There is a general consensus that the marketing of livestock and livestock products in Ethiopia is
underdeveloped. This is critical because viable markets ideally serve as engines for development of
livestock production, processing, consumption, and for attracting investment, which are ultimately
reflected in greater overall benefits generated from the livestock resources of the country. It is argued,
therefore, that limitations at all levels of the production and marketing chain influence all the stakeholders
involved, including producers, processors, traders and consumers of the products. Unfortunately, the
changing official national policy guidelines on livestock marketing in the past several decades have not
been very helpful to maintain sustained policy and investment support for the sector.
The Proceedings is partitioned for convenience into six chapters. Nine invited and selected plenary papers
on the theme of the conference are included in the lead chapter. A further 38 articles follow in the
subsequent chapters: 7 in Animal breeding & reproduction, 8 in production systems, 11 in feed production
& use, 10 in Animal Nutrition and 2 in poster presentations. These articles were selected out of a total of
79 submissions made to the Conference, after all of them have undergone the essential review process in
an attempt to maintain high scientific standards. The reviews were done by a selected set of volunteer
researchers, academicians and development practitioners, and the whole process has been managed by the
elected ESAP Editors. This is important because the ESAP Proceedings happen to be the only source of
current research publication for many members of ESAP who work and live far from academic and
research institutions. It is unfortunate that one invited and three technical papers presented at the
Conference could not be included here because the authors could not produce in time the revised versions
of their articles.
Most of the printing costs of this publication were covered by the finances of ESAP, which weigh heavily on
the financial status of the society. Let us take this opportunity to encourage members of ESAP and other
users of the Proceedings to help us in soliciting available funds from the institutions and organizations
that they work with. We hereby express our gratitude to the reviewers and editors who offered their
valuable time for this service of ESAP.
With the support of its members and the respective institutions, ESAP will continue to promote the
advancement of animal production in Ethiopia and provide scientific forums for exchange of ideas.
Comments and ideas of this kind help us operate faster and wider, and these are always welcome.
Workneh Ayalew, Ph.D.
President, ESAP
vii
Welcome Address
Workneh Ayalew,
President, Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP), 22 August 2002.
Your Excellency Ato Fantaye Biftu, State Minister of Trade and Industry,
Invited Guests and
Members of ESAP,
On behalf of the Executive Committee of ESAP and myself, I welcome you all to this 10th Annual
Conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production. Annual Conferences of ESAP are meant to
promote the advancement of animal production in Ethiopia through scientific research, periodic exchange of
ideas and information, and cultivation of interest in animal production science and development. The
Conference also fosters dissemination of current information and knowledge generated in the spheres of
animal production to interested professionals, policy makers and development practitioners.
Ladies and Gentlemen,
As you have noted, the theme of this Conference is “ Challenges and Opportunities of Livestock Marketing
in Ethiopia”, on which 10 invited and selected plenary papers are presented. A further 44 technical papers
are also presented during the course of this Conference, covering a wide range of issues in production and
marketing of livestock products: 12 on feed production, 12 on animal nutrition, 10 on animal breeding and
reproduction and 10 on various aspects of production systems. All the papers have undergone the
mandatory independent review process to maintain the required high level of scientific standard.
As a matter of fact, the ESAP proceedings provide easily accessible forums for publication by professionals
of animal production and associated fields in Ethiopia. Partly driven by this reality, last year ESAP
launched its official peer-reviewed Journal, the Ethiopian Journal of Animal Production (EJAP), the second
issue of which has just been published.
This year, the Executive Committee of ESAP is pleased to have sponsored a special publication on forage
development, which is the third in this series. It is an extension manual on improved forage production in
Ethiopia based on the long years of experience of the author, Ato Alemayehu Mengistu. This publication is
meant to serve interests in research, teaching and extension in Ethiopia. It is on sale during the
Conference at reduced prices to members of ESAP, and the income generated from the sale of this
publication will directly go to the Society. By donating a camera-ready version of this publication free of
charge to our Society, not only has the author made another major professional contribution to the field,
but also set a first-rate example for other professionals to document and share their wealth of experience.
Please join me in congratulating Ato Alemayehu Mengistu for this outstanding and exemplary contribution
to our Society.
ESAP has also initiated, with the support of several institutions, a rather big project to prepare an
electronic repository of selected research reports, strategic documents and other publications on CD-ROM.
If succeeded, this could be a major undertaking, not only to our Society but also to overall agricultural
research and development in Ethiopia.
Your Excellency Ato Fantaye Biftu,
Conference participants,
Let me state some background on the theme of this Conference. As stated in the ESAP Newsletter, the
concept of marketing is relevant both to the producer and consumer, irrespective of the type of livestock or
livestock products and across all production systems. Markets provide the vital link and, in fact, the
driving force for improvement of the production-to-consumption process. Hence, constraints at various
levels of the marketing chain are the concern of producers, traders, consumers and policy makers alike.
The debate on the type of appropriate interventions for the improvement of livestock production and
ix
productivity in Ethiopia should be taken beyond production. As vividly demonstrated by the haphazard
marketing practices of livestock and livestock products, and particularly the difficulties in marketing of
meat and milk, serious concerns for animal production should also appreciate post-production technical
and policy issues that determine overall success.
Not only do markets pose technical challenges, but also provide opportunities for smallholder subsistence
producers to gradually commercialise their operations to increase their incomes and improve their
livelihoods. So much so that measures to improve food security in many traditional production systems,
such as in pastoral communities, can mean market-centred interventions to increase the contribution of
livestock to household welfare.
Despite the huge livestock numbers that we always take pride from, the national and per capita production
of livestock and livestock products, earnings from livestock, and per capita consumption of food from
livestock origin have been declining in recent years. The estimated output of meat and milk barely
increased while the human population continues to grow about 3% per annum. Explanation for this
disturbing trend has to be sought not only in the production of the desired products but also in their
marketing. In fact, the biological growth in production also needs the pulling effect of viable markets.
The intriguing fact is that we more frequently hear and remember of the number of livestock that succumb
to drought than we manage to export or trade in the domestic market. Culture and tradition alone do not
fully explain why we still prefer to have home slaughter of meat animals rather than get the services of
organised and safe facilities. Both small and large livestock are marketed in every corner of cities when
there are designated market places. Livestock producers are deprived of the incentive of producing for a
demanding market for lack of systems of grading for livestock products. This Conference is intended to
address some of the following critical issues in Ethiopia, and come up with some feasible recommendations:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
What lessons, both positive and negative, can be learnt from past and present government policy
support to livestock marketing, that has begun only in the early 1970s?
Why is private investment very cautious to go into livestock development despite the widely held belief
that our livestock resource base has huge potentials for development?
Why is the demand for livestock and their products, both in the export and domestic markets, not
strong, and what needs to be done to attract larger export markets and revitalise the domestic market?
What is the basis for the reportedly weak (not to say poor) markets for the emerging commercial dairy
and leather industries?
Prevalence of certain animal diseases have been, and still are, major obstacles in the export of live
animals, hides & skins and other livestock products. What realistic measures are essential, by way of
policy design, in the short and long-term? Are there relevant regional/global experiences?
Despite government’s vigilant controls, and even bans, cross-border trade of livestock continues to
operate. What is the rationale behind, and the implications of, the current policy that regards crossborder trade of livestock as illegal?
We believe this Conference brings together the current state of knowledge in marketing policy and
practice.
The Executive Committee of ESAP would like to express its sincere appreciation for the support received
from official sponsors of this Conference: Alemaya University, the Ethiopian Agricultural Research
Organization, the Ethiopian Science and Technology Commission, Save the Children – USA and the Global
Livestock – Collaborative Research Support Program in California (GL-CRSP). We also greatly appreciate
the participation in this Conference of all invited speakers for having accepted our invitation.
May, I now call up on His Excellency Ato Fantaye Biftu, State Minister of Trade and Industry, to officially
open this 10th Annual Conference of ESAP.
Thank you.
x
Opening Address
By H.E. Ato Fantaye Biftu,
State Minister of Trade and Industry
Dear distinguished guests,
Participants,
It gives me great pleasure and feel honoured to address the opening session of the 10th annual conference
of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP). Professionals, researchers, business men and various
stockholders are here today to discuss on an important issue, the issue of livestock and livestock product
marketing which is, indeed, the concern of government as well as literally the whole economy of the country.
It is frequently told that Ethiopia is home to an enormous population of livestock. More importantly this
resource harbours huge genetic variation and hence the capacity for improvements in productivity across
different agro-ecological zones. This phenomenon has persisted for many years because livestock in
Ethiopia is an essential component of the overall farming system mainly serving as a source of draught
power for the large majority of the rural farming community. The importance of livestock doesn't stop
here; it plays significant role in provision of food, cloth, fuel and serves as a source of cash income. This
sub-sector also contributes an estimated 16% to the total GDP and over 30% to the agricultural GDP.
Among the valuable products, skin and hides account for 12 to 16% of the total export earnings.
Although the livestock sub-sector ranks second in foreign exchange earnings of the country, its highest
contribution to the total GDP was only 16%. In fact, the sector has not as yet produced the required high
quality livestock products, and therefore a considerable amount of the country's export earnings is spent on
the import of these essential products.
The major impeding factors in the production of high quality livestock products are: •
Prevalence of contagious and killer animal diseases,
•
Recurrent drought and low nutritional standard,
•
Inadequate infrastructure,
•
Lack of adequate marketing information system
•
Poor product quality
•
Inadequate skilled human power.
As a result of all these interrelated problems, the livestock sub-sector remained largely underdeveloped
under traditional management practices. The theme of this conference, " Challenges and Opportunities
of Livestock Marketing in Ethiopia", emerges from the existing inherent problems and I believe that
this theme has come to surface at the right time.
To this juncture, the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia has already embarked upon establishing
relevant supportive institutions to speed up the livestock development processes in the country. The
Livestock Marketing Authority, the Export Promotion Agency and the Leather Technology Institute are
among the newly established institutions to meet these needs.
The government is also committed to creating conducive conditions for the development of this sub sector
by developing liberal free market economic policies, investment policies, rural development strategies, up
grading of higher learning institutions and expansion of various vocational training centres. But to realize
the intended development programs, strong collaboration among government constitutions, the private
sector and professionals is very crucial so as to mobilize the limited resources we have for the benefit of the
entire country.
xi
And this conference is expected to raise the momentum in the debate on the attributes of viable productive
livestock marketing, particularly on the current as well as emerging challenges and opportunities in its
development. The conference participants need to thoroughly examine various improvement options, mode
of collaboration and partnership to come up with recommendations that foster the country's aspiration for
rapid development of its livestock sub-sector.
Finally, I wish to take this opportunity to congratulate the sponsors and organizers of this Conference for
making this conference a reality and for choosing the theme. I would like to wish you every success in your
deliberations.
Ladies and gentlemen, it is now my pleasure to declare the 10th annual conference of ESAP officially
opened.
I thank you all.
xii
CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES OF LIVESTOCK MARKETTING IN ETHIOPIA
Belachew Hurrissa and Jemberu Eshetu
Livestock Marketing Authority
Abstract
The paper focuses on the assessment of the opportunities and challenges of livestock marketing in Ethiopia with
emphasis on exports.
Ethiopia’s varied agroecological zones have put the country at an advantageous position in possessing relatively
huge number of different livestock species as compared to other African countries. Ethiopia’s lowland cattle breed,
sheep, goats and camels are highly demanded in neighboring countries as well as the strategic livestock markets of
the Middle East. Overall, relatively huge number of livestock resources, proximity to the export markets, conducive
investment policies, the liberalization of the economy and the supports and attentions given by the government to
export trade gives the country comparative advantages in livestock trade.
However, inadequate market infrastructure, virtual absence of market information system, absence of market
oriented livestock production system, inadequate number of exporting firms with low level of capacities, inadequate
knowledge of international trade, low level of quarantine facilities and procedures, prevalence of various diseases,
repeated bans, excessive cross-border illegal trade and stiff competitions etc are the major challenges that hinder the
smooth livestock trade of Ethiopia.
Background
The country's agro-ecological zone is roughly divided into two major parts. The highlands with and
altitude of over 1,500 meters above sea level and the lowlands with an altitude of less than 1,500 meters
above sea level. The lowland pastoral areas are situated in the Eastern, South Eastern and Southern parts
of the country. These are the Afar and the Somali regions and Borena and Omo zones in Oromiya and SNNP
regions respectively.
In the lowlands, where pastoral management system is practiced, livestock is the principal source of
subsistence providing milk and cash income to cover family expenses for food grains and other essential
consumer goods. Further, these lowland pastoral areas have been the traditional source of export animals
due to surplus output and preferablity of the breeds in the Middle East Countries.
To earn substantial benefit from this resource, the Government of Ethiopia have been undertaking various
livestock development projects to increase productivity and enhance the well being of the community. The
most important of these livestock and market development interventions are: Second Livestock Development Project:- As a result of this intervention Livestock and Meat Board was
established to develop the sector through improved management and infrastructure development. The
Board had six main divisions, out of which the livestock marketing division was the most important one.
The major duties of the livestock marketing division were promotion of exports, improvement of market
infrastructure and implementation of market development projects. In its life span, the Board succeeded
in constructing market infrastructure (market places, livestock routes, quarantine stations abattoirs)
establishment of ranches, marketing operations and implementation or rules and regulations that guide
the development of improved marketing in the sub-sector.
•
Third Livestock Development Project - one of its major Objectives was to enable peasants fatten
young bulls through balanced feed supply. Young bulls were purchased from surplus lowland areas
and distributed to farmers in the highland areas on credit terms to be fattened on pasture and grain
by-products.
•
Fourth Livestock Development Project - had a component of improving feed supply through
introduction of improved forage seeds and implementation of pasture development techniques.
•
Livestock and livestock Products Market Development Department of the Ministry of Agriculture
1
had a main objective of developing market information system in selected livestock markets, collect
market information and create equitable access to all market participants. Further, the department
used to provide technical advice concerning marketing of livestock and livestock products.
As a result of these operations, the country had shown a modest success in exporting some 10,292 cattle
and 138,621 shoats annually in the eighties. Over the last 3 years period of 1999 to 2001, on an average
the country had exported some 55784 heads of live animals mainly shoats. Nevertheless, given the
resource potential and market access, there is ample possibility to increase supply with a view to enhance
the country's foreign exchange earning, and benefit the stakeholders including the community at grass root
levels.
To substantially raise the export quantity, the Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
has taken an action and established the livestock Marketing Authority with the objective of promoting the
domestic and export marketing of animal, animal products and by products through increasing supply and
improving quality. The Authority's responsibilities include to:
•
initiate policies, laws and regulations,
•
issue quality control directives,
•
establish quarantine stations,
•
promote and expand domestic and foreign markets,
•
collect, analyze and distribute market information,
•
encourage and carryout market research,
•
encourage and provide support to promote the development and marketing of animals, animal
products and by products.
Despite its young age, the Authority has taken some encouraging actions to date. These include:
2
•
After assessing the internal supply situations and identifying the major constraints, a five years
work plan has been developed.
•
The Strategic export market situations, particularly, demand level, preferences, quality and
quarantine regulations have been assessed.
•
Through a participatory approach, quality products handling and export slaughterhouse operation
manuals have been produced and distributed.
•
Through participating in international trade faires, efforts have been made in promoting and
introducing the country's livestock resources and exportable commodities to the potential buyers.
•
To overcome, the market infrastructure constraints, market places and slaughterhouses development
project has been formulated and it is at a pre-implementation stage.
•
To organize livestock market information system/networks:
o
primarily, it has become necessary to establish an information network at LMA level and with
the assistance of FAO/TCP, it is being implemented,
o
With the assistance of USAID on a pilot bases, livestock market information project covering five
market areas from Borena, Gedeo, E.Shewa and Addis Ababa is in its implementation phase.
o
For broadcasting raw hides & skin price information, preparatory work is underway.
o
To build the capacity of the exporters full assistance has been extended to the stakeholders and
as a result live animal & meat exporters association has been established. Some awareness
creation programs have also been undertaken.
o
To create awareness among the stakeholders, a radio program has been going on for a year now.
Objectives of the Study
This paper assesses the potentials and constraints of livestock export and recommends measures to be
taken in order to earn relative benefits from this huge resource. To this end, the major objectives will include
to:•
Critically assess the subsector's potential for enhanced supply for export,
•
Assess the market demand existing in the traditional markets and Neighboring countries,
•
Assess the challenges and limitations that need to be overcome in order to realize the potential,
•
Propose solutions that need to be undertaken at different levels to overcome constraints and
straighten the market.
Methodology and Data Sources.
Information included in this paper is based on published and unpublished data collected from different
offices and Web pages. The information has been tabulated, analyzed and interpreted as given in different
sections of of the study.
Assessment of Resource Potentials and Opportunities
The Resource Potentials
Based on the available information, the total livestock population of the country is estimated at 35 million
heads of cattle, 24 million heads of sheep, 18 million heads of goats and 1 million camels. Of this resource,
20% of the cattle, 25% of the sheep and 73% of the goats and 100% of the camels are found in the lowland
pastoral areas. Annual off take which is estimated at 10% for cattle, 35% for sheep. 38% for goats and 6.5%
for camels. Based on these estimates, annual livestock off-take in the pastoral areas is given in table 1:
Table 1. Livestock Population and Off Take In The Pastoral Areas (‘000 heads)
National Livestock
Population
Description
Pastoral Areas
Population
Annual Off take
Cattle
35,433
7,091
709
Sheep
25,476
6,390
2,229
Goats
18,994
13,866
5,269
1,174
1,174
76
Camels
The annual growth of livestock is estimated at 1.2% for cattle, 1% for sheep, 0.5% for goats and 1.14% for
camels (MOA). Based on these growth rates, the livestock number of pastoral areas over the coming five
years (2003 –07) will be as indicated in table 2 below.
Table 2. Livestock Projections in the Pastoral Areas (in thousands)
Description
Cattle
Livestock Number Over five Years
2003
7,176
2004
2005
2006
2007
7,262
7,349
7,437
7,526
Sheep
6,433
6,499
6,562
6,627
6,694
Goats
13,990
14,116
14,243
14,371
14,501
1,183
1,193
1,202
1,212
1,222
Camels
Source: Projected from table 1
Livestock Marketing System In The Lowland Areas
In pastoral areas, livestock are usually sold to meet family needs for cash income, which is used to buy food
grains and industrial products such as clothing. Occasionally, seasonal shortage of rainfall through its
impact on feed availability forces higher supply to market. The pastoralists’ forced supply is constrained by
their inability to plan sales in accordance with market need (time and quality).
The market outlets in these areas can be grouped into five depending on their destinations and the
recipients.
3
Household Consumption:
This includes consumption at household levels for feasts and holidays. Sheep and goats are slaughtered
individually by each family while cattle are slaughtered commonly by close neighbors and related families for
distribution among themselves.
Local Areas Consumption:
The recipients in this Category are non-pastoral populations residing in towns and urban centers in the
pastoral areas. Supply is provided through market places. Clients are non-pastoral households, butcheries
and caterers.
Highland Consumption:
The highland areas of the country are livestock deficit areas due to their high population density.
Livestock, especially cattle are supplied from pastoral areas for meat and draught purposes.
Contraband Trade:
The pastoralists are situated in peripheral areas bordering neighboring countries. Thus, they are in the
vicinity of neighboring countries’ markets for livestock. Livestock are traditionally flown out of the country
from Afar & Somali regions, Borena zone of Oromia and Omo lowlands bordering Kenya. The neighboring
countries bordering these areas either consume locally or re-export to the Middle East countries.
Legal Exports:
There are few legal exporters engaged in the export of live animals and meat in the country. These
exporters secure livestock from pastoral areas by themselves or through agents for export in live or meat
form (chilled mutton, goats meat and beef).
Annual livestock supply:
Based on the projections made (Table 2) and the estimated annual off take rates, the total annual livestock
supply is projected and given in table 3.
Table 3. Annual Livestock Off take In the pastoral Areas Over The Next Five Years (000’ heads)
Description
Annual Supply
Off take (%)
2006
2007
Cattle
10
718
721
735
744
753
734
Sheep
35
2,252
2,275
2,297
2,319
2,343
2,297
Goats
38
5,316
5,364
5,412
5,461
5,510
5,413
77
77
78
79
79
78
Camels
2003
2004
6.5
2005
Annual average
As indicated in the table above, over the next five years, the pastoral areas discussed earlier will have the
potential to supply on an average:
•
734 thousand heads of cattle,
•
2.3 million heads of sheep,
•
5.4 million heads of goats and
•
78 thousand heads of camels annually both to the domestic and international markets.
Domestic Demand and Exportable Resource Potentials
Domestic Consumption
Pastoraliats occasionally slaughter animals for home consumption especially during feasts. Further, there
are towns in the rangelands for home slaughter and butcheries that supply non-farm population through
retail shops. Further, some percent of livestock is supplied to the highland areas for meat consumption and
draught power (young oxen).
Local per capita meat consumption is estimated at 4.6 kg for beef and 2.8 Kg for mutton and goats meat.
Further, some livestock is supplied to the highland areas for meat and draught power (young bulls).
However, there is no sufficient information source that indicates annual livestock flow to the highland for
draught power and meat. Thus, the following assumption is adopted to indicate the number of livestock
demanded in the highland areas: •
4
For estimating demand for pastoral cattle in the highlands, cattle outflow through contraband and
pastoral areas own consumptions have been deducted from the year 2002 off- take. The balance
which is estimated at 13% of the total off-take, is believed to be the highland demand for pastoral
cattle for that year and the same rate /13%/ is used to project the future yearly demand as well.
•
The Ethiopian highlanders show little preference for lowland shoats for consumption. Thus, the
annual flow of sheep and goats to the highlands is considered insignificant.
Data on the consumption levels of camels meat are not available. Thus, an attempt has been made to,
however, estimate local consumption indirectly. A study of an illegal cross border trade made by LMA
indicates an annual out flow of 16,000 heads of camels per year. Taking unnoticed annual outflow across
the border into account, the illegal trade quantity is estimated at 20,000 heads of camels. Thus, the
difference between the annual off take and illegal export is assumed to be domestic consumption levels.
Therefore, based on the above assumptions, the total domestic demand for pastoral livestock is indicated in
table 4.
Comparing the annual offtake of different livestock species to that of domestic demand, there is substantial
surplus. The domestic market will approximately consume on an average some:
•
56 percent of the cattle offtake,
•
46 percent of the sheep offtake
•
22 percent of the goats offtake and
•
70 percent of the camels that are annually available from pastoral areas.
Table 4. Domestic Demand Forecast
Category
2002
Human Population in Million
1. Local lowland Consumption
Beef (000 MT)
Mutton
"
Goat meat "
Livestock Equiva. (000 heads)
Cattle
Sheep
Goats
Camels
7
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
7.2
7.3
7.5
7.7
7.9
32,200
9,800
9,800
33,120
10,080
10,080
33,580
10,220
10,220
34,500
10,500
10,500
35,420
10,780
10,780
36,340
11,060
11,060
293
980
1,089
53
301
1,008
1,120
54
305
1,022
1,135
54
314
1,050
1,167
55
322
1,078
1,198
55
330
1,106
1,229
55
92
93
94
95
97
98
385
980
1,089
53
394
1,008
1,120
54
399
1,022
1,135
54
409
1,050
1,167
55
419
1,078
1,198
55
428
1,106
1,229
55
2. Highland Demand for Cattle (000' heads)
Total Domestic Demand (000' heads)
Cattle
Sheep
Goats
Camels
Source: Own computation
Therefore, the annual surpluses that are available for exports to the international markets are given in
table 5 below:
Table 5. Livestock Available for Exports (000' heads)
Category
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
1. Annual off-take
Cattle
Sheep
Goats
Camels
709
2,229
5,269
76
718
2,252
5,316
77
726
2,275
5,364
77
735
2,297
5,412
78
744
2,319
79
753
2,343
5,510
79
2. Domestic Consumption
Cattle
Sheep
Goats
Camels
385
980
1,089
53
394
1,008
1,120
54
399
1,022
1,135
54
409
1,050
1,167
55
419
1,078
1,198
55
428
1,106
1,229
55
3. (1-2) Available for Exports (Surplus)
Cattle
Sheep
Goats
Camels
324
1,249
4,180
23
324
1,244
4,196
23
327
1,253
4,229
23
326
1,247
4,245
23
325
1,241
4,263
24
325
1,237
4,287
24
Source: Computed from tables 3 and 4.
5
International Market Demand Assessment
Meat
World demand
Based on information received from FAO, the world meat import stood at 2,759,192 tones for the year
2000. Out of this, beef and veal constituted 67% while mutton and goats meat accounted for 31% and 2%
respectively.
Africa
The annual meat import by African countries is estimated at 86,043 tonnes with a value of 92 million
Dollars. The percentage share is 39 and 61 percent for beef and mutton respectively.
Middle East
The Middle East countries which are covered in this study include Bahrain, Egypt, Iran, Jordan, Kuwait,
Oman, Qatar, S.Arabia, Syria, United Arab Emirates and Yemen. These countries have a total population of
207 million with annual growth rate of 2.2 percent per annum.
Their annual meat demand is estimated at 206,846 tones and valued at 399 million Dollars. Of this, beef
and veal account for 48% while the share of mutton and goats' meat is 46 and 6 percent respectively.
The overall import levels of different economic regions that have been discussed above are summarized in
the following table.
Table 6: Summary of Meat Imports by Different Economic Regions.
Commodity
World
Africa
Beef & Veal
Quantity (MT)
Value ('000 USD)
1,858,276
3,845,812
32,844
51,607
100,351
182,792
Mutton & Lambs.
Quantity (MT)
Value ('000 USD)
864,621
2,167,134
53,059
40,512
95,289
191,017
Goats meat
Quantity
Value ('000 U.S.D)
36,295
78,242
140
250
11,206
18,486
2,759,192
6,091,188
86,043
92,399
206,846
392,295
Total
Quantity (M.T)
Value '000 U.S.D.
Middle East
Source: FAO Database
Live animals
World
The world demand for live animals stood at 26,477,214 heads in the year 2000. Out of this number, cattle
and shoats accounted for 31.5 and 68 percent respectively. The total value of this import was 5 billion US
Dollars.
Africa
African countries imported 3.2 million heads of live animals at a value of 480 million dollars in the year
2000. Sheep and goats accounted for 74 percent of the total. The share of cattle and camels stood at 25 and
one percent respectively.
Middle East
The Middle East countries have on an average annual estimated import of 12 million heads of live animals
(cattle, sheep, goats and camels). The total import value is estimated at 656 million Dollars.
The major import animals are sheep accounting for 83 percent of the total, followed by goats, which is 14
percent of the total. Cattle and camels constitute 3 percent.
Therefore, one can summaries that the strategic Middle East countries demands annually:-
6
•
Some 207 thousands tons of meat,
•
12 million heads of cattle camels & shoats.
Similarly, African countries demand:
•
86 thousands tons of meat and
•
3.2 million heads of cattle & shoats.
Therefore, from the above discussions, it can be concluded that:
• relatively huge number of exportable surplus livestock resources,
• proximity to the export markets,
• presence of substantial demand for livestock and meat in the strategic markets,
• liberalization of the trade,
• governments supports to the export trade will give the country a comparative advantage in livestock
trade.
Table 7. Live Animals Imported by Different Economic Regions
Category
World
Africa
Middle East
8,343,580
4,150,838
787,453
363,608
226,478
108,843
15,966,008
792,271
1,968,565
87,128
10,086,539
481,647
Quantity (no)
Value ('000 SD)
2,080,778
77,965
360,872
21,840
1,704,197
49,540
Quantity (no)
Value ('000 SD)
86,848
18,730
40,302
7,343
63,396
16,159
Quantity (no)
Value ('000 SD)
26,477,214
5,039,804
3,157,192
479,919
12,080,610
656,189
Cattle
Quantity (no)
Value ('000 SD)
Sheep
Quantity (no)
Value ('000 USD)
Goats
Camels
Total
Source: FAO Database
Challenges
Although Ethiopia has ample potential to export its livestock and livestock products to the Middle East
and make further improvement to enter other markets, there are challenges that should be dealt with
inorder to realize these benefits. These challenges can be roughly grouped into internal and external
challenges.
Internal Challenges
The internal challenges are many and inter connected. Their major cause is under development and lack
of market oriented production approach and entrepreneurial capacity by the stakeholders. These internal
problems can be grouped into four depending upon the specific area to which they fall.
Supply Problems
Inadequate Information on Available Resource
The country’s livestock number, annual off-take, productivity, and consumption levels are not adequately
known. This creates problems in planning and designing of policies to enhance the sector’s development.
Prevalence of Diseases.
In Ethiopia, there are many livestock diseases that create frequent livestock mortalities. The presence of
livestock diseases apart from affecting the efficiency of production hampers export market development as a
result of frequent bans by importing countries.
Over the past few years, the country has lost a substantial market share and foreign exchange earnings
due to frequent bans by the Middle East countries due to the Rift Valley and FMD outbreaks respectively
in the Republic of Yemen and U.K.
Archaic Traditional Production System
Pastoralists consider their livestock as means of saving or capital accumulation. Livestock are sold when
need arises for cash income or when shortage of feed and water occurs. There is no effort to strategically
produce for the market by adjusting and planning production to market needs.
7
Production planning in terms of time, type and quality of supply to maximize income is non existent due to
lack of entrepreneurial awareness (traditional handling system). Further, the private sector has not yet
proved its adequacy in promoting production through additional investment and creation of marketable
surplus.
Further, the scattered individualistic production system is exposed to the vagaries of natural conditions
(drought, disease outbreak – etc.), which frequently affects the herd size and outputs.
Illegal Export Trade
Recent studies estimate annual outflow of livestock through borders (illegally) at 325,800 cattle, 1.15
million shoats and 16,000 camels.
The sources of this illegal export are Afar and Somali Regions, Borena and East Hararghe Zones in Oromia
and South Omo of the SNNP. The immediate destinations for such exports are Djibouti, Somalia and
Kenya. The livestock are mostly for re-export to the Middle East Countries from Somalia. The Djibouti's
and Kenyans` re-export after meeting their domestic consumption.
This loss of exportable surplus has affected the country through loss of foreign exchange; income taxes
and its impact on legal livestock trade.
Problems Related to Development Initiatives
The traditional herd management system is not adequately supported through introduction of improved
breeding and feeding system.
The local breeds are not differentiated and improved for particular purpose. As a result, off take rates and
yield has not kept pace with the virtually growing demand. Unlike other countries, there is no breeding
policy.
Inadequacy of Infrastructure
The sources of livestock for export are pastoral areas that are far from the center. The Afar and Somali
Regions, parts of Borena in Oromiya are lowland areas forming internal boundary to neighboring countries.
Further, the pastoral livestock producers are scattered through large expanse of lowland and semi-arid areas.
For efficient marketing, adequate livestock markets, stock routes, resting places, quarantine stations need
to be developed to allow easy access to traders for assembling and transporting livestock. However, these
infrastructures are poorly developed in the pastoral areas.
Further, export standard slaughterhouses are located in central areas far from surplus producing areas.
In addition, transport facilities that allow adequate flow of livestock and meat are not adequately
employed.
Problems Related to Marketing
Absence of Effective grading System:-
Livestock marketing is based on quality standards. Animals selection is purely based on eye- appraisals
and exchange takes place on bargaining.
Absence of Market Information System –
There is no reliable source of information neither on export demand nor on domestic supply situations.
Thus, producers, traders, exporters and support giving institutions are constrained by shortage of market
information to rely on for enhancing production, marketing and exports.
Absence of Promotional Activities –
Effective export requires knowledge of the client’s requirement, producing according to needs and creation
of awareness on availability of products to the clients. So far, little effort has been undertaken to strengthen
demand in the clients’ countries and creating segments in other counties, by publicizing the special features
of our products.
8
Absence of Capable Private Sector
Active participation of private sector is required to enhance production and promote export. However,
currently there are few livestock exporters and a few meat processors and exporters. These firms have
relatively low capital as well as inadequate knowledge of international trade.
Absence of Quarantine Facilities
To inter the international markets, well-equipped livestock quarantine stations are required. However,
under our conditions these facilities are not in a place.
The Ministry of agriculture should establish necessary quarantine facilities at appropriate locations and
introduce necessary procedures. The government should also allocate necessary budgets and assign
relevant staff. Livestock maintaining costs could be covered by the stakeholders.
External Challenges
Competition
Many countries compete for livestock and products markets in the Middle East. The main competition for
Ethiopia comes from Somalia, Sudan, South America, Australia, Newzealand, Eastern Europe and the
European Union.
Available information indicates that Somalia exports up to 2 million heads of sheep and goats and 10,000
heads of cattle a year. Its major source of supply is believed to be the Ethiopian Somali Region, Eastern
Hararghe and parts of Bale zones of Oromia.
In South America, the major exporters are Uruguay and Argentina. These countries have a disease free
status that has given them comparative advantages within their regions, Europe and the Middle East.
According to FAO database, Australia and Newzealand are the largest exporters of live sheep and mutton
to the Middle East. They have gained a secure market position through the benefits of extensive livestock
production and the strategy they have adopted for sustainable supply at competitive prices to these
countries. Further, they have a livestock disease free status as well.
The European Union is a surplus producer of livestock and livestock products, which has been possible
through the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). Their Exports are competitive due to the export subsidies
adapted to maintain a reliable domestic production. However, because of FMD and mad cow disease their
market share in the Middle East has relatively declined.
As compared to others, Ethiopia has certain advantages on its competitors which it can capitalize upon.
These are the preferred animal types, location and stable supply. The Ethiopian livestock (cattle, sheep
and goat) are the preferred breeds in the Middle East, as they are organically produced and the meat is of
good tastes.
The proximity of the country to the Middle East has also cost advantage due to lower transport costs.
Repeated Bans
Importing countries frequently ban imports of meat and livestock from the horn as a result of outbreaks of
livestock diseases. Thus, concerned institutions should work closely to detect an outbreak of Major diseases
and make necessary precautions.
Inadequate Port Facilities
Currently, the Djibouti port is the only port for exporting livestock to the Middle East countries. However,
the port is ill-equipped for handling large number of livestock. The livestock-resting place is too small. It has
no sufficient fencing and there is no compartment for handling different categories of livestock and isolation
of sick animals.
Summary and Conclusions
In summary, it can be concluded that the country has substantial livestock export potentials. The major
conducive factors for such opportunity are:
•
Availability of surplus and exportable resources estimated on an average at 324,000 cattle, 1.02
million sheep, 4.02 million goats and 23,000 camels annually.
9
•
Presence of conducive investment and export policies which include:
•
Tax holidays on production and processing investments,
•
Duty free import of machinery and equipment required for new investments,
•
Tax free privilege for exports,
•
Credit guarantee schemes for products destined for exports,
•
Establishment of support giving institutions such as Livestock Marketing Authority and Ethiopian
Export Promotion Agency with a responsibility to promote exports.
•
Availability of demand in the strategic Middle East countries which is estimated at 206,846 tnnes of
meat, 226,478 eads of cattle, 11.8 million shoats and 63,396 camels.
If Ethiopia exports all its exportable livestock surpluses, it will have 46 and 36 percent market shares
respectively for shoats and camels. Thus, there is substantial potential for exporting these animals. On
the other hand, the surplus exportable cattle are higher than the demand in the Middle East countries by
44 percent even if the countries import Ethiopian beef cattle and hence market outlets in other countries
need to be studied. However, there are also challenges and constraints that should be overcome in order to
realize the benefits. These challenges can be grouped into two major parts: the internal and the external
challenges.
The internal challenges are many and interconnected. Their major cause could be attributed to under
development and lack of market orientation and entrepreneurial capacity by the stakeholders. These
internal problems can be grouped into four parts depending upon the specific area to which they fall:supply, infrastructure, marketing and others.
Problems related to supply include inadequacy of information on supply, prevalence of diseases, traditional
management system, illegal exports and failures to introduce exogenous inputs. The overall result of these
problems are reflected in low annual off take and low productivity per livestock.
The presence of sufficient infrastructure is of paramount importance for efficient marketing of livestock, as
they link producers with consumers, processors and exporters. However, market infrastructures such as
stock routes, resting places and quarantine stations are poorly developed. Further, there is inadequate
number of export slaughterhouses and transport facilities, which are mostly situated at the center.
The marketing system is not well developed to enhance efficient marketing. Grading and standardization,
market information system, promotional activities and planned marketing which are all the attributes of
efficient marketing are not adequately developed to enhance efficiency in the continuous flow of livestock
from production areas to chain of markets through livestock routes.
Other problems in the sector include inadequacy of skilled manpower; lack of market orientation by
stakeholders, scarcity of capital which all influence the sector’s performance.
Recommendations
In order to realize the available export potentials, the various supply problems and marketing should be
understood so as to devise measures.
Further, the external challenges need to be overcome through need assessment and promotional activities.
The following are measures required to achieve the anticipated results.
Supply
Resource assessment:-
For effective planning, the country’s livestock resources should be studied in detail so that the type, breeds
and their geographical distribution could be known.
Disease control:-
In order to avoid the frequently imposed bans and increase supply, major diseases should be controlled by
strengthening the present veterinary service through vaccination and availing veterinary medicine at
10
reasonable prices. Especially the pastoral areas should be disease free zones as they are source of export
animals.
Creating Market Awareness Among Pastorlists
The traditional marketing system where cattle are sold only when need arises should be developed into
market oriented production system that takes into account market demand and profits.
Revitalizing the Private Sector
Irrespective of Government initiatives to strengthen investment and trade, the number of participants and
their entrepreneurial capacity is inadequate to promote production, and exports.
Therefore, especial attention is required to study the weakness and formulate polices to create a capable
private sector that can handle the productive, transportation, processing and export activities effectively.
Control of contraband trade
Based on recent study of LMA, illegal cross-border out flow is estimated at 325,800 cattle, 1.2 million
shoats and 16,000 camels annually. A conducive legal channel need to be developed so that the foreign
exchange loss could be stopped. This requires development of market infrastructure and service facilities
along borders, development of banking and transit services and implement strategies with neighboring
countries for legalizing trade along their borders.
Livestock Breeding Policy
The present livestock breeds need to be studied so as to identify their merits and the breeding system need
to be directed in improving productivity in a systematic way. The ruminant livestock development policy and
strategy of the Ministry of Agriculture can be a good starting point for this activity.
Infrastructure Development
Efficient marketing requires improved infrastructure that allows efficient flow of livestock, processing and
marketing. The major infrastructures for livestock marketing include livestock routes and transportation
facilities, improved slaughters houses, livestock resting sites, and storage and quarantine facilities at
required sites. This further requires development of regulation on standards and procedures and
encouragement for the private sector.
Improved Marketing
Market Research and Information System
The existing livestock markets are loosely integrated due to lack of sufficient market information. Thus, a
market information system is required that allows stakeholders to get information on quantity and price,
both on the domestic and foreign markets.
Further, market research need to be undertaken to identify problems and constraints in the marketing
system and to know the requirements of the external market. This allows us to design policies and
regulations that allows to have effective production and marketing system internally and to match supply
with the external demand.
Market Promotion
Modern marketing requires effective promotional activities designed to acquaint products with potential
buyers. This can be done through different ways. The most important are workshops, seminars, brochures,
and mass media, trade fair both locally and abroad by involving all concerned (stakeholders, public
institutions and foreign embassies, etc)
Grading and Standardization
Grading and standardization reduces marketing costs and enhances communication between buyers and
sellers. Thus, the development of grades and regulation for livestock and meat marketing is an important
facilitating factor, especially for exports.
11
Professional Development (Capacity Building)
At the moment, there is shortage of skilled manpower in livestock marketing. The different activities of
assembling, transporting, processing, storage and distribution require special skills tailored towards the
special characteristics of livestock and meat trade.
Financial Support
The available credit facilities are inadequate and require long bureaucratic procedures.
financial policy needs to be redesigned to allow easy access to promote investment and trade.
Thus, the
Annex
Annex I. Average Annual Import of Meat (1996-2000) by The Middle East Countries
Meat (MT)
Country
Value (000’ USD)
Beef & Veal
Mutton &
Lamb
Bahrain
1,474
831
27
3,332
5,494
2,064
50
Egypt
1,456
883
-
2,339
2309
1797
-
4106
13,706
12,874
-
26,580
29170
20618
-
49788
Jordan
7,005
9,704
-
16,709
13199
17728
-
30927
Kuwait
10,836
164
3,627
11,000
23639
573
7326
31538
Oman
570
6,081
558
7,209
1005
9798
941
11744
Qatar
1,680
1,480
-
3,160
3800
3720
-
7520
14,778
43,150
6,994
64,922
32104
87670
10169
129943
-
506
-
506
-
705
-
705
44,442
19,431
-
63,873
67560
45934
-
113494
Iran
S.Arabia
Syria
U.A.E
Yemen
Total
Goats Meat
Total
Mutton &
Lamb
Beef & Veal
Gots Meat
Total
7,608
3,404
185
-
3,589
4431
410
-
4841
100,351
95,289
11,206
206,846
182711
191017
18486
392214
Source: FAO Database, Various Years.
Anex II. Average Annual Live Animals Import by the Middle East Countries (1996-2000)
Country
Bahrain
Djibouti
Egypt
Iran
Live Animal (heads)
Value (000’ USD)
Cattle
Sheep
Goat
Camel
816
31994
11502
41
Cattle
664
Sheep
14874
Goat
Camel
514
-
Total
16052
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
88040
78601
2015
22866
56651
3774
131
6521
67077
-
344
-
-
-
39
-
-
39
Jordan
22067
413516
204
-
13063
18411
17
-
31491
Kuwait
4613
1940982
98
307
5170
88224
17
179
93590
Oman
35
587096
870540
-
31
24243
24319
-
48593
Qatar
1000
398000
-
911
488
20400
-
1331
22219
S.Arabia
3806
4165902
819806
39271
5508
34817
24525
8128
35069
Syria
1676
622200
32
-
235
34817
17
-
35069
U.A.E.
23000
1377000
-
-
9106
34400
-
-
43506
Yemen
81425
289904
-
-
17887
9442
-
-
27329
226478
10086539
1704197
63396
108803
481647
49540
16159
656149
Total
Source: FAO Database, Various Years.
References
FAO, 2002. FAOSTAT 2002-http://apps. fao.org/cgi-bin/ nph.db.pl subset agriculture.
ILRI, 2000. Handbook of Livestock Statistics for developing countries. Socio Economies and Polices, Research Working
Paper 26. ILRI, Nairobi, Kenya.
LMA, 2001. Livestock Contraband Trade in Southern, South East and Eastern Ethiopia (Amharic Version), Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia, June, 2001.
LMA, 1999. Market Problems and Measures to Be Taken. Addis Ababa, Nov. 1999.
LMA and ILRI. Live Animal and Meat Marketing in Ethiopia: An Assessment of Structure, Performance and
Development Options. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Oct. 2000.
12
Livestock and Meat Board (LMB), 1973. The Marketing of Livestock and Livestock Products During the T.F.Y.P and the
Projections in the F.F.Y.P. Livestock and meat Board, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Dec. 1973.
Morgan, Nancy, 2002. Meat Moderator, http: / www.fao.org/waicent/ faoinfo/ economic/esc.
MOA, 1989. Live Animal and Meat Export Marketing Study. GRM International Private ltd, Sept. 1989.
MOA, 2000. Second Five Years Agricultural Development Strategy. Addis Ababa, August, 2000.
MOA, 1984. Livestock Subsector Review. Volume 3, AACM Pvt.Ltd.Com.,Feb,1984.
National Bank of Ethiopia, 2002. Summary of Exports Volume and Value of Live Animals, Meat and Meat Products, Sept.
1998 - May 2002. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, July 2002.
13
Historical Development of Systematic Marketing of Livestock and
Livestock Products in Ethiopia
Sintayehu GebreMariam
FAO, Ethiopia
Abstract
Interventions by Governments and donors in the area of marketing of livestock and livestock products focused on
live animals and milk and milk products. Other products were relatively untouched. Technical interventions
included construction of infrastructure and installation of equipment mostly through World Bank loan (Dairy
Development Agency and Second Livestock Development Project) and donor assistances. Donors have contributed
substantially toward the present state of the DDE. Policy interventions included devaluation of the Birr and
reduction/lifting of export taxes for live animal and livestock products. The policy of financial incentives increased
export earnings in terms of Birr as a result of the devaluation but export quantities did not change much. Prices did
not change much also. The export scenario draws attention to the need for an unavoidable and decisive measure to
increase export earnings i.e. to satisfy importers’ requirements.
A new approach to combat the enormous flow of smuggled livestock and products across the border to neighbouring
countries need be designed as previous efforts including use of military power failed to contain it.
Government should focus on the provision of services and construction of infrastructure while leaving the trade to
the private sector.
Introduction
In preparing this paper I considered the traditional export products and the products that are economically
and nutritionally important. The products are live animals, meat, hides and skins (to include processed
products) and milk.
I divided the interventions intended to promote marketing of livestock and livestock products into
physical/technical and policy/financial measures. The very limited intervention measures proposed are
what I consider to be decisive if the country is to benefit from its huge livestock populations.
I summarize marketing to include all business activities associated with the flow of goods and services
from production to consumption.
Physical/Technical Interventions
Dairy Marketing
Initial intervention to promote dairy marketing started with the establishment of a 300 dairy farm and a
small milk processing plant under the UN Relief and Rehabilitation Programme in 1947 in the premises of
the now Dairy Development Enterprise (DDE). In 1959 UNICEF helped establish a processing plant with a
processing capacity of 10,000 litres a day with milk collection and purchasing centres around Addis Abeba.
The radius of milk collection was later expanded to 70 Kms. around the capital. Capacity of the processing
plant was increased to 30,000 litres in 1969.
To cope with the increasing demand for milk in Addis Abeba the Government of the day established the
Addis Abeba Dairy Development Agency (DDA) under Proclamation No. 283/71 with a loan of 4.4 Million
USD from the World Bank. The main objectives of the Agency were the 1) establishment of 40 medium ( 40
milking cows) and 200 small (10 milking cows) size dairy farms ,2) setting up a ranch to produce crossbred heifers, 3) collection, processing and sale of milk and 4) provision of guidance and assistance to milk
producers. The Revolution of 1974 resulted in the abandonment of many of the private farms and the
nationalization of the big ones which were incorporated into the DDA. In 1979 the DDA was transformed to
the DDE when processing capacity was increased to 60,000 litres/day and the radius of collection expanded
to 150 Kms. with donor assistance. The UNCDF/FINNIDA Dairy Development Project ( 1983-1986) came
15
to the assistance of the Enterprise by providing milk processing machinery and equipment to increase its
processing capacity and to enable it to also extend into the production of new products such as yoghurt
and ice cream. The assistance also extended to equipping milk collection centres with cooling facilities,
milk handling and transport equipment, refrigerated town milk sales depots and laboratory facilities and
equipment alongside training of the staff.
The Enterprise now has in operation about 27 raw milk collection and about 4 chilling centres along the
main highways that lead into Addis Abeba. Though the Enterprise has survived turbulent times when it
was near collapse it managed to stay in operation as a result of::
1.
2.
3.
4.
it being involved in the whole process of collection, processing and sale of milk and milk products
having its own source of raw milk to fall back to
an increasing number of raw milk suppliers
substantial and effective chipping-in by bilateral and multilateral agencies.
In parallel the Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit (CADU) imported dairy cattle and established
smallholder dairy farms to supply raw milk to a processing plant in Asela. WADU-the Wolayita
Agricultural Development Unit also performed similar activities. Subsequent comprehensive national
dairy development projects included components to enhance milk production and sales for the expanding
demand in urban and rural areas. Among the prominent, more recent projects are the Selalle Peasant
Dairy Development Pilot Project (SPDDPP) and the Small Holder Dairy Development Project (SDDP) both
financed by the Government of Finland. SPDDPP (1987-91) had among its objectives the setting up of
primary and secondary level markets for dairy products. SDDP (1995-98) which was a follow-up to the pilot
project had as its main thrust the establishment of farmer-owned and farmer operated milk marketing and
processing units. By the end of its life in 1998 the project was able to set 9 milk marketing and processing
units on a strong and reliable footing.
Live Animal Marketing
Second Livestock Development Project (1973-81)
This is the second World Bank supported project under a 5 million US$ loan. It was established with the
main objective of siphoning surplus livestock from the major pastoral areas to consumption centres of the
country and for the export market. It was also designed to improve the quantity and quality of hides
produced in the country. An equally important but underlying objective of the project was to curb and halt
the illegal crossing of livestock and livestock products to neighbouring countries.
The siphoning of surplus livestock from the pastoral areas involved the construction of livestock markets,
and stock routes consisting of staging points (rest areas), about 25 Kms apart, and grazing areas with or
without water and the purchase of livestock transport trucks. Improvement in the quantity and quality of
hides involved the construction of slaughterhouses and hide sheds. By its closure in 1981 SLDP managed
to construct 470 Kms of stock route consisting of 10 staging points and 10 grazing areas. This is about 19%
of plan. 11 primary (23% of plan) and 3 terminal (50%) markets were built. A commendable number of
about 159 slaughterhouses and hide sheds were also constructed. About 12 boreholes were sunk and about
5 livestock trucks were purchased. There is no evidence of staff training.
With regard to its intended marketing intervention SLDP can be considered an ill- fated, ill- prepared,
doomed- to- fail project. A combination of causes contributed to its failure the prominent among which are:
1.
2.
3.
16
The Somali war of 1978/9 demolished most if not the entire marketing infrastructure. This might
have come as a blessing in disguise as most of the infrastructure was constructed in remote and
hostile environment and may have been difficult if not impossible to operate. The stock routes also
ran parallel to the main highways which were not necessarily the shortest distances to markets and
may not have been used by traders and producers.
Did not consider related but decisive necessities such as the provision of feed en route, security,
health services, bank services etc.
Provided no measures to combat the illegal trade in livestock and livestock products
4.
5.
It did not consult or involve the local administrations, traders and communities both in the
preparation and implementation of the project. There was no clear vision for ownership and
operations of the infrastructure
It was foreign supported and local resources were not adequately mobilized
The quantity and quality of hides is believed to have benefited substantially from the construction of the
slaughterhouses and hide sheds.
SLDP was an unlucky project as it was being implemented during the early days of the Derg when
dismemberment and amalgamation of Government offices was the order of the day. The dissolution of the
parent institution, the Livestock and Meat Board, precluded any follow-up of the project.
Livestock Market Information System (LMIS)
After the termination of SLDP the Animal Resources Marketing Department of the Ministry of Agriculture
inherited the marketing of livestock and the improvement of hides and skins. With technical assistance from
FAO under a Technical Cooperation Programme (TCP) the Department launched a Livestock Market
Information System (LMIS) in selected towns in the country. LMIS was aimed at improving transparency of
operations of livestock markets by providing information on the types of animals entering the markets,
approximate/exact weights, conditions and prices of the animals transacted. The selected markets were
fenced and were equipped with chutes, weighing scales/tapes and notice boards. The information gathered
from the markets is sent to the Department weekly for processing and dispatch to the Regions. The
Department produced about 7 bi-annual reports of market information. Communication proved to be the
most difficult. Because of its limited period of existence it is difficult to determine whether the exercise was
academic or stakeholders might have benefited from the information. As with SLDP LMIS was foreign
financed and it came to an abrupt end with the termination of the assistance.
Meat Marketing
Meat is one of the heavily traded primary livestock products. There has not been any mentionable
intervention to promote meat marketing. The trade has been and is functioning smoothly and efficiently as
indicated by several studies that demonstrated that producers’ share of consumer prices is relatively high
considering the high transport costs, risks and losses sustained by butchers. In a 1995 report on Livestock
Marketing Study for the Pan African Rinderpest Campaign – Ethiopia-Phase 111 Orangewould International
B.V. states, “According to the calculations made, farmers’ share of the price paid by the consumers represents
72 percent at primary, 56 percent at secondary and 55 percent at tertiary markets.”
Hides and Skins Marketing
Animal by products that have been least intervened with respect to marketing are hides and skins. The
only intervention to improve both the quality and marketing of hides and skins is the issuance of a regulation
by government which proved very difficult to observe. The trade, here as well, is functioning smoothly except
for the continued deterioration in the quality of especially skins.
With the reported huge animal resources of the country have the successive governments by themselves
provided adequate support to promote the marketing of livestock and livestock products both within and
outside the country? I argue that they have not as it is only about 9 Million US$ that the Governments
borrowed from the World Bank to invest in this important activity. Most of the infrastructure and
equipment that now exist in the dairy sector were contributed by donors. By the way the interventions
were initiated during the days of the Emperor.
Policy Intrventions
Devaluation of the Birr and reduction/cancellation of export taxes
The devaluation of the Birr and the lowering and canceling of export taxes were intended to primarily
stimulate the export market, as exporters will send more with increases in their earnings. Earnings from the
export of live animals, meat products and hides and skins increased in terms of Birr. The dollar earnings did
not, however, show much change. The volumes by and large did not show any change. The quantity of live
animal exports actually declined from the high amounts of the late eighties.
17
Exporters may have benefited from the devaluation but the country has not as there was no mentionable
increase either in the volume exported or in the unit price received. There is no value added as a result of
the devaluation of the local currency, reduction or even cancellation of taxes. One reason is that we have
not been able to meet the health and sanitary requirements of importing countries. We have not dealt with
the real constraints of the export market. The ball is still in our court.
Table 1: Exports of Meat Products
35000
30000
25000
20000
Qty.(tons)
15000
Value( Th.Br)
10000
5000
0
1986/7 1988/9 1990/1 1992/3 1994/5 1996/7 1998/9 2000/1
Source: Adapted from National Bank of Ethiopia- Quarterly Bulletin- Fiscal Year Series Volume 16, No. 4- Fourth Quarter 2000/2001
Table 2: Exports of Hides and Skins
700000
600000
500000
400000
Qty(tons)
300000
Value ( Th.Br)
200000
100000
0
1986/7 1988/9 1990/1 1992/3 1994/5 1996/7 1998/9 2000/1
Source: : Adapted from National Bank of Ethiopia- Quarterly Bulletin- Fiscal Year Series Volume 16, No. 4- Fourth Quarter 2000/2001
Table 3: Exports of Meat Products
35000
30000
25000
20000
Qty.(tons)
15000
Value( Th.Br)
10000
5000
0
1986/7
1999/0
1992/3
1995/6
1998/9
Taking an average increase in the exchange rate of fifty cents to the US$ per year from the year of the
devaluation it can be observed that the trend in the fluctuation of the price per unit product exhibits a
general up and down market swing. As the changes in the volumes exported and unit prices received are
not significant the country does not seem to have benefited from the policy measures intended to encourage
exports of live animals and products.
18
The following comparison graphics adopted from the above cited National Bank of Ethiopia report,
illustrate the situation:
Graph 1 Exports of Meat Products (Prices per ton)
20
15
Th. Br
10
Th. UD$
5
0
1986/7 1988/9 1990/1 1992/3 1994/5 1996/7 1998/9 2000/1
The prices per ton in US$ have not shown any significant change over the last ten years
Graph 2: Exports of Hides and Skins
10
8
6
Th. Br
4
Th.USD
2
0
1986/7
1989/0 1992/3
1995/6
1998/9
Prices per ton of Hides and skins showed slight decline from the relatively high level of 1994/5.
Graph 3- Exports of Live Animals (Prices per ton)
10
8
6
Th. Br
4
Th.USD
2
0
1986/7 1988/9 1990/1 1992/3 1994/5 1996/7 1998/9 2000/1
Here again prices/ton of live animals have not compensated for the very much reduced amounts of exports
of the last decade.
The reduced quantities exported coupled with the very negligible change in unit prices point out the fact
that it takes more than policy/monetary incentives in this case to enhance export of live animals and
products.
19
Establishmnet of the Livestock Marketing Authority
This is an Authority recently established under a proclamation. The establishment of the Authority
provides ownership and responsibility to the long neglected sub-sector. It is too early to assess the
achievements of the Authority at this stage.
Other non-policy flush interventions were made in the eighties to increase the number of export sheep and
goats. Traders were allowed to purchase a quintal of sugar at government prices for every three heads of
sheep and goats they supplied the Livestock and Meat Development Enterprise. The incentive
substantially raised the number of shoats exported but would not have been sustainable as suppliers were
disappointed with the bureaucratic delay in securing the sugar and also because of the fact that
Government was capitalizing on the scarcity of the commodity.
Ports of export
Asseb served as the traditional port of export and import for Ethiopia. In connection with live animals the
port had the capacity to handle 5000 heads of cattle or 25000 heads of sheep and goats at any one time. After
the Ethio-Eritrean war Djibouti replaced Asseb with only about a tenth of the latter’s capacity. In addition to
the fact that they are required to pay in foreign currency exporters complain about the slow and inefficient
transit services in Djibouti which sometimes make shipments impossible to meet the requirements of some
orders that do not allow transshipment in a third country beyond 72 hours. On the other hand Djibouti port
authorities complain about consignments being usually small and that animals reach the port long before the
arrival of vessels.
Constraints of Exports
Among the several constraints the following are considered pivotal or decisive:
1.
2.
3.
The disease situation in the country- The major contagious live stock and zoo-notic diseases are
prevalent in the country – Hence the various bans especially on live animal exports.
The unabated illegal outflow of livestock and livestock by products to neighbouring countries
reducing the volume for the domestic and export markets.
Under developed infrastructure and services such as roads, stock routes, markets, transport
facilities, credit and the like.
The Future
If Ethiopia is to benefit from its enormous livestock resources resolute effort should be employed to realize
the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
20
Meet importers’ requirements- There is no excuse for not satisfying the requirements of importing
countries. There is no use blaming them for laying down ever stringent requirements. Requirements
are expected to be more stringent in future years with the ever formidable world competition. There
is, for example, no justification for not establishing functional quarantine areas to facilitate live
animal exports. Importing countries can not be blamed for refusing to import diseases that could put
their peoples and livestock at risk. Exporters may negotiate but can not dictate.
New approaches to combat illegal outflow of livestock and livestock by products need to be crafted.
Past efforts to fight illicit outflow including use of military force have not produced the required
results. It is time that new ways of dealing with the illegal trade be explored. This may be through
negotiations with the countries concerned; exploring the possibility of benefiting from the trade such
as devising a way of legalizing it; facilitating foreign exchange services in banks at border towns and
other appropriate measures.
Government should increase access to rural especially pastoral areas by establishing and or
improving communication infrastructure such as roads, telecommunications and other essential
services. Regions especially municipalities should be encouraged or a directive issued advising them
to allocate a certain portion of their earnings to develop livestock marketing in their respective areas.
Encourage and support the private sector to be more involved in the marketing process.
References
Ministry of Agriculture-Pan African Rinderpest Campaign; Ethiopia- Phase 111- Livestock Marketing StudyOrangewould International B.V. in association with RDP Livestock Services B.V.; July,1995, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia
National Bank of Ethiopia-Quarterly Bulletin- Fiscal Year Series, Volume 16, No.4- Fourth Quarter 2000/2001.
21
Influence of animal diseases and sanitary regulations on livestock export
trade and cases of export restrictions
Wondwosen Asfaw
Abstract
The economic benefit derived from the livestock sector in Ethiopia is not commensurate with the potential and the
sub-sector remained untapped. The widely prevalent livestock diseases are major constraints to Ethiopian livestock
export. Livestock exports from Ethiopia are jeopardized by repeated bans, in particular from the countries in the
Arabian Peninsula, as they are perceived as carrying the risk of introducing a number of trans-boundary livestock
diseases. An epidemic of Rift Valley Fever (RVF) in the horn of Africa in 1997/8 stimulated many countries, but most
importantly the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia as the major trading partner, to instigate a ban on livestock imports from
the region. This was briefly withdrawn but appearance of epidemic RVF in the Arabian Peninsula in 2000 resulted
in re-imposition of the ban that is still substantially unaltered. This created a crisis in the countries of the Greater
Horn of Africa, not least in Ethiopia.
The vulnerability of livestock trade to disease epidemics is undermining investment in a potentially valuable
economic activity that would increase employment in rural areas, raise rural incomes and assist in alleviating
poverty. The diseases responsible for the risks effectively prevent the entry of the countries into world trade in
livestock. Furthermore, world trade is now becoming more competitive and the requirements more stringent, which
definitely make the export trade more challenging. The world livestock and livestock products trade is influenced
significantly by sanitary and health restrictions imposed by importing countries. The establishment of the World
Trade Organisation (WTO) and the coming into force of the Agreement on the application of Sanitary and
Pytosanitary Measures (SPS Agreement) has a significant impact on international trade in livestock and livestock
products. The ultimate sanction is to impose a partial or total ban on imports from countries that fail to meet the
required SPS standards.
SPS policies are guided by international standards, such as those recommended by the Office International des
Epizooties (OIE). Generally the health and hygiene standards adopted by organisations like the OIE are
substantially higher than those of the developing countries. Although such controls in the importing countries may
reflect legitimate concerns regarding food quality and safety, and protection of animal and human health, the high
costs of compliance may prove prohibitive for countries like Ethiopia.
The level of animal health protection is generally poor in Ethiopia. SPS facilities are deficient and their standards
lower than most other developing countries. The existing veterinary service structures in Ethiopia are not conducive
to the mounting of effective disease control and eradication programmes. To facilitate the lifting of existing bans and
to pursue new market opportunities the country should review the situation with a view to devising the most
appropriate structures and lines of responsibilities. Functional structure supported by up to date legal power, fully
operational disease surveillance and information system, accredited laboratory service, emergency preparedness
capacity are an integral and key components of credible veterinary services. Eradication of the major Transboundary
Diseases (TADs) endemic in the country and provision of scientific proof of freedom from these diseases to a level of
international acceptability is the best way to promote safe trade and win the confidence of trading partners. Zoning
is now recognized as an important principle in the definition of the animal health status of countries by the OIE. In
Southern African countries such as Botswana, South Africa and Namibia disease free zones have long been used
successfully in support of trade and could be the most feasible strategy for Ethiopia.
In the short term the case of raising SPS standards, in Ethiopia, must depend largely upon the domestic benefits of
improving public and animal health, securing the traditional livestock export market in the Arabian Peninsula and
promoting intra regional trade through regional trading blocks. Gains from increased trade in meat or live animals
with developed countries will be small or non-existent in the short term. Developing countries, trading among
themselves, might benefit from harmonising SPS measures albeit at a lower level than the recommended by
international standards.
23
Livestock disease situation
Livestock development in Ethiopia is constrained, amongst other important factors, by a widely
distributed diseases. Rinderpest, the most important viral threat to the cattle herd, has been effectively
controlled by the National Pan-African Rinderpest Campaign (PARC) project. However, out of the 15 OIE
List-A diseases known for their rapid spread and serious socio-economic or public heath consequences, and
which affect international livestock trade, 8 of them are endemic in the country (FMD, CBPP, PPR, RVF,
LSD, sheep pox, African Horse Sickness and Newcastle Disease). Other diseases such as Caprine Contagious
Pleuropneumonia, Anthrax, blackleg, haemorrhagic spepticaemia, trypanosomiasis, bovine tuberculosis,
steptotricosis and brucellosis are also common in the country. Theses diseases invariably exert considerable
effects on the livelihood of farmers, their families and the country’s export trade.
Foot and mouth disease (due to sero-types A, O, C and SAT2) is spread throughout the country, sero-type
‘O’ being the most common strain. There is also evidence of sub strains with different serological and
immunological characteristics. FMD is a growing concern in Ethiopia and the incidence is increasing every
year. In 1999 alone 305 outbreaks were reported from 114 districts in the country. Pastoralists in the
lowlands identify contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) as a priority disease. CBPP was reasonably
controlled during the rinderpest campaign using the bivalent vaccine. Since the cessation of vaccination
against rinderpest, CBPP incidence is on the increase with epidemic spill over to the highlands from
endemic disease foci in the lowlands. Historically, pest des petits ruminants (PPR) was first recognised in
Ethiopia in the very late 1980’s in Borena. It is believed to have entered the country through the South or
Southwest. Extensive outbreaks of PPR in small ruminants have been noted in Amhara, Afar and Somali
Regional States. Major epidemic of Lumpy Skin Disease (LSD) affecting a large population of cattle in
Tigray and Amhara regions was also observed in 1999/2000. External parasites such as lice, keds and ticks
are also abundant and are major causes of rejection and downgrading of hides and skins in international
trade. The economic loss associated with downgrading of hides and skins, which is important export
commodities, is substantial.
Widespread epidemics of major trans-boundary and sporadic diseases are being controlled through routine
vaccination campaigns conducted during disease outbreaks and as prophylactic measures. Despite this,
however, economic losses resulting from such outbreaks are still considered significant. The presence and
endemicity of these diseases has dramatically reduced herd and flock size, which is a major blow to food
security. The effects are also expressed in terms of decrease livestock productivity, reduced working power
and increased cost of livestock production. The direct mortality of ruminant livestock is generally
estimated to be in the order of 8-10 percent of the national cattle herd per annum and 14-16 % and 11-13 %
of the national sheep and goat population, respectively. The debilitating effects of livestock disease may
tantamount the direct economic losses. Altogether, the direct annual economic losses from animal disease
alone may be estimated to range between Birr 1.5 and 2.5 billion. When compared with the estimated
value of livestock production in Ethiopia, the losses represent 30-50 % of total production value (FAO,
1993).
Furthermore, the continuing presence of TADs in the country, has not only affected the quantity and
quality of livestock products available for export, but also precluded the country from international
markets and thereby greatly reduced the country’s foreign exchange earnings.
Current Trends in International Livestock Trade
In the wake of globalisation and technological advances for rapid transportation of livestock and livestock
products across the globe there is an increasing risk for transmission of diseases that are of significant
economic, public health, trade and/or food security importance from one country to the other. Upsurges in
animal disease emergencies worldwide are linked to the increased mobility of people, goods and livestock,
changes in farming systems and climate, and the weakening of many livestock health services.
Globalisation (of markets in particular) also means global scope for diseases that were previously limited to
specific regions. Other than the commonly known livestock diseases emerging or evolving diseases of public
24
health importance are now becoming a growing global concern. Recent events such as the BSE epidemic in
Europe and the outbreaks of Nipah and Hindra viruses in Asia, RVF outbreak in the Horn of Africa, Saudi
Arabia and Yemen, virulent avian influenza in United States and Hong Kong have shown that diseases
can have severe economic or trading implications, especially when there is a link to public health.
A number of incidents related to food borne infection and intoxication caused public alarm and loss of
confidence in the role of producers and governments in food supply. As a result, there is now increased
public awareness and concern for food safety and quality, forcing governments to put comprehensive and
integrated food safety policies and stringent requirements on import of livestock and livestock products.
Assurance of the safety of foods principally through control at the source, product design and process
control, and the application of Good Hygiene Practices during production, processing (including labelling),
handling, distribution, storage, sale, preparation and use, in conjunction with the application of “Hazard
Analysis and Critical Control Point System and Microbiological Criteria” is becoming a standard.
Potentially any antimicrobial use, whether in humans, animals, plants or food processing technology, could
leads to the development ofbacterial resistance. Use of antimicrobials in livestock production is suspected
to significantly contribute to this phenomenon. Residue tests in foods of animal origin and antimicrobial
resistance surveillance are becoming requirements to avoid the dissemination of resistant bacteria or
resistance determinants and to avoid the exposure of humans to resistance through food. More recently,
traceablility of animal and animal products from farm to table is becoming an essential marketing
requirement necessary to meet heightened consumer expectations, particularly with respect to food safety.
Facilitating trade in livestock and livestock products, whilst simultaneously safeguarding the health status
of receiving country is a major challenge. Some countries are adopting a conservative zero risk approach to
limit risk of importing animal diseases and most countries adopted international rules and agreements to
ensure the health security of international trade in animal and animal products.
Examples of the potential consequences of trans-boundary animal diseases
TADs and emerging/evolving zoonoses have developed an increasingly high profile in recent years, in the
popular as well as scientific press. These diseases constitute serious economic and health consequences, and a
real challenge to globalisation of trade of livestock and livestock products. Costs and losses stemming from
the occurrence of these diseases have, in some cases, been enormous, whether for the health sector, the
national economy of the affected country, or the international community. There are several witnesses to this.
The following are few examples: The United Kingdom (UK) has spent over ₤3 billion to control the bovine
spongeform encephalopathy (BSE) epidemic, yet cases continue to occur. In all BSE affected countries, the
damage to their cattle industries are immense, and the cost to cattle producers has been devastating.
Zoonotic diseases can rapidly cause extensive human suffering and death. For example, Rift Valley Fever
(RVF) caused 89,000 cases (150-250 deaths) during the outbreak in Kenya of 1997-1998. The social and
economic repercussions of the Nipah virus outbreak in Malaysia have been very great, involving as it did the
culling of over one million pigs as part of the response to the outbreak. In addition the outbreak will have far
reaching consequences on the pig industry and the workforce involved in the livestock industry in the region
(Meslin et al 2000). Cases of febrile illness associated with Nipah virus have been also documented in
Singapore after pig importation from Malaysia (FAO 2001a). An outbreak of human influenza in Hong Kong
in 1997 by direct transmission from domestic poultry has resulted the culling of all birds from Hong Kong’s
live poultry markets. After a period of over 50 years of freedom from CBPP, in 1995 the disease was reintroduced to Botswana from Namibia through illegal movement of cattle. The efforts made to eradicate the
disease by “test and slaughter” and construction of 3 fences has all failed. The whole cattle population of
Ngamiland, totalling some 320,000 head, was destroyed in order to eradicate the disease and resume the
export trade. Livestock owners were compensated partly in cash and partly in form of replacement stock
(FAO, 1997).
Since August 2001, the outbreak of FMD in Zimbabwe, have adversely affected the meat industry. The
estimated economic loss is estimated to be Z$ 100 billion (US $ 1.8 billion) per year. Infection is believed to
25
have spread through illegal movement of cattle by motor transport (FAO, 2001b). All exports of beef, pork
and pork products and fresh milk have been suspended. The outbreak seems still ongoing and last reported
outbreak was on 03 June 2002 (Personal communication: The Zimbabwean Veterinary Department, 2002).
UK’s first large-scale outbreak of FMD since 1967, had spread across the whole country, the first cases
were recognized on 19 February 2001. France and the Netherlands have also been affected, to a lesser
extent, by the disease, which was caused by animals originating from the UK. Keeping with EU policy, the
UK then launched a massive campaign of ‘’stamping out’’ that cost the lives of 3.75 million farm animals,
the livelihood of thousands of farmers, and massive damage to the rural economy and the tourist industry.
Following the confirmation of the case in France, some 90 countries around the world imposed bans on
imports of livestock and on meat and milk products from all 15 countries in the EU. Others went further
and banned imports of European agricultural products such as cereal. The EU condemned the action as
excessive and unnecessary and consider appealing to the World Trade Organization to get the bans lifted
(FAO, 2001c).
This disastrous outbreak of FMD in the UK has followed by an increase in its incidence worldwide.
According to FAO (2001c) several countries that had been free of the disease for considerable periods of
time have also suffered outbreaks. The latter include countries such as Japan (free since 1908), the
Republic of Korea (free since 1934), Mongolia (free since 1973) and South Africa (the last outbreak in the
free zone was in 1957).
The cases of export restrictions
Rift Valley Fever
There is a large export trade of several million sheep and goats to Saudi Arabia from the ports of Berbera
in NE Somalia and Bossasso in the NW. This is concentrated in a four-month period from December to
March. Most of the animals originate from Ethiopia, with the rest coming from Somalia. Rapid transit from
place of origin to ports in Saudi Arabia is critical to ensure that no notable loss of condition takes place. Any
quarantine or holding ground regulations would have a serious negative impact upon the trade (Nunn, 1998).
There is no professional inspection for signs of disease, other than a mandatory Brucella test required by
the Saudi Arabian authorities. The trade is “unregulated”, but has proceeded satisfactorily for both
importers and exporters, until an epizootic of RVF in the region prompted a total ban by Saudi Arabian
authorities on 10 February 1998. Some animals could have been transported from RVF active areas and
arrive for slaughter in Saudi Arabia in 3-5 days, within the incubation period for the virus. Ritual
slaughter of such animals could have resulted in extensive transmission of RVF virus amongst those
attending the Haj in Mecca during the period January -February-March – April. (Davies, 1998). The ban
on livestock imports from the region was apparently imposed for public health reasons and was a
reasonable response to a suddenly increased but uncertain risk from a zoonosis that could have significant
consequences if it were introduced into Saudi Arabia (Nunn, 1998).
The epidemic of RVF in the region of the Horn of Africa followed unusually heavy rainfall from late
October 1997 to January 1998 that resulted in the worst flooding in the Horn of Africa since 1961. RVF
cases were confirmed in people in the North Eastern, Central, Eastern, and Rift Valley Provinces of Kenya,
and in the Gedo, Hiran, and Lower Shabeelle Provinces of Somalia. Livestock losses of up to 70 percent in
sheep and goats, and 20–30 percent of cattle and camels, were also reported (Nunn, 1998).
In Ethiopia, during the same period, the heavy rain and the attendant flooding affected Southern and
South Eastern parts of the country bordering Somalia and Kenya. Veterinary field investigation carried in
Somali region and Borena zone in February 1998 observed high level of unusual abortion among livestock.
Out of the samples collected, two sera from small ruminants from Mustahil, just near the border with
Somalia were found IgM positive to RVF.
Field investigations conducted by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations in August
1998 (Davies, 1998) found no clinical evidence of RVF disease in livestock in the Horn of Africa and
indicate that the epidemic ceased in February–March 1998 and the public health risk of RVF to the
26
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has markedly abated and returned to pre-epidemic levels. To reduce the residual
risks the mission recommended:
•
Carry retrospective serological study to define precisely the limits of the areas infected during the
1997-1998 epizootic in the region.
•
Proof absence of RVF virus activity in the areas from which animals are exported for a period of
six months.
•
Establish Remote Sensing Satellite Data (RSSD) to predict times and locations where RVF may
emerge into epidemic proportions.
•
Institute pre-export animal inspection and regulated, orderly movements for export of livestock.
•
Enhance post-export control measures in the importing countries.
In response to these recommendations, Ethiopia carried a nation wide serological surveillance in 1999 to
confirm the presence of the disease during inter epizootic period and establish its spatial and temporal
distribution. It was noted that inadequate test protocol was adopted which might have resulted false
positives even in areas beyond the altitude limit of the vector. Using appropriate protocol all positive cattle,
sheep and goat sera are now under retesting. Once the retesting is completed the situation with the
distribution of RVF need to be reassessed.
Furthermore, a project TCP/ETH/0168 “Trade-related Vector-borne animal diseases in Ethiopia with
Special Reference to RVF” is now underway to contribute to the lifting of existing bans and pursue new
market opportunities by establishing the capacity for intensified animal disease surveillance throughout
the country. Several project proposals to implement pre-export inspection and regulated, orderly
movement for export of livestock, prepared in mid-1998, are available from FAO for appraisal.
Among them is the EXCELEX regional project that is currently under appraisal. The project aims
to sanitise the livestock export trade from the Horn of Africa through establishment of veterinary
certification and rolling quarantine system.
RFV in Saudi Arabia and Yemen
An outbreak of RFV in Southern Saudi Arabia and Yemen in September and October 2000 has left dozens
of people dead and hundreds infected. RVF was confined to the continent of Africa and was reported for the
first time outside Africa (WHO, 2000). Sequencing shows that the virus strain is closely related to that
isolated in the Horn of Africa in 1997-98. Whether this current outbreak of disease is the result of a recent
introduction or is an extremely rare epizootic occurrence in an existing enzootic area is not known at present
(FAO, 2000).
In Yemen the outbreak has occurred at the same time as the outbreak of RVF in Saudi Arabia. Over 20,988
abortions and 6187 deaths in animals was reported (Geiger. R., 2001). With regard to incidence in humans
between 7 August and 7 November 2000, 1087 suspected cases were identified, including 121 (11%) people
who subsequently died (WHO, 2000).
In Saudi Arabia in a two-week period, 2699 abortions and 943 deaths were recorded, mostly in sheep and
goats, and the total number of abortions has been estimated to be in the order of 8-10000. The appearance
of RVF in some flocks has been dramatic, with 60-90 % of the pregnant females aborting within a period of
10-14 days. There have been 70 human deaths in Jizan province and approximately 400 cases have been
confirmed by ELISA (IgM +ve) many with severe clinical signs including visual disturbances (FAO, 2000).
As a consequence, 6 Gulf States - Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Yemen, and the United Arab Emirates had
banned livestock imports from 9 African countries, principally in the Horn (FAO, 2001d). The ban was
imposed on the expectation that the disease was introduced from the Horn of Africa.
Through repeated bans livestock producers and traders in the Greater Horn of Africa are facing the
devastating consequences of RVF. The first ban lasted for 18 months and briefly withdrawn for 8 months
up to the time the second ban was imposed in September 2000. Yemen lifted the ban on livestock and meat
from Ethiopia on the beginning of February 2002 after 1.5 years. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, the major
27
importer of live animal and meat from Ethiopia, lifted the ban on meat in the middle of June 2002 and still
maintain the trade embargo on live animals from Ethiopia.
The livestock trade embargos undermined a precarious regional food security situation and their economic
impacts are likely to be massive. The volume and value of livestock exports from the horn countries
tumbled. Many of the areas affected by the ban also coincide with extremely vulnerable and food-insecure
areas repeatedly receiving emergency assistance. The bans will further contribute to pastoral food
insecurity, increase to local and regional conflict and increased needs for food and other humanitarian
assistance.
Rinderpest
Cattle exports from/through Somalia to Saudi Arabia are banned since 1983, due to the risk of Rinderpest
and it had indirectly affected Ethiopian cattle export. The ban was imposed in response to epidemics of
rinderpest in the early 1980’s throughout the region. The current epidemiological situation of rinderpest in
Africa is quite different from those days in the 80’s. The PARC project which was operational since late
1980s has indeed verifiably eliminated rinderpest from the major part of the continent except few endemic
foci in Southern Somalia and Southern Sudan.
As there were no outbreaks of rinderpest detected in Ethiopia since November 1995, Ethiopia declared
itself "provisional free from rinderpest on a zonal basis" as of the 1st May 1999 and joined the OIE Pathway
(FAO, 1999). The OIE Pathway is an international recognised set of guidelines for assessing and certifying
countries free of rinderpest infection and involves 3 major steps: provisional freedom from disease, freedom
from disease and freedom from infection. The first stage, provisional freedom from disease, is a simple
country declaration and it doesn’t involve verification by the OIE. This has already been achieved by
Ethiopia, but the subsequent stages require member states to submit a dossier of data and provide for site
visits to confirm the declaration.
Efficient veterinary service, effective reporting and sero-surveillance system and reliable system of
preventing the introduction of infection which is carried out by proper border control, quarantines, etc, are
requirements for the last 2 stages. The disease is virtually eradicated from major parts of Africa, but it still
exists in civil strife areas of Southern Somalia and Southern Sudan. Hence, threat of reintroduction of
rinderpest from these bordering areas exists and is a major obstacle for Ethiopia to declare "provisional
freedom" on a countrywide basis and benefit from its disease free status.
International sanitary rules and agreements
The WTO Agreement on the application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) measures agreement, which
came into force in January 1995 with the WTO, is aimed at minimizing the negative effects f unjustified
health barriers on international trade. The agreement requires member countries; with a view to achieving
the widest possible harmonization of the animal health measures they take to ensure the protection of
human and animal life and health, to establish those measures on the basis of international standards,
guidelines and recommendations. For animal health and zoonosis, the SPS Agreement refers to the
‘standards, guidelines and recommendations developed under the auspices of the Office International des
Epizootics (OIE). Where as for risks arising from additives, contaminants, toxins or disease-carrying
organisms in foods, beverages or feedstuffs the standards of Codex Alimentarius are applicable (WTO 1995 &
1996).
The OIE International Animal Health Code (for mammals, birds and bees) and the International Aquatic
Animal Health Code contain standards, guidelines and recommendations designed to prevent the
introduction of infectious agents and diseases pathogenic to animal and humans into the importing country
during trade in animals, animal genetic material and animal products. They do this through detailed
recommendations on sanitary measures to be used by OIE member countries in establishing the health
regulations applying to the import of animals, animal genetic material and animal products. The major
standards, guidelines and recommendation embodied in the code are listed below (OIE, 2001a).
1. Countries shall make available to other countries, through the OIE, whatever information is
28
2.
3.
4.
5.
necessary to minimise the spread of important animal diseases and to assist in achieving better
worldwide control of these diseases. Hence, countries should comply with the detail notification
requirements in the code.
Veterinary services should substantiate elements of the reports of the animal health situation of
their country by surveillance data, results of monitoring programmes and details of disease history.
Furthermore, the code defines detailed recommended standards of epidemiological surveillance
systems for rinderpest, CBPP and bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE).
Application of import risk analysis to provide importing countries with an objective and defensible
method of assessing the disease risk associated with the importation of animals, animal products,
animal genetic material, feedstuffs, biological products and pathological material.
The code defines a set of factors, which include fundamental principles of an ethical, organisational
and technical nature to evaluate the quality of veterinary services. The Veterinary services shall
conform to these fundamental principles, regardless of the political, economic or social situation of
their country.
The code defines specific sanitary requirements for international trade for 15 list A and 80 list B
diseases, depending on the disease status of the exporting country.
The Manual of Standards for Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines (OIE, 2001b) and the Diagnostic Manual for
Aquatic Animal Diseases (OIE, 2001c), provide a uniform approach to the diagnosis of OIE-listed diseases
of importance to international trade, so that the requirements for health certification in connection with
trade in animals and animal products can be met.
The impact of these standards on developing countries
A study of “impact of SPS measures on developing countries” (Upton, 2001), showed that SPS facilities are
deficient in developing countries and their standards lower than in developed countries, owing to lack of
resources and inadequate information. The same survey showed that insufficient access to scientific/technical
expertise and incompatibility of SPS requirements with domestic production/marketing methods were
identified as significant factors. The Low Income and even more the Least Developed Countries are
hampered by:
• Small scale of export operations,
• The necessity to apply separate treatment to products destined for foreign markets, since domestic
SPS standards and methods of production are not compliant with those required by the foreign
importer,
• The shortage, low performance and high costs of support services, and
• High risks of diseases and infections.
A few cases may serve to illustrate the problem faced. For instance, meat for local consumption in many
Low Income Countries, is from animals slaughtered the same day without the use of refrigeration.
Therefore meat for export would have to be slaughtered and handled in special facilities, constructed
specifically for this trade. The same would be true for storage and transport of meat intended for export.
Construction and operation of these facilities is costly and may be difficult to justify when the volume of
throughput is highly variable and rarely reaches design capacity (Upton, 2001).
Admittedly the OIE Animal Health Code, on which the zoo sanitary measures are based, is full of
recommendations, e.g. the chapter on Rift Valley Fever, for which compliance by the developing countries
is extremely difficult (Upton, 2001). Currently no country in Africa, the only continent where RVF is
enzootic, can remotely fulfil the requirements of these OIE guidelines. They do not have insect proofed
quarantine areas nor do they have institutional and laboratory facilities to perform the tests. There is a
feeling that the current OIE guidelines are not appropriate to the trading situations which prevails in the
region (Davies 1998).
29
Resource limitations generally mean that the developing countries have a fewer veterinary personnel per
million livestock units (excluding poultry) than the developed countries. This deficiency together with poor
infrastructure and facilities for disease control create serious problems for developing countries in meeting
the SPS requirements for exports. The international acceptability of veterinary certificates issued by a
developing country, an essential accompaniment to exports, might be threatened (Upton, 2001).
The survey of the impact of SPS measures on developing countries (Upton, 2001) showed low levels of
participation in the international organisations responsible for defining standards for animal and plant
health and food safety (OIE, IPPC and Codex Alimentarius). Only about a third of Low Income and Lower
Middle Income Countries belong to all three of these organisations as well as the WTO, while for High
Income Countries the proportion is more than two thirds. Of the Low Income Country members of the
WTO less than a third have established both an Enquiry Point and a National Notification Authority as
required by the SPS agreement. Practically all High Income Country members have complied.
These issues, affecting access by the developing countries to export markets in the developed world, need to
be addressed at global level. The WTO and international standard setting organisations need to facilitate
developing country participation by modifying their procedures and providing technical, scientific and legal
assistance. Trade integration through the formation and expansion of regional trading blocks also helps
the removal of trade barriers between member states.
Animal health services in Ethiopia
Federal and Regional State Veterinary Services render animal health services in Ethiopia. Federal
activities are limited to export certification, epidemiology, rinderpest eradication and limited surveillance for
some diseases such as CBPP and PPR. Whereas regional veterinary services provide preventive, diagnostic
and curative services to the farming community through a network of veterinary clinics and veterinary staff.
During recent years, the number of veterinary personnel and clinics has risen considerably. Whereas
constraints of operational funding is becoming increasingly minimal, resulting in the decline of the delivery
efficiency of public veterinary services. Although the veterinary service situation in Ethiopia did not reach
the point of total collapse that was evident in some other countries, symptoms of the problem are clearly
evident.
The Federal Veterinary Services is integrated within the Ministry of Agriculture at the team level and
lacks the required structure and sufficient standing to ensure appropriate and prompt attention is given to
animal health issues. It should also be noted that the Federal Veterinary Service is constrained in regard
to manpower allocation. Existing level of staffing is totally inadequate in light of the heavy responsibilities
associated with the service. The Federal Veterinary Services lacks laboratory arm, which give routine
surveillance and diagnostic support. Currently such support is obtained from National Animal Health
Research Centre (NAHRC) without clear institutional mandate for surveillance and diagnosis. The volume
of work under ongoing and future surveillance programs and outbreak investigations demand fully
mandated national laboratory directly accountable to Federal veterinary Services. This is particularly
crucial for international trade in livestock and livestock products and establishment of disease free zones.
Epizootic diseases are now frequently refereed to as ‘trans-boundary disease’. This term implies that the
diseases cross borders and require co-ordinated international efforts for effective control. Definitive
declarations to the OIE regarding freedom from disease are made at the national level and require
coherent and efficient national disease control programmes to be accepted. At the intra-national level,
effective coordination is also essential. Federalism implies that responsibilities are devolved to the states to
the degree that they are local matters. In that epizootic disease control requires national and regional
approaches to be effective, they are not matters of limited local interest. If one state fails to undertake
effective control measure, all states fail. This would have a profound economic effect on all states and the
nation as a whole. In the more successful federal systems the financial control and management of
epizootics is a federal responsibility.
30
Under the current set up there is no line management in regard to veterinary services between federal and
regional structures in Ethiopia. Fighting a disease epidemic is, in many respects, like fighting a war and
requires the same level of discipline. It requires the same ability to make rapid decisions, to convert those
decisions into clear orders, which can be conveyed down the chain. It is clear that for these things to
happen quickly and efficiently, the Veterinary Services must be place in a command structure or linemanagement system at least for the control/eradication of TADs.
It is now generally recognised that the role of the public sector veterinary services should be focused on
those core activities that benefit the population as a whole (public goods). The activities well suited to
public sector execution include: regulation of veterinary service delivery, epidemiology, control/eradication
of TADs, emergency preparedness and livestock inspection and certification for export. While private good
activities such as provision of clinical services can best be delivered by the private sector. Devolving clinical
services to the private sector will allow the government to make use of meagre resource and manpower for
core issues of over-riding national importance such as control of TADs.
Cost recovery study carried out in 11 representative woredas from both extensive and intensive systems in
the country by the PARC project (Moorhouse & Ayalew 1997) revealed that 30 percent of the surface area
of Ethiopia is served by the current system of fixed-point veterinary clinics. At the present time, Regional
States are in the process of building more veterinary clinics. However, even with massive investment in
fixed-point public clinics, the extent of coverage would not reach 40 percent. It is also unclear how the
expanding fixed-point clinic system would be supported in terms of operating budget.
The coverage of veterinary service in the pastoral areas of the country is even worse. It is apparent that
animal health services are a major felt need of pastoral communities and the lack of it tends to cripple the
very hand that feeds the community. It should also be noted that more than 90 % of the livestock export
originate from the pastoral areas. The provision of animal health services in pastoral areas requires a
radical change from the conventional approach prescribed for the highland mixed farming systems of the
country. The challenge is even greater, considering unique conditions in pastoral areas such as low cash
economy, insecurity, high cost of service delivery, poor infrastructure, vastness of the areas and lack of
veterinary personnel among others.
Generally, Remarkable and sustainable improvements in the livestock trade can only be achieved if these
constraints are alleviated. Appropriate policies should be pursued for rational delivery of animal health
services in the country. The role and responsibilities of the various actors (public vs. private, federal vs.
regional) should be clearly defined and delineated. Government should give due emphasis on core public
good activities such as veterinary public health and food hygiene and in the control of TADs. The greater
the attention given to diseases that are trans-boundary in nature, the greater the opening for participation
in international trade and economic advancement.
Conclusion and Recommendation
Historically, there has often been a considerable trade advantage to be gained by ignorance or deliberate
avoidance of the reality of the presence of an important trans-boundary disease problem in a country.
Countries, which do not have adequate monitoring and surveillance capability frequently benefit at the
expense of others who have more effective systems, which have detected ongoing trans-boundary or other
disease problems. Their transparency and honesty may have resulted in huge trading penalties. Now
situations are changing fast globally and when the information needed to make an informed decision is
limited, importing countries adopt conservative approaches in order to limit the risk of importing animal
diseases. Thus, the greater the uncertainty is considered to be, the more conservative usually is the decision.
This is well shown by the frequent and intermittent trade bans due to RVF.
The trade with countries in the Arabian Peninsula, which proceeded satisfactorily in the past, is now
becoming more stringent and more so in the future as they adopt international sanitary standards.
Ethiopia can only recapture the benefit of this traditional and extensive trade through establishment of
strong and credible veterinary services that can effectively control and monitor major TADs limiting trade.
31
This effective institutional capacity will confer additional value for Ethiopia’s livestock in the export
markets and rebuild the confidence of trading partners. It should also be noted that Ethiopia would still be
competing with countries like Uruguay, Argentina, New Zealand and Australia, which produce a more
standardised products, are more reliable suppliers and have fewer animal health problems to impede
trade. However, the current levels of animal health protection in Ethiopia are generally too poor and make
such competition more difficult.
There are clear benefits to be gained, by both importers and exporters, from adopting SPS measures and
greater transparency regarding their application. However, as already argued, the costs of compliance with
international standards are beyond the means of countries like Ethiopia. Developed countries and
standard setting organisations need to facilitate developing country participation by modifying their
procedures and providing financial, technical, scientific and legal assistance. Sufficient attention should be
given to the needs of developing countries in setting SPS requirements and sufficient time should be
allowed for compliance. Trading between developing countries, possibly within a regional grouping or a free
trade area, has to be promoted and has clear advantages in harmonising the SPS rules lower that that
recommended by international standard setting organisations.
Ethiopia need to design and implement appropriate SPS policies to promote the export trade in livestock
and livestock products. Aspects of compliance include essential changes in the organisation and
infrastructure of veterinary services, laboratories, abattoirs, processing plants, border inspection posts,
quarantine camps and so on. Effective systems of processing, marketing, inspection and monitoring of
quality standards, testing, disease surveillance and control measures will be needed. The high cost of
implementing some of these measures is obvious and participation of the private sector is extremely
essential. Part of the appraisal of the merits of compliance must be an assessment of the size of the
potential market, the competition from other exporters and the scope for expansion of domestic production.
A case for improving SPS standards for Ethiopia is not simply to overcome a non-tariff barrier on exports
but also lies in the benefits accruing to the domestic economy. These benefits will accrue in the form of
improved health and productivity of domestic livestock, reduced losses from disease epidemics, improved
quality of livestock products and public health improvement.
In a big country like Ethiopia, with a large livestock population in extensive management system, poor
road and veterinary service network, difficult topography and relative inaccessibility of some areas,
commencing a national disease eradication campaign that covers the whole country at once may neither
practical nor wise. The spreading of resources too thinly over too large an area may result in overall
setbacks. The eradication of rinderpest, a relatively simple disease to control, took almost 14 years and
millions of dollars and still to take some time to conclude and get international acceptance. It may be more
effective in the long term to tackle the eradication in a step-by-step progression moving from one region to
the next and target specific diseases based on their economic and trade importance.
Zoning is now recognized as an important principle in the definition of the animal health status of
countries by OIE. In Southern African countries such as Botswana, South Africa and Namibia disease free
zones have long been used successfully in support of trade. Disease free zones are essentially
geographically defined areas used for the breeding and/or fattening/finishing of livestock from which
specific diseases are excluded and that exclusion is quality-assured. Diseases such as, rinderpest, FMD,
CBPP, PPR, LSD and pox merit consideration in the exclusion. However, the list of diseases constraining
trade is not exhaustive and a thorough review is required. The interest of trading partners must also
receive due consideration in the selection and prioritisation of target diseases.
The actual size and shape of the zones may be determined by administrative boundaries or geographic
barriers or be driven by epidemiological or resource imperatives. In the early stage of establishing disease
free zones, while the extent of the disease is still being assessed, it could be expected that the zones are
comparatively small. Establishment of big disease free zones as in the case with Southern African
countries is not feasible for Ethiopia in light of the enormous cost involved. As the disease
control/eradication progresses, it is to be hoped that the zone gradually expands.
32
In establishing disease free zones it is not necessary not only to exclude from them the major diseases but
also to try to reduce the weight of infections in the surrounding livestock populations. Unless this is done
the risk of re-invasion of the disease free zone might prove too great to manage and the whole development
be brought unnecessarily into disrepute. Thus establishing disease free zones must be viewed within the
context of the overall progressive control of the major trans-boundary animal diseases, which constrain
production and trade. It is therefore linked to national policies needed to ensure adequately functioning
public good veterinary services capable of exerting control over trans-boundary animal diseases.
References
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to August 15th 1998. Consultancy Report to the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, Rome.
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33
WTO (1996). Understanding the World Trade Organisation Agreement on Sanitary and Pytosanitary Measures, Geneva:
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34
Critical Issues Impacting Livestock Trade in Kenya, Ethiopia and Sudan
Yacob Aklilu
Tufts University/OAU-IBAR
Abstract
This paper constitutes the second and final part of the livestock marketing status audit carried out in Kenya,
Ethiopia and Sudan under the auspices of the CAPE unit of OAU-IBAR. The paper focuses on selected critical issues
identified in the first volume. These issues are discussed at some length in this document as they pertain to each of
the three countries. This version of the paper has been adapted for the 10th ESAP annual conference held between
22 and 24 August 2002 in Addis Ababa. The recommendations that appear with each issue discussed in the main
document have not been included here.
As discussed in the first volume, Sudan is ahead of both Ethiopia and Kenya in terms of its organizational set up
and its volume of live animal exports. To some extent this could be attributed to Sudan’s long tradition of exporting
live animals to the Gulf. It also reflects the relentless effort made by the Ministry of Animal Resources in setting up
a relatively efficient quarantine system and in conducting successful negotiations with existing and potential
livestock importing countries. Sudan’s success in getting the Saudi Arabia ban lifted even before Syria and Jordan is
a testimony to this effort. Ethiopia’s export potential has been limited to chilled/frozen meat as the ban on live
animals is still effective (though Yemen has lifted the ban recently on certain conditions). In any case, Ethiopia’s
land locked status will always hinder it from attaining its maximum export potential as it had to rely on ports
belonging to other countries. The Rift Valley Fever ban is still effective on Kenya. Nevertheless, Kenya has not been
active in live animals or chilled meat exports even before the ban. Its exports have been limited mainly to about
1,500 tons of pork products per year and small quantities of beef now and then.
The issues discussed here focus on critical internal information gap; inadequate provision of animal health services
and facilities; the current status of ranches and feedlots; institutional issues (Government agencies and Trade
Associations); issues related to the domestic livestock trade and the export market and on the existing information
gap on external markets. The paper culminates by suggesting for regional collaboration in livestock marketing.
Though all the issues are relevant to Kenya, Sudan and Ethiopia, some issues that are important to one country
may not have the same weight in the other country/ies. The discussion, in such cases, focuses on the particular
country/ies most affected by the issues.
The issues raised in this paper require a variety of interventions – capacity building; policy development and
enforcement; advocacy and awareness campaigns; exchange visits and fact finding missions; constructive dialogue
among relevant institutions and the need for regional collaborations. They also require the involvement and the
concerted efforts of relevant Government institutions, city or county councils, livestock traders and tanners,
ranchers, trade associations, producers, NGOs, regional inter-governmental organizations, donors and other
international organizations.
For long, the potentials of the livestock sector have been ignored particularly in Kenya and Ethiopia while Sudan,
with some effort generates about $170 million annually from livestock exports. This should serve as a wake up call
for the respective governments of Ethiopia and Kenya.
Abbreviations
ALRMP
Arid Lands Resources Management Programme
ARB
Animal Resource Bank (Sudan)
CAHW
Community-Based Animal Health Worker
CIF
Cost, Insurance, Freight
COMESA
Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa
DAC
Department of Agricultural Cooperatives
35
DFZ
Disease Free Zone
DVS
Department of Veterinary Services
EAC
East African Community
EADB
East African Development Bank
FAO
Food and Agriculture Organisation
FMD
Foot and Mouth Disease
GDP
Gross Domestic Product
GTZ
Gesellschaft fuer Technische Zusammenarbeit
GHA
Greater Horn of Africa1
KMC
Kenya Meat Commission
KLMC
Kenya Livestock Marketing Council
LC
Letter of Credit
LG
Letter of Guarantee
LMA
Livestock Marketing Authority (Ethiopia)
LMD
Livestock Marketing Department (Kenya)
LMMC
Livestock and Meat Marketing Council (Sudan)
MoA
Ministry of Agriculture (Ethiopia)
MoAR
Ministry of Animal Resources (Sudan)
MoARD
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (Kenya)
MoFT
Ministry of Foreign Trade (Sudan)
NGO
Non Governmental Organisation
OAU-IBAR
Organisation of African Unity – Inter African Bureau for Animal Resources
OIE
Office International des Epizootics
PTA
Preferential Trade Area (PTA Bank)
RVF
Rift Valley Fever
WHO
World Health Organisation
Introduction: Critical Domestic Information Gap
Livestock Population figures are based on estimates in all the three countries. Ethiopia has been using a
constant figure for nearly thirty years before allowing annual marginal adjustments in the last 10 years
following which the cattle population officially increased by 5 million head. Sudan raised its livestock
population figure by 45% for cattle, 55% for sheep, 62% for goats and 14% for camels in the last 10 years
alone (1991-2001) without rational explanations. With the recurrence of droughts, various parties also doubt
if the official livestock population estimates in Kenya, particularly in the rangelands, reflects the reality.
Given the low level livestock-related economic activity particularly in Kenya and Ethiopia, this information
gap may not impact the sector in a dramatic way for the time being. However, in the absence of such
baseline information, it may be difficult to achieve certain improvements in the sector be it in terms of
livestock trade, the provision of animal health services etc. For example, Sudan’s ambitious export program is
aimed at reaching an export volume of some 10 million shoats a year2. Given the chance, Ethiopia and Kenya
would also like to increase their export volume to the maximum. The question is how can each country
determine what it can export without significantly affecting its resource base?
1
2
The term GHA countries in this paper refers to Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya and occasionally Somalia.
Personal communication with Dr Osman (Sudan)
36
Available data on the off-take volume of livestock is far from accurate in all the three countries. For
example, annual off-take figures for the major terminal markets in Sudan show too wide variations from
year to year to be reliable. Livestock prices are difficult to obtain because of the ‘silent auction system3’.
Most of the cattle slaughtered in Addis are sourced outside of the terminal markets and nearly all the
small ruminants consumed in Addis are sold outside of the designated sale yards and therefore not
recorded. In Kenya, available data gives the wrong impression as if more animals are slaughtered in
Mombassa than in Nairobi. This is because the bulk of the meat consumed in Nairobi comes from
slaughterhouses outside of the city (which is not accounted). At the same time, regular data collection is
not carried out in many of the primaries and a good majority of the secondary markets in all the three
countries. Where some data collection takes place, the data is usually transferred too late to central
processing units. Even then, the data may not be processed at all and the records are kept in piles in userunfriendly manner. If at all, the usefulness of such records is limited to refer to past trends rather than for
making informed timely decisions (by producers and traders).
Often, the collection of livestock market information is initiated as part of or as a project on its own (such
as Rural Services Design Project or ALRMP in Kenya, GTZ and the Southern Tier Initiative in Ethiopia or
LMMC in Sudan) and is not continued after the end of the particular project. Trained manpower (data
collectors, processors and analysts) go elsewhere once the project is phased out eliminating possibilities for
improving on the quality of data collection, interpretation and dissemination with time. Sustainability is
the key problem in livestock market data collection due to lack of funds. Intermittent data collection is
carried out by Livestock Marketing Departments of (in many cases) the Ministries of Agriculture or other
specific projects (ALRMP, GTZ etc). Local councils, which are effective in collecting market taxes, are not
interested in collecting such vital information.
Despite limited attempts in the past, the use of livestock scales is not common in livestock markets in the
three countries. Transactions are carried out through eye estimates of the live weights of animals. Cold
dressed weight is usually estimated between 40 and 50% of live weight. Official figures on annual national
red meat production are therefore pure estimates. In addition, livestock grading (by weight, breed and/or
any other desirable characteristics) is not common except in general terms depriving pastoralists and small
farmers alike the incentive to produce for the market. As a result, information collected on prices does not
as such reflect the particular characteristics or grade of the livestock.
Provisions of animal health services
Inadequate financing
Agriculture contributes about 33% to the national economy of Kenya. Livestock contribute about 10% to
agricultural GDP or about 3.3% of the total GDP. In Ethiopia, agriculture contributes more than 55% to the
national economy. Livestock contribute about 40% to agricultural GDP or more than 20% of the total GDP (or
even more if other intermediate values of livestock are properly assessed). In Sudan, agriculture contributes
42% to the total GDP and livestock contribute about 20% to agricultural GDP4 and generate some $170
million in a given year representing 25% of the total foreign exchange earned in a year (before the oil
production).
Despite the significant contribution of livestock resources to their national economies, inadequate
financing has hindered the provision of animal health services in each of these countries (though there are
variations in the level of resource allocations amongst them). A study undertaken by OAU-IBAR (Tambi
and Maina, 2000)5 indicate that between 1993/94 and 1998/99 the Government of Ethiopia allocated only
5% of its recurrent expenditures on agriculture and less than 0.3% on livestock (or 3% of the recurrent
agricultural expenditures). Interestingly, however, more funds were progressively made available each
year for operational activities than for salaries and other overheads. The study also indicated that Kenya
3
4
5
See volume 1 of this document for more information
EC/IGAD, 2000. Establishment of a Regional Livestock Development Programme for Eastern Africa.
OAU-IBAR, 2000. Financing Livestock and Animal Health Services in Sub-Saharan Africa: The case of Cameroon, Ethiopia, Kenya, Mali, Tanzania and Uganda.
37
allocated only between 1.3 to 2.0% of the total recurrent budget to agriculture with livestock and animal
health services receiving 0.75 and 0.47% of the total recurrent budget respectively (despite an increase in
the ‘absolute’ amount of the livestock budget by 70% between 1993/94 and 1997/98). Circumstantial
evidences suggest that Sudan comparatively allocates a higher proportion of its recurrent budget to the
animal health sector as compared to Ethiopia or Kenya though the country was not included in the study
mentioned above.
Three inter-related factors are attributable to the current state of things. Firstly, the delivery of animal
health services (including the employment of professionals) has been the domain of the public sector for far
too long. Secondly, with the decline / stagnation of the economies in the past few years national
governments focused on new priorities which led to a substantial reduction in the proportion of the
recurrent budget allocated for animal health. According to Tambi and Maina (2000), ‘some national
governments quickly cut their veterinary services budget when external funding became available
redirecting the proceeds to other priorities’. Thirdly, despite the growing assertion that the private sector
should play a lead role in the delivery of veterinary services, this has not been achieved to date due to
technical, financial, legislative and in some cases institutional hitches over modalities. So far, the
distribution of veterinary drugs is nearly privatized only in Sudan whereas in Kenya and Ethiopia the
public and the private sector provide this service. In addition, the incorporation of Community – based
Animal Health Workers (CAHW) into mainstream primary veterinary service providers at village level has
not yet been fully endorsed, though they have received varying levels of recognition in each country.
Disease Free Zones, Quarantine Facilities and Holding Grounds
The lack of Disease Free Zones (DFZ) particularly in Ethiopia and Kenya is one apparent outcome of the
under financing (including mismanagement in the past) of the livestock sector. Sudan has established a
Rinderpest DFZ stretching from the Red Sea and Kassala in the Southeast to West Kordofan and the
Northern State embracing 15 of Sudan’s 23 states. The Law in Sudan requires that animals coming to the
DFZ be accompanied with vaccination certificates in order to ensure that the status of the DFZ is maintained.
The recognition of this zone by the OIE, if and when it happens, will obviously boost Sudan’s export
potentials tremendously. Sudan also maintains four quarantine facilities with a capacity to handle 12,000
head of cattle and 223,000 shoats at any given time plus the manpower and the facility to test 20,000 sheep
for brucellosis in 24 hours. By contrast the DFZ that were maintained in Central parts of Kenya and from
which livestock were exported in the past no longer retain that status. The eight quarantine facilities run
jointly by the DVS and the LMD are not providing the same level of service as in the past. Many of the
infrastructures built by the LMD and KMC incorporating holding grounds, stock routes, water pans and
boreholes are in various stages of disrepair (this is also true for Sudan). Ethiopia has never managed to
create a DFZ in the past despite exporting more live animals than Kenya. It is also not clear if there are
plans to create new DFZs. Existing quarantine centers are not properly equipped and some are
inconveniently located (for example, Logia), though there are plans to build four new holding
grounds/quarantine stations. Stock routes and holding grounds destroyed during the war between Ethiopia
and Somalia in the late 1970s have not been repaired since then.
Legislations
National acts governing animal health, livestock products and derivatives need to be updated from time to
time to meet the changing international standards as required by the OIE/FAO/WHO (for exports, imports
and domestic production and distribution). In some cases, new Acts may need to be formulated to cater for
unforeseen circumstances.
Ranches and Feedlots
Ranches are not common in Sudan due to the scarcity of natural vegetation close to the main terminal
markets in the Northern parts of the country. Instead, the seasonality of the flow of livestock has led to the
purchasing of cattle in bulk and keeping them in feedlots around major market centers. The feedlots operate
in 60 to 120 days cycles with average weight gains of about 1.5 kg per head. Cattle are usually fed on
38
sorghum, oil cakes, groundnuts, molasses etc. Increasing numbers of commercial farmers are becoming
involved in feedlot operations apart from the traditional livestock traders and wholesale butchery owners.
This indicates the profitability of the business despite complaints of price increases in cattle feed. The
feedlots play a critical role in supplying livestock to the terminal markets during the lean season (March to
June) when prices go up.
Feedlots that proliferated around Nazareth and Mojo towns of Ethiopia have been forced out of business in
the last five years due to increasing costs and unavailability of concentrate feeds and butchers’ preferences
for pasture-fed cattle. Many of the feedlots had to close since they were unable to service their bank loans.
At the same time, the development of private ranches in Ethiopia has been constrained due to the land
tenure policy that prohibited private ownership of land. Still, land can only be leased and not purchased. In
the past, parastatal ranches were used for producing crossbred heifers and bulls (in which they didn’t
succeed much) and not for commercial production of beef. The few co-operative ranches established some
20 years ago are not operating successfully both as a result of management problems and changes in
government policies.
Of the 454 ranches in Kenya (as at 2000), 215 are destined for subdivision (some are already subdivided),
77 are dormant, and 76 are without status whether they are operational or not. Only 84 (comprising 39
group, 33 private, 3 DAC and 9 cooperatives) of the ranches were operational at December 2000. Of
particular interest is the collapse of the Galana Ranch with a land area of some 877,000 hectares and with
a capacity to accommodate 30,000 head of cattle. Putting up tourist lodges has become a growing trend of
the ranches either to complement their income or because they have failed as ranches for various reasons.
Institutional Issues
Government Focal points
An array of institutions claim to be in charge of livestock marketing in Sudan. The Ministry of Animal
Resources undertakes delivery of animal health and quarantine services along with the certification of
animals for exports. The Ministry also engages in trade protocol negotiations with existing or potential
importing countries (recently with Saudi Arabia, Libya and Malaysia for example). Yet, there is no specific
department that deals with livestock marketing in the ministry. On the other hand, the Ministry of Foreign
Trade believe they are in charge of all external trades including livestock marketing for which it issues export
licences and puts minimum price ceilings (called minimum indicative prices) on the export price of livestock
below which livestock exporters are not allowed to sell. The Ministry also plans to establish a separate
livestock market in Khartoum for the export market. The Animal Resources Bank, on the other hand, also
claims to be the heir apparent of the ex-LMMC (despite being a profit making organisation) and plans to take
over the stock routes and livestock markets built by the latter and currently run by State governments. The
ARB has also set up a livestock market in the Daresalam area of Omdurman. Meanwhile, the State
governments collect hefty taxes from the livestock markets as indicated in volume 1 of this document.
In Ethiopia, the Livestock Marketing Authority (LMA) of the Ministry of Trade is geared to take over
certain roles of the Department of Veterinary services, especially in the areas of quality control and
licensing. The problem arises from the overlapping roles and responsibilities incorporated in the Acts
governing the two institutions. As a result, relationships between the two institutions are not
complementary, to say the least. As a federal institute, the LMA is not represented in regional
governments either, and in the absence of this linkage, it is difficult to envisage how its visions and
strategic plans can be implemented and sustained at the grass-root level. Similarly, regional departments
of veterinary services are not required to report directly to the federal veterinary office. In the meantime,
councils of regional governments collect taxes from livestock markets under several guises.
The LMD and the DVS in Kenya operate under the same Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development
and work in close collaboration with each other. However, LMD’s role in livestock marketing has been
severely limited following its exit from operating in the domestic markets and the decline in live animal
exports from Kenya. As a result, joint operations of the LMD and the DVS (such as joint administrations
39
of the quarantine stations) are no more active. Nevertheless, the potential for collaboration still exists if
the export market is revived. Certain livestock marketing activities, such as the rehabilitation of local
infrastructure and the collection of market data, are intermittently undertaken by NGOs and other
projects outside of the LMD.
Livestock Traders / Tanners Associations
Sudan has three associations consisting of livestock exporters association, meat exporters association and
raw hides and skins exporters association6. Ethiopia has Livestock and Meat Exporters Association7 and a
National Tanners Association. Kenya has formed the Kenya Livestock Marketing Council8. In Sudan and
Ethiopia, the exporters associations, as the name implies, don’t incorporate domestic livestock traders. The
Livestock Marketing Council of Kenya, on the other hand, draws its members from the grass-root level.
However, none of the members has any previous experience of exporting live animals or meat. So far, the
exporters association in Sudan has been influential in the development of export-friendly policies. The
association in Ethiopia has arranged for its members to participate in a trade exhibition in Dubai. The
Kenyan Livestock Marketing Council has set itself a number of ambitious objectives.
The associations face a number of problems. First, the imposition of the RVF ban has effectively limited the
roles and services to be provided by these associations.9 As a result, the number of members has dwindled
in Ethiopia and Sudan (numbers may have revived again in Sudan since the lifting of the ban). Second, the
associations in Kenya and Ethiopia in particular are handicapped by financial constraints, as member’s
contribution is minimal. Subsequently, the associations had to rely on ALRMP (in Kenya) and LMA (in
Ethiopia) for the provision of office space and secretarial services. Third, the associations are beset by
technical limitations to achieve the objectives they have set. In Sudan, the rumour is that some exporters
may not even know their actual costs when exporting livestock to the Gulf. In Ethiopia, the Tanners
Association does not have the relevant facts concerning its industry. The Kenyan marketing council is not
familiar with the export market in general terms.
Domestic Livestock Trade
Market yard facilities
Facilities, where they existed, are run down in all the three countries. These include feed and water
troughs, livestock scales, loading rumps, crushes etc. In many cases, such facilities were built by livestock
marketing projects whereas the market yards were and still are owned by the local councils. When the
livestock marketing projects were phased out, the council’s couldn’t see why they should spend money on
maintaining the infrastructure as long as they collected their taxes with or without the facilities. The
underlying reason for this state of affairs is that the infrastructure and the equipment were provided freely to
the councils by livestock projects in the first place. Since then, many of the secondary, primary and in some
cases terminal markets have been operating without such facilities all along. Some of these markets may not
even be fenced at all.
Law enforcement
Two contrasting cases are presented here for comparison. (i) The Law in Kenya stipulates that animals
coming to the terminal market in Nairobi from high-risk areas should be immediately slaughtered. As a
result, the Dagoretti market has no facilities for keeping livestock overnight. This law is strictly enforced that
traders are obliged to sell their animals on the day of arrival. The implication of this, particularly regarding
price, is obvious. (ii) The city council of Addis Ababa has designated livestock markets. Yet, nearly all the
shoats (and particularly sheep) are sold in any corner of the city in a haphazard manner.
6
7
8
9
Unfortunately, members of the live animals and meat exporters associations were not met during the field trip.
Formed with the support of the Livestock Marketing Authority
Formed with the support of Arid Lands Resource Management Project
The result of relying on one market.
40
Taxation
It suffices to say that livestock are the most repeatedly (and perhaps the most highly) taxed agricultural
commodity group in the region en route to their final destinations. For example, traders pay as many as 20
types of taxes between points of purchase and destinations / final exit points in Sudan. Traders in Ethiopia
are also subjected to paying transit and sales taxes of widely varying nature within the country.10 Kenyan
livestock traders may not pay fees and taxes as in many places as in Sudan or Ethiopia. However, the total
amount they pay still remains significant.
Transport Costs
Transport constitutes a major cost factor in livestock trade whether in Ethiopia, Kenya or Sudan. In
Kenya, transport costs constitute between 25 and 40% of the total price of a head of cattle. In addition, truck
owners regard livestock transportation as a captive market. For example, a 10-ton truck costing 35,000
shillings between Nairobi and Moyale would cost between 50 and 70,000 shillings in the reverse direction
when bringing livestock. As a result, in both Kenya and Ethiopia, traders prefer trekking livestock if the
prevailing security situation permits them to do so. Trekking, however, can be expensive in Sudan. It may
cost up to $154 per head of cattle from West Kordofan to Khartoum (takes about 75 days).11
Intermediate Costs and Cartels
Too many middlemen affect the efficiency of the livestock markets in the region. This problem is highly
pronounced particularly in Sudan where livestock may change hands 2 to 6 times until they reach the
terminal markets. Even then, the final transaction in the terminal markets is also carried out through
middlemen on commission basis. Many times, livestock also change hands without actual change of
ownership in Sudan for which payments will be effected much later. Terminal livestock prices, as a result,
end up3 or 4 times higher than the producer’s price. In Kenya, middlemen play a critical role in the
Dagoretti terminal market since they operate as the interface between the livestock traders and the
butcheries in town. This entails buying cattle from the traders and selling the meat to the butcheries instead
of the butchery owners buying the livestock directly from the livestock traders. In short, they act as a cartel
group. In the terminal market of Kéra in Addis Ababa, an increasing number of ex-soldiers are operating as
middlemen (with the added advantage of knowing how to intimidate civilians). They charge a commission of
about US$30 per cow in addition to the margins they make between the price asked for by the trader and the
offer made by the buyer (by keeping the two parties at bay).
Butchery owners are perhaps the most powerful group in the livestock marketing chain since they happen
to be at the sharp end of the business interfacing the customers. Their power is amply demonstrated by the
fact that the price of meat has been the same for the last five years whether Khartoum, Addis Ababa and
Nairobi12 despite a sharp fall in the prices of livestock from time to time (during 2000 in Kenya, mid to end
2001 in Ethiopia and in 1999 in Sudan).
Diversification
As stated above, the current off-take volume of livestock is determined by price control at the sharp end of
the market. At the same time, potential increases in meat consumptions have been affected by the lack of
diversified value added meat products at affordable prices. The proportion of value added meat products sold
in these countries when compared to the volume of raw meat available in the market is minimal. Value
added meat products could be expensive due to low economies of scale, psychological attributes of marketing
strategies (packaging etc) and technological / management constraints. As a result, only a small proportion of
the population affords to buy such products (Farmers’ Choice’s pork products reach only 2% of the Kenyan
population, though some quantity is exported to neighbouring countries).13
10
11
12
13
Total fees and taxes for export may vary from as low as Birr 3 to Birr 126.75 per head of cattle, from Br 1 to Br 28.51 per sheep and from Br 1 to Br 40 per goat depending on the region where the livestock were purchased.
See volume 1 of this document for details.
An interesting case is that the price of a Kg of medium quality beef is the same in Nairobi city and rural Marsabit.
Personal communication with the manager of Farmer’s Choice.
41
Producing for the Market
One common perception about pastoralists is that they are not keen to sell their animals (even in times of
hardship) for reasons of security against future losses, wealth status in the community, non-integration into
cash economy etc. Some also say that access to ‘free’ pasture and water is what keeps pastoralists from
selling their livestock readily in the markets. Both observations state facts.
Over time, however, the attitude of pastoralists is changing, as a result of their gradual integration into
the cash economy for a variety of reasons. Though at slow rate, this change of attitude is taking place as
demonstrated by the overwhelming interest of pastoralists to sell their animals in the 1999-2001 drought
intervention programmes in Kenya. In fact, pastoralists would have sold more animals (even at normal
times), had it not been for some inherent problems in the domestic livestock market structure. Firstly, the
volume of the national meat demand is determined by the price of meat14 at butchery outlets (controlled by
the cartel group) rather than by the supply level of livestock. In short, the butchery outlets control the
supply level. As a result, in as far as there is no increase in the national demand for red meat (or for the
export market), pastoralists have nowhere to sell their livestock even if they want to since the domestic
markets are conveniently ‘saturated’. Secondly, due to their transhumant nature they are mostly far away
from places where they can buy their ‘wants’ – such as sugar, tea, veterinary drugs etc15. In other words,
their physical location determines on how much they would spend on their ‘wants’. If not, they have to
forego without satisfying their wants for which they don’t need to raise cash, as there is no motive.
Thirdly, pastoralists in general have limited ‘wants’ in comparison to other sectors of the population. They,
therefore, require limited amount of cash even if they have the capacity to raise more by selling more
animals. In fact, the difference between those pastoralists who comparatively sale more livestock (like the
Somalis) and those selling few (the Afars, Turkanas and a number of tribes in West Sudan) is basically one
of a difference in the ‘size and varieties of wants’ between these groups.16
The export trade
Taxation
Exporters have to pay a myriad of taxes and fees at the national level for exporting live animals or
chilled/frozen meat particularly from Ethiopia and Sudan. This is in addition to what they pay in fees and
taxes for local councils. Many of the Government institutions traders have to deal with (see Institutional
matters, Government Focal Points 4.1 above) in Sudan or Ethiopia charge some kind of fees and taxes from
exporters. The full list of taxes imposed on exporters by regional and federal governments of Ethiopia and
Sudan is provided in the volume I of this document. Of late, however, the Ministry of Finance in Sudan has
taken some commendable steps in rescinding all federal taxes for a period of 3 months to encourage exports.
Inadequate Financial and Technical Services
Trade Finance / Capital Investments
Financial services are not easily available. Even when they are, the cost of servicing loans particularly in
Sudan and Kenya is very high. Sudan has established a separate bank solely for livestock related businesses
under the name of the Animal Resources Bank. This Bank has some 21 branches throughout the country.
The Bank provides trade finance on short-term basis for transport, customs, LCs and LGs on conditions that
repayments are made within 2-4 months. In fact, since Bank interest is not allowed in Sudan, the Bank
operates in a form of short-term partnership with exporter/s, whereby profit is shared between the parties
according to the contributions made under a system called Muharaba. The current level of Muharaba
translates into an interest rate of around 24%. The Bank also doubles as a trading house whereby it buys
livestock from secondary and terminal markets and sell them at cost plus profit to exporters.
There are no specialized livestock banking services in Ethiopia or Kenya and exporters have to get such
services from high street commercial banks in general. However, the current interest rate that runs at
14
15
16
For example, it defies all logic why the price of a kilogram of an average quality meat cut is the same in Marsabit and Nairobi.
In what seems an irony, one of the complaints made by villagers near Tabaka, Mandera, was the distance of the nearest butchery to buy meat.
Sugar, tea, rice and electronics are popular consumable items among the Somalis.
42
around 24% in Kenya and Sudan17 (the latter under the Muharaba system) is too high for livestock
exporters, especially if one considers the fact that livestock export business is not always profitable.18 For
example, a number of traders who took loans from the Bank in Sudan and lost money after exporting
livestock were put in prison.
Banks, obviously, need collaterals to advance loans. Unfortunately, exporting livestock is a highly capital
intensive business (the reason why the trust system has flourished in Sudan, Somalia and to some extent
in Ethiopia and Kenya in the first place) for which raising collaterals is beyond the means of most traders.
For example, Australia and New Zealand use large vessels that can carry up to 140,000 sheep per voyage.
With a CIF price of, say $30 per sheep at Jeddah, the capital outlay per voyage is over $4 million. None of
the exporters in Sudan, Somalia, Kenya or Ethiopia operate with this level of capital.
Rural credit services, where they exist, are usually limited to Grameen type banks lending small amount of
money to women groups for petty trading. Many livestock traders therefore rely on the ‘trust system’ to
overcome this problem. Even if loans are available, traders would opt to forego them because of the high
interest rate.
Financial problems have led to investment problems. For example interested parties in Kenya have not
been able to raise money for feasibility studies to set up export standard abattoirs. A would-be exporter in
Kenya, who has imported slaughterhouse machinery from Sweden, has not been able to raise money for the
purchase of livestock and to put a structure to house the abattoir. Another gentleman who claims to have
secured a business contract with Egypt for the supply of camels is not able to raise the necessary capital. In
Sudan, the ARB, in one particular case, has built (through PTA financing) and sold an export standard
abattoir for cash.
Letter of Credit
Ethiopia and Kenya require Letter (s) of Credit (LC) to authorise livestock exports. Sudan has relaxed this
requirement and uses less conventional methods by which exporters are allowed to bring their foreign
exchange earnings after selling their livestock in the Saudi markets. European, New Zealand and Australian
exporters extend credit lines of up to 2 months when exporting livestock to the Gulf countries. Somali
exporters also extend credit lines to importers when they take animals to the Gulf without receiving orders.
Access to Foreign Exchange Earnings
The success of Somali livestock exporters in running the country’s economy is because of their access to
foreign exchange earnings allowing them to import essential commodities into the country. The new liberal
policy in Sudan also allows exporters to access their foreign exchange earnings and dispose them as they
want either for importing goods, sell it to the bank or to third parties. Exporters may not be able to access
own foreign exchange earnings in Kenya since this is available in the open market. In Ethiopia, exporters (or
for that matter importers) can only access foreign exchange through the bi-weekly auctions at the National
Bank.
Technical Constraints
At times, investments are made without any or based on poor feasibility studies. In either case, the
‘barriers of entry’19 don’t warrant such kinds of investments. In this regard, Nyala slaughterhouse (in
Western Sudan) is a case in point. The decision to build this export standard slaughterhouse was taken on
the single merit of its proximity to supply sources. The critical facts that there are no scheduled international
flights to Nyala and that the local market was too small to absorb the offal produced by the slaughterhouse
were not taken into consideration. This necessitated the use of chartered planes for transporting chilled
meat/mutton to export destinations and a significant proportion of the offal produced being dumped since
there was no market for it locally. In any case, the savings from lower livestock prices could not offset the
17
18
19
The interest rate is xx% in Ethiopia.
For example, livestock could be rejected from entering the importing country on grounds of health.
These include legal, financial, technological, political, cultural etc barriers.
43
high-chartered freight costs and the dumping of otherwise valuable offal. Eventually, the slaughterhouse had
to close down.
The purchase of five industrial abattoirs by Elfora Co. in Ethiopia provides another example. The abattoirs
use nearly obsolete machinery. Elfora’s initial success in supplying canned beef and vegetable to the
Ministry of Defence couldn’t continue when the Ministry stopped making orders. The company should have
explored and secured alternative markets while supplying the Ministry of Defence. In addition, a proper
feasibility study should have taken place before the purchase of the plants if canned meat could be
exported profitably from Ethiopia. Because the more processed the meat is the less profitable it is in
international markets (live animals followed by chilled / frozen meat are more profitable than canned
meat). The fate of the industrial abattoirs is not certain at the moment.
The impact of poor feasibility studies is perhaps strongly reflected on the tannery industry. It appears that
the national supply volume of hides and skins is not taken into account by investors and the relevant
authorities when deciding and approving to set up new tanneries. In Ethiopia, 49 skins and hides
investment projects were submitted to the Ethiopian Investment Agency (EIA) between 1992 and1999
while existing tanneries at the time couldn’t get enough supplies. One hundred and six leather industries
were also awarded investment certificates by the Authority during the same period. Meanwhile, shortages
of raw hides and skins supplies and the high cost of chemicals are significantly affecting the tannery
industry in all the three countries. As a result, some tanneries have been closed and some operate as low as
at 10% of their capacity. The shortage of supplies is particularly exacerbated in Kenya and Sudan by the
export of raw hides and skins. Presently, many tanneries and companies producing leather articles in
Sudan, Ethiopia and Kenya are in precarious situations due to cheap imports.
Shortage of cold chain facilities and cargo space
Shortages of cold chain facilities at Addis Ababa and Khartoum airports limit the amount of chilled/frozen
meat to be exported at any given time. Moreover, chilled/frozen meat exports take place using the available
cargo space on scheduled passenger flights. When cargo space is not available, exporters are forced to take
back the consignments to their own cold chain facilities. Exporters complain that scheduled airlines freight
costs are high. Chartered flights are even more expensive since exporters are charged for the round trip.
Somali exporters, however, use chartered planes in both directions bringing in merchandise in the inbound
trip. As a result, the cost of chartered flights is less expensive in Somalia than in Sudan or Ethiopia.
Conditioning live animals for export
Gulf Importers complain that livestock from the Greater Horn countries arrive in poor physical shape
despite the proximity of the two regions. This happens due to a variety of reasons: Livestock are transported
in dhows and boats that are not specifically designed for this purpose; overcrowding and suffocation; lack of
feed and water during the voyage including lack of attention and the immediate transfer of livestock from
land to sea without any acclimatization etc.
On the other hand, despite a sea voyage involving some 17-21 days, livestock from Australia and New
Zealand arrive in good physical shape. Exporters from these countries use large vessels specifically
designed for this purpose (with capacities to carry up to 140,000 sheep at a time). Ample feed and water
are provided during the voyage. Livestock are checked regularly for any kind of disease symptoms, bruising
or physical injury and those that are not deemed fit for the markets are disposed into the sea. More
importantly, livestock are conditioned for about five days close to or at the port of embarkation before they
are transferred aboard the vessels. This involves mainly acclimatizing them with the feed (while still on
land) they are to be served on board. Australian and New Zealand exporters emphasize that conditioning
the livestock at or close to the port of embarkation is key to the arrival of livestock in good physical shape
at destinations.
Rolling Quarantine
Quarantine procedures are a must particularly for live animal exports. This period of observation lasts for
21 days before the livestock are shipped. This is an expensive (but nonetheless mandatory) procedure in
terms of feed, water and other overhead costs particularly if large numbers of animals are involved. Some
44
countries like Sudan are now adapting a rolling quarantine method where livestock are inspected while on
the move to cut on costs. Ethiopia and Kenya need to emulate this system.
Pre-shipment Holding grounds /Quarantine Stations
Exporters complain that the quarantine facility at Port Sudan (with a capacity to hold 4,000 cattle/camel
and 71,000 shoats) is not big enough to accommodate large number of animals during peak export season.
This problem is more pronounced at the port of Djibouti. The present capacity of the holding ground in
Djibouti may not hold more than 2,000 shoats or their equivalent in cattle. Various attempts by private
Ethiopian exporters to access and improve the capacities and facilities of the pre-shipment quarantine station
at Djibouti have not yielded fruit for inexplicable reasons. As things are, the volume of live animal exports
from Ethiopia will be limited by the capacity of the quarantine station at Djibouti among other things.
External markets information gap
One apparent area of weakness is the lack of interest and capacity to collect regular market information
from livestock importing countries. Ethiopia and Kenya are particularly disadvantaged in this regard as they
are not involved in active live animal exports at the moment. However, even Sudan that has been actively
engaged in live animals and meat exports (both in the past and after the lifting of the RVF ban by Saudi
Arabia) does not collect vital market information on regular and systematic basis. The apparent indifference
to collect this information comes from a misunderstanding about the dynamics of the export market and the
wrong perception that the markets will always function in a similar manner. For reasons of simplicity, we
suggest that regular and systematic market information be collected across four major areas (the Saudi
Arabian market is used here as an example since it represents the largest livestock market in the Gulf
Region).
Regular information on local production, market trends20, attitudes, GDP, changing habits of the
consumers, changes in distribution channels, substitute products, demographical changes etc.
For example, Saudi Arabia’s population of 21 million (includes 7 million ex-pats and guest workers) is
growing faster than the economy. Nominal GDP has gone from $18,800 in 1981 to $6,700 in 199521. Despite
the decline in GDP, the market for consumer-ready food products is increasing. There are about 230 large
modern western-style supermarkets, hundreds of corner grocery stores and most major fast food chains. The
number of cold storage warehouses and food processing plants has increased significantly. The market for
frozen meats and vegetables is growing with every supermarket having a frozen food section. Agriculturally,
Saudi Arabia has become the world’s largest date producer surpassing Iraq. The Government encourages
local farmers to diversify into livestock (sheep and camels) poultry and dairy production. Sheep production
increased from 6.9 million in 1992 to 10.6 million in 1996. Red meat production reached 363,000 tons in 1998
though it declined to 207,450 tons in 1999. Local poultry production reached 374,000 tons in 1998 and
397,200 tons in 199922. Broiler chickens increased by 13.6 percent23 in 1997. Since 1998, Saudi Arabia has
been producing 816,000 tons of dairy products. The Kingdom’s food and dairy exports reached 760,000 tons in
1998 with revenues of approximately $443.46 million24.
Obtaining timely information on Tariffs, Rules, Regulations and Trade Restrictions imposed by
importing countries and the need to comply with such requirements.
Tariffs, rules and restrictions are imposed from time to time either to protect domestic producers or to
thwart perceived fear of importing diseases. The importance of obtaining such information and trying to
redress it, if possible, can’t be overemphasized in view of the impact of the RVF ban imposed on the region.
The ban has coasted Sudan $170 million in one year and Somalia some $ 30.6 million in a period of five
months.25 Other related measures taken by Saudi Arabia include:
20
21
22
23
24
25
Idrisi, a former live animals exporter from Kenya states that ‘the old Arabs that liked our animals are no more. The new generation of the Middle East is so westernized they are even rumored to eat forbidden products’.
Tradeport, Trade Directory, 2002. Saudi Arabia, Food Market Reports
Arab Organisation for Agricultural Development (AOAD), 2000. Arab Agricultural Statistics Yearbook.
U.S. – Saudi Arabian Business Council, 2002. The Agricultural Sector in Saudi Arabia
Ibid
Steffen et al, 1998. The Livestock Embargo by Saudi Arabia: A Report on the Economic, Financial and Social Impact on Somaliland and Somalia
45
•
The banning of offal imports (liver, tongue, kidney, brain, stomach etc) including the extraction of
spinal cords for chilled/frozen meat on fear of BSE;
•
The banning of live animal and meat imports on fear of BSE and FMD from European, Asian and
Latin American suppliers;
•
Reduced shelf life Regulations for food and agricultural products;
•
The International Conformity Certification Programme (ICCP) which requires pre-inspection and
testing in the country of origin of 76 product categories, 11 of which are food and agricultural. Eight
revisions of procedural guidelines were issued for the enforcement of ICCP.
The Saudi import tariff on most food product was 12% ad valorem, except for imports that compete with
domestic production, such as poultry meat for which the tariff rate was 20%. In recent years, however,
Saudi Arabia has dropped tariffs from 20 to 12% for protected products and from 12 to 5% for many other
goods.
The imposition of bans on the grounds of RFV, BSE and FMD on African, Asian and European livestock
imports over the past 20 months provided an opportunity for Australia and New Zealand to stay as the
only suppliers of live sheep and lamb meat to the kingdom. However, both Australia and New Zealand
were not capable of supplying the required quantities of sheep and lamb meat at competitive prices. As a
result, prices of live sheep, fresh and frozen lamb in Saudi Arabia went up by 100, 300 and 200 percent26
respectively compelling local sheep traders to pay premium prices for domestic male and female sheep
stock (breaching the Saudi Ministry of Agriculture’s long standing ban on the slaughtering of local female
sheep stock less than 8 years old). The fear of depleting the local female sheep stock (Naimi and Najdi
breeds) particularly during the winter mating season and as a result of the approaching Haj season (2002)
at the time was what persuaded the Saudi authorities to lift the ban on Sudan (though a livestock import
protocol was signed between the two countries). The ban on Syria and Jordan was lifted later while it is
still effective on Kenya, Ethiopia, Somalia, Eritrea, Djibouti and Yemen.
Knowing what the competitors are doing
The Gulf region enjoys one of the world’s highest per capita incomes and population growth and provides a
food market worth $35 billion.27 The region’s population also involves a smorgasbord of nationalities. Saudi
Arabia has 71% nationals while in UAE it is only 20% (with nearly 2/3rd Asians and about 15% from Middle
Eastern countries). Bahrain’s population comprises 61% nationals while in Kuwait it is about 1/3rd. In Oman
more than two-thirds are nationals while in Qatar it is just under one-third.28
As competition is becoming more intense suppliers are employing a variety of marketing strategies to reach
the different market segments (stratified by income, ethnic group, age, religious beliefs etc) in the Gulf.
Many EU countries, Egypt, Thailand, China, India, Australia and New Zealand are active in offering
different forms of promotional assistance to local importers to increase sales. These include: i) subsidies; ii)
price and payment terms such as credit facilities and price discounts on bulk buys; and iii) promotional
activities such as TV and magazine advertising; in store promotions; give aways; point of sale material and
other merchandising support; incentive buy programs and off-location displays. For example, France and
Brazil gained ground in the frozen poultry sector through attractive subsidies29; other EC countries have
offered favourable credit facilities such as 60 days payment30. In the meat area, Australia and New
Zealand are active in providing point of sale material to supermarkets in order to encourage shoppers to
try Australian lamb or dairy products from New Zealand. Australian meat is regularly advertised on Saudi
TV. In fact, the Saudi consumer has become a discriminating consumer, looking more closely at labels and
price than before. As bar coding becomes more popular, many like products are expected to be eliminated.
26
27
28
29
30
Gain Report #SA2005, 2002. Saudi Arabia: Livestock and Products – The Kingdom Lifts Ban on Imports of Live Sheep from Syria and Jordan 2002
Global Supermarket, 2002. Middle Eastern Ingredient.
Ibid
Saudi Arabia is self sufficient in this sector now
Tradeport 2002
46
Distributors are routinely charged rent by supermarket managers for gondola space to introduce and test
market new products. The gross margins charged by supermarkets range from 10 to 35%, depending on the
degree of sophistication and modernity of the store.
Surveying new markets and diversifying products
Understandably, the Gulf is a major market for live animals and meat exports. However, total reliance on
this market alone could lead to unpredictable and economically devastating situations as with the current
RVF ban imposed on the region. Apart from health-related reasons, it should be borne in mind that such bans
could be imposed at any time and on any country unilaterally or collectively for political, commercial and
other reasons as felt necessary by the importing country/ies.
Regional approaches
The way to move forward for the Greater Horn countries is to develop a regional rather than unilateral
approach while remaining competitive with each other. A regional strategy is necessary in view of the
increasingly poor performance of the GH countries in the export market. For example, prior to 1973, Somalia
had 90% of the Saudi market, but was unable to keep pace with its growth. Australia became the principal
supplier in the mid 80’s shipping out some 3.5 million sheep annually from almost nothing 20 years earlier.
Similarly, Turkey was able to increase its exports to Saudi from almost nothing 10 years earlier to around 1.4
million sheep in the mid 80’s31.
In comparison, GHA countries have failed to supply consistently let alone dominating the Gulf markets as
should have been the case considering their geographical proximity and cultural ties. The failure of GHA
countries is attributed to their own inefficiencies - at times, leading to the imposition of bans by importing
countries (which in some cases is unjustified). In the process, the Gulf and the Middle East market has
been dominated by such giants as Australia, New Zealand and some European countries with which any
GHA country can’t compete unilaterally. It is therefore time for GHA countries to think of regional
collaboration since what can’t be achieved unilaterally may be accomplished regionally. Such collaborations
could be achieved through the formation of Regional Live Animals and Meat Exporters Association,
Regional Tanners Association etc. These associations could work closely with the proposed African –
Arabian livestock Trade Commission (of OAU-IBAR) for mutual benefit. The Associations and the
Commission could play complementary roles for boosting the export potential of the region. Some of the
perceived benefits of regional collaboration are listed below.
31
Ronco Consulting Corporation. International Market for Livestock Somalia, 1987
47
Opportunities and challenges of hides and skins trade in Ethiopia
Girma Mekonnen
Livestock Marketing Authority, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Abstract
Ethiopia has been exporting hides & skins in the past 100 years. Hides & skins represent major source of foreign
exchange earnings for the country accounting to 14-16% of the total export revenue. The country has big potential to
develop the sub-sector.
The paper reviews available published and unpublished literature in an attempt to show the development
opportunities and constraints facing the hides & skins industry in the country.
Different policies adopted by the Federal Government of Ethiopia, availability of cheep labor force and availability of
the resource base create conducive environment especially for being competent in trading in hides & skins in the
world market. However, the trade in the sub-sector is constrained by various structural, production, information
exchange, and promotional problems. Recommendations are developed based on the discussion of these problems.
They include:-Designing of shorter market channel, improvement of trade licensing procedure, establishment of
purchase by grade system for raw hides & skins, skill development of market forces, planning for transformation
from export of semi-processed to finished products, delivery of current market information, development of product
promotion strategies etc.
Implementation of these recommendations is believed to help develop the sector resulting in maximization of the
economic and financial benefits obtainable from the industry.
Introduction
Hides, skins, leather & leather products are the most widely traded commodities in the world with their
total export value of US$ 44 billion. These products combined rank first in important exportable agricultural
commodities like, meat, rubber, cotton, coffee, tea, rice & tobacco (FAO, 2001). The value takes 41% of the
combined export values of these commodities.
Ethiopia being one of the countries with large livestock base in the world has been one of the suppliers of
hides and skins to different consumers for nearly a century. Products exported from this origin are known
to have unique characteristics in compactness in fiber and utilizability for different leather products.
During the last 100 years of export experience, different development interventions have been made by the
Government of Ethiopia to enhance the improvement of the raw material quality and increase the volume
of products entering the formal market chain. As a result the volume of products collected by the tanning
industries have increased and gradual improvements in products handling, and hence in quality, observed.
At the same time, export volume has increased corresponding with the number and total soaking capacity
of tanning industries. The marketing process, on the other hand, follows more of the traditional way
without showing any significant change towards modern marketing practices.
The hide & skin industry faces numerous intricate challenges in its development. The problems can be
classified into organizational, supply side, demand side, promotional and informational.
This paper reviews available published and gray literature to show the potential the country has and the
challenges the hide and skins industry faces, and based on this, develops specific recommendations.
Development opportunities of the resource base
Ethiopia's economy is predominantly agricultural where the livestock sub-sector plays substantial role. Its
share of livestock holdings is 2.4%, 11.15%, 35.5%, 23% and 3.1% when compared with the total livestock
population of the world, East Africa, COMESA member countries and all developing countries respectively
(FAO, 2001). Though different data sources put different figures for the number of live animals in Ethiopia,
the estimate in 1998/99 indicates that there are 34.1 million heads of cattle, 30.5 million heads of sheep, 21.1
49
million heads of goats (MEDAC, 1999). This resource base constitutes a great potential for hide & skin
production, with estimated total annual output of 2.38 million cattle hides, 10.07 million sheep skins and 7.38
million goat skins based on 7%, 33% and 35% off-take rate for cattle, sheep and goats, respectively.
Hides & skins from the highland areas of the country are preferred to those of the lowlands in the foreign
market, because these are known to have unique characteristics of compactness and utilizability for
different end products for sports wear, garments, gloves, shoes and hand bags for ladies. The average share
of livestock, livestock products and by-products over the years 1997/98-2000/01 of total export earning was
11% with hides & skins alone accounting for 90%of these. During the year 2000/01 leather & leather
product sub-sector was the second foreign currency generator with an export value of US$ 74.1 million
(Export Promotion Agency, 2001). Generally, hides, skins and leather represent the major source of foreign
currency for the country accounting for 14-16% of the total export revenue.
Export of raw hides and skins started about 1900. Privately owned tanneries were established in the first
quarter of the century which afterwards were nationalized by the socialist government of Ethiopia. They
processed mainly hides for the domestic market. Until 1975, only some quantities of hides & skins were
processed into leather and leather products, exclusively for domestic use.
Following liberalization of the economy after the 1991 change of government, private companies have
established substantial numbers of tanneries. These companies export mainly semi-processed products.
Export of finished products is negligible. Traditional tanners also absorb substantial quantities of hides &
skins for processing and manufacture of traditional household articles including farm implements,
furniture, saddles and traditional musical instruments.
In Ethiopia annual per capita consumption of food of animal origin, particularly of meat is very low (7.4
kg). However, this is assumed to grow with the improvement in income per head and population growth,
leading to increased slaughter of animals and hides & skin production. In addition, the following favorable
conditions provide opportunities for the development of the sector to exploit the export market.
•
Conducive policy environment to promote export of such commodities,
•
Availability of cheap labor force for the leather industry,
•
Availability of preferential access to the European market,
•
Close proximity to export markets in the Middle East and neighboring African countries,
•
Capacity of tanneries for expansion which can be used for further production of finished leather
products by making some technological adjustments,
•
Establishment of different institutions that can have direct impact on the production and marketing
of quality hides and skins.
However, the development potential is still constrained by structural and operational challenges.
Stakeholders of the marketing chain and challenges of the process
The market chain is stretched in space and time starting from the point of slaughter to the markets where
end products are supplied. The commodity passes through different hands with or without changing its form.
The market is generally very wide with long channel in which different market forces with different trading
capacities are involved.
Primary producers
Individual households that slaughter animals for home consumption, licensed butchers and those who
slaughter animals collectively to share the meat are grouped as primary producers of hides and skins. Hides
& skins from individual and collective slaughters of animals are supplied to the collectors in fresh form
without even preservative treatment. Most of the butchers sell well-preserved hides to big suppliers through
slaughterhouses on tender basis. However there are situations where fresh hides are supplied in cases where
curing capacity is limited in existing slaughterhouses, or even when there are no slaughter facilities at all.
These non-uniformity not only complicates any development intervention, but also inflates marketing costs.
50
Collectors
Both licensed and unlicensed traders are involved in collecting hides and skins from primary producers at
the point of slaughter or in small markets. All these traders have limited financial capacity and mostly work
on finances supplied by higher-level traders or tanners. They mostly operate on public holidays when there
are relatively high slaughtering activities. They collect the fresh product and supply it either to higher-level
traders or directly to tanners with whom they previously developed exchange relationships.
The number and distribution of these traders has not been exhaustively studied yet, however, they are
assumed to concentrate in towns and traditional markets, leaving the periphery and lowlands of the
country partially unattended. Skins of the lowland areas are said to have lower demand in the domestic
market since they are considered as fatty and not containing compact fibers.
Small traders in this group are required to organize themselves with sufficient facilities like shades for
keeping hides & skins until they are sold to the next recipient. Such preservation facilities are not found
according to the requirement. These coupled with unfavorable climate in which collectors operate
contribute partly to the supply of lower quality hides & skins.
Big suppliers
The traders classified in this group are those who make bulk purchases from either smaller traders or
slaughterhouses and supply to tanneries. They are stationed in bigger towns where the size of transaction
warrants their investment, and where marketing facilities are conducive. They are relatively well organized
and have large financial capacity as to support small traders or collectors. They can also serve as creditors
since they partly finance the market in the absence of formal financial institutions.
They usually form two-way trade relationships with collectors as well as buyers to ensure the collected raw
hides & skins are timely channeled to processing plants.
Data collected from tanneries shows that there are more than 800 licensed suppliers in the country.
However, there is an increasing number of non-licensed traders participating in the market as a result of
misinterpretation and improper implementation of the Commercial Registration & Business Licensing
Proclamation No.-67/1997 which hampered the operation of licensed traders. This proclamation, which
allows any trader with capital less than birr 5000 to trade without license for professional competence, has
contributed to the deterioration of hides & skins quality.
Though they are relatively better organized and have sufficient knowledge on handling of hide & skin
products, most of them do not have curing shades and other necessary facilities that can meet standard
requirements of modern markets.
Slaughterhouses and abattoirs
These are premises that give slaughtering services to meat exporters, butchers and individual consumers.
Most of them undertake preservation activities for hides & skins obtained from the slaughtering operations
and sell them on tender basis either to suppliers or tanners.
Technically these are considered the most appropriate suppliers of raw hides & skins in the modern
market structure. With the exception of those situated in bigger towns, slaughterhouses/slabs in smaller
towns may not have the necessary facilities for product preservation. There are situations when they give
hides back to the sellers.
Traditional tanners
The number & capacity of stakeholders in this group has not been exhaustively studied. However, their
distribution is assumed countrywide. Their involvement in the market is significant that the volume of raw
product they absorb especially of hides is nearly equivalent to that of tanning industries.
They collect their supplies mostly from primary producers and small traders in their vicinities.
Nevertheless, they also buy from big suppliers especially when prices fall in the world market with
subsequent fall in demand for raw products in the country. In such a situation, they manage to pay better
prices as compared to prices paid by tanning industries.
51
Tanning industries
Tanning industries buy raw hides & skins from slaughterhouses and suppliers or they make their own
purchases by deploying authorized collectors during big holidays. They supply semi-processed and finished
leather to external markets. They also supply part of their products to local leather industries. Each of these
tanneries has its own suppliers in different regions of the country. There are 19 tanneries in operation now
and 3 others are under construction. In addition to these, 18 new investors have taken licenses to construct
their own tanning industries (Export Promotion Agency, 1999).
Except four of these, which are parastatals, many of the industries have been established after 1991. All
are organized under a Tanners' Association with the objective of addressing their common problems
together.
Data collected in 2000 shows that 17 industries including the state owned shows that they have the
capacity to process up to 2.6 million hides and 29.1 million skins. An estimated total of 1.07 million hides
and 14.3 million sheep and goat skins reach the tanning industries. This shows that industries operate at
41% and 49% of their soaking capacity for hides & skins, respectively.
About 70% of the industries are located around Addis Ababa. Their location indicates that nearness to the
raw material was not considered in their establishment other than the location advantage of nearness to
foreign market outlet including other advantages as easy access to market services and developed
infrastructures.
Transport enterprises
Private & government transport companies are included in this group. Their role is in transport of the
raw as well as processed products between components of the market.
The majority of the raw products flow to tanning industries and only some of it to traditional tanners
through collectors and dealers. The flow of raw hides & skins does not always follow the hierarchy of
traders but there are times when traders or tanners buy fresh products direct from primary producers.
From this, the product is supplied to the next consumer in the domestic or foreign markets, after either
partial or full processing. Consumers in the foreign markets could be end product producers or re-tanning
industries for finishing purposes.
Final products of traditional tanners reach consumers through local markets and are used by households
for traditional utilities.
On top of these support services, there are other government institutions, which are involved in the process
of marketing by way of availing different regulatory trade facilitation services. These are: -Chamber of
Commerce of Ethiopia, Ethiopian Customs Authority, Quality & Standards Authority of Ethiopia, Ministry
of Agriculture, National Bank of Ethiopia, Ministry of Health, Maritime and Transit Service Enterprises,
Regional Bureaus of Agriculture, and Livestock Marketing Authority.
The problems that are observed on the market structure are stated below.
52
•
Collectors are not well distributed throughout the regions proportional to the volume of the primary
commodity produced.
•
Market forces do not have sufficient shades & accessories that can facilitate the supply and
production of hide and skin at desired quantity & quality levels.
•
The knowledge of collectors & dealers regarding handling & quality preservation of products
including market management is very low.
•
Absence of sufficient number of slaughterhouses and inefficiency of the existing ones in hides & skins
preservation.
•
Low level of development of infrastructure in the rural and peripheral areas of the country and lack
of efficient transport services.
•
Absence of organized hides and skins suppliers association.
Volume and distribution of the resource base
Quantity & quality
Factors that influence the volume of production are not only the number of animals that a country has.
Other factors such as demographic, social & economic phenomena, which have direct effects on the
determination of the number of slaughtered animals, play significant roles. The size of animals, as an
attribute to breed type, and herd management are also important factors to the volume of production by way
of putting their effect on the weight of the product after slaughter.
Table 1 presents a contrast of distribution of animal population against the contribution to global output of
hides &skins. Developed countries contribute more hides & skin production than the proportion of livestock
they hold from global population. Africa and Ethiopia follow the trend in developing countries that their
production especially of hides is much lower than their livestock holding. The low off-take developing
countries have brought about the disproportionately less contribution of livestock numbers to global
production of hides & skins.
Table 1. Share of Herd Ownership, Hide & Skin Production (FAO 2001)
Bovine animals
Economic Regions
World
Ownership (%)
Sheep
Production
of hides (%)
100
Ownership (%)
100
100
Goat
Production of
skins (%)
100
Ownership (%)
100
Production
of skins (%)
100
Developed countries
22.8
48.8
37.5
48.9
4.4
5.2
Developing countries
77.2
51.2
62.5
51.1
95.6
94.8
Africa
11.4
4.2
15.0
10.2
22.8
15.9
2.3
0.5
2.1
1.5
2.4
2.3
Ethiopia
Note:-
1. Production percentages are calculated from weights of wet salted hides and dry sheep and goatskins
2 Figures include buffaloes, lamb skins & kid skins of bovine animals, sheep & goat respectively.
3. World livestock population, Average of 1997-1999 (mill. Heads)
-Bovine animals:- 1498.7
-Sheep
: - 1055.9
-Goats
:- 696.2
4. World Hides &Skin Production (Thousand tones), Average of 1997-1999
-Bovine Hides & Skins:- 5676.8
-Sheep & Lamb Skins :-
394.7
-Goat & kid Skins
325.8
:-
Over the last 100 years, hides & skins production grew in an increasing trend in general. Bovine hides
production has shown a 16% growth while sheep & goat skins show a growth of 9% & 70% respectively in
the past two decades. The growth is recorded mostly in developing countries reflecting improvements in
cattle husbandry and expansion in meat production.
Far Eastern countries, take the largest share of production especially in bovine hides & sheep skins due to
considerable expansion in tanning capacity. This is shown in Table 2.
Growth trend of Ethiopia's hides & skins production is not sufficiently studied. Nevertheless, it is
positively assumed to show progress in line with the conducive policy environments envisaged for economic
development in the country. Annual average growth rate for hides & skins and goat skins over the years 1993
to 1999 was 1.1, 2.2 and 1.4 respectively (MEDaC, 1999). However, its production is not uniformly distributed
throughout a year, since it is highly affected by social holidays in which major slaughtering of meat animals
takes place.
Table 2. Rate of annual growth in output by type and economic zone over 1984-1999
Economic regions
Bovine hides & skins
Sheep & lamb skins
1.0
0.6
3.6
Developed countries
-0.5
-1.1
0.9
Developing countries
2.9
2.8
3.8
Latin America
1.8
0.6
1.9
Africa
1.2
2.8
2.5
Near East
1.5
2.4
3.6
Far East
4.9
4.0
4.3
World
Goat & kid skins
Source: - FAO, 2001
53
Annual production of hides & skins in the country is estimated to be 2.38 million, 10.07 million and 7.38
million for cattle hide, sheep and goat respectively. However, according to the purchase record of tanning
industries in 1994/95 only 45% of hides, 88% of sheep skins & 72% of goat skins are collected by the
tanneries. This is shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Quantity of hides & skins supplied to tanneries in 1994/95.
Product
Supplied
to tanning industries (mill.psc)
Supplied to Traditional Tanners, &
other
users (mill.psc)
Percent Supplied to Tanning
industries
Cattle hides
1.07
1.31
45
Sheep skin
8.9
1.17
88
Goat skin
5.3
2.08
72
Source: Computed from MOA, 1997/98 and MEDaC, 1999 figures
From this one can conclude that tanning industries can maximize utilization of their idle processing
capacities, especially on hides if more raw products are properly supplied to them. In addition to this, idle
capacity utilization can improve if hides & skins from other sources such as camel hides, equine hides,
lamb and kid skins etc. are supplied and processed.
One of the major issues is ensuring the sustainable supply of quality products in sufficient quantity to
satisfy domestic as well as foreign demand. To this end, the implementation of recommended hides &
skins improvement measures by all market forces is highly necessary. However, the intensity of putting
these measures into practice heavily depends on the level of knowledge, operational capacity and working
efficiency of the producers, market forces and those who give service to the trade. The situation in this line
has improved, yet more has to be done so that the sector can sustain its position in an increasingly
competitive world market.
Regional distribution of livestock population, hides & skin production & supply
More than 90% of the Ethiopian livestock resources, especially cattle & sheep, are found in Oromiya,
Amhara, SNNPR and Tigray regions, in that order of importance (CSA, 1999), 80% of the cattle, 75% of the
sheep and 27% of goats are found in the high-lands & mid-high lands where crop cultivation is widely
practiced. The rest is estimated to be found in the lowland areas of the country.
There is no up-to-date data to show regional distribution of the total supply. The share of regions for raw
hides & skins that entered in the warehouses of tanning industries in the year 1995/96 are summarized in
Table 3.
Table 4. Regional livestock population and supply of raw hides & skins
Region
Cattle (mill.
heads)
Hides (%)
Sheep (mill.
heads)
Sheep Skins (%)
Goat (mill.
heads)
Goat Skins (%)
Oromiya
15.37
38.9
9.15
32.9
5.14
26.4
Amhara
8.90
7.3
8.00
34.5
5.23
45.4
SNNPR
6.90
28.9
3.57
16.6
2.58
11.6
Tigray
2.31
-
1.85
7.0
2.74
11.7
Addis Ababa
0.02
19.2
0.02
7.9
-
-
Others
1.5
5.7
1.41
1.1
2.31
4.9
35
100
24
100
18
100
Total
Source: CSA, 1999 and MOA, 1997/98).
The relatively low contribution of the Amhara Region for hides could be attributed to strong competition
from traditional tanners. Traditional leather products are widely used in Amhara and Tigray regions.
Addis Abeba`s contribution is higher because of hides obtained from slaughtering of cattle supplied from
other regions.
Share of each region for sheep skins could be taken as relatively corresponding to the live sheep holding of
each region. However, the share of each region for goat skin shows that Amhara contributes the highest
share followed by Oromiya. This may be attributed to the goat meat preference of the regions. At the
same time, it is presumed that most of the goat skins are not well collected as hides & skins collectors are
scarce towards the peripheries of the country where much of the lowland areas are located.
54
Other related problems
Hides & skins, either in raw or semi-processed form pass through many collectors, dealers, suppliers and
tanning industries until these reach the leather producing industries. Many handling problems affect quality
of the product. The quantity consumed by traditional tanners and that, which is absorbed by contraband
market take away a large proportion of the product from modern processing.
Other factors, which usually have negative effect on quality and tradable quantity, are:
•
Benefit from hides and skins transactions is said not distributed equitably to various actors at every
level of structural echelon, hence becomes a point of dissatisfaction for collectors and suppliers;
•
In many cases, payment is not made to suppliers on delivery of the raw product as the tanning
industries insist to grade the quality of the raw hides & skins after processing. This is said to avoid
payment of higher prices for inconspicuous defects while the product is in raw form.
•
Absence of unequivocal quality standards for raw products. This causes payment prices irrespective
of quality.
•
Involvement of inexperienced traders due to the legal right given to them to work only by trade
registration with out licenses.
•
Lack of market stabilization mechanisms to apply during global price slumps that lead to extended
storage of products.
•
Insufficient road network and poor transport service to collect and deliver the commodities timely to
tanning industries.
Demand for products
Leather products such as shoes, garments, ladies bags & different leather upholstered chairs have become
symbols of high quality and status. The demand for semi-processed and raw hides & skins emanates from the
demand for leather end-products. Though there are many reasons for cyclical changes, factors determining
this demand are increase in per capita income, the supply of synthetic leather and the value attached to
status in society as they relate to use of quality leather products. When the demand for leather products
grow, the demand for raw hides & skins grows as well, encouraging prices to raise. Generally, high demand
for leather products exists in developed countries. It is also fast growing in developing countries with the
development of their economies.
Domestic market
It is estimated that there are about 400 leather industries in the country, which use finished hides & skins
to produce final products. Statistical information of the year 1998 indicates 1.1 million pairs of shoes were
produced in that year (CSA, 1999). Though there is no data showing the volume of finished raw material
used for this purpose, the figure indicates that there is a strong demand for processed leather in the country.
This growing demand needs to be supported technically to help industries improve on the quality of their
products.
Foreign market
Though the production of end products of leather is highly influenced by changes in fashion, technology
and income of the consumer, the demand for leather products is positively changing in the world. FAO's
statistical compendium of the year 2001 indicates that transactions in leather expanded by an annual growth
of 10.2, 2.8% for light bovine leather and, sheep and goat skins, respectively. The highest share goes to the
Far Eastern Countries, which together accounts for about 57% of the global leather trade.
Export volume from Latin America and Africa is shrinking, though production is still increasing. Hides &
skins production of Africa, in which Ethiopia plays very important role in the market is showing 1.2, 2.8
and 2.5% growth of production in Bovine hides, sheep & lamb skins and goat & kidskins respectively.
However, export volume has decreased for both bovine hides (-1.4%) and goat skins (-0.2%). Sheep skin is
showing a growth of 1.8% (FAO 2001)
55
On the other hand, there is a shift in the international market structure. Developed countries, which were
net importers of raw hides and skins, are now becoming net exporters while developing countries;
especially Far Eastern & Near Eastern countries are becoming net importers. This structural shift came
about by the growth in tanning capacity of those countries and avoidance of early stages of hides & skins
processing operations by developed countries due to environmental pollution.
With the exception of this shift in the trade, the demand for leather products remains high in the
developed world. Between early eighties and late nineties, the shipments of leather products from
developed countries shrunk from 75% to 54% of the global shipment and that of developing countries grew
from 24% to 44%. This situation is expected to continue at least until the year 2005 with an aggregate
annual growth of 1.1% demand for leather & leather products (FAO, 2001). Therefore, reduction in demand
is not expected in the short run. However, there are certain phenomena like sporadic trade barriers and
global economic depressions that may contribute to reduction of demand.
Ethiopia exports semi-processed hides & skins at pickle, wet blue and crust levels and different finished
leather products of different standards. Although there are about 19 tanning industries engaged in
processing hides & skins only 6 of them have the facilities to process hides to finished leather. About 5% of
the finished leather is supplied to the domestic leather industries for the production of shoes; leather
garments & handbags. The rest is exported to international markets in the form of similar products. The
export value of leather belts, wristwatch band upholstery works is small since most of these products are
supplied in the domestic market. The export value of 12,113 metric tons of leather products in the year
2000/01 was US$ 74.1 million (Melaku Legese, 2001).
According to the Ethiopian Export Promotion Agency (1999), there are 14 industries licensed to export
leather products. However, only three exporters are currently active. The total production capacity of eight
of these leather industries was recorded to be 912,000 pairs of shoes, 146,000 leather garments and
155,000 different leather articles. Semi-processed products take the major share in the country's hides &
skins export trade. The export destinations are 22 countries of which the major ones being Italy, Great
Britain, Romania, Japan, India and Malaysia in order of the volume of their import from Ethiopia (Girma,
1999). The direction of export is anticipated to make a gradual shift to north and south Asian states.
European leather production activities are fast shrinking leaving them to fast growing leather production
capacity of these countries. Therefore, Ethiopia's export trade should direct itself toward these markets.
However, the capacity to produce internationally competitive leather products continue to be constrained
by lack of trained man power, modern technology and sufficient knowledge in international leather trade.
Apart from these, the industry faces the following export trade problems•
Lower volume of supply of quality products in semi-processed & finished leather forms due to poor
production and handling of raw hides & skins,
•
Excessive production & marketing costs, which deters exporters from developing their
competitiveness in price. High transaction costs and price rise of raw hides & skins beyond average
selling price of the final product are examples.
Access to and utilization of trade information in hides & skins trade
Success in marketing depends on the availability and effective use of pertinent & accurate market
information. Trading in hides & skins and leather products requires the knowledge of the meaning,
relevance and utilization of market information.
Developing this capacity & establishing trade information networks is becoming more important with
growth in the global hides & skins trade. Some of the uses of such a system are:
56
•
Assist traders to make decisions on daily marketing activities and planning short and long-term
market strategies.
•
Help reduce market uncertainties and protects from bankruptcy that may arise from making wrong
trade decisions.
•
Help coordinate and harmonize activities of different actors in the marketing chain.
•
Facilitates more equitable distribution of benefits to stakeholders;
•
Helps to improvise practices in the marketing of hides & skins.
•
Helps to avoid unfair competitions among traders & tanning industries.
Prices constitute major market information, the collection analysis and dissemination of which is essential
for success in the marketing of hides and skins.
Commodity prices depend on consumer need satisfaction as much as they do on costs of production and
degree of competition. The marketing of hides and skins involves trading of raw, semi-processed and end
products. It is difficult for raw material supplier or tanners to set prices of hides & skins or finished leather
at domestic market level. At the same time, domestic leather industries do not decide prices of their raw
materials since their share of the market is too small to influence prices. Therefore, prices of hides & skins
in Ethiopia are decided at the final stage of transaction where end product consumers and retailers of
leather products meet. Here, the demand for leather products can be judged and based on this the prices
are set. The price established at this stage goes down the supply channel, after the buyer at each echelon
decides his own margin of profit, until the price for the primary product is set. This indicates that the
product flows from primary producers to final producers while decision on prices flow the opposite
direction.
Price information flows from buyer to seller while making sales agreements or through established
exchange relationships between the two at every stage of supply. In this situation, domestic suppliers as
well as tanning industries cannot have alternative information sources to help make their own decisions
based on free competition. Such one-way information flow make collectors and suppliers acceptors of prices
set elsewhere. Lack of bargaining power means low motivation in the marketing process. This creates
unfair distribution of benefits of hides & skins marketing. This became more apparent during 1998-99
when price slump was an unfortunate phenomenon for hides & skins trade in the world. Ethiopian
suppliers were unable to sell their stock even at the price they paid to collect the raw hides & skins. As a
result, many of them went bankrupt, some of them were driven out of market, voluminous quantity of
hides & skins was stockpiled and its quality deteriorated. This caused considerable loss of financial
resources, which had negative impact on collection activities of the following years until again domestic
prices were supported by positive changes in the world market.
The Livestock Marketing Authority (LMA), at this juncture, took a step to fill the price information gap by
establishing a hides and skins market information system whereby current prices are collected from
seventeen selected towns in five regions of the country, analyzed and disseminated to users.
Price
information was collected on weekly basis through development agents of the respective towns. However,
constraints as lack of reliable and timely data were encountered in implementing the system. Now a new
system that enables collection directly from representative tanning industries and suppliers is designed for
implementation starting from next year.
Promotion of products
To date the marketing of hides & skins in Ethiopia has to deal with greater number of stakeholders in the
transaction of growing volume of output, greater diversity of products involved and the opportunity of using
information technology. Owning a sellable product is no more a guarantee to a profitable market. There is an
obvious need to design and implement market promotion strategies that aim to cultivate a positive image of
the products in the minds of consumers. This is apparently lacking in Ethiopia, not only marketing of hides
and skins, but also for processed leather derived end products. Tradable qualities as compactness of the fiber
structure, fineness of grains and utilizablity to different end uses, could serve to promote the marketing of
hides & skins in general. Established quality standards should help promote leather products. Credibility on
meeting of commitment to supply and distribute products to clients is also an important attribute. However,
such promotional activities are limited to attendance to trade fairs and signing of sales agreements.
57
Obviously, these marketing practices need to be upgraded and modernized not just to facilitate the process of
marketing, but also to generate greater benefits to all involved in the process.
Recommendations
Attempt has been made to show hides & skins marketing problems in Ethiopia. Alleviation of these
problems will enable the country to rationally utilize the potential resource it has. Therefore, the following
ideas are pin pointed so that all concerned bodies give attention for their implementation.
•
The marketing channel is long to move the product from the point of primary production to the gets
of tanning industries. Designing & implementation of a shorter channel is important.
•
Collection and supply process should enable to maintain the quality of product until it reaches
tanning industries. To meet this, the licensing process should examine and certify technical
competence of large-scale collectors and suppliers. Higher-level dealers & tanning industries should
be discouraged from dealing with who do not meet minimum set standards.
•
Hides & skins collectors and suppliers should therefore have in place appropriate stores and product
handling facilities as per technical specifications set forth by standards guidelines.
•
Raw hides and skins are marketed as judged by visual appraisal without quality grades to pay for
better quality. Grading practices as well as the system of payment by grade should be introduced.
Payments of prices should be made directly at time of the product delivery.
•
Each tanning industry should plan its own product development strategy, the compliance of which
can ensure gradual transformation from export of semi-processed products to finished products.
•
Market participants and professionals need training to upgrade their product handling and
marketing skills.
•
Information is vital for sustainable developments, in fact it is even considered as the power of quick
progress. Current and comprehensive market information should be delivered to all stakeholders.
•
Development and promotion strategies should be designed not just for end products, but also for raw
materials that go into the marketing system.
•
Institutions like The Ministry of Trade and Industry and Ethiopian Leather Institute should take
primary responsibility to undertake comprehensive market study for the leather products industry to
identify marketing gaps.
•
These development strategies should not be limited in focus on national level transactions; they
should be extended to regional states with adequate technical and financial backstopping.
References
Ahmed Mahmoud, 2001. Raw Hides & Skins Improvement In Ethiopia (Status & Challenges),a paper presented on a
technical workshop on Good Practices For the Ethiopian hides & skin industry. Addis Ababa.Dec.4-7,2001
CSA, 1999.Agricultural sample survey on livestock ,poultry and beehives population, statistical bulletin vol.II, no.206,
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Export Promotion Agency, 1999 “Hides, Skins & leather products marketing study”. (Amharic version,unpublished)
Girma Mekonnin, 1999 “Hides and Skins Market Review of the period1995-1999”, (Amharic version.unpublished).
Girma Mekonnin, 2001 “Marketing of hides and skins and market information dissemination”, A paper prepared for radio
transmit ion. (Amharic version)
Girma Mekonnin, 2000 “Raw Hides and Skins Market Information System”. (Amharic version.unpublished).
UNCTAD,Jan.2001. Investment and Innovation Policy Review of Ethiopia, A paper presented to United Nations
Conference on Trade and Development.
58
MEDaC, 1999.Survey of the Ethiopian economy, Review of Post Reform Developments (1992/93-1997/98). Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia.
Melaku Legese, 2001. Ethiopia's export in the fiscal year 2000/01. Bi-annual bulletin of Export Promotion Agency
"Kinigit,vol.1 no.1 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
MOA,1997. Report on regional supply and tannery purchase of hides & skins.(Amharic version)
FAO, 2001. World statistical compendium for raw hides and skins leather & leather footwear for the years 1982-2000.
Rome Italy.
59
Imperative and Challenges of Dairy Production, Processing and
Marketing in Ethiopia
Zegeye Yigezu
Dairy Development Enterprise, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Introduction
Traditionally, some form of dairy production exists in most parts of Ethiopia. Depending on the area under
consideration cattle, goats, camels and sheep all provide milk for human consumption. However, cattle are
the main source of milk even though they are primarily kept as draught power source with very little or no
consideration given to improving their milk production capabilities. As a result, their genetic potential for
milk production as seen at present is low. On the other hand, their adaptability and survival under the
traditional management system is excellent when compared with the introduced exotic cattle species.
Despite its huge numbers, the livestock sub-sector in Ethiopia is not productive in general, and compared
to its potential, the direct contribution it makes to the national economy is limited. Regarding dairying, the
national milk production remains among the lowest in the world, even by African standards. The poor
genetic potential, in combination with the sub-standard feeding and health regime and the sub-optimal
general management situation that the animals are exposed to are the main contributors to the observed
low productivity.
As stated above, though the main source of milk in the country is the cow, small quantities are also
obtained from goats, camels and sheep. Concerning output and consumption patterns, the contribution of
milk and its products to the gross value of livestock production is not known for certain. However, the
contribution of the livestock sub-sector to the national economy is assumed to account for about 20-30% of
the agricultural GDP, of which dairying is a part.
Considering the global situation, it is worth noting that countries that are enjoying the highest standard of
living at present are those that have a well-developed animal agriculture. This line of development has
helped them build a healthy and strong nation with sound economy. In the Ethiopian context, despite the
huge potential the country has to produce milk more and above its domestic needs there is a chronic
shortage of the product in most part of the country arising mainly from in sufficient production coupled
with inhibitive cultural taboos related to consumption and absence of processing facilities and marketing
infrastructures country wide.
In the interest of building strong and healthy nation in the future, from the standpoint of proper nutrition,
from among the livestock sub-sector dairy development undertaking is the one that is easy to implement
and which is known to give sustainable results with in a relatively short period of time. However, the cost
involved could be high and the commitment it requires is demanding.
To provide more and better quality milk as a source of highly nutritious food for humans especially for
growing children, pregnant women, the sick and the old, enough effort has to be made to expand and
improve upon the existing production systems. In addition, to assist the development effort being
undertaken by the government, non-governmental organizations (NGO's) and private investors in
partnership should seriously address establishing multiple dairy processing and marketing facilities and
infrastructures nation wide. Most of these efforts will include the following.
•
Selecting and breeding for high milk production by employing high- producing cows and high quality
bulls.
•
Using better feeding practices to help cows produce to their genetic potential.
•
Providing high quality forage all year round by employing improved harvesting, preservation and
pasturing systems.
•
Developing and implementing workable animal health management programs.
61
•
Providing housing or shelter for the animals compatible with the climatic or weather condition they
are in.
•
Planning and implementing better reproductive management systems, which may include raising
female calves for replacement.
•
Employing sound milking practices which help in sanitation and control of mastitis.
•
Providing improved sanitation and cold storage or applying legally approved preservatives for the
milk, especially if it is not to be consumed right after being produced.
•
Ensuring year round local markets for fresh milk and other dairy products with out which the dairy
farmer cannot survive for long. These are because of the high investment required to initiate a
successful dairy program.
•
Continuing to support and improve upon the already established dairying activities in the different
regions of the country.
•
Providing of low interest bank or government loan or credit which can encourage beginning dairy
farmers to make the initial investment on cattle and facilities.
•
Making the inputs for dairy production such as crossbreed pregnant heifers, artificial insemination
and or bull services and animal health care to smallholder producers at affordable prices.
•
Developing rural roads and other infrastructures such as clean water that will assists in facilitating
milk marketing countrywide.
•
Undertaking nation wide rural land and demographic survey and classifying the land into use type
and determining those areas that are best suited for dairy development.
•
Establishing a department or an organization that is autonomous with the mandate to undertake
dairy development in the country.
•
Developing and implementing guidelines for strict regulatory control over the production, processing
and marketing of dairy products for the country.
Dairy Production Systems in Ethiopia
Related to climate, land-holding land size and farming systems, four main dairy production systems are
recognized in Ethiopia. These are:
•
Pastoralism
•
Highland smallholder
•
Peri-urban
•
Urban
Pastoralism
This is a system mainly operating in the range lands where the peoples involved follow animal-based life
styles which requires of them to move from place to place seasonally based on feed and water availability. For
food, pastoralists mainly depend on milk, and their accumulated wealth and savings are in the form of live
animals.
Milk production under the systems is strictly seasonal and range condition-dependent being surplus in the
wet season and restricted in the dry season.
Highland Smallholder
In most highlands of Ethiopia, with increasing population, there is an ever-decreasing share of pasture
land for grazing; and with the corresponding increase in the cultivated area, there is the need to continuously
produce more animal draught power.
As a result the rural farmers in these areas wherever and whenever possible incorporate small scale dairy
production with crop farming with the objective of producing animal power (oxen) for tilling the land. The
62
animals kept are mainly unimproved Zebu of the local type and the milk obtained though secondary in
importance supplements the farmer's family income in one form or another.
Peri-urban
Peri-urban dairy production system is mainly operational in areas where the population density is high
agricultural land is shrinking due to expanding urbanization or non-existence and labor cost is on the
increase.
Such producers are mainly found around big cities like Addis Ababa and smaller towns. They may or may
not hove access to cultivable or pastureland and some of them are usually seen grazing the few animals
they have by the roadside.
In genotype, the animals they keep range from 50% crosses to high-grade black-and-white Friesian. Their
main source of animal feed is home-produced hay for some, and purchased hay for others with or without
additional supplemental feed.
Urban
By the virtue of their location such producers are not expected to have access to agricultural or pasture
land, as the operation takes place within cities and as a result, they are forced to buy their feed. Based on the
scale and level of operations the production system can be categorized into two
Small scale
Such producers usually keep one or two cows and their followers by making use of the
available space in their residential back yard. Such animals are often seen grazing along the roadside.
Large scale
These are commercial operations that keep large herds. They use 100% zero grazing and all
the feed they need is purchased.
In genotype, the animals kept under this system are to a large extent similar to those of the peri-urban
operation.
Raw milk pricing
Producers price is influenced by the level of milk out put, milk consumption on the farm, its conversion
into its different products at the farm level and on the on going or current market raw milk price.
At the present time the Dairy Development Enterprise (DDE) pays a flat rate producer's price of one birr
per liter for the milk it collects irrespective of transport and collection costs involved. The current policy of
paying dairy farmers a uniform producer price irrespective of location means that dairy farmers in areas
where transportation cost is lower subsidize those dairy farmers in areas where transportation costs are
relatively higher.
From the stand point of the producers, even when collection and chilling facilities exist the costs involved
in the production and handling of milk are considered to be high in relation to the producers price paid by
DDE, Small holder dairy Developing Project (SDDP) organized farmers milk groups and other milk
peddlers and this is a disincentive to increased milk production.
Taking DDE's raw milk price as a base line, the private milk traders around Addis Ababa always attempt
to pay the producer 5-10 cents more per liter of milk bought. In the capital city proper where raw milk
trade takes place directly between the producer and the consumer, the price per liter is known to range
from two to three birr.
Regarding DDE's milk collection scheme private milk traders started to win producers to their sides by
offering them seemingly attractive prices as back as 1990.As a result at present DDE's milk collection
operations are all located beyond 40 km from the capital.
In the future, to induce more farmers to go into dairy production a policy of differential payment based on
distance has to be initiated and implemented. In other words, dairy farmers producing in areas where
transport costs are lower relative to the consuming center should receive a higher producer price than
those dairy farmers producing milk in areas where transport cost is relatively higher.
63
Milk collection, chilling and transportation
In the case of DDE, the supply of raw milk to its processing plant starts from its collection centers in part,
the others being own and large private farms.
Milk collection centers are points that connect a given low milk priced rural area to the high milk priced
urban market. Their number and geographical distribution has an influence on the distance a farmer has
to travel to deliver his milk and this in turn will influence the amount of milk he is likely to produce. The
net effect of linking the rural area with the urban market through the establishment of milk collection
points is to redirect milk from under utilized high production area (rural) to where it is highly in demand
(urban area). Rural milk collected through the collection centers as the case may be is directly sold to
consumers or passed to a processing plant with or without going through chilling centers.
Of the two milk processing plants that exist in the country, one is government-owned and operated by the
Dairy Development Enterprise (DDE) and the other one (Sebeta Agro Industry) is a private company. Both
are located in Addis Ababa. The DDE-operated plant, though currently operating below capacity, has a
potential capacity to process 6 tons of fluid milk per 8 working hours. Information regarding the Sebeta
Agro Industry is not accessible.
It has to be noted that available milk from the rural areas could not reach the consuming public unspoiled
in the urban areas because of the absence of collection and chilling network. In this regard DDE has
developed a system of milk collection from an area of as far as 150 km from its plant. Mainly the morning
and evening milk in few places is purchased from individual producers at prearranged collection sites.
At the collection centers before receiving, samples are takes from the delivered milk and tested for
freshness and possible adulteration. All the milk that meets the set standard at the collection centers and
milk produced at state farms and other large private farms that deliver their milk to DDE once tested and
received is transported to the nearest chilling centers.
Chilling centers are places equipped with refrigeration facilities to ensure that milk received at the
processing plant is unspoiled. DDE has established these facilities at all its farms (moist of which are now
privatized) and along the main roads in the main milk collection routs located within short distance of the
collection centers. Once received at the chilling centers the milk is cooled to temperatures between 4-50c.
Every other day, the raw milk from the chilling centers is transported to the processing plant using bulk
insulated tankers and/or open trucks, and 40-50 liter capacity aluminum milk cans.
To indicate the volume of milk handled by the DDE plant monthly average of raw milk supply, milk
pasteurized and milk sold in liters for the least 6 years (December 1995-December 2001) is given in table.
Table 1. Monthly average of raw milk supply, milk pasteurized and milk sold.
Month
December 1995-December 2001 Amount in Liters
Raw milk supply
Milk pasteurized
Milk sold
September
368,151
329,155
326,388
October
378,488
350,726
347,159
November
364,904
338,055
335,941
December
325,884
334,114
328,753
January
378,995
360,509
355,703
February
366,755
323,418
320,515
March
354,835
277,284
265,140
April
364,784
323,077
329,840
May
386,555
381,165
378,492
June
377,294
349,042
344,282
July
375,746
351,510
350,587
August
419,953
358,516
Annual Total
4,462,344
4,085,571(91.6%)
365,467
4,048,267(99.1%)
Processing
In the capital city Addis Ababa, a limited quantity of factory processed dairy product is available from the
existing two processing plants, in the from of pasteurized fluid milk, table butter, hard cheese yogurt and
64
ayib. All over the country including the capital a very small amount of the total cow's milk is assumed to be
marketed in a liquid from and it is raw. The bulk of the produce is processed into different dairy products
using locally available utensils by traditional means.
In the country to date, there is enough experience to show that industrial milk processing though
expensive is superior to the traditional processing methods in many aspects. In addition industrial
processing if adopted is known to have the following two main advantages:
7.
8.
It protects the consuming public from milk born diseased of public health importance.
It help's to change excess fluid milk into products of longer shelf life such as milk powder during periods
of surplus milk production and when fluid milk demand is low such as during the fasting season. The
milk powder can then be stored and factory reconstituted and marketed as fluid milk during period of
low raw milk supply such as during the dry season.
On the average per month (December 1995-December 2002) the kind and amount of dairy products
produced and sold at the DDE milk processing plant is given in tables 2 and 3 respectively.
Table 2. Monthly average and kind of dairy products produced by DDE (December 1995-December 2001).
Month
Kind and amount of products
Butter (kg)
Local cheese (kg)
Yoguret (lts)
September
5635.7
4,340.8
3000.0
Hard cheese (kg)
986.5
October
6037.7
4455.5
1799.5
1275.5
November
5229.0
2680.7
3205.7
939.9
December
5685.0
2236.0
2053.3
847.2
1073.0
January
5508.0
3662.3
1596.5
February
5749.3
4457.5
2019.5
713.6
March
5998.6
8277.2
1619.8
1252.2
April
5799.1
5596.8
1922.0
1010.4
May
6400.4
3024.4
2798.0
1149.2
June
5949.9
1978.8
2250.0
477.1
July
6208.0
3501.0
1795.0
934.5
August
Annual Total
6638.0
1752.8
2628.5
1200.1
70,838.7
45,950.5
26,867.8
11,859.2
Table 3. DDE's Monthly Average Product Sales (December 1995-December 2001.
Month
Kind and amount of products
Butter (kg)
Local cheese (kg)
Hard cheese (kg)
Yoghurt(lts)*
512.2
2921.8
1034.7
2934.5
October
6186.8
2659.5
1257.1
3077.8
November
5374.1
3363.0
1240.3
2829.7
December
6127.5
4288.1
905.6
2046.8
January
5611.5
2840.0
1144.9
2179.5
February
4145.9
4101.8
872.1
2311.3
September
March
4787.2
3045.6
1204.5
1527.5
April
6714.2
10,977.1
11025.9
1738.8
May
5985.9
3355.2
929.9
2779.8
June
5821.7
1691.0
601.0
2243.3
July
6029.4
4255.3
628.2
2070.0
August
Annual Total
7183.4
4039.4
114.8
2610.0
68,980.0
47,537.7
11,959.0
28,349.0
*November 1999-December 2001.
Marketing of dairy products
Dependable system is not developed to market milk and milk products in Ethiopia. In the country at large,
both rural and urban milk is distributed from producers to consumers through the informal (traditional)
means. This informal market involves direct delivery of fresh milk by producers to consumers in the
immediate neighborhood or to any interested individuals in near by towns
The only organized and formal milk marketing and distribution system cames from the two milkprocessing plants (industrial), which are both, located in the capital Addis Ababa. The absence of
65
dependable and organized formal marketing system has made the marketable volume of milk and other
dairy products at least for DDE to be dependent on:
•
weather (season) condition and
•
fastening and non fastening periods
Table 4. Total urban population size and number of major towns with different population densities, 1998.
Region
Tigrai
Afar
Population
No. of Towns
Population distribution in '000'
<1
1-5
5-10
10-15
15-20
20-25
>25
468,478
74
20
30
13
1
1
3
6
79,868
28
8
14
4
1
1
--
--
Amhara
1,265,315
208
22
124
39
4
10
4
6
Oromiya
1,962,804
371
58
226
39
15
9
14
10
437,035
67
8
34
15
1
2
4
3
36,027
13
3
9
--
1
--
--
--
SENNP
704,818
149
24
97
10
5
5
3
5
Gambela
27,180
8
3
4
--
--
--
1
--
Somal
Benishangul
Harari
Addis Ababa
Dire Dawa
Total
76,378
1
--
--
--
--
--
--
1
1,084,588
1
--
--
--
--
--
--
1
173,188
2
--
--
1
--
--
--
1
7,315,679
924
146
538
121
2
28
29
33
During the rainy season and fastening periods demand and sales decrease in significant amount and the
decrease usually results in curtailment of the incoming raw milk volume from the smallhoder producers
(see table 1) to match supply with sales.
In considering liquid milk, its marketing must be examined in the light of rural and continued
urbanization. In the rural areas both in the lowlands and the highlands where most of the families are
known to keep cattle the most effective way to increase the milk supply is to increase the milk yields of
cattle through improved nutrition and genetics. In these areas the marketing system is fully traditional
and may not need any intervention in the short term. In the urban areas on the other hand strong and
formalized marketing system in the sector is needed to satisfy the ever-growing population.
As indicated in table 4 a total of 7,315,679 inhabitants live in 924 cities and towns of the country
(Getachew and Gashaw 2001). The Population density indicated in the above table, which includes Addis
Ababa, is known to be on the increase and this is expected to generate increased demand for dairy products
and the observed growth pattern calls for additional and more milk supply. With increasing urbanization,
increased supply in milk and other dairy products can only be met from the existing production level
through organized and formal marketing system. To indicate the level of consumption, according to
(Getachew and Gashaw 2001) the per capita milk consumption from domestic source for the country for the
year 2000 is 15.3 kg from cows alone and 19.0kg when the other milk providing species are considered.
Of the current projected total population of 63,493,000, 9,471,000 is known to reside in the urban areas
including the capital Addis Ababa and the figures are expected to grow to 73,044,000 and 11,675,000
respectively by year 2005. (Getachew and Gashew 2001). For the country at large, population distribution
and growth rate for years 200-2025 is indicated in table 5 (CSA 1998)
Table 5. Population distribution and growth rate for years 2000-2025.
Population Distribution
Year
1995
2000
2005
2010
2015
Rural
86.02
85.08
84.00
82.80
81.51
80.11
2020
Urban
13.98
14.92
16.00
17.20
18.49
19.89
Rural
2.74
2.57
2.35
2.15
1.98
1.68
Urban
4.38
4.0
4.06
3.88
3.69
3.51
Grow rate
Conclusion
To undertake sound dairy development program with the ultimate objective of making the country self
sufficient in milk and milk products, clear and easy to implement strategy has to be developed and
66
implemented. In this undertaking, the government has to play the leadership role. Accordingly, the below
proposals are made.
There is a need to set up a sole autonomous government department to lead and direct dairy development
which would include regulatory work in production, processing and marketing in the country at large. The
established department should be staffed with well trained and dedicated cadre of dairy experts who will
in turn be responsible to develop regional and or agroecological based dairy development, plan and
supervise its implementation following the project ratification and acceptance by the government.
Once the department is set up and staffed with the development cadres, steps must be undertaken to:
•
Formulate and establish agroecology based dairy cattle breeding policies for the country at large.
•
Provide guidelines for proper feeding policy.
•
Provide the necessary animal health care.
•
Provide proper guidelines including regulatory provisions for the production, processing and
marketing of milk.
•
Develop and provide services for dairy recording scheme.
References
Brannang, E. and Person, S. (1990). Ethiopian Animal Husbandry Handbook
CSA, (1998). Ethiopian Statistical Abstract, Central Statistical Authority, A.A., Ethiopia.
DDE, December 1995-December 2001 Report.
FAO, (1999). Manual on the use of LP-System in Milk Handling and Preservation.
Getachew Feleke and Gashaw Geda, (2001). The Ethiopian Dairy Development Policy. A draft Policy Document
Hibbs, J.W. Understanding Dairy Production in Developing Countries, (1985). Technologies for Development.
Regional Government of Oromiya, Oromiya Economic Studies Project Office, (199). Agricultural Sector Study. Livestock
Sub-sector Animal Production.
Regional Government of Oromiya, Oromiya Economic Studies Project Office, (1999). Agricultural sector Study. Livestock
Sub-sector Dairy Production.
Staal, S.J. and Shapiro, B.I (1996). The Economic Impact of Public Policy on Small holder Peri-urban Dairy Producers in
Addis Ababa. ESAP Publication No.1.
Taye Gulilat. (1961). Some Comments on the Addis Ababa Dairy Development Project.
67
Poultry Marketing: Structure, Spatial Variations and Determinants of
Prices in Eastern Shewa Zone, Ethiopia
Kenea Yadeta, Legesse Dadi, and Alemu Yami
Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization Debre Zeit Research Center
Abstract
It is widely recognized that an inefficient marketing system entailing substantial costs to consumers and have an
effect on the food security. In Ethiopia, information concerning the chicken marketing system is lacking. The
objectives of this paper are to assess chicken marketing structure, constraints and examine determinants of chicken
prices. Data were collected from three buyers and three sellers at weekly interval for a year. Descriptive statistics
and correlation methods were used to analyze the data. Results indicate that chicken marketing system is
characterized by many suppliers (farmers) and buyers. A single or few buyers did not dominate the markets. The
marketing channels are relatively short and transaction between producers and consumers are the dominant in
most markets. Even in terminal markets the middlemen in the chain are few compared to other agricultural
commodities. Marketing functions such as assembling, wholesaling and retailing do overlap and a trader undertakes
these three functions by him/herself. Traders operate on a very small scale and the volume of trade ranges from 1050 chickens or even less. Chicken prices association between pair of markets increases as the time interval increase
reflecting absence of timely market information and delayed transmission of information. It was found that access to
large urban consumer centers; sex, weight, breed type, colour and seasonal demand have significant impact on the
prices of chickens.
Introduction
The total chicken population in Ethiopia is estimated to be around 56.5 million (EARO, 2000) and most of
them are found in the highlands (Tadele, 1996). Traditionally prepared doro wot is preferred by many people
in Ethiopia. Despite this, per capita chicken meat consumption in the country is reported to be about 2.85 kg
per annum (Alemu and Tadele, 1997). Chicken meet consumption is more common in urban areas than in
rural areas. The poor rural farmers produce chickens and sell them to earn cash required for various
household expenses. There is a growing demand for chicken meat in urban areas due to substantial increase
in price of beef and mutton. Therefore, in the near future, chicken meat production is likely to play increasing
role in supplying animal protein for human consumption in the country. Chicken meat is relatively cheap and
affordable source of animal protein (Alemu and Tadele, 1997). However, at home and restaurants chicken
dishes are more expensive than other dishes constituting beef and mutton probably due to the way chicken
dishes are prepared.
Research effort to increase chicken production and productivity has been underway in Ethiopia. A review
of past research works indicates that the research largely concentrated on the biological aspects of poultry
production such as supplementary feeding and breeding (Alemu and Tadele, 1997). Increased production,
however, needs to be accompanied by efficient marketing systems. An efficient marketing system is
rewarding to all agents involved in production, marketing and consumption of chicken. In Ethiopia,
information concerning the chicken marketing system, constraints and factors that hinder chicken
marketing efficiency is lacking. One means of investigating the efficiency of the chicken marketing system
is through studying and identifying suppliers and individual consumer characteristics and chicken
attributes that determine the market value of chicken. The relation between market value of a product and
its characteristics can be useful to identify factors that hinder marketing efficiency. Such study can also
help to understand the complexities of price discovery mechanisms between market agents. This is
particularly important where there is no regular market information on prices, supplies, grades and
standards is not available and consequently price is fixed by a long one to one bargaining between sellers
and buyers (Andergachew and Brokken, 1993). Identification and market evaluation of live chicken
attributes also have important implications for long term investment decisions of producers, purchasing
69
decisions of traders and consumers and government policy formulation to promote production and
marketing (Oczkowski, 1994).
In Ethiopia the market dependent population, i. e., the population that depends on the market for all or
part of its food supply, is estimated to be about 42% of the total population (Alemayehu, 1993). Almost all
urban consumers are dependent on the functioning of agricultural markets to acquire their food. It is clear
that an inefficient marketing system entailing substantial costs to consumers will have detrimental effect
on the food security and well being of the poor.
It is obvious that incentives and ability for producers to make investments in productivity-enhancing
inputs and production methods depends on the function of inputs and output markets. In most cases issues
related to marketing policy in developing countries are often been discussed in absence of information and
with very little empirical knowledge of market structure, the behavior of various participants in the
marketing system, and the constraints that they encounter to make investments contributing to growth of
productivity in the food system. The objectives of this paper are to assess chicken marketing structure,
conducts, constraints, and examine determinants of chicken prices in east Shewa zone.
Conceptual framework
Among others, studies by Scarborough and Kydd (1992) Scott (1995) suggest that relationships exist
between structural characteristics of a market and competitive behavior of market participants and that
their behavior in turn influences the performance of the market. Among the major structural characteristics
of a market are the degree of concentration, i. e., the number of market participants and their size
distribution; and the relative ease or difficulty of an entry into the market. The structure-conductperformance (SCP) analysis tends to assess market performance largely in terms of whether marketing
margins charged by various market participants in the marketing system are consistent with costs; and
whether the degree of market concentration is low enough (and the number of firms operating in a market is
large enough) to ensure competition, which is in turn assumed to drive down costs to their lowest level.
The prices of agricultural products are influenced by a number of factors including changes in the costs of
production and marketing, marketing policies, demand and supply interactions, concentration of
marketing channels etc. (Asfaw and Jayne, 1998). Variations in these factors may have different effects on
vertical and spatial price transmissions there by on vertical and spatial integration of markets. Price
transmission is referred as the passing of prices through either in the vertical or spatial marketing system
and reflects the pricing behavior of different market participants. In spatial linked and well-integrated
markets, the change in price in one market should be transmitted to the same extent in the other, that is,
there is no rigidity of price adjustment in the marketing system (Goletti and Babu, 1994). Thus, the level of
price changes in markets located in different locations are also expected to be similar. Deviations from this
norm imply some sort of market inefficiency. Asymmetric price relationships, in which price change at
market A produces unequal price change at market B and C exists when the market is non-competitive
and inefficient.
There are several factors, which could influence the pricing behavior of different market participants at
given marketing levels or locations. Kinnucan et al. (1987) Ward (1982) noted that market participants
access to and assimilation of market information, structural differences and diversity at each marketing
level and location and the nature of the product influence the pricing behavior of market participants. This
study assesses poultry prices and market integration based on price data collected from special linked
markets and examines determinants of poultry prices.
Methodology
Overview of the study area
In east Shewa, traditional scavenging based system of poultry production is widely practiced by rural
smallholder farmers. Individual households keep few flocks of chickens at home with minimum management
and inputs. This type of production is the dominant poultry production system and the dominant supplier to
70
the market. In urban and peri-urban areas, particularly at Debre Zeit and Adama, modern small and largescale poultry farms are currently flourishing. Some of the farms were established to produce eggs for
commercial purposes and such farms dispose culled chickens (layers) through local markets. At Debre Zeit,
there are farms which supply partially processed (slaughtered, inedible part removed, cleaned etc.) chicken
meat to the vicinity and the Addis Ababa market, mostly to restaurants and super markets.
East Shewa zone has relatively better infrastructure particularly transport and communication facilities.
It also has a large urban population including the large adjacent Addis Ababa market. This may explain
why modern poultry farms are concentrated in this zone. The study was conducted at four selected sites in
east Shewa, namely: Debre Zeit, Modjo, Meki and Chefedonsa and Saris in Addis Ababa. Debre Zeit, Modjo
and Meki are both consuming and secondary distributive markets. Chefedonsa represents a primary
market and feeds mainly to secondary markets. Addis Ababa is an important chicken consumption center
and thus represents a terminal market. In terms of distance, Debre zeit, Modjo and Meki are located 50, 75
and 110 kilometers away from Addis Ababa, respectively, along a high way to Awassa. Chefedonsa is
located 35 kilometers away from Debre Zeit and connected to Debre Zeit with an all weather-road. On the
other side it is also connected to Sendafa town thereby to Addis Ababa.
Data collection and sampling
This study is based on data obtained from primary and secondary sources. Primary data on price, breed
type, age, live weight, sex of traded bird, seller type, buyer type, reasons for sale and purchase, months of
transaction and possible constraints were collected from producers (sellers) and buyers (consumers, traders).
The data were collected from January 2000 to February 2001. An accidental sampling method was used to
identify poultry sellers and buyers to be interviewed. Prices were monitored on weekly interval and three
sellers and three buyers were interviewed each week in all the study markets. A total of 780 buyer and 780
sellers were interviewed. The interviews were conducted by trained enumerators using a structured
questionnaire. The interviews were conducted on the main market day. Information on breed type was
recorded by interviewing buyers or sellers knowledge about breed types. The information on age was based
on the buyers and sellers estimation of the age of a bird. Information on live weight was gathered by
measuring bird weight using a Spring Balance of 10 kg capacity.
In marketing research, different analytical techniques are used to characterize market structure, to
identify determinants of commodity prices and to evaluate the performance and efficiency of a marketing
system. Here simple descriptive statistics, correlation analysis and the General Linear Model (GLM) of a
form p = f (x, m) were used. In this expression, p and x denote price and attributes of a chicken,
respectively, and m represents social, economic characteristics of buyers and sellers. Different functional
forms have been tried and both linear and log linear models were used for interpretations.
Results and discussion
Marketing channel and conduct
The structure and the conduct of market participants have a direct impact on the nature of poultry price
relationships between different marketing levels and locations. The term market structure refers to the
number of buyers and sellers, their size distributions, the degree of product differentiation, and on the ease of
entry of new firms into the industry (Branson and Norvell, 1983). Market conduct analysis deals with the
behavior of firms/farms or the strategy they use with respect to, for example, pricing, buying, selling etc.,
which may take the form of informal cooperation or collusion (Gebremeskel et al., 1998). Taking into account
chicken price transmission through the vertical and spatial marketing systems inference can be made about
the efficiency of the chicken marketing system and the competitiveness of the chicken market at different
locations and marketing stages.
Poultry marketing structure is not well studied in east Shewa and in Ethiopia as whole. The market
outlets or channels available to producers are diverse at all markets, although their importance differs
across markets. The major channels through which producers/farmers sell their chicken in the markets are
shown in Figure 1. The two largest chicken marketing channels are farmers directly sell to consumers and
71
farmers sell to small retail traders who take the chicken to large urban centers. From this study and
researchers observation in other areas, there are no big traders involved in the poultry trade.
Modern poultry farms
Farmers for
(Production)
Traders
Large-scale
2.1%
Small-scale
0.3%
2.3%
39.4%
42.2%
13.7%
Smallholder farmers
Commission
Agents
Partial
Processing
Restaura nts
Traders
Small-scale
(Production)
Consumers
Figure 1. Poultry marketing channels in east Shewa Zone
Tables 1 and 2 present the types of buyers and sellers for the markets studied. At all markets, except Meki,
the largest number of buyers comprised of consumers. At Meki, it was traders that accounted for the
largest proportion of buyers. Chicken buyers at all markets comprised of traders, consumers, restaurants,
farmers and small-scale urban chicken farms. The last two market participants buy chickens mainly for
the purpose of production. Commission agents were also observed at the Debre Zeit market.
Table 1. Types of Buyers in the selected markets (% of respondents)
Buyer type
Markets
Debre Zeit
Saris
Modjo
Meki
Chefedonsa
All locations
Farmers
8.4
4.0
8.4
3.3
29.5
Small-scale producers
3.6
3.4
0
2.0
2.5
2.1
18.6
2.0
34.3
82.9
27.3
39.4
Traders
13.7
Restaurants
2.4
8.7
2.1
1.3
0.6
2.3
Consumers
36.2
81.9
55.2
10.5
40.4
42.2
Commission agents
3.6
0.3
Source: Market survey
Farmers, small-scale peri-urban and urban chicken farms, large-scale chicken farms and traders sell
chickens. Large-scale chicken farms take part in the market at Saris and Debre zeit markets only. Traders
accounted for the largest chicken sellers at Debre zeit, Saris and Meki. At Chefedonsa and Modjo, farmers
accounted for the largest proportion of sellers. Thus, in primary markets, producers are predominant
sellers. In the secondary markets both farmers and traders do sell chickens. In the terminal market
traders are the predominant sellers. The proportion of farmers who sell in the terminal market is
insignificant.
Table 2. Types of sellers in the selected markets (% of respondents)
Seller type
Farmers
Markets
Debre Zeit
Saris
Modjo
Meki
Chefedonsa
All locations
33.9
3.4
54.0
54.0
80.0
Large-scale producers
0.6
0.7
0
0
0
40.2
0.3
Small-scale producers
12.1
1.3
0.7
0.7
2.5
3.7
Traders
53.4
94.6
45.3
45.3
17.5
55.8
In poultry trade functions such as assembling, wholesaling and retailing do overlap and a trader may
undertake all these three functions by him/herself. Another peculiar characteristic of chicken marketing is
72
that traders operate on a very small scale and the volume of trade ranges from 10-50 chickens or even less.
In most cases retailers themselves visit different local markets to purchase chickens and transport and sell
them at terminal or consumption markets. Traders use public transportation (buses and mini-buses) or
hire space in private trucks to transport chickens to consumer markets. During transportation the
chickens may be kept along with other bags, sacks of grain, bundles of firewood etc. by tying their legs
together or occasionally in a basket designed for transporting chickens. Transporting chicken along with
bags, sacks of grain and bundles of firewood is risky as these items may cause damage to chickens.
In the markets studied, a large number of small farmers bring few chickens to the market. These farmers
have a negligible influence on the chicken price in the market. Consequently, they chicken sellers are price
takers. At Debre Zeit large poultry farms and modern small-scale poultry farms (modern farms with flock
less than 500 chicken) do supply chickens during religious holydays. However, such farms do not supply
sufficient number of chickens to meet the high demand that prevails during the same period. During
holidays, consumers prefer to buy local breeds having particular colours for sacrifices and cultural reasons
(Table 3). The color, sex, comb type and age of the bird used for sacrifices are very important in
determining prices. Chickens of exotic origin are not preferred for sacrifices. Modern farmers produce
exotic breeds having either red or white colour and do not supply preferred coloured chickens. Except at
Debre Zeit and Saris such farms do not participate in the market. Even in the market where they
participate, their market share was very low. Therefore, the influence of modern poultry farm on chicken
price is low in the specified markets.
Table 3. Colour and sex of birds used for sacrifices and other cultural purposes in east Shewa zone
Sex and color
Purpose of making sacrifices
White cock
Good harvest and good rains
Season
October and May
Red cock
Good harvest and good rain
October and May
Red and Black spotted cock
Ethiopian new year
Mid-September
White and black spotted cock
Deter evil things such as disease
Any time if needed
Red pullet
To remember ancestors
June or may
Although farmers often sell chickens to cover small household expenses, chickens sale is targeted at
religious and New Year festivals. Many farmers also sell chickens just before seasons of on-set of poultry
disease outbreaks to avoid losses that could occur if he/she keeps them. All chickens brought to market are
sold, at whatever the price offered to avoid the high risk of disease transmission that could occur if unsold
chickens are reintroduced to the flock. Farmers normally take their chicken to local open markets that are
close to their villages. Farmers’ bargaining power is generally weak because of their size, lack of direct
access to other markets and absence of market information. Their bargaining power would be weakened
even more during outbreaks of poultry diseases because of fear of risks.
Weight and age of traded chicken
Table 4 indicates the live weight of traded chicken by sex and markets for both buyers and sellers. It shows
that male birds had higher live weight over the female chicken at all markets. The highest weight for the
traded chicken both for male and female was observed at Modjo, while the lowest was at Meki. Concerning
mean live weight of traded chickens and buyer choice, those chickens purchased by small-scale chicken farms
at Saris, and Meki and Chefedonsa and traders at Modjo represent the lowest weight purchased (Table 5).
Farmers at Debre zeit, traders at Meki, restaurants at Modjo and Chefedonsa purchased chickens with the
heaviest weights. Purchase of heavy chickens was mainly for consumption. Small-scale producers purchase
young chickens for production purposes. Young chickens are lighter than old chickens and this explain why
small-scale producers purchase light-weight chickens.
In terms of age, traded chicken at Modjo were older than those at other markets for both sexes, while
chickens traded at the Chefedonsa market were the youngest, nearly six months of age for males and five
months for females (Table 6). Youngest chickens were purchased by restaurants at Debre Zeit, small-scale
urban chicken farms at Saris and Meki and Chefedonsa, traders at Modjo. Oldest chickens were purchased
73
by traders at Debre Zeit, and Saris, restaurants at Modjo and Meki, and consumers at Chefedonsa and
overall was by consumers (Table 7).
Table 4. Mean live weight of traded chicken by sex and market (kg)
Sex
Markets
Debre Zeit
Saris
Modjo
Meki
Chefedonsa
All locations
Male
1.47
1.56
2.13
1.15
1.98
1.64
Female
1.37
1.25
1.70
0.82
1.69
1.39
Grand mean
1.42
1.51
2.00
1.05
1.86
1.56
Table 5. Mean live weight of traded chicken by buyer types and market (kg).
Buyer type
Markets
All locations
Debre Zeit
Saris
Modjo
Meki
Chefedonsa
Farmers
1.90
1.24
2.12
0.88
1.70
Small-scale urban producers
1.27
1.22
0.67
1.50
1.22
Traders
1.45
1.60
1.09
1.80
1.43
1.90
1.76
Restaurants
1.40
1.47
2.43
1.05
2.50
1.59
Consumers
1.43
1.54
2.16
1.01
1.80
1.68
Commission agents
1.37
1.37
Table 6. Mean age (months) of traded chicken by sex and market
Sex
Markets
Debre Zeit
Saris
Modjo
Meki
Chefedonsa
All locations
Male
6.39
6.35
10.02
6.91
5.95
7.17
Female
5.55
5.71
8.89
5.64
5.38
6.22
Grand mean
6.04
6.23
9.65
6.54
5.74
6.86
Meki
Chefedonsa
Table 7. Mean age of traded chicken by buyer types and market.
Buyer type
Markets
Debre Zeit
Saris
Modjo
9.87
Farmers
6.29
6.25
Small scale urban producers
6.75
4.80
Traders
6.97
7.00
Restaurants
3.63
6.31
Consumers
6.04
6.27
10.32
6.94
Commission agents
5.33
All locations
6.0
5.61
6.57
5.33
5.00
5.58
8.13
6.49
5.73
6.79
12.00
8.00
6.06
7.13
6.75
5.33
Seasonal chicken price variations
Seasonal variation of prices per kg of live weight is indicated in Figure 2 for the markets studied for the
year 2000. The lowest price was observed in July while the peak price level was observed in mid September.
The lowest price level in July coincides with the outbreak of chicken diseases. During this period supply of
chickens to the market is overwhelmingly high as escape strategy by smallholder farmers. Consequently,
chickens are sold at the onset of local disease outbreaks as a strategy of avoiding expected loss and restocked
later and such strategy affects poultry prices. Many farmers also sell chickens to purchase food during the
same period. On the other hand, demand for chicken drops in the early August as this period coincides with
fasting period of Orthodox Christians. Thus, poultry prices remain low from June to August although the
price starts peaking up in late August. The price continues rising in early September and reaches its peak in
mid September. The peak time corresponds to high demand for chickens for the Ethiopian New Year and
Meskel festivals. During the other religious festival periods, e.g. Easter, which takes place in April/May,
demand for chicken rises. The supply during this period is also high and has effect on price. Mid February
through April months partly coincide with fasting period of Orthodox Christians and chicken prices are
relatively low, although it is not as low as chicken price in June to August.
Analysis of average prices for each market indicates that peak and lowest periods were considerably
variable across markets. Across all seasons, except in November through January, chicken price at
74
Chefedonsa was lower than all other markets. This is mainly because of type of road condition and limited
transport facilities. In Saris, price was higher than all other locations from April through September. From
October to March, the highest price was at Debre Zeit. The second highest price occurred at Meki from mid
November through mid December, while during other periods it occurred at Saris. Lowest price was
recorded in March for Saris, in February for Meki, in July for Debre Zeit and Chefedonsa. The variations in
seasonal poultry price trends across different but trade-linked markets indicate weak market integration.
The other possible explanations for price variations are delays and temporary break in information
transmission system among the markets
Mean price birr/kg of live weight
Variations in poultry prices are partly influenced by variations in weight and age of chickens arising from
availability and quality of feeds. During grain harvest, which starts in October and extends to March,
grains are provided as a supplementary feed in addition to scavenging. After April-May, the amount of
available grain declines and, thus, chicken depend on scavenging alone. It appears that poultry price is
influenced mostly by rising and falling demands during religious festivals and occurrence of diseases.
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Month
Figure 2. Seasonal poultry price variation for live chicken
Spatial chicken price integration
To assess the extent to which chicken markets are spatially integrated, correlation coefficients were
computed for pairs of markets linked by trade. Table 8 presents weekly, biweekly and monthly price
correlation coefficients between pairs of markets. All the markets are connected to each other with road
networks. A high and significant degree of correlation indicates that there is a strong degree of association
between prices in the two markets. It was found that the correlation coefficients of pairs of markets located
close to each other were high and statistically significant. For instance, the correlation coefficient between
Debre Zeit-Saris, Debre Zeit-Modjo, Debre Zeit-Meki and Debre Zeit-Chefedonsa were statistically
significant. Thus, price associations between these markets were relatively strong as compared to pairs of
markets away from each other.
Between some pairs of markets (e.g. Saris-Meki) prices are weakly correlated both in terms of price per
head and price per kg of live weight. Such relation prevails more as distance between pair of market
increases. The number of statistically significant correlation is higher for price per head than that of price
per live weight. This may be because inter market price information transmission take place on the basis of
per head than per weight. This can be explained or evidenced by absence of chicken transaction mechanism
based on weight and weighing scale to determine chicken prices. The weak price correlation between pairs
of markets, both in terms of per head and per unit of live weight, indicates weak integration between the
markets and this is an indicator of marketing inefficiency implying high costs and/or weak transmission of
information within the marketing system.
75
In terms of time interval, prices in pairs of markets are more integrated as length of interval increases. As
measured by correlation coefficient poultry price association between pairs of markets increases as the
time interval increase. For instance, on per head basis, the association between monthly prices is stronger
than the association between weekly and biweekly prices. For example, between Debre Zeit and Meki,
correlation coefficient (r) increases from 0.61 to 0.90 as time interval increases from weekly to monthly.
Weekly price integration is lower than biweekly and monthly. Price integration on per live weight is lower
than on per head basis. This result reflects absence of timely market information and delayed transmission
of information. Market information is transmitted through inter personal contacts and communications
among market participants. Thus, the price adjustment mechanism starts operating after long delays.
Table 8. Live chicken price correlation coefficient between pairs of selected markets
Price per head
Price per live weight
Pairs of markets
Dis.
DZ-Saris
46
0.42**
0.36
0.48
0.14
0.07
0.01
DZ-Modjo
25
0.56**
0.58*
0.65*
-0.15
-0.13
-0.20
DZ-Meki
Weekly
Biweekly
Monthly
Weekly
Biweekly
Monthly
0.61**
0.77**
0.90**
0.60**
0.63**
Dz-Chefedonsa
30
0.65**
0.67**
0.70**
0.64**
0.73**
0.77**
Saris-Modjo
70
0.22
0.05
0.12
0.19
0.27
0.18
0.25
0.22
0.23
0.25
0.13
0.04
0.22
-0.03
0.21
0.25
0.13
0.15
0.81**
-0.09
-0.02
-0.26
-0.18
Saris-Meki
Saris-Chefedonsa
76
Modjo-Meki
Modjo-Chefedonsa
Meki-Chefedonsa
0.42*
55
0.68**
0.65**
0.65**
0.78**
0.44**
0.74**
0.88**
0.65**
0-.21
0.83**
-0.24
0.74**
0.92**
Source: Estimated based on survey data; **, * indicate significance at 1% and 5% levels, respectively
Determinants of live chicken prices
A multivariate regression model was specified and fitted to the data to find out factors that determine
price per head. The factors that assumed to affect price were market location, age, age-square, weight, and
weight-square, breed type, month of transaction, sex, color, and market outlets. Saris was considered as a
reference market location; exotic breed were considered as a reference for breed type; December to January,
1999/2000 was considered as reference months of transaction; female was considered as a reference sex;
mixed color was considered as a reference color type, and farmer buyers were considered as a reference
market outlet.
The result shows that, everything else being equal, price paid for a chicken at Debre Zeit market is not
significantly different from price paid at Saris market. However, the prices paid per head at Modjo, Meki,
and Chefedonsa were significantly lower than the price paid at Saris market. These results imply that
access to large urban consumer market has influence on the prices of chickens.
Attempts have been made to find out whether the colour of a chicken influences its price or not. It was
found that there were variations in prices paid for chickens having different colours. With the exception of
price paid for black coloured chickens, the prices paid for chickens having other colours were not
significantly different from the prices paid for mixed color chicken. The price paid for black coloured
chicken was significantly lower than that for mixed coloured chicken. This result implies that black
coloured chickens are not preferred by consumers, consequently such type of chicken fetches lower price.
In terms of sex the price paid for male birds was significantly higher than the price paid for female birds.
This result suggests that sex of chicken does affect its price. Type of poultry breed has also an impact on
price. Statistical results indicated that the price per head paid for local breed was significantly different
from price paid for exotic breed. There was no significant difference between the prices of crossbred and
pure exotic breed chickens. The price a consumer pays for a local bird weighing 1.25 kg is more than the
price consumer pays for an exotic bird weighing the same weight. The premium price for local chicken is
attributed to their coulor, comb type and alleged better taste. Some consumers do not prefer very soft
chicken meat of exotic chickens.
There was a highly significant relationship between weight (and weight square) of a chicken and its price.
This implies that in the markets studied, heavier chickens fetch higher prices than lighter chicken. Age
76
and Age Square of chicken also significantly influenced prices of chicken. The negative signs on weight and
age squares indicate that, everything being equals, chicken price increases at decreasing rate as weight
and age increases.
Table 8. Coefficients of variables assumed to affect chicken price
Factors
Coefficient
Constant
Live weight (kg)
Live weight squared
Sig. level
St. error
10.170
0.000
1.145
2.650
0.000
0.360
-0.120
0.000
0.017
Age (month)
0.320
0.017
0.130
Age squared
-0.015
0.015
0.006
Market location: Debre Zeit
-0.381
0.320
0.382
Modjo
-2.052
0.000
0.442
Meki
-4.009
0.000
0.474
Chefedonsa
-3.650
0.000
0.461
White
-0.480
0.159
0.430
Black
-1.500
0.001
0.441
0.305
Bird color:
Red
-0.200
0.505
Sex Type:
Male
3.150
0.000
0.304
Breed type
Local
-3.220
0.000
0.521
Cross
-1.620
0.098
0.974
Type of buyer:
Small scale producers
0.033
0.968
0.820
Traders
-0.660
0.165
0.470
Restaurants
-0.880
0.288
0.830
Consumers
0.250
0.588
0.460
Feb. Mar. 2000
-1.170
0.031
0.538
Apr. May 2000
-0.970
0.082
0.556
June July 2000
-2.680
0.000
0.538
Aug. Sep. 2000
-0.790
0.121
0.512
Oct. Nov. 2000
0.370
0.477
0.515
Months of transaction
R2
Adjusted R2
N
DW
0.617
0.603
655
1.601
Source: Estimated based on survey data
Seasonal demand for chicken meat is highly influenced by religious and New Year festivals. Consequently,
such demand greatly influences price of chicken. The coefficients attached to months of transaction
indicate that the price consumers paid from June to July significantly lower than price consumers paid in
reference months, December-January. Similarly the prices paid by consumers from February-March, AprilMay was significantly lower than the reference period. There was no significant variation in the price of
chicken in the months of August-September and the reference period. These two periods coincide with
widely celebrated festival days, Ethiopian New year and Christmas.
Major market constraints
The major market constraints as identified by traders were lack of market place, poultry diseases, absence
market information and lack of training on improved trading practice and marketing management. Lack of
market place is a constraint mainly at Saris market. Most traders do not have access to permanent and
market place. Poultry transaction on weight base is non-existent. Prices are determined with visual
observation and approximation weighing with hand. This results in long bargaining where a party with
limited bargaining capacity loses.
Farmers do not get timely market information upon which to base their marketing decisions. They depend
on other farmers and traders for price information. Some time they collect information at the market place
just before making decision to sell or not. Such information exchange mechanism does not assist farmers to
make decision regarding chicken production.
Poultry traders have little skill on how to identify chicken diseases and its symptoms. Poor knowledge of
poultry diseases may leads to risks, which could occur if diseased chicken are purchased and die. Poultry
77
trade requires relatively small amount of capital. The initial capital requirement for entry into chicken
trading is also small. Most traders use alternative capital sources like iqub, etc. and capital was rarely
mentioned as a constraint for entry into chicken trading. Few traders underscored that limited capital and
access to credit are constraints to expand their business.
Conclusions and recommendations
The objectives of this study were to assess poultry market structure, identify poultry price determinants
and price association in spatially linked markets and generate information that helps to make informed
decisions by producers, poultry traders and other stakeholders concerned with poultry production and market
development. Descriptive statistics and correlation methods were used.
Poultry marketing system is characterized by many suppliers (farmers) and considerable number of
buyers. A single or few buyers did not dominate the markets studied. The channels are relatively short
since transaction between producers and consumers are the dominant channels in most markets. Even in
terminal markets the middlemen in the chain are few compared to other agricultural commodities.
Chickens are transported to secondary and terminal markets along with bags, sacks of grain and bundle of
firewood. Such transportation is risky for traders and poultry handling system for transportation needs to
be improved. Necessary facilities are not available and the sanitation of poultry transaction areas was also
very poor. As a whole, there is a need to demarcate poultry trading sites and encourage traders to establish
necessary facilities required for feeding, watering and sanitation of poultry transaction sites.
Transaction based on modern weight measuring method is non-existent and prices are determined with
visual observation and approximation weighing with hand. Non-modern weight measuring based
transaction may entail loss for farmers. Traders frequently visit different market and more acquainted
with such type of transaction than farmers who rarely visit market. Consequently farmers may at loser
side during the transaction as well-experienced traders be able to easily cheat them. Therefore, there is a
need for modern weight measuring method-based transaction in the market so that marketing efficiency
could be increased and the interests of seller and buyers protected.
The results indicate that markets close to each other are more integrated than markets away from each
other. The prices in two markets are more integrated as time interval increase. This is mainly due to
absence of up-to-date market information and delays in transmission of information through
communications particularly by traders who visit different markets. The weak market integration
indicates inefficiency and may be caused by inadequately developed market infrastructure and facilities
and absence of market information. Thus, improving the marketing infrastructure and facilities and
putting in place market information system would improve spatial integration of markets.
Market information regarding demand, supply, price etc. is essential for efficient function of a market if
accurate information is provided timely. The existence of accurate and timely information helps market
participants to make informed decisions regarding production and sale. Thus, mechanisms that provide
accurate and timely market information need to be developed. Such information is absent for all
agricultural produces. Poultry market information should be given due consideration when market
information mechanism is devised for livestock.
References
Alemayehu Lirenso (1993). Grain marketing Performance in Ethiopia: A Study of the Impact of Deregulation on the
Structure and Performance of Grain Markets, Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation, University of East Anglia, Norwich,
1993.
Alemu Yami and Tadele Dessie, (1997). The Status of Poultry Research and Development in Ethiopia, Research Bulletin
No. 4. Poultry Commodity Research Program Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Center, Alemaya University of
Agriculture, Ethiopia. PP. 62.
78
Asfaw Negassa and T. S. Jyane (1998) Vertical and Special Integration of Grain Markets in Ethiopia: Implications for
Grain Market and Food Security Policies. Working Paper 9, Grain Market Research Project, Ministry of Economic
Development and Cooperation, Addis Ababa.
Branson, R. E., and D. G. Novell (1983) Introduction to Agricultural Marketing. McGraw-Hill Book, Inc.
EARO (Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization) (2000) Summary of Livestock Research Strategy. EARO, Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia
Goletti, F. and S. Babu (1994) “Market liberalization and Integration of Maize Market in Malawi.” Agricultural
Marketing, 11: 311-324.
Kennucan, H. W. and O. D. Forker (1987) “Asymmetry in Farm-Retail Price Transmission for Major Dairy Products.”
American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 69: 285-292.
Scarborough V. and J. Kydd (1992). Economic Analysis of Agricultural Markets: A Manual. Chatham, U.K.
Tadele Dessie, (1996). Studies on Village Poultry Production Systems in the Central Highlands of Ethiopia. M. Sc. Thesis,
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. PP. 72
Ward R. W. (1982) “Asymmetry in Retail, Wholesale, and Shipping Point Pricing for Fresh Vegetables.” American
Journal of Agricultural Economics, 64: 205-212.
79
Promotion of dairy marketing using farmers’ cooperatives: Lessons from
India
Berhane Mekete1and Workneh Ayalew 2
1Metekel
Cattle Breeding and Improvement Center, P.O. Box. 30 Tel. 250001, Chagni.
Livestock Institute (ILRI), P.O. Box 5689, Tel 463215, Addis Ababa.
2International
Abstract
This paper discusses the importance of smallholder dairy marketing cooperatives as a strategy to promote the dairy
sub-sector based on the lessons learned from the Anand pattern of dairy cooperative movement, which was later
replicated throughout India. Apart from the history in India, this paper identifies the factors that contributed to the
success of the Anand pattern, and then suggests what can be done in Ethiopia. Involvement of the government at
every step of the development was very useful for the expansion of the dairy cooperatives in India. In some parts of
Ethiopia, some form of organised marketing of milk is already present. The Anand pattern of dairy development can
be emulated at least around the major milk shades, for instance around Nazareth, Dire Dawa, Harar, Bahir Dar,
Gondar, Awassa, Jima and Assela. As demonstrated in India, dairy marketing cooperatives could provide farmers
with continuous milk outlet, and easy access to essential inputs, such as AI, veterinary services and formula feeds.
Generally dairy cooperatives help to trigger a series of positive developments in the sub-sector; hence strengthening
the existing group milk marketing activities and formation of new cooperatives in different parts of the country is
well justified.
Introduction
About 93% of the total milk production in Ethiopia is produced by the smallholder dairy farmers living in
the villages and exercising, in most instances, traditional dairying. This sector also produces 90% of the
overall agriculture output in the country (Tsehay, 1998).
Largely village-level small market networks manage marketing of milk and milk products from this
dominant smallholder sector. Large-scale marketing and processing of milk limited to the area around
Addis Ababa, generally known as the Addis Ababa milk shed. It appears that butter dominates dairy
marketing, and the transaction in the form of raw milk is limited around major urban centres. The short
shelf-life of raw milk, lack of pasteurisation, poor market infra-structure, and above all, low demand for
dairy products can explain the weak marketing of dairy products in the country.
The perishable nature of milk coupled with lack of preservation facilities dictate that the product should be
quickly transported from producer to consumer. The fact that milk is produced on daily basis throughout
the lactation length of several months also requires mechanisms to accommodate continuous flow of
produce to the consumers while allowing some flexibility in the process.
Despite the practical difficulties of maintaining a viable milk-marketing network, the spread of milk sale
over an extended period of several months is an economically worthwhile opportunity to the smallholder
producers as they often wish to see their incomes evenly spread over time to match their habitual
expenditures. Therefore, the creation of working linkages between milk producers and consumers not only
ensures reliable supply of milk to the consumers, but also provides economic incentives to the producers for
continuous supply of milk. Smooth marketing of milk stimulates production, raise dairy farm incomes and
improve standard living of farmers.
The marketing of dairy products therefore requires as much emphasis as for the production of milk.
Biological interventions to improve the nutritional and health status of dairy animal may not bring about
the desired improvements of income to the producers unless the produce is absorbed by viable markets.
Lack of market can mean wastage of the milk, and the resources that went into its production (labour,
land, time. As Tsehay (1998) put it, provision of improved and sustainable milk marketing arrangements
in smallholder villages is therefore indispensable for advancement of the national dairy industry.
81
Smallholder dairy marketing cooperatives provide an appropriate option for laying out viable dairy
marketing networks far off from major consumer centres. The cooperatives provide for the creating of the
essential critical mass of output to draw the interest of large markets, financial institutions and policy
makers. An effective milk-marketing network benefits both producers and consumers, and through its
linkages with related sectors, the national economy as a whole. India presents a good example on the
working of effective dairy marketing cooperatives, which over the past decades have helped the country to
become one of the leading countries in the world in the production, marketing and consumption of milk.
This paper describes the history of dairy cooperative movement in India, draws out lessons and suggests
appropriate steps that can similarly be taken in Ethiopia for the development of its dairy sub-sector.
Difficulties of milk marketing by smallholder farmers
Milk is a highly perishable product and needs to be disposed or processed quickly into products of longer
shelf life, like butter, cheese or powder. This requires considerable financial outlay as well as skilled
manpower.
The form and volume of milk to be sold by smallholder farmers to the consumers depends on the
transportation facility and distance between producers and consumers. While some farmers residing in
proximity to urban centers have easier access to major markets, those farmers from distant rural areas
have to bear the additional costs of transportation and search for market information. Unfortunately, the
majority of smallholder farmers live and work in remote areas relative to urban centers, and have to deal
with the difficulty of accessing reliable markets for their produce. This situation puts them in an
unfavorable bargaining position against potential traders. This may be part of the reason why many
farmers sell their dairy output in the form of butter rather than raw milk. The opportunity of using whey,
cottage cheese and skim milk also encourages them to process raw milk into butter. In any case, the
smallholder farmers happen to be at a disadvantage if they wish to sell raw milk.
The other operational constraint is the small size of milk that individual smallholder farmers supply the
market on daily basis. Unless the consumers also prefer such fragmented pattern of milk supply, this
situation inflates the costs of milk handling and processing to the extent that large scale processing of
dairy products is effectively made prohibitively uneconomical. Again this constitutes lost opportunity for
the smallholder farmers who otherwise have limited market outlet. Smallholder farmers often use their
daily incomes for the procurement of household utilities, including food items. They hardly afford to wait
for days or weeks to receive their incomes from the sale of milk. This means that development
interventions to improve this dairy sub-sector should also meet farmers’ expectations in securing their
incomes. The difficulty is that traders or large dairy processing industries (both private and parastatal)
may not be prepared to bear the added costs of meeting these expectations, and even if they would, the
added costs are reflected in the lower farm-gate prices of milk paid to the farmers. Again this is at a
financial disadvantage of the smallholder farmers.
Under these circumstances where numerous producers individually produce very small quantities of milk
and are remotely located from major markets, development the dairy sub-sector requires an integrated
approach to production, procurement, processing and marketing of the product. As demonstrated
effectively under more or less similar circumstances in India (Parlmal and Bardhan, 1990), dairy
marketing cooperatives could provide such a system that ensures reliable, stable and continuous
procurement of the milk, suitable pricing system and opportunity for sustainable use of inputs, including
feed, medicaments, equipment and even AI services. Above all, the incomes could readily be distributed to
the producers with little additional transaction costs.
Lessons from India
Origin of the Indian dairy cooperatives
Up until the emergence of the dairy cooperatives, milk marketing was under the control of private traders
and middlemen. Farmers were compelled to sell milk for whatever they were offered by the traders. Often
82
they had to sell cream and ghee at throwaway prices. Many of the farmers, who were illiterate, were aware
that the milk pricing system provided by the private traders allows huge profits to the traders while setting
the milk prices too low for the producers. This became more noticeable when the Government of Bombay
started the Bombay Milk Scheme in 1945. Milk had to be transported from Anand to Bombay, a distance of
more than 400 kilometres. This could be done only if milk was pasteurised (Kailash, 1990).
After preliminary trials, the Government of Bombay entered into an arrangement with a private company
(Known as MS Polsons) from Anand to supply Bombay with milk from Anand on a regular basis. The
arrangement was satisfactory to all concerned except the farmers. The government found it profitable; the
private company maintained a good profit margin and the private traders contracted by the company also
had good returns. But the latter had the opportunity to fix the price paid to individual milk producing
farmers, and they used this opportunity to the disadvantage of the farmers. As a result the farmers could
not benefit from the enhanced marketing of milk. In particular, the farmers of Kaira district took this
situation more seriously. These farmers happened to have a popular political leader by the name Sardar
Patel, who had been advocating for the formation of farmers’ co-operatives as early as 1940 (Kailash, 1990).
The discontent of farmers encouraged Sardar Patel to reiterate his viewpoint for the farmers to market
their milk through a cooperative of their own and the cooperative should have its own processing plant.
Sadar Patel advised the farmers to seek permission to set up such a cooperative, and if this was rejected,
they should refuse to sell milk to the middlemen, with potential consequences of short-term economic
losses to the farmers, as they would not be able to sell milk for some time. Nevertheless, if they were
prepared to put up with the losses, he was ready to lead them. The farmers’ political representatives
accepted this proposal for the establishment of milk co-operatives. This political backing encouraged
farmers to go as far as planning milk sale embargoes against the traders. The issue was then become a
strong political issue and subsequent high-level meetings between politicians were necessary to resolve the
differences. In the end consensus was reached to allow the setting up of village level milk producers’ cooperatives and their federated unions. Soon after, the cooperatives were organized in each of the villages of
Kaira district, and later these were federated into a district Union, which would own the first milk
processing facility in the district. It was further agreed that the Government of Bombay should undertake
to buy milk from the Union and if this were not done; farmers would refuse to sell milk to the traders in
Kaira district (Kailash, 1990).
Initially the Government of Bombay did not accept this demand of the farmers, and the farmers went
ahead with the milk sale embargo. Only 15 days later, the Government accepted the demand and this
marked the beginning of the Kaira district Co-operative Milk Producers´ Union Limited Anand, popularly
known as Anand Milk Union Limited (AMUL). The union was formally registered on December 14, 1946.
Through time AMUL evolved as a success story with active participation of farmers with average holding
of less than two animals. It is also a story of linkage between producers and consumers, both working for
their mutual benefits whereby producers get remunerative prices and production enhancement support
services, and the consumers get quality products at reasonable prices (Kailash, 1990).
Progress
At the beginning of establishment, only a handful of farmers from two village dairy co-operatives were
supplying about 250 litres of pasteurised milk per day for the Bombay Milk Scheme. An assured market
proved a great incentive to the milk producers of the district. By the end 1948, more than 400 farmers had
joined, and the quantity of milk handled by the Union increased to 5000 litres a day. With the spread of the
co-operative movement, it was found that the Bombay Milk Scheme could not absorb all the milk supplied by
Union during the winter season, as the winter production was on average two and half times more than that
of the summer. This led to the idea of setting up a milk processing plant by the Union, which was readily
accepted by both the Government of Bombay and the Government of India. The Government of India then
provided assistance to the Union for it to receive financial assistance from UNICEF.
This growth in the capacity to handle and process raw milk allowed dramatic increase in the supply and
collection of milk. By 1958 the milk processing facility was expanded to manufacture sweetened condensed
83
milk. Two years later, a new wing was added for the manufacture of 2500 tons of roller-dried baby food and
600 tons of cheese per year. It was for the first time anywhere in the world that cheese or baby food was
made from buffalo milk on a commercial scale (Kailsh, 1990).
In another important development, the Union was asked in 1963 to supply milk powder to the Defence
Services, which encouraged the Union to invest on additional milk drying facilities. A new processing plant
with a capacity of producing 40 tons of milk powder and 20 tons of butter a day was speedily completed,
and the whole complex could then handle 500,000 litres of milk a day. By 1974 this capacity grew to
750,000 litres a day.
Key to such a huge growth was the belief in Union that the responsibility to collect marketable surplus of
milk should be linked with the provision of production inputs. The Union had thus started providing
important inputs such as formula feeds, fodder seeds and later artificial insemination services. Soon after
the union also started its mobile veterinary services, probably for the first time in the country.
The co-operative has since then grown steadily and the supply of milk in 1994 reached about 229210 tons
of milk per day from 532670 milk producers organized in 954 dairy co-operatives (See Table 1) (Kailash,
1990).
Measures Taken to Expand AMUL Pattern
AMUL´s success in this integrated dairy development paved the way for other districts to do the same
pretty quickly in what later came to be known as the Anand pattern of dairy development. Meanwhile AMUL
provided valuable assistance to sister milk co-operatives (Belavadi, 1998).
Table 1: Development of the Indian Dairy Marketing Cooperatives from 1948 to 1994.
Financial
year
Dairy cooperative
societies
Member
of
societies
Milk
collected
from
societies
[tons]
Milk
collection
centres
owned by
societies
AI
Centres
No of AI
services
delivered
Mobile vet.
Dispensaries
Cases
treated by
mobile
dispensaries
Sale of
feed
[tons]
Value of
milk sale
[Rs’000]
1948-49
13
924
1,136
-
-
-
-
-
-
790
1950-51
33
3,973
5,000
-
5
578
-
-
-
3,395
1955-56
64
22,828
11,136
-
7
3,854
2
-
-
7,486
1960-61
195
40,500
23,915
-
26
9,077
4
16,453
-
19,853
1965-66
518
110,000
65,905
-
261
41,841
7
31,777
15,911
92,219
1970-71
706
180,000
118,225
210
523
157,547
16
70,078
36,858
273,942
1975-76
829
250,000
129,041
412
665
207,674
23
118,258
46,249
427,256
1980-81
895
327,000
169,577
521
735
285,073
23
133695
82,331
752,997
1985-86
872
365,000
227,262
606
759
497,174
18
183,614
152,651
1,334,192
1990-91
917
474,850
264,834
711
809
681,497
16
67,364
132,895
2,504,671
1991-92
923
487,400
233,895
728
811
690,385
16
54,615
140,460
2,690,622
1992-93
941
502,550
260,179
731
819
696,713
16
55,894
145,784
3,114,729
1993-94
943
513,280
277,360
739
826
72,073
16
60,030
144,506
3,289,072
1994-95
954
532,670
229,210
751
827
672,852
16
41,003
144,161
3,444,943
The success was so impressive that the Prime Minister of India, after having visited Anand in 1964,
strongly advocated for the replication of the Anand Pattern of co-operatives in other parts of the country.
For this replication, the Government of India established the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB)
in September 1965 (Belavadi, 1998).
In 1969, the NDDB formulated a program called ´Operation Flood` which was based on utilization of food
aid provided by donor agencies such as World Food Programme to generate funds for replication of Anand
Pattern of dairying. The first phase of Operation Flood, launched in 1970, linked four major metropolitan
cities with 18 potential milk sheds in the country. This phase was implemented with the fund generated
from converting donated dairy powder into liquid milk and selling it through existing dairy marketing
networks. In so doing, the NDDB ensured that donated commodities would only be sold at prices at par
with locally produced milk so that the local market would not be depressed, and that funds generated
would be invested in setting up milk sheds in relatively remote areas (Belavadi, 1998).
In less than a decade of implementation Operation Flood had clearly demonstrated the replicability of the
Anand Pattern dairy co-operatives. This led to initiation of the second phase in 1979, with finance from the
84
World Bank and European Union, to expand the programme into selected districts in most of the States.
Phase 3, which commenced in 1987, consolidated achievements by improving the productivity and
efficiency of the co-operatives.
Specific interventions of Operation Flood included:
•
Provision of technical support for the establishment of village dairy co-operatives and co-operative
unions,
•
Creation of sufficient milk processing capacities in order to stabilise supplies by balancing the lean
and flush supplies,
•
Equipping the dairy co-operatives with facilities for providing essential inputs to members to improve
productivity of their dairy animals,
•
Development and provision of support services such as information systems, training and manpower
services for the co-operatives,
•
Undertaking measures for enhancing member participation in the dairy co-operatives with due
emphasis on increased involvement of rural women,
•
Establishment and management of centralized support services such as animal disease diagnostic
centres, vaccine and biologicals production and delivery systems, and national frozen semen supply
system, and
•
Undertaking research and other development activities.
As a result of these integrated interventions through the three phases of Operation Flood, the country
witnessed a phenomenal increase in milk production. National milk production rose from 23 million MT
per annum during the 1970s to around 74 million MT per annum in 1997/98) with India emerging as the
largest milk producer in the world. Despite the huge increase in the human population, the decline in the
per capita consumption of milk during the period prior to Operation Flood was reversed, and reached 200g
per person per day.
In March 1998, there were 78500 village dairy co-operatives federated into 170 district milk unions across
the country. In most of the States, the district milk unions have formed their own state dairy federations.
Around 10 million farmers have become members of the village dairy co-operatives. In 1997-98, these cooperatives collected on average 13.1 million litres of milk every day (Belavadi, 1998). The expansion of
dairy co-operatives under operation flood is summarized in Table 2.
Table 2. Status of dairy co-operatives in India in 1997/98.
Particulars
Unit
State Dairy Federations
Nos.
Status
22
Co-operative Milk Producers` Unions
Nos.
170
Village Dairy Co-operatives
Nos.
78500
Farmer Members
Nos. (Million)
9.88
Rural Daily Milk Procurement (Avg. 1997/98)
Million Kg per day
13.10
Peak Daily Milk Procurement (1997/98)
Million Kg per day
15.55
Daily Liquid Milk sale to Urban Consumers (Avg. 1997/98)
Million Litres per day
11.10
Cattle Feed Capacity
MT per day
5105
Milk Processing Capacity
Million litres per day
27.10
Milk Powder Capacity
Tonnes per day
1054
Source: Belavadi (1998).
The continuous regular income from the sale of milk improved the standard of living of members of the cooperatives. Milk production was twice as high in the villages with co-operatives as in the control villages,
and overall income was 8 percent higher (Parlmal and Bardhan, 1990).
What Contributed to Success?
United affirmative action of the farmers, coordinated by good community leaders was very crucial for the
success. The farmers were gradually sensitised and led to act in unison on the lost opportunity because of
85
lack of control of the milk market. Good community leaders and governments that listen to farmers’ concerns
helped the farmers a lot in the formation of the co-operatives.
Involvement of the government at every step of the development was also very useful; the government was
supportive of, and provided assistance to, the public awareness campaigns on the scale of the problem as
well as its solution; it assigned extension professionals; it trained members of the co-operatives; it provided
financial assistance for the instalment of the milk processing and formula feeds plants as well as in the
procurement of assets. In so doing the government facilitated development of the milk-marketing network
in favour of the farmers. All these contributed a lot to the expansion of dairy co-operatives.
Another important factor was the high demand for milk, which is related to food habits of the people.
About 40 % of the country’s population has vegetarian diet in which milk and milk products happen to be
the major source of animal protein. A variety of sweets are also made from milk particularly during
holidays. Considerable amount of milk is also consumed along with tea and coffee.
What can be done in Ethiopia?
Some form of organised marketing of milk is already practices in some parts of the country, for instance in
eastern Hararghe highlands and some pastoral communities. On the other hand, major milk producing areas
of the country, such as the Selale plateau have serious problems in accessing the Addis Ababa market. The
Anand Pattern of dairy development can be replicated, at least around the major milk sheds. The conducive
policy environment on the establishment and operation of farmers´ cooperatives also facilitates the initiation
of organised milk marketing by the small producers themselves.
A concerted effort to organise these farmers into marketing groups, to provide finances for the setting up of
essential milk collection, handling and processing facilities, and to link the producers with consumers in
systematic market networks could revolutionise the smallholder dairy industry. The Adaa Liben Woreda
Dairy and Dairy Products Marketing Association operating between Debre Zeit and Addis Ababa is a good
example of organised dairy marketing driven by the producers themselves. The same can be attempted in
other major milk sheds of the country, for instance around Nazareth, Dire Dawa, Bahir Dar, Gondar,
Awassa, Jimma and Asella.
The Smallholder Dairy Development Project (SDDP) of the Ministry of Agriculture had established some
milk-marketing units; impact assessment on this intervention revealed that members have been benefited
much by selling their milk at more attractive prices. The creation of a new market outlet for fluid milk
brought major improvements in the production, marketing, and consumption behaviour of smallholder
households. The intervention led to increased milk production, consumption and marketing in the villages.
Incomes received by the households from dairy production and marketing, have increased. The new
marketing outlet may also promote involvement in more intensive dairying (e.g. owning crossbred cows,
use of other inputs) by households not previously involved (Nicholson et al, 1998). Therefore, it is possible
to initiate market-oriented and sustainable development of the smallholder dairy sub-sector in harmony
with the medium size commercial dairy producers. The tested milk sale units and operational small milk
processing facilities can be used as starting points.
Participating farmers need to be trained on specific technical and managerial issues; they need to visit and
exchange views with similar groups. Necessary infrastructure, at least access roads, should be put in place
to support and encourage this development. Affordable financing services are also essential.
Conclusions
As demonstrated in India, dairy co-operatives provide farmers with a continuous milk outlet. As income
increases, more cash will be available to purchase inputs into the milk production process. Level of
management will be gradually improved, in terms of feeding, veterinary health care, and better housing.
Generally dairy co-operatives help to trigger a series of positive development. So strengthening the existing
group milk marketing activities, and formation of new co-operatives in different parts of the country is well
justified. Involvement of the government is necessary for this to happen.
86
References
Belavadi, N.V. 1998. Dairy Development, the Indian Experience. Proceedings of the Role of Village Dairy Co-operatives
in Dairy Development: Prospects for Improving Dairy in Ethiopia, 22-24, April 1998, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. pp.4247.
Nicholson, C L, Getachew Gebru, Simeon K. Ehui, Barry I. Shapiro and Christopher Delgado. 1998. Producer Milk
Groups in Ethiopia’s Highlands: A framework for Assessing Impacts and Review of Group Performance. Proceeding
of the Role of Village Dairy Co-operatives in Dairy Development: Prospects for Improving Dairy in Ethiopia, 22-24,
April 1998, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. pp.84.
Kailash, vyas. 1990. Dairy India 1997. Fifth Edition. Pp. 67-69.
Mergos and Slade. 1987. Dairy Development and Milk co-operatives. National Dairy Development Board, Anand.
Parlmal C. And Bardhan. 1990. Operation Flood: Its Evaluation, the strategy followed and progress Achieve. National
Dairy Development Board, Anand. Pp.612-614,620.
Tsehay Redda. 1998. Prospects of Ethiopian Dairy Development. Proceeding of the Role of Village Dairy Co-operatives in
Dairy Development: Prospects for Improving Dairy in Ethiopia, 22-24, April 1998, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. pp. 149151.
87
Challenges and opportunities to livestock and livestock products
marketing in Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region: A case
study of Wolaita Zone
Million Tadesse*
Awassa Agricultural Research Center, P.O.Box 6. Awassa, Ethiopia.
Abstract
This paper examines livestock and livestock product marketing conditions in Southern Nations, Nationalities and
Peoples Regional State (SNNPRS) particularly in Wolaita Zone. Secondary data and Participatory Rural Appraisal
(PRA) were used to investigate the livestock marketing condition in the study area. The results of PRA survey
indicate that livestock are important sources of income and wealth indicators. Based on the number of livestock
owned, farmers in the study areas were categorized into rich (7.5%), medium (15.5%), poor (41.5%) and very poor
(35.5%). Livestock products such as butter, meat, hides and skins, cheese and milk are important products traded
both in rural and urban markets in the study area. Returns to better livestock marketing conditions can be
manifested in terms of improved food security, increased farm incomes, and increased supply of food. Local breeds
are the dominant spices kept by farmers in the area. In addition, exotic dairy breeds are also found in Wolaita Sodo
dairy farm and the farm is used as a center to disseminate these breeds to farmers. Generally, livestock marketing
in Wolaita Zone is characterized by lack of improved market place, storage and processing services, standards and
weight, lack of transportation, poor market information on the price and supply condition, problem of infectious and
parasitic diseases. Therefore, improving the current livestock and livestock products marketing problems is an
obvious policy option in the area.
Introduction
According to the national accounts estimates of Ethiopia, the livestock sub-sector contributes
approximately 12-15% to value added of agriculture and allied activities. Next to coffee, though smaller
compared to the potential, livestock exports constitute a major source of foreign exchange earnings.
Particularly, hides and skins are the single most important commodities next to coffee in generating foreign
exchange. In 1995/96, for instance, livestock exports alone accounted for nearly 14% of the value of
agricultural exports in Ethiopia, 96% of which being accounted for hides and skins (MEDaC, 1999).
The Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region (SNNPR) has a huge number of livestock
population with the current estimate of about 7.5 million cattle, 2.4 million sheep, 2.2 million goats, 6.9
million equines and 5 million chicken. According to Bureau of Planning and Economic Development
(BOPED) report trends in cattle population in the region slightly increasing starting from 1997 while it
was relatively constant for sheep and goats (BOPED, 2002) (Annex 1). Livestock have various social and
economic functions in both highlands and lowlands/pastoral farming systems. In the highland and midaltitude areas of the region, livestock are part of the mixed farming complex providing integrated inputs
for crop production (i.e. traction, threshing, transport and manure) and outputs such as milk, meat, eggs,
wool, hides and skins. In the low land parts of the region, livestock are generally the sole sources of
livelihood providing milk; meat and transport at large, while hides and skins provide additional income.
Lowland cattle provide a significant amount of the draught animals for highlands. However, shortage of
draught power is a critical problem in the region. For instance, about 49.3% of the farming household
heads in the region do not have oxen, about 27.2% have one ox, 17.47% have two oxen, 1.91% have three
oxen, 2.13% have four oxen and only 1.97% have five and above (BOPED, 1998). However, in some areas
like Gedio Zone where perennial crops such as coffee and enset are important, the majority of the farmers
do not need draught power because of the nature of the farming system. Generally, in both areas livestock
*
Corresponding author, E-mail: [email protected]
89
provide a living insurance, as a store of value for financing modest level of investment against
risk/uncertainties in crop production.
Among the livestock products, sale of hides and skins, milk, butter, cheese and the like contribute a lot to
household income. In addition to these products, farmers obtain a significant amount of money from the
sale of live animals. In the past different authors attempted to study livestock and livestock products
marketing conditions in some parts of the country. However, the potentials and constraints of livestock and
livestock products marketing have not been well investigated in Southern Nations, Nationalities and
Peoples Regional State particularly in Wolaita Zone. Hence, assessment of livestock and livestock products
marketing potentials or opportunities and constraints in the study area is paramount importance for the
development of the livestock sector not only on this specific area but also on other similar areas in the
region.
Objectives
1. To assess livestock and livestock products marketing potentials or opportunities in the region in
general and in Wolaita Zone in particular.
2. To identify constraints to livestock and livestock products marketing in Wolaita Zone
The SNNPRS and the Wolaita zone
SNNPRS is located in the South and Southwestern parts of the country and covers an area of 113,639 km2,
which is about 10 percent of the total area of the country. Bordered with Oromiya region in the East and
Southeast, with the Sudan and Gambella region in the West, and with Kenya in the South. The latitudinal
range of the region is from 500 to over 3000 meters above sea level. Four major agro-ecologies, semi-desert
(6.2%), Kolla (49.8%), Weinadega (36.8%), Dega (6.5%) and Werch (0.7%) exist in the region (BOPED, 1998).
The population of the region was estimated to be 12.5 million projected for the year 2001 (CSA. 1994). The
highest population of the region is located in Gedio Zone of Wonago Wereda which is about 890 persons per
kilo metres square and the lowest population density is located in South Omo Zone which is about 3
persons per kilo meters square. Wolaita Zone is located around 360Km Southwest of Addis Ababa and next
to Gedio zone Wolaita Zone is one of the most densely populated areas in the region. For instance, a
population density of about 600 persons per kilometers squares was recorded in Damot Gale Wereda with
in the zone. Mixed farming is the dominant farming system of Wolaita Zone. Wolaita Zone is selected in
this study due to the existence of large number of buyers and sellers for livestock and livestock products
such as butter, hides and skins, cheese, milk and other products. In addition, the livestock production
system in Wolaita highlands is relatively modern because of previous extension intervention such as by
Wolaita Agricultural Development Unit (WADU) since 1970. The lowland areas of the Zone such as
Humbo, Offa and Bele Weredas are important sources of live animals for highlanders as draught power
and butter, hides and skins, cheese and sometimes milk for the urban people. Wolaita Sodo town is the
major livestock and livestock products market place. Saturday and Tuesday are the two market days in a
week. However, Saturday is a big market day. Areka and Bodti towns are also another important livestock
market places next to Sodo town in terms of volume of livestock and livestock product flows.
Livestock market potential in the region
Most farmers in the region keep livestock such as cattle, sheep, goat, poultry, equine and the like.
Livestock are sources of food, draught power, and fuel and cash income. They also provide employment and
means of security and fixed asset. Livestock may be kept as a reserve for times of hardship or some times for
particular social requirements. They are marketed eventually, but from the owners point of view they are not
part of regular sales.
As can be seen in figure 1 below the supply of hides and skins in Ethiopia significantly declined starting
from 1997 to 1999. Then after, its volume increased considerably and in the year 2000, reaches its
maximum level. On the other hand, meat and meat products declined starting from 1998 but the volume of
live animals slightly increased starting from the same year. However, it can be concluded that in terms of
90
volume of sale hides and skin are the single most important livestock products that provide foreign
currency. Therefore, much has to be done to diversify livestock export so as to benefit more from the sector.
Export volume
12,000,000
quantity in kg
10,000,000
Hides and Skins
8,000,000
Live Animals
6,000,000
Dairy Products
Meat & Meat Products
4,000,000
2,000,000
0
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
years
Source: Ethiopian Export Promotion Agency, July 2001.Addis Ababa
Figure 1: Ethiopian Livestock and Livestock Products Export (1994-2000).
As shown in figure 2 below the volume of hides supplied to central market, Addis Ababa, from the region is
very small as compared to sheep skin in the last six years. This might indicate that sheep and goat are
relatively slaughtered more frequently than cattle in the region in contrast to the national data (figure 1
above). However, the decline in the supply of sheep and goat skin from the region may be associated in one
way or another due to the increase in traditional use of sheep and goat skin, unfavorable terms of trade,
decline in quality of these products. Some traders in the area indicated that the price of hides and skin is
fixed by processing factories and suppliers are price takers. In addition, due to the liberalization measures,
which have taken place, the number of illegal hides and skin traders increased and the terms of trade are
against legal traders.
Livestock market information particularly price, is an indicator of short-term demand and supply
conditions in various markets. Lack of livestock market information services is one of the main
contributing factors to livestock trade inefficiency. Those private traders who use market information in
the marketing of their products mostly obtain this information from their relatives and friends. Most of
them use this information to get better profit from the sale of their commodities. Those traders who are
relatively educated recognized the importance of market information though inadequate to obtain this
information observed. The average producer price of livestock and livestock products in SNNPRS is given
in figure 3.
As can be seen from figure 3 cattle and small ruminants off-take rates in the region have remained low.
For instance, the rate of cattle off-take in the year 2000 decreased by about 71 percent as compared to the
rate in 1995 in the region. This might be due to the fact that large number of draft oxen maintained in the
mixed cereal-livestock farming systems negatively influenced cattle off take rates. Livestock are also kept
as insurance against crop failure. In the lowland parts of the region, prestige considerations have
discouraged sales of animals.
The results of the study in Gununo Catchment, Wolaita Zone indicated that livestock production is
relatively modern and farmers' use cut and carry system in order to feed their livestock. Many farmers
reported that there is a declining trend in the size of grazing land over the last three years. The principal
reasons given for the declining trend in the size of grazing land include intensive cultivation, expansion of
91
settlement and a concomitant expansion of settlement and afforestation (eucalyptus tree planting) (Million
T., 2001).
Livestock Products Supplied to Central Market, Addis Ababa (1995-2000)
16000
Quantity in qt
14000
12000
10000
Hides (Qt)
8000
6000
Sheep skin(Qt)
Goat skin (Qt)
4000
2000
0
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
years
Figure 2: Hides, Sheep and Goat Skins Supplied to Central Market (Addis Ababa), from the Region Between 1995-2000.
Average prices in Birr
Trends in livestock prices
1400
1200
1000
800
Cattle average price (off-take)
Cattle average price (stock)
Goat average price (off-take)
600
400
200
0
Goat average price (stock)
Sheep average price (off-take)
Sheep average price (stock)
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
Years
1 USD= 8.56 Ethiopian Birr in 2002.
Figure 3: Average Producer Price of Livestock and their Product in SNNPRS, 1995-2000.
Animal products such as butter, cheese, egg, hides and skins are important sources of income for farmers
in Gununo area of Woliata Zone. Among the animal products, which generate cash income to the farmers,
butter is the most important product in Wolaita area. Wolaita zone is well known for its quality butter
supply to the central market and other regions and cities in the country. The price of butter usually
increases immediately after fasting and during holidays and sometimes when there is unfavorable whether
condition i. e when supply falls down. The average price of butter in Wolaita Sodo town between 1999-2001
is about 21 Ethiopian Birr per kilogram (about 2.45 US Dollar).
However, many farmers in Wolaita Zone are not interested to sale milk culturally. This may be due to the
fact that farmers give more emphasis for butter rather than milk. The results of Participatory Rural
Appraisal indicated that livestock ownership among others is an important factor, which classifies farmers
into different wealth category (Table 1).
Those farmers who have relatively large number of livestock (a pair of oxen, two or one cows, heifers or
bulls) are considered as rich accounting 7.5% of the total households in the catchment. But the majority of
the farmers in the area (77%) are very poor and poor (Table 1). Those farmers who have relatively large
number of livestock have more prestige value and considered as rich. Hence, this may in one way or
another discourage livestock marketing in the area.
92
The average number of oxen owned in Gununo area is about one. On average, a household owns 1.78 heads
of livestock. The survey indicated that about 48 and 4 percent of the farmers had one and two oxen,
respectively, where as the rest 47.5% do not have ox. Those farmers who do not have ox cultivate their land
using hand hoe/spade and in most cases they rent out their land. Therefore, the problem of food insecurity
is still persistent in the area and will continue in the future unless agricultural production (crop, livestock,
and other allied activities) is improved through the use of modern technologies.
Table 1: Wealth Category of Sample Households in Gununo Catchment
Wealth Group
Indicators
N
Percent
Rich
Mostly have 2 oxen
Have one or two: cows, heifers or bulls
Most of them have up to 2 hectares (ha) of land
They give their animals to be kept by others and obtain 2/3 of the benefit.
They rent in land/use others farmers’ land
Are relatively food secured/ grain reserve lasts until next harvest?
25
7.5
Medium
One ox is common
One or no: cow, heifers, bulls, goats and sheep
Have up to 0.5 ha of land
Share cropping/ coupling of ox with others is a common practice.
51
15.5
Poor
Most of them do not have ox but some have one: ox, sheep and goat
They keep livestock of others and practice fattening of animals though they do not have property right.
137
41.5
116
35.5
Off-farm activities such as sale of grasses, fuel wood and pottery are common.
Have land size up to 0.125ha
Very poor
No ox and other animals
Most of them are female headed
Work on other farmers’ field as daily laborers.
They sell fuel wood, grasses, pots, etc.
Landless except the homestead area.
Total
329
100
Source: PRA Result, 2000
Constraints to livestock marketing in Wolaita zone
The major problem of livestock and livestock products marketing in the area often lies in defective
infrastructures such lack of regular market place, storage and processing facilities, absence of standards and
weights, problem of roads and transport services. In the study areas many roads have inadequately
maintained, and as a result transport costs have been increased. Feeder roads have been deteriorated and
truckers are refusing to go into rural areas because of the high costs involved for spare parts, maintenance
and fuel.
Lack of market information particularly price and supply conditions is one of the main contributing factors
to livestock market inefficiency in Wolaita Zone. Regular market information on prices and supplies and
grades and standards are non-existent in the study area. Traders' sources of information for livestock and
livestock products sale are their own assessment and other merchants. Brokers are also important sources
of information. Agreement on prices is reached by a long one -on- one bargaining between a seller and a
buyer. Animals are sold on a per head basis. Under such circumstances, prices paid will reflect buyers’
preference for various animal characteristics (e.g sex, weight, age, condition, breed and color), the season of
the year, the purpose as to whether the animals are purchased for consumption, breeding, fattening or
resale, and buyer’s and seller’s bargaining skills.
From a marketing management perspective, body conformation and live weight of the animal are the key
factors that influence the marketing of live animals. The two factors are related to the age and the sex of
the animal and other secondary body parameters like fleshing. These factors will thus directly influence
the price at which the live animals can be sold. The channel through which the animal reaches the market
place will influence both the body condition and the live weight of the animal that is being marketed. The
types of channels used will be influenced primarily by domestic marketing infrastructure and the type of
the ultimate market being considered i.e whether the domestic market or the export market.
93
Most farmers in the study areas do not have access to marketplace. They travel long distance to sale their
animals. However, the problem of market place is more serious especially in pastoral areas in the region
such as the low land areas of South Omo Zone, Burji, Amaro special weredas (sub-districts) and others.
Due to problem of market place pastoral farmers forced to cross the border of Ethiopia to sale their
animals.
Good marketing facilities are important for efficient livestock marketing system. Next to coffee, hides and
skin are important sources of foreign currency. However, hides and skin marketing in Wolaita Zone has
been constrained by lack of improved facilities such as weighing and grading, storage, processing factories,
absence of control of unlicensed hides and skin traders. According to traders response in Wolaita Zone the
number of unlicensed traders increases from time to time and licensed traders are in a disadvantaged
position. Livestock marketing and slaughtering places are government owned but most of them lack
essential facilities such as water, crash, weighing scale and other related materials. Due to the absence of
hide and skin processing factories in the region, the demand for such products is very low and farmers are
not in a position to get better profit margin. As a result, most of the benefit goes to market middlemen and
assemblers. Brokers bring potential buyers and sellers together. For instance, in cattle marketing place in
Wolaita zone, brokers play an important role.
The actual transfer of ownership takes place between the original buyer and seller, with the broker acting
as a counselor and intermediary in return for a fee. Some brokers charge 5-10 birr per cattle, 3-5 birr per
sheep or goat, which is paid by the individual, who purchase the animal. This amount of payment is very
high as compared to the services given by brokers and many consumers mentioned the issue as a problem.
Currently, hides and skin traders are expected to pay 30 percent sales tax and they reported that the
amount of charge often discourage hides and skin marketing. Another problem in hides and skin
marketing is the existence of monopolistic price determination by processing factories. Hides and skin
suppliers from the region in general and Wolaita Zone in particular do not have bargaining power and they
will accept the price set by the factories in most cases. Due to this suppliers in return also fix lower price
for farmers. Hence, producers do not reasonable price for their animals and animal products.
In addition to the above problem, the results of PRA survey in the study area indicated that infectious and
parasitic diseases significantly influence livestock marketing. For instance, livestock diseases reduce
household incomes directly by causing considerable livestock losses and indirectly by necessitating health
restrictions on export.
Conclusions and policy implications
The livestock sub-sector in Ethiopia on average contributes about 23.3 percent of agricultural value added.
Ethiopia has the largest livestock population in Africa, however the direct contribution of livestock to value
added is very low due to the low level of productivity. However, so long as a predominant farming system
depends on oxen draught power for ploughing and on pack animals as a means of transport, livestock are an
important "engine to agriculture". Livestock products and cash crops such as coffee, chat, vegetables, fruits,
and tea accounts for more than 85 percent of total foreign currency earnings of the country.
Animal characteristics that affect price are mainly weight, sex, age, condition and color. In addition, the
purpose for which the animal was purchased, whether for resale, slaughter, fattening or reproduction,
affect price. An efficient and integrated market for livestock and livestock products is crucial for a dynamic
agricultural sector. Efficiency and integration of markets determine the tradability of products and the
accessibility of markets to farmers. Improving market efficiency contributes to increased level of food
security by reducing consumer prices, increasing returns to producers, or both. That is, returns to better
integration are manifested in terms of improved food security, increased farm incomes, and increased
supply of food. Inadequate transport network, limited number of large interregional traders with
inadequate storage and working capital, high handling costs, inadequate market information system, weak
bargaining power of producers, and lack of processing factories have contributed to inefficient livestock
market in the region.
94
Poor infrastructure has hindered the movement of livestock inputs and outputs. Perishable products such
as fresh milk can hardly be transported over long distance to high demand urban centers. Commercial feed
(concentrates) and veterinary services are either unavailable or too costly in most parts of the region.
Economic viability of dual-purpose dairy technology strongly depends on good market for the milk
produced. Milk must be sold at reasonable price to recover investment costs and pay for concentrates and
veterinary services. Therefore, a strategy of improving livestock and its products marketing facilities such
as processing and storage, road and transport services, standards and weights, improved market places,
price information and better extension services to improve the quality of livestock products such hides and
skin are important policy options for the region.
Annex 1: Livestock Population in SNNPRS in '000
Trends in Livestock population
livestock number '000
8000
7000
6000
5000
cattle
sheep
goat
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
Years
Source: BOPED, 2002. Awassa, Ethiopia
Annex 2: Volume of Livestock and Livestock Products Exports in Kg (National, 1994-2000)
Commodity
Hides and Skins
1994
1995
1996
1997
7,991,710
8,247,002
7,320,779
9,115,145
1998
6, 642,512
1999
6,232,079
2000
11,350,616
Hides (semi-processed)
2,338,844
2,876,557
2,022,770
1,705,073
1,376,329
1,439,725
3,197,355
Skins(semi-processed)
5,646,350
5,359,216
4,872,865
7,043,375
5,103,078
4,509,087
7,700,481
Leather Products
Live Animals
6,516
11,229
425,144
366,697
163,105
283,267
452,780
2,046,270
529,574
142,925
2,115,480
823,123
1,351,335
1,319,883
115,388
Bovine Animals
705,430
8,125
190,063
364,973
179,142
Other Animals
559,840
101,380
4,450
209,150
120,000
348,151
895
Sheep and Goats
781,000
420,069
138,475
1,716,267
338,150
824,042
1,203,600
Dairy Products
Meat & Meat Products
815
328
2,894
485
835
5,732
861
209,129
579,980
1,267,885
1,819,772
2,508,279
1,905,628
1,165,960
Source: Ethiopian Export Promotion Agency, July 2001.Addis Ababa
Annex 3: Average Producer Prices of Livestock in SNNPRS
Item
Sheep average price (stock)
Unit
1995
birr/head
76.5
1996
82.31
1997
1998
1999
2000
75.40
63.92
53.38
56.68
Sheep average price (off-take)
birr/head
77.63
84.54
78.87
68.11
54.71
59.07
Goat average price (stock)
birr/head
71.00
77.72
72.90
68.24
49.11
48.63
Goat average price (off-take)
birr/head
78.22
88.25
75.82
67.97
58.55
56.04
Cattle average price (stock)
birr/head
256.62
282.28
265.02
209.47
185.22
187.34
Cattle average price (off-take)
birr/head
552.84
592.77
544.06
456.83
385.64
397.50
Source: BOPED, 2002. Awassa, Ethiopia.
95
References
BOPED (Bureau of Planning and Economic Development). 1998. Socio-Economic Profile of the Southern Nations,
Nationalities, Peoples Region. Awassa.
BOPED (Bureau of Planning and Economic Development). 2002. Regional Income Accounting Document (Unpublished).
Awassa, Ethiopia.
CSA (Central Statistical Authority). 1994. Population Census of the Southern, Nations, Nationalities, Peoples Region.
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
MEDaC (Ministry of Economic Development and Copperation).1999. Survey of the Ethiopian Economy. Review of PostReform Developments (1992/93-1997/98).
Million Tadesse. 2001. Factors Influencing the Adoption of Soil Conservation Practices in Wolaita Zone. The Case of
Gununo Area. M.Sc Thesis. Department of Agricultural Economics. Alemaya University.
96
ANIMAL BREEDING / REPRODUCTION
97
The effect of age and sex on growth performance and carcass
characteristics of Horro lambs
Gemeda Duguma, Takele Kumsa, Ulfina Galmessa and Solomon Abegaz
Oromia Agricultural Research Institute, Bako Agricultural Research Center, P. O. Box 03, West Shoa, Bako,
Ethiopia.
ABSTRACT
Forty-five intact, castrates and ewe lambs of Horro sheep (15 of each ‘sex’) were used to investigate the effect of age
and sex on growth performance and carcass characteristics. At 6-, 9-, 12- and 15- month of age 3 lambs from each
sex were slaughtered for carcass measurements. Body weight of the lambs were not significantly (p > 0.05) different
between ‘sexes’ at 6-, 9- and 12-months of age, but differed significantly (p < 0.05) at 15-month of age. Sex had no
significant effect (p > 0.05) on most of the carcass traits measured, except for dressing percentage at 6-month of age,
head weight and fore quarter at 9-and 12-month of age and kidney fat at 9-month of age, which were significant at p
< 0.05. The results of this study revealed that ewe lambs, for the purpose of meat production, were as good as those
of intact or castrated lambs until 12-month of age, after which they tended to be inferior to both groups. In general,
it has been revealed that the effect of sex on body weight gain and carcass characteristics of lambs increased with an
increase in age.
Introduction
As males and females exist in different hormonal environments, there are differences in growth and
developments between the two sexes. In males it promote muscle growth and in females it results in lower
mature size, slower growth rate and earlier maturing carcass (Owen, 1976). There are also sex differences in
carcass characteristics (Cameron et al., 1998). These authors also indicated that the qualities of meat like
tenderness and juiciness are said to be affected by the age of the animals. Studies conducted on Horro sheep
(Solomon and Solomon, 1995) have indicated that the dressing percentage was linearly increased with age of
lambs. A comparative study conducted for three months on the same breed (Demisse et al., 1989) also
reported that castrated lambs showed significantly slower growth, but significant increases in carcass and
internal fat and a tendency towards a smaller eye muscle.
The Horro sheep are solely reared for meat production. Among others, large mature size is the quality of
this sheep breed, which is attractive for meat production. The studies conducted so far to improve the breed
for meat production sector were not exhaustive and even did not consider gender differences. Since we
expect equal proportion of animals from both sexes, considerable number of female animals are send to the
market, kept or slaughtered on farm for consumption. Thus, the sex and age differences in carcass
characteristics in Horro sheep is scanty and the importance of ewe lambs for meat production is over
looked. Since sex has been identified as a factor, which affects growth in general and skeletal growth in
particular (Mahgoub and Lodge, 1994), its implications for Horro lambs raised under semi-intensive
management for meat production need to be investigated. From commercial point of view, in countries like
ours where consumers prefer sheep of certain age or weight, comparison at certain age appears to be
appreciable. Therefore, the objective of this study was to investigate the effect of age and sex on growth
rate and carcass characteristics of Horro lambs.
Materials and methods
Location
The climatic conditions and environmental descriptions of Bako Agricultural Research Center is given
elsewhere (Solomon and Gemeda, 2000). Briefly, the animals were maintained at Bako Agricultural Research
Center, which is located at about 258 km west of Addis Ababa on the main road to Nekemte. The area
experiences a unimodal pattern of rainfall. The average annual rainfall is about 1219 mm with most
precipitation between May and September. The mean minimum and maximum temperatures are 14°C and
99
28°C, respectively, with an average monthly temperature of 21°C. Potential evapotranspiration for about 21
years (1977 to 1998) averaged 62 mm per month (Solomon and Gemeda, 2000).
Animals and management
Forty-five intact ram lambs, castrates and ewe lambs (15 of each ‘sex’) of about four months of age were
obtained from the sheep Research unit of Bako Agricultural research Center. Grouping of these animals were
carried out based on their body weight and type of birth. Castration was conducted immediately after
weaning using ‘elastrator’ rubber rings. Three animals in each ‘sex’-group were randomly chosen to be
slaughtered at 6-, 9- and 12-months of age. These slaughter ages were chosen to represent the range at which
lambs not meant for breeding are traditionally marketed and slaughtered in this region of the country.
According to Snyman et al. (1997), the aim with the slaughter lamb production is to produce slaughter lambs
that can be marketed as soon as possible after weaning without the need for supplementary feeding.
The animals were selected for the trials after weaning and were grazed on natural pasture. Males and
females were kept separately. They were offered 200g concentrate feed/day (49 % maize flour, 49 % Noug
cake (Guizotia abyssinica), 1 % salt and 1 % bone meal) and hay from Rhodes grass (Chloris guyana)
during night. The quantity of concentrate was adjusted fortnightly according to body weight changes. The
lambs were weighed at the beginning of the experiment and fortnightly thereafter until the end of the trail.
Fresh drinking water was provided ad lib. twice a day. All animals were housed on the same premises, but
in different classes, in a well ventilated shed made of Bamboo with concrete floor.
Lambs were fasted overnight and weighed before slaughtering. Carcass and non-carcass components were
weighed immediately after slaughter. The carcass was portioned into hind or fore quarter between 10th and
11th ribs. Three ribs (11th and 13th) were chilled overnight at -4ºC, then the rib eye muscle was traced after
cutting the chilled ribs between 12th and 13th ribs. Back fat thickness was measured on the 12th rib over the
rib eye muscle at two sites (left and right) using a graduated ruler. Rib eye muscle and back fat thickness
values are averages of the left and the right sides. Weight of gut contents at slaughter was computed by
difference between full and empty digestive tract and empty body weight was also calculated by
subtracting the weight of digestive content from slaughter weight.
Statistical analysis
The General Linear Model of the Statistical Analysis System (SAS, 1996) was used in the analysis of the
data to determine the importance of each independent effects on body weight and carcass measurements. Sex
of lambs was fitted as independent effects in the analysis of growth performance and carcass measurements
taken at different ages. Initial body weight was fitted as covariable in the analysis of growth performances at
different ages.
Results
The mathematical model for each analysis, with appropriate degrees of freedom, and the least square
means (± SE) for body measurements taken at different ages were shown in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. For
possible comparison growth performance of the different ‘sexes’ is shown in Figure 1. The effect of sex was not
significant (p > 0.05) for body weight taken at 6-, 9- and 12-months of age. However, its effect was significant
(p < 0.05) for body weight taken at 15-month of age. Initial body weight of lambs had an effect (p < 0.05) on
body weight measurements at 6-, 9- and 12-month of age, but it did not affect body weight taken at 15-month
of age.
Table 1. Mean squares and analysis of variance of body weight as affected by sex
Sources
df
Sex of lambs
2
Initial body weight
1
Mean Squares at
6--month
13.27
138.61***
9-month
29.73
127.54***
12-month
15-month
11.68
100.40*
189.17**
55.52
R² (%)
35.52
45.14
42.82
39.85
C.V. (%)
20.99
11.71
11.86
12.03
9.99
9.09
14.94
21.50
Error Mean Square
100
Animal Breeding / Reproduction
Table 2. Least square means (± SE) of body weight measurements taken at different ages
Body weight (kg) at
6-month
9-month
12-month
Intact lambs
15.2±1.12
27.8±1.14
32.7±1.94
39.8±2.32ab
15-month
Castrates
15.5±0.85
25.4±0.88
32.8±1.24
40.7±1.61b
Ewe Lambs
14.5±0.93
24.7±0.96
32.3±1.32
35.8±1.62a
a,b denotes significant differences in columns within effects
40.0
38.0
Intact
36.0
Castrates
34.0
Ewe lambs
32.0
30.0
28.0
26.0
Least square means (kg)
24.0
22.0
20.0
18.0
16.0
14.0
12.0
10.0
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Age (month)
Figure 1. The effect of 'sex' on growth performance of Horro lambs
Carcass measurements
Overall means of carcass weight were 6.2 kg, 12.1 kg and 17.3 kg at 6-, 9- and 12-month of age
respectively. The corresponding dressing percentages were 43.5, 46.8 and 47.4, respectively. Sex had no
significant effect (p > 0.05) on carcass traits measured at different ages except for dressing percentage at 6month of age, head weight and fore quarter at 9- and 12-month of age and kidney fat at 9-month of age. At 6month of age ewe lambs had higher dressing percentage than both intact and castrates (43.6 ± 0.62, 40.8 ±
0.63 and 43.1 ± 0.63, respectively). Intact ram lambs had heavier head (p < 0.05) than those of castrates and
ewe lambs (1.7 ± 0.12 kg, 1.4 ± 0.12 kg and 1.1 ± 0.12 kg at 9-month of age and 1.8 ± 0.11 kg, 1.6 ± 0.11 kg and
1.2 ± 0.11 kg at 12-month of age, respectively). Ewe lambs had more kidney fat (p < 0.05) than those of
castrates and intact ram lambs at 9-month of age (0.21 ± 0.03 kg, 0.11 ± 0.02 kg and 0.08 ± 0.03 kg,
respectively) and tended to be higher both in omental and kidney fats than castrates and intact rams at all
ages. Ram lambs had heavier skin (at least at p = 0.06) than the other sex groups both at 9- and 12-month of
age.
Discussion
Body weight
Liveweight growth performance of Horro lambs in the current study was not significantly different
between ‘sexes’ until the age of 12-month. But it was significantly differed between ‘sexes’ at 15-month of age.
At 15-month of age, castrates had heavier liveweight than both intact and ewe lambs. Ewe lambs had also
lighter liveweight than those of intact and castrated lambs. According to Fourie and Heydenrych (1982),
Nagy et al. (1999) and Solomon and Gemeda (2000), the influence of sex on liveweight increased with an
increase in age. Such differences might be attributed to the different physiological functions in the two sexes
(Rajab et al., 1992).
101
Carcass traits
In the current study, there was no significant difference in most of the carcass traits measured among
‘sexes’ until 12-month of age. This could indicate that ewe lambs are not less suitable for meat production
than castrates or intact ram lambs, when they are slaughtered under 12-month of age. In the present study,
the absence of significant effects of castration on carcass traits measured possibly because the ages were
early in terms of mature weights; and differences may still appear if the animals were slaughtered at latter
ages. According to Solomon and Gemeda (2000), the growth curve of Horro sheep shows that maturity is
achieved at about 3-years of age. In addition, intact compared with castrate growth and composition
differences are greater when animals are well fed (Mahgoub and Lodge, 1994). Dressing percentage was
increased with age. The increase in dressing percentage with age is due to higher growth rates of carcass
tissues, especially muscle and fat, and the slower growth of early developing parts (Hammond, 1932 as cited
by Gaili et al., 1972). According to Gaili et al. (1972), dressing percentage is dependent not only on age but
also on the state of the animal.
In the present study, though not significant, dressing percentage was greater in castrates than in intact
and ewe lambs. Lower dressing percentage in intact males than in castrates were reported for Horro sheep
(Demisse et al., 1989). There were indications of some sex differences in pattern of deposition of fat. Fore
instance, ewe lambs had higher kidney and Omental fats than castrates and intact lambs. Intact rams had
heavier skin than the other groups. The higher proportions of the skin in intact males can be partially
attributed to their relatively heavier hair cover (particularly around the neck region) compared to the short
hair of those of castrates and ewe lambs. In Goats, Mahgoub and Lodge (1996) reported that sex differences
in the neck and shoulder regions may be attributed to some of the intrinsic muscles which were developed
in bucks than in does. This may also holds true in the current study. Mahgoub and Lodge (1994) also
suggested that limb bones are less retarded by castration than is the axial skeleton.
Conclusions
Differences in carcass measurements caused by ‘sex’ are small and unlikely to have significant commercial
implications on meat production from this sheep breed before a year of age. Thus, ewe lambs could be used as
important as that of intact or castrates for the purpose of meat production until a year of age; while later
than this age intact rams or castrates are advisable for meat production.
Acknowledgments
Our special thanks are due to Mr. Birhan Feleke and Birhanu Soboka who had put much effort in data
collection and management of the experimental animals.
References
Cameron, R.M., Sahlu, T., Gilchrist C., Hart S. and Coleman S. 1998. The effect of age and sex on production and carcass
characteristics of growing Spanish X Boer kids. Goat field day. In: Proceedings of Agricultural Research and
Extension program. April 1-25, 1998. Langston, Oklahoma 7305.
Demissie Tiyo, Kassahun Awgichew and Yohannes Gijjam. 1989. Comparison of castrated and entire Horro male lambs
for growth and fattening ability under various plane of feeding regimes. In: Proceedings of the Second National
Livestock Improvement Conference. 24-26 February 1988. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Fourie, A. J. and Heydenryich, H. J. 1982. Phenotypic and genetic aspects of production in the Dohne Merino I. The
influence of non-genetic factors on production traits. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci. 12: 57 - 60.
Gaili, E. S. E., Ghanem, Y. S. and Mukhtar, A. M. S. 1972. A comparative study of some carcass characteristics of Sudan
Desert sheep and goats. Anim. Prod. 14; 351 – 357.
Mahgoub, O. and Lodge, G. A. 1994. Growth and body composition of Omani local sheep. 2. Growth and distribution of
musculature and skeleton. Anim. Prod. 58: 373 - 379.
102
Mahgoub, O. and Lodge, G. A. 1996. Growth and body composition in meat production of Omani Batina goats. Small
Rumin. Res. 19: 233 - 246.
Nagy, I., Solkner, J., Komlosi, I. and Safar, L. 1999. Genetic parameters of reproduction and fertility traits in Hungarian
Merino sheep. J. Anim. Breed. Genet. 116: 399 - 413.
Owen, J.B., 1976. Factors influencing the pattern of Growth and Development in lambs. Sheep production. Bailliere
Tindall. PP 66.
Rajab, M. H., Cartwright, T. C., Dahm, P. F. and Figueiredo, E. A. P. 1992. Performance of three tropical Hair sheep
breeds. J. Anim. Sci. 70: 3351 - 3359.
SAS, 1996. SAS User’s Guide, Statistics. Statistical Analysis Systems Institute, Inc., Carry, North Carolina, USA.
Snyman, M. A., Olivier, J. J., Erasmus, G. J. and Van Wyk, J. B. 1997. Genetic parameter estimates for total weight of
lamb weaned in Afrino and Merino sheep. Livest. Prod. Sci. 48: 111 - 116.
Solomon Abegaz and Gemeda Duguma. 2000. Genetic and phenotypic parameters of growth, reproductive and survival
performance of Horro sheep at Bako Agricultural Research Center. Research Fellowship Report. International
Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Solomon Gizaw and Solomon Abegaz. 1995. Changes in carcass characteristics of Horro rams with increasing age and
body weight under different feeding regimes. In: proceedings of the Third National Conference of the Ethiopian
society of Animal Production. 27-29 April 1995. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. P 233-239.
103
Effects of sire and dam breed genotypes on preweaning traits of calves in
indigenous (Boran and Barka) and indigenous X Bos Taurus crossbred
cattle.
Hailu Dadi
Adami Tullu Research Center, P. O. Box 35. Adami Tullu, Ethiopia
Abstract
The influence of sire and dam breed genotypes on birth weight (BW), average daily gain (ADG) and weaning weight
(WW) in calves of Boran (B), Barka (K) and crosses of these indigenous with Bos Taurus (Friesian (F), Jersey (J),
Simmental (S)) were investigated. BW of calves sired by Friesian bulls were significantly heavier (P<0.05) than
calves sired by Jersey, Boran, Barka, 1/2B1/2F and 1/2K1/2J bulls. Calves from Simmental were 4.5kg heavier
(P<0.05) than calves sired by Barka. Calves from 1/2B1/2J-crossbred sires were 3.7kg heavier at birth than purebred
Jersey sires. ADG and WW of Barka sired calves were significantly (P<0.05) different from Bos Taurus breed sires.
Calves from 1/2B1/2S and 1/2B1/2F dams were heavier at birth than calves from 1/2B1/2J, 1/2K1/2J, Boran and
Barka dams, but not significantly different from 1/2K1/2F calves. The result also indicated that ADG and WW of
Barka dams were superior (P<0.05) to Boran dams.
Keywords: crossbreeding, sire genotype, dam genotype, preweaning traits.
Introduction
Crossbreeding has been proposed for genetic improvement in tropical environment. This approach
particularly in commercial production condition has become widely accepted by producers as a means of
improving productivity (Harwin, 1989). Crossbreeding combines two or more breeds selected for their
economically important traits to optimize simultaneously the use of heterosis and breed differences (Long,
1980; Bourdon, 2000). As described by Bourdon (2000) the important question concerning improving
production in the future are not whether or not crossbreeding systems will be applied, but rather what breeds
should be used in different crossbreeding systems in different production conditions. This is also a big concern
in Ethiopia. The breed of sires and dams used in crossbreeding influence birth and weaning weights of their
progenies. Birth weight has been studied thoroughly principally because of its association with dystocia and
subsequent reduction in productivity (Smith et al., 1976; Notter et al., 1978). Breed type also has a
pronounced influence on weaning weight of calves. Weaning weight is approximately two-third the result of
milking ability of the dam and one-third the result of the inherent growth potential of the calf (Harwin,
1989).
Producers need information concerning the productivity of breeds and breed combinations under a wide
range of production conditions. The reason is that different genotypes are not expected to perform similarly
under all environments mainly due to genotype-environmental interactions (Bourdon, 2000). Hence, the
relative productive performances of breed and breed combinations should be evaluated in different feeding
systems as well as environments. The aim of this study therefore was to evaluate the influence of sire and
dam genotypes on birth weight, average daily gain and weaning weight of calves under semi-arid
environment.
Data were obtained from a crossbred cattle herd of the Adami Tullu Research Center and consists of 377
Birth and weaning weight records collected from 1974 to 1981. The crossbreeding program was started in
1974 with the first initial crosses (F1). Five foundation sire breeds were included in the initial crossbreeding
programs (Viz. Friesian (F), Jersey (J), Simmental (S), Boran (B) and Barka (K)), and later F1 sires were
mated to F1 dams to produce F2 offspring. In this scenario the Bos taurus sires were also mated to F1
females to produce backcross animals. The initial females were Boran and Barka, which were purchased
from local markets.
105
The aim of this crossbreeding program was to produce various combinations of two breed crosses of
animals in order to find superior genotypes under semi-arid conditions. Friesian and Jersey represented
large frame and small frame dairy breeds, respectively. Simmental represented large breed of beef cattle.
Boran and Barka are indigenous cattle types.
The herd was mainly raised on natural pastures (dominated by pennesitum and cinchrus grass species
with scattered acacia trees) supplemented with silage, bone meal, concentrate and salt when necessary.
Calves were weaned at six months of age. Calves born to Boran and Barka cows were allowed to suckle
their dams while calves of crossbred cows were fed on limited amount of milk using buckets. Females were
artificially inseminated and bulls were also used as required. Age at first insemination and dam age were
not available; for this reason dam age was not included in the analysis. In several crossbreeding programs
the influence of dam age on growth traits were well documented (Alenda et al., 1980, Dillard et al., 1980,
Van Zyl, 1990, Hailu, 2001). Although dams were calved almost throughout the year, about 42.2% of calves
were born during the dry season (November to February) while the rest were born during the wet season
(July to October) and short rains (March to June).
The characteristics of the data set are presented in Table 1. Records of animals that were incomplete or
animal with suspect genotype/breed identity were excluded from the analysis. Data were analyzed using the
General Linear Model (GLM) procedures of Statistical Analysis System (SAS) (1999). All factors and their
interactions that had no (P>0.05) influence on birth weight, average daily gain and weaning weight were
excluded from the final analysis according to a step down procedure.
Where Yijklmn = the weight of the nth calf of ith sire and jth dam
Yijklmn = µ+Gi +Dj+Sk+Yl+Nm+eijklmn
th
th
genotype and k sex born in the l year and mth season, (µ= Population mean, Gi=sire genotype (i=1,2…9),
Dj = dam genotype (j=1,2…7), Sk= sex of calf (k =1,2), Yl=year of birth (l=1,2…8), Nm= season of birth
(m=1,2,3), eijklmn= residual error. All factors in the model were taken to be fixed, except the residual effect.
Table 1. Characteristics of the data set
Trait
N
Minimum
Birth weight (kg)
377
9.0
Average daily gain (kg)
377
0.19
Weaning weight (kg)
377
53
Maximum
38.0
1.03
212
Mean
24.88
0.59
132.20
The model fitted included the effects of sire genotype, dam genotype, sex of calf, year of birth and season of birth:
Result and discussions
Analysis of variance for BW, ADG and WW are presented in Table 2. All the factors in the model
contributed significantly in explaining the variation in BW, ADG and WW, with the exception of sex and
season on BW (P>0.05).
Table 2. Analyses of variances for BW, ADG and WW of calves.
Source
Year
Season of birth
Sex of calf
Sire genotype
Dam genotype
DF
7
2
1
8
6
R2 model (%)
CV (%)
BW
F value
ADG
F value
WW
F value
3.46**
0.26ns
1.00ns
11.02***
5.10***
19.86***
5.93**
6.31**
5.47***
22.22***
18.57***
5.61**
6.45**
7.62***
17.48***
39
14.40
68
16.89
66
14.57
.
**, *** P<0.01and P<0.001, respectively; ns, non-significant
Year was a significant factor for all three traits. Other authors have reported year to be a significant source
of variation influencing BW and WW (Gray et al., 1978; Thrift et al., 1978; Skrypzeck et al., 2000) and ADG
(Cundiff et al., 1974a, b; Dillard et al., 1980; Paterson et al., 1980). The non-significant influence of season
on BW is in accordance with the results of Paterson et al. (1980) and Tawah et al. (1993). The response in
ADG and WW to season effect is in agreement with the reports of Tawonezvi et al. (1988) and Skrypzeck et
106
al. (2000). Sex was not significant for BW, this is in contrast to those reported by other workers (Thrift et
al., 1978; Paterson et al., 1980; Van Zyl, 1990; Plasse et al., 1995) but in agreement with Tawah et al.
(1993) for Gudali cattle. Male calves were significantly superior at weaning, and also grow faster than the
female calves (Table 3).
Table 3. Least squares means and standard errors (SE) for BW, ADG and WW of calves by sex of calves.
Sex
n
BW (kg) ±SE
ADG (kg) ±SE
WW (kg) ±SE
Male
199
25.25±0.31a
0.52±0.01a
118.26±2.12a
Female
178
24.86±0.39a
0.48±0.01b
112.98±2.30b
Means with different superscript are significantly different at P<0.05
Sire genotype. The effect of sire genotype on all pre-weaning traits was highly significant (P<0.001)
(Table 3), and it accounted for 16.6, 3.9 and 5.9% of variation in BW, ADG and WW, respectively. Several
studies reported the significant influence of sire breed on BW of calves (Laster et al., 1973; Smith et al.,
1976; Paterson et al., 1980; Van Zyl, 1990; Hailu, 2001), which is consistent with the present results.
Least squares means for BW, ADG and WW of calves by sire genotype are presented in Table 4. Calves
sired by Friesian bulls were 5.1kg heavier (P<0.05) at birth than calves sired by 1/2B1/2F bulls. Calves
sired by Friesian bulls were also 2.3, 5 and 4.2kg heavier (P<0.05) at birth than calves sired by Boran,
Barka and Jersey bulls, respectively. The difference in BW of calves by the Boran and Barka bulls was
significant, the Boran calves being 2.7kg heavier. The lowest BW found was 22.6kg for calves sired by
1/2B1/2F. No explanation was available from the data, but it may reflect the direct additive effect of the
Friesian bulls. With respect to this Cunningham and Magee (1988) reported a negative estimate for calves
of Friesian bulls in a study on genetic effects of preweaning traits in crossbred calves. It also depends on
dam genotype, type of environment and dam age (which was not included in the model).
Calves born to Simmental and Boran and 1/2B1/2S bulls were not significantly different at birth. Calves
sired by Simmental were 4.5kg heavier (P<0.05) than calves sired by Barka bulls. Calves sired by 1/2B1/2J
bulls were 3.7kg heavier (p<0.05) than the Jersey sired calves. On the other hand, the difference was not
statistically significant for calves sired by 1/2K1/2J and Jersey bulls. Simmental and Friesian sired calves
are known to experience significantly more calving difficulty than those are from Jersey sires (Laster et al.,
1973; Notter et al., 1978) and this can be explained by the bigger BW. Smith et al. (1976) and Laster et al.
(1973) found that calves sired by Jersey bulls had lower BW than calves sired by other Bos Taurus sire
breeds. Percent calving difficulty was 6.5 and 32.7% in Jersey and Simmental sired calves, respectively
(Laster et al. 1973). Schoeman et al. (2000) reported that increasing the genetic proportion of Simmental in
a multibreed beef cattle population increased BW almost linearly with increasing Simmental proportion. In
another investigation carried out by Lawlor, et al. (1984) increasing Simmental breeding level in
crossbreeding also increased BW of crossbred progenies. The reason for this could be related to the large
direct additive effects of the Simmental sires. Direct additive effect contribution for BW were positive for
Simmental (Skrypzeck et al., 2000) while Cunninghum and Magee (1988) reported a negative direct genetic
effect for BW relative to the breeds with which it was compared. According to the results of Skrypzeck et al.
(2000) using this breed as a sire breed in crossbreeding systems may result in increased BW of crossbred
progenies.
Several crossbreeding studies revealed that high BW is associated with high incidence of dystocia (Laster
et al., 1973; Smith et al., 1976; Burfening et al., 1978; Tawnezvie et al., 1988) and subsequent reduction in
productivity, which is undesirable. Because of this, sire breed effects on BW should be carefully evaluated
before initiating large-scale use of large Bos taurus sire breeds in crossbreeding systems, particularly on
Bos indicus dams.
Weaning weight and ADG of calves sired by Barka bulls were less (p<0.05) than those of calves by
purebred Bos taurus, Boran and 1/2B1/2F sires, and ADG and WW of calves sired by Boran bulls were
lighter (P<0.05) than Friesian and Simmental sired calves. The relatively higher WW of calves sired by
Simmental bulls is in accordance with other investigations (Paterson et al., 1980; Van Zyl, 1990; Skrypzeck
et al., 2000). The direct additive effect contributions of Simmental for WW were positive (Cunninghum and
107
Magee, 1988; Skrypzeck et al., 2000). For Friesian, Cunninghum and Magee (1980) also reported a positive
estimate for direct effect. According to McDonald and Turner (1972) direct effects may account for a large
portion of the explainable variation in WW than heterosis. Even in certain crossbred calves there is a
probability of obtaining negative heterotic effects for WW and ADG (Dillard et al., 1980). In such cases
complementarity of breeds and sequence of their application should be carefully considered when selecting
breeds for crossbreeding. Large differences in WW can be expected in systematic rotational crossbreeding
systems depending on the sequence of sire breeds (Alenda et al., 1980). In general, differences between sire
genotype mated to Barka, Boran and crossbred dams in this study indicate differences in direct additive
effect exhibited in the crossbred progenies, although environmental influences are vital.
Table 4. Least squares means and standard errors (SE) for BW, ADG and WW of calves by sire genotype.
Sire genotype
n
Indigenous
Boran (B)
Barka (K)
Bos taurus
Friesian (F)
Jersey (J)
Simmental (S)
Crossbred
1/2B1/2S
1/2B1/2F
1/2B1/2J
1/2K1/2J
BW(kg) ± SE
ADG(kg) ) ± SE
WW(kg) ±SE
23
27
25.52±0.95bd
22.82±0.93c
0.49±0.03ce
0.42±0.03d
114.30±5.04bd
99.01±4.96c
103
98
75
27.77±0.62 a
23.59±0.61c
27.28±0.49 ab
0.54±0.02ab
0.48±0.02ce
0.55±0.02a
125.58±3.28a
110.30±3.27 bd
126.85±3.99a
14
12
15
10
25.03±1.66abcd
22.63±1.65cd
27.30±1.77ab
23.58±2.00bcd
0.51± 0.05abcd
0.56± 0.05abe
0.47±0.05abcd
0.48 ±0.06abcd
117.64±8.83 abc
124.08±8.81ab
112.44±9.47 abcd
110.36±10.67 abcd
Means with the same superscript are not significantly different at P>0.05
Dam genotype. The influence of dam genotype on the three traits of calves was highly significant
(P<0.001) (Table 2). This is in accordance with the results of Paterson et al. (1980) and Van Zyl (1990).
Dam genotype only explained 5.3, 11.9 and 10.1% of variation in BW, ADG and WW, respectively.
Maternal influences were larger for ADG and WW than BW while the influence of sires were larger for
BW.
Least squares means of these traits for calves by dam genotype are presented in Table 5. At birth, the
progeny of 1/2B1/2S and 1/2B1/2F dams were significantly (P<0.05) larger than those of Jersey derivative
and indigenous dams. Calves from 1/2B1/2S dams were 4.5kg heavier (P<0.05) at birth than calves from
Boran dams. Calves from Barka dams were 3.6kg less than calves from 1/2K1/2F dams. Another noticeable
feature in this study was the non-significance of differences between the calves from indigenous dams and
those from the 1/2K1/2J and 1/2B1/2J. As a purebred, the Boran and Barka dams were noted for the
production of smaller calves, even when calves were sired by Bos taurus breeds.
Barka dams produced the heavier (P<0.05) calves at weaning than Boran dams. This suggests that Barka
dams were superior in maternal ability, indicating better suitability as maternal line for such
crossbreeding. No significance differences were observed between crossbred dams for ADG and WW
performances of calves.
Table 5. Least squares means and standard errors (SE) for BW, ADG and WW of calves by dam genotype.
Dam genotype
Indigenous
Boran (B)
Barka (K)
Crossbred
1/2K1/2F
1/2B1/2S
1/2B1/F
1/2B1/2J
1/2K1/2J
n
BW(kg)±SE
ADG(kg)±SE
WW(kg)±SE
144
138
*23.44±0.48b
*23.60±0.48b
0.63±0.01a
0.67±0.01b
137.55±2.59a
144.00±2.52b
10
22
23
24
16
27.17±1.32ac
27.94±1.45 a
28.01±1.23 a
21.83±1.36 b
23.41±1.60bc
0.46 ±0.04 c
0.44±0.04c
0.42±0.03c
0.44±0.04c
0.45±0.05c
109.99± 7.00c
107.80± 7.70c
104.35± 6.57c
101.80± 7.22c
103.84± 8.52c
Means with different superscripts are significantly different at P<0.05
* calves born to Boran and Barka cows were allowed to suckle their dams where as those of crossbred cows were bucket-fed limited amount of milk.
In this crossbreeding project crossbred dams were also evaluated for their milk production performances;
as a result calves from crossbred dams were fed limited amount of milk using bucket, whereas Boran and
108
Barka dams were allowed to suckle their dam until six months of age. Due to this, the indigenous dams
were not compared with the crossbred dams for ADG and WW, and the least squares means are presented
only to indicate the overall performances of the crossbred dam genotypes under this management system
for WW and ADG.
Conclusion
Overall the results of this study show that despite the significance larger BW of some crossbreeds,
crossbreeding did not lead to improvement either in ADG or WW under these management conditions. On
the other hand the choice of sire breed in crossbreeding should be done to complement those characters that
are weak in Boran and Barka dams by additive means and to utilize heterotic genetic effects. Further
investigations involving other traits like calving ease, carcass and cow efficiency traits should be considered
in future evaluations.
References
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cattle of Angus, Charolais and Hereford parentage. I. Birth and weaning weights. J. Anim. Sci. 50, 226.
Bourdon, R. M., 2000. Understanding animal breeding. 2nded. Prentice Hall. New Jersey.
Burfening, P.J., Kress, D.D., Friedrich, R.L. and Vaniman, D.D., 1978. Phenotypic and genetic relationships between
calving ease, gestation length, birth weight and preweaning growth. J. Anim. Sci. 47, 595.
Cundiff, L.V., Gregory, K.E. and Koch, R.M., 1974a. Effect of heterosis on reproduction in Hereford, Angus and Shorthorn
cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 38, 711.
CUNDIFF, L.V., GREGORY, K.E., SCHWULST, F.J. and KOCH, R.M., 1974b. Effects of heterosis on maternal
performance and milk production in Hereford, Angus and Shorthorn cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 38, 728.
Cunningham, B.E. and Magee, W.T., 1988. Breed-direct, breed-maternal and non-additive genetic effects for preweaning
traits in crossbred calves. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 68, 83.
Dillard, E.U., Rodriquez, O. and Robison, O.W., 1980. Estimation of additive and nonadditive direct and maternal genetic
effects from crossbreeding beef cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 50, 653.
Gray, E.F., Thrift, F.A. and Absher, C.W., 1978. Heterosis expression for preweaning traits under commercial beef cattle
conditions. J. Anim. Sci. 47, 370.
Hailu Dadi. 2001. Genetic parameter estimates for weaning traits in a multibreed beef cattle population. MSc Thesis,
University of Stellenbosch, South Africa.
Harwin, G.O., 1989. Strategies for beef production in South Africa. A selection of lectures. Stock Owners Cooperative
limited, South Africa.
Laster, D.B., Glimp,H.A., Cundiff, L.V. and Gregory, K.E., 1973. Factors affecting dystocia and the effects of dystocia on
subsequent reproduction in beef cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 36, 695.
Lawlor, T.J., Kress, D.D., Doornbos, D.E. and Anderson, D.C., 1984. Performances of crosses among Hereford, Angus and
Simmental cattle with different levels of Simmental breeding. I. Preweaning growth and survival. J. Anim. Sci. 58,
1321.
Long, R., 1980. Crossbreeding for beef production: Experimental results. J. Anim. Sci. 51, 1197.
Mcdonald, R.P. and Turner, J.W., 1972. Estimation of maternal heterosis in preweaning traits of beef cattle. J. Anim. Sci.
35, 1146.
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Notter, D.R., Cundiff, L.V., Smith, G.M., Laster, D.B. and Gregory, K.E., 1978. Characterisation of biological types of
cattle. VI. Transmitted and maternal effects on birth and survival traits in progeny of young cows. J. Anim. Sci. 46,
892.
Paterson, A.G., Venter, H.A.W. and Harwin, G.O., 1980. Preweaning growth of British, Bos indicus, Charolais and dualpurpose type cattle under intensive pasture condition. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci. 10, 125.
Plasse, D., Fossi, H., Hoogesteijn, R., Verde, O., Rodrĺguez, R., Rodrĺguez, M.C. and Bastidas, P., 1995. Growth of F1 Bos
taurus X Bos indicus versus Bos indicus beef cattle in Venezuela. I. Weights at birth, weaning and 18 months. J.
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multibreed beef cattle crossbreeding project. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci. 30, 193.
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and two-breed synthetic Wakwa beef cattle populations under selection in Cameroon. Genetic and phenotypic
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Ph.D. thesis. University of Pretoria.
110
Reproduction efficiency of zebu and crossbred cows as measured by the
inter-estrus and inter-service intervals at Bako
Gebregziabher Gebreyohannes1, Azage Tegegne2, M.L.Diedhiou2. and B.P. Hegde3
1
2
3
Bako Agricultural Research Centre, P. O. Box 3, Bako
International Livestock Research Institute, P. O. Box 5689, Addis Ababa
Alemaya University, P. O. Box 138, Dire Dawa
Abstract
The study was conducted to evaluate the reproduction efficiency of zebu and crossbred cows measured by the interestrus and inter-service intervals using data from Bako Agricultural Research Center. The overall mean inter-estrus
and inter-service intervals were 44.3 ± 0.85 and 49.1 ± 1.24 days, respectively. Comparison of the sire breeds
indicated that the Jersey crosses had significantly (p < 0.00) the shortest inter-estrus (43.9 ± 2.57 days) and interservice (41.8 ± 4.01 days) interval compared to the other sire breeds. The Boran and the Horro had the longest interestrus (51.2 ± 3.10 days) and inter-service (62.2 ± 2.92 days) intervals, respectively. Neither the crossbred nor the
zebu cows significantly differed among each other in both traits. As a dam breed, the Horro was not significantly (p
> 0.05) different from Boran in inter-estrus and inter-service intervals. Cows in the first parity had significantly (p <
0.001) the longest (55.8 ± 2.61 days), while cows in the sixth parity had the shortest (40.3 ± 2.25 days) inter-estrus
interval, while the effect of parity on inter-service interval was not significant (p > 0.05) The first inter-service
interval was significantly (p < 0.01) the longest (64.2 ± 3.91 days) compared to subsequent inter-service intervals.
The longest (p < 0.001) inter-service interval was observed in 1997 (68.6 ± 7.32 days) and the shortest was recorded
in 1998 (33.5 ± 13.06 days),.while the longest inter-estrus was recorded for cows that calved in 1991 (73.9 ± 6.07
days) and the shortest for 1985 (30.4 ± 4.17 days) Distribution of the inter-estrus and inter-service intervals into
different estrus cycle length categories indicated that 43.2 and 42 % of the inter-estrus and inter-service intervals
were within the normal (18 to 24 days) range of estrus cycle, while 13 and 5.6 percent were short (<17 days) and 38.8
and 45.4 percent were long (>36 days), respectively. The inter-estrus interval was significantly longer (p < 0.05) than
the inter-service interval. From this study, it can be concluded that the prolonged inter-estrus and inter-service
intervals could be due to poor heat detection, poor breeding and probably early embryonic mortality. Thus,
improving the heat detection and breeding efficiency and identification of the causes of early embryonic mortality
might enable in improvement of the overall reproductive efficiency of the farm.
Introduction
An indication of the general efficiency of estrous detection may be obtained by recording the interval
between successive inseminations of the same cow provided it is known that the cow has not been served
meanwhile and that the second insemination was successful. Failure to conceive could be due to either
fertilization did not take place, even though the cow was in estrous, or fertilization did take place, but the
embryo failed to survive or the cow was not on heat when served (Wood, 1976).
The inter-estrous and inter-service intervals help in evaluating estrous detection efficiency and embryonic
mortality. If estrous detection is accurate, the inter-estrus and inter-service intervals should be either 18 to
24 days or 38 to 45 days and at least 60% of second estrus should be in these intervals. If not then the
presumption is that at least one of the two cycles was incorrectly detected or early embryonic death has
occurred (Radostits et al., 1994). The mean estrus cycle of a cow is 21 days (Val-vilho, 1986). However, the
inter-estrus and inter-service intervals from different studied (Mukasa-Mugerwa et al., 1991) are longer
than 21 days. This was affected by breed of the cow (Mekonnen Haile-Mariam and Goshu Mekonnen,
1996), management (Yoseph Mekasha et al., 2000) and other factors (Zakari et al., 1981). Therefore, this
indicates that depending on the genotype used, management followed and other genetic and non-genetic
factors, determination of the inter-estrus and inter-service intervals will serve as a guide to improve the
herd reproductive efficiency. Thus, this study was based on the objectives of evaluating the reproduction
111
efficiency using the inter-estrus and inter-service intervals and suggest possible improvement
interventions.
Inter-estrus (interval between two consecutive estruses in a lactation) and inter-service interval (interval
between two consecutive services in a lactation) were studied to evaluate the reproduction efficiency of the
farm using data from the Bako Agricultural Research Center. Details of Bako Agricultural Research Center
climate, herd management, feeding and health care are indicated in previous works (Gebregziabher
Gebreyohannes and Mulugeta Kebede, 1996).Heifers were bred at least at two years of age when they
attained a body weight of 200 kg. Heat detection was based on daily visual observation (6-8 am and 5-6 pm)
by a trained inseminator and throughout the grazing time by the herdsmen. Cows and heifers observed in
heat were bred either naturally (local or crossbred bull) or inseminated either with frozen Friesian, Jersey or
Simmental semen purchased from Kality National Artificial Insemination Center. Those that were bred and
hence, not returned to estrus were checked for pregnancy after two months. Postpartum breeding took place
after 45 days of voluntary waiting period.
Data from pure Boran, pure Horro and their F1 crosses with Jersey, Friesian and Simmental exotic sire
breeds were used to study the inter-estrus and inter-service intervals. Five sire breeds (Jersey for Boran x
Jersey and Horro x Jersey; Simmental for Boran Simmental and Horro x Simmental; Friesian for Boran x
Friesian and Horro x Friesian; pure Boran and pure Horro); two dam breeds (Boran and Horro; Boran as a
dam breed for pure Boran and its crosses with Friesian, Jersey and Simmental; and Horro as a dam breed
for pure Horro and its crosses with Friesian, Jersey and Simmental); six parities (1 to 6; with the sixth
parity including parities six and above pooled together); four calving season categories based on the centers
meteorological data (season one (high rainfall, June - August), season two (medium rainfall, good natural
pasture an aftermath grazing, September - November), season three (dry season, poor natural pasture and
aftermath grazing, December - February) and season four (short rainy season with limited grazing, March
- May)); 19 calving years (1980 to 1998) and six inter-service interval categories (1 to 6 classes; this refers
to the nth inter-service interval in a lactation for cows with repeated services). Data from both artificially
inseminated and naturally mated cows and heifers were considered.
Inter-estrus and inter-service were analyzed using the General Linear Model of the Statistical Analysis
System (SAS, 1999). The model included the fixed effects of sire breed, dam breed, parity, calving season,
calving year and inter-service classes.
Result and discussion
Inter-estrus interval
The overall mean inter-estrus interval was 44.3 ± 0.85 days (Table 1). The accepted mean length of estrus
cycle for a cow is approximately 21 days (Vale-Filho et al., 1986). However, the inter-estrus interval obtained
in this study (44.3 ± 0.85 days) was longer than the estrus cycle (Alberro, 1983; Llewlyn et al., 1987; Mattoni
et al., 1988; Pleasant and McCall, 1993) and inter-estrus interval (Gemechu Wirtu, 1992) reported from
previous studies. Nevertheless, it is shorter than the inter-estrus interval reported by Mekonnen HaileMariam and Goshu Mekonnen (1996) and Yoseph Mekasha et al. (2000) for different breeds and
managements. This difference could be related to differences in heat detection efficiency, breeding
management employed and genotypes used for the different studies. Besides, longer inter-estrus interval
could be due to missed heat or undetected heat as a result of shorter duration of estrus (Mattoni et al., 1988),
prolongation of the luteal phase (Llewlyn et al., 1987) and other genetic and non-genetic factors (Zakari et al.,
1981; Alberro, 1983).
Horro (50.1 ± 2.09 days) and Boran (51.2 ± 3.10 days) as a sire breed showed significantly (p < 0.05) longer
inter-estrus interval than the Jersey crosses. Neither the crossbred nor the zebu sire breeds significantly
differed among/between each other. The sire breed effect observed in this study is consistent with the
reports of Mattoni et al. (1988), Garcia et al. (1990), Imtiaz et al. (1992) and Mekonnen Haile-Mariam and
112
Goshu Mekonnen (1996) but contradicts with the reports of Zakari et al. (1981), Gemechu Wirtu (1992) and
Pleasants and McCall (1993). Mekonnen Haile-Mariam and Goshu Mekonnen (1996) reported inter-estrus
interval of 118 ± 25.9 days for Barca, 65.8 ± 10.8 days for Barca x Friesian crosses and 67.2 ± 12.2 days for
Boran x Friesian crosses. Zakari et al. (1981), however, reported non-significant breed variations in estrus
cycle length for Bunaji (22.9 ± 0.7 day) and Bokoloji (23.8 ± 0.65 day) cattle. Similarly, Gemechu Wirtu
(1992) reported that the Boran and Boran x Friesian crossbred cows were not significantly different in
inter-estrus interval.
Cows in the first parity had significantly (p < 0.001) the longest (55.8 ± 2.61 days) while cows in the sixth
parity had the shortest (40.3 ± 2.25 days) inter-estrus interval. This difference could be related to maturity
of the cow. The longest inter-estrus was recorded for cows that calved in 1991 (73.9 ± 6.07 days) and the
shortest for 1985 (30.4 ± 4.17 days; Figure 1).
The distribution of inter-estrus interval (Table 3) into different estrus cycle length categories showed that
43.2% of the inter-estrus intervals were within the normal range (18 to 24 days) of the estrus cycle, while
23.4% were abnormally long (>48 days) and 13.0% were short (<18 days).
Inter-service interval
The overall least square mean inter-service interval was 49.1 ± 1.24 days (Table 2). This is comparable to
the 44.4 ± 15.6 and 65.8 ± 16.1 days reported for crossbred cows on the experimental and private farms
(Garcia et al., 1990), 53 ± 40 days for Arsi cows (Mukasa-Mugerwa et al., 1991b) and 59.6 ± 4.8 days
(Gemechu Wirtu, 1992) for Boran and crossbred cows.
Horro as a sire breed had significantly (p < 0.001) the longest (62.2 ± 2.92 days), while the Jersey crosses
had the shortest inter-service interval (41.8 ± 4.01 days). Among the crossbreds the Simmental crosses had
significantly (p < 0.001) the longest (51.3 ± 3.15 days), while the Jersey crosses the shortest inter-service
interval. The Horro, as a dam breed, was not significantly (p > 0.05) different from the Boran cows. Similar
breed difference was reported by Garcia et al. (1990). Garcia et al.(1990) reported 25 days shorter interservice interval in what they called undefined crossbred cows compared to European x Zebu animals, while
Gemechu Wirtu (1992) did not find breed variation between Boran and Boran Friesian cows. Figure 1
showed least square mean inter-estrus and inter-service intervals across years. Significantly (p < 0.001)
the longest inter-service interval was observed in 1997 (68.6 ± 7.32 days) and the shortest was recorded in
1998 (33.5 ± 13.06 days; Figure 1). Mukasa-Mugerwa et al. (1991b) reported year effect on first service
interval. The variations among the calving years could be related to differences in breeding management
and herd composition.
Table 1. Least square mean (± SE) inter-oestrus interval
Source
Overall mean
N
2697
44.3 ± 0.85
553
44.9 ± 2.32 ab
Sire genotypes
Friesian crosses
*
Jersey crosses
437
43.9 ± 2.57 b
Simmental crosses
577
46.4 ± 2.16 ab
Boran
293
51.2 ± 3.10 a
Horro
837
50.1 ± 2.09 a
Horro
1743
45.0 ± 1.65
Boran
984
49.6 ± 2.04
1
419
55.8 ± 2.61 a
2
385
46.4 ± 2.65 bc
3
504
49.5 ± 2.29 b
4
520
46.9 ± 2.26 b
5
372
44.9 ± 2.56 bc
6
497
40.3 ± 2.25 c
Dam breed
NS
Parity
***
Means in a column within a group with different superscript vary significantly (*** = P < 0.001, * = P < 0.05 and NS = not significant)
113
For cows with repeated services, the first inter-service interval was significantly (p < 0.01) the longest (64.2
± 3.91 days) compared to the other categories. This difference could be related to the stage of lactation of
the cow. The time that the longest interval recorded probably matched with the time of peak milk yield.
During the first estrus cycle after parturition there was significantly shorter period when plasma
progesterone levels were elevated than during the next two cycles (Webb et al., 1980). This could result in
short estrus cycles that could be missed undetected but could have an influence on the inter-service and
inter-estrus interval.
Frequency distribution of inter-service intervals (Table 3) showed that 42.0% of the inter-service intervals
were within the range of 18-24 days and 15.7% within the range of 36-48 days. About 5.6% (<18 days) and
29.7% (>48 days) were abnormal. The observation that 45.4% of the intervals were multiples of the normal
(36-48 and >48 days) range suggested that many heats probably occurred at regular intervals. This is
consistent with the findings of Garcia et al (1990) who also found that only 36% of the estrus returns were
normal, 16% and 8% occurred at 42 and 63 days, respectively. Similarly, Mukasa-Mugerwa et al. (1991a)
reported that 35.7% of the heats in Abernosa cows were silent or missed visually and ovarian cyclicity
resumed 33 days earlier than externally detected. MacMillan and Watson (1971) also reported that 18% of
cows returned to service within 49 days of first insemination were re-mated within the first 17 days.
About 5.6% of the cycles were short (<17 days; Table 3). This figure is within the range of 5-9% short cycles
reported by Garcia et al. (1990) and Mukasa-Mugerwa et al. (1991b) but lower than the 18% reported by
MacMillan and Watson (1971). They reported 31.4% of all short return intervals occurred between 8 to 10
days after first insemination. The proportion of cows within the range of 18-24 and 36-48 days interval
obtained were comparable to the 60% reported by Rodostitis et al. (1994). Moreover, Mukasa-Mugerwa et
al. (1991b) reported 24.4% and 51.9% of estrus occurred within 18-24 days and within multiples of normal
range, respectively.
Days
Comparison of the inter-estrus and inter-service intervals showed a difference of about five days and this
difference was statistically significant (p < 0.05). This indicates that apart from the problems associated
with inter-estrus interval, some degree of embryonic mortality might have occurred in the herd. Wood
(1976) and Kummerfield et al. (1978) used the proportion of cows returning for insemination after an
interval longer than a normal cycle to estimate embryonic mortality. Embryonic mortality of about 5.1%
was reported based on progesterone assay (Kummerfield et al., 1978). Diskin and Sreenan (1980) on the
other hand, reported 90% fertilization following a single insemination and 93% estimated embryonic
survival up to day eight but markedly reduced survival at day 12 (56%), day 16 (66%) and day 42 (58%)
and suggested that most embryonic mortality occurred between day 8 and 16. Therefore, the approximately
five days difference between the inter-estrus and inter-service intervals are comparable to the 8-9 days
reported by Diskin and Sreenan (1980).
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98
C alving year
IO I
IS I
Figure 1. Inter-oestrus (IOI) and inter-service (ISI) intervals across calving years.
114
Table 2. Least square mean (± SE) inter-service interval
Source
N
Overall mean
1572
49.1 ± 1.24
Friesian crosses
358
48.8 ± 3.33 bc
Jersey crosses
218
41.8 ± 4.01 c
Simmental crosses
340
51.1 ± 3.15 b
Boran
87
55.8 ± 5.88 ab
Horro
569
62.2 ± 2.92 a
Horro
1147
48.8 ± 2.56
Boran
425
55.1 ± 3.14
1
184
64.2 ± 3.91 a
2
220
54.7 ± 3.66 ab
3
187
52.4 ± 3.99 b
4
145
48.9 ± 4.38 b
5
119
43.9 ± 4.81 b
6
717
47.7 ± 2.58 b
Sire breed
***
Dam breed
NS
Inter-service number
**
Means in a column within a group with different superscript vary significantly (*** = P < 0.001, ** = P < 0.01 and NS = not significant)
Table 3. Frequency distribution of inter-oestrus and inter-service intervals into different oestrus intervals in zebu and crossbred cows
Rang
N
%
N
%
<3 days
359
6.9
14
3-17
317
6.1
106
4.9
18-24
2241
43.2
901
42.0
25-35
261
5.0
151
7.0
36-48
797
15.4
336
15.7
>48
1215
Total
5190
23.4
100
638
2146
0.7
29.7
100
Conclusion
Both inter-estrus and inter-service intervals are used to monitor heat detection efficiency and breeding
management of a farm. Both values obtained in this study are very long compared to the normal estrus cycle
length of 21 days reported in literature. Besides, the longer inter-estrus interval could also indicate that there
was heat missed unobserved. Therefore, improving the heat detection efficiency will undoubtedly improve the
reproductive efficiency of the farm. Similarly, the longer inter-service interval apart from the heat detection
efficiency is influenced by early embryonic mortality. Hence, require further study to assess when and why
embryonic mortality could have had occurred in the herd.
Acknowledgements
The authors are great full to the Bako Agricultural Research Center for the provision of the data used for
this study and the International Livestock Research Institute for the computer facilities provided during the
course of the study.
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117
Reproductive and growth performance of Fogera cattle and their F1
Friesian crosses at Metekel ranch, Ethiopia
Addisu Bitew1 and B.Prabhakar Hegede2
1
2
Bure Agricultural Development Office, P.O.Box 3, West Gojjam, Ethiopia
Alemaya University, P. O.Box 138, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia
Abstract
The study deals with the Fogera cattle and their F1 Friesian crosses at Metekel Cattle Breeding and Improvement
Ranch based on data collected between 1989 and 1998 to evaluate their reproductive and growth performance. The
age at first calving (AFC) varied significantly in relation to breed group and year of birth while, season of birth had
no significant effect. The AFC averaged 47.61 and 40.46 months for Fogera and F1 heifers, respectively. The calving
interval (CI) of Fogera cows was significantly affected by the year, season of calving and parity of dam. The cows
that calved in the long rainy season had shorter calving interval. The average CI of Fogera cows was found to be 559
days. The average gestation length (GL) of Fogera cows was 281.4 days. The effect of sire breed, year and season of
calving were significant unlike the sex of calf and the parity of dam. The cows mated to pure Fogera bulls carried
their calves for 5.4 days longer than those cows artificially inseminated with Friesian semen. The mean body
weights of Fogera and F1 calves were 22.45 kg and 24.92 kg at birth and 114.2 kg and 130.5 kg at weaning
respectively. All the factors tested had significant effect on both the parameters with the exception of effect of the
sex of calf on weaning weight. The average body weights of Fogera and F1 calves were 146.8 kg and 153.3 kg at one
year and 188.9 kg and 214.1 kg at two years of age, respectively. At one year of age, only year of birth and at two
years of age, both breed group and year of birth had significant effects.
Keywords: Fogera, Friesian, Age at first calving, Calving interval, Gestation length, Birth weight, Weaning
weight, Yearling weight, Two years weight.
Introduction
Reproductive and growth performance are of major importance in dairy and beef enterprises. The main
traits related to reproductive performance are age at first calving, the interval between successive calving
and, from these two, the potential lifetime production. Under station conditions, AFC depends not only on the
rate of growth achieved by calves but is also influenced by the management policies with regard to weight or
age at first mating and whether or not seasonal breeding is practiced (Saeed et al., 1987). Preweaning
performance traits such as birth and weaning weight have important implications on herd productivity,
management systems and breeding policies to be followed. They are also important early indicators of
adaptability and management adequacy (Mekonnen and Goshu, 1996). The objective of the study was to
evaluate the reproductive and growth performance of Fogera cattle and their half bred with Friesian at
Metekel Cattle Breeding and Improvement Ranch found in Amhara region, Ethiopia.
Materials and Methods
The study was conducted at Metekel Cattle Breeding and Improvement Ranch, Ethiopia with an elevation
ranging between 1500 and 1680 meters and average annual rainfall of 1615 mm. Average temperature
ranged from 12 to 27 oc and annual mean relative humidity was 65% (MOA, 1988). The herd was established
in 1987 with 450 Fogera cattle to be used for selection and crossbreeding with Friesian breed. The cattle were
herded based on breed, sex and age. The feeding program varied over the years. Animals grazed on natural
pasture during the daytime and on dry season were provided with hay. Crossbred female calves above three
months of age and sick animals were supplemented with desmodium in wet season and elephant grass both
in wet and dry seasons through cut and carry system. Since 1996 female crossbred animals were provided
with concentrate composed of noug seed cake and ground maize/wheat bran. Health management practice
had prevention and control scheme. The prevention scheme focused on vaccination against anthrax, blackleg,
and pasturollosis once in every 6 to 8 months and once per year for CBPP. The control measures were taken
119
for internal and external parasites. Deworming was conducted twice per year, at the start and end of the
rainy seasons.
Data were analysed using the least squares procedures of Harvey (1990) model 1. The linear models that
were assumed for the traits included breed group, year of birth, season of birth, sex of calf, parity of dam
and the interaction effect between breed group and year of birth for birth and weaning weight. Months
were classified as dry season (November-February), short rainy season (March-May) and long rainy season
(June-October). Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (Steel and Torrie, 1960) was used to determine any
significance differences with in means.
Results and Discussion
Age at first calving (AFC)
The mean AFC for 143 (74 pure Fo and 69 FFo) heifers was 44±0.60 months, with a CV of 15.3%. AFC was
significantly influenced by breed group and year of birth whereas season of birth had no significant effect.
Friesian Fogera heifers calved 7.15 months earlier than pure Fogera heifers. The superiority of the crossbred
heifers over the Fogera heifers in AFC had been reported also by Mekonnen and Goshu (1987) and Asheber
(1992) and in other breed by Anders et al., (1987). The trend of AFC showed a decreasing pattern over the
years, which could be attributed to a better feeding and management practices offered to young stock. Season
of birth had no significant effect on the AFC. The time gap between the birth and the AFC is long enough to
mask the effect of season of birth.
Table 1. Least-square means of age at first calving (months)
Variable
No.
Mean ± SE
Overall mean
143
44.0 ± 0.60
Fogera
74
47.61±0.77 a
Crossbred
69
40.46±0.93 b
14
50.64±1.47 a
1990/91
10
43.54±1.63 b
1991/92
29
42.0 ± 1.06 b
1992/93
36
42.68±1.02 b
1993/94
36
43.49±0.96 b
1994/95
18
41.86±1.30 b
11
44.21±1.50
Breed group
**
Year of birth
1989/90
**
Season of birth
Dry
NS
Short rainy
56
43.99±0.68
Long rainy
76
43.90±0.64
Within variable group, means followed by the same letter or with no letter do not differ significantly (p<0.05).
Acronyms CV, coefficient of variation; Fo, Fogera; FFo, Friesian Fogera; NS, not significant; SE, standard error.
Calving interval (CI)
The mean calving interval for 653 records of Fogera cows was 559 days with a coefficient of variation of
24.5% (Table 2). Calving interval was significantly influenced by year and season of calving and parity of
dam. The value observed in this study is in agreement with the findings of Asheber (1992) on the same breed,
Mekonnen (1987) on Borana cows mated to Friesian bulls and Rege et al., (1994) on Ghana short horn.
However, it is lower than the value reported by Wagenaar et al., (1986) for Fulani cattle and is much higher
than to those observed by Azage (1981) for Borana breed, Kiwuwa et al., (1983) for Arsi breed, Mekonnen and
Goshu ( 1987) for Fogera cows and Mulugeta et al.,(1991) for Horro cattle.
The year of calving had significant effect (p<0.01) on calving interval (Table 2). The significantly shorter CI
of 1996/97 may be an indication of change of breeding program from seasonal to year round and/or
managerial differences. The season of calving had significant effect on CI. Short CI was observed for cows,
which calved during the long rainy season than those, which calved during the short rainy and dry
seasons. Significantly high CI was noticed for first calver, and rest of the parities were similar. The
relatively long CI in this study might be related to long days open, seasonality of mating system,
120
difficulties in heat detection and allowing the calves to suck their dams until weaning age which was eight
months.
Gestation length (GL)
The mean gestation length of 583 pure Fogera cows was 281.4 days with a CV of 3.54% (Table 3). The
value was in close agreement with the observation made by Mekonnen and Goshu (1987) working on the
same breed and Azage (1981) for Borana, Horro and Barka cows. However, higher value of GL was reported
by Alberro (1983) for highland zebu of Ethiopia and Saeed et al., (1987) for Kennana cattle in Sudan.
Table 2. Least square means for calving interval (days)
Variable
No
Mean ± SE
653
559.0±12.74
13
488.2±38.22 d
1990/91
13
599.1±27.60 ab
1991/92
11
640.2±40.58 a
1992/93
40
599.3±22.95 b
1993/94
104
561.7±16.91 bc
1994/95
174
542.8±13.96 c
1995/96
246
556.9±12.05 bc
1996/97
52
483.7±20.06 d
73
558.1±19.71 ab
Overall mean
Year of calving
1989/90
**
Season of calving
Dry
**
Short rainy
258
576.8±14.31 a
Long rainy
322
542.1±13.59 b
1
358
605.5±10.93 a
2
183
547.6±12.99 b
3
68
543.5±18.15 b
4
30
532.6±25.60 b
5+
14
565.8±36.50 b
Parity of dam
**
The breed of sire had significant effect on gestation length (Table 3). Cows mated to pure Fogera bulls
carried their calves for 5.4 days longer than those artificially inseminated with Friesian semen. A negative
genetic correlation between GL and prenatal gain was reported by Bourdon and Brinks (1982), which
suggests that the birth process is initiated in an earlier stage of gestation among fast growing than among
slow growing breeds. The year of calving had a significant effect (p<0.01) on the GL. The shorter GL was
recorded for those cows, which calved during 1992/93 compared to rest of the years. The season of calving
had a significant effect on GL. Cows which calved in the long rainy season had longer GL, followed by those
which calved in the dry and short rainy seasons. Access to sufficient nutrients during long rainy season
might have retained the calves for little longer time within the physiological limits of gestation period. The
sex of calf and parity of dam showed non-significant effect on gestation length.
Birth weight (bwt)
The mean bwt of 1254 calves, of which 882 were sired by pure Fogera bulls and 372 by Friesian was 23.68
kg with a coefficient of variation of 12.42%. The mean squares from the analysis of variance showed that
breed group, year of birth, season of birth, sex of calf, parity of dam and interaction between breed group of
calf and year of birth significantly affected birth weight. The genotype of calf had a significant effect on birth
weight (Table 4). Crossbred calves outweighed Fogera calves by 2.47 kg which is related to the high prenatal
growth rate of crossbred calves. Sendros et al.,(1987), Mekonnen (1987) and Asheber (1992) also noticed that
calves sired by Friesian bulls had higher bwt than those sired by native bulls.
The year of birth showed a significant effect (p<0.01) on the bwt. The variation in the bwt of calves over the
years might be associated with the nutritional status of their dams as affected by the rainfall pattern and
thus with feed availability. Calves born during the long and short rainy seasons were significantly heavier
(p<0.05) than those born during the dry season. This variation could be attributed to improved nutrition
for the cows calving in the rainy seasons due to the availability of green forage during the later phase of
121
pregnancy. This observation is in agreement with the findings of Agyemang and Nkhonjera (1986) and
Asheber (1992). Male calves were significantly heavier (p<0.01) than female calves. Calves born from first
calver were significantly lighter than those calves born from second to fifth parity of cows. This variation
could be attributed to a good maternal environment provided by mature cows to the newly developing
fetus. The interaction between the breed group of calf and the year of birth was highly significant (p<0.01).
Table 3. Least square means for gestation length (days)
Variable
No
Mean ± SE
583
281.4±0.92
Fogera
280
284.1±1.23 b
Friesian
303
278.7±0.89 b
19
276.4±2.41 c
1993/94
61
282.1±1.65 ab
1994/95
68
283.3±1.56 a
1995/96
138
282.5±1.13 a
1996/97
120
279.5±1.02 b
1997/98
177
284.4±0.94 a
36
281.7±1.82 ab
Short rainy
297
280.0±0.89 b
Long rainy
250
282.4±0.89 a
Male
305
281.9±0.10
Female
278
280.8±1.01
1
239
281.1±0.85
2
185
282.3±0.97
3
106
280.4±1.22
4
31
283.2±1.86
5+
22
279.9±2.22
Overall mean
Sire breed
**
Year of calving
1992/93
**
Season of calving
Dry
*
Sex of calf
NS
Parity of dam
NS
Weaning weight (wwt)
The overall mean wwt of 612 calves was 122.4 kg with a coefficient of variation of 18.22%. The total body
weight gain and average daily gain from birth to weaning were found to be 99.72 kg and 416 gm, respectively.
The mean squares from the analysis of variance demonstrated a significant effect of breed group, year, season
of birth, interaction between breed group with year of birth and parity whereas; sex of calf had no influence
on wwt. The estimates for the wwt and average daily gain in the present study are higher than those
reported by Asheber (1992) on the same breed and Rege et al., (1994) on Ghana Short horn, Gudali and their
Jersey crosses. Contrary to this, Trail et al., (1985) and Mekonnen (1987) reported higher wwt and average
daily gain up to weaning age than the estimates in the present study for Borana calves. The mean wwt
indicated that crossbred calves were significantly heavier by 16.3 kg than the Fogera calves at weaning
(Table 4). The average preweaning daily gain was estimated to be 440 gm for the crossbreds and 382.3 gm for
the Fogera calves. The superiority of the crossbreds over the Fogera calves indicate the effect of heterosis as a
result of crossing with the Friesian breed, since both groups suckled Fogera cows. Mekonnen (1987) and
Asheber (1992) also reported that wwt and preweaning gain of the native purebreds were significantly lower
than the crossbred calves.
Year of birth had a significant effect (p<0.01) on the wwt. The variation among years in wwt might be due
to variation of rainfall affecting the feed availability to dams and general management of the calves.
Asheber (1992) and Rege et al., (1994) had also indicated that year of birth affected wwt significantly.
Season of birth had a significant effect on the wwt. Calves born in the short rainy season were the heaviest
(129.1 kg), followed by those born during the dry season (124.8 kg) and those born in the long rainy season
were lighter (113.1 kg). The difference in wwt is related to the suckling period of the calves during their
preweaning growth. The present result is in agreement with reports of Trail et al., (1985), Mekonnen
122
(1987) and Asheber (1992). Sex of calf had no significant influence on the wwt. The effect of parity on wwt
was significant (p<0.05). The lowest wwt was recorded for calves from first calver and highest wwt for
calves from second and subsequent calvers (Table 4). The low wwt of calves from dams in the first parity
could be due to nutritional requirement of the dams for their own growth and maintenance leading to lower
milk production. The present observation is consistent with the findings of Asheber (1992), Wagenaar et
al., (1986) and Rege et al., (1994). The interaction between the breed group of calf and year of birth was
significant (p<0.01).
Table 4. Least square means for birth and weaning wts (kg) of Fogera and F1 calves
Variable
Overall mean
Birth wt
No
1254
Breed group
Weaning wt
Mean±
No
Mean±SE
23.68±0.21
612
122.4±1.8
**
**
Fogera
882
22.45±0.17 a
398
114.2±1.91 a
Crossbred
372
24.92±0.37 b
214
130.5±2.29 b
Year of birth
**
**
-
1991/92
22
24.14±1.21 b
1992/93
40
25.63±0.40 a
1993/94
111
22.07±0.27 e
105
127.3±2.66 a
1994/95
184
23.51±0.21 c
153
117.1±2.27 b
1995/96
313
23.66±0.18 b
278
117.7±1.87 b
1996/97
275
23.01±0.23 d
76
127.4±3.47 a
1997/98
309
23.78±0.18 bc
-
*
**
Season of birth
-
Dry
147
23.35±0.28 b
41
124.8±3.39 b
Short rainy
553
23.75±0.23 a
252
129.1±1.97 a
Long rainy
554
23.96±0.22 a
319
113.1±1.68 c
Sex of calf
**
NS
Male
652
24.11±0.23 a
317
123.9±2.01
Female
602
23.26±0.22 b
295
120.8±1.95
Parity of dam
**
*
1
600
23.23±0.21 b
344
118.3±1.65 b
2
361
23.72±0.23 a
164
125.0±1.95 a
3
185
23.68±0.26 a
60
124.4±2.80 a
4
64
24.10±0.35 a
30
122.2±3.74 ab
5+
44
23.70±0.41 a
14
121.9±5.43 ab
Breed x year
**
**
Fogera-1991/92
14
25.07±0.53 cd
-
-
Fogera-1992/93
15
23.79±0.62efg
-
-
Fogera-1993/94
46
20.46±0.38 j
47
122.7±3.48 cd
Fogera-1994/95
108
20.93±0.26 ij
92
116.0±2.60 e
Fogera-1995/96
213
22.10±0.20 h
194
109.0±2.05 f
Fogera-1996/97
242
21.56±0.17 hi
65
109.2±2.81 f
Fogera-1997/98
244
23.26±0.18 g
-
-
F1cross-1991/92
8
23.21±2.36 g
-
-
F1cross-1992/93
25
27.46±0.49 a
-
F1cross-1993/94
65
23.68±0.32 fg
58
131.9±3.13 b
-
F1cross-1994/95
76
26.09±0.29 b
61
118.2±2.99 de
F1cross-1995/96
100
25.21±0.25 c
84
126.3±2.50 bc
F1cross-1996/97
33
24.46±0.42 de
11
145.6±6.08 a
F1cross-1997/98
65
24.31±0.30 ef
-
-
Adjusted one year weight
The overall mean one year weight for 229 calves of which 156 were pure Fogera and 73 F1 crossbreds was
150.0 kg with a CV of 16.9%. The average growth from birth to yearling age and the average rate of daily
gain from birth to yearling age were 127.4 kg and 349 gm, respectively. The mean squares from the analysis
of variance showed that only year of birth had significant effect (p<0.01) while breed group, season of birth,
sex of calf and parity of dam had no significant effect on yearling weight (Table 5).
Analysis of raw data to strengthen the discussion revealed that weight gains from weaning to one year age
were 25.8 kg and 25.1 kg for the Fogera and crossbred calves, respectively. The daily weight gain during
123
same period were 207 gm and 201 gm compared to 382 gm and 440 gm during preweaning period for the
Fogera and Crossbreds, respectively. Thus post-weaning retardation of growth rate is less for the Fogera
calves (175 gm) compared to crossbreds (239 gm). This is an indication that native calves are more capable
of withstanding the post weaning stress compared to F1 calves. Hence, the first few months after weaning
are highly critical period for the crossbred and demand better management, more nutrients and extra care.
Year of birth affected adjusted one year weight significantly (p<0.01). The effect of year on weight at
yearling age confirms the reports of Wagenaar et al., (1986) and Mekonnen (1987). Season of birth, sex of
calf and parity of dam were not important source of variation for yearling weight.
Table 5. Least square means for adjusted one year and two years wt (kg) of Fogera and F1 calves
Variable
Overall mean
One year wt
Two years wt
No
Mean±SE
No
Mean±SE
229
150.0±3.11
169
201.5±4.26
156
146.8±3.52
78
188.9±5.03 a
73
153.3±3.81
91
214.1±5.19 b
-
60
194.0±6.38 b
Breed group
Fogera
Crossbred
NS
Year of birth
**
**
**
1993/94
-
1994/95
50
161.5±4.68 a
84
191.9±4.76 b
1995/96
54
153.1±4.06 b
25
218.6±7.31 a
1996/97
125
135.6±3.37 c
-
Season of birth
NS
NS
Dry
19
150.3±5.91
13
205.8±9.46
Short rainy
89
147.4±3.46
66
202.4±4.91
Long rainy
121
152.4±3.10
90
196.4±4.81
Sex of calf
Male
Female
NS
NS
137
150.2±3.43
86
205.4±5.04
92
149.9±3.56
83
197.6±4.95
Parity of dam
NS
NS
1
94
140.9±3.17
80
192.6±4.65
2
80
149.9±3.22
50
203.2±5.41
3
36
151.6±4.55
21
201.4±7.00
4
5
162.5±10.3
11
202.8±9.85
5+
14
145.3±6.61
7
207.7±12.6
Adjusted two years weight
The mean adjusted two years weight was 201.5 kg with a CV of 17.1% (Table 5). The average growth from
birth to two years of age and average daily gain were found to be 177.8 kg and 244 gm/day, respectively. The
value in the present study is lower than the two years weight reported by Mekonnen (1987) for Borana calves
and higher than estimated for N’Dama calves in Senegal by Fall et al., (1982). The breed group was an
important source of variation (p<0.01) on the adjusted two years weight. The crossbred calves outweighed
Fogera calves by 25.2 kg at two years age. The difference in weight between the two breeds could be
attributed to the genetic effect of Friesian for higher growth rate since extra feeding started only after June
1996. The results from direct analysis of raw data revealed that the weight gain between one to two years of
age as 45.03 kg and 51.08 kg resulting in daily weight gain of 123 gm/day and 140 gm/day respectively for the
Fogera and crossbred calves. Year of birth affected (p<0.01) the weight at two years age significantly. Yearly
variation in weight at two years age might have been caused due to variation of agro climatic conditions and
management. Season of birth, sex of calf and parity of dam had no significant effect on the two years weight.
Within the limits of the data available, the following conclusions and recommendations were made: Age at first calving of Fogera and crossred heifers is relatively high compared to other results reported for
cattle in Ethiopia. The policy of restricted breeding during long rainy season and slow post weaning growth
rate might be two main causes of delayed AFC. It was a wise decision of the farm management to change
the seasonal mating system to breeding year round from 1995. It was also an equally important step to
have started concentrate feeding to crossbred heifers since 1996. The calving interval of 559 days for
124
Fogera cows is relatively long compared to tropical standards. The longer CI observed at the ranch might
be due to restricted seasonal breeding and because of allowing the calves to suckle till the age of eight
months (weaning age). Recorded conception of majority of Fogera cows coincidentally was after the calves
were weaned. Thus improved post parturient feeding and good calf rearing strategy through
supplementation with other feed so as to wean the calves at an early age will have effect on on-set and
intensity of post parturient oestrus resulting in an increase of the calf crop yield through reduction of
calving interval. The average gestation length estimated in the present study is within the range reported
for tropical cattle.
The average birth wt and weaning wt are in agreement with the reports made on the same breed under
farm and ranch management levels and also within the range reported for tropical breeds. Yearling and
two years wt in the present study are relatively low when compared to many reports for tropical cattle.
Though the records available for postweaning growth study were small, the result elucidates the inability
of crossbred calves to withstand the postweaning stress compared to native breed and higher capacity for
compensatory growth later on. Therefore most important factor to improve is the growth rate, which
should be appropriate to predetermined age at first calving.
References
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Agyemang, K. and Nkonjera L.P. 1986. Evaluation of the productivity of crossbred dairy cattle on smallholder and
government farms of Republic of Malawi. ILCA Research Report No. 12. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Anders, O., Mohammed Yusuf, Asfaw Tolessa, Tegene Alemayehu and Tsehay Biadgilgn. 1987. Performance of dairy
cattle at research and dairy co-operatve farms in the Arsi region of Ethiopia. In: First National Livestock
Improvement Conference (NLIC). 11-13 February 1987, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 66-67.
Asheber Sewalem. 1992. Evaluation of the reproductive and preweaning growth performance of Fogera cattle and their
F1 Friesian crosses at Andassa Cattle Breeding Station, Ethiopia. M.Sc. Thesis, Alemaya University of Agriculture,
Alemaya, Ethiopia.
Azage Tegegn 1981. Reproductive performance of zebu cattle and their crosses with temperate breeds in Ethiopia. M.Sc.
Thesis, Alemaya College of Agriculture, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia.
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weight, growth traits and age at first calving in beef cattle. J.Anim.Sci. 53 (3): 543-553.
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Report No.3. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
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Kiwuwa,, G.H., Trail, J.C.M., Kurtu, M.Y., Worku, G., Anderson, FM. and Durkin, J. 1983. Crossbred dairy cattle
productivity in Arsi region, Ethiopia. ILCA Research Report No. 11. ARDU and ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Mekonnen Haile-Mariam. 1987. Evaluation of reproductive and growth performance of Boran cattle and Friesian at
Abernossa, Ethiopia. M.Sc. Thesis, Alemaya University of Agriculture, Alemaya, Ethiopia.
Mekonnen Haile-Mariam and Goshu Mekonnen. 1987. Reproductive performance of Fogera cattle and their Friesian
crosses. Ethiopian J. of Agri. Sci. 9(2): 95-114.
Mekonnen Haile-Mariam and Goshu Mekonnen. 1996. Reproductive performance of Zebu, Friesian, and Friesian-Zebu
crosses. Trop. Agric. (Trinidad). 73 (2).
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MOA (Ministry of Agriculture). 1988. Metekel Cattle Breeding and Improvement Ranch. Project Document, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia.
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performances of Horro cattle at Bako research center. In: Proceedings of the fourth National Livestock Improvement
Conference (NLIC). 13-15 Nov 1991, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 78-82.
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Gudali cattle in a tropical environment: additive and heterotic effects for milk production, reproduction and calf
growth traits. Anim. Prod. 59: 21-29.
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Banein, Sudan. ILCA Research Report No. 16. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Sendros, Demeke., Beyene Kebede., Taye, Bekru., Mulugeta, Kebede and Hailu, G-medhin. 1987. Premilinary results of
cattle crossbreeding studies. II Growth performance of European x Zebu crossbred calves. In: proceedings of First
National Livestock Improvement Conference (NLIC). 11-13 Feb 1987, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 73-75.
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maintained by chemoprophylaxis under trypanosomiasis risk. ILCA Research Report No. 9. ILCA, Addis Ababa,
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ILCA Research Report No. 13. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
126
Performance of two and three way crossbred dairy cattle at Holetta
Research Center in central highlands of Ethiopia: Growth Rate
Gizachew Bekele, Zelalem Yielma, Taddese Bekele, Alemu G/wold, Sendros Demeke, Yohannes Gojjam and
Roman H/Silassie
Holetta Research center, P.O.Box 2003, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
ABSTRACT
Birth weight and the mean daily weight gain up to 90days, 180days and one year of age and weight attained at
those three age groups of 127 two breed (Friesian and Boran) and 87 three breed cross (Friesian, Jersey and Boran)
calves born from 1990 to 1999 was studied. The overall means of daily weight gain up to 90days, 180days and one
year of age was 340gm, 330gm and 250gm per day respectively. Least square mean birth weight were not
significantly (P<0.05) different between two and three breed crosses. Two breed crosses were heavier by 3Kg (6%)
than three breed crosses at the age of 90days. This significant (P<0.05) weight difference was also reflected in
average daily weight gain from birth to 90days, where two breed crosses gained 31gm (9.7%) more weight daily than
three breed crosses. However rate thereafter up to one year of age was not markedly different (P<0.05). The average
daily weight gain of 50% Friesian crossbred calves were significant (P<0.05) when compared to 25% Friesian and
25% Jersey Crossbred calves up to the age of 90days (370gm Vs 320gm/day). But the gain was not persistent and the
average daily weight gain was not significant to any other exotic blood level group when we considered growth rate
up to 180days or till one year of age. However, it was noticed that calves with 62.5% Friesian blood inheritance had
significant (P<0.05) average daily weight gain than other exotic blood level groups up to 180days or one year of age
though their growth rate up to 90days was not significant.
Birth year didn’t affect birth weight. However calves born in the years 1995 to 1999 were 3kg (5.6%), 9.5kg (11.8%)
and 27kg (24.9%) heavier than those born during 1990 to 1994 at 90days, 180days and one year of age respectively,
and these differences were significant (P<0.05). In this study there was no significant growth difference between
calves produced through two breed and three breed crossing from birth to one year of age.
Introduction
In our country exotic dairy breeds, in particular the Friesian were crossed with the local Zebu breeds for
many years to increase the productivity of our local cows. The aim has been to combine adaptability,
hardiness, disease resistance and heat tolerance of indigenous cattle with the high milk potential and faster
growth rate of temperate cattle (Beyene, 1992). The major genetic consequences of crossbreeding to increase
the proportion of heterozygosity in the progeny over that which would be found in random mated or inbred
population. When out bred progeny exceed the average of progeny of the group, contributing to the cross,
there is heterosis or hybrid vigor. Crossbreeding includes specific two breeds cross, specific three breeds cross,
rotational cross and combination of terminal rotational cross. MOA, IAR, ARDP, and Alemaya University of
Agriculture and ILRI have undertaken crossbreeding activities in research and development for the last
twenty to thirty years in Ethiopia. All breeding activities were focused on two way crossing. Milk yield,
reproductive performance and growth performance of these crosses have been reported earlier (Beyene, 1992,
Little et al, 1988, Sendros et al, 1987a, 1987b, Azage et al, 1981). From these crossbreeding studies and
experiences it was concluded that F1 crosses were found to be better in performance and adaptation under
low standard of management and husbandry practices. However it was found that the supply of F1 progenies
for extension purpose doesn’t guarantee sustained stock. It calls for continuos supply of F1 crossbred or AI
services, which may be difficult for remote areas. This is because back crossing or inter se mating reduces
their heterozygosity. But in three breed rotational crossing scheme heterosis coefficients stabilize fairly
rapidly (Hohenboken, 1985). It is also generally concluded that three breeds are the minimum that can be
used in rotational crossing system to maintain approximately the level of heterosis obtained in first
generation (Cunningham and Syrstad, 1987, McDowel, 1985).
127
Accordingly, after reviewing the earlier two breed-crossing program of IAR, three breeds crossing was
initiated to maintain level of heterosis obtained in the first generation (Merha and Alemu, 1989).
Growth rate trait is one of the important parts of dairy cattle goals and it needs to be evaluated in any
breeding program. In dairy cattle, culling can be more rigorous and stocks can be replaced earlier if growth
rates are better as heifers can calve at younger age and increase their life time productivity (Hohenboken,
1985). The target of dairy cattle management program for European breeds is to feed well so that age at
first breeding (service) is 14-16 months, age at first calving is around 24-26 months (Etgen et al., 1987).
However, for two breed crosses of European and Zebu, mean age of 36 months for first conception and 45
months for calving were reported (Beyene, 1992). This paper reports results of the effects of type of cross,
exotic blood level, sex, birth year and birth season on the growth performance of crossbred cattle up to the
age of one year.
Location and source of data
The study was conducted at Holetta Research Center. The center is located at 45km west of Addis Ababa
and it has an altitude of 2400mt above sea level. The mean annual rainfall is 1060mm with maximum
average temperature of 21.35oC.
The data used were from 214 calves born from 1990 to 1999 in a long term crossbreeding project at Holetta.
The experiment involved two exotic sire breeds (Friesian and Jersey) and one indigenous dam breed
(Boran) mated to form 7 crossbred groups.
Animal management
Calves were weighed and identified by ear tag at birth and fed colostrum for the first four days of life.
Subsequently they received milk 3lit/day for 11days, 4lit/dayfor the next 27days, 3lit/day for 21days, 2lit/day
for 21days and finally 1lit/day for 14days until weaning at 98days, giving a total allowance of 260lit. The
amount is slightly higher that recommended by MOA (Alemu, 1983). All calves had free access to hay and ½
kg allowance of concentrate starting from 15th day of birth until weaning.
All calves were housed indoors until 6 month of age in individual pens, except for 1 to 2hr of daily exercise
in loafing pens. They were also being weighed every month and the data were recorded. After 6 months of
age calves were let to graze out in the field on natural pasture. During the evening , calves were provided
with native grass hay ad-lib and 1kg of concentrate supplement up to the age of one year.
Calves were drenched and sprayed against internal and external parasites when parasites infestation is
evident. After 6 months of age all calves were vaccinated against Anthrax, Contagious Bovine
Pleuropneumonia (CBPP), Blackleg, Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) and Pasteurolosis.
The growth traits evaluated were birth weight (BWT), Weaning weight (90days weight) (WWT), Six month
weight (SMWT), Yearling weight (YWT) and average daily weight gain till the respective age groups. Data
were analysed by least squares means methods using the General Linear Model (GLM) procedure of SAS
(SAS, 1987).
Least square means (±S.E) of Birth weight, live weights attained at 90days, 180days and one year and
average daily weight gain up to those different age categories were reported in Table1 and Table2. These
growth parameters were categorized by type of cross, sex, exotic blood level, birth year and birth season.
The overall mean daily weight gain up to 90days, 180days and one year of age was 336, 327 and 253gm/day
respectively. Two breed crosses were heavier by 3km (6%) than three breed crosses at the age of 90days.
This weight difference was also reflected in average daily weight gain from birth to 90days, where two
breed crosses gained 31gm (9.7%) more weight daily than three breed crosses (Table 2). However, the
growth rate thereafter up to one year of age was not significantly different (P<0.05). The average weight
128
gain rate for two breed crosses as well as three breed crosses after 90days up to one year of age was
decreasing (From 349gm/day to 258 gm/day and from 318 gm/day to 246gm /day for two breed crosses and
three breed crosses respectively). Contrary to this however, Little et.al. (1988) reported an increasing daily
weight gain rate after 90days of age up to 9 months (From 310gm/day to 410gm/day) on bucket reared
group 50% Boran X Friesian crossbred calves. The reason may be that our calves after weaning were not
cared well nutritionally and were managed in-group to graze out in the field.
Fifty percent Friesian crossbred calves on average gained 50gm (15.9%) more weight daily than 25%
Friesian 25% Jersey calves and though not significant (P<0.05), 33gm (9.9%) more weight daily than 50%
Jersey crossbred calves up to the age of 90days (Table2). This is possibly because of the proportion of
Friesian blood inheritance. Better growth performance of Friesian crossbred calves over Jersey crossbred
calves was also been reported by Little et.al. (1988) and Sendros et.al. (1987). However, the gain was not
persistent and the weight attained at one year of age by 50% Friesian crossbred calves was not significant
(P<0.05) to any other exotic blood level group as could be seen from Table1. However, Sendros et.al. (1987)
reported that Friesian crossbred calves attained marked weight (P<0.05) than Jersey crossbred calves at
one year of age (152kg Vs 139kg). Similar to this finding however, we have noticed that calves with 62.5%
Friesian blood inheritance attained significant (P<0.05) weight at one year of age than any other group
except 37.5Jersey 25%Friesian calves (Tale1).
Birth season did not brought any apparent change in average daily weight gain up to WWT, SMWT and
YWT. Birth year didn’t affect birth weight. However calves born in the years 1995 to 1999 were 3kg (5.6%),
9.5kg (11.8%) and 27kg (24.9%) heavier than those born during 1990 to 1994 at 90days, 180days and one
year of age respectively, and these differences were significant (P<0.05). These weight differences were also
reflected in average daily gains from birth till the age groups considered. Calves born during 1995 – 1999
on average gained 35gm (11%), 55gm (18.1%) and 74gm (32.5%) more weight daily from birth to 90days,
180days and one year of age, respectively than calves born during 1990 – 1994. The least square means of
weight attained and average daily gain differences between the two birth year groups tended to increase,
as they grow older. This may be attributed to better management of calves in the years 1995 – 1999.
Table 1. Least squares means (± s.e.) of live weights attained at birth (BWT), 90 days (90DWT), 180 days (180DWT) and yearling (YWT)
categorized by type of cross, sex, exotic blood level, birth year and birth season of crossbred cattle
Variable
Overall mean
No.of obs.
BWT (kg)
90DWT (kg)
180DWT (kg)
YWT (kg)
214
25.4
55.7
84.3
117.9
127
87
25.4 ± 0.45
25.3 ± 0.54
56.9± 0.87b
54.0± 1.05a
85.2 ± 1.39
83.1 ± 1.68
119.7 ± 2.38
115.2 ± 2.87
94
120
26.2± 0.64b
24.2± 0.44a
56.7± 1.33b
54.6± 0.93a
85.0 ± 2.10
84.8 ± 1.47
127.0±3.34b
116.9±2.34a
49
38
24
15
67
10
11
28.2± 0.65c
23.0± 0.74a
28.6± 0.94c
20.7± 1.13a
26.0± 0.58b
26.3±1.47bc
24.1±1.40ab
61.2± 1.35b
52.8± 1.55a
60.1± 2.00b
50.8± 1.96a
54.6± 2.44a
54.9±1.21ab
55.0±2.91ab
89.0± 2.13bc
79.9 ± 2.45a
94.3 ± 3.10c
77.5 ± 3.86a
84.1 ±1.92ab
84.8±4.80abc
85.0±4.60abc
120.4±3.38a
115.0±3.89a
136.6±4.92b
119.0±6.12a
119.9±3.04a
116.3±7.65a
127.7± 7.2ab
126
88
25.3 ± 0.48
25.2 ± 0.60
54.0± 1.00a
57.0± 1.26b
80.2 ± 1.58b
89.7 ±1.99a
108.5±2.51a
135.5±3.14b
153
61
24.6 ± 0.45
25.9 ± 0.66
55.6 ± 0.93
55.6 1.37
84.9 ± 1.48
85.0 ± 2.17
122.0 ± 2.35
122.0 ±3.44
17.5
16.5
17.2
19.6
Type of cross
Two-way
Three-way
Sex
Male
Female
Exotic blood level*
50% F
50% J
62.5% F
62.5% J
25% F 25% J
37.5% F 25% J
37.5% J 25% F
Birth year
1990 – 94
1995 – 99
Birth season
Dry
Wet
C.V. %
Means with different superscripts within the same category are significantly (P,<0.05) different
* Where;
50% F = 50%Friesian and 50%Boran; 50% J = 50%Jersey and 50% Boran; 25% F 25% J = 25%Friesian, 25%Jersey and 50%Boran; 37.5% F 25% J = 37.5%Friesian,
25%Jersey and 37.5%Boran
Generally three breed crosses had intermediate growth performance when compared to Friesian crosses
and Jersey crosses. This is expected because Friesian crosses has been reported to grow better than Jersey
129
crosses (Little et.al, 1988, Sendros et.al, 1987) and three breed crosses are a combination of Friesian,
Jersey and Boran blood. However, to evaluate whether heterosis was maintained in three breed rotational
crossing or not, it is likely better to use exotic sire breeds with more or less equal growth performance so as
to avoid the effect of the breeds growth difference.
Table 2. Least squares means (± s.e.) of average daily weight gain at different ages categorized by type of cross, sex, exotic blood level,
birth year and birth season of crossbred cattle
Variable
No.of Obs.
Overall mean
Birth to90 days, g
Birth to180 days, g
Birth to 1 year, g
214
336
327
253
127
87
349 ± 0.01b
318 ± 0.01a
331 ± 0.01
321 ± 0.01
258 ± 0.01
246 ± 0.01
94
120
337 ± 0.01
336 ± 0.01
326 ± 0.01
337 ± 0.01
276 ± 0.01
254 ± 0.01
49
38
24
15
67
10
11
365 ± 0.01b
332 ± 0.01ab
351 ± 0.02ab
335 ± 0.02ab
315 ± 0.01a
317 ± 0.03ab
341 ± 0.03ab
338 ± 0.01ab
314 ± 0.01a
367 ± 0.02b
315 ± 0.02a
323 ± 0.01a
324 ± 0.02ab
339 ± 0.02ab
252 ± 0.01a
252 ± 0.01a
296 ± 0.01b
268 ± 0.02ab
255 ± 0.01a
247 ± 0.02a
284 ± 0.02ab
126
88
319 ± 0.01a
354 ± 0.01b
304 ± 0.01a
359 ± 0.01b
228 ± 0.01a
302 ± 0.01b
153
61
343 ± 0.01
330 ± 0.01
335 ± 0.01
328 ± 0.01
267 ± 0.01
263 ± 0.01
26.5
22.8
24.3
Cross
Two-way
Three-way
Sex
Male
Female
Exotic blood level
50% F
50% J
62.5% F
62.5% J
25% F 25% J
37.5% F 25% J
37.5% J 25% F
Birth year
1990-94
1995-99
Birth season
Dry
Wet
C.V. %
Means with different superscripts within the same category are significantly (P<0.05) different
* Where;
50% F = 50% Friesian and 50% Boran ;
25%Jersey and 37.5%Boran
50% J = 50% Jersey and 50% Boran; 25% F 25% J = 25% Friesian, 25% Jersey and 50% Boran ; 37.5% F 25% J = 37.5%Friesian,
Conclusion and recommendation
In this study there was no significant difference in calve growth performance from birth to one year of age
between calves produced through two breeds and three breeds crossing. Hence to evaluate whether heterosis
was maintained in three breed rotational crossing or not, it is likely better to use exotic sire breeds with more
or less equal growth performance so as to avoid the effect of the breeds growth difference.
Post weaning management of calves at Holetta Research center should be improved so that better growth
performance can be attained. Hence, further study on how to manage weaned calves well is very important
as far as earlier breeding age of females and increased lifetime productivity is aimed. Generally, however,
to accept three breeds crossing as appropriate method in maintaining heterosis, calf survival, milk yield
and reproductive performance of three breed crosses must be evaluated.
References
Alemu, M.1983. Care of Young Animals. In-service training Manual. Animal Breeding and Improvement Division,
Ministry of Agriculture, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia, P.16.
Azage Tegegne, E.S.E. Galal and Beyene Kebede. 1981. A Study on the Reproduction of Local Zebu and F1 crossbred
(European and Zebu) cows. 1. Number of services per conception, gestation length and days open till conception.
Eth. J. Agric. Sci. 3(1): 1-14.
Beyene Kebede. 1992. Estimation of Additive and Non-additive Genetic Effects for Growth, milk Yield and Reproductive
Traits of Crossbred Cattle in the wet and dry environments in Ethiopia. Ph.D. Dissertation, Cornell University,
Ithaca, New York.
Cunningham, E.P. and Syrstad , O. 1987. Crossbreeding Bos Idicus and Bos Taurus for Milk Production In The Tropics.
F.A.O Animal Production and Health Papers. No. 68.F.A.O. Rome.
130
Etgen, M.W., E.j. Robert and M.R. Paul. 1987. Dairy Cattle Feeding And Management.
Hohenboken, w.d. 1985. Genetic Structure Of Populations. 2. Mating Among Distantly Related Individuals.
Chapman (Ed). World Animal Science. Elsvier Science Pub. B.V. Amesterdam. Oxford. New York. Tokyo.
In:
A.B.
Little, D.A.F.M. Anderson, J.W. Durkin. 1988. Partial Suckling Of Crossbred Dairy Cows: Initial Results On Effects Of
Milk Off Take And Calf Growth At Debre Berhan. In: Proc. Of The 2nd N.L.I.C., 24-26 Feb. 1988, Addis Abeba,
Ethiopia.
Merha Zerabruk And Alemu G. Wold. 1989. Two Way and Three Way Cattle Program Crossbreeding Program. I.A.R.
Research Directory. Page 133-134.
SAS. Users Guide For Personal Computers. SAS Institute INC, Cary, U.S.A.
Sendros Demeke, Beyene Kebede, Tesfaye Kumsa, Taye Bekure And Hailu Gebre Mariam. 1987a. Preliminary Results Of
Cattle Crossbreeding (European X Zebu). StudyI. Milk Production Performance Of F1 Cows In: Proc. 1st N.L.I.C. 1113 Feb, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. PP.61-65.
Sendros Demeke, Beyene Kebede, Tesfaye Kumsa, Taye Bekure And Hailu Gebre Mariam. 1987a. Preliminary Results Of
CattleCrossbreeding (European X Zebu). studyII. Growth Performance Of European X Zebucrossbred Calves In:
Proc. 1st N.L.I.C. 11-13 Feb, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. PP73-75.
131
Body weight dynamics of zebu and crossbred cows in relation to
postpartum reproduction under sub humid climate of Bako
Gebregziabher Gebreyohannes1, Azage Tegegne2, M.L.Diedhiou2. and B.P. Hegde3
1
2
3
Bako Agricultural Research Centre, P. O. Box 3, Bako
International Livestock Research Institute, P. O. Box 5689, Addis Ababa
Alemaya University, P. O. Box 138, Dire Dawa
Abstract
Postpartum body weight dynamics of zebu and crossbred cows in relation to postpartum reproduction was studied
using data from the Bako Agricultural Research Centre. Body weight at calving, first postpartum oestrus, first
service and conception were analysed using the General Linear Model which included cow breed, parity, and calving
season and year as a fixed effects and calving weight and body weight gain from calving to three months as a
covariate. Accordingly, the result indicated that the overall mean body weights at calving, estrus, service and
conception were 299.7 ± 1.35, 304.6 ± 0.61, 309.5 ± 0.79 and 313.3 ± 0.90 kg, respectively. Boran Simmental cows had
significantly (p < 0.001) the heaviest weight at calving (381.3 ± 5.95 kg), estrus (322.3 ± 3.07 kg), service (330.6 ±
4.00 kg) and conception (344.2 ± 4.56 kg), while Horro cows had the lightest weight. Significantly (at least p < 0.05)
higher calving weight was recorded for cows that calved during June to August while the highest service and
conception weights were recorded for cows that calved during December to February. Cows in the first parity had
significantly (p < 0.05) lighter weight at calving, estrus, service and conception compared to cows in the other
parities. Body weight at estrus, service and conception were linearly and significantly (p < 0.001) related to body
weight at calving and body weight gain from calving to three months. All breeds except Horro and Horro Jersey cows
lost a portion of their calving weight at estrus (0.3 to 16.3 %), service (3.7 to 13.3 %) and conception (0.9 to 11.5 %).
The Jersey lost 0.3% of its calving weight at estrus but gained 1.5 and 2% of their calving weight at first service and
conception. From this study it can be concluded that cows had to attain the critical postpartum body weight to
resume reproduction and conceive. Besides, the critical weight at conception is higher than at first postpartum
estrus and service. Cows had to gain a portion of their calving weight lost to resume reproduction.
Introduction
Body weight of a cow has a significant bearing on its reproductive and productive performance, which is
more pronounced during the postpartum period (Batra et al., 1986; Richards et al., 1986; Louw et al., 1988;
Sawyer et al., 1993; Smeaton et al., 2000). Heritability of body weight ranges from medium to high. Batra et
al (1986) for instance reported heritability of calving weight and body weight at 112 days postpartum ranging
from 24 to 43% for Holstein and 26 to 38% for Ayrishire line heifers. Hence body weight could be improved
through crossbreeding or selection. Several factors influence body weight. Breed, age and feeding system are
few among many. Roy (1980) indicated that breeds of large mature size have higher absolute growth rate (kg
gain/day) and slow maturity that is at the same percentage of mature weight larger breeds will be older. The
differences that occur within and between breeds are due to differences in muscle to bone ratio, in skeletal
size and in the amount of fat deposited at the same stage of maturity (Roy, 1980). Antepartum and
postpartum feeding level also reported to influence postpartum weights (Taddesse Bekele et al., 1991;
Tegegne Azage et al., 1994; Senatore et al., 1996). Despite the importance of body weight on both
reproduction and production performance of the cow-limited information is available on the postpartum body
weight dynamics in Ethiopian cows. Therefore, this study was planned to see the trend of body weight in the
postpartum zebu and crossbred cows and suggest possible management interventions.
Details of Bako Agricultural Research Center climate, herd management, feeding and health care are
indicated in previous works (Gebregziabher Gebreyohannes and Mulugeta Kebede, 1996). Data from pure
Boran and Horro and their F1 crosses with Jersey, Friesian and Simmental exotic sire breeds were considered
for the study. The traits considered calving weight (weight of the cow taken within two weeks of calving), and
133
postpartum body weight at estrus, postpartum service and conception. The General Linear Model used to
analyze the traits included cow breed, parity, calving season and calving year as fixed effects and calving
weight and body weight gain from calving to three months as a covariate (SAS, 1999). Eight breed/genotypes
(Horro, Boran, Horro x Jersey, Horro x Friesian, Horro x Simmental, Boran x Friesian, Boran x Jersey and
Boran Simmental), six parities (1 to 6, with the sixth parity including parities six and above pooled together),
four calving season categories based on the centers meteorological: season one (June - August), season two
(September - November), season three (December - February) and season four (March - May) and 19 calving
years (1980 to 1998) were considered. All animals were weighed every month.
Results
The overall least square mean body weight at calving, estrus, service and conception are 299.7 ± 1.35,
304.6 ± 0.61, 309.5 ± 0.79 and 313.3 ± 0.90 kg, respectively (Table 1). Boran Simmental cows had significantly
(p < 0.001) the heaviest weight at calving (381.3 ± 5.95 kg), estrus (322.3 ± 3.07 kg), service (330.6 ± 4.00 kg)
and conception (344.2 ± 4.56 kg), while Horro cows had the lightest weight. Calving season had significant
effect on body weight at calving (p < 0.05), service (p < 0.001) and conception (p < 0.001) only. Higher calving
weight was recorded for cows that calved during June to August, while highest body weight at first service
and conception were recorded for cows that calved during December to February. Furthermore, significantly
(at least p < 0.05) the lightest weight was recorded for the cows in the first parity compared to those cows in
the other parities (2 to 6 parities). Body weight at estrus, service and conception were linearly, directly and
significantly (p < 0.001) related to calving weight and body weight gain from calving to three months. Calving
year significantly (p < 0.001) affected cow weight at calving, estrus, service and conception (Figure 1)
Table 4. Least square mean (± SE) body weight (kg) at calving, oestrus, service and conception
Source
N
Calving weight
Estrus weight
Service weight
Conception weight
Overall mean
735
299.7 ± 1.35
304.6 ± 0.61
309.5 ± 0.79
313.3 ± 0.90
***
***
***
***
78
313.9 ± 4.76 de
302.1 ± 2.18 c
310.0 ± 2.85 c
311.1 ± 3.24 e
Boran x Friesian
66
374.9 ± 5.02 ab
313.7 ± 2.66 b
327.6 ± 3.47a
333.6 ± 3.95 b
Boran x Jersey
45
323.7 ± 5.96 d
302.3 ± 2.71 c
311.7 ± 3.54 bc
315.4 ± 4.03 cd
Boran x Simmental
46
381.3 ± 5.95 a
322.3 ± 3.07 a
330.6 ± 4.00 a
344.2 ± 4.56 a
Horro x Friesian
65
341.8 ± 4.73 c
313.4 ± 2.25 b
318.7 ± 2.93 b
323.9 ± 3.34 c
Horro
78
267.4 ± 2.45 f
300.2 ± 1.25 c
302.6 ± 1.63 d
303.3 ± 1.85 e
Cow breed
Boran
Horro x Jersey
44
304.8 ± 4.39 e
303.9 ± 1.99 c
309.4 ± 2.59 c
310.9 ± 2.95 de
313
362.5 ± 5.98 b
312.5 ± 2.90 b
316.5 ± 3.78b c
320.9 ± 4.03 c
*
NS
***
***
151
340.3 ± 3.51 a
307.4 ± 1.73
311.3 ± 2.26 c
315.8 ± 2.58 b
2 (Sept. - November)
161
335.7 ± 3.50 ab
309.8 ± 1.71
314.5 ± 2.23b c
319.4 ± 2.54 b
3 (December- February)
179
331.2 ± 3.29 bc
309.7 ± 1.59
321.6 ± 2.07 a
326.9 ± 2.36 a
4 (March - May)
244
327.9 ± 3.07 c
308.3 ± 1.56
316.2 ± 2.03 b
319.5 ± 2.31 b
***
*
*
ns
284.5 ± 3.68 d
306.3 ± 1.68 b
311.3 ± 2.19 b
319.6 ± 2.49
319.8 ± 2.52
Horro x Simmental
Calving season
1 (June - August)
Parity
1
168
2
150
320.8 ± 3.68 c
309.6 ± 1.69 ab
315.5 ± 2.21 ab
3
149
337.5 ± 3.53 b
307.1 ± 1.72 b
315.1 ± 2.25 ab
320.1 ± 2.56
4
117
349.3 ± 3.84 a
309.5 ± 1.93 ab
318.3 ± 2.51 a
322.6 ± 2.86
5
80
359.6 ± 4.50 a
312.2 ± 2.32 a
318.1 ± 3.01 ab
320.5 ± 3.44
6
71
351.1 ± 4.86 a
308.1 ± 2.36 ab
317.1 ± 3.08 ab
319.9 ± 3.51
***
***
***
Calving weight
0.888 ± 0.018
0.850 ± 0.023
0.828 ± 0.026
Gain 0-3 months
0.046 ± 0.002
0.051 ± 0.003
0.052 ± 0.004
Regression
*** = P < 0.001, ** = P < 0.01 and * = P < 0.05 and NS = not significant
Relative change of cow body weight at first estrus, service and conception to body weight at calving across
breeds is presented in Figure 2. It can be observed that in all breeds except Horro, calving body weight was
higher than body weight at estrus, service and conception. All breeds except Horro and Horro Jersey cows,
lost a portion of their calving weight at estrus (0.3 to 16.3 %), service (3.7 to 13.3 %) and conception (0.9 to
11.5 %). The Horro Jersey lost 0.3% of its calving weight at estrus but gained 1.5 and 2 % of their calving
weight at first service and conception. Cows showed their first estrus at a lower weight than calving
134
weight. However, at conception they required higher weight than what they had at first estrus indicating
higher target weight for conception than that for estrus.
360
350
Weight (kg)
340
330
320
310
300
290
280
80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 92 93 94 95 96 97 98
Calving year
calving
oestrus
service
conception
Figure 2. Body weight at calving, oestrus, service and conception across calving years
Relative change (%)
15
10
5
0
-5
BB
BF
BJ
BS
HF
HH
HJ
HS
-10
-15
-20
Breed
oestrus
service
conception
Figure 3. Relative change of body weight at oestrus, service and conception to body weight at calving for Boran (BB), BF (Boran x
Friesian), BJ (Boran x Jersey), BS (Boran x Simmental), HF (Horro x Friesian), HH (Horro), HJ (Horro x Jersey) and HS
(Horro x Simmental) cows, respectively
Discussion
Body weight at conception was higher than calving, estrus and service weight. These postpartum cow
weights were different among breeds. This difference could be attributed to differences in genotype and
environmental factors. Different genotypes have different mature body weight. At any stage of development,
animals of the same breed attain a certain proportion of their mature weight. According to McDowell (1989),
female cattle at birth should have a weight equivalent to 6.3 to 7% of its mature body weight, to have
increased its birth weight by at least 250% at three months, to have reached at least 50% of mature size by 15
months and attain 85% of mature weight by 30 months. Roy (1980) on the other hand indicated that breeds of
large mature size have higher absolute growth rate (kg gain/day) and slow maturity that is at the same
percentage of mature weight larger breeds will be older. The differences that occur within and between
breeds are due to differences in muscle to bone ratio, in skeletal size and in the amount of fat deposited at the
same stage of maturity (Roy, 1980). Similar breed variation in body weight was reported in previous studies
by Sendros Demeke et al. (1987), Wright et al. (1987), Alemu Gebre Wold (1988), Taddesse Bekele et al.
(1991) and Sawyer et al. (1993). Breeds also vary in their potential for food intake and partitioning of
nutrients between milk production and body reserve (Bauman and Currie, 1980). This could also partly
contribute to the variation among breeds. Genotype difference was also reported in the work of Wright et al.
(1987). These authors reported that Blue-grey cows were lighter (437 kg) at calving and lost weight and
135
condition after calving compared to Hereford Friesian (496 kg) cows. Heritability of calving weight and body
weight at 112 days postpartum is moderate to high and ranges from 24 to 43% for Holstein and from 26 to
38% for Ayrishire line heifers (Batra et al., 1986). Hence, body weight could be improved through selection or
crossbreeding. The significantly higher weight obtained for crossbreds compared to zebu cows could be due to
heterosis effect from crossing zebu with the exotic sire (Friesian, Jersey and Simmental) breeds.
The effect of parity on body weight at calving, estrus and service was significant, while its effect on
conception weight was not significant. Cows in earlier parities were lighter than those in later parities. The
body weight at calving, estrus and service increased until third parity since the weight change after third
parity was not significant probably indicating that the cows had attained their mature body weight.
Yimam Hassen and Brannang (1996) also reported significant effect of parity on cow weight and found an
increase in cow weight after calving from parity one to two and decreased then after. The effect of parity
could be related to variations in calving age. According to Smeaton et al. (2000) herd live weights increased
each year as herd age increased and cow live weight increased by 30-60 kg for every year of age. Unless the
composition of the herd changes from year to year, keeping the same animals across years could result in
higher weight year after year due to the maturation of the animal. Besides, the herd composition at Bako
has also changed from crossbred dominance during early periods to Horro dominance during the later
years of the study period. The mature body weight of the zebu is different from that of the crossbreds and
this contributed to annual variations in weight of the cows. The effects of calving year and season on body
weight at calving, estrus, service and conception could also be related to seasonal variations in availability
of feed both in quality and quantity.
In the majority of dry cows, the anoestrus state induced by sever under-nutrition can be rapidly changed to
one of normal fertility, once cows regained sufficient mass and condition to reinitiate estrus cycles
(Richards et al., 1986; Louw et al., 1988). Relatively larger cows may thus experience lower conception rate
following sever mass losses than smaller cows (Louw et al., 1988). Energy balance during the first four
weeks postpartum was significantly negatively correlated with calving weight and positively correlated
with body weight change during weeks 1 to 10 of lactation (Senatore et al., 1996).
Among the crossbred cows Jersey crosses were the lightest in weight compared to Friesian and Simmental
crosses (Table 1). This agrees with the Kebede Beyene and Galal (1982), Alemu Gebre Wold (1988) and
Sendros Demeke et al., 1987. O’Donovan et al. (1978) reported that Friesian and Simmental crosses had
higher daily gains, feed intakes and conversion efficiencies than the Jersey crosses. The weight of the
animals at any of these stages postpartum could be improved through proper supplementation. Cows are
anoestrus until they gain most of the weight lost. A study conducted to see the effect of supplementation on
body weights at calving, estrus and conception, revealed that supplementation improved the weight of the
cows at calving, first estrus and conception (Tegegne Azage et al. 1994).
Conclusion
Generally it is a normal trend to see a cow losing a portion of its calving weight postpartum particularly
during the first few weeks of lactation. This is because of the negative energy balance that the cow could
experience due to the demands of nutrients for various production and physiological functions. However, this
weight loss has a negative impact on the reproductive activity of the cow. Therefore, minimizing the degree of
weight loss through proper feeding of the postpartum cow might result in higher weight for estrus and
conception relative to calving weight, thus improves postpartum reproduction. To realize this the nutrient
need of the cow need to be studied and appropriate ration formulated.
Acknowledgements
The authors are great full to the Bako Agricultural Research Center for the provision of the data used for
this study and the International Livestock Research Institute for the provision of computer facilities.
136
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dairy cattle. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 66: 53 - 65.
Bauman, D. E. and Currie, W. B. 1980. Partitioning nutrient during pregnancy and lactation a review of mechanism
involving homeostasis and homeorhesis. J. Dairy Sci. 63: 1514 - 1529.
Gebre Wold Alemu. 1988. Milk yield and body weight changes of F1 crossbred cows during the first six months of
lactation. Proceedings, VI World Conference in Animal Production, Helsinki, Finland, Finish Animal Breeding
Association. P.555.
Gebregziabher Gebreyohannes and Mulugeta Kebede.1996. Fertility of Horro and crossbred (F1) cows at Bako Research
Centre. In: ESAP Proceedings of the Fourth National Conference of Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP).
18-19 April, 1996. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. P. 120-126.
Kebede Beyene. and Galal, E.S.E. 1982. A study of body weight from birth to one year of age in European-zebu crossbred
cattle in Ethiopia. Anim. Prod. 34:85-93.
Louw, B. P., Thomas, C. R. and Lishman, A. W. 1988. The influence of loss and gain of body mass on ovarian activity in
beef cows. S. Afri. J. Anim. Sci. 18 (1): 1 - 7.
McDowell, R. E. 1989. Strategies for genetic improvement of cattle in warm climate. In: IAR (Institute of Agricultural
Research) Proceedings of the Second National Livestock Improvement Conference, 24-26 February 1988, Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia. P.61-73.
O’Donovan, P. B., Alemu Gebre Wold, Beyene Kebede and Galal, E. S. E. 1978. Fattening studies with crossbred
(European x Zebu) bulls. I. Performance on diet of native hay and concentrate. J. Agric. Sci. Camb. 90: 423 - 429.
Richards, N. W., Spitzer, J. C. and Warnwer, M. B. 1986. Effect of varying levels of postpartum nutrition and body
condition at calving on subsequent reproductive performance in beef cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 62: 300 - 306.
Roy, J. H. B. 1980. The calf. 4th ed. Butterworth, London.
SAS (Statistical Analysis System). 1999. SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA.
Sawyer, G. J., Milligan, J. and Barker, D. J. 1993. Time of joining affects the performance of young Angus and Angus x
Friesian cattle in the South-West of Western Australia. I. Live weight, body condition, and reproductive
performance in heifers and first calvers. Aust. J. Exper. Agric. 33: 511 - 521.
Senatore, E. M., Butler, W. R. and Oltenacu, P. A. 1996. Relationship between energy balance and postpartum ovarian
activity in first lactation dairy cows. Anim. Sci. 62: 17 - 23.
Sendros Demeke, Beyene Kebede, Taye Bekure, Mulugeta Kebede and Hailu Gebre Mariam. 1987. Preliminary results of
cattle crossbreeding study II. Growth performance of European x Zebu crossbred calves. In: IAR (Institute of
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beef cows on North Island hill country, New Zealand. New Zealand J. Agric. Research 43: 71 - 82.
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Wright, I. A., Rhind, S. M., Russel, A. J. F., Whyte, T. K., McBean, A. J. and McMillan, S. R. 1987. Effect of body
condition, feed intake and temporary calf separation on the duration of the postpartum anoestrus period and
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138
Evaluation of the General Farm Characteristics and Dairy Herd Structure
in Urban and Peri-Urban Dairy Production System in the Addis Ababa
Milk Shed
Yoseph Mekasha1, Azage Tegegne2, Alemu Yami3 and N.N. Umunna2
1Alemaya
University (AU), Department of Animal Sciences, P.O.Box 138, Dire Dawa;
2International
3Ethiopian
Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P.O.Box 5689, Addis Ababa;
Agricultural Research Organization (EARO), P.O.Box 32, Debre Zeit.
Abstract
Evaluation of the general farm characteristics and dairy herd structure was undertaken in urban and peri-urban
dairy production system in the Addis Ababa milk shed. A total of 41 dairy farms were selected randomly from three
production sub-systems (intar-urban, large peri-urban and secondary town sub-systems), and cross sectional survey
was implemented across all the production sub-systems. The result indicated that female-headed family owned
24.4% of the dairy farms, where the largest proportion was observed in intra-urban dairy farms (40%). The
proportion of dairy farm owners being farmers was 34.2% followed by household wives (14.6%). About 78% of the
dairy farm owners were literate (39% above secondary), while 22% were illiterate. The largest proportion of literate
owners was found in large peri-urban, while the largest proportion of illiterate was found in intra-urban dairy
farms. Most dairy farms (73.2%) were managed by the owner themselves and the type of cattle production is mainly
dairying. All the dairy farms keep Holstein-Friesian as a dairy stock and the management system followed was
intensive. The largest mean herd size was observed in large peri-urban dairy farms (128) followed by secondary
town (9.1) and intra urban farms (9.2). The proportion of cows out of the total herd was 50%, where the largest
proportion was observed in intra-urban (58%) dairy farms. The contribution of indigenous zebu cattle to the overall
herd was only 2.5%. Milking cows contributed to 35.8% of the total herd and 72.2% of the total cows, where the
largest was occurred in secondary town dairy farms. The proportion of heifers in the production system was 25.6%
while the proportion of calves was 21.6%. The largest proportion of calves (88%) was found to be females.
Key words: Urban/Peri-urban; Dairy farm; Dairy herd
Introduction
Urban and Peri-urban Dairy production system encompasses the production, processing and marketing of
milk and milk products that are channeled to urban centers (Rey et al., 1992). It is an important type of
livestock production systems prevalent in tropics and sub-tropics. The increasing human population and
purchasing power in urban centers, inadequate foreign reserves and the increasing price of milk and milk
products in abroad have given impetus to the flourishing of urban and peri-urban dairy production systems
in this region. The production system plays a vital role in improving the nutritional status of the ever
increasing urban population, generate substantial income and create job opportunities through the process of
production, processing and marketing of dairy products.
However, information is meager to indicate the general picture of the production system, mainly
characteristics of the dairy farms and herd structure. Evaluation of the prevailing production system
would assist us in designing appropriate improvement strategies. To this effect, the International
Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and its partners have embarked on a study on market oriented urban
and peri-urban dairy production system and developed conceptual framework for research (ILRI, 1996).
Evaluation of the general farm characteristics and herd structure is part of this study and believed to
furnish baseline information on the existing production system.
The objective of this study was, therefore, to assess the existing farm characteristics and dairy herd
structure in urban and peri-urban dairy production system in the Addis Ababa milk shed.
139
Description of the study site
The study was conducted on private urban and peri-urban dairy farms in and around Addis Ababa
between August-December, 1999. Urban and peri-urban dairy production system has been characterized into
seven sub-systems (clusters) of which intra-urban, large peri-urban and secondary town dairy production
sub-systems represented by Addis Ababa, Sebeta and Kaliti and Debre-Zeit town respectively were the
concern of this study. Addis Ababa is situated in an altitude of 2400 m.a.s.l. The average minimum and
maximum annual temperature is 9.4 and 23.2 0C, respectively and the annual mean rainfall is 1201.5 mm
(ILCA, 1993). Kaliti and Sebeta are located at about 20-25 kms south and west of Addis Ababa on the way to
Debre Ziet and Jimma roads respectively. Debre Ziet is located 45 kms south east of Addis Ababa at an
altitude of 1850 m a.s.l. The mean annual rainfall is 864.6 mm and mean minimum and maximum
temperatures are 10.6 and 25 0C, respectively (Astatike et al., 1995).
Study population and sampling
Study population and sampling of the target groups has been described in the previous work of ILCA/ILRI
under the project Development of tools for peri-urban dairy production systems in sub-Saharan Africa and
Market distribution and Consumption dynamics of regulated and unregulated smallholder system (ILCA,
1994). Three production sub-systems, viz., Intra-urban, urban of secondary town and large peri-urban dairy
farms were considered for this study. A proportional and representative sample of farms was drawn from the
three production sub-systems. Accordingly, 17 farms from intra-urban (Addis Ababa), 6 farms from large
peri-urban (Sebeta and Kaliti) and 20 farms from secondary town (Debre Zeit) were selected randomly.
Data collection procedures
Following identification of the dairy farms, structured questionnaire was developed and used for the
survey work. Cross-sectional survey was implemented across the selected dairy farms and information was
gathered on the general farm characteristics and dairy herd structure.
Descriptive statistics was employed to analyze the data using SAS statistical package (SAS, 1989).
General farm characteristics
The general farm characteristics of the urban and peri-urban dairy production system in the Addis Ababa
milk shed is presented in Table 1. The result indicated that male gender owned about 76% of the dairy
farms. It was only 24% of the dairy farms, which were owned by females. The largest proportion for female
headed dairy farms was observed in intra-urban production sub-system (40%). This implies that femaleheaded dairy farms are becoming an important component in the urban and peri-urban dairy production
system.
Considering occupation of the dairy farm owners, about 39% of the dairy farm owners were engaged in
various activities. The proportion of dairy farm owners being farmer was only 34%, followed by household
wives (14.6%). Possession of the dairy farms by the household wives was the highest in intra-urban (33%)
production sub-system followed by large peri-urban farms (17%). This is due to the higher proportion of
female-headed dairy farms in the same production sub-system, where most of them are household wives.
In this study, most of the dairy farm owners (83%) in large peri-urban were farmers. This is due to the fact
that dairy farms in large peri-urban production sub-system are large sized (Table 2) and thus, owners are
fully engaged with the farming. In contrast to this, most dairy farms in intra-urban and secondary town
are small sized and management of such farms needs less time than large sized farms. Besides, the
expected income from small sized farms is less to fully satisfy the owners and as result owners look for
other job to be fully engaged. The small sized farms in intra-urban and secondary town may also prevent
the owners not to increase herd size and fully engaged in the business.
140
Assessment of the educational level of the farm owners indicated that about 39% of the owners were
possessing above secondary education. The largest proportion was observed in large peri-urban production
sub-system (67%) followed by secondary town (45%). Establishment of large sized farm demand knowledge
besides capital, land and other resources. It has been recommended that dairyman should have all rounded
knowledge in the production, processing and marketing of dairy products (Foley et al., 1983). The highest
proportion of farm owners possessing above secondary education in large sized farms may partly be
attributed to this fact. In secondary town, most of the farms were established after the downfall of Derg
regime mainly by ex-military staff (Air force) since they were jobless at the moment. Furthermore, the
town is endowed by agricultural professionals due to the various agricultural organizations located there
and part of them run backyard smallholder dairy farming. These may be the reasons for possession of
higher educational status following large peri-urban. Out of the dairy farm owners considered across all
the production system, about 22% were found to be illiterate. The highest proportion of illiteracy in dairy
farm owners was observed in intra-urban dairy farms (46%). Smallholder urban dairying was run mostly
by resource poor peoples living in urban centers, whom are illiterate. Most of the time it is backyard
farming as land is being the major infrastructural constraint in this sub-production system (Yoseph et al.,
1999). The object of this farm is to generate income to supplement household expenses for the family.
Table 1. General Farm Characteristics of the Urban and Peri-urban Dairy Production System in the Addis Ababa Milk Shed
Production Sub-Systems
Variables
Intra-urban (%) N=15
Large Peri-Urban (%)
N=6
Secondary town (%)
N=20
Total (%)
N=41
Sex of the farm owner
Female
Male
40
60
33
67
10
90
24.4
75.6
Occupation of the farm owner
Farmer
Civil servant
Household wives
Others
13
7
33
47
83
17
-
35
20
45
34.2
12.2
14.6
39.0
Education of the farm owner
Illiterate
Elementary
Junior secondary
Secondary
Above secondary
46
7
20
7
20
33
67
10
15
15
15
45
22.0
10.0
15.0
14.0
39.0
Manager of the farm
Owner
Hired
93
7
17
83
75
25
73.2
26.8
100
17
83
100
2.6
97.4
Record Keeping
Yes
No
7
93
83
17
15
85
22.0
78
Farm animals kept other than cattle
Sheep
Horse
Donkey
Poultry
Dog
Cat
40
7
27
73
60
17
17
17
17
50
5
15
35
70
41.5
2.4
2.4
19.5
46.3
58.5
Type of Cattle Production
Dairy only
Dairy and beef
100
-
83
17
85
15
90.2
9.8
Type of Exotic Cattle Breeds
Holstein-Friesian
Jersey
100
-
100
17
100
-
100.0
2.4
Dairy Cattle Management System
Intensive
Extensive
100
-
83
17
100
-
97.6
2.4
Type of Farming
Crop-livestock
Livestock only
Attempt was also made to investigate whether dairy farms in urban and peri-urban production system are
managed by the farm owners or hired labor. The result indicated that majority of the dairy farms (73%)
141
considered were managed by the owners themselves. However, the largest proportion (83%) of the farms in
large peri-urban production sub-system was managed by hired labor. Peoples owning large sized herd are
resource rich people in contrast to smallholders. Yoseph et al. (1999) demonstrated that inadequate capital
is the major characteristics that distinguish smallholders in urban and peri-urban dairy production system
in contrast to large sized farms. Thus, resource poor dairy farm owners are unable to hire labor and thus
manage by themselves in the way they have experienced. Nevertheless, large sized farms prefer their
farms to be managed by hired labor with an attempt to diversify their business. As herd size increases
profitability of the farm increases provided that all the farm requirements and market is optimum.
However, this could not be achieved without optimum management, and hiring professionals to this end is
imperative.
The major type of agricultural farming in the production system is livestock farming (97%). The only farm
running crop/livestock type of farming was observed in large peri-urban production sub-system. The mere
reason for this is availability of land. It was only 22% of the farms in the urban and peri-urban production
system, which keep records of the dairy farm; and the largest proportion was observed in large peri-urban
production sub-system. Most smallholders dominating intra-urban dairy farms are less educated. The
largest proportion of dairy farm owners possessing above secondary school and hiring trained labor to
manage the farm could be the reason for practicing record keeping.
Urban and peri-urban dairy farms do also keep farm animals other than dairy cattle. The most common
ones include cats, dog, sheep, poultry, donkey and horses in that order. Cats and dogs are the most
common pet animals through out the production system. Cats are commonly kept to guard mice and other
rodents from attacking concentrates and milking equipment. Dogs are also kept to guard intruders (theft).
Small ruminants mainly sheep is raised to generate extra profit through the utilization of whatever feed
leftover at the farm. Donkeys and horses are kept by urban and peri-urban dairy farms for the purpose of
racing (intra-urban) and transporting animal feeds, respectively. Pet animals are important to serve the
purpose they are kept for inline with the farmers objective. However, they could also be a potential
transmitter of zoonotic diseases if appropriate controlling mechanism is not devised.
Dairy farming is the major type of cattle production (90%) as compared to fattening, and Holstein Friesian are the major exotic cattle genotypes used as dairy stock in the farming systems. Dairy production
system is an intensive type as evidenced by being practiced by all the production sub-systems. The findings
were in agreement with the earlier reports (Azage and Alemu, 1997; ILRI, 1996).
Dairy herd structure
Dairy herd structure at different physiological stages in the urban and peri-urban dairy production system
is presented in Table 2. The overall mean herd size across all the production sub-systems was 26.5, where
large peri-urban dairy production sub-system had the largest (128.0). The proportion of cows out of the entire
dairy herd considered was 50%. The figure is higher compared to the reported value for national average
(42%) (Azage and Alemu, 1997. al., 1995). The reason for the higher proportion of cows in this study
compared to the national average is that urban and peri-urban dairy production system is market oriented
and targeted to produce more milk by keeping more cows since sale of the milk is the major income for the
farm. Furthermore, the largest proportion of dairy genotypes kept for milk production is exotic Holstein
Friesian, while the proportion of indigenous Zebu cattle in the herd was found to be only 2.5% (Table 2).
Within the production system, the largest proportion of cows in the herd was found in intra-urban (58%)
followed by large peri-urban (49%) and secondary town dairy farms (46%). This could be attributed to reduced
land size to keep more replacement stock than cows (most farms are back yard) in intra-urban farms, but
large farm size to keep relatively more replacement stock in case of large peri-urban and secondary town
dairy farms. The proportion of milking cows was found to be 35.8% out of the total herd and 72.2% out of the
total number of cows. The largest proportion of milking cows out of the total herd (40.6%) and out of the total
number of cows (89.1%) was observed in secondary town dairy production sub-system. This could be
attributed to the longer lactation length in secondary town farms, which is in agreement with Yoseph et al.
(2000) who reported extended lactation length in secondary town dairy farms. The proportion of heifers in the
142
production system was 25.6%, where 11.7% were young aged between 1 to 2 years and the remaining 13.9%
were at breeding age (2 to 3 years old). Relatively higher proportion of heifers was observed in secondary
town production sub-system (26.3%) followed by large peri-urban (25.8%) and intra-urban (23.9%) dairy
farms. It has been suggested that raising adequate number of replacement stock is one of the characteristics
of successful dairy farm (Foley et. Al., 1983). However, the merit and demerit of this system should be
weighed, both from economic as well as genotypic point of view. Usually it is economical to raise replacement
stock at home since the cost incurred to raise them at home is lower than the cost spent to purchase. In terms
of genotype, however, it would be advantageous to raise at home provided that the parents of the heifers are
superior and they possess superior dairy character. Thus, it would be advisable to raise small number of
heifers of superior genotype and cull the ones, which are inferior, rather than keeping large number of mixed
stock. The extra demand of the farm in this case could be met by purchasing heifers from other sources based
on their parents record and their physical condition. The largest proportion of replacement stock found in this
study should therefore be interpreted with caution. The proportion of calves in the production system was
found to be 21.6%, where 19 % was females and only 2.6% was male. The justification behind unequal
distribution of sex is that most dairy farms in the production system sell male calves in the form of veal to
urban consumers. The location of urban and peri-urban dairy production system is in high demand area for
producers to sell their male calves.
Table 2. Herd structure in Urban and Peri-urban dairy production system in the Addis Ababa milk shed
Cows
Production
Sub-system
Heifers
Milking
Pregnant
Dry
Nonpregnant
Pregnant
Nonpregnant
Pregnant
Nonpregnant
Bulls
Calves
2 to 3 years
1-2 yrs
Male
Young
Female
Breeding
1-4
yrs
Total
herd
size
Intra-Urban (N=15)
Zebu
2
2
0
0
1
0
0
1
2
0
1
9
Crossbred
7
1
1
0
1
0
1
2
4
0
1
18
High-grade
13
28
21
5
3
9
18
2
9
2
1
111
Total
22
31
22
5
5
9
19
5
15
2
3
138
Mean
Percent (%)
1.5
2.1
1.5
0.3
0.3
0.6
1.3
0.3
1.0
0.1
0.2
9.2
15.9
22.5
15.9
3.6
3.6
6.5
13.8
3.6
10.9
1.4
2.2
100.0
Secondary town (N=20)
Zebu
0
8
0
0
0
6
0
0
1
0
3
Crossbred
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
High-grade
34
32
8
1
11
20
11
21
17
5
4
164
Total
34
40
11
26
11
21
18
182
18
8
1
5
7
1.7
2.0
0.4
0.1
0.6
1.3
0.6
1.1
0.9
0.3
0.4
9.1
18.7
22.0
4.4
0.5
6.0
14.3
6.0
11.5
9.9
2.7
3.8
100.0
Zebu
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Crossbred
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
High grade
85
178
82
32
43
58
97
2
174
11
6
768
Total
85
178
82
32
43
58
97
2
174
11
6
768
Mean
14.2
29.7
13.7
5.3
7.2
9.7
16.2
0.3
29.0
1.8
1.0
128.0
Percent (%)
11.1
23.2
10.7
4.2
5.6
7.6
12.6
0.3
22.7
1.4
0.8
100.0
141.0
249.0
112.0
38.0
59.0
93.0
127.0
28.0
207.0
18.0
16.0
1088.0
13.0
22.9
10.3
3.5
5.4
8.5
11.7
2.6
19.0
1.7
1.5
100.0
Mean
Percent (%)
Large PU (N=6)
Total
Mean
Percent (%)
0
26.5
Conclusion
Urban and peri-urban dairy production system is an important component of livestock production system
in Ethiopia. In this study, it was found that female-headed dairy farming is becoming an important
component of dairying in the Addis Ababa milk shed. Dairy farming offered job opportunities as indicated by
higher proportion of owners became farmers, and generate income to supplement household expenses.
However, the proportion of illiterate farm owners is substantially high which would have an adverse effect on
the management of improved dairy stock. Beside, care should be taken to inspect pet animals, as they are
143
economically important to transmit zoonotic diseases. The largest herd size should be compromised with the
carrying capacity of the farm and the higher proportion of replacement stock needs to be evaluated both
economically and genetically in order to have a profitable dairy farm.
References
Astatike A., Mohammed Saleem, A.M. and El Wakeel, A. 1995. Soil water dynamics under cereal and forage legume
mixtures on drained vertisols in the Ethiopian highlands. Agric. Water Management., 27:17-24.
Azage Tegegne and Alemu G/Wold. 1997. Prospects for peri-urban dairy development in Ethiopia. ESAP Proceedings.
Fifth National Conference of Ethiopian Society of Animal Production. 15-17 May 1997. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Foley, R., Bath, D.L., Dickinson, F.N. and Tucker, H.A. 1972. Dairy cattle. Principles, Practices, Problems, Profits. Lea
and Febiger. P693.
ILCA (International Livestock Center for Africa). 1994. Annual Program Report. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
ILCA (International Livestock Center for Africa). 1993 Climatic records for ILCA research sites. ILCA, P.O.Box 5689,
ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute). 1996. Annual Project Report. ILRI, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Rey, B., Thorpe, W., Smith, J., Shapiro, B., Osuji, P., Mullins, G. and Agyemang, K. 1993. Improvement of dairy
production to satisfy the growing consumer demand in Sub Saharan Africa: A conceptual framework for research.
International Livestock Center for Africa (ILCA), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
SAS (Statistical Analysis System Institute). 1989. SAS/STAT users guide. Version 6.0, fourth edition. Vol. 2., Cary, NC,
USA.
Yoseph Mekasha, Azage Tegegne, Alemu Yami and N.N. Umunna. 1999. Feed resources and Nutritional management of
dairy herd in the urban and peri-urban dairy production system in the Addis Ababa milk shed. Proceedings of the
Seventh Annual Conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Yoseph Mekasha, Azage Tegegne, Alemu Yami and N.N. Umunna. 2000. Reproductive management and reproductive
performance of the dairy herd in the urban and peri-urban dairy production system in the Addis Ababa milk shed.
Proceedings of the Eight Annual Conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP), Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia.
144
PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
Managing Risk in Pastoral Systems: Research and Outreach Experiences
of the Pastoral Risk management (PARIMA) Project in Southern Ethiopia
and Northern Kenya
Getachew Gebru1,3, Solomon Desta2,3, and D. Layne Coppock3
1PARIMA
Project, c/o International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P.O. Box 5689, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia.
2PARIMA Project, c/o International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P.O. Box 30709, Nairobi, Kenya.
3PARIMA
Project, c/o Department of Environment & Society, College of Natural Resources, Utah State
University, Logan, Utah, USA 84322-5215
Abstract
In the context of East African pastoralism, improved risk management is proposed to offer ways to promote wealth
conservation, reduce poverty, mitigate conflicts, and enhance food security at the household level. The Pastoral Risk
Management (PARIMA) project is a multi-disciplinary effort funded by USAID from 1997 to 2006. The two main
components of the project include research and outreach. The study area extends from Hagremariam in southern
Ethiopia to Isiolo and Baringo Districts in north-central Kenya. The study area represents an intact eco-marketing
region, hosts 10 major ethnic groups, and is beset by pervasive poverty, violence, food insecurity, poor infrastructure,
and inadequate public services. Research has focused on risk mapping, household survey, and community-level case
studies to identify prominent risks for pastoralists, clarify pastoral coping strategies, and reveal possible
development interventions. Outreach disseminates research information among researchers, development agents,
policy makers, and communities. Outreach has also engaged in efforts to build awareness and capacity of pastoral
communities and development agents to implement risk-management interventions using pilot projects. Degree
training has focused on master’s and doctoral students, both in East Africa and the United States. Non-degree
training includes workshops and interactive field tours for communities, development facilitators, and policy
makers. One development vision of the PARIMA project is based on how to promote household wealth accumulation
and conservation via asset and income diversification. The process could involve encouraging households to become
involved in more timely livestock sales before crises occur, putting some revenue in drought-proof alternative
investments, and then focusing on how to achieve a degree of sustainable livelihood diversification. This paper
reviews some general findings and experiences from the PARIMA project over the period 1997 to 2002, with a focus
on work conducted in southern Ethiopia.
Background
Risk management is a broad term that includes various methods and strategies that people use when they
try to protect themselves against misfortune or systemic shocks. Such phenomena can include things like
drought or a sudden down-turn in a local cash economy. Elements of risk management include asset and
income diversification, enhanced use of information, and enhanced use of internal and external resources (Dr.
C. Barrett, personal communication). In general, it is thought that increased economic diversification can
reduce vulnerability of people to any one type of problem or shock. When people have access to more
information, they are more aware of strategic choices and can plan more effectively. When key resources are
rehabilitated, or external assistance is provided, the ability of people to sustain themselves during difficult
times can be enhanced.
Pastoralists the world over are exposed to many risk factors such as drought, thievery, or epidemic disease
that can decimate their livestock holdings and thus potentially destroy their livelihoods. Local pastoral
systems in East Africa are under increasing stress, and some have become more unstable in response to
drought. This can lead to marked declines in human welfare.
One vision of the PARIMA project is to affect positive change in the welfare of pastoral and agro-pastoral
peoples through identification and facilitation of risk management interventions that promote food
security, improve prospects for economic growth, and reduce the likelihood of resource-based conflicts
147
(Coppock et al., 1997). This vision could be accomplished through interventions that help diversify pastoral
economies and encourage some complementary forms of non-livestock investment, improve marketing
efficiency, enhance availability and use of marketing and climate forecast information, and improve access
to external resources. The latter aspect can also include resource rehabilitation and conservation. The
purpose of this paper is to present some aspects of PARIMA’s preliminary research and outreach
experiences.
The PARIMA project conducts social, economic, and ecological research on various risks faced by
pastoralists and their responses to such risks. This research has been funded from 1997 through 2006 by
the Global Bureau of the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) in Washington,
D.C. The study area is 124,000 km2 in size and covers the region from Hagremariam in southern Ethiopia
to Isiolo and Baringo Districts in north-central Kenya. It represents an intact eco-marketing region and
hosts 10 major ethnic groups. Populations are subjected to a variety of cross-border problems and related
issues that include poverty, violence, food insecurity, poor infrastructure, and inadequate delivery of public
services. Research has been conducted using survey methods and case study approaches. The survey
methods have primarily relied on a quarterly repeated survey across 11 study sites, with five in southern
Ethiopia and six in northern Kenya (McPeak et al., in preparation). Case studies have been prepared by
graduate students investigating local circumstances among the Borana (Desta, 1999; Shibru, 2001) or Guji
(Asfaw and Saaristo, 1999). Outreach has largely been focused on the Borana Plateau, with some activity
in the Kenyan borderlands adjacent to Ethiopian territory. Outreach support has been provided on an
annual basis by the USAID Mission to Ethiopia since 2000.
Pastoralists have traditionally used a variety of strategies to reduce their risk exposure (Coppock, 1994).
These include a reliance on livestock accumulation, use of herd mobility to exploit widely scattered forage
and water resources, flexible social systems of resource use that promote reciprocal sharing, and creation of
social safety nets whereby wealthier households can help poorer households restock after livestock losses
have occurred. Human population growth, in particular, is an important factor that appears to limit the
use of these traditional strategies in contemporary times (Coppock, 1994). Overcrowding on the landscape
reduces livestock mobility, compromises reciprocal patterns of resource sharing among communities, and
increases the chance for localized, environmental degradation (bush encroachment). Increasingly regular
losses of livestock can limit the utility of herd accumulation. High demand for redistribution of livestock by
a growing poorer segment of pastoral society puts unsustainable pressure on wealthier households—as one
consequence social safety nets seem less apparent today than they used to be (Doss, 2001). Modern forms of
risk management, which may or may not be used by (or accessible to) traditional people include
opportunistic use of markets to buy and sell livestock (McPeak, 2001), activity diversification (Little et al.,
2001), and asset diversification via formal and informal savings institutions (Desta, 1999; Osterloh,
2001).Synopsis of Some Preliminary Research Findings: Focus on Southern
Ethiopia
In the absence of accessible markets and rural financial systems, the value of livestock wastage losses to
drought and heavy stocking rates is very high. Working among the Borana pastoralists, Desta (1999) found a
steady decline in cattle numbers per household between 1980 and 1997; roughly a net drop of 37% from 92 to
58 head per household. The vast majority of cattle losses have been from drought-related mortality, and not
sales. We have estimated the value of cattle losses to be on the order of USD 45 million when extrapolated to
a target population of 7,000 households over the 17 years. When extrapolated over the pastoral population for
the entire Borana Plateau, the figure could be as high as USD 300 million. If “safe” alternative banking
options and improved cattle marketing were added to this system to reduce cattle wastage losses and provide
an alternative means to cycle and store money, it has been estimated that loss of capital wealth could be
significantly reduced (Desta, 1999).
Cattle crashes are caused by high stocking rates in conjunction with dry or drought years, not
simply by drought alone. Climatic factors, coupled with higher stocking rates, appear to be the
underlying causes of herd crashes, which seem to occur at a regular frequency of once every 5 to 6 years.
148
Production Systems
Cattle crashes have been well-documented for 1983-5 and 1991-3 (Desta and Coppock, 2002a) as well as for
1998-9 (Shibru, 2001). In some cases it appears that stocking rates may provide a locally based, long-range
predictor of drought-induced livestock crashes. When stocking rates exceed 20 head per square kilometer,
the system appears more vulnerable to crash in a dry year. It is highly unlikely that the next major crash
will occur in the area before 2005—this is fundamentally dictated by population dynamics (Desta and
Coppock, 2002a). We suspect that the cyclic nature of cattle crashes is also due to loss of drought grazing
reserves. Loss of grazing reserves in turn may be due to overpopulation of people (who now reside in
reserves) and resource degradation (bush encroachment), which reduces forage production.
Pastoralists in southern Ethiopia exhibit a very low level of activity diversification, with few, strong
economic links to settlements or towns. Other PARIMA research by Little et al. (2001) and Smith et al.
(2000) shows that levels of activity diversification, access to formal schools, and general rural development
are considerably higher in northern Kenya than southern Ethiopia. Regional patterns for income
diversification suggest that about 16 options exist that help pastoralists generate income outside of
livestock production. The closer people live to towns and villages the larger the number of options. The
threshold appears to occur within a radius to town of around 40 km (Little et al., 2001). Poorer women tend
to diversify more to supply firewood and charcoal to town dwellers, middle-class women tend to focus more
on dairy sales, and wealthier males engage in retail or wholesale business ventures (Little et al., 2001).
Compared to northern Kenya, in southern Ethiopia only very few pastoralists have access to wage
employment, use banking facilities, or are engaged in sustainable forms of petty trade (Desta, 1999). The
rate of illiteracy among the Boran is over 90% (Desta, 1999). A similar situation exists for the agro-pastoral
Gugi—namely a low level of activity diversification, high rates of illiteracy, etc. (Asfaw and Saaristo, 1999).
Cattle-keeping pastoralists in southern Ethiopia appear to respond to increased population pressure by
increasing their involvement in maize cultivation and camel husbandry, and through land annexation for
use as fodder banks. In previous work, Coppock (1994) estimated that the semi-arid region of the Borana
Plateau could support 2-3 persons per square kilometer by subsisting soley on milk and meat production
from their cattle herds. Today, however, the human population is probably closer to 6 or 7 persons per
square kilometer, which means that people have to expand or diversify their food sources. We believe that
an increased emphasis on small plot production of maize is an aspect of change that has been pushed by an
increased human population. In addition, there is evidence that the cattle-keeping Boran in some areas are
trying to diversify their animal holdings to include more camels (Desta, 1999). Camels complement cattle
in that camels feed on the browse layer, while cattle are grazers. Camels can give more milk than cattle,
but camels have a slower rate of reproduction, and camel milk only yields a very poor quality butter
(Coppock, 1994). We expect that if given better access to markets, the Boran would diversify their herds to
include more sheep and goats. This trend has been observed in other cattle-dominated pastoral systems
such as Kajiado Maasailand (Evangelou, 1984). As in other increasingly crowded pastoral systems,
valuable land plots are often annexed for use by individuals and communities for cultivation and fodder
banks. This removes land from traditional common use systems, and the resulting parcelization and
fragmentation limits herd mobility and opportunistic resource use (Coppock, 1994).
Lack of food and water are commonly mentioned risks for people on the Borana Plateau. Smith
et al. (2000) found considerable local variation in the prominent risks that people face in northern Kenya
and southern Ethiopia. Lack of food and water were seen as the most common problem, however. One
interpretation of this pattern is that the human population exceeds their carrying capacity. When this
happens, lack of food and water would always be the issues of greatest concern.
Public service delivery is extremely limited. In terms of public service delivery, pastoralists have
been marginalized in both Ethiopia and Kenya. This is despite growth in pastoral populations, increased
size and numbers of settlements, and increased incidence of poverty (Moris, 1999). Large policy gaps exist
for pastoralists, although Ethiopia appears committed to bringing more services to the local level in rural
communities as a result of the new federal system (Moris, 1999).
149
Livestock marketing is risky for pastoralists. When they have ready access to viable livestock markets,
however, they use them more. Conventional wisdom suggests that pastoralists tend to avoid market
involvement, but increased population pressure may tend to force pastoralists to sell more stock to buy
grain (Coppock, 1994). Preliminary findings related to pastoral marketing systems (McPeak, 2001) show
that annualized off-take rates for livestock vary from 4 to 7% in northern Kenya from 1 to 3% in southern
Ethiopia. These rates are low in relation to the natural fluctuation of animal numbers due to births and
deaths (Desta, 1999). Pastoralists, however, tend to use markets when they have more access (McPeak,
2001). Price risk for producers and livestock traders can be high. Sharp seasonal price swings also vary
with location and livestock species (Barrett et al., 1998). Livestock prices rise when range conditions are
favorable, and quarantine measures may negatively contribute to marketing risks for pastoralists (Barrett
et al., 1998).
Some practical development implications. Coppock (1994) concluded that given population pressures,
the main way the situation could improve for people like the Boran is to develop human capital via
education and diversify the production system. He felt that investment opportunities that provided some
complementary opportunities to livestock could be important to help conserve wealth that is otherwise
periodically lost as massive livestock mortality.
Insights from more recent work are summarized by Barrett et al. (2001), and include the following
perspectives: (1) Technical interventions and policies should support, and not undermine, pastoralists’
traditional means of managing risk, namely maintaining herd mobility, allowing people to accumulate
livestock were possible, and providing opportunities for opportunistic marketing; (2) restocking of herds
from viable base sizes can be a useful thing to do—if base herds are very small, however, restocking efforts
could be wasted; (3) investment in more security could also help reduce risks associated with resource
access and hence favour some restoration of herd mobility; (4) investment in primary education is
important because it can lead to skills that enable people to augment pastoral livelihoods with salaried
incomes; (5) investment in marketing infrastructure and institutions is important, and particularly so for
populations residing in remote locations with poor market access; (6) interventions that could be
detrimental to pastoral welfare include de-stocking programs for moderate-sized herds and food aid
distribution that is non-responsive to variations in need for food among households and communities; and
(7) potential for sustainable financial institutions need to be re-evaluated once market activities and
income opportunities expand; and (8) promotion of investment in non-pastoral economic activities, to
widen the range of desirable employment and investment opportunities, could also have some favourable
results.
Synopsis of Some Preliminary Outreach Activities: Focus on Southern Ethiopia
Major objectives of the Ethiopian outreach program. Objectives include: (1) Building awareness and
capacity among local communities, development agents, and policy makers concerning pastoral risk
management; and (2) document felt needs of communities in terms of priority risk-management interventions
and identify implementation problems through action research on intervention processes. The approach
involves awareness raising and capacity building through non-degree training (cross-border workshops,
cross-border tours, training courses), information dissemination, and policy liaison efforts. We have also
embarked on a series of community-led pilot intervention projects. In this domain PARIMA serves a multipurpose role as facilitator, donor, and monitoring partner. The project structure includes an Outreach Coordinator, Outreach Field Assistant, Outreach Counterparts (such as the Oromia Agricultural Development
Bureau or OADB), pilot project implementing partners [local development agents such as Action for
Development (AFD) or Save the Children USA], and an Outreach Review Panel (ORP) consisting of 10
elected, and well-experienced African professionals from Kenya and Ethiopia.
Outreach accomplishments. Since 2000, the Outreach Program has made numerous accomplishments.
All started with a preliminary reconnaissance of northern Kenya and southern Ethiopia that revealed the
following: (1) People echoed problems of population pressure, poor marketing, lack of financial institutions,
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Production Systems
limited economic diversification, and lack of education; (2) people are becoming more outward looking as to
possible solutions to their problems; and (3) there exists a surprising degree of economic development and
diversification among certain pastoral women’s groups throughout northern Kenya. Following the
reconnaissance, a network of outreach partners was established in both Kenya and Ethiopia. The outreach
network in Ethiopia was established with the OADB as the main counterpart. Local governmental and
non-governmental organizations would serve as implementing partners.
As part of the awareness and capacity building programs PARIMA conducts workshops, non-degree
training, and tours. These are targeted at different groups of people including development agents,
pastoral communities, local government officials, and policy makers. Some of the workshops and training
have included: (1) Initial implementation strategy workshops for local development agents (held at Yabello
and Negelle) during October 2000 with a total of 60 participants; (2) three cross-border meetings focused on
information sharing and activity harmonization for pastoralists, traders, development agents, and
administrators [co-hosted by PARIMA and the Community Initiatives Facilitation and Assistance (CIFA)]
with a total of some 240 participants. These meetings have been held in Moyale (Kenya) in May 2001,
Yabello (Ethiopia) in September 2001, and Yabello again in December 2002. These meetings have served to
markedly reduce cross-border tensions and have stimulated grass-roots plans for enhanced trade (Dr. S.
Desta and Mr. C. Tadecha, personal observations); (3) training courses in participatory rural appraisal
(PRA; Lelo et al., 2000) for 65 development agents, policy makers, and students, both in southern Ethiopia
and at Njoro, Kenya; (4) some 40 development agents and local pastoralists have been trained in microfinance, small-scale business development, and project planning and proposal writing by staff of the Furra
Institute of Development Studies in 2001 (Yirgalem) and 2002 (Yabello); (5) some 15 Ethiopian pastoral
women and four development agents participated in a cross-border tour to northern Kenya in December
2001 to obtain lessons learned from successful pastoral women’s groups; (6) field tours for some 10 Oromia
policy makers to visit communities and see problems and issues first hand; and (7) five Kenyan women’s
group leaders traveled to southern Ethiopia for one month in December 2002 to mentor Ethiopians across
the Borana Plateau. The exchanges involving Ethiopian and Kenyan women have great extension value as
the Kenyan women impart considerable knowledge regarding self-help development schemes to the
Ethiopians (Desta and Coppock 2002b). We refer to this process as “peer-to-peer” learning (Mr. S. Tezera,
personal communication).
Approach for community-led pilot intervention projects. A few communities were studied using the
full PRA method (Lelo et al., 2000). This is an approach that requires investigators (researchers and a
development agent) to work hand-in-hand with community members to identify and rank priority problems
and potential, community-led solutions. The PRA results in a Community Action Plan (CAP). The CAP is
then reviewed by the ORP and suggestions for change are made. Once approved by the ORP, the CAP can
be forwarded to a donor for funding. Once funds are secured, implementation can only proceed once a local
development agent has been found that is willing and able to help the community implement the activity.
The on-going pilot projects (five in number) are focused on creation of saving and credit groups, provision of
non-formal education, micro-enterprise development (dairy sales, petty trade, etc.). The projects range
across ethnic groups (Boran, Arsi, Guji) and locations (Negelle, Yabello, and Moyale areas). The PARIMA
project has facilitated the establishment of five savings and credit groups among the Boran in Dida Hara
(total membership of 175 men and women) and two non-formal education centers among the same Boran in
Dida Hara (total enrollment of 187 children and adults). These activities have been implemented in
partnership with AFD, a local NGO. Two women’s groups have been formed among the Arsi and Boran
near the town of Negelle, and they are involved in micro-enterprise development (dairy sales) and savings
and credit schemes. The total membership is 180 women. The implementing partner is Save the Children
USA and the Liben Woreda office of OADB). Another women’s group (mainly Boran) in the Moyale area
has become involved in micro-enterprise development (petty trade) and a savings and credit scheme. The
total membership is 44 women and the implementing partner is the Moyale Woreda office of OADB.
151
It is important to note that the priority choices made by communities reflect the fact they are taking the
“long view” for problem-solving. Namely, problems of underdevelopment, in part, are viewed by the people
as due to a lack of human capital and a low capacity for self-reliance to solve new kinds of problems. The
interventions chosen are integrated. The non-formal education feeds into both the rural finance and microenterprise development components. We perceive that demand is high in the area to implement similar
approaches at the community level.
PARIMA also collaborates with implementation partners on monitoring and evaluation of pilot project
activities. This entails: (1) Baseline data collection; and (2) monitoring the implementation progress via
sample households.
Finally, dissemination of PARIMA’s research and outreach information is made through a variety of
publications. These include a newsletter called PARIMA UPDATE (in English, Kiswahili and Oromifa),
PARIMA Research Briefs, the GL-CRSP newsletter called Ruminations, and proceedings of workshops.
Summary
The PARIMA project is looking for long-term and sustainable solutions to the problems of pastoral systems
in East Africa. We believe that more attention to risk management processes will reveal viable intervention
concepts. One fundamental vision of PARIMA is to find ways to better create and conserve pastoral wealth.
We believe that one means to approach this problem is to encourage more timely sales of animals and
investment of proceeds in endeavors that enhance human capital and diversify local economies where
possible. Such strategies will only be possible if marketing channels can be improved and rural financial
services are made more accessible. Where conditions allow, we also strongly advocate efforts to promote the
mobility of pastoral herds, restore key ecological resources, and support traditional systems of land use and
social security.
Our dual reliance on top-down, survey-based research and bottom-up forms of community participation is
unconventional, but we want to maximize our efforts based on the relative strengths of each approach. We
still need to continue to improve our efforts to link with Ethiopian policy makers.
Acknowledgements
Core research for the PARIMA project has been conducted under the auspices of the Global Livestock
Collaborative Research Support Program (GL-CRSP) of the United States Agency for International
Development (USAID) within the terms of grant no. PCE-G-98-00036-00. The PARIMA project is one of
several projects managed under the auspices of the GL-CRSP in East Africa. The USAID Mission to Ethiopia
funds the outreach component of the PARIMA project. The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI)
in Addis Ababa is also a collaborator in our efforts.
References
Asfaw, T., and K. Saaristo. 1999. Risk Management Strategies of Pastoral Households: A Case Study of Guji-Oromo
Communities in Southern Ethiopia. Master’s Thesis. Dept. of Natural Resource Management and Sustainable
Agriculture, Agricultural University of Norway, Tivoli. 109 pp.
Barrett, C.B., Little, P., Bailey, D., Chabari, F., and K. Smith. 1998. How might infrastructure improvements mitigate the
risks faced by pastoralists in arid and semi-arid lands? Pages 1, 10, 12-13 in Johnson, S., (ed.) Ruminations—
Newsletter of the SR/GL-CRSP. University of California, Davis. Fall Issue. 16 pp.
Barrett, C.B., Little, P., Mcpeak, J., and G. Gebru. 2001. Highlights from current PARIMA research findings, 2000-01.
Pages 38-44 in Coppock, D.L., (ed.). Summary of Proceedings—Second Biennial Research and Outreach
Workshop for Kenya and Ethiopia: Improving Pastoral Risk Management on East African Rangelands.
Held June 24 to July 3, 2001, Egerton University, Njoro, Kenya. 156 pp.
Coppock, D.L. 1994. The Borana Plateau of Southern Ethiopia: Synthesis of Pastoral Research, Development, and
Change, 1980-91. Systems Study Number 5. International Livestock Center for Africa (ILCA), Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia. 374 pp.
152
Production Systems
Coppock, D.L., Barrett, C.B., Little, P., and A. Aboud. 1997. Improving Pastoral Risk Management on East African
Rangelands. Funding Proposal for the SR/GL-CRSP. Utah State University, Logan. 209 pp.
Desta, S. 1999. Diversification of Livestock Assets for Risk Management in the Borana Pastoral System of Southern
Ethiopia. PhD Dissertation. Dept. of Rangeland Resources, Utah State University, Logan. 189 pp.
Desta, S., and D.L. Coppock. 2002a. Cattle population dynamics in the southern Ethiopian rangelands, 1980-97. Journal
of Range Management 55: 439-451.
Desta, S., and D.L. Coppock. 2002b. Linking Ethiopian and Kenyan pastoralists and strengthening cross-border
collaboration. Pages 4-7 in Johnson, S., (ed.) Ruminations—Newsletter of the SR/GL-CRSP. University of
California, Davis. Winter Issue. 16 pp.
Evangelou, P. 1984. Livestock Development in Kenya’s Maasailand: Pastoralists Transition to a Market Economy.
Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado. 309 pp.
Lelo, F., Ayieko, J., Muhia, R., Muthoka, S., Muiruri, H., Makenzi, P., Njeremani, D., and J. Omollo. 2000. Egerton PRA
Field Handbook for Participatory Rural Appraisal Practitioners. Third Edition. The PRA Programme,
Egerton University, Njoro, Kenya. 89 pp.
Little, P.D., Smith, K., Cellarius, B., Coppock, D.L., and C. Barrett. 2001. Avoiding disaster: Diversification and risk
management among East African herders. Development and Change 32: 401-433.
McPeak, J. 2001. Pastoralists’ use of markets. GL-CRSP Research Brief 01-04-PARIMA. Global Livestock CRSP.
University of California, Davis. 2 pp.
Moris, J. 1999. Under Three Flags: The Policy Environment for Pastoralists in Ethiopia and Kenya. SR/GL-CRSP
PARIMA Technical Report No. 04/99. Utah State University, Logan. 119 pp.
Osterloh, S. 2001. Micro-finance in northern Kenya: The experience of K-REP Development Agency (KDA). GL-CRSP
Research Brief 01-09-PARIMA. Global Livestock CRSP. University of California, Davis. 4 pp.
Shibru, M. 2001. Pastoralism and Cattle Marketing: A Case Study of the Borana of Southern Ethiopia. Master’s Thesis.
Dept. of Natural Resources, Egerton University, Njoro, Kenya. 115 pp.
Smith, K., Barrett, C., and P. Box. 2000. Participatory risk mapping for targeting research and assistance: With an
example from east African pastoralists. World Development 28(11): 1945-59.
153
The declining pastoral environment, vulnerability status and adaptation
strategy
Bruke Yemane
National Pastoral Programme Coordinator, Oxfam GB, Ethiopia, Pobox 23688 code 1000, Addis Ababa, Email [email protected]
Summary
The lowlands (rangelands) of Ethiopia are found below 1500mts elevation and cover about 61-65% of the total area.
They are home for about 12% of the human and 26% of the livestock population. They also provide livelihood,
employment and investment opportunities for over 5 million people and residents of approximately 24 major towns
and cities.
They are also rich in natural resources, including flora and fauna biodiversity. Other forms of natural resources in
the area include, aquatic (rivers and lakes), minerals (metallic and non-metallic) as well as energy (solar, wind and
natural gas). Further more, the presence of cultural heritage has made the low land areas more valuable and
attractive.
How ever, there are constraints affecting the people and the resources. Major constraints are associated to socioeconomic, environment, structural and policy. Lack of policy support and little or no attention given to the
indigenous knowledge and resource management has aggravated the situation.
The compounded effect on the resources aggravated the vulnerability of the pastoral communities. These can be
explained in terms of contraction and degradation of the over all size of the pastoral territory. This is mainly due to
expansion of sedentary agriculture, large-scale agricultural projects, wild life parks and sanctuaries as well as
unwanted plant species in the traditional pastoral territories. Climatic variability coupled with disease (human and
animal) and conflict has exacerbated the situation. The constraints prevailed in the area for decades have affected
the resources and made people vulnerable to the extent of making them dependent on relief assistance.
Cognizant of the fact, the government of Ethiopia through its relevant institutions is attempting to overcome the
crises. Like wise, NGOs, operating in the area are providing relief and development assistance to alleviate the
problem. Above all, the pastoral communities for generation have developed and adapted coping strategies to
survive during disasters. The strategies practiced and adapted were based on indigenous knowledge, skill and
resource management
The strategies focused on three major phases namely:
i. Attempt to improve survival and productivity of livestock
ii. Engage in obtaining food/feed from other sources and income generating activities and;
iii. Scaling down family members and migration for survival.
The purpose of this paper is by way of highlighting the resource potential of the pastoral areas and vulnerability
status, focus more on the adaptation strategy employed pastoralists to cope up with the situation.
The resource base
The lowlands (rangelands) of Ethiopia cover about 78 million ha of land area (61%) of the country. They
cover areas below 1500 mts and are classified into arid, semi arid and sub-humid agro ecological zones (EPA,
1998).
Based on recent estimate, about 12% (5 million) of the human population composed of 29 Nilotic and
Cushitic ethnic groups are found in the lowland areas of the country. Out of the total, about 93% are
considered pastoralists and agro- pastoralists; while the rest are either hunter cultivator or pure
cultivators.
155
In terms of livestock, the rangelands carry about 28% of the cattle, 60% of the goats, 26% of the sheep and
almost all the camels representing about 26% of the livestock population of the country (NRLDS, 1995).
Lowland breeds of livestock play significant role to the national economy.
The rangelands are rich in flora and fauna biodiversity. The presence of a number of national parks and
sanctuaries in the lowland is also a clear indication for the remaining rich biodiversity in the country.
Other types of natural resources rich in the area can be manifested in the form of water (rivers, lakes and
ground water), minerals both metallic and non-metallic as well as energy in the form of solar, wind and
natural gas, which are not properly tapped. The cultural heritages, pre history and archeological findings
have made the pastoral areas more valuable.
These being the realities of the pastoral areas, the resources are being constantly affected by a number of
factors related to natural, structural, policy and demand driven socio-economic constraints. Some of the
major underlining causes include the imbalance between population growth and the ongoing shrinkage and
degradation of the rangeland resources, coupled with recurrent drought and conflict.
The resultant effect has aggravated the food insecurity situation among the pastoral communities to the
extent of threatening their livelihood, making them more dependable on relief assaitance.
There fore, the purpose of this paper is to:
Assess the degree of vulnerability situation of the pastoral communities and the resources and;
Highlight some of the major coping strategies employed by the pastoral communities.
Methodology
The methodology employed to undertake this study is primarily based on:
•
Primary data source from observation, discussion with pastoral community representatives. In
addition, questionnaire results administered in the pastoral weredas of Gewane and Tellalak (Afar
region), Filtu, Doloado and Dolby (Somali region), Yabello, Moyale (Oromia region), Jikawo (Gambela
region) between September1999 to February 2000.
•
Secondary data source from literature and relevant documents of the pastoral areas as well as
discussion with development and research personnel involved in pastoral development in Ethiopia.
Vulnerability status
At present, the pastoral community and the resources they command are vulnerable more than ever
because of the following major factors:
Contraction of the traditional pastoral territory
The rangelands of the country, which are home for the pastoral communities and estimated to cover about
78 million ha of land (EPA, 1998), are declining in size from time to time. Major reasons for the reduction in
the size of the rangeland resources include i) expansion of sedentary agriculture ii) expansion of large scale
agricultural projects iii) expansion of national parks iv) encroachment of unwanted plant species v)
emergence and expansion of agropastoralism vi) drought and vii) conflict.
Expansion of sedentary agriculture
The lower limit for sedentary agriculture and the upper limit for the rangelands are the escarpments
receiving 500-700 mm of annual rainfall. Areas found in this range are considered marginal for rain fed
agriculture. How ever, due to population pressure and over utilization of croplands in the adjacent highland
areas, the rangelands are encroached by sedentary crop cultivators. This has been the case in the pastoral
areas of Afar, Somali, and lowlands of Oromia, Southern Omo of SNNPR and Gambela regions. Even though,
there are no statistics on the total area of rangeland converted to sedentary farming, large part considered to
be prime grazing land has been under constant pressure and threat from the neighboring agriculturists. The
situation looks more serious in marginal adjacent areas bordering zones 5 and 4 of Afar, Jigjiga zone of,
Somali and Borena zone of Oromia.
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Production Systems
Expansion of large-scale agricultural projects
Constant expansion of large-scale agricultural projects has threatened the traditional pastoral territory.
Since the last 50 years, the Afar pastoralists have lost close to 60 thousand ha of dry season grazing area
along the Awash River. The kereyu pastoralists lost about 22 thousand ha for Metehara sugar state. At
present, with the advent of free market economy and water development for irrigation purpose, the situation
has become more pronounced. Specific examples could be, the Gode irrigation project in Somali region with a
potential of 27 thousand ha of irrigable land; Chinagsen, Segeg, Elbaye and Biye dams that can irrigate
1000ha. In zone 4 of Afar, additional study has been conducted to use the rivers of Ewa andAwra for
irrigation purpose. In South Omo of SNNPR large scale commercial agriculture using the Rivers of Woito and
Omo could have the same effect. The construction of Alwero dam in Gambela region with a potential of
irrigation 10 thousand ha (MOWRD, 1999) and similar study using the rivers of Bonga and Itang will have a
sizable impact on the rangeland resources.
Expansion of sedentary agriculture and large scale agricultural irrigated projects besides minimizing the
existing traditional pastoral territories can have significant impact on down stream users in areas where
dam construction is practiced. According to recent land use/cover of the pastoral regions, areas categorized
or converted to crop cultivation has shown drastic change. These include, 178,000 ha (CEDEP, 1999), in
the Afar region, 390,000 ha (Regional BOA), in Somali region1, 332,000 (Zonal DOA) in the Borena zone of
Oromia region, 58,803 ha (SNNPRS, 2000) in south Omo, 32,452 ha (Socio-Economic Study of Gambela
Region, 1996) Gambela region and38, 717ha (WARDIS, 1998) Benshangul Gumz Region. Using this crude
estimate, the total area of the rangelands that will be converted into crop agriculture could be in the range
of 1.9 million ha.
Expansion of wildlife parks and sanctuaries
Establishment and expansion of national parks and sanctuaries with out the consent and full participation
of the pastoralist communities has greatly affected the rangeland resources. After the establishment of parks
and sanctuaries, the pastoralists are not allowed to utilize the range resources for livestock even at times of
drought when there is better feed resources in the parks. The pastoralists who are the traditional owners of
the respective rangelands do not get any share or benefit from the income generated from the parks.
According to the former Ethiopian Wild life Conservation Organization (EWCO), the national parks and
sanctuaries established in the rangelands of the country is shown in table 1.
As shown in table 1 about 353,730 ha in Afar, 62,300 ha in SNNPR and 50,610 ha in Gambela with a total
of 466,640 ha of rangeland have been converted to wild life parks and sanctuaries.
Emergence and expansion of agro-pastoralism
The emergence and spread of agro-pastoralism into pure pastoral rangelands of Ethiopia was recorded
particularly in the last 100 years as people are increasingly adapted to farming (Halt, 1989) and as a
response to food insecurity (Oba, 1998). Expansion of agro-pastoralism could be partly associated with the
decline in range resources as well as decrease in per capita livestock holding and productivity.
Though, the area put under cultivation looks relatively small, the trend and impact is alarming. According
to ILCA (1984) study, there was little cultivation in Eastern Hararge until the 1940s. In the 1970s, about
10% of the area was converted to crop cultivation. Study conducted by CEDEP (1999) indicated that in both
Kebri Beyah and Tefriber (Awbere) weredas, the area converted to crop farming range between 36-38% of
the total available land. Similar survey conducted by Save the Children-UK NGO indicated similar result
in that about 32% of the rural people in the area have become agro-pastoralists.
In Borena zone, expansion of agro-pastoralism reached its peak between1993-1995 where most of the
Boran lost their livestock. Different estimates indicated that the area under cultivation ranges between 23.4% (Oba, 1998) and14% (Zonal Department of Agriculture, 2000).
In Afar region, with the assistance from the former North East Rangeland Development Unit (NERDU)
and the current crop extension package coordinated by the Regional Bureau of Agriculture over 3,700 ha of
land has been converted to crop agriculture using both rain fed and irrigation (Regional BOA, 1999).
157
Agro pastoralism is gradually expanding in the regions of Gambela and Benshangul Gumz.Estimate
indicated that in Gambela about 32,452 ha (BOA, 1999) and in particular in Jikaw, which is primarily
pastoral wereda, crop cultivation has reached about 1400 ha. Like wise, in the regions of Benshangul
Gumz and SNNPR, area taken by crop cultivation is estimated at 38,718 ha (BOA, 1999) and 58,503 ha
(2.54%) of the total area (South Omo Department of Agriculture, 2000) respectively.
Table 1. Wild life parks and sanctuaries found in the rangelands of the country.
Region
I
Afar
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
Awash National Park
Yangudirassa national Park
Alaidege Wildlife Reserve
West Awash Wildlife Reserve
Gewane Wildlife Reserve
Mille Serdo wildlife Reserve
Gewane Controlled Hunting Area
West Awash Controlled Hunting Area
Sub-total
II
Southern Nations Nationalities and Peoples Region
2.1
2.2
Omo National park
Mago National park
Sub-total
II
Gambella
3.1
Gambella National Park
Sub-total
Total
Region
Area (ha)
7560
47310
18320
17810
24390
87660
59320
91360
353,730
40680
21620
62,300
Area in ha
50610
50610
466,640 ha
Source: EWCO, 1993
In all the above cases, with the exception of irrigated agriculture, cultivation takes place either in
bottomlands, riverbanks or in areas where moisture is available. The current trend is to move into more
marginal areas and as a result crop yield is considered to be a failure.
Encroachment of unwanted plant species
Encroachment of unwanted plant species is a menace to the deterioration of the rangelands. Though the
degree may vary, the evidence can be observed in most of the pastoral areas.
In Borena, encroachment of unwanted woody plant species increased after the 1960s and worsened
following a ban on the use of fire (Oba, 1998). Coppock (1994) reported that about 15 woody plant species
are considered to be encroachers in the Borena rangeland. Estimate by ILCA (1993) put the area under
bush at about 40%; while about 10% of the remaining area to be in good condition and reserved for calves
(Oba, 1998). Among the different species, rapid expansion of Acacia drepanolobium is the most alarming.
Even though there is no accurate information on the types and area coverage of unwanted plant species,
rapid expansion of Prosopis juliflora in zones 3 and 1 of Afar region is a prime concern. Besides
aggressively claiming prime irrigable and pastureland, its use as livestock feed is almost negligible.
In the Somali region, the rapid expansion of parthenium commonly known as congress grass into the
rangelands and crop farms is also alarming. This plant species, besides reducing the size of the rangelands
has got a negative effect on the composition and consumption of milk producing a bitter taste on the milk
produced.
In South Omo of SNNPR, local sources have indicated that range areas, which once were covered with good
grassland, have been replaced with unpalatable hardy and woody species.
In all the above cases, change in vegetation composition from grass land to woody and unpalatable plant
species, has forced pastoralists to alter their livestock composition from grazing to browsing species.
Conflict over rangeland resources
Intra and enter clan conflict over the rangeland resources mainly grazing and water has contributed to a
decline and use of the resources. Conflict, not only denies resource usage but also cost human and livestock
loses as well as destruction of properties. Intra clan conflict usually stays for shorter period of time and is
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Production Systems
often solved using traditional social organization. On the contrary, inter tribal (clan) conflict between two
major pastoral communities has far greater consequences in that the resultant effect could be observed on
human lives, property and resources. To cite a typical example, the long time conflict between the Afars and
Isas on the Halidege plain of zone 3 of Afar region has precluded the use of over 75,000 ha of good grazing
area for both clans.
Though the degree and magnitude vary, conflict occurs in the pastoral areas of Somali, Borena, South Omo
and Gambela. The resultant effects of conflict is that human and livestock lives will be lost and
consequently, the use of the resources will be denied to both clans or benefit the victor at the expense of the
looser.
In all the above cases, range land resource degradation and shrinkage, has its own negative impact and
consequences in that it affects a number of resources including declining in percapita livestock holding,
increase in livestock health risk as well as reduction in percapita livestock production and productivity.
Adaptation strategy of the pastoral community
Ethiopia’s history has been closely associated with drought and famine. Crises linked to famine has been
traced as far as back 250 B.C and a total of at least 35 periods of food shortage with high human and
livestock mortality have been recorded (Patrick et al., 1992). According to Oba (1998), drought in Boran
tradition is recurrent and can be expressed in terms of failure of rains, failure of forage growth, deprivation of
livestock feed, declining in livestock production and productivity. Oba further indicated that, using Boran
oral history, drought in the area started about 1600 AD associated with the earliest famine. Similar droughts
have caused tremendous looses in the different parts of pastoral areas and at different times in the country.
How ever, the extent and effect become more pronounced in the last 4-5 decades. In response to the degree of
calamity, pastoralists have developed different coping strategies, which have been tasted for generation.
Some of the major coping strategies are highlighted here after.
Diversification of livestock
One of the coping strategies employed is diversification of livestock. The change in vegetation composition
coupled with climatic variability has forced pastoralists to spread the risk they are facing by raising different
but easily adaptable species. In Afar, patoralists in the past preferred to raise cattle, how ever, currently,
they prefer to raise camels followed by small ruminants and cattle. In Somali region, pastoralists prefer to
keep camels followed by small ruminants and cattle. In Borena, camel rearing next to cattle has become
popular. Among pastoralists of South Omo and the Nuers, cattle are still the preferred type of livestock
followed by small ruminants.
As the change in vegetation composition is inevitable, rearing of livestock species adaptable to the
situation, relatively better producing and reproducing types is eminent.
Conservation of dry season grazing reserves and use of crop by products
One adaptation mechanism to cope up with the feed and water shortages is the use of dry season grazing
reserves. This is primarily based on the resource tenure and adherence to the traditional norms and values.
During the rainy season when grazing and water is available, livestock are kept around villages or
settlements. As pasture and water is depleted and the dry period advances, livestock are taken to dry season
reserve areas. Movement to dry season areas has got its own procedures using traditional norms and
resource management. In most instances, duration of stay in dry season areas ranges from3-7 months
depending on the onset of the rains and severity of the drought. Movement to dry season areas is restricted
because of various reasons including rangeland resource shrinkage and degradation. As a result, some
pastoralists have started fencing grazing areas to conserve fodder produced in land for their own stock. This
is a common feature among the pastoralists and agro-pastoralists in Somali region.
Among agro-pastoral communities, since crop production in marginal areas is not promising, if crops do
well, the residues are fed to livestock. If crops fail, stalks of maize and sorghum are collected, conserved
and fed to livestock. According to CEDEP (1999) household survey, among the local agro pastoral
communities and the refugees in TeferiBer (Awbere), Derwenaji and Hartisheik of Jigjiga zone, Somali
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region about 83% of the maize, 78 % of the sorghum and 37 % of the barley residues is used as livestock
feed. Similarly, the results from the questionnaire survey showed that the use of crop residue and by
products as livestock feed during the dry period for milking animals has increased in almost all pastoral/
agro-pastoral areas of the country.
Minimizing watering frequency
Livestock watering frequency primarily depends on the season, type of livestock and distance from
watering points. The common practice of watering livestock in areas where watering points are far from
settlement villages is, cattle every 3 days, sheep and goats every 5-7 days and camels every 10-12 days.
Pastoralists who are residing close to permanent rivers and water points water their animals every day.
According to the questionnaire result, among pastoralists of Gewane and Tellalk, Afar region, Liben and
Moyale, Oromia region, Doloado and Doloby, Somali region watering of animals during the dry season follow
the following pattern. Watering of cattle is between 2-3 days, while small ruminants, donkeys and camels are
watered 3-5 days and 7-10 days respectively.
Attempt to increase the survival rate of livestock
Among the pastoralists of Ethiopia, the preferred types of livestock species are cattle (Nuer, Boran,
pastoralists of South Omo, Afar and Somali), small ruminants (all pastoralists) and camels (Somali, Afar and
recently the Boran). Pastoralists do all they can to ensure survival, productivity and well being of their
livestock. At times of extended dry periods or drought, household members gather branches and fruits of
indigenous trees, vines, roots, grasses, any available browse material including mineral soils to feed their
livestock. In areas where water is available, they try to increase watering frequency for their animals. Some
allow their animals to rest for some time and forage on every available feed source while traveling for long
distance.
Engagement in other types of food production and income generating activities
When the pastoarlist way of life and mode of production is endangered, one of the coping strategy
employed by pastoralists include, honey and incense collection, hunting for wild animals, gathering of wild
fruits and more engagement in cross border trade. The results from our questionnaire survey indicated that
with the exception of Nuer pastoralists the rest collect honey and incense for market. The preferred months
for collection are from May to July and from October to December.
Wild animal hunting is also common in the pastoralist area. Animals that are often hunted are gazelles,
antelopes, dik diks and heart beasts. Even though, there are no specific seasons for hunting, the dry season
is preferred because of food scarcity; Engagement in cross-border trade is common among the pastoral
communities. This is mainly because of their proximity and inter-clan relationship in the neighboring
countries.
Sale of livestock
The primary interest of a pastoral family is herd maximization for insurance and security purpose rather
than generating cash. In good years, a pastoral household residing close to towns would like to sell livestock
products such as milk and butter. In addition, male sheep and goats are sold for the purchase of cereals and
household items.
Medical care, payment of debt, taxes and social obligations are usually met from the sale of the above. In
addition, during post drought, male stocks are sold for the purchase of female breeding stock from the
adjacent highland.
In pastoral area, marketing of livestock is by enlarge a response coping strategy to climatic stress, feed and
water shortages as well as ill health situation of livestock. This being the reality, sale of livestock in
particular young and productive cattle is the most undesirable situation. If situation forces a household,
productive animals are sold to with in the clan members first. When circumstances force sale of livestock,
sale of small ruminants is the decision of the family head, while sale of cattle requires decision of the
family. Sale of cattle is in the order of cull cows (>10 yrs of age), mature males (5-10 yrs), young males (1-
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Production Systems
4yrs) and young females (1-4 yrs). In general, if the need is only limited to cash, small ruminants are sold
and if the need is greater and the stress on the animals is higher, sale of cattle is given due consideration.
Mutual support and assistance in sharing resources
There is a strong tradition and value among pastoral communities to support each other. If there is a
surplus stored grain, they share with relatives and friends in times of crises. Although there are some
restrictions on the use of specific water and grazing areas during drought, it is common among pastoralists to
support not only relatives, but also members of the clan who are in need of assistance. Traditionally, there
are strong social security networks and net works of friends, kin and descent groups who will play a key role
in resource sharing in times of crises. Resource sharing can be in kind such as transfer of milking cows as
food sharing mechanism, or transfer of milking herds between relatives and friends and sharing continues
until food security situation of the household improves. Repayment is well arranged through the traditional
organizations either in kind or labor form.
Food reduction and adaptation to new food habits
As food availability declines one way of coping with the situation is to reduce in the amount and frequency
of food consumed. In pastoral community priority is given to pregnant and lactating women. Pastoralist
household resort to cereal based diets of milk and meat as the source from livestock dwindles. At times of
crises, young people and mature men reduce their feeding frequency and amount and in extreme cases go on
fasting for ritual purpose.
If common types of food sources were not available, pastoralists would resort to new food habits. Among
the Nuer pastoralists hunting for lungfish and terrestrial turtle is common during the dry season. The
other option will be adaptation to new food including wild plants. Some of the most commonly consumed
plant species depending in the area include, quegga (Rosa abyssinica), Agam (Clarissa eduli), Qulqual
(Euphorbia condelabrum), prickly pear (Opontia vulgaris), Gurdo (Portuaca quadrifida) and Garssa (Dobra
glabra) (Desalegne Rahmeto, 1987).
Labor disposition, scaling down of family size and migration for survival
When food shortage is at its precarious stage, the pastoral household will attempt the remaining last
option for survival. These include, sale of labor, minimizing family size and migration to nearby towns in
search of food and work to generate income. During drought labor exchange is practiced among the pastoral
community. Labor is exchanged for food or compensation, where payment in the form of cash is seldom
practiced. The other coping mechanism is reduction in the number of dependent members of the family. Older
and handicapped member of the family move to near by newly married couples or relatives who can provide
food and shelter. When food shortage is critical and all other options are exhausted the only means of coping
would be to migrate to nearby towns in search of food and means of earning. Men will be forced to migrate
longer distance while women with children are staying in the village. Even though, sale of labor is uncommon
in normal years, during crises pastoralists will be forced to engage themselves in activities such as sale of fuel
wood and charcoal making which is disastrous to their environment.
Conclusion and recommendations
Conclusion
The rangeland resources were supporting the pastoral communities for centuries with out significant
impact both on the communities and the resources. How ever, in the last 4-5 decades the situation has been
different in that, the rangeland resources have been in the state of shrinkage and degradation. Major causes
include, increase in human population, encroachment of crop cultivators from adjacent highland to marginal
rain fed agriculture areas, expansion of irrigated agricultural projects and national parks, un wanted plant
species, emergence of agro-pastoralism, recurrent drought and conflict.
As a result, pastoralists may have lost about 3 million ha of their traditional pastoral territory, have
become food insecure and moreover, their livelihood is threatened to the extent of depending on relief
assistance. Cognizant of these facts, the pastoralists have developed coping strategies using traditional
knowledge and resource management. Some of the major coping strategies employed by the pastoral
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communities include, diversification of livestock, conservation of dry season grazing reserve and use of crop
byproducts, minimizing watering frequency, ensuring productivity and productivity of livestock and sale of
livestock. When the crises is aggravated, pastoralists will strengthen their mutual assistance to share
resources, reduction in food consumption and adaptation to new food habits and ultimately, if the situation
is worsened, they will scale down family size and migrate to nearby towns in search of food and income.
These being the realities of the pastoral communities and the resources, in order to improve the rangeland
resources as well as the livelihood of the pastoralist communities the following major recommendation
points should be well considered.
Recommendations
• Recognition of the pastoral production system: The government, international agencies and NGOs
should recognize the pastoral production system and support it with friendly development policies,
strategies, programmes and action oriented development interventions.
•
Full participation of the pastoral communities: The pastoralists through their representatives should
participate in all phases/stages of pastoral development interventions. This primarily includes
starting from the designing to implementation, monitoring, evaluation and through empowering
process in order to let pastoralists mind their own affairs and manage their resources as well as
ensure sustainable development.
•
Policy support for pastoral land tenure: The only resource the pastoralists are depending is the
rangeland resource. At present, the resources are declining and degraded due to man made and
natural risks. In order to avoid further degradation and improve the livelihood of the pastoralists, the
land tenure, security and communal ownership rights should be clearly supported with policy.
•
Ensure accrued benefits for the pastoral community: Improving the livelihood of the pastoral
communities through utilization of the resource potentials should be encouraged. This approach
would be viable, provided that full participation coupled with benefits is guaranteed for the
pastoralists in large-scale agricultural development, national parks and related investment sectors.
•
Support for agro-pastoralists: Expansion of agro-pastoralism is eminent and this calls for agricultural
extension support in both rain fed and irrigated areas. Formation of cooperatives and provision of
saving and credit facilities is also of paramount importance.
•
Strengthening of disaster management system: Since drought and conflict are shareholders of the
pastoral production system, minimizing their effect will have a direct impact on the livelihood of the
pastoral communities. As a result, strengthening the early warning, coping and response to disaster
using both the indigenous and modern mechanisms is a matter of priority.
•
Control of unwanted plant species: Control and elimination of plant species that are rapidly
encroaching prime rangelands and crop areas need due attention. Un wanted plant species, besides
occupying prime areas are not consumed by animals, hence contribute to land shrinkage. This
situation calls for proper research in the bio- ecology of the plants and the environment.
•
Strengthening working partnership: Close working partnership among community, government and
NGOs engaged in pastoral development is a prime concern. This approach will facilitate the
empowerment of the community and sustainable development in the pastoral areas in relatively
short period of time.
•
Ensure gender equity: Though pastoralists are marginalized, women are more marginalized in the
pastoral community and this calls for gender equity in the pastoral areas. Any pastoral development
should look for means and ways to improve the gender balance situation.
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Baro-Akobo Basin Integrated Development Master Plan Study. (1997). Final Report, Annex 2. Part 2. Natural Resources,
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Beruk Yemane and Tafesse Mesfin (1998). Traditional resource management and proposed intervention with particular
emphasis to the livestock sub-sector of the Nuer community, Jikow Wereda, Gambella Region.
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Coppock D. Layne (1994). The Borana Plateau of Southern Ethiopia. Synthesis of Pastoral Research, Development and
Change 1980-91. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
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Natural Resources in Arid, Semi-Arid and dry Sub-Humid Areas.
Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Organization (1993). Compendium of wildlife conservation information.
Gufu Oba (1998). Assessment of Indigenous Range management knowledge of the Boran pastoralists of Southern
Ethiopia. GTZ, Borana low land pastoral Development programme.
Holt. R and Duke Richards (1993). Emerging agro pastoral practices and their relevance for the viability of pastoralism.
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Kahsay Berhe, Berhanu G/Medhin, Siemen and Mohammed Salem (unpublished). Development needs of pastoral and
agro pastoral production systems in Ethiopia.
Kefyalew Abate (1997). Poverty, desertification and the impact of drought in Ethiopia.
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National Ruminant livestock development strategy (NRLDS), 1995 Draft Document.
Pastoral Oriented Development and Extension concept (PODEC) for Borana zone (1998). Proceedings and major results of
the PODEC workshop 25-30 May, Negelle.
Patrick W., Joachin Bon Braun and Yishac Yohanes (1992). Famine in Ethiopia. Policy implications of coping failure at
national and household levels. International Food Policy Research Institute. Washington D.C.
Socio-Economic study of the Gambella Region (1996). Vol. I. Gambella, 1996.
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Report. ARRA/CEDEP.
Wondwossen Assfaw and Abaye Tedla (1996). Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation measures for Ethiopian
Grassland/livestock Sector Ministry of Agriculture. PP1-17.
163
Assessment of the Livestock Production System, Available Feed Resources
and Marketing Situation in Belesa Woreda: A Case Study in Drought
Prone Areas of Amhara Region
Tessema Zewdu1, Aklilu Agidie1 and Ameha Sebsibe2
1Adet
Agricultural Research Center, P. O. Box 1084, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
2Amhara
Regional Agricultural Research Institute, P. O. Box 527, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
Abstract
Belesa is one of the drought-affected Woreda in the Amhara region so the contribution of the livestock subsector to
food security and food self-sufficiency to the local community as well as for the national GDP is highly significant.
Understanding of the natural and socio-economic situations of the farming system of the area is the first and crucial
step to develop environmentally sound and socially acceptable livestock technologies. Therefore, Adet Agricultural
Research Center conducted diagnostic survey in the farming system of Belesa Woreda in November 2001 to assess
the traditional livestock production system, to identify and prioritize livestock production constraints and to suggest
possible research, development and policy intervention in livestock production. A crop/livestock mixed farming
system is the predominant agriculture and livestock in the area are life insurance and bank assets during drought
periods. Various species of livestock are present and reared by the local community but the distribution and size of
the herd per household varies due to many factors. The development of livestock sub-sector is affected by shortage of
animal fodder and nutrition, inadequate health services and facilities, absence of good management of livestock
resources and poor livestock marketing infrastructure as well as the absence of high producting animal breeds. An
estimated total of 975378 quintals feed DM per year is available from crop residues. Grazing land and aftermath
grazing provide an estimated 1867400 and 276780 quintals of DM per year, respectively. Uncultivated and
forestlands, bush and shrub lands put together and contribute 1027845.0 quintals of DM per year. The total
consumable feed DM obtained from crop residue and different land use types is estimated as 40498665.2 quintal.
The livestock population in Belesa Woreda is estimated to be 204773.4 tropical livestock units. The existing feed
supply on a year round basis satisfies only 72.7% of the maintenance DM requirement of livestock in the Woreda.
The common livestock diseases and parasites are also identified and prioritized.
Introduction
The Amhara National Regional State has 105 Woredas, of which 48 Woredas are drought-prone. About 2.5
million people living in this drought prone Woreda is food insecure or requires food aid at least some time in
the year. It accounts about 17.3% of the region and 36% of the population, respectively. Belesa Woreda is one
of the drought-affected areas in the region.
The generation of appropriate technologies, however, demands careful, strategic, and integrated research
activity planning. Understanding of the natural, socio-economic and farming system of the area is the first
and crucial step to develop environmentally sound and socially acceptable livestock technologies (Amir and
Knipscheer, 1997; Mlay, 1986). Therefore, a diagnostic survey was conducted in the farming system of
Belesa Woreda by Adet Agricultural Research Center in November 2001 to assess the traditional livestock
production system, identify and prioritize livestock production constraints and to suggest possible research,
development and policy intervention in livestock production in the area.
The diagnostic survey was conducted in a sequential fashion and participatory approach techniques (PRA)
using the following steps.
Secondary data collection and analysis
Collection of secondary data was carried out by reviewing several reports and interviews of representatives
of the Woreda office of agriculture, Woreda administrative council, Woreda cooperative office and NGOs.
Secondary data collection and analysis was focused on land use pattern, animal production systems, available
165
feed resources, diseases and parasites, marketing situations, stakeholders and their relationships, socioeconomic status of the Woreda and trend of the drought. After analyzing the secondary data, the survey
readjusted previously designed survey checklists by incorporating new findings.
Site selection
To study the agro-ecology and physical characteristics of the area, and to select a representative site for
each agro-ecological zone, the survey identified Kola and Woinadega in Belesa Woreda. Nine representative
peasant associations (PAs) were selected. The team has observed and drived in all feeder roads and visited all
topographies and farming systems of the Woreda.
Problem prioritization and interview
Problem identification and prioritization were made in each agro-ecological zone by using pair-wise
ranking. Farmers identified and prioritized their problems logically and systematically without any
interference.
Individual and group interview
The survey identified small group of farmers; elders including women and men as well as key informants
and made discussion in order to generate basic data and cross-checked the already available information
obtained from individual interview and secondary sources.
Study Area
Belesa Woreda is located in North Gondar Administrative Zone of the Amhara National Regional State. It
is bordered by Wogera and Janamora Woredas in the North, Kemkem and Ebinat Woreda in the south,
Gonder zuria Woreda in the west and Dahina and Ziquala Woreda of Waghemra in the east (Figure 1).
Previously Belesa area was categorized in one administrative Woreda. However, in 2001 the Woreda was
subdivided in to two administrative Woredas; namely Western and Eastern Belesa. The agro-ecologies of
Belesa Woreda as a whole are Woina Dega (40-45 %), which comprises the Western Belesa part and the Kola
agro ecological zone (55%) that includes the Eastern Belasa Woreda. The total area of the Woreda is 318,259
hectares. The altitude of the Woreda ranges from 2000-1500 masl, which extends upto Tekezie basin. Guhala
for the Eastern Belesa and Arbaya for the Western Belesa are the capital of the Woredas. The population of
the Woreda is estimated to be 236,372. Of this, 96.4% are living in rural areas and the remaining 3.6% are
urban dwellers. The Woreda is characterized by erratic rainfall, late-on-set and early finish, drought, soil
erosion, poor soil fertility, shortage of arable land, crop disease and pest, and feed shortage. These and other
related production constraints have led to food insecurity in the Woreda. The Woreda has good water
potential for irrigation and several earth dams and diversions has been built but farmers don’t use properly
due to lack of awareness and absence of irrigation experts.
Topography
The Kola and Woina Dega topography is characterized by rugged and flat/plain features. The slope of the
land does not exceed 7-8 and the average slope being 3-5%, which is favorable for agricultural practice.
Topographic proportion of Belesa Woreda as a whole includes Mountain (40%) and plain/flat (55%) and
rugged (5%). The soil types of Belesa Woreda as a whole includes black (45%), red (38.5%) and Serebolla
(16.5%) (BWDOA, 2001).
Climate
The Woreda mean annual rainfall and temperature ranges from 600-900mm and 25-35oC. The local
rainfall seasonal variability happen in various parts of the Woreda and especially this problem is serious in
the Kolla zone as expressed by the farmers. It starts lately and finishes early. Its variability is disturbing the
crop physiology and crop production in general. Even, the mean annual rainfall is not sufficient to crop
production.
The effective rainy season extends from mid-June to the last August. Generally, the rainfall is erratic in
distribution and the amount and duration is not dependable for food crop production. Late onset, uneven
distribution and early cessation are some of its features. In the area early finish (in last August) occurs
every two to three years, mostly affecting tef crop. Farmers reported that now a day this occurrence
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Production Systems
becomes more frequent than in the past. As a risk aversion farmers should shift the planting time to
escape the effect of early finish of rain.
Results and Discussions
The Farming Systems
A crop/livestock mixed farming system is the predominant agriculture in Belesa Woreda. The major crops
grown are sorghum, tef, chick pea, barely, wheat, maize, field pea, finger millet and potato. Every farmer
grows all possible crops to fulfill his grain demand and to avoid risk of crop failure. In the Woreda livestock is
one of the major livelihood of the farming community. It is an integral part of crop production and used for
draught power to undertake cultivation, threshing, transportation and trampling during the final seed bed
preparation. Meat and milk productions are used for home consumption. The sale of livestock and livestock
products serve as a source of cash income to buy household needs and agricultural inputs. The Woreda is
particularly drought-affected area so that livestock are sold and serve for the purchase of grains and other
food items. Manure is also used for fuel and to fertilize homestead crops. However, the development of
livestock sub-sector as the other agricultural enterprises in the Woreda has been hindered by the absence of
high productive animal breeds, inadequate health services and facilities, shortage of animal fodder and
nutrition and absence of good management of livestock resources.
Livestock Population and their Distribution
All types of livestock species including cattle, sheep, goat, donkey, mule, horse, poultry and honey bee are
present and reared by the local community. However, the distribution of livestock species and the size of the
herd per household varies from agro-ecology to agro-ecology depending on the availability of water and
grazing lands, prevalence of diseases and parasites as well as the management of the livestock owner.
Because of the presence of plenty feed in forests, protected hills and mountain areas for dry season grazing
and fodder banks in Kolla agro-ecology, cattle and goat population is higher compared to Woina Dega agroecology. In addition, due to the presence of forests and shrubs, apiculture is predominant in Kolla agroecology compared to Woina Dega agro-ecology. Hence average livestock holding per household in Kolla agroecology is higher than Woina Dega agro-ecology.
The total livestock population in Belesa Woreda as a whole is presented in Table 1. The trend of livestock
population is increasing from 1997 to 2001. This seems unrealistic trend because of the current shortage of
feed, expansion of arable land for crop production, disease and parasite condition. But the increase in
livestock population could be due to the human population growth in rural community that each member of
the household might have each classes of animal so that the total livestock population could be increased.
However, the number of livestock species per household is very low. Among the small ruminants in Belesa
Woreda, goat contributes the larger number as compared to sheep production. The same is true for mule
compared to horse population. This is mainly associated with the availability of trees and shrubs for
browsing and the Kolla agro-ecology is purely suitable for cattle, goat and apiculture production while in
Woina Dega agro-ecology sheep is more popular.
The livestock holding per household in Belesa Woreda as a whole is indicated in Table 2. However, the
figure could vary depending on feed availability or grazing land. For instance, in Kolla agro-ecology, there
is good amount of feed from grazing lands, forest areas and protected mountain and hills. Therefore, the
number of different classes of animals per household may exceed the figure indicated in Table 2. In the
boarder of Tekeze basin, in Kolla agro-ecology of the Woreda, more number of livestock per household are
expected because of good range lands compared to other part of the Woreda and cultivation of food crops in
this area is minimum except some annual low land crops in some pocket areas.
As indicated in Table 3, farmers’ having no ox is higher than those farmers having one or above oxen. This
clearly shows that the production and productivity of food crops in the Woreda is highly affected by
shortage of draught oxen. The reason could be feed shortage, disease and parasite as well as at the time of
drought/famine, farmers usually sell their own oxen for the purchase of food grains and household items.
This is because of the fact that the other classes of animals could not be sold in good price in drought
167
periods. Therefore, unless and otherwise different mechanisms of increasing the number of draught power
(oxen) is designed in the Woreda by governmental or non-governmental organizations, the production and
productivity of crop production in particular and agriculture in general will be under question in the area
in the near future. This is a big challenge for the local farming community. On the other hand, farmers
having one and above oxen shows on increasing trend from 997 to 2001crop seasons but the reason of oxen
number increment is not well defined during the survey period.
Livestock Production and Management
Farmers in Belesa Woreda do not have fixed period of time for breeding their livestock. The breeding
system is uncontrolled and traditional. No selected bull kept for breeding of indigenous animals in the
Woreda. Mating usually occurs every where at the time of feed plenty during grazing or browsing in the field.
Cows usually show a sign of heat during the months of June and end of August up to November/December. In
these months there is no relatively feed problem in the area and the temperature is not too high and rainfall
is very low that is suitable for initiation of sexual desire by animals. This delayed and uncontrolled mating of
animals in the area makes in reducing the reproductive performance of the local animals. There is no
experience of using artificial insemination (AI) or pure/cross bred bulls for genetic improvement of
indigenious cattle in Belesa Woreda. The use AI in Belesa Woreda is impossible by now due to the
remoteness of the area and lack of good road, transportation of semen and liquid nitrogen is found to be
difficult and challenging. Rather the use of properly selected local bulls is advantageous with proper health,
feeding and other management practices.
The age at first mating of heifers and calving interval of cows ranged from 3-6 and 2-4 years, respectively
in the Woreda. The high incidence of disease and parasite coupled with inadequate veterinary support,
scarcity of feed and water during the dry season in addition to the the low genetic potential of the local
animals makes a prolonged calving interval and age at first mating of heifers in the area. These holds true
for small ruminants whose reproductive kidding or lambing rate is very low. There is no attention and
management given to small ruminants particularly goats until they reached market age. The number of
calves born per life time of a cow ranges from 4-8 calves. This is related to the poor management and
reproductive performance of the local animal. Actually in the earlier days the number of calves born was
higher but now it reduced drastically due to feed shortage, disease and parasite effects and draught.
Milk yield in Belesa Woreda ranges from 1-4 litters even though the yield varies from season to season
depending on the availability of feed and farmers management practices, from cow to cow and from
location to location. There is twice milking, morning and evening per day in the area. Milking usually
performed by male and on the absence of the male, females perform the task. This is because cows are
mostly aggressive to be handled by females during milking time and there is no clear cultural influence but
milking of cows by females is not common compared to male. As that of milk yield, lactation length differs
from location to location and individual animal in Belsesa Woreda. This is also due to feed and water
availability, disease and parasite problem and the prevalence of recurrent drought in Belesa Woreda.
Weanig age of calves starts in the early age of 6 months up to two years.
Introduction of improved livestock extension package in the Woreda is not undertaken except distributing
of Rhode Island Red poultry birds. The performance and survival of Rhode Island Red (RIR) birds in the
area was poor and low, respectively due to improper feeding, housing and high temperature of the area as
well as long distance travel of birds with out transportation facility. There is no also improved poultry feed
for the birds during transportation and for adaptation of a certain period of time. The price of genetically
improved RIR birds was high (7 birr) compared to local birds so the farmers are not willing to purchase.
The important thing before disseminating any livestock improved technology to the rural community, the
extension system should be aware of the advantage of the technology over the local and facilities that can
be prepared by the farmer himself. The market options, the management of the new technology by the
farmer and the cost and benefit as a whole. Therefore, the choice of the improved technology should be
visualized by the farmers theme selves and at the end the technology will be sustained and/or rejected
immediately. The lack of improved livestock technological package is due to poor infrastructure like road,
168
Production Systems
absence of power and water supply in the capital of Eastern and Western Belesa Woredas; Guhala and
Arbaya, respectively. Priority in feeding is given to lactating/pregnant dairy cows and draught oxen at the
time of feed scarcity. However, if feed is not a problem, all groups of animals are able to get equal chance
for feeding.
Animal Feeds and Feeding Management
Livestock Feed Distribution and Seasonality
Among the many factors that contribute to the low production and productivity of livestock in Belesa
Woreda is feed shortage. Feed is a major factor responsible for livestock production. Seasonal variations in
feed quality and quantity is the main limitation to animal production and cause fluctuation in productivity
through out the year, particularly in the dry seasons during which feed is scant and poor in nutritive value.
Relatively the feed available in Kolla agro-ecology is good compared to Woina Dega agro-ecology. The critical
feed shortage season in Belesa Woreda is from January to the end of June. This also depends on the onset of
rainfall. If rain stars early in the season (May), all the private and communal grazing lands as well as forest
and shrub areas are a good source of feed so that livestock will not face feed shortage. However, during
drought years and delayed start of rainfall, feed and water shortage is a major problem and high livestock
mortality is common.
During the rainy season (from June to September) the main source of livestock feeds are natural pasture
on private and communal grazing lands and leaves of trees and shrubs. Hay is given in addition to grazing
natural pasture for draught oxen and lactating cows during this period. From end of September to January
livestock depends on grazing on natural pasture and aftermath grazing on most food crops. From February
to May livestock are given crop residues and conserved hay. The feeding calender of Belesa Woreda is given
in Table 4.
Livestock Feed Resources
The main feed resources to livestock in Belesa Woreda are natural pasture, fallow lands, stubble grazing,
forest and shrub areas. Among the feed resources, the natural pasture consists of a wide range of grasses and
to some extent legumes and other herbaceous species. Small trees and shrubs also contribute a good source of
feed for goats and cattle during the dry season where there is no other sources of feed.
Natural Pasture and Browse Trees
There is enough grazing (communal as well as individual) land that is not utilized by food crops in Kolla
agro-ecology of Belesa Woreda. If this grazing land is properly managed, it could be a good source of good
quality feed. Forest areas (closure) mountains and hills are also good sources of natural pasture and browse
trees (indigenous) for animal feeding. Farmers usually in these areas collect the natural pasture with in the
forest and shrubs and feed as green and/or conserve for drought time and dry seasons in the area. The local
NGO, ORDA (Organization for rehabilitation and development in Amhara) is sharing a good experience of
managing very degraded lands, hill sides and mountain areas by afforestation using different perennial
plants that could serve as a source of livestock feed in the area. Farmers actively participated with ORDA in
rehabilitating degraded areas by vegetation cover and allowed taking the grasses grown free of charge as
they can. If farmers collect natural pasture at the right stages of maturity, they could solve their feed
shortage problem properly in the area.
Farmers usually practiced communal grazing together (about 10 households) by trekking their animals to
the low land areas near Tekeze basin when the first rain shower starts. This is because there is plenty
communal grazing land in the lowlands and as soon as the rain start, the annual grasses and vegetation
rejuvenate very fast and animals can easily get enough green feed. Then they stayed there from June to
end of October and bring their livestock to their residential areas to avoid critical insect/flies problem. This
procedure is locally called “Kirat”. Livestock feed on aftermath grazing and go back to the low land areas
from end of October to January. This is one of the mechanisms to escaping feed shortage problems of
livestock in Kolla agro-ecology of Belesa Woreda. The common natural pasture feed sources are Hypernia
sppecies, Cynodon dactylon and others. Among the indigenous browse/shrub species used as a source of
169
livestock feed are Gava (Ziziphur mauritina), Girar (Acacia abyssinica), Wanza (Cordia africana), Warka
(Ficur vasta), Enkoye (Ximenia americana), and Agam (Carisa edulis).
Crop By-Products
The other source of livestock feed in Belesa Woreda is crop residues and after math grazing. The
proportion of crop production is very high in Woina Dega compared to Kolla agro-ecology. The livestock in
Woina Dega agro-ecology are highly dependent on crop residues while natural pasture and browse trees are
the major feed source in Kolla agro-ecology. Among the crops grown in Belesa, tef straw contribute a good
sources of livestock feed followed by sorghum and maize stover. Other like barley, finger millet and wheat
straw can also serves as a source of feed among food cereals. Chickpea is a major pulse crop grown in Belesa
Woreda as a whole followed by field pea and other pulse crops and the residue of these pulse crops in a good
source of feed during the dry seasons of the year.
Livestock Feed Supplements
Improved cultivated forage crops and concentrates supplementation for livestock is not known in the area.
Previously when cows and oxen became weak during the critical feed shortage periods, farmers provide them
with boiled sorghum grains but drought prevalence in the area obliged the farmers to stop this practice. As
we have interviewed a number of farmers in the Woreda, even though cultivated forage crops are not
introduced so far, farmers are responding to grow cultivated forage if they get good quality and adaptable
species. Moreover, ORDA through the integrated food security project (IFSP) tried to establish nursery sites
for some forage species like Rhodes, lablab, Napier grass, cow pea, Pigeon pea and Sesbania to be used for
livestock feeding and other natural resource conservation activities. This is a good start and should be
strengthened together with the utilization of improved forage crops. In addition, identification and
characterization of indigenous natural pasture and browse species should be conducted before widely
introducing exotic forage crops in the area.
The water points like earth dam construction and river water diversion projects established by SAERAR
and other NGOS in the Woreda should benefit the farming community to grow perennial cultivated forage
crops that could be serve as a good source of livestock feed. Improved forage crops or indigenous plants that
serve for feed in catchment areas of the earth dams and irrigated areas could be easily established in an
interdisciplinary approach so as to provide maximum benefit for the farmers in the area.
Balance between Feed Availability and Requirements
The quantity of feed DM obtainable from crop residues is estimated from crop yields (MOA, 1984) using
FAO (1987) established conversion factors and it is assumed that about 10% of the crop residues would either
be wasted during utilization or used for other purposes. The quantity of feed DM obtainable from natural
pastures and other land use types is determined by multiplying the hectarage under each land use category
by their respective estimated annual DM yield per hectare (FAO, 1984 and 1987). The annual availability of
feed DM is compared with the annual requirements of the livestock population. Livestock population is
converted in to tropical livestock units (TLU) using Jahnke (1982) accepted conversion factors. The DM
requirements is calculated based on daily DM requirements of a 250 kg dual purpose tropical cattle (an
equivalent of one TLU) for maintenance. An estimated total of 975378 quintals DM per year is available from
crop residues. Considering a utilization factor of 90% (10% wastage and other uses such as household fuel
etc). The quantity that is available for actual animal consumption is estimated to be 877840.2 quintals.
Grazing land and after math grazing provide an estimated 1867400 and 276780 quintals of DM per year
respectively. Uncultivated and forestlands, bush and shrublands put together and contribute 1027845.0
quintal of dry matter per year. The total feed DM obtained from crop residue and different land use types
is estimated as 40498665.2 quintals (Tables 5 and 6). The live stock population of Belesa Woreda is
estimated to be 204773.4 tropical livestock units (TLU). The maintenance DM requirement of one TLU
(an equivalent of a bovine of 250 kg live weight) is estimated to be 3 % of the body weight or 27 quintals of
DM per year or 7.5 kg of DM per day.
170
Production Systems
This is equivalent to availability per TLU per day of 5.4 kg DM or 19.8 quintal per year. The existing feed
supply on a year round basis satisfies only 72.7 % of the maintenance DM requirement of livestock of the
Woreda. This deficit of feed supply could also coupled with low quality of crop residue, over matured and
improperly conserved natural pasture and browse leaves. Therefore, the severity of feed scarcity in Belesa
Woreda is very serious so that other means of feed development technological interventions should be
undertaken by the farming community, office of agriculture and other governmental and non governmental
organizations involved in livestock development in particular and agriculture sector in general.
Livestock Sources of Water
Stream and rivers are the major sources of water for livestock in Belesa Woreda. Shortage of water is more
common in Kolla agro-ecology area compared to Woina Dega agro-ecology. Animals travel longer distance to
watering points (5-10 kms) per day and they waste their energy there during the dry season. Animals usually
drink once per day. Leech lis also a common problem in most watering sources in Belesa Woreda. A number
of animals use the water sources commonly so that the transmission of contagious diseases and parasites are
expected in the area. There are more than 8 irrigation schemes constructed by SAERAR either from river
diversion or surface water harvesting using earth dams in Belesa Woreda. They could definitely reduce the
shortage of water and leech problem for livestock. Farmers trek their animals to the place where Bole
(mineral) water is available in the Woreda twice a year, end of August and September/October months.
Animal Health and Veterinary Services
Diseases and parasites are one of the major constraints that contributes to the low production and
productivity of indigenous animals in Belesa Woreda. The disease and parasite infection is highly damaging
the animals during drought seasons and at the time of feed shortage. Animals starved and under nutrition
are not able to tolerate the effects of diseases and parasites so that easily damaged and died during drought
periods. The prevalence of diseases and parasites usually reduce the milking yield, Caracas weight, growth
and productive and reproductive performances of animals in general and finally lead to death of animals.
Relatively high disease and parasite infestation of animals is common in Kolla agro-ecology compared to
Woina Dega agro-ecology. This seems to be due to the presence of more forest and fallow-grazing lands and
unsuitable and rugged topography in Kolla agro-ecology, which makes difficult for veterinary services and
movement of animals is also common from place to place in this areas.
Sudden disease outbreaks are prevalent in Kolla agro-ecology compared to Woina Dega agro-ecology.
However, in all Belesa Woreda areas vaccination, treatment and other veterinary services are given to the
animals by the Woreda department of veterinary unit. The veterinary service given to the local community
is not satisfactory in relation to the total number of animals in the Woreda. Availability of medicine is not
enough for all diseased animals. The shortage of medicine for livestock in the Woreda is due to lack of
transport and communication facilities. There is a shortage of manpower in veterinary profession like
technician and assistant veterinarian. Budget for perdiem, purchase of veterinary medicine and chemicals
are also limiting factors in the Woreda. The common livestock diseases and parasites in the Woreda is
presented in Table 7.
Animal Disposal and Marketing
The local price of livestock and livestok products is indicated in Table 8. Framers usually dispose their
animals through selling in the local market. The price of live animals fluctuates with on set of drought.
During drought years the price of animals is very low while during normal years the price is high. We can say
that livestock in Belesa Woreda are life insurance and bank assets. Market infrastructure is a problem in the
Woreda. Farmers usually sell their animals to local traders coming from Wagehemra and Tigray region in
Eastern Belesa Woreda. The farmers in western Belesa also sell animals to traders from Addis Zemen and
Gondar. Farmers are not usually sell cows and draught oxen unless and other wise they face a big problem in
the family. They usually sell chicken, sheep, goats and donkeys. The price of livestock in Belesa Woreda is not
encouraging for livestock producers due to poor infrastructure for transporting fattened animals to other
central markets (Table 9). Marketing of row milk is not common in Belesa Woreda except butter. Females
171
usually sell butter and chicken while males sell ruminant and other small ruminant animals. The money
obtained from livestock selling is for household use and purchase of clothes, food items and medication.
Suggested Livestock Technological Interventions in Belesa Woreda
Livestock production in Belesa Woreda is constrained by feed shortage, disease and parasites and poor
market infrastructure as well as drought. Therefore, from the diagnostic survey conducted, the following
interventions should be undertaken to improve the production and productivity of livestock in the area so
that food security and self sufficiency at household level could be achieved with in a short period of time with
the involvement of the local community.
Policy Interventions
• Proper land use planing and implementation policy should be undertaken in the Woreda so that
farmers properly utilize their land and get enough livestock feed and grazing in the Woreda.
•
Establish transportation, communication and marketing infrastructures in the Woreda and with the
other neighboring Woreda and central livestock markets.
•
Provision of credit for the purchase of draught power and other farm implements.
Development Interventions
• Establishment of enough veterinary clinics with manpower and medicines
•
Introduction and implementations of livestock technologies available in the country and abroad
•
Construction of new water resources and river diversions, and maintain and properly utilise the
already available water resources for livestock and crop production
Research interventions
• Assessment of the indigenous knowledge of the farming community about livestock production and
management
•
Survey, identification and characterization of the local species of animals with their merits and
suggest possible technological interventions and management activities
•
Survey, identification and characterization of the local feed resources and suggest their potential
management options
•
Introduction of adaptable and high yielding varieties of forage crops in to the farming community
•
On-farm evaluation of available livestock technologies in the area of feed resources, veterinary
management and production
•
Upgrade the knowledge of farmers about livestock management, productivity, feeding and others
Acknowledgement
We are grateful to the support of USAID Food Security Project and the Adet Agricultural Research Centre,
Ethiopia, for financing the research.
References
WDOA (Woreda Department of Agriculture). 2001. Belesa Woreda Department of Agriculture Annual Report for the year
1997-1993. Aduhala, Ethiopia.
Amir, P. and H.C. Knipscheer, 1997. Conducting On-Farm Animal Research: Procedures and Economic Analysis.
Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development and International Development Research Centre.
Singapore National Printers Ltd., Singapore.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 1987. Master Land use Plan, Ethiopia Range/Livestock
Consultancy Report prepared for the Government of the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. Technical Report.
AG/ETH/82/010 FAO, Rome.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 1987. Land use, production regions, and farming
systems inventory. Technical report 3 vol. 1. FAO project ETH/78/003, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia.
172
Production Systems
Jahnke, H. E. 1982. Livestock Production Systems and Livestock Development in Tropical Africa. Kieler
Wissenshaftsverlag Vauk, Kiel, FRG.
MOA (Ministry of Agriculture of Ethiopia). 1984. General Agricultural Survey. Preliminary Report 1983/84 (1976E.C.)
Vol. II. Sidamo. Planning and Programming Department, MOA, Addis Ababa.
Mlay, G.I. 1986. The use of diagnostic surveys in directing on-farm research: the experience of the smallholder dairy
farming systems project in Tanzania. In: ARNAB (African Research Network for Agricultural By-Products).
Towards Optimal Feeding of Agricultural By Products to Livestock in Africa. Proceedings of a workshop held at the
University of Alexandria, Egypt. October, 1985. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Table 1. Livestock Population in Belesa Woreda
Years
Livestock species
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
209700
232625
258055
290274
307939
Ox
48887
54231
60160
71213
78442
46978.2
Cow
70422
78121
86661
976778
99974
262375.4
Cattle
Others
Small ruminants
Mean
259718.6
90391
100273
111234
121383
129603
90556.8
171662
199428
211239
214383
218838
203110.0
Sheep
44954
49868
55319
54255
55617
51930.6
Goat
126708
140560
155920
159970
163221
149275.8
21443
23795
26398
28511
30248
26079.0
40
52
60
71
86
61.8
1290
1431
1597
1610
1700
1524.0
Equines
Horse
Mule
Donkey
20113
22312
24751
26830
28462
24493.6
Poultry
163036
180860
200662
218509
229638
198541.0
1150
1860
2232
5818
5996
3411.2
Donkey
Beehive
Honey bee (cultural beehives with bees)
Source: BWDOA (Woreda Department of Agriculture). 2001
Table 2. Livestock per household in Belesa Woreda
Class of animal
Ox
Cow
1-4
1-5
Heifer
1-4
Bull
Goat
1-2
5-8
Sheep
2-5
1
3-5
Table 3. Ox ownership in Belesa Woreda
Ownership type
No ox
Year
Unit
No
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
14886
14594
15661
14053
14471
One ox
“
12859
13755
14211
14972
15376
Two oxen
“
10570
10770
10990
12351
12850
Three oxen
“
3926
4626
4218
4574
4817
Four and above
“
2409
2601
3121
3486
3929
Table 4. Feeding calender of livestock in Belesa Woreda
Months
Feed Sources
F
Grazing on natural pasture, browsing on
trees and shrubs
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
J
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Grazing on natural pasture and aftermath
grazing
****************
Crop residues, conserved hay and browsing
on leaves of trees and shrubs
######################
173
Table 5. Estimated quantity of feed DM obtainable from crop residues in Belesa Woreda (Average of four years, 1997-2000)
Type of crops
Crop yield (Quintal)
Tef
Conversion factors
Crop residue yield
(Quintal)
133367.5
1.5
200051.3
Barley
29793.0
1.5
44697.5
Wheat
5985.2
1.5
9777.8
Finger Millet
5348.7
1.5
8023.1
47331.5
2.0
94663.0
Maize
Sorghum
163794.0
2.5
409485.0
Fababean
2717.8
1.2
3261.4
Field pea
5717.3
1.2
6860.8
Chick pea
80114.9
1.2
96137.9
Haricot bean
1542.8
1.2
1851.4
Lentil
1661.2
1.2
1993.4
Potatoes
3934.3
0.3
4721.2
Sub total
975378.8
Table 6. Estimated quantity of feed DM obtainable from different land use types in Belesa Woreda
Land use type
Area per hectare
Annual DM Production
(Quintal)
Total DM Production
(Quintal)
Grazing land
93370
20
1867400
Aftermath grazing
55356
5
276780
Bush and Shrubland
20300
12
243600
112035
7
7842450
Uncultivated and forest land
Sub total
3,172,025
Table 7. The common livestock diseases and parasites in Belesa Woreda
Livestock species
Type of disease/parasites
Cattle
Trypanosomiasis
Black leg
Lumpskin desease
Anthrax
LSD
Pastrolosis
Internal parasites
Fascioliasis
Theliosis
Ringworm/Ascaris
Streptotricosis
Menge
Ectoparasites
Tick bone disease and tick
Babesiosis
Lice
Leech
Small ruminants
Internal parasites
Pastrolosis
Anthrax
Ectoparasites
Theliosia
Poultry
Coccidiosis
Newcastle disease
Equirnes
Plasmosis
Trypanosomiasis
Anthrax
Internal parasite (Santrogile)
Remark
As an out break
As an out break
Major
Source: BWDOA (Belesa Woreda Department of Agriculture). 2001
174
Production Systems
Table 8. Local market prices of livestock and livestock products in Belesa Woreda
Livestock type
Price range (ETB)
Remark
Cattle
Ox
Cow
Bull
Heifer
Small ruminants
Sheep
Goat
Donkey
Livestock products
Goat skin
Sheep skin
Hide
Butter
400-700
400-500
300-400
300-400
80-160
40-120
150-200
7-12
17-30
20
21-30
Per liter
Source: BWDOA (Woreda Department of Agriculture). 2001 and Personal Communication with farmers
175
Variations in nutrient intake of dairy cows and feed balance in urban and
peri-urban dairy production systems in Ethiopia
Yoseph Mekasha1*, Azage Tegegne2, Alemu Yami3 and N.N. Ummuna2
1Department
of Animal Sciences, Alemaya University, P.O.Box 138, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia,
Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P.O.Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia,
2International
3Ethiopian
Agricultural Research Organization (EARO), P.O.Box 32, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia
Abstract
An on-farm monitoring study was carried out in the urban and peri-urban dairy production systems in the Addis
Ababa milk shed to assess variations in on-farm nutrient intake of dairy cows (Holstein Frisian X Zebu) and feed
balance. Ninety-seven cows, with parities above two and at the beginning of lactation, representing three production
sub-systems (intra-urban, large peri-urban and secondary town) were considered for the study. Mean basal and
supplement (P<0.001) and total (P<0.01) DM intake, mean CP intake (P<0.001) from basal, supplement and total
diet, and mean energy intake from basal (P<0.001) and supplement (P<0.01) varied among the production subsystems. Basal and supplemental dry matter, crude protein and energy intakes varied (P<0.001) among herd size
groups (i.e. small, medium and large), where medium sized farms had higher (P<0.001) supplemental dry matter,
crude protein and energy intakes, while small farms had higher (P<0.001) basal dry matter, crude protein and
energy intakes. Basal and total (P<0.001) crude protein intakes were greatest in the long rainy season. Annual dry
matter and crude protein intakes close to calculated requirements for intra-urban and secondary town, but 1.5%
lower than requirement for large peri-urban farms. Annual energy intake, however, was 36.3% lower than the
requirement for the entire production sub-systems. Thus, the level of feeding management should be improved in
order to exploit the genetic potential of crossbred dairy cows in intensively managed urban and peri-urban dairy
system.
Keywords: Basal feed, Supplement, feed balance, dairy cows, Urban/peri-urban
Introduction
Ruminant livestock are the major source of milk in tropics and sub-tropics. However, their production
potential is seriously limited due to genetic and environmental (mainly inadequate nutrient supply) factors.
Consequently, the supply of milk is lagging behind the demand of ever increasing human population. The
situation is exacerbated for urban centers where human population is growing at alarming rate. Genetic
improvement through crossbreeding of indigenous stock with exotic dairy genotypes, reputable in dairy
characteristics, has been recommended as an alternative to increase milk production under average farm
situation in many tropical countries (McDowell, 1985). Today crossbred and high-grade animals varying in
their exotic gene level are found in many agricultural institutions, cooperatives, small scale and large-scale
commercial dairy farms in urban and peri-urban areas.
Urban and peri-urban dairy production system is among the different forms of dairy production systems
prevalent in tropics and sub-tropics. It is an intensive type mainly relies on improved crossbred and highgrade animals (Yoseph et al., 2001). The increasing human population, increasing income strata,
increasing price of milk and milk products in abroad coupled with inadequate foreign reserve encouraged
establishment of this production system. However, nutrient requirement for this genotype is higher than
indigenous breeds. As the production system intensifying the type of available feed resources and nutrient
supply to support them produce and reproduce becomes a challenge to the system. Besides, tropical feed
resources have low nutritive characteristics (Nsahlai et al., 1996) and are dictated by seasonal dynamics of
rainfall (Zinash and Seyoum, 1989). In spite of these, information is meager and almost non-existent to
indicate on-farm nutrient supply and nutrient intake (utilization) of the dairy herd in such intensively
managed farms. Exploring the knowledge base on variations in nutrient supply and intake, and feed
*
Corresponding address: e-mail: [email protected]; Fax: 251-05-114008; Telephone: 251-05-111399
177
balance and the influence of production sub-system, herd size and season on it, would enable to understand
complexity of the system and assist in designing appropriate feeding system and eventually boost milk
production from improved genotypes.
Thus, the objective of this study was to investigate on-farm nutrient supply and intake and feed balance of
dairy cows in market oriented urban and peri-urban dairy production system in the Addis Ababa milk
shed.
Study site
The study was conducted on private urban and peri-urban dairy farms in and around Addis Ababa, the
capital city of Ethiopia, between December 1997 and November 1998.
Study population and sampling procedures
The urban and peri-urban dairy production system has been characterized and categorized in to seven
production sub-systems by the previous work of the International Livestock Center for Africa (ILCA) using
factorial correspondence and cluster analysis (ILCA, 1994). Accordingly, districts within and outside the city
(Addis Ababa) were clustered using data from the Addis Ababa Dairy Producers Association and the Ministry
of Agriculture. In each cluster, farmers were selected randomly using multi-stage random sampling.
Out of seven production sub-systems identified, three were considered for the present study: intra-urban,
secondary town and large peri-urban production sub-systems. A proportional and representative sample of
farms was drawn from the three production sub-systems (376 intra-urban, 36 large peri-urban and 368 in
urban areas of secondary towns with a total of 2735 dairy animals). Accordingly, 20 farms from intraurban, 6 from large peri-urban and 20 from secondary town production sub-systems were initially selected.
However, data obtained from five farms belonging to intra-urban production sub-system were dropped out
of the study leaving a total of 41 farms; out of which seventeen dairy farms were strategically selected
(from three production sub-systems) for monitoring based on genotype, parity and stage of pregnancy.
Farms owning high-grade dairy cows, with parity above two and in last trimester of pregnancy (between
months 8 and 9 of gestation) were considered for the present study. Accordingly, five farms from intraurban, six from large peri-urban and six from secondary town sub-systems met the criteria and were
included in the study. In each selected farm cows were put in the experiment after parturition. There were
a total of 97 cows in the experiment from 17 dairy farms.
Herd size
Dairy farms considered for the study from the three production sub-systems varied considerably in herd
size and/or number of cows. Therefore, selected farms were further stratified into three farm clusters based
on number of cows as described by ILRI (1996), where in clusters 1 to 3, corresponding to small, medium and
large, the number of cows was 1, 3 and 14 respectively. Thus, this study considered dairy farms owning less
than 3 cows to be small, 3 to 10 as medium and greater than 10 as large sized farms. Accordingly, there were
5, 4 and 8 farms in small, medium and large categories.
Classification of seasons
Based on meteorological data (rainfall) of the region, three conspicuous seasons were identified. These
were heavy and long rainy season (June through September), dry (October through January and May) and
short rainy season (February, March and April).
Monitoring of feed utilization was carried out once weekly at a fixed day for a period of one year. No
interference was made to alter the practice of farmers. Rather, efforts were made to monitor the existent
management system.
Feed intake: The quantity of feed offered to dairy cows in a day was weighed using a portable spring
balance and recorded every week. It was observed that dairy farmers offer concentrate after wetting it with
water or mixing it with either brewery spent grain (in case of large peri-urban farms) or atella, a
178
Production Systems
traditional brewery or traditional liquor residue (in the case of small holders). Therefore, the quantity of
feed to be mixed was weighed prior to wetting and divided by the number of dairy cows it was offered. For
some farms mixing concentrates for the whole herd in bulk, the weight of air-dry ingredients was recorded
separately before wetting. Along with this, the amount of wetted material provided to each cow or group of
cows was weighed and recorded. Wetted concentrate was sampled every month for DM determination.
There was no concentrate refusal during the monitoring period. Refusal of the roughage was collected,
weighed and recorded the next morning before feed was offered. Feed intake was summed up for a period of
one year. Total consumption of feedstuffs multiplied by nutrient concentrations facilitated estimation of
annual intake of metabolizable energy (ME) and nitrogen.
Annual feed balance was estimated using nutrient supply, body weight, milk production and nutrient
requirements of dairy cows according to Kearl (1989). The mean (±SEM) body weight of dairy cows (HF X
Zebu) was 403±11 (Intra-urban=360, Large peri-urban=404, Secondary town=428). The mean (±SEM) daily
and lactation milk yield were 8.63±0.35 (Intra-urban=5.91, Large peri-urban=8.92,Secondary town=9.96)
and 2612±135 (Intra-urban=1578, Large peri-urban=2528.6, Secondary town=3544).
Laboratory analysis
Chemical composition of the commonly used feed resources were estimated from literature (Kearl, 1982;
McDonald et al., 1988; Seyoum and Zinash, 1989; Annindo et al., 1995). However, for those feeds where
data were not available, chemical analysis was performed. In this case, representative feed materials were
sampled monthly. Upon arrival at the laboratory, part of the feed was dried overnight at 105 0C in a forced
draft oven for DM determination (AOAC, 1980). The remaining samples were dried at 60 0C to a constant
weight for chemical analysis. Samples dried in an oven at the latter temperature were ground to pass
through a 1 mm sieve pending analysis. Nitrogen content of the feed was determined using the Kjeldhal
procedure and gross energy (GE) was estimated by bomb calorimeter. Chemical composition of feeds is
presented in Table 1.
Data were analyzed using the General Linear Model (GLM) procedure of SAS (SAS, 1989). The model
considered fixed effects of production subsystem, herd size and, season with calving date used as a covariate.
Means were separated using Duncan’s multiple range test.
Results
Feed intake
Basal and supplement (P<0.01) and total DM (P<0.001) intakes differed among production sub-systems
(Table 2). Secondary town dairy farms had highest total and supplement dry matter intakes, while intraurban farms had highest basal DM intake. Basal, supplement and total crude protein intakes also varied
(P<0.001) among production sub-systems. Secondary town dairy farms had highest total and supplemental
crude protein intakes, while cows in intra-urban farms had highest crude protein intake from the basal feed.
Differences among production sub-systems in energy intake existed for basal feed (P<0.001) and supplement
(P<0.01). Total and supplemental energy intakes were highest for farms in secondary town, but basal energy
intake was highest for intra-urban farms. The mean ratio of supplement to basal feed DM intake was 0.60 to
0.40.
Total DM intake was similar among herd size groups (P>0.05), however, basal and supplemental DM
intakes differed (P<0.001) (Table 3). Cows in medium sized farms had highest supplement DM intake,
whereas those in small sized farms had highest basal DM intake. The proportion of supplement to
roughage offered was also highest in medium sized dairy farms. Crude protein intakes varied (P<0.001)
among the herd size groups for basal, supplemental and total intake. Cows in medium sized farms had
highest total and supplemental crude protein intakes. Nevertheless, crude protein intake from the basal
diet was highest for small sized dairy farms. Energy intake from the basal diet and supplement differed
(P<0.001) among the production sub-systems. Medium sized farms had greater intake of supplement and
total DM, total crude protein and supplement and total energy.
179
There were no seasonal differences (P>0.05) in feed DM or energy intakes (Table 4). However, total
(P<0.01) and basal (P<0.001) crude protein intakes varied among seasons, with basal and total intakes
being maximum in season I (long rainy season).
Feed balance
Mean annual nutrient intake, nutrient requirement and feed balance for lactating crossbred dairy cows
are presented in Table 5. Mean annual DM intake was 7% higher than the requirement for secondary town
and intra-urban farms, but 1.5% lower than the requirement for large peri-urban. Mean annual protein
intake was according to their requirement except for large peri-urban production sub-system, in which it was
1.5% lower than the requirement. However, mean annual energy intake was 36.3% less than the requirement
for the entire production sub-systems, with the largest deficit observed in large peri-urban production subsystem.
Discussion
Feed dry matter and nutrient intake
The mean feed DM intake obtained in the present study was similar to the value (9.75 kg/day) reported for
crossbred dairy cows kept on maize-Lab lab stover or oats-vetch hay diet in Debre Zeit, Ethiopia, but lower
than 10.8 kg/day reported for crossbred cows supplemented with Lab lab hay (Mpwaire, 1998). Zerbini et al.
(1996) obtained 10.6±0.4 kg/day dry matter intake for non-pregnant early lactating crossbred dairy cows and
the proportion of basal diet was 8.3 kg/day (78% of the total intake). Eventhough feed intake of high-grade
dairy cows is expected to be higher than crossbred animals data is scanty to substantiate the findings. Thus
discrepancy between the present findings and the reported values could be attributed to inadequate nutrient
supply in the former and variation in nutrient composition of the feeds considered in the latter. Low feed DM
intake in the present study could also be related to the higher proportion of supplement (60%) in the total
diet. Concomitantly, much of total crude protein and energy intakes were contributed by the supplement, in
part because of relatively high protein and energy concentrations in supplement. The use of high proportion
of supplements in these production system could possibly be attributable to the shortage and relatively high
cost of the basal diet (per kg as-fed dry matter basis) compared to concentrates and the perception of farmers
that relying heavily on concentrate supplements will boost milk production (personal communication).
Higher feed intake in secondary town farms compared to other sub-systems could have resulted from the
high ratio of supplement to roughage (0.64: 0.36) in the total diet. It has been reported that increasing the
proportion of supplements (concentrates) from 45% to 65% increased total feed intake (Istasse et al., 1986).
This implies that supplementation improves rumen fermentation through supplying fermentable organic
matter and nitrogen to rumen microorganisms and thereby increases rate of passage and further intake of
the basal diet. Nonetheless, the present study did not show any effect of increased concentrate intake on
intake from the basal diet. Secondary town production sub-system had higher concentrate intake than
intra-urban sub-system, but intake of the basal diet was lower. Major components of the basal diet of cows
in secondary town production sub-system were crop residues, which are low in crude protein and energy
compared to hay utilized in intra-urban and large peri-urban dairy farms. Thus, the practice of
supplementation with larger quantities of concentrates relative to the basal diet in the secondary town
farms may have corrected the crude protein and energy deficiencies of crop residues and thereby increased
overall crude protein and energy intakes.
High income from milk sales seems to have encouraged medium sized farms to purchase more feed
compared with small sized farms. Capital was the most limiting factor for small sized farms, where farms
rely on the use of a diverse assortment of feed resources. Both small sized and medium sized dairy farms
had limited resources to optimize feeding compared to large peri-urban dairy farms. They did not have the
luxury of being able to select the basal diet but rather used whatever was available at no or low cost
(Leng, 1991). In contrast, large peri-urban dairy farms acquired feed once yearly (hay), every quarter or
monthly (concentrates), and the quantity supplied to dairy cows more or less remained relatively constant,
except during the rainy season when green feeds were included.
180
Production Systems
The higher basal and total crude protein intakes observed in season I (long rainy season) were due to the
availability of a large quantity of green feeds offered indoors to replace or complement hay and crop
residues, which is in agreement with earlier reports (Zinash and Seyoum, 1989). However, market oriented
urban and peri-urban dairy production is a landless system except in 7% of the intra-urban and 33% of the
large peri-urban dairy farms, which complement grazing (Yoseph et al., 1999). Urban and peri-urban dairy
farms rely mainly on the use of purchased conserved feeds (hay and crop residues) and agro-industrial byproducts and purchase them once or twice a year. This is in agreement with Staal and Shapiro (1996) who
reported that urban and peri-urban dairy producers depend primarily on purchased feeds than on-farm
produce. Lack of significant variation in feed dry matter and energy intakes over time could, therefore, be
attributed to the preceding justification.
Feed balance
The lower energy intake and optimum protein intake compared to the calculated requirements might be
due to the low energy density to protein content of the supplements. The most important ingredients of the
concentrates were oilseed cakes, brewery spent grain, wheat bran and poultry waste (Yoseph et al., 1999),
which have high ratios of crude protein to energy. Oilseed cakes such as cotton seed cake for example have
41.7% CP, but 9.49 MJ/kg DM energy, while noug cake (Guizotia abyssinica), the most common oilseed cake
used throughout the production system, has 33.2% CP but only 8.28 MJ ME/kg DM (Table 1). The basal
diets, on the other hand, were composed mainly of hay and crop residues, which are deficient in both protein
(less than 7%) and energy (less than 7.5 MJ ME/Kg DM) (Siyoum and Zinash, 1989). However, mean annual
dry matter and CP intakes were different for large peri-urban production sub-system in comparison to others,
and showed deficit for both. Farms in large peri-urban production sub-system usually purchase (produce)
feeds once or twice a year with an expectation to feed the animals for the period considered. Consequently,
fixed quantities of hay and concentrate were offered daily irrespective of the production response, which is in
accordance with earlier report (Yoseph et al., 1999). This implies that level of feeding management is the
critical factor limiting milk production in large peri-urban production sub-system.
Conclusion
Nutrient intake of high-grade dairy cows and the ratio of concentrate to roughage have shown variation
among the production sub-systems and herd size groups. Cows in secondary town and medium sized dairy
farms had higher feed intake compared to cows in intra-urban farms, and CP intake through the utilization
of green feeds increased during the long rainy season. The mean annual dry matter and protein intakes of
dairy cows were in accordance to their requirements except in large peri-urban farms, which showed deficit
for CP. The mean annual energy intake was, however, in shortfall by 36.5%. It is, therefore, concluded that
dairy farms should improve feeding management through better ration formulation to ameliorate milk
production from crossbred dairy cows in urban and peri-urban dairy production system.
References
Anindo, D.O., Said, A.N., and Lahlou-Kassi, A. 1994. Chemical composition and nutritive value of feed stuffs for ruminant
livestock in Sub-Saharan Africa. P 537.
AOAC (Association of Agricultural Chemists). 1980. Official methods of Analysis, Washington, D.C., USA.
Istasse, L., Reid, G.W., Tait, C.A.G. and Orskov, E.R. 1986. Concentrates for Dairy cows: Effects of feeding method
proportion in diet and type. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 15:167-182.
Kearl, L.C. 1982. Nutrient requirements of ruminants in developing countries. International feedstuffs institute, Utah
Agricultural Experiment station, Utah state University, Logan, Utah 84322, USA.
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Leng, R.A. 1991. Feeding strategies for improving milk production of dairy animals managed by small-farmers in the
tropics. In: Speedy, A. and Sansoucy, R. (Eds.). Feeding dairy cows in the tropics: proceedings of the FAO expert
consultation held in Bangkok, Thailand. 7-11 July 1989. FAO animal production and health paper 86.
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Longman Scientific and Technical, England.
McDowell, R.E. 1985. Crossbreeding in tropical areas with emphasis on milk, health and fitness. J. Dairy Sci. 68:24182435.
Mpairwe, D.R. 1998. Integration of forage legumes with cereal crops for improved grain yield, forage production and
utilization for smallholder dairy production systems. Ph.D. Thesis. Makerere University, Uganda. Pp238.
Nsahlai, I.V., Zinash Sileshi, Seyoum Bediye and Umunna, N.N. 1996. Nutritional characteristics and strategies to
enhance utilization of tropical feeds for low resource livestock producers. ESAP Proceedings. Fourth National
Conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP). 18-19 April 1996, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
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NC,USA.
Seyoum Bediye and Zinash Sileshi. 1989. The composition of Ethiopian Feeds. Research Report No. 6. Institute of
Agricultural Research, Ethiopia.
Staal, S. J. and Shapiro, B.I., 1996. The Economic impacts of public policy on smallholder peri-urban dairy producers in
and around Addis Ababa. ESAP publication No. 2.
Yoseph Mekasha, Azage Tegegne, Alemu Yami and Umunna, N.N. 2001. Herd structure and farm evaluation of the
urban and peri-urban dairy farms in Addis Ababa milk shed. ESAP proceedings. Ninth National Conference of
Ethiopian Society of Animal production (ESAP). August 2001. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Yoseph Mekasha, Azage Tegegne, Alemu Yami and Umunna, N.N. 2000. Reproductive management and reproductive
performance of crossbred dairy cows in the Addis Ababa milk shed. ESAP proceedings. Eight National Conference of
Ethiopian Society of Animal production (ESAP). August 2000. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Yoseph Mekasha, Azage Tegegne, Alemu Yami and Umunna, N.N. 1999. Feed resources and nutritional management of
dairy herds in urban and peri-Urban dairy production systems in Ethiopia. ESAP proceedings. Seventh National
Conference of Ethiopian Society of Animal production (ESAP). 26-27 May 1999. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Zerbini, E., Wold, A.G. and Gemeda, T. 1996. Effect of dietary repletion on reproductive activity in cows after a long
anoestrous period. Animal Science.62: 217-223.
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In: IAR proceedings. Third national livestock improvement conference, 24-26 May 1989, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
182
Production Systems
Table 1. Chemical composition of the various feed types used by dairy farms in the Addis Ababa milk shed
Feed types
DM (%)
Maize, grain
Noug cake
Cotton seed cake
Linseed cake
Cotton seed
Commercial dairy ration
Molasses
Wheat bran/middling blend
Brewery spent grain
Atella (Local brewery residue)
Lentil hull
Faba beans hull
Field peas hull
Poultry litter
Hay
Wheat straw
Barley straw
Teff straw
Field pea straw
Maize stover
Green grass
Silage (maize)
Maize (green chopped)
Oats green feed
Alfalfa (Medicago sativa)
(%) of DM
Metabolizable
Crude protein (%)
Energy (MJ/kg M)
10.0*
33.2*
41.7*
26.7*
19.1*
21.4
3.5
16.4
31
21
16
10
10
30.3
5.5
2.35*
3.03*
4.4*
10.5*
3.96*
16.5*
9.0*
8.9*
10.0
18.7
12.00*
8.28*
9.49*
10.29*
5.69
11.50
12.67
11.75
13.43
13.17
10.16
11.71
11.08
10.62
11.21*
7.90*
6.10*
5.98*
6.48*
7.61*
10.46*
9.87
8.78
9.46
9.24
92.8*
92.3*
91.8*
91.3*
93.1*
90.3
74
87.7
93.9
13.2
87.9
89.6
89.5
90.1
89.6
91.0*
90.5*
91.7*
86.0*
90.4*
22.2
25.0
19.0
20.5
30.0
* = Estimated from literature (Annindo et al., 1995; Kearl, 1982; McDonald et al., 1988; Siyoum and Zinash, 1989).
Table 2. Daily dry matter and nutrient intake by crossbred dairy cows in the Addis Ababa Milk Shed by production sub-system
Production sub-systems1
Variables
Intra-urban (n=5)
Large peri-urban (n=6)
Secondary town (n=6)
Mean
SEM
Significance3
Dry matter intake (kg/day)
Basal feed
Supplement
Total
4.69a
4.69c
9.38ab
3.37b
5.45b
8.82b
3.72b
6.48a
10.20a
3.91
5.59
9.50
0.37
0.44
0.59
* **
***
**
Crude protein intake (kg/day)
Basal feed
Supplement
Total intake
0.33a
0.90c
1.23b
0.22b
1.20b
1.42a
0.18b
1.39a
1.57a
0.24
1.18
1.42
0.03
0.10
0.11
***
***
***
38.57a
42.8 b
81.37
27.65 b
52.00 a
79.65
26.40 b
57.15 a
83.55
30.66
50.96
81.62
3.04
5.27
6.29
***
**
NS
Energy intake (MJ/day)
Basal feed
Supplement
Total intake
1Production sub-systems: Intra-urban = Addis Ababa; Secondary town = Debre Zeit; Large Peri-urban = Kaliti and Sebeta
2 Within each row means followed by the same letter do not differ from each other significantly (P>0.05).
3* * * = P<0.001, * * = P<0.01
NS = Not significant
Table 3. Daily dry matter and nutrient intake by crossbred dairy cows in the Addis Ababa milk shed by herd size
Herd size1
Variables
Small (n=5)
Medium (n=4)
Large (n=8)
Mean
SEM
Significance3
Basal intake
Supplement
Total
5.01a
4.49c
9.50
3.25b
6.72a
9.97
3.52b
5.73b
9.24
3.91
5.59
9.50
0.35
0.43
0.60
* **
***
Ns
Basal intake
Supplement intake
Total intake
0.34a
0.81c
1.14c
0.15c
1.55a
1.70a
0.22b
1.23b
1.45b
0.24
1.18
1.42
0.03
0.09
0.10
***
***
***
40.12 a
41.38 c
81.50
24.35 b
60.08 a
84.47
27.94 b
51.50 b
79.45
30.66
50.96
81.62
2.94
5.21
6.30
***
***
NS
Basal intake
Supplement intake
Total intake
1Herd size: Small= Farms owning less than 3 milking cows; Medium = Farms owning between 3 and 10; Large = Farms owning above 10;
2Within each row means followed by the same letter do not differ from each other significantly (P>0.05).
3* * * = P<0.001, * * = P<0.01
183
Table 4. Daily dry matter and nutrient intake by crossbred dairy cows in the Addis Ababa milk shed by season
Seasons1
Variables
1. Long Rains
Mean
2. Dry
SEM
Significance3
3. Short Rains
Basal feed
Supplement
Total
4.00
5.87
9.87
4.02
5.53
9.55
3.42
5.22
8.64
3.91
5.59
9.50
0.39
0.47
0.60
NS
NS
NS
Basal feed
Supplement
Total
0.30a
1.25
1.55 a
0.23b
1.16
1.38b
0.16c
1.08
1.24c
0.24
1.18
1.42
0.03
0.11
0.11
***
NS
**
30.66
50.96
81.62
3.27
5.49
6.22
NS
NS
NS
Basal feed
Supplement
Total
30.20
52.71
82.92
31.21
51.33
82.55
25.89
46.60
72.50
Seasons1: 1 = Main rainy season (June – September); 2 =Dry period (October – February + May); 3 = Small rainy season (March-April)
2 Within each row means followed by the same letter do not differ from each other significantly (P>0.05).
3* * * = P<0.001, * * = P<0.01
Table 5. Annual dry matter and nutrient balance of crossbred dairy cows in the Addis Ababa milk shed
Annual nutrient intake per cow
Variables
Production sub-sys.
Intra-urban (n=5)
Secondary town (n =6)
Large peri-urban (n=6)
Mean
TDMI*
(kg)
TCPI
(kg)
TEI
(MJ)
3423
3723
3219
449
573
518
29702
30497
29078
3467
518
29794
Estimated annual nutrient
requirements per cow1
TDMI
(kg)
Balance
TCPI
(kg)
TEI
(MJ)
TDMI
(kg)
TCPI
(kg)
TEI
(MJ)
2989
3401
3270
449
544
526
36145
43630
41978
+434
+327
- 51
0
+29
-8
- 6443
-13133
-12900
3220
506
40584
+247
+12
-10825
1 Nutrient requirement was calculated based on the mean body weight, fat percentage and milk yield according to Kearl (1982).
*IDMI = Total Dry Matter Intake; TCPI = Total Crude Protein Intake; TEI = Total Energy Intake
184
Milk Production, milk composition and body weight change of crossbred
dairy cows in urban and peri-urban dairy production systems in Ethiopia
Yoseph Mekasha1*, Azage Tegegne2, Alemu Yami3 and N.N. Ummuna2
1Department
of Animal Sciences, Alemaya University, P.O.Box 138, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia,
Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P.O.Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia,
2International
3Ethiopian
Agricultural Research Organization (EARO), P.O.Box 32, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia
Abstract
Milk yield, milk composition and body weight change of crossbred dairy cows (Holstein Frisian X Zebu) were studied
in the urban and peri-urban dairy production systems in the Addis Ababa milk shed between December 1997 and
November 1998. Ninety-seven cows, with parities above two and at the beginning of lactation, representing three
production sub-systems (intra-urban, large peri-urban and secondary town) were considered for the study. Daily
milk production, milk yield in a 305-day lactation and fat corrected milk production varied (P<0.001) among subproduction systems. Dairy cows in secondary town farms had 13.4, 26.3 and 20.2% greater mean daily, 305- day and
lactation milk yield compared with intra and peri-urban farms respectively. Concentrations of milk fat and total
solids differed (P<0.001) among the production sub-systems. Lactation yield (P<0.05), lactation length (P<0.01) and
concentrations of milk fat (P<0.01), protein and total solids (P<0.001) differed among herd sizes groups. Body weight
varied (P<0.001) among production sub-systems, with cows in secondary town farms being heavier and cows in
intra-urban farms lighter. It is therefore concluded that the various environmental factors, mainly nutrition, and
genetic factors, possibly inbreeding depression, should be improved in order to improve milk production from
intensively managed urban and peri-urban dairy farms
Keywords: Milk yield, milk composition, body weight, dairy cows, Urban/Peri-urban
Introduction
Market oriented urban and peri-urban dairy production is an emerging type of dairy production system in
the tropics and sub-tropics. It is based on crossbred dairy stock, mainly Friesian X Zebu and purchased
conserved feeds (Staal and Shapiro, 1996); land is the major constraint (Abaye et al., 1989; Azage and Alemu,
1997). The increasing human population and purchasing power in urban centers, inadequate foreign reserves
and the increasing price of milk and milk products have given impetus to the flourishing of urban and periurban dairy production systems in this region. The sector contributes immensely to overall development of
the country through income and employment generation, asset accumulation and poverty alleviation. Almost
all of the fluid milk supplied to major urban centers in Ethiopia, for example, comes from urban and periurban smallholder and commercial dairy producers (Azage and Alemu, 1997).
However, as the production system intensifies, the level of management that directly influences the
performance of dairy cows becomes a challenge to the system. Low total milk output, reduced milk
production per cow and reduced reproductive performance are among the consequences of inadequate
management. An insufficient and unbalanced nutrient supply and disease intensification could be among
the major contributing factors.
The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and its partners had embarked on a study on
market oriented urban and peri-urban dairying, which developed a conceptual framework for research in
dairying that provides a common basis for characterizing and understanding the dairy system (Rey et al.,
1993). Since then, studies have been carried out with focus on disease intensification (Alec, 1998; Yilkal,
1998). However, information on productive performance of dairy cows is lacking. This study, therefore,
assessed variations in milk yield, milk composition and body weight change of crossbred dairy cows in
intensively managed urban and peri-urban dairy production systems in Ethiopia.
*
Corresponding address: e-mail: [email protected]; Fax: 251-05-114008; Telephone: 251-05-111399
185
Study site
The study was conducted on private urban and peri-urban dairy farms in and around Addis Ababa, the
capital city of Ethiopia, between December 1997 and November 1998. Addis Ababa is situated at latitude of
903’ North and 38043’ East and an altitude of 2400 meters above sea level. The average minimum and
maximum annual temperatures are 9.4 and 23.2 0C respectively. The annual mean rainfall is 1201.5 mm.
The pattern of rainfall is bimodal, in which the long and heavy rainfall is received during the months June
through September while short and small showers are received during February and March (ILCA, 1993).
Study population and sampling procedures
The urban and peri-urban dairy production system has been characterized and categorized in to seven
production sub-systems by the previous work of the International Livestock Center for Africa (ILCA) using
factorial correspondence and cluster analysis (ILCA, 1994). Accordingly, districts within and outside the city
(Addis Ababa) were clustered using data from the Addis Ababa Dairy Producers Association and the Ministry
of Agriculture. In each cluster, farmers were selected randomly using multi-stage random sampling.
Out of seven production sub-systems identified, three were considered for the present study: intra-urban,
secondary town and large peri-urban production sub-systems. A proportional and representative sample of
farms was drawn from the three production sub-systems (376 intra-urban, 36 large peri-urban and 368 in
urban areas of secondary towns with a total of 2735 dairy animals). Accordingly, 20 farms from intraurban, 6 from large peri-urban and 20 from secondary town production sub-systems were initially selected.
However, five farms from intra-urban production sub-system data were dropped out of the study leaving a
total of 41 farms; out of which seventeen dairy farms were strategically selected (from three production
sub-systems) for monitoring based on genotype, parity and stage of pregnancy. Farms owning crossbred
dairy cows, with parity above two and in last trimester of pregnancy (between months 8 and 9 of gestation)
were considered for the present study. Accordingly, five farms from intra-urban six from large peri-urban
and six from secondary town sub-systems met the criteria and were included in the study. In each selected
farms cows were put in the experiment after parturition. There was a total of 97 cows in the experiment
from 17 dairy farms.
Herd size
Dairy farms considered for the study from the three production sub-systems varied considerably in herd
size and/or number of cows. Therefore, selected farms were further stratified into three farm clusters based
on number of cows as described by ILRI (1996), where in clusters 1 to 3, corresponding to small, medium and
large, the number of cows was 1, 3 and 14 respectively. Thus, this study considered dairy farms owning less
than 3 cows to be small, 3 to 10 as medium and greater than 10 as large sized farms. Accordingly, there were
5, 4 and 8 farms in small, medium and large categories.
Milk yield: Milk yield recording commenced 7 days postpartum until the cow was dried. Milk yield of
dairy cows was determined at both AM and PM milkings on individual cows with a portable spring
balance. Daily and, 305-days milk yields, uncorrected and corrected for fat concentrations were computed.
Milk composition: Milk was sampled monthly for milk composition analysis from the bulk tank. After
thoroughly mixing, 50 ml of each morning and evening milking was placed in a labeled container with
potassium dichromate (lactab). Milk samples were kept in a portable refrigerator and transported to ILRI
Debre Zeit Research station for analysis.
Heart girth measurement: Heart girth of the cows was measured in the morning before offering feed.
Measurement was done on monthly basis using a plastic measuring band. Before measuring, dairy cows
were restrained to stand squarely on all of the four legs. The measuring band was not tightly pulled so that
folding of the skin was avoided. Body weight of the cows was estimated from the heart girth measurements
using the regression equation:
186
Production Systems
Y= -423.405235 + 4.833697X (R2=0.86; CV=10%; for weight range 200-500 kg). The equation was developed
at ILRI-Debre Zeit station using body measurements (heart girth) and actual body weight of crossbred
dairy cows (unpublished).
Laboratory and statistical analysis
Chemical analysis of milk composition was performed for milk fat using the Gerber method, for milk
protein using formaldehyde titration and, for milk total solids and ash according to O’Mahoney (1988).
Data were analyzed using the General Linear Model (GLM) procedure of SAS (SAS, 1989). The model
considered fixed effects of production subsystem, herd size and, season with calving date used as a
covariate. Means were separated using Duncan’s multiple range test.
Results
Milk yield and milk composition
The mean daily milk yields, daily whole lactation, 305-day and fat corrected varied (P<0.001) among the
production sub-systems (Table 1). Cows in secondary town farms had 15.4, 35.6, 25.3 and 24.4% greater daily,
lactation yield, 305-day and fat corrected milk yield, respectively, than the population mean. Mean yields of
fat (P<0.01), protein and total solids varied (P<0.001) among production sub-systems. The mean lactation
length was 296±67 days and ranged from 260.4 days in intra-urban farms to 358.5 days in farms in secondary
town, and the difference was significant (P<0.001). The daily milk and peak lactation yield of cows in intraurban farms was low compared to the overall mean (Table 3; Fig 1). The mean fat and total solids contents of
milk varied (P<0.001) among production sub-systems (Table 1). Cows in intra-urban dairy farms produced
milk that had higher butter fat (44.9 g/kg) than those in secondary town (36 g/kg) and large peri-urban farms
(39.4 g/kg). However, no differences (P>0.05) in protein content were observed.
Herd size did not influence (P>0.05) milk yield parameters except lactation yield (P<0.05) and length
(P<0.01) (Table 2). However, milk concentrations of fat (P<0.01), protein and total solids (P<0.001) differed
among herd size groups. Intra-urban dairy farms produced the least amount of milk throughout the
lactation period (Fig 2). Cows in the secondary town farms maintained the highest milk yield throughout
the lactation period, and peak lactation yield was also higher compared to the other production subsystems.
Body weight change
The mean body weight of dairy cows was varied (P<0.001) among production sub-systems (Table 1). Cows
in secondary town farms had higher body weight than cows in large-peri-urban and intra-urban farms. The
pattern of body weight change after calving for the study period is indicated in Figure 2. Dairy cows across all
the production sub-systems exhibited body weight loss during the first stage of lactation and regained weight
thereafter. However, dairy cows in intra-urban farms had the lowest body weight throughout the study
period and progressively lost body weight up to 5 months postpartum. Cows in secondary town and large
peri-urban farms had minimal body weight loss.
Discussion
Milk yield and milk composition
The overall mean (± SD) daily and lactation milk yields obtained in this study were higher compared to
5.0±6.06 kg and 1775±26 kg reported for crossbred dairy cows at Assela, Ethiopia (Kiwuwa et al., 1983), but
were similar to 8.7±0.3 kg and 2,609±102 kg, respectively reported for crossbred dairy cows (Sahiwal x
Friesian) under smallholder management conditions in India (Wan Hassen et al., 1989). The mean daily yield
was also comparable to the 8.33 kg reported by Mpairwe (1998) at the ILRI Debre Zeit Research Center. The
inclusion of higher proportion of concentrate in the total diet (Yosseph et al., 1999) might have contributed to
the higher milk yields in the present study. The higher milk yield obtained for cows in secondary town dairy
farms compared to the other production sub-systems could possibly be attributed to the higher nutrient
intake. The findings were in agreement with Istasse et al. (1986) who reported a higher milk yield of 2.4 kg
per day for dairy cows fed high concentrate (65% of the total diet) over the animals that received a lower
187
proportion (45%) of concentrates. Wan Hassen et al. (1989) also reported an 18% higher milk yield by raising
the level of concentrate supplement from 4 to 6 kg/day. Sutton et al. (1996) also indicated that with
increasing crude protein concentrations, milk yield increased by 4.0 kg/day at the same concentrate intake
but tended to fall at reduced concentrate intake. It has also been shown that improving the nutrition of
crossbred dairy cows through supplementation with wheat bran on maize stover-lab lab based diet increased
the daily milk yield from 8.69 to 11.89 liters (Mpairwe, 1998).
The mean lactation length across the sub-systems was shorter than the 364±4 days reported for crossbred
dairy cows in Arsi (Kiwuwa et al., 1983) and 403.8 days for crossbred dairy cows in the Selale highlands of
Ethiopia (Solomon, 1996), but comparable to the ideal lactation length of 305 days (Foley et al., 1985).
However, cows in secondary town farms had a longer lactation length of 358 days compared to the 260 days
of cows in intra-urban dairy farms, which could possibly be due to the higher nutrient intake. This
indicates that dairy cows managed under optimum feeding management have long days in milk.
Improvements in feed quality and quantity could prolong lactation length, which is in agreement with
Azage et al. (1994) who reported that supplementing Boran cows with 5 kg wheat middlings extended
lactation length by 32 days.
The overall mean fat content of the milk was low compared to the reported results for other crossbred dairy
cows (Mpairwe, 1998), which could be attributed to the higher proportion of concentrate (60%) in the total
diet (Yoseph et al., 1999). Besides, the proportion of proteinaceous materials in the concentrate portion of
the diet might be higher to depress milk fat content. It has been reported that increasing crude protein
concentration in the diet tended to decrease fat content (Sutton et al., 1996). The higher milk fat
production by cows in intra-urban dairy farms could be due to the higher fiber intake in contrast to those
in the other production sub-systems. Besides, the inclusion of certain oilseed cakes such as cotton seed cake
in the concentrate diet may have a positive effect in increasing the milk fat content. Yoseph et al. (1999)
indicated the increasing reliance on the use of cotton seed cake in the intra-urban dairy farms. The absence
of a significant difference in milk protein concentration irrespective of the proportion of concentrate in the
total diet is in accordance with Istasse et al. (1986). However, the rise in milk protein content as a
consequence of increasing crude protein concentrations in the diet was reported (Sutton et al., 1996). In
general, a depression in milk fat percent due to increased concentrate feeding is associated with an
increased supply of glycogenic precursors in the form of propionic acid or starch in the duodenum and a
decreased supply of lipo-genic precursors, namely acetic and butyric acids (Jenny et al., 1974). The
increase in milk protein content as a result of increased proportion of dietary concentrates could be
attributed to increased production of propionic acid, a glucose precursor, in the rumen. Reynolds et al.
(1988) demonstrated that 58% of the glucose produced by the liver in lactating Holstein dairy cows was
derived from propionate, implying that with the higher supply of propionate from the rumen the load on
amino acid utilization for gluconeogenesis could be reduced, allowing more amino acids to be incorporated
into milk protein.
The lactation curve for secondary town and large peri-urban dairy farms followed the normal curve of the
gamma rays as described by Mpairwe (1998). However, cows in the intra-urban dairy production subsystem had a weaker lactation curve. The low peak lactation yield in this sub-system leads to a rapid
decrease in daily milk yield thereafter and, thus, farmers terminate milking due to the low daily yield. This
could possibly associated to the lower nutrient intake in the production system. Inbreeding depression and
under-nutrition during the early young age could also be another reasons for the event. The practice of
supplementing milking cows in early lactation compared to the latter lactation phases was another
justification for maintenance of higher lactation curve in cows in secondary town and large peri-urban
dairy farms.
Body weight
The mean body weight obtained in the present study was similar with 414 kg reported for crossbred dairy
cows in Ethiopia (Mpairwe, 1998). The higher body weight observed in secondary town dairy farms might be
attributed to greater feed intake. Dairy cows in the different sub-systems lost body weight after calving at
188
Production Systems
different rates, which could be affected mainly by milk yield and nutritional status. Postpartum body weight
loss due to high lactation demand is well documented (Entwistle, 1983). Chamberlain (1989) indicated that
up to 80% of the available nutrients in the blood could be used by milk secretory cells, and this accounts for
the loss in body weight by most milk-producing cows after calving. The situation is exacerbated for dairy cows
under nutritional stress. Azage et al. (1994) obtained 15 and 24 kg body weight losses during the first two
months postpartum in supplemented and un-supplemented Boran cows (Bos indicus).
Progressive body weight loss observed for intra-urban farms relative to other sub-systems might be
resulted from the lower nutrient intake of cows in that particular production sub-system. Also, since cows
in secondary town farms produced more milk compared to the other sub-systems, greater feed intake could
have counterbalanced the energy demand for lactation. The comparatively low body weight of cows in
intra-urban farms might be associated with inadequate nutrient intake and inbreeding depression.
Inbreeding depression is the major problem in herds of closed population. This has been supported by the
work of Yoseph et al. (2000) who reported that more than 53% of farms in the intra-urban sub-system
depended on rented bull service (any bull they could find in their vicinity within a closed population),
implying the existence of risk of inbreeding depression. Azage et al. (1994) supplemented primiparous
Boran cows with 5 kg/day of wheat middlings and observed body weight loss during the first two months
postpartum for both supplemented and un-supplemented cows, but at different rates. The fact that dairy
cows were under lactation stress during the first stage of lactation could be the reason for body weight loss.
Weaver (1987) demonstrated that in early lactation, cows must mobilize body fat and protein to supply
energy and amino acids for maximum milk production, as feed intake is low during this time.
Conclusion
Urban and peri-urban dairy production is an important system buffering the large milk demand-supply
variance in Ethiopia. However, the mean milk yield, milk composition and body weight of the dairy cows
have varied among the sub-production systems. Secondary town dairy farms were superior in milk yield,
lactation persistency, and body weight compared to the rest production sub-systems. The different
environmental factors, possibly better nutrition have favored dairy cows in secondary town to produce more
milk. Contrary to this, inadequate nutrient supply and possibly genetic factors including the occurrence of
inbreeding depression might have disfavored dairy cows in urban farms to produce low milk yield and become
light compared to the other production systems. It is, therefore, concluded that both environmental and
genetic factors resulted in lower milk yield and body weight should be improved in order to ameliorate milk
production from the intensively managed urban and peri-urban dairy production system.
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Table 1. Body weight, milk yield and milk composition of crossbred dairy cows in the Addis Ababa milk shed by production sub-system
Production sub-systems1
Variables
Intra-urban
Body weight
Large peri-urban
360
404
Secondary town
428
Milk yield (kg)
. Mean daily yield
. Lactation yield
. 305-days yield
. 305 days fat yield
. 305 days protein yield
. 305 days total solids yield
. FC lactation yield
5.91
1578
1496.7
67.20
43.70
185.59
1125.90
8.92
2528.6
2377.9
93.68
68.72
282.97
1595.80
9.96
3544.1
2965.8
106.76
86.30
344.03
2055.5
. Lactation length (days)
260.4
279.9
358.5
44.9
29.2
124
39.4
28.9
119
36
29.1
116
Milk composition (g/kg)
Fat
Protein
Total solids
Mean
403
8.63
2612.0
2365.6
93.44
68.83
281.50
1652
SD
36
Significance2
***
2.3
869
734
6.38
2.34
7.92
556.00
***
***
***
**
***
***
***
296
67.8
***
39.5
29.1
119
8.7
3.2
10.8
***
NS
***
1Production sub-systems: Intra-urban = Addis Ababa; Secondary town = Debre Zeit; Large Peri-urban = Kaliti and Sebeta
2* * * = P<0.001; * * = P<0.01; NS = Not significant
Table 2. Mean body weight, milk yield and milk composition of crossbred dairy cows in the Addis Ababa dairy shed by herd size Groups
Herd size 1
Variables
Small
Body weight
Milk yield (kg)
. Mean daily yield
. Lactation yield
. 305 days yield
. FC lact. Yield
. Lact. Length (days)
Milk composition (g/kg)
Fat
Protein
Total solids
Medium
Mean
Large
368.8
425.8
399.0
403.7
6.9
1941.8
1822
2088.5
287.3
9.38
3374.45
2781.1
3239.2
371.9
8.73
2572.6
2366.8
2573.2
285.0
8.63
2612.09
2365.64
2609.8
296.0
3.70
2.94
11.72
3.93
2.86
11.56
3.95
2.91
11.88
4.22
3.04
12.39
SD
Significance2
38.7
***
2.6
1028
847
1035
67.2
NS
*
NS
NS
* *
0.92
0.32
1.08
**
***
***
1
Herd size: Small = Farms with less than 3 milking cows; Medium= Farms with 3 and 10; Large=Farms with more than 10
2
Average daily milk yield (kg
* * * = P<0.001; * * * = P<0.01; NS = Not significant
15
10
5
0
1
6
11
16
21
26
31
36
41
Months after calving
Intra-urban
Large peri-urban
Secondary town
Figure 1. Patterns of lactation curves in dairy cows in urban and peri-urban dairy production systems
191
Body weight (kg)
440
420
400
380
360
340
320
1
2
3
Intra-urban
4
5
6
Months after calving
Secondary town
7
8
9
10
Large peri-urban
Figure 2. Patterns of changes in body weight during the postpartum period in dairy cows in urban and peri-urban dairy production
systems
192
Major Animal Health Problems based on the Opinion of Pastoralists,
Agropastoralist, and Sedentary Farmers and Condition of Animal Health
Services in Shinille Zone of Somali National Regional State
Bekele Tafese 1, Eshetu Yimer 2 and A. Yohanus3
1Alemaya
University, Department of Animal Sciences, PO.Box 138, Dire Dawa
2Ethiopian
Health and Nutrition Research Institute, PO.Box 1242, Addis Ababa
3Hararghe
Catholic Secretariat, PO.Box Dire Dawa
Abstract
This study was initiated with an objective to summarize the prevalent disease of domestic animals based on the
opinion of the herd owners and to examine the condition of animal health services in Shinille. The method used to
collect information was interviews and focus group discussion.
In cattle black leg was one of the major reported cattle diseases with the morbidity and mortality of 30.7% and
21.8% respectively. Foot and mouth disease was reported with morbidity and mortality of 53.9% and 13%
respectively. Botulism was reported to be one of the most important diseases with the morbidity of 31.6% and a
mortality of 30.5%. Contagious bovine pleuro pneumonia was also reported with a morbidity of 52.9% and a
mortality of 35.7%. Other diseases of cattle reported were anthrax, pneumonia, gastrointestinal tract parasite, and
Jaundice.
Among the major diseases of camel reported by herd owners, respiratory disease complex and trypanosomiasis were
reported with 50.4 and 24.5%, and 70.5 and 42% morbidity and mortality respectively. Other diseases reported were
sarcoptic mange, gastrointestinal tract parasite, and contagious ecthyma, corynabacteriosis and tick infestations.
In the small ruminants ticks infestation and ticks borne diseases followed by mange mites identified by herd owners
as a major health problem with a morbidity and mortality of 28.7% and 11.6% and 58.4% and 38.7% respectively.
The other important diseases reported by herd owners was contagious caprine pleuro pneumonia with a morbidity of
91.4% and mortality of 47.9%. The herd owners also reported diseases and syndromes like gastrointestinal parasite,
diarrhea, jaundice and ‘Hulumbo’.
Donkeys are also one of the important livestock unit in Shinille zone. Disease ranked first and reported from all
livestock production system in the area was ‘Bocho’ a disease that results in swelling of reproductive organs and
ventral abdomen, the morbidity and mortality of this disease is 75 and 57.6% respectively. Other disease identified
and reported by the respondents includes pneumonia, jaundice and anthrax.
The epidemiology of these diseases which affects different species of domestic animals is not well studied. This
should be given due consideration together with the improvement productivity of animal. The present veterinary
infrastructure in Shinille zone can be considered as non-existing therefore; establishing an efficient, sustainable and
effective animal health service is an immediate need.
Introduction
Shinille zone is blessed with huge livestock population but prone to drought and food insecurity. Thus
faces chronic food shortage and frequent famines. In drought years there is a scarcity of forage throughout
the pastoral and agropastoral livestock production and as a result livestock number declines through massive
deaths and sales at lowest price. These results in an overall imbalance between the population of domestic
stock and available pasture as well as forage. Further, as drought hits harder, the condition becomes more
severe and the livestock are forced to undergo wild migration.
Stress due to high temperature for most part of the year coupled with chronic feed shortage and water
scarcity enhance the risk of infectious and parasitic diseases Infectious diseases are rampant and causes
huge morbidity and mortality.
193
The objectives of this paper is to summarize the prevalent diseases of domestic animals based on the
opinion of pastoralists and to recommend measures to reduce morbidity and mortality of major diseases of
animal by the regional government and NGO’s operating in the area.
Livestock management
Pastoralism (nomadism and transhumance) livestock husbandry is mainly practiced in Aysha and Afdem,
and also in most part of Denmbel and Shinille and some part of Errer (Asbuli and Idora). In Shinille,
nomadism and transhumances are part and parcel of the pure pastoralism. The Shinille nomads migrate
their entire group of animals and all members of the family in search of grazing land and water and only rely
on animal husbandry practices with no crop farming. Comparing with other types of livestock agriculture
system nomadism is the dominant type of livestock keeping in Shinille zone. In the very dry lands of Shinille,
pastoralism takes typical form of nomadism where the pastoralists and their animals follow the erratic and
unpredictable rains but they have fixed bases which mainly depend on ethnic basis. In transhumance
livestock husbandry practice the herds and part of the family are migrating, whereas the remaining part of
the family remains in their ethnic territory or their village.
Agropastoralism is the dominant type of livestock production in Denmbel, Miesso and Errer and some part
of Shinille district. This system of husbandry is practiced in the nearby highland areas of Harerghe and in
the valleys where the moisture is sufficient for crop farming. They are cultivating mainly sorghum and
maize in limited area, vegetables are also cultivated in some places.
Sedentary livestock and crop farming is mainly practiced in Errer and Miesso districts and also in part of
Shinille district specifically in valley areas. They are practicing mixed livestock farming and share most of
their traditional systems with the sedentary farming communities in the Shinille ecosystem (Doba, Jarso,
Meta, Dire Dawa and Gorugutu). They are planting mainly sorghum and maize but in Errer areas they are
also involved in fruits (orange, banana and lemon) and vegetables (tomato cabbage, potato) farming. In
addition to that, side by side they are keeping cattle, sheep, goats and few numbers of camels.
Shinille zone is characterized by shortage of water and high temperature. The water sources are
intermittent rivers and riverbeds in the large part of Shinille. Watering frequencies of livestock are largely
dependent upon the availability of water and season of the year in different husbandry practices. Scarcity
of water during dry season of normal year is one of the constraints of livestock production.
Sampling
For the survey, stratified random sampling has been chosen. There are six districts in Shinille Zone.
Population of each district was stratified into sedentary, agro -pastoralists and pastoralists groups. From
each stratum 30 households were randomly selected. This means the total sample size of each district was 90.
In cases where there were only two of the three strata in a district, the sample size was increased to 45
households. The total sample size for the Zone was 540 households.
The methods used to collect data were interviewing by trained enumerators and focused group discussion
with leaders on key issues. For the interview proper time and condition were set, question asking for
figures/numbers were given with a thick mark, which makes the analysis non-exhaustive.
The data was entered to Microsoft Excel 97 and analyzed with the same program by descriptive statistics.
Pastoral animal husbandry is the best form of utilisation of the hardly available resources in the dry land
of Somali National Regional State zones in general and in Shinille in particular. It is an effective way of
obtaining required outputs, which does not need high level of input usage. This system of movement allows
the pastoralists to utilize the available resources in cyclical manner and allows the grazing lands to rest
periodically and reduce the risk of disease outbreak. Moreover, avoids overgrazing because of the seasonal
migration and concentration of livestock in a fixed pastureland for a longer period.
194
Production Systems
Infectious and parasitic diseases are major threats to livestock production every where in the country and
in Shinille zone as well. Hereunder, a number of diseases of domestic animals have been discussed on the
basis of the opinion of respondents.
Cattle
Among the diseases listed according to the livestock owners of different production systems, pneumonia or
diseases of respiratory system attained the highest rank and the next rank was given to black leg by
pastoralists and anthrax by agropstoralists whereas FMD ranked third by respondents from both husbandry
systems. However, in sedentary farming of both Shinille and the ecosystem respondents Black leg was the
first ranked disease followed by FMD and gastrointestinal parasitism.
The occurrence of cattle diseases in Shinille zone in the last six months and their morbidity and mortality
have been presented in Table 1.
Black leg was reported from Shinille, Errer, Denmbel, Aysha, and Miesso and Afdem respondents, from
sedentary, agropastoral and pastoral husbandry practices. It is locally called ‘Wanegurate’ by sedentary
farmers. All respondents disclosed that it affects young animals up to the age of three years, and also
animals in good body condition. The major clinical symptoms mentioned were swelling of one side of the
animal, lameness, rough coat, dried muzzle, complete loss of appetite and death. The morbidity and
mortality of this disease was recorded to be 30.7% and of 21.8% respectively, on the basis of the data
generated during survey (Table 1).
Anthrax was reported from Errer, Shinille and Afdem district by three, one and eight households
respectively, from sedentary (Errer) and pastoral (Shinille and Afdem) group respondents. They disclosed
that it occurs mainly during the beginning of the rainy season and usually if not treated may lead to death
of animals. The major identification point of this disease by respondents was sudden death of animal
without typical clinical symptoms and afterwards blood oozes from all natural orifices. If an animal is died
due to anthrax in some places they bury the dead immediately.
Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) was reported from Miesso, Afdem, Errer, Denmbel and Shinille from
eighteen, eight, two, four and two households respectively. Locally this disease is known as ‘Massa’ by the
sedentary farmers and ‘Habebe’ by pastoralists. The typical identification symptoms were mouth, feet
lesion, and large volume of saliva secretions from mouth and in some case lesions on the teats and udder.
Respondents informed that it kills calves due to starvation, because the dam did not allow suckling. The
morbidity and mortality of this disease was 53.9 and 13 % respectively based on the data generated from
the survey. In eastern Ethiopia, FMD type O was reported by Abel and his colleagues in 1991. In their
report 60.5% of the cattle examined were attacked by the disease and a mortality in calves were found to
be 6%.
Botulism was reported to be one of the diseases observed by pastoralists in Denmbel and Aysha districts.
The typical clinical symptom observed were that the affected cattle became recumbent and unable to rise
again and die after some time. They call this disease as ‘Deber jebeya’. Further pastoralists said that it was
a result of licking or eating of the bone of tortoise mostly and some time bone of other animals. From 116
affected animals 112 died and only four survived from the attack. In Beletu district in Legehide area
tortoise associated clostridial toxicity were reported by Bisrat et al., (1990) and also in south Africa (Fourie,
1946)
Pneumonia was one of the disease syndromes reported in Shinille zone in all districts and production
systems. Out of 319 affected animals 276 were died. The major symptoms observed by the respondents
were coughing which is non-productive at the beginning, waterish nasal discharge which letter becomes
thick, decreased appetite, and death in most cases.
Jaundice ‘Sogudued’ (local name) was one of the diseases that occurred in Shinille zone with 43.5 and 27.8
% of morbidity and mortality. They reported that ‘sogudued’ occurs in wet and in the beginning of dry
season of the year, when animals are infested by ticks. The clinical symptoms described were dry muzzle,
yellowish mucous membrane of eye, rough hair coat, depression and red urine and they suggested that this
195
disease is associated with an increase in tick’s population. Except Meisso ‘Sogudued’ was reported from all
districts. This disease was also reported in camel and small ruminants. ‘ Sogudued’ is considered as
babesiosis by animal health workers in Shinille zone, by taking into account the clinical symptoms and
associated ticks and treatment response.
Respondents from Miesso, Shinille, Afdem and Errer reported the occurrence of ‘Bottle Jaw’, locally it is
called as ‘Silise’ and according to their opinion caused by worms in the gastrointestinal tracts. They
reported that there was accumulation of fluid in the lower Jaw. This may occurs mainly due to
Haemonchus placei infection in low land areas and due to fasciolasis in highland areas and lowland areas
where suitable snails are found (Soulsby, 1982). This may also be because of poor nutrition. In this case in
Shinille and Afdem districts it seems mainly due to haemoncosis and in Miesso and Errer it may by due to
Haemonchus or Fasciola. This needs further investigation. The morbidity and mortality were 59.1 and 30.2
% respectively. In addition to this, GIT parasites, other diseases like mange mites, ticks infestation,
diarrhoea were also reported in Shinille zone.
Table 1. Diseases of cattle occurred from beginning of September 2000 - end of February 2001, in Shinille zone and their morbidity and
mortality based on opinion of respondents
Total number of
animals
Sick
Died
Black leg
833
256
182
Anthrax
382
199
164
FMD
577
311
Botulism
367
116
Type of disease
Recovered
Morbidity
Mortality
74
30.7
21.8
24
52.1
42.9
75
236
53.9
13.0
112
4
31.6
30.5
Mange mite (Skin disease)
33
12
6
6
36.4
18.2
CBPP
70
37
25
12
52.9
35.7
Pneumonia
513
319
276
43
62.2
53.8
GIT parasite
218
86
8
78
39.5
3.7
Bottle Jaw
298
176
90
86
59.1
30.2
1291
561
359
202
43.5
27.8
229
116
89
27
50.7
38.9
10
5
1
50.0
10.0
Soguded
Diarrhoea Related
Ticks infestation and TBD
4.0
Camel
The productivity of camel is affected by a number of rampant and pathogenic diseases. These diseases
which are distributed in Shinille zone ware identified and ranked by respondents from different husbandry
systems. In all husbandry practices Respiratory Disease Complex (RDC) was ranked first, followed by
‘Bergerier’ (local name) in pastoral and agropastoral system and GIT parasite in sedentary farming and
Sarcoptic mange in Shinille ecosystem. The third rank was given for paralytic syndrome by pastoralists,
trypanosomiasis by agropastoralists and pneumonia by sedentary farmers.
The camel diseases and disease syndromes occurred in Shinille zone is presented in table 2.
Respiratory disease complex which they call it ‘Dugotto’ was reported from all districts and husbandry
practices from Shinille and its ecosystem. The morbidity and mortality of this disease based on the data
collected from the respondents were 50.4 and 24.5 % respectively. They disclosed that this disease affect
both sexes and all age groups. The major clinical symptoms observed by the respondents were nasal
discharge, which was watery at the beginning and later became mucopurullent, cough that was nonproductive at the beginning and later becomes productive, depression, abortion in some cases and death of
animals within few days. In consistent with this, Bekele (1999) reported prevalence of respiratory disease
of camel in Shinille zone.
Respondents reported liver disease ‘Bergerier’ from Afdem, Shinille and Miesso districts. Tezera (1998) first
reported the occurrence of this disease in Shinille zone. In the first two districts it was reported from
pastoral husbandry practice whereas in Miesso district from Agropastoral husbandry practice. Respondent
from these districts described the disease on the basis of the lesions observed in liver after the death of the
affected camel. They disclosed that the liver of an animal died due to ‘Bergerier’ is swollen and some times
the lung were also found to be involved. The morbidity and mortality of this disease was 66.7 and 57.7 %
196
Production Systems
respectively. From the reported 194 sick animals 168 died due to this disease from 20 households. Research
is required to elucidate the etiology and epidemiology of this disease.
Trypanosomiasis is one of the killer diseases of camel, which is transmitted by heamtophagus flies. Locally
this disease is called ‘Dukan’ or ‘Kinin’, which they said to be transmitted by ‘Adele’ flies. These are in
agreement with the report of Bekele and Tezera (1998), and Melaku and Feseha (2001). The morbidity and
mortality of trypanosomiasis was 70.5 and 42 % respectively. Respondents also disclosed that during the
end of wet season the infestation rate increases in camels and because of this they prefer to migrate to fly
free areas. ‘Adele’ flies are identified as Tabanus and there are also different types of flies like Hypobsca
and Stomoxys, which may be involved in transmission of this disease.
Table 2. Diseases of camel occurred from beginning of September 2000 - end of February 2001, in Shinille zone and their morbidity and
Type of disease
Total number of animal
Sick
Died
Recovered
Morbidity
Mortality
RDC
383
193
94
103
50.4
Trypanosomiasis
224
158
94
64
70.5
42.0
Sogudued
147
32
16
16
21.8
10.88
GIT parasite
22
12
6
6
54.5
27.3
Corynabacteriosis
30
7
0
7
23.3
131
63
29
74
48.1
22.13
38.7
38.7
Ticks infestation and TBD
24.5
0
Shimber
31
12
12
0
Sarcoptic mange
20
20
0
20
Contagious ecthyma/pox
12
5
2
3
41.7
16.7
100
0
Paralysis
129
88
63
25
68.2
48.8
Bergerier
291
194
168
26
66.7
57.7
Small ruminants
Diseases are root causes of lower productivity in small ruminants in Shinille zone. The respondents from
pastoralists, agropstoralists and sedentary production systems ranked ticks infestations and Tick Born
Disease (TBD) to be first followed by mange mites/skin disease and ‘Sogudued’ reported to be second and
third by pastoralists and agropstoralists, and FMD ranked third by sedentary farmers. In the Shinille
ecosystem the first rank was given to mange/ skin diseases, followed by diarrhoea, ticks infestation and TBD.
The diseases of small ruminants are detailed in Table 3.
‘Hulumbo’ was reported for the first time in Shinille and in this country. The major clinical symptoms
disclosed by the respondents were depressed appearance, reduced feed intake, difficulty in breathing,
discharge from the nostril and eye, sever diarrhoea and death of some of the affected animals. They also
said that this disease is associated with increment in population of ticks especially in wet season and in the
beginning of the dry season. This disease occurred in Somali and named as Nairobi sheep disease (personal
Communication, Ahemed Sheik, 2001). This disease is highly pathogenic and causes high morbidity and
mortality therefore, further study to identify the etiology of the disease is recommended. The ticks, which
are incriminated to transmit this disease, are already identified from Shinille zone.
Mange mite was reported with a morbidity rate of 58.4 % and a mortality of 38.7%. Respondents said that
once few goats are infested, the spread in the herd is very fast specially in wet season of the year. They also
noticed that the lesions are distributed throughout the skin of infected animals and transmitted by contact
to the healthy animals. Respondents further disclosed that the sheep is relatively resistant to this disease.
The clinical symptoms observed by the respondents were rubbing with standing objects and with other
healthy or sick animals, dried skin lesions, when the lesions are generalized, the animal gets off feed and
emaciated and finally dies.
Contagious Caprine Pluero Pneumonia (CCPP) and pneumonia were reported separately. CCPP, according
to the data collected during survey period caused high morbidity of 91.4 % and mortality of 47.9 %.
Respondents said that the disease is transmitted when healthy animals were in contact with sick animals
in grazing land and at watering point.
197
Table 3. Diseases of small ruminants occurred from beginning of September 2000 - end of February 2001 in Shinille zone and their
morbidity and mortality based on opinion of respondents
Type of disease
Total number of
Animals
Sick
Died
Recovered
Morbidity
Mortality
55.6
Hulumbo
491
309
273
36
62.9
Anthrax
23
8
2
6
34.8
8.7
300
134
57
77
44.7
19.0
38.7
FMD
Mange Mite
2323
1357
900
457
58.4
CCPP
455
416
218
162
91.4
47.9
Pneumonia
768
518
435
83
67.5
56.6
GIT parasite
Diarrhoea
Sogudued
TBD/Ticks infestation
26
9
1
8
34.6
3.8
4913
2332
2078
254
47.5
42.3
768
328
245
83
42.7
31.9
6745
1935
781
1157
28.7
11.6
Ticks infestation/diseases related with ticks infestation were also reported to occur with a morbidity of 28.7
% and a morality of 11.6 %. It is usually called as ‘Shilline’. In addition, they also informed that during
tick’s season the animals become anemic and listless and some of them became depressed and died.
Diarrhoea was reported, as a disease syndrome by respondents, the morbidity and mortality rate of 47.5
and 42.3 % were obtained respectively. Out of 2332 affected animals 2078 died, due to dehydration. This is
very sever problem in Shinille zone where water scarcity is one of the major problem for livestock
production. Identifying the exact etiology and factors involved in initiating diarrhoea is a potential area for
future research.
Donkey
‘Bocho’ is ranked first according to respondents from pastoralists, agropstoralists, sedentary farmers and
those in the ecosystem. It is a reproductive disease, which results in swelling of reproductive organs, and
ventral abdomen, and the suffering animal develops difficulty in urination. This disease was observed with a
morbidity of 75 % and a mortality of 57.6 % (Table 4). The disease was reported from respondents of all
husbandry practice. It will be a fertile area of research for interested animal health personals. From clinical
symptoms, may be this disease is dourine caused by Trypanosome equiperdum, which has been reported in
Ethiopia from Arsi of Oromia region. Other diseases of donkeys are listed in table 4.
Table 4. Diseases of donkey occurred from beginning of September 2000 - end of February 2001) in Shinille zone and their morbidity and
Type of disease
Swelling of Reproductive organs and
ventral abdomen
Total
number of
animals
144
Sick
Died
Recovered
108
83
25
Jaundice
11
8
7
1
Anthrax
12
12
12
0
Morbidity
75.0
72.7
100
Mortality
57.6
63.6
100
Remark
CFR
76.9
87.5
100
Animal health services
The epidemiology of these diseases which affects different species of domestic animals is not well studied
in the Shinille zone and in the Somali regional state. In all the cases there is poor extension service regarding
preventive aspect of infectious and parasitic disease. The price of drug is unaffordable by nomads and the
availability is also limited. The veterinary infrastructures are underdeveloped or non-existent at all. Animal
health services are hardly available in Shinille zone; there are only four veterinary clinics out of which only
one may remain to be functional in the near future. These veterinary clinics are located in Shinille, Arabi,
Hadigala and Asbuli. At the moment, none-of these clinics are functional (Personal Communication, 2001),
these veterinary clinics were constructed without appropriate need assessment studies. Moreover, theses
clinics are not equipped with the necessary facilities and human element. Only for Shinille clinic one
veterinary assistant was assigned and because of shortage of clinical equipment’s and medicine, proper
service to the nearby livestock owners have not been commenced.
The current man power status at Shinille zone is far below the standard required. The only available staffs
are two Animal Health Technicians (AHT) and two animal health assistants. These low-level staffs are
assigned to manage and co-ordinate the activity of veterinary service with out any facilities. There are 12
198
Production Systems
AHT and one animal health assistant in Shinille, 18 AHT in Errer, 6 AHT in Aysha, 8 AHT in Afdem, 12
AHT in Miesso and one AHT in Denmbel. They have been assigned to run vaccination and preliminary
animal health care, and all of them are not provided with clinical materials and medicines. From this
existing structure one can deduce that Shinille zone livestock owners are not provided even with minimum
animal health care. There are veterinary clinics and SERP development centres in the rest of the zones but
in Shinille zone it is only Shinille and Hadehagale where veterinary clinics were shown but both of them
are non-functional. In the rest of the Somali region, development centres are found in most of the districts
and through these centres veterinary services are given to stockowners.
Out of the 72 agropstoralists interviewed only 4% said that they are getting regular animal health service.
Whereas 96% said, that they are not getting regular animal health services but once in a while their herd
is visited by vaccinators, and this was about three years back. 90% of agropastoralists respondents
disclosed that their animals were vaccinated before four years. Out of 258 respondents from pastoral areas
94% disclosed that they are not getting regular animals health services. Even annual vaccinations were
carried before one, two, three and more than three years, as disclosed by 2, 35, 8, and 55 % of the
respondents. In the sedentary farming areas only six percent of the respondent mentioned the presence of
regular health services. Concerning facilities of animal health except in sedentary husbandry system
where they have mentioned the presence of one crush and one health post, in pastoral and agropastoral
areas none of the respondents reported the presence of animal health service in their vicinity. In the
sedentary farming 40% the respondents disclosed that their animals were vaccinated for different disease
in this year. The rest said their animals were vaccinated two to three years ago.
From these it can be deduced that the Shinille pastoralist, agropastoralist and sedentary farmers have not
been provided with minimum animal health care, this is may be one of the reason for huge morbidity and
mortality of their herd and for decrease in livestock population.
The partner in animal health care in Shinille zone and its ecosystem are Ministry of Agriculture (MOA)
and Harerhge Catholic Secretariat (HCS). The respondents said that the service is irregular and limited to
vaccination and preliminary animal health care. The respondents from pastoral and agropastoral
husbandry system suggested that in the future the service have to be mobile based on their seasonal
movement pattern. Some of the respondents suggested stationed clinics and health posts in the central
area based on the choice of the society and others suggested training of paravets from their ethnic group
that can serve them in their village. The sedentary respondents from Shinille and its ecosystem prefer
stationed animal health services in their vicinity. In all the production system 90% of the respondents
suggested that if regular animal health is provided they are ready to pay for vaccination and treatment.
Recommendations
For planing of livestock improvement strategies, the knowledge of existing production system,
infrastructure, ecological condition, feed resources, health situation and livestock husbandry skill are
prerequisites. Therefore, to understand the livestock production problems and in order to design cost effective
intervention, livestock health and productivity monitoring study is recommended.
The present veterinary infrastructure in Shinille zone can be considered as non-existing; therefore,
establishing an efficient, sustainable and effective animal health service is immediate need. For effective
improvements of livestock productivity, disease free or minimal disease risk environment is needed.
Without cheap, effective and timely disease prevention and control any livestock improvement program
will not be successful. Therefore, to ensure food security where livestock is playing major role in the
livelihood of the pastoral and agropastoral systems, it is essential to strengthen the veterinary
infrastructure. These may include: Sustainable drug supply is highly essential for effective animal health service. Establishing revolving fund
in order to facilitate efficient drug supply is of paramount importance. To date the quantities of drug
supplied by MOA and HCS is by far lower than the quantity demanded. The method of revolving fund may
assists the problem of scarcity of drug supply.
199
In Shinille veterinary professionals are not present, only few animal health technician’s and assistants are
available. Though, it is very difficult to fill this gape in short period of time, but to overcome this deficiency
a mobile veterinary service is recommended for the areas having pastoral and agropastoral husbandry
practices. The implementation of community based animal health services using paravets or community
animal health assistants who will be expected to play a pivotal role in improving health of livestock can be
viable proposition, but the training should be restricted to primary animal health care and vaccination.
In an attempt to upgrade knowledge of livestock diseases and productivity, it is recommended to arrange
an in-service training for animal health staff at all level in Shinille.
In order to reconcile the strengthening of veterinary infrastructure with subsistence need and other needs
of herdsmen of Shinille, traditional knowledge, on disease prevention practices, socio-economic conditions
and other aspects of the society at large need to be given due attention. In short, the strengthening of
animal health services should support prominence of participatory approach in an attempt to improve
rural life.
References
Abel Mersi, Bekele Tafesse, Fikadu Getahun and Wogene Teklu., 1994. Losses from foot and mouth disease in mixed
farming area of eastern Ethiopia, Tropical Animal Health and Production, 24(3), 143-145
Bekele T., 1999. Studies on the respiratory disease ‘Sonbobe’ in camels in the eastern lowlands of Ethiopia, Tropical
Animal Health and Production, 31(6), 333-345
Bekele T, and Tezera G., 1998. Preliminary observation on camel types and major parasitic disease of camel in the
eastern lowlands of Ethiopia, Proceeding of the Ethiopian Society of Animal production, 14-15 May 1998, Addis
Ababa, PP: 201-207
Bisrat Mengistu, Tafesse Mesfin, Berehe G. Egizabher and Clare Luz Duarte, 1990. Cattle poisoning and mortality
associated with tortoise clostridial toxicity in the Beletu district of Ethiopia, Tropical Animal Health and
Production, 22, 195-196
Fourie, J. M., 1946. Associated bovine botulism in southern Africa with the consumption of dead tortoise, Journal of the
South African Veterinary Medical Association, 17, 85-87
Soulsby E.J.L., 1982. Helminths, Arthropods and Protozoa of Domesticated Animals, Seventh Edition, Lea and Febiger,
Philadelphia, PP: 231-255
Melaku Tefera and Feseha Gebreab, 2001. A study on the productivity and diseases of camels in eastern Ethiopia.
Tropical Animal Health and Production, 33(4), 265-274
Tezera Getahun, 1998. Characterisation of camel husbandry practices and camel milk and meat utilisation in Jijiga and
Shinille Zones, Somali Region, MSc thesis, Alemaya University, PP: 122.
200
Traditional processing of camel meat and milk, and marketing of camels,
milk and hides in After Zone of Somali National Regional State, Ethiopia
Ahmed. Sh Mohamed1, B.P Hegde2 and Bekele Tafesse2
1Somali
National Regional State, PO. Box 241, Jijiga
University, PO. Box 138, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia
2Alemaya
Abstract
This study was initiated with the objectives of generating base line data in the area of traditional meat and milk
processing, marketing of camel and its products. The study was under taken in the five purposively selected
Weredas of Afder Zone.
Sampling methods used was stratified random sampling technique wherein for each
Woreda five small (10-20 camels) medium (21-50 camels) and large (< 50 camels) herders were considered.
‘Olobe’ and ‘Darreein’ are the two types of traditionally processed meat in Afder. These products are prepared to
extend the use of meat for longer time especially for dry season and for cultural reasons. Of the two types ‘Olobe’ is
available in urban market. These products are also prepared during crises when large numbers of animals are
dying. 85, 69 and 52 percent of the small, medium and large herd size camel owners respectively reported their
preference for fresh cooked meat.
Smoking of camel milk container is practiced to improve the taste and the quality of milk. Souring of milk is
practiced at any time when surplus milk is available. The mean maximum shelf life of soured milk under pastoral
practice is 6.1, 5.8 and 6.7 days respectively as opinioned by small, medium and large herd size camel owners
respectively.
Livestock marketing infrastructure are not well organized in Afder. The major market outlet is Kenya and Somali
and locally Doll-ado, Hargelle and Jerati. The mean number of camels sold were 2.1, 2.5 and 3.5 for small, medium
and large herd size, respectively. Mostly adult males and females were brought to Jerati market. The price of camel
in Jerati market varies from 370 Birr for immature camel to 1350 Birr for adult camel.
Milk marketing is limited to certain towns due to lack of transportation facilities. The price of milk varies 0.50 to
8.10 Birr in different distracts. Distance, season and quality of milk are the factors that affect the milk price.
Pastoralists sell or purchase camel hides by cash or in kind. The large herd owners get more hides to sell compared
to small herd owners. The price of hides varies from 40 Birr to 240 Birr in the study area.
Introduction
In the hot arid areas, which cover approximately one third of the surface of the earth (Coppock, 1994), the
camel is an asset to operate in many ways. Camel can survive in dry areas and produce milk and meat from
otherwise non-productive desert resources. The importance of camel arises primarily from provision of milk
and meat within a subsistence economy and its use as an animal of burden for transporting goods to the
markets, water from wells and household belongings for mobile families. Besides their economic importance,
camels are also prized according to their role in traditional social relations such as payment of the bride
wealth and compensation of injured parties in tribal feuds (Mohamed, 1987). Camels are also indispensable
animals for use in cultural and religious occasions. Despite these, the economic contribution of camels in
Ethiopia is not yet exactly determined (Gebremariam, 1989, Wilson, 1989). The camels are considered as sort
of banking system and security against drought, disease and other natural problems that affect smaller
livestock more seriously (Mohamed, 1987). In the past as well as nowadays camels have been extensively
exploited for their ability to travel the terrains impossible to other animals. The camels are well adapted to
harsh dry conditions and in times of drought, continue to supply milk for human consumption long after
other livestock have died. However contribution in terms of cash to the pastoralists are not well studied.
In the eastern part of Ethiopia, most of research undertakings on productivity, production systems and
diseases on camels were around Jijiga and Shinille Zones of the Somali National Regional State (Abebe,
1989, 1995, Kebebew, 1998, Tezera, 1998, Zeleke, 1998, Bekele 1999, Baars, 2000, Bekele, 2001) and little
201
work was done in remote arid zones like Afder. The contribution of camel interns of cash to pastoralists
and marketing of camels and its products are not well studied.
Therefore, the present study was initiated with the objectives generating base line information on
traditional camel meat and milk processing leading to market and also on marketing of camel, milk, and
hide in Afder zone of Somali State.
The study was undertaken in Afder Zone, which is located in the south east of Ethiopia and borders the
Republic of Somalia. The zone covers the south-western corner of Somali National Regional State (SNRS) and
it’s bordered with southern Somalia. The altitude varies from 250m to 600m. Afder zone has no linkage with
Capital City of Jijiga SNRS (Figure 1).
The zone has eight districts/Woredas (West-Imey, El-keri, Gorobagagsa, Gouradamole, Hargelle, Jarati,
Barey, Dollo-bay) and is inhabited by Somali pastoralists. Agro-pastoralism is also practiced along the
edges of three rivers namely Ganale, Web and Shabele (the later one being in Imey district). Crop
production by agro-pastoralists mainly depends on rainfall that is erratic. Livestock products particularly
milk provides most of the daily energy requirement of the pastoralist, grain and sugar providing the
balance. In agro-pastoralism, small scale farming of sorghum and maize along the Ganale and Web rivers
and petty trading generate additional income for the households.
Accurate figures on livestock populations are not available. Because the area is largely inaccessible the
census in 1994 did not cover this zone. The camel population figure estimated by the Southeast Rangelands
Project (SERP) in 1998 showed that there were 260,000 heads of camel.
Sampling procedure
The sampling method used was systematically stratified random sampling technique for the selection of
the herd size but not for Woreda, which is based on accessibility, security situation and population. Five
districts (Dollo-Bay, Jarati, Hargelle, Barey and El-keri) out of eight districts of Afder zone were selected.
Figure 1. Location of the study area
In this study large camel herd size means household which own above 50 heads of camel and medium herd
size is any household owing 21-50 heads of camel, and small herd size consists of households that own 1020 heads of camel regardless of other livestock they have.
202
Production Systems
The study therefore excluded households, which owns less then 10 camels, and these households were
considered poor camel owners, as they cannot herd separately and independently since they may not able
to provide information about their herds. The household was used as the unit of investigation; and the
camel herd was used to stratify the household into three wealth classes. From each of selected districts five
households for each of three-wealth class were randomly selected totalling 15 households for a district and
75 households for the five districts.
Data collection
To collect information on traditional practices of milk and meat processing a single-visit formal survey
method (ILCA, 1992) was employed. To get information on camel marketing as well as on milk and hides
marketing interviews and group discussion were held with elders and retrospective data were also collected
from development projects of government as well as non-governmental organisations like Pastoralist Concern
Association. In addition development agents at Zone and Woreda levels and officials of the Ministry of
Agriculture were also consulted.
As the majority of the data were collected on single formal survey methodologies, most of the data were
analysed using the descriptive statistics of the statistical package for Social Science SPSS version 10.
Traditional processing of meat
Among the respondents 91.7 percent of the small herd owners and 100 percent of the medium and large
herd owners reported that there are two types of traditional camel meat processing methods to prepare
processed meat ‘Olobe’ and ‘Darreein’.
‘Olobe’
The fresh camel meat is cut into small pieces using a sharp knife. Then the meat is fried in butter on low
fire for about three hours, cooled, transferred and preserved in traditional container called ‘Qumbe’.
Traditionally ‘Olobe’ is prepared when young married lady visit her husband family. Accordingly adult male
camel will be slaughtered and meat is processed and then after with another camel transported the preserved
Olobe meat to her husband, family is transported by camel.
The ‘Qumbe’ was made from the hides of camels and cattle. According to pastoralists traditional container
can preserve the meat for 3-6 months without spoilage. This statement should not be underestimated since
improvement of processing and preservation containers can lead to better food security during lean season
of the year.
Nowadays, ‘Olobe’ is available in urban markets. Women were found selling the dry product in Dollo-ado
market and Barey towns. Women were well aware of possible spoilage that can affect the product due to
the mismanagement during processing. About 85, 69.2, and 52.0 percent for small, medium and large herd
owners respectively reported that they normally consumed fresh cooked meat. However, only 40 percent of
the large herders reported that they consumed both cooked and ‘Olobe’ form of meat.
‘Darreein’
‘Darreein’ is the second type of processed meat. In this method the meat was cut and made just like long
rope by drying under the sun for one day. Then the meat was packed in the bags. It was utilized when the
need arises. They exposed these ropes of meat to fire and smoke before taking during meal session. The
duration of preservation was said to be three months. It was considered as inferior in quality compared to
‘Olobe’ type. The nature of meat was tough. Children, women and the hungry men consumed mainly the
meat processed by this method. This method was commonly practiced during crises particularly during
drought or disease outbreaks when large numbers of animals are dying. Therefore, the aim of this type of
processing is to save the family from hunger during the drought period and to utilize the meat from dying
animals efficiently. However, parallel reports on the social utilization of the ‘Olobe’ and ‘Dareerin’ type of
preserved meat and the reasons for practicing as observed in the present study have not yet been reported in
the available literature.
203
Milk processing
Milk is used in several ways such as with tea (caddeys), with grain and as traditional medicine. Further
milk was used to fulfil religious and cultural obligation particularly during festivals and occasions of Mowlid.
It was found impossible, to estimate amount consumed by household as fresh milk or sour milk and the total
off take per household per day as the respondents found it difficult to answer.
About 65 percent of the households in Barey, Hargelle and E-lkari reported that they consumed all milk
they produced because they were far from main marketing towns. About 60 and 40 percent of pastoralist of
Dollo-Bay and Jarati respectively use some amount of milk for home consumption and other portion for
sale in order to exchange with other commodities they need. About 50 percent of small herders reported
they consume fresh camel milk in the wet season when there is surplus milk. Tezera (1998) in Jijiga
reported similar situation in Shinille zones.
Smoking
Smoking is traditional preservation method and is practiced to improve the taste and the quality of the
milk. Moreover, it was noticed that some plant species were not used to smoke the container because they
were considered inferior, and spoil both taste and odor of the milk.
Soured milk
Souring of milk is practiced at any time when surplus milk is available and mainly during wet season.
During the middle to end of the rain season, milk production increases which result in reduction of price.
Milk remains unsold and unused is of course soured later on. During surplus season even smaller herd
household had surplus milk.
Milk was soured when demand for soured milk in the urban area was high and some times milk was
soured for cultural and religious purposes. This includes praying on funerals and for rain (Roob Doon). For
these occasions, donation of soured milk from different households was collected at the place of ceremony.
The method for souring of milk was simple and similar across camel pastoralist in different districts in
Somali National Regional State. Most of the herders disclosed that they need not add anything to sour the
milk as milk become sour it self. Nevertheless, when they wanted to sour the milk quickly for some
purpose, they added small drops of previously soured milk or they completely mixed with already soured
milk. This starter was used only when they want to increase the speed of souring. Hashi (1984) and Tezera
(1998) reported similar procedures.
The camel owners believe that milk remains always safe and can be consumed at any time even after its
shelf life. The mean maximum shelf life of normal soured milk under pastoral condition as 6.1, 5.8, and 6.7
days respectively according to small, medium and large herd size herd owners (Table 1). Respondents
disclosed that the shelf life of soured milk depends on the quality of milk, the type of the container and
plants used to smoke (disinfect) the containers. The present opinion is in agreement with the report of
Kohler et al., (1991). However, Gebremariam (1987) reported that the shelf life of soured milk ranged
from 21-23 days when preserved properly.
Butter
Most of the camel owners in the study area were not interested in producing cheese and butter from camel
milk. During the course of data collection, it was found that no herder who tried to produce butter or cheese.
However, some of the camel owners reported that the young camel herders sometimes try to produce butter
for personal use. They may extract a small amount of the butter oil, which was estimated at 0.25 kg from two
liters of milk. The butter processing method is by heating certain type of stone for 3-4 hours on fire and the
same was dropped to the milk in the container, which result in production of small amount of butter oil. This
was not reported elsewhere in Somali State.
The present study is in agreement with the report of Payne (1990), where it was stated in that camel milk
is not commonly used to extract butter or ghee. But on the contrary, several authors believe that both
butter and cheese could be made from camel milk through some special techniques. It seems that under
traditional system it is difficult to make butter or cheese from camel milk.
204
Production Systems
Improved processing technique could help to store excess milk produced during wet season so that it can
serve as reserve in shortage season. This is particularly relevant in the difficult environment in which
these pastoralists have to operate.
Table 1. Reported shelf life of camel soured milk by herd size groups
Herd size
Small
Medium
Large)
N
Average shelf life
(day )
Maximum shelf
life (day )
Average shelf life
(day )
Maximum shelf
life (day )
Average shelf life
(day )
Maximum shelf
life (day )
Minimum
Maximum
Mean
S. D
24
2.00
7.00
3.2083
1.1788
23
4.00
10.00
6.1304
1.5464
26
2.00
5.00
3.1346
.8192
26
3.00
10.00
5.8462
1.4613
25
2.00
7.00
3.2000
1.0000
25
4.00
30.00
6.7600
5.0023
Camel marketing
Although livestock production is considered the main occupation in the study area, the opportunity to sell
livestock and livestock products appeared to be very poor. Even essential marketing infrastructures are nonexistent. All Woredas are far from existing major markets: Jijiga (850 km), Harar (970km), and Dire-Dawa
(1030 km). The only major main market outlet is Kenya and Somalia. The local markets for Afder zone are
Doll-ado (220 km from Hargelle) and Jarati (40 km from Hargelle).
Although marketing infrastructure is poor for other livestock, camel producers have wider choices for
marketing, because they can sell their live animals in different markets. Based on information gathered
through personal communications and the local radio message, they decide the suitable time to sell the
animals and the market regardless of the regional and national boundaries. The choice of specific market
was based on demand. The choice of camel markets for the herders of districts are listed in Table 3.
Table 3. Options of camel markets by Woreda
Woreda
First choice
Jarati
Jarati
Second choice
Jarati
Dollo-Bay
Barey
Jarati
Dollo-Ado
Mandera
Luuq
Hargelle
Dollo-Ado
Jarati
Dollo-Ado
Barey
Godey
Barey
Jarati
Dollo-Ado
Mandera
Barey
Baydhabo
E-l kari
Jiiq
Shakisa
Jiiq
Shakisa
The alternative markets include for both local and foreign markets. The foreign markets are in towns of
the neighboring countries such as Mandera in Kenya and Luuq and Baydhabo in Somalia.
In general, camels are last to be taken to the market when other livestock failed to offer good value because
of loss of body condition during recurrent droughts. Therefore, the proportion of sold camels increases
during drought period. During last 12 months the mean number of camels sold on average were 2.1, 2.5
and 3.8 for small, medium and large herd size respectively. Table 4 presents the number of camels brought
to market and sold and also the average price per head in Jarati market.
It can be seen from the Table that most of the animals, brought to the market were adult males and
females. The adult females brought to the market increased from August to November (Figure 2 and 3),
because of prolonged dry period. Further substantial number of immature males and females were also
205
brought to the market. Indirectly this result confirms the importance of camel during the period of crises
(dry season and drought period). The present finding disagree with the previous report of Tezera and
Bekele (1998), where in number of animals sold were by far less than the camel brought to the markets.
The reason may be attributed to the drought period situation in the present study or the demands of the
camel in the study area are higher than in eastern Ethiopia.
However, since this data are collected from only one market for a short period, it may not provide the
whole picture of the relationship between demand, supply and price, the influence of the season, different
channels involved in the system of camel marketing in study area. However, the data provide the
preliminary insight to camel supply and demand and the price during drought time. It can be observed
from the table that young female sold for a price twice of young males. The reason may be due to the
demand of young female over the male since only one male is required for breeding purpose, but all young
females are selected for future dams.
Table 4. Number of camels brought and sold and their prices in Jarati market
Month
Class of camels
Brought
Sold
August
Adult female
Adult male
Immature female
Immature male
100
90
81
93
95
88
81
85
800
920
800
370
September
Adult female
Adult male
Immature female
Immature male
120
115
55
80
115
110
53
67
910
1000
870
380
October
Adult female
Adult male
Immature female
Immature male
128
90
39
30
128
90
39
21
950
1050
830
390
November
Adult female
Adult male
Immature female
Immature male
153
59
47
44
139
59
47
32
1150
1250
880
385
December
Adult female
Adult male
Immature female
Immature male
91
29
31
33
91
29
31
3
1300
1350
910
425
Number of Camels Brought
Adult Female
Adult male
Imature Female
Price per animal (Birr)
Imature Male
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
August
September
October
November
December
Months
Figure 2. Number of camels brought to Jarati market
206
Production Systems
Number of Camels Sold
Adult Female
Adult male
Imature Female
Imature Male
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
August
September
October
November December
Months
Figure 3. Number of camels sold in Jarati market
Milk marketing
It was noticed that milk marketing was limited to certain towns and some settled villages. The major milk
marketing constraint was lack of road to transport milk from remote areas.
Restaurants in Barey, Hargelle, and E-lkari received milk directly from producers. Almost all of the
studied households reported that the demand for the milk was high during dry season and low during wet
season.
The variation in price of milk in different Woredas is given in Table 5. The major factors affecting milk
price were distance, season, quality of milk and whether milk was sold directly by producer or through
middle women.
Table 5. Price of milk in study area (in Birr)
Woreda
N
Jarati
14
Minimum price
0.5
Maximum price
1.70
Mean price
0.9
S.D
0.30
Dollo- Bay
11
0.6
1.75
1.1
0.30
Hargelle
14
2.4
8.10
3.0
1.50
Barey
11
1.3
1.80
1.3
0.34
El-kari
15
0.6
1.25
1.0
0.30
Note = 2000 Somali shilling= 1ETB
Hide
Camel hides are extensively used to make ropes to fetch water from deep wells, and to make ropes (xarig)
to construct the traditional hut. The hides of camels are also used as covers over baggage during migration
(Gebil). After migration hides were used to decorate the constructed hut. It was also used as bedding material
for sleeping and praying. About 95.8, 100 and 92.0 percent of small, medium and large herd owners
respectively reported that they used camel hides for all these purposes. Similar reports on utilisation of the
skin of the camel were recorded by earlier workers (Bekele, 1995; Baars, 2000). The present study also found
out that pastoralist sold or purchased camel hide either in cash or in kind. The prices of hides by Woreda and
herd size group are listed in Table 2
The size, quality, availability and the demand of the hide determine the price of the hide. The large herd
owners get more hides to sell compared to small herd owners and sell at lower price. The demand for hides
by small herders may be more and large herders always have surplus hides from slaughtered animals or
died animals in the herd. By large the price of camel hide in Jerati district is more than rest of district.
207
Table 6. Prices of camel hides
Herd size
Small
Medium
Large
Woreda
Jarati
Dollo Bay
Hargelle
Barey
El Kari
Jarati
Dollo Bay
Hargelle
Barey
El Kari
Jarati
Dollo Bay
Hargelle
Barey
El Kari
Birr
Birr
Birr
Birr
Birr
Birr
Birr
Birr
Birr
Birr
Birr
Birr
Birr
Birr
Birr
N
5
2
5
5
2
4
4
4
5
5
5
3
5
5
4
Minimum
50.00
60.00
40.00
50.00
60.00
55.00
40.00
60.00
40.50
60.00
40.00
60.00
60.00
40.00
40.00
Maximum
240.00
85.00
60.00
80.00
70.00
100.00
90.00
60.00
80.00
80.00
90.00
70.00
90.00
80.00
80.00
Mean
110.0000
72.5000
54.0000
64.0000
65.0000
78.1250
70.0000
60.0000
64.1000
66.0000
59.0000
65.0000
70.0000
68.0000
57.5000
S. D
74.8331
17.6777
8.9443
11.4018
7.0711
20.5523
21.6025
.0000
14.9683
8.9443
18.8414
5.0000
12.2474
17.8885
17.0783
In remote areas where currency notes are scarce, hides were exchanged to live goats and sheep. The
numbers of goats or sheep exchanged for a camel hide are determined by the quality of the hide. About
66.7, 65.5 and 64.0 percent for small, medium and large herders respectively reported that two sheep or
goats were enough to exchange for one hide of camel while 12.5, 23.1, and 24 percent of small, medium, and
large herders reported that one goat or sheep is enough to find a good quality hide. Thus hide is a very
important by product from the camels. The observation on barter system in hide trade has not been
reported elsewhere.
Conclusion
The pastoralists practice traditional processing of milk to increase shelf life but it was for a short period.
The poor marketing facility in all seasons and food insecurity in dry season indicate that this complete food of
desert people needs to be preserved for longer time. Therefore improved processing technique to store excess
milk produced during wet season is essential so that it will serve as reserve for dry season. This is another
relevant area for immediate research focus.
The key markets in the Afder zone are poorly developed. Consequently prices offered do not encourage the
sale of animals, but the season and low income of the camel owners make it difficult to retain the animals
while waiting for better prices.
The problem of camel and camel product marketing was further exacerbated by the long distance. In some
areas, it takes two to three days to reach the market. Therefore, except few government workers and
traders most inhabitants of urban area are also under serious economical stress and their buying power is
poor, even during ample season. Despite of poor marketing system, and local demand, it was reported that
there exists a good demand for live camels mainly through cross-border trade, where traders preferred
camels to other livestock.
References
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Regional State, Alemaya University, 78pp
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ILCA. 1992. (International Livestock Centre for Africa) Livestock production systems survey: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Kebebew, T. 1998. Milk production, persistent and composition of pastorally managed Camels in eastern Ethiopia. M.Sc.
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Nomadic Peoples, 29: 69-79.
Payne, W. J. 1990. An Introduction to Animals Husbandry in the Tropics, Tropical Agriculture series, New York, USA.
Schwartz, H.J. and Dioili, M. (ed). 1992. The One Humped Camel in East Africa. A pictorial guides to disease, health care
and management. Josef, FR Margraf, Germany. PP 1-10.
SERP. 1998 (South East Rangelands Development Project), Quarterly report. Gode Branch, Somali Region, Ethiopia.
SPSS. Version 10. 1999. Soft ware Package for Social Science for Windows.
Tezera, G. 1998. Characterisation of Camel Husbandry Practices and Camel Milk and Meat utilisation in Jijiga and
Shinille zones of Somalia Region M.Sc. thesis, Alemaya, University of Agriculture. Ethiopia.
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Ethiopian Society of Animal Production. 14-15 May 1998 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. pp 194 –200.
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thesis, Alemaya University of Agriculture, Ethiopia.
209
On-Station and On-Farm Evaluation of the ‘Hay-Box Chick Brooder’ Using
Different Insulation Materials at the Debre Zeit Agricultural Research
Center and Denbi Village, Adaa Wereda
Negussie Dana1, Alemu Yami1, Tadelle Dessie1, Samuel W.Hana2
1Ethiopian
agricultural Research Organization, Debre Zeit Agric.Res.Center, P.O.Box 32
2Formerly,
senior student at Mekelle University
Abstract
Trials were conducted on-station at the Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Center and on- farm at Denbi village to
test the suitability of the ‘hay-box chick brooder’ to brood chicks using different insulation materials. During the onstation trial, the survival and comparative performance of chicks raised using: 1) conventional electric brooding
(control), 2) the ‘hay box brooder’ insulated with barley straw, 3) the ‘hay box brooder’ insulated with tef straw and,
4) the ‘hay box brooder’ insulated with wheat straw, was evaluated.
Data were collected on feed intake, water consumption, body weight change and mortality of chicks. Feed and water
consumption and body weight gain were significantly higher for chicks raised using the conventional electric brooder
compared to those raised under the hay box brooders insulated with either of the cereal straws. However, there were
no significant differences in survival rates between chicks brooded using any of the methods tested. The levels of
mortality at the end of the brooding phase (8 weeks) were 18.7% and, 18.3, 20.8 and 18.9% for chicks raised under
the electric brooder and hay boxes insulated with barley, tef and wheat straw, respectively. Statistically, the
performance and survival of chicks raised under the ‘hay-box brooder’ using any one of the insulation materials was
not different from each other.
The on-farm trial was conducted at ten households using tef straw and wheat straw as insulation materials. Data
were collected on parameters similar to the on-station trial. The results indicated no significant variations in
performance and survival of chicks raised using the ‘hay box brooders’ insulated with either type of straw. The rates
of mortality under this condition were even lower (7-10%) compared to those recorded on-station.
In conclusion, the hay box brooder can successfully be used to brood chicks to eight weeks of age using either of the
two types of cereal residues as insulation materials. It is a suitable technique to brood chicks under village
conditions, given that the chicks are provided adequate feed, water and appropriate management. However, the
effects of season and altitude on the performance of the technology need to be assessed further.
Keywords: chick brooding, ‘hay-box brooder’, insulation materials, mortality, growth
Introduction
The productivity of local scavenging hens is low not only because of low egg production but also due to high
chick mortality. About 60% of the chicks hatched in the rural areas of Ethiopia die during the first 8 weeks of
age (Tadelle, 1996) mainly due to disease and predator attacks. Climatic factors such as temperature,
moisture and air circulation and other factors such as nutrition are also known to be important determinants
of chick mortality (Katule, 1994).
About half of the eggs produced in the villages of Ethiopia have to be hatched to replace chicken that have
died (Tadelle, 1996), and the brooding time of the laying bird is long with many brooding cycles required in
order to compensate for its unsuccessful brooding. It is estimated that, under scavenging conditions, the
reproductive cycle consists of a ten day laying phase, a 21-day incubation phase and finally a 56-day
brooding phase. This implies a theoretical maximum number of 4.2 clutches per hen each year although in
reality, the number is probably 2-3. Assuming 3 clutches per hen per year, the hen would have to stay for
about 168 days out of production every year entirely engaged in brooding activities. This is a very
important setback to the productivity of the individual birds in particular and the poultry sector in general.
Moreover, the extension service of the Ministry of Agriculture is facing a considerable challenge in its
poultry extension activities since the multiplication centers are expected to rear chicks up to three months
of age or even older before distributing to farmers. The breeding and multiplication centers can’t meet this
211
demand due to the huge requirement in terms of brooding facilities even though they have adequate
hatching capacity. Developing appropriate and simple chick brooding techniques for rural farmers’ use
would guarantee distribution of the required numbers of day old chicks to farmers. This will alleviate the
present burden of the Breeding and Multiplication Centers of the Ministry of Agriculture and develop the
capacity and success of the extension service. The other potential benefit of this technique is that it could
enable farmers to isolate chicks from their mothers at a very early age and raise them separately so that
the hens could resume egg laying in a short period of time, although this aspect is yet to be studied.
Brooding chicks using the “hay-box” chick brooding technology, developed at the Jimma College of
Agriculture, seems to hold promise in bridging this gap. This technology utilizes simple, locally available,
materials. The major principles of this simple technique involve brooding chicks by conserving the
metabolic heat produced by the chicks, and keep them warm. Under village conditions using the hay box
brooder also has the advantage of providing protection to chicks against predator attack and reduced risk
of exposure to disease through confinement. The brooder was tested in urban and rural areas of the
western highlands around Jimma and produced successful results (Solomon, 2001).
The objectives of this work were to evaluate the performance of the ”hay box” chick brooder with associated
recommendations and to compare the effect of using different insulation materials on feed utilization,
growth and mortality of chicks up to 8 weeks of age under research station and in villages.
Methodology
The trial site
The on-station trial was conducted at the Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Centre (DZARC) located 45 km
East of Addis Ababa at an altitude of 1900 m a.s.l. at a latitude of 8.44oN and longitude of 39.02 oE. Based on
22 years’ data the average annual rainfall is 845 mm and the average minimum and maximum temperatures
range from 10oC to 22oC, respectively, the mean average being 16oC.
The on farm trial was conducted at Denbi Village, Ada Wereda. Earlier studies in the central highlands
(Tadelle, 1996) established the fact that women farmers play the most dominant role in smallholder
poultry production. Based on this information, women were selected to participate in the current activity.
Accordingly, ten interested women headed households were selected to take part in the trial. Selection of
households and trial site was carried out in collaboration with the extension unit of the Office of
Agriculture, Ada Wereda, involving the development agent of the village. The participants were given
training on some aspects of management practices, feeding, watering and health care of chicks before the
commencement of the trial. Consistent advice and assistance was offered to the farmers through
monitoring individual households regularly.
Construction of the ‘hay box brooder’
A total of fifteen ‘hay box brooders’ were constructed for the on station trial using three types of insulation
materials: barley, tef and wheat straw. The boxes were constructed adopting the dimensions recommended
by Solomon (2001), with slight modifications. Each box, containing a set made of a larger run area fitted with
a smaller compartment, had a capacity to brood 70 chicks. The dimension (Width x Breadth x Height of the
box, in respective order) of the run area for 70 chicks was about 150 cm x 150 cm x 40 cm, while that of the
smaller box was 75 cm x 75 cm x 40 cm. The outer borders of the boxes were constructed of lumber and
covered with meshed wire. The two boxes were separated by a small door allowing movement of chicks from
one to the other. Straw was stuffed to the inner walls of the boxes that were covered on the top by sacks filled
with straw. The initial brooding temperature of the ‘hay-box’ was regulated/ reduced weekly by manipulating
the amount of straw stuffed between the sides of the boxes and the central nest area.
The on-farm trial involved a total of ten ‘hay-box brooders’, constructed at the Debre Zeit Research Center
using two types of insulation materials: wheat straw and tef straw. Each box had the capacity of brooding
40 chicks. The dimension (Width x Breadth x Height of the box, in respective order) of the run area for 40
chicks was about 120 cm x 120 cm x 40 cm, while that of the smaller box was 50 cm x 50 cm x 40 cm. The
boxes were constructed as described for the on-station trial.
212
Production Systems
Experimental animals and treatment
A total of 1400 day-old chicks of commercial layer strain were used in the on-station trial. The chicks were
divided randomly into four treatment groups each replicated five times, with 350 chicks per treatment. The
treatments were: 1) electric brooder using 150W bulbs in the conventional brooder house (control), 2) ‘hay box
brooder’ insulated with barley straw, 3) ‘hay box brooder’ insulated with tef straw and, 4) ‘hay box brooder’
insulated with wheat straw. The chicks were offered a commercial starter ration ad libitum and water was
made available at all times for all groups.
Forty day-old chicks of the Rhode Island Red (RIR) breed were supplied per household for the trial
conducted on farm. The treatments included two types of insulation materials that were tested along with
the hay boxes having equal dimensions. Each treatment was randomly assigned to five of ten households
selected. The insulation materials used, wheat straw and tef straw, were the residues of the most
predominant crops grown in the central highlands.
The chicks were vaccinated at day-old against Newcastle disease using HB1 (HB1, NVI, Debre Zeit,
Ethiopia) in both trials. Day-old weights of the chicks were recorded. A balanced chick starter ration was
produced at the Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Center and distributed along with the chicks to each
farm. Chicks were fed, watered and managed in a manner similar to the first trial.
Data collection and statistical analysis
In the on-station trial, data were collected on daily feed and water intake. Body weight changes were
recorded weekly. Mortality was recorded as it occurred. Brooding temperature was monitored weekly to
maintain/regulate the temperature in the box. Data were subjected to the analysis of variance techniques
according to the completely randomized design. Fisher’s test was employed to separate treatment means for
factors that displayed significant F-test.
Data similar to those of the on-station trial were collected for 8 weeks during the on-farm trial. Two-sample
t test was employed to analyze the data, and confidence limits were used to further test whether the
treatments were actually different from each other (Mead et al., 1993). Minitab statistical package
(MINITAB INC., 1996) was used to analyze the data set.
Maintaining the brooding temperature of the hay box
In artificial chick brooding, the initial brooding temperature below the hover should be 35oC at 5 cm from
the floor which should be reduced by 2.8oC each week until it equals the mean daily ambient temperature
(Williamson and Payne, 1984). In the current study, the recommended levels of temperature were
successfully maintained in the brooder. The initial levels were decreased to the desired levels by reducing the
amount of straw stuffed between the walls of the box and the central nest area.
Feed and water intake and body weight change
The on-station trial showed that feed and water consumption at eight weeks of age were significantly
higher (P<0.001) in chicks reared under the conventional electric brooder. Chicks brooded using the electric
system attained mean body weight of 240 g per chick, while body weights of 213, 209, 220 g per chick were
recorded under the ‘hay-box brooders’ insulated with barley, tef and wheat straws, respectively (Table 1).
Chick growth under the ‘hay box brooder’ was significantly slower during the first four weeks of brooding due
to the low feed consumption although the rates were relatively faster after the fourth week. This is because
the chicks didn’t have the chance to feed at night under the ‘hay box brooder.
There were highly significant (P<0.01) differences between the ‘hay-box brooders’ insulated with any one of
the cereal straws and electric brooder in feed conversion ratio (FCR). Chicks had better feed conversion
efficiency under the ‘hay-box brooders’ than those raised using the electric system. This might probably be
as a result of the limited height of the roof and the meshed wire on top of the box restricting the
activity/movement of chicks, such as jumping or flipping, consequently reducing the nutrient requirements
for maintenance. Performance of the chicks brooded using the ‘hay box’ did not differ significantly with
respect to the type of insulation material used.
213
Table 1. Effect of using the hay box brooder insulated with different insulation materials on cumulative feed and water intake, body
weight gain (BWG), and feed conversion ratio (FCR) of chicks reared on-station (up to 8 weeks of age)
Mean (± SD) per chick
Treatment
Feed intake (g)
Water intake
Electric brooding
1125 (64)a
2918 (168) a
Hay box insulated with barley straw
814 (46)
Hay box insulated with tef straw
845 (18)
Hay box insulated with wheat straw
818 (24)
BWG (g)
FCR (Feed/Gain)
240 (11) a
4.7 a
2109 (71) b
213 (14) b
3.8 b
2055 (99) c
209 (14) b
4.1 b
2208 (57) c
220 (12) ab
3.7 b
Means in a column followed by different superscript letters are significantly different from each other (P<0.05)
Similarly, results of the on-farm trial indicated that there were no significant differences between chicks
brooded using either of the insulation materials in terms of feed consumption, feed conversion ratio, growth
and mortality rates (Table 3). However, chicks brooded using the hay box insulated with wheat straw had
slightly higher feed intake and cumulative live weight gain compared to those brooded using tef straw as
an insulator. Feed consumption increased steadily (Fig 1) while live weight changes were highest at the 4th
and 8th weeks of age (Fig. 2) for both insulation materials. Live weight gain, ranging between 2531g/chick/week, was comparable to the values reported earlier by Solomon (2001) for chicks brooded both
under the ‘hay box’ and the standard electric brooder. The cause of the sudden drop in live weight gain of
chicks at the 5th week is not clear. However, although not substantiated by the feed consumption data,
from the concurrent heavy mortality recorded during this specific week (Fig.3), the reason might probably
be due to the poor health condition of some chicks at the time.
FI/week (g/bird)
300
200
100
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Wheat straw Insultor
75.5
124.4 158.2 186.4 223.1 228.8 250.6 267.8
Tef straw insulator
56.9
104.7
155
150
177
219
242
263
Week
Wheat straw Insultor
Tef straw insulator
BWG (g/bird/wk)
Figure 1 Weekly Feed intake (FI/Bird/Wk) of RIR chicks reared using the ’hay-box brooder’ insulated with tef straw or wheat straw in
Denbi village, Ada Wereda (Mid Nov.1998 to Jan. 1999)
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Week
Wheat straw insulator
Tef straw insulator
Figure 2. Weekly weight changes (BWG) of Rhode Island Red chicks reared using ’hay box brooder’ insulated with wheat of tef straw in
Denbi village, Ada Wereda
Chick mortality
During the on-station trial, ‘hay-box’ brooding resulted in a comparable level of mortality to that of
conventional electric brooding (Table 2). Solomon (2001) also found a similar level of survival to an age of 3
weeks in rural areas and 8 weeks in urban areas, of chicks raised using the two systems. The levels of
mortality under this trial were 18.7% using the electric brooders while it ranged from 18.3 to 20.9% for chicks
214
Production Systems
in the hay box brooders. The results of this trial showed that using hay-box brooders insulated with any type
of cereal residues to replace artificial electric heating could be considered as a simple and suitable technique of
brooding chicks with out electricity.
Table 2. Mortality of chicks reared using different brooding systems at the Debre Zeit Research Center (0-8 weeks of age)
Treatment
Mortality (%)
Electric brooding
18.7
Hay box insulated with barley straw
18.3
Hay box insulated with tef straw
20.8
Hay box insulated with wheat straw
18.9
On the other hand, the rates of mortality recorded on farm were low, even compared to on-station
conditions and that reported by Solomon (2001). The rates were comparable to what is normally expected
under conventional electric brooders. Solomon (2001) reported mortality rates as high as 24% using ‘hay
box brooders’ under village conditions around Jimma.
Table 3. LS means (±SE) of feed consumption, growth rates and percent mortality of Rhode Island Red (RIR) chicks reared using the
hay-box brooder insulated with tef straw and wheat straw at Denbi village, Ada Wereda (0-8 weeks)
Insulator
Parameter
Wheat Straw Insulator
Feed intake/b/d (g)
Cumm.Feed intake (g/b)
Cumm. Weight Gain (g/b)
Tef Straw Insulator
Significance (P)
25 (3.7)
23 (1.3)
0.20
1515 (86)
1363 (57)
0.22
137 (7.8)
0.16
156 (10.8)
Feed conversion (Feed: Gain)
11 (1.0)
Mortality (%)
10
Mortality (%) of village chicks, 0-8wks (Central highlands)
61
10.7 (0.8)
7
0.61
0.65
Significance level: P<0.05
Chick mortality recorded under village conditions in the central highlands was about 61% in the first 8
weeks (Tadelle, 1996). Based on a survey in the villages of Wolayta, Southern highlands, Hoyle (1992)
reported a mean mortality rate of scavenging chicken ranging from 47 to 73% to an age of 3 months. It is a
promising success to reduce such a huge rate of mortality to as low as 7-10% (Table 3). Nevertheless, the
low levels of mortality in the current trial should not be attributed entirely to use of the ‘hay-box brooders’
alone and, thus, the levels could not be compared directly to those in scavenging, village conditions. Rather,
it has to be noted that the present work involved additional interventions such as provision of balanced
rations and vaccination, which are virtually unavailable for chicks brooded under the traditional village
systems.
Mortality (%)
8
6
4
2
0
1
2
3
4
5
Week
6
7
8
Figure 3. Weekly mortality rates of Rhode Island Red chicks reared using the ’hay-box brooder’ at Denbi village, Ada Wereda (Mid Nov.
1998 to Jan. 1999)
The highest rate of mortality was recorded during the 5th week (Fig. 3). Since no concurrent changes were
evident in terms of feed consumption during this period, except the decline in live weight gain, the cause of
the deaths might be mechanical injury of the chicks due to harsh/poor handling during feeding and
managing. The first four weeks are usually considered to be the most critical times in brooding chicks
215
under tropical conditions. In light of this, the on-farm performance of chicks brooded using the ‘hay box
brooder’ in the current trial can be rated excellent.
Conclusions and Recommendations
The performance of chicks brooded using the ‘hay-box brooder’ was fairly comparable to the standards
achieved under the conventional systems irrespective of the type of insulation material used. The season
when the on-farm trial was conducted (mid November to January, which is the beginning of the long dry
season) seemed to have favored chick survival and growth. The impact of season should, thus, be assessed
through further work under on-farm conditions in diverse agro climatic regions. Present experiences also
show that the dimensions of the boxes need to be refined further. After verification of this technique with the
above conditions it might be adopted extensively by the extension services to promote distribution of improved
breeds of day old chicks to small holder farmers.
The potential use of this technique to raise local chicks separated from their mothers at a very early age to
enable the hens resume laying in a short period of time should also be examined.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the financial support of the Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization and
for the support staff of the poultry research farm of the Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Center. Sincere
gratitude also goes to the women farmers of Denbi village for their fruitful collaboration during the on-farm
trial.
References
Hoyle, E., 1992. Small scale poultry keeping in Wolyta, North Omo Region. Farmers Research Project, Technical
pamphlet No. 3, Farm Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Katule, A.M., 1994. Foundation of modern poultry management. Memeographed report. Sokoine University of
Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania.
Mead, R., R.N. Curnow and A.M. Hasted. 1993. Statistical Methods in Agriculture and Experimental Biology. Chapman
and Hall. London.
MINITAB. 1996. MINITAB statistical package, users guide, Release 11. Minitab Inc., USA.Tadelle Dessie. 1996. A survey
of village poultry production in the central highlands of Ethiopia. MSc thesis, Swedish University of Agricultural
Sciences, Department of Animal Nutrition and Management, Uppsala, Sweden
Solomon Demeke. 2001. Suitability of home made hay box chick brooder to the Jimma and Bedele areas of Oromia
Region. Ethiopian J.Agric.Sci.
Williamson, G and J.A, Payne, 1984. An introduction to animal husbandry in the tropics. Longman, London.
216
FEED PRODUCTION AND USE
Integration of forage legumes in to maize based cropping systems in
Western Ethiopia: Effect of intercropping of Lablab purpureus and Vicia
atropurpurea on maize grain and total forage yields
Diriba Geleti and Lemma Gizachew
Bako Agricultural Research Center, P.O. Box 3, Western Shewa, Ethiopia.
Abstract
The study was conducted at Bako Research center between 1993 - 1996 to assess the feasibility of integrating two
forage legumes (Lablab purpureus and Vicia atropurpurea) into maize-based cropping system for improving feed
and food production. The grain and fodder DM production over the first three years showed the same trend. During
1993, 1994 and 1995, the maize grain yield obtained from the plots where Lablab was simultaneously planted with
maize was low. The mean grain yield values for 1993,1994 and 1995 were 5.64, 3.70 and 3.68 t/ha, respectively. It
was found that the vetch species tested were not suitable for intercropping in to maize farming system. Though the
amount of fodder obtained from the legume component in Lablab/maize intercrop system is low, the fact that this
yield was obtained with out affecting maize grain yield makes the intervention attractive. During the 1996 season,
the highest maize grain yield (7.33 t/ha) was obtained from plots under sole Lablab purpureus for three years. The
least maize grain yield from plots Vicia atropurpurea plots those with v.atropurpurea and its simultaneous intercrop
with maize, indicates the low contribution of these legume species in restoring soil fertility. Maize stover yields were
higher on plots continously planted to sole Lablab and in those where Lablab was simultaneously planted with
maize.
Keywords: Ethiopia; Forage legumes; Cropping systems; Lablab purpureus; Vicia atropurpurea; Maize;
Introduction
Integrating forage crops particularly the leguminous ones in to the cereal based cropping system is one of
the strategic options to overcome soil fertility problems that farmers are currently facing (Nnadi and Haque,
1986). Growing forages in association with food crops optimizes the use of farm labour and land, and reduces
other input costs required for establishing improved forages and substantially contribute towards alleviating
livestock feed shortage of the mixed farming system (Adugna Tolera and A.N. Said, 1992). Livestock are the
integral component of the subhumid mixed farming system of Western Ethiopia. Crop production is
dependent on livestock for draft power and manure as much as livestock do on crops for crop residues. This
study was, therefore, undertaken to investigate the effects of intercropping of two forage legumes, Lablab
purpureus and Vicia atropurpurea on maize grain and total forage yield in sub-humid climate of Bako area.
Material and Methods
The study was conducted at Bako Agricultural Research Center (37o09’ E longitude, 090 6’ N latitude and
1650 masl) from 1993-1996. The soil belongs to the Nitosol series and is reddish brown in color, clay to sandy
clay loam in texture with pH value ranging from 5.3 to 6 (Dawit Mulugeta and Legesse Dadi, 1987). Prior to
its use for the study, the experimental field was under the traditional fallow for two years. For this study, an
open pollinated composite maize variety, Beletech, developed by Bako Research Center was used. The
experimental design was randomized compelete block design with four replications, each plot measuring
20m2. A respective inter-and intra-row spacling of 75 and 25 cm was used for maize.
Land preparation was done by tractor at the opening of the fallow period, and in the following years, seed
bed preparation was done using hoe. Two annual forage legumes, Lablab purpureus and Vicia
atropurpurea, were planted in pure stands and inter cropped with maize either simultaneously, at the
start of the main rain, or six weeks after maize planting. Pure stands of Lablab and vicia were sown at 30
and 25 kg/ha seed rate, respectively, while the intercropped plots were planted at half these rates. The
maize-forage legume intercrops had one row of Lablab purpureus, drilled mid way between rows of maize
and two rows of vicia atropurpurea spaced at 25cm from each other and from the rows of maize. During the
first three years, 1993-1995, for sole legume plots, 30 kg/ha TSP was applied at planting while sole maize
and maize-forage legume mixtures were fertilized with the rate and type of fertilizer recommended for
maize (75/75 N/P2O5 Kg/ha). During the 1996 cropping season, all plots were planted to sole maize and
recommended fertilizer rateapplied to all treatments except T2 and T3 which were under pure legumes the
previous three years. During this cropping season, TSP was applied on plots that have been occupied by
sole legumes (T2 and T3) at the rate of 30 kg/ha with the assumption that the soil P level might have been
significantly mined by the legume crops during the previous three year. Description of the treatments used
in the study is given below.
Treatement No.
Treatment description
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
Maize alone
Lablab alone
Vicia alone
Maize + Lablab ( Simultaneous planting)
Maize + Vicia ( Simultaneous planting)
Maize + Lablab (Late planting)
Maize + Vicia (Late planting)
26 weeks after planting, maize plants from the middle two rows were cut to 12 cm from the ground level.
Maize ears (cobs and grain) and maize residue were partitioned and weighed in the field. Grain yield was
determined following shelling and adjusting the moisture level to 12.5 percent. Subsamples from maize
residues (including cobs), and forage crops, dried in forced draft oven at 650c, were used to determine
fodder DM yield.
Maize grain and stover yields, legume DM and total forage biomass for the year 1993 are given in Table 1.
The effect of forage integration treatments on maize grain yield was not significant (P>0.05). Mean grain
yield values ranged from 5.6 to 8.1 t/ha. The highest grain yield was obtained from plots where Lablab was
intercropped 6 weeks after planting maize followed by plots planted to pure maize stands. Least maize grain
yield was obtained from plots where Lablab and maize were simultaneously planted. This reduction of maize
grain in simultaneously planted Lablab could be attributed to the competetion between the legume and the
maize. The DM yield of the legumes varied significantly (P<0.01) among treatments. Higher DM yield was
recorded for Lablab planted alone followed by the same crop simultaneously planted with maize. The DM
yield of Vicia and Lablab planted 6 weeks after planting maize was very low (Table 1). The effect of cropping
system on maize stover yield was not significant. Maize stover yield was higher (8.8 t/ha) where Lablab was
intercropped six weeks after planting maize followed by sole maize (8.8 t/ha). The amount of stover DM
obtained from maize plus late planted vicia was also high (8.7 t/ha). A highly significant effect of cropping
system (P<0.01) on total forage biomass was observed. Simultaneous planting of Lablab with maize resulted
in higher total fodder and this could be due to the higher percentage contribution of the legume component to
total biomass for this particular treatment.
During the 1994 cropping season (Table 2), significant treatment effect was observed on DM yields of grain
(P 0.05), legume (P<0.01), stover (P<0.05) and total forage (P<0.01). Highest grain yield (6.6 t/ha) was
obtained from the maize and Lablab intercropping where Lablab was planted at the later stage of maize
growth. Grain yield differences between the early (6.0 t/ha) and late (6.2 t/ha) planted Vicia and maize
intercropping were not significant (P>0.05). Sametime planting of Lablab and maize reduced maize grain
yield. As was observed for the 1993 season, higher legume biomass (5.1 t/ha) was obtained from plots under
pure Lablab. Late planting of Vicia into maize produced no legume bio-mass yield maize (0.0 t/ha). Forage
yield differences between simultaneously and late planted Lablab was not significant.
Mean grain yield differences between sole, late and early planted vicia was not significant. Significant
(P<0.05) treatment effect was observed for maize stover yield. Higher maize stover yield was recorded for
the sole maize plots followed by the plots of maize where vicia was intercropped six weeks after planting
maize. Differences between treatment means for total forage biomass was highly significant (P<0.01). The
220
Feed Production and Use
highest total forage yield was recorded for simultaneous maize-lablab planting followed by Lablab
intercropped six weeks after maize planting. The least total forage biomass was recorded for pure vicia.
The effect of cropping system for all traits was signficant (P<0.01) during the 1995 cropping season (Table
3). Time of planting of vicia was observed to have no significant effect on maize grain yield but this was not
true for maize-lablab intercrops. Similar trends were observed on the 1995 as well as previous years
legume DM yield. Sole Lablab gave significantly (P<0.01) higher (5.6 t/ha) yield. The yield recorded for
simultaneously, or lately planted vetch was very small indicating that it is not suitable intercropping
purposes in maize based farming system for enhancing forage production. Frequent field observation
during the experimental period indicated that the significant reduction of the yield of this legume is
attributable to the shading effect of the main crop and attack by the foliar disease, anthracnose, that
resulted in leaf shuttering and weak stands. Maize stover yield was higher for the cropping system where
vicia was intercropped late in to maize followed by late Lablab and simultaneous vetch planting. Total
forage yield was also higher (9.1 t/ha) for late intercropped vetch followed by late lablab and simultaneous
lablab intercropping with maize (Table 3).
Maize grain and stover yields for the 1996 crop season are given in Table 4. Highest (7.3 t/ha) grain yield
was obtained from plots continously planted to sole lablab followed by the species simultaneously
intercropped in to maize (6.7 t/ha). This could be attributed to the nitrogen contribution of the legume
through biological nitrogen fixation. Maize stover DM yield was also significantly influenced by the
cropping system treatments. Higher (9.1 t/ha) maize stover yield was recorded in plots where lablab
intercropped simultaneously with maize, followed by plots where vicia was intercropped late in to maize.
Stover yield recorded for plots under sole vetch were observed to be lower than any other treatments.
In conclusion, the maize grain and total fodder yield obtained over the first three years ( 1993-95) showed
the same trend. In all cases, the maize grain yield was low in plots where Lablab was simultaneously
planted with maize. Early or late planting of Vetch into maize plot did not affect the maize grain yield. The
smaller DM yield obtained from sole Vetch plots puts the suitability of this system in question. Though the
amount of fodder obtained from Lablab-maiz base system is low, the fact that this yield is obtained with
out affecting maize grain yield makes the intervention attractive.
Table 1. Grain (t/ha) and forage legume DM yield (t/ha) of maize/forage legume intercropping system in 1993
Legume DM yield
Stover DM yield
Total forage biomass
(t/ha)
Treatments
Grain yield
Maize alone
7.2
-
8.83
8.83ab
Lablab alone
-
5.60a
-
5.600b
Vicia alone
-
0.48b
-
Maize + Simultaneous Lablab
5.64
3.90a
7.08
0.480c
Maize + Simultaneous Vicia
6.70
3.54b
7.69
Maize + Late Lablab
8.10
1.47b
9.12
10.59a
Maize + Late Vicia
7.14
1.18b
8.75
9.93a
SEM
P level
0.67
0.19 NS
0.47
0.00
0.98
0.77 NS
0.93
0.00
10.98a
8.23ab
Table 2. Grain (t/ha) and forage DM yield (t/ha) of maize/forage legume intercropping system in 1994
Treatments
Grain
Legume
Stover
Maize alone
4.40ab
-
6.98a
6.98ab
Lablab alone
-
5.10a
-
5.60b
Vicia alone
-
0.477c
-
0.477c
3.70b
2.88b
4.98b
7.86a
6.00a
0.13c
5.81ab
5.94ab
Maize + Late Lablab
6.58a
2.33b
5.26b
7.59ab
Maize + Late Vicia
6.21a
0.00c
6.81a
6.81ab
SEM
P level
0.63
0.05
0.35
0.00
0.46
0.03
0.53
0.00
221
Table 3. Grain (t/ha) and forage DM yield (t/ha) for maize and forage intercropping systems in 1995.
Treatments
Grain
Maize alone
5.39a
Legume
-
Storege
5.87b
5.87b
Lablab alone
-
5.61a
-
5.61b
Vicia alone
-
2.05bc
-
2.05c
3.68b
2.67b
4.88b
7.55ab
5.92a
0.13d
7.12ab
7.25ab
Maize + Late Lablab
6.43a
1.11cd
8.25a
9.06a
Maize + Late Vicia
6.21a
0.00d
9.10a
9.10a
SEM
P level
2.42
0.000
0.29
0.000
0.55
0.001
0.61a
0.00
Table 4. Grain (t/ha) and maize stover (t/ha) yields for the different treatments of forage/maize intercropping systems during the 1996
Treatments
Grain yield
Stover
Maize alone
5.88ab
8.03abc
Lablab alone
7.33a
7.97abc
Vicia alone
5.11b
6.367c
6.68ab
9.120a
5.13b
7.660bc
Maize + Late Lablab
5.35b
7.210bc
Maize + Late Vicia
6.25ab
8.530ab
SEM
P level
0.43
0.01
0.46
0.01
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our thanks to Oromia Agricultural Development Bureau for funding the project.
Thanks are also due to the Animal Feeds and Nutrition Division’s technical staff for their support during
data collection.
References
Nnadi, L.A. and I.Haque. 1986. Forage legume-cereal systems: Improvement of soil fertility and Agricultural Production
with sepcial reference to sub-saharan Africa. In: proceedings of a workshop held at ILCA, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia, 1619 September 1985.
Dawit Mulugeta and Legesse Dadi. 1987. Chemical control of weeds in maize at Bako, 1980-1986. In: A.W.Michieke (ed.)
proceedings of the Eleventh East African weed science society conference, Nairobi, Kenya, 25-31, May 1987.
Adugna Tolera and A.N. Said. 1992. Prospects for integrating food and feed production in Welaita Sodo, Ethiopia. In:
Proceedings of the joint feed resources networks workshop held in Gaborone, Botswana, 4-8 March, 1991.
222
Regrowth age and nitrgen application effects on yield and nutritional
quality of Panicum coloratum
Diriba Geleti
Bako Research Center, P.O.Box 3, Western Shewa, Ethiopia.
Abstract
The study was conducted to assess the effects of stages of harvest (8, 10 and 12 weeks of age) and levels of N
fertilizer (0, 50, 65, 80 and 95 Kg per hectare) on yield and quality of Panicum coloratum. Traits studied include dry
matter yield (DMY), crude protein (CP), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), acid detergent fiber (ADF), acid detergent
lignin (ADL), cellulose, hemicellulose, in vitro DM digestibility (IVDMD), calcium and phosphorus. The effect of
stages of harvest and N was significant for DM yield. The interaction effect of the two factors was significant for all
yield traits. Stages of harvest significantly influenced CP, NDF, and IVDMD. For the rest quality parameters the
effect of harvesting stage was not significant. Except for phosphorus, the effect of N fertilizer on chemical
components and IVDMD values of Panicum was not significant. With lapse of time in maturity, a consistent trend in
DMY and STD was observed for Panicum. With increasing levels of N fertilizer, the DMY at harvest consistently
increased. Though there was no obvious trend of reduction in CP concentration, the earlier harvested samples gave
higher mean values compared to the samples harvested at 12 weeks of age. The IVDMD value showed declining
trend with increasing stages of maturity. Thus, harvesting Panicum at 10 weeks of age could be considered optimal.
Significantly higher DM yield was obtained when 95 Kg per hectare N was applied. Similarly, CP was also higher at
this level of N. Thus, it is recommended to apply a nitrogen rate of 95 Kg per hectare for achieving optimal herbage
yield and quality among the tested rates.
Introduction
The age of the plant at harvest and the fertility status of the soil are the two most important factors
affecting yield and quality of forage crops (Daniel, 1996). The DM yield of forage species at a given age of
harvest was reported to be low on N deficient soils (Wilman and Fisher, 1996). The effect of N on crude
protein (CP) content of grasses was reported to depend on the time of harvest after it is applied. It was
reported to reach its maximum soon after application which could be explained by the rapid uptake of N by
plants immediately after application. The DM yield of grasses increases with increasing levels of N.
Behaeghe and Carlier (1973), on the other hand have reported that the increment in sward mass production
due to increased rate of N may lead to a greater dilution of the CP concentration in grass species. This
suggests that the stage at which a forage crop is harvested should be considered if improvements in forage
DM yield and quality is to be achieved from pastures to which N fertilizer is applied.
The DM yield of grasses was reported to increase with time up to a certain level, while the crude protein
concentration and herbage digestibility decreases inversely. It is well established that animal production is
impaired as the quality of forage is decreased by the proceeding development of the plants during the
growing season (Steen, 1992). The substantial reduction in the feeding value is attributed to chemical and
physical changes in plant tissues (Van Soest, 1994). The proportion of cell walls increases in the plant
material and the increased lignin content is correlated with reduced digestibility of the cell wall material
(Jung, 1989). Low CP concentration in forage plants limits animal production by reducing the
degradability and intake of feed material (Shirley, 1986). Determination of the effects of stages of harvest
and amount of N is very crucial to identify stages of cut and N levels at which both yield and quality can be
optimized. This study, therefore, was conducted with the objective of assessing the effects of harvesting
stage and N rates on yield and quality of Panicum coloratum.
Location
The study was conducted at Bako Agricultural Research Center during the long rainy season of 1999. The
center is located at 09o6` N latitude and 37o09` E longitude; about 260 Km west of Addis Ababa. The altitude
is 1650 m above sea level. The area experiences one main rainy season extending from March to October; the
effective rain being from May to September (IAR, 1991). The mean annual rainfall is about 1280 mm with a
peak in July. Mean annual temperature is 20 o C, with a mean minimum of 13 and maximum of 27 o C
(BARC, meteorological station).
The soil of the area is dominantly reddish brown Nitosols. They are generally clay dominated and
characterized by a low available P with a pH of 5.3 to 6 in surface soils (Dawit and Legesse, 1983).
Vegetation cover of the area is of woodland and open wooded grassland type. Dominant pasture species
include grass species like Hypparrhenia anamesa and Sporobolus pyramidalis and the legume Neonotonea
wighti (Lemma et al, 1993).
Treatments and experimental design
The effect of different stages of harvests (8, 10 and 12 weeks of age) and levels of N fertilizer (0, 50, 65, 80
and 95 kg N ha-1) on the yield and quality of Panicum was investigated. The harvesting stage treatments
were assigned to the main plots and the levels of N fertilizer constituted the sub-plots arranged in a split plot
design with four replications.
Establishment of plots
Pure seed of Panicum coloratum was planted on well prepared seed beds at a seed rate of 10 kg per
hectare. The seeds were drilled in rows of 2 m long with 30 cm inter-row spacing. The area of each plot was
12 m2. Before drilling the seed, a starter fertilizer at a rate of 100 kg in the form of diammonium phosphate
(46% P2O5 and 18% N) was applied. Then, the applied fertilizer was worked in to the upper soil layer using
hand rakes. After the stand was well established, the above ground biomass was uniformly cut at about 4-5
cm height from ground level and the cut biomass was raked out of the plots. This was practiced so that the
plots become uniform and standardized. The N fertilizer treatments in the form of urea (46 % N) was then
applied to the experimental plots and after application the soil surface was disturbed by using hand rakes to
enhance soil-fertilizer contact.
Dry matter yield
For DM yield determination two randomly selected middle rows were harvested and the fresh weight of
each plot was recorded in the field just after mowing using a field balance. Sub-samples of each treatment
were dried in forced draught oven at 60 o C for 72 hours to determine the DM percent. A composite sample of
the dried forage material for each treatment was saved for laboratory analyses.
Chemical analysis of the feed samples
Weighing of feed samples for chemical analysis was done by the “hot weighing” procedure. The DM
concentration was determined using the procedures described by the Association of Official Analytical
Chemists (A.O.A.C., 1980). The N concentration was analyzed using the Kjeldhal procedure and CP was
determined by multiplying percent N by the factor 6.25. Analysis of neutral detergent fiber (NDF), acid
detergent fiber (ADF) and acid detergent lignin (ADL) followed the procedures described by Goering and Van
Soest (1970). The concentration of hemicellulose was determined by subtracting ADF from NDF and cellulose
by subtracting lignin from ADF. The Ca concentration was determined using the atomic absorption
spectrophotometer (Perkin-Elmer, 1982). Phosphorus was determined by the auto-analyzer (Chemlab, 1978).
A modified two stage in vitro Tilley and Terry technique (1963) was used to determine in vitro DM
digestibility.
Statistical Analyses
Analysis of variance was done using MSTATC computer program. For forage DM yield, the effect of
harevesting stage, nitrogen rates and the interation of the two factors were considered in the model. As the
interaction between the two factors was not significant, the average effect of the two factors were considered
224
separately. For the chemical composition data, only the effect of stage of harvest and N rate was considered
in the model as the samples were pooled over replications. Significant mean differences were declared using
least significant difference (LSD) procedure.
DM yield
Variance ratios and levels of significance from the analysis of variance for herbage DM yield and chemical
composition of Panicum coloratum (to be refered to as Panicum here after) is given in Table 1. The DM yield
was significantly affected by cutting stage. Nitrogen fertilizer has also significantly affected the DM yield of
the grass. The effect of the interaction between N and harvesting stage was not significant for DM yield and
as a result the average effects of the two factors were treated separately.
Mean values for DM yield and chemical composition as influenced by stages of harvest is given in Table 2.
With increasing stages of harvest, the herbage DM yield showed an increasing trend. The increasing trend
in herbage DM yield with increasing age at harvest obtained in this study is in agreement with the reports
of other researchers (Teshome et al, 1994; Aschalew et al 1995; Daniel, 1996). The effects of rates of N on
DM yield of Panicum is given in Table 3. With increasing levels of N fertilizer, DM yield showed an
increasing trend.
Chemical composition and in vitro DM digestibility
Harvesting stages significantly influenced crude protein, NDF and in vitro DM digestibility (Table 1). The
ADF, cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin calcium and phosphorus concentrations were not significantly influenced
by stage of harvest. On the other hand, the phosphorus concentration of the samples was significantly
influenced by the rates of N applied. No significant effect of N, however, was observed for all other chemical
entities and in vitro DM digestibility values.
The mean values of the different chemical components and in vitro DM digestibility values as influenced by
stages of harvest are given in Table 2. The concentration of crude protein ranged from 6.27 to 8.43. The
observed crude protein value at 10 weeks of age was greater than the one obtained at 8 weeks of age
though there was no statistically significant difference between the two harvesting stage means.
Harvesting at 12 weeks was observed to result in a reduced crude protein concentration. The reduction in
crude protein concentration values associated with longer age at harvest in the present study is in
agreement with the reports of Butterworth (1967), Daniel (1990; 1996) and Teshome et al (1994) who
reported similar features for tropical forage species. The findings reported by Gomide et al (1969) for
tropical grass species has also revealed longer age at harvest to significantly reduce the crude protein
concentrations. Tinnimit and Thomas (1976) have also reported similar result. Vona et al (1984), Teshome
et al (1994) and Daniel (1996) have also indicated the generally declining trend of crude protein
concentration with increasing plant maturity.
Intake of forage was reported to sharply reduce when the crude protein content of herbage falls below 6-7
percent in feed DM (Milford and Haydock, 1965). Van Soest (1982) has also reported the minimum level of
crude protein required for an optimal rumen function to be 7.5 percent. A review by Adugna and Said
(1994) has as well showed crude protein values less than 7.5 percent to result in inhibition of intake,
digestibility and proper utilization of the DM of feeds. In the present study, harvesting Panicum beyond 10
weeks was observed to result in fall of crude protein below the values reported to be optimal by Van Soest
(1982) but did fall within the ranges reported by Milford and Haydock (1965). The crude protein
concentration of the samples harvested at 12 weeks of age was observed to contain 2.01 and 2.16
percentage units less than those samples harvested at 8 and 10 weeks of age, respectively. Considering the
mean values for crude protein observed in the present investigation, delaying age at harvest beyond 10
weeks could inhibit optimal rumen function which would possibly affect the performance of animals
subsisting on forage based diets suggesting the need for supplementation if animals are to give satisfactory
yield.
225
The NDF concentration did not exhibit any consistent trend with stage of maturity. It varied from 74.02 to
77.5 percent. The percentage value of NDF obtained at 12 weeks of age was greater than the one harvested
at 10 weeks. The higher NDF that was recorded for the first cut, 8 weeks of age, as compared to the one cut
at 12 weeks in the present study is in contrary to the results of Shenkute (1972) and Cowardlord et al
(1974). Inconsistencies in NDF concentration has also been reported by Arroyo-Aguilu et al (1980) who
found NDF values without a well established trend for Guinea and Merker grass hays. All samples of
Panicum contained an NDF value greater than 60 percent; the critical level above which voluntary feed
intake is decreased, rumination time increased and efficiency of conversion of metabolic energy to net
energy is decreased (Shirley, 1986; Reed and Goe, 1989). This implies that quality had already been started
declining even before the earlier harvest was practiced.
The concentration of other cell wall constituents were inconsistent and not significantly influenced by
harvesting stage. The values obtained for ADF in this study is in agreement with what was observed by
Olubajo et al (1974) who indicated features with no pronounced variation resulting from age differences.
Inconsistencies in hemi-cellulose concentration of tropical grass species were observed by Shenkute (1972)
who reported inconsistent relationship between hemicellulose and age of plants in Guinea and Pangola
grasses, an increase with age in Congo and Elephant grasses and insignificant reduction with age in Star
grass. Minson (1971) has reported a non-significant effect of age on the concentration of hemicellulose and
this is in agreement with the results obtained in the present investigation.
The in vitro DM digestibility values varied from 46.92 percent in the 12 week samples to 53.65 percent for
the 8 week ones. The differences between the means of harvesting stages were highly significant. The in
vitro DM digestibility value for samples harvested at 12 weeks of age was 6.73 and 6.25 percentage units
less than the ones obtained for 8 and 10 weeks of age, respectively. Moore and Mott (1973) and Mugerewa
et al (1978) have reported digestibility values higher than 65 percent to indicate good nutritive value and
those below this level to result in reduction of feed intake due to the resultant decrement in feed
digestibility. The values observed in the present study were by far lower than the indicated critical figure.
The low in vitro DM digestibility values observed in lately cut samples in this study are in agreement with
the results reported by Clark (1963), Daniel (1990), Teshome et al (1994) and Aschalew et al (1996).
The effect of stages of harvest on the concentration of Ca was not significant. Though not significant,
highest Ca content was obtained for the samples harvested at 8 weeks of age. The concentration of Ca at 10
weeks of age was lesser by 0.13 percentage units. There was a slight increment at 12 weeks of age
compared to 10 weeks. The higher Ca concentration obtained at the first cut in this study is in agreement
with the findings of Daniel (1996) who reported a higher value for Rhodes grass at the earlier stage of
plant development. A lactating cow weighing 400 kg and producing 18 kg of milk per day as suggested by
Fleming (1973) and NRC (1978) requires a Ca concentration in feed DM of 0.43 percent. Except for the
samples harvested at 10 weeks of age, a higher Ca value than the dietary requirement was obtained in the
present study.
Harvesting stage effects on the concentration of P was not significant. The mean values of P ranged from
0.13 to 0.15 and no clear trend was observed. The inconsistent trend observed in this study contradicts
with the findings reported by Fleming (1973) and Vona et al (1984) who reported a significant decline of
the concentration of P with advancing maturity. The values obtained were apparently lower than the
ranges reported to be adequate for maintenance in beef cattle (NRC, 1984), dairy cattle (NRC, 1981), sheep
(NRC, 1975) and goats (NRC, 1981).
Except for phosphorus, fertilizer N did not influence all chemical components and in vitro DM digestibility
values of Panicum. No obvious trend, however, was observed. The crude protein values for different N rates
ranged from 6.92 to 8.60 percent. There was a clear trend of increment in crude protein concentration with
increasing levels of N. Except for the control plots and the plots to which 50 kg N was applied, crude
protein did not fall below the critical dietary level of 7.5 percent required for optimal rumen function (Van
Soest, 1982). This implies the possibility of obtaining a quality forage with acceptable crude protein levels
from Panicum based pasture by applying N levels as low as 65 kg per hectare. This, in fact, depends on the
226
age of the crop and the environmental features under which the crop is grown. The insignificant effect of N
on the chemical composition and in vitro DM digestibility in the present study could be attributed, among
other factors, to the availability of a flush of natural soil N that might be the result of mineralization of soil
organic matter as suggusted by Wild (1972), and Dommergues et al (1980). Perhaps, leaching and
volatilization losses of N applied caused by the high rain and temperature that the area experiences could
also be suggestedas an important factor that might have diluted the treatment differences.
Conclusion
With lapse of time in maturity, a consistent trend in DM yield was observed for Panicum. With increasing
levels of N fertilizer, the DM yield consistently increased. The DM yield, crude protein, NDF and in vitro DM
digestibility concentrations were significantly influenced by the stages of harvest. Though there was no
obvious trend of reduction in crude protein concentration with increasing stages of harvest, the earlier
harvested samples gave higher mean value as compared to the samples harvested at 12 weeks of age. Higher
NDF concentration than the critical level was recorded for all samples. The in vitro DM digestibility
consistently declined with increasing stage of maturity. Thus, harvesting Panicum at 10 weeks of age could
be considered optimal.
Significantly higher DM yield was obtained when 95 kg per hectare nitrogen was applied. Similarly crude
protein, though not significant, was also higher at the same nitrogen level. Similarly no significant
variability between nitrogen rates was observed for neutral detergent fiber and dry matter digestibility.
Thus, it seems more beneficial to apply a nitrogen rate of 95 kg per hectare for optimum yield and quality
among the tested N levels.
Table 1. Variance ratios and levels of significance from the analysis of variance for DM yield, chemical composition and in vitro dry
matter digestibility (IVDMD) of Panicum coloratum as affected by stages of harvest and levels of N fertilization
Sources of variation
Variable
Harvesting stage
DMY
N rates
4.05*
CP
21.54***
12.49**
2.14NS
P
3.30NS
9.62**
NDF
4.65*
0.42NS
ADF
2.29NS
0.65NS
Lignin
3.60NS
1.09NS
Cellulose
2.56NS
0.58NS
Hemicellulose
0.68NS
2.33NS
IVDMD
8.40**
0.79NS
Ca
1.72NS
0.19NS
* = SIGNIFICANT AT 5 %; ** = significant at 1 %; NS = not significant;
Table 2. The chemical composition and in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) (% DM) of Panicum harvested at different stages of
harvest
Variable
DMY (t/ha)
Stages of harvest (weeks)
8
10
12
S.E.M.
11.04b
12.84ab
14.71a
0.91
CP
8.28a
8.43a
6.27b
0.34
P
0.14
0.15
0.13
0.005
NDF
77.50aΨ
74.02b
76.81a
0.85
ADF
48.47
45.34
48.65
1.23
7.24
5.61
6.32
0.43
Lignin
Cellulose
41.23
39.73
42.33
0.82
Hemicellulose
29.03
28.68
28.16
0.53
IVDMD
53.65a
53.16a
46.92b
1.29
Calcium
0.51
0.38
0.48
0.05
s.e.m. = standard error of treatment means; Ψmeans within row followed by common letters do not significantly vary
227
Table 3. Effect of N on DM yield, chemical composition and in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) of Panicum as influenced by rates of
N fertilizer.
Variable
DMY (t/ha)
Nitrogen rates (kg/ha)
0
9.48d
50
65
80
95
S.E.M.
12.18c
13.25bc
14.03bc
15.39a
0.48
DM
91.83
91.92
92.19
91.96
92.10
0.08
CP
6.92
7.27
7.56
7.92
8.60
0.44
P
0.17aΨ
0.14b
0.12b
0.14b
0.13b
0.01
NDF
75.81
76.13
76.75
75.99
75.87
ADF
46.21
46.28
49.28
47.94
47.72
1.58
5.65
5.90
6.89
6.59
6.91
0.56
Lignin
1.10
Cellulose.
40.57
40.38
42.38
41.34
40.81
1.06
Hemicellulose
29.6
29.85
27.47
28.05
28.15
0.68
IVDMD
53.28
51.36
49.19
51.64
50.73
1.67
0.41
0.48
0.45
0.46
0.47
0.07
Ca
s.e.m. = standard error of treatment means; Ψmeans within column followed by common letters do not significantly vary
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230
Evaluation of sorghum and millet green fodder for their nutritive value at
two stages of growth
Kenea Feyissa 1, Mahendra Singh2 , M.L. Verma2 and Ashok Kumar2
1
Holetta Agricultural Research Center P.O.Box 2003
of Animal Sciences of G.B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology Pantnagar, U.P.,
India, 263145.
2 Department
Abstract
Two period feeding experiments were conducted to evaluate the nutritive value of green fodder of sorghum (Rio
variety) and Pearl millet (ICMV-221) at two stages of growth using growing crossbred heifers.
The dry matter, organic matter, acid detergent fiber cellulose, acid detergent lignin and gross energy contents were
lower in pearl millet than Rio, while the crude protein, hemi cellulose and total ash contents were higher in pearl
millet than Rio at both stages of harvest. The neutral detergent fiber content was higher in pearl millet than Rio at
milk stage but the value became reversible at dough stage.
The dry matter digestibility of Rio at milk stage (57.26%) was significantly (p<0.01) higher than that at dough stage
(49.93%). In case of pearl millet the dry matter digestibility did not differ significantly between the two stages. The
over all DM digestibility did not differ significantly between Rio (53.60%) and Pearl millet (56.84%). However, the
digestibility of DM in stage I (57.76%) was significantly (p<0.01) higher than stage II (52.68%). The Organic matter
digestibility of Rio at milk stage (60.24%) was significantly (p<0.01) higher than that
at dough stage (53.25%). In
case of pearl millet the organic matter digestibility at milk stage (61.14%) was significantly (p<0.01) higher than at
dough stage (56.74%) indicating that the organic matter digestibility at stage I was significantly higher than stage
II. However, the overall value did not differ significantly between the two fodders. The digestibility coefficient of
crude protein for
Rio at milk stage (54.58%) was significantly (p<0.01) higher than that at dough stage (45.22%).
The digestibility of CP in pearl millet at milk stage (66.18%) was significantly (p<0.01) higher than that at dough
stage (55.15%), which indicated clearly that the digestibility coefficient of CP for fodder harvested at stage I was
significantly higher than that harvested at stage II. Further more the over all CP digestibility of Pearl millet
(60.67%) was significantly (p<0.01) higher than Rio (49.90%). The digestibility of neutral detergent fiber in Rio at
milk stage (52.09%) was significantly (p<0.05) higher than that at dough stage (39.55%). The digestibility of hemi
cellulose on Rio at milk stage (65.73%) was significantly (p<0.01) higher than that at dough stage (58.32%). At dough
stage of harvest the value was significantly (p<0.01) higher in pearl millet (72.04%) than Rio (58.32%) but non
significantly different for pearl millet between the two stages of growth. The over all cellulose digestibility of pearl
millet (49.65%) was significantly (p<0.05) higher than Rio (44.18%) but non significantly different for gross energy.
The dry mater intake (kg/day) of the group of heifers fed on Rio and Pearl millet at milk stage (2.5 & 3.22) was
significantly (p<0.01) higher than the group fed on both fodders at dough stage (2.20 and 2.76), respectively. The dry
mater intake (g/kg w
0.75)
of heifers fed on Rio and pearl millet at milk stage (80.51 and 97.29) was significantly
higher than at dough stage fed group (67.46 and 81.77), respectively.
There fore, it can be concluded that early stage harvesting of green fodder growth provided more nutrient
availability per unit of body size of the animals compared to that harvested at later stages of maturity. Better
nutrient utilization has been observed on pearl millet than Rio at both stages of growth.
Introduction
One of the technical constraints to improve animal productivity is a lack of fed of high nutritive value
throughout the year. Sorghum and millet are important dual purpose cultivated crops mainly grown during
the kharif (main rainy season) in many parts of India. About 35 % of the area grown to sorghum and millet in
the world is in India (Rachie, 1966). Numerous studies have been demonstrated by International Crop
Research Institute for Semi arid and Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) on genetic and breeding progress for
digestibility and genetic and environmental factors and their interaction on existing dual- purpose sorghum
and pearl millet genotypes.
231
Sorghum, popularly known in Indiaas Jowar, is an important food crop and source of fodder in Indian dry
land agriculture. The area annually sown with sorghum is about 17 to 18 million hectares (Verma, 1975).
It is a rapidly growing and gives high green forage yield of about 250-700 q/ha depending on variety and
cutting management. The high green matter and better nutritive value at younger stages of growth
grouped sorghum as a maintenance feed for dairy animals (Verma, 1995). There are several varieties of
forage sorghum grown best under Indian condition viz.; Vidisha 60-1, SL-44, MP chari, Type -8B, Type- 4
and Type -3 are among the promising single cut and multi cuts varieties and lines. Rio, which is one of
most promising varieties of forage sorghum, has god potential for both green matter yield and silage
because of it juicy stalks and high sugar content. When the silage of this variety of sorghum (Rio) is fed to
crossbred milking cows supplemented with different rate of concentrates supported up to 2-3 kg milk yield
per cow per day (Verma, 1975).
Pearl millet (Pennisetum typhoides), locally known as bajra, is an important dual-purpose crop cultivated
in India. Its agronomic practices are similar to that of sorghum. However, it is preferred to sorghum for its
fast growth and withstands moisture stress but it has a limitation of becoming fibrous soon after heading.
Though green forages form the bulk fractions of ruminant diets the performance of these animals depends
upon their ability to consume the fiber portions of the diet. There are several genetic and environmental
factors affecting forage quality. Species, variety and stage of growth have a marked influence on chemical
composition, intake and digestibility of the feed. Harvesting at a very early stage to get better nutritive
value has an adverse effect on dry matter yield. Delayed harvesting, no doubt yields higher dry mater but
the crop is nutritionally poor. Digestible energy and digestible protein contents are significantly reduced
and at the same time animals are not able to eat the required quantity of fodder (Verma, 1995).
The nutritive value of sorghum and pearl millet has not been adequately evaluated as compared to other
commonly cultivated crops like maize. Therefore, the purpose of this experiment was to evaluate the
nutritional value of sorghum (Rio variety) and Pearl millet (ICMV-221) green fodder at two stages of
growth using crossbred heifers.
Study Area
Feeding experiment was conducted at livestock research center of the Govind Ballabh Pant University of
Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, U.P.; India during the months of August to September 1999.
Pantnagar is situated in the foothills of Himalaya at 29.50N and 79.30E and an altitude of 243.84 m above
mean sea level.
Experimental fodders used
Green fodder of sorghum (Rio variety) and Pearl millet (ICMV-221) were harvested from the agronomic
field of the University farm at two different stages of growth i.e. at stage I (milk stage) Rio reached a
maturity age of 84-91 days and Pearl millet 66-73 days after sowing and at stage II (dough stage) Rio at 110117 days after sowing and Pearl millet at 93-100 days after sowing were harvested green from the field
manually and carried to the experimental site for feeding directly after machine chaffing.
Experimental animals used
Twelve growing (Sawihal Holstein Friesian) crossbred heifers ranging from 10.6 to 11.5 months of age and
98.72 to 106kg body weight were selected from the dairy farm at livestock research center of the University.
Due to limited number of animals feeding experiment was conducted in two periods. Experimental heifers
were grouped into two-homogenouse group of six animals in each group on the basis of body weight and age.
One animal from each group was randomly allotted to one of the two feeds. During period I group I and II of
the heifers allowed to feed on greed fodder of Rio and Pearl millet of stage I, respectively that lasted for 19
days of adaptation and followed by 7 days of collection period. During period II the same group of heifers were
directly transferred to the stage II of Rio and Pearl millet green fodder, which lasted for 10 days of adaptation
and 7 days of digestibility trial.
232
Feeding and management of experimental animals
Experimental animals were grouped into two with six animals in each group and housed in the nutrition
shed individually. Manually harvested green fodders, after chopping using chaffer into pieces of 2-3cm were
offered between 8:00-9:00 a.m. The animals were tied in the shed during the digestibility trial of both periods
to ascertain feed consumption and left over feeds for each animal. The left over feeds were weighed from
previous day and recorded on before offering new feed for the day. Weighing of feed offered and residue left
was done using 300 x 0.1kg `Avery` mark plate form balance.
Collection and sampling of feeds and faeces
Fresh samples of the fodders were collected at time of offering. Sampling was done after thorough mixing,
the next day morning samples of residues of individual animals were collected after weighing and thorough
mixing. All collected samples were kept in an air oven for drying at 70-800c for 24 hrs till constant weight was
recorded. Faeces collection started 48 hrs after the first feed was offered. The individual animals faeces were
collected quantitatively and carefully without mixing with urine. Small quantity of wet faeces (1/500th part
i.e. the proportion was fixed according the quantity of faeces voided by the animal on the first day), after
thorough mixing, were sampled and taken to the laboratory for dry matter determination. To preserve the
fresh faece some part is mixed with 15ml of 25% H2So4 solution, bulked over period, and kept in a labeled
wide mouthed glass bottle with a tight lid, for nitrogen determination.
Chemical Analysis
Dried samples were ground through the laboratory Wiley mill of 2mm sieve size and stored in a clean
labeled polythen bags for chemical analysis. Organic matter, Kjeldhal nitrogen and total ash were
determined according to the procedures of Association Official of Agricultural Chemists (AOAC; 1975). The
fiber components such as NDF, ADF, Hemi cellulose, and Cellulose and Acid detergent lignin were
determined by the standard procedure of Georing and Vansoest (1970). Gross energy value of the feeds was
determined by chromic acid oxidation method of O`shea and Maguire (1962). Apparent digestibility
coefficients of the nutrient for the treatments were calculated by the method of McDonald et al (1995).
Statistical Analysis
During the course of study treatments were arranged in a randomized complete block design (RCBD)
considering the two variety of fodders and two stages of growth as treatments and animals as replication.
Data collected during the experimental periods were analyzed and compared by 2-way analysis of variance as
per the procedure of Sndecor and Cochran (1967)
Results and Discussions
Chemical composition
Chemical compositions of Rio and pearl millet at two stages of growth are given in Table 1. The dry matter
percentage of Rio green fodder at milk and dough stages of growth was 24.40 and 34.93, respectively. In case
of Pearl millet the dry matter content at milk and dough stages was 18.82 and 23.43 percent, respectively.
Gill et al (1979) evaluated Pearl millet fodder at different stages of maturity and reported that DM content
increased 3 times from bloom (17.22%) to mature stage (49.56%) on fed basis.
The dry matter percentage was increased by 10.53% units for Rio and in case of pearl millet by 4.61% units
due to stage of growth in the present study. The increase in DM content with increase in maturity for
sorghum and pearl millet was similarly reported by Aganga et al (1996).
At both stages of growth Rio has higher DM% than pearl millet. This higher value of dry matter for
sorghum was also reported by Chauhan et al (1976). This variation in dry matter content between the two
fodder crops might be due to variation in their genetic potential.
In both fodder crops organic matter contents increased with advanced in the stage of maturity. Regardless
of the stage of growth at harvest slightly higher organic matter content for Rio than pearl millet was
observed and such higher OM content for sorghum was similarly reported by Naryanan and
Dabaddghao(1972) and Pal et al (1975). The crude protein contents of both green fodder crops decreased
from milk to dough stages of growth. Pal et al (1975) reported that increase in lignin content and crude
233
fiber and decrease in crude protein of delayed harvesting and the higher the crude protein content is
usually an indication of early harvesting. Regardless of the stage of harvest higher crude protein content in
pearl millet, compared to sorghum, was observed with the difference of 1.93% and 1.53% units higher at
their respective stage of comparison. Similarly Randhawa et al (1988) had reported that green bajra had
1.5 % times more crude protein content than sorghum fodder.
The neutral detergent fiber (NDF) percentages of both fodder crops increased with stage of growth. This
might be due to more structural carbohydrate and lignin synthesis at later stage of growth. Nandra et al
(1983) reported that sorghum harvested at 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 and 100 days after sowing has 56.4, 60.0,
63.04, 67.6, 71.6 and 74.8 percent NDF, respectively. The acid detergent fiber, which represents the lignocellulose complex of the total cell wall constituents, varied with stages and between the two fodder crops.
Higher hemicelluloses and cellulose contents were observed for both fodders at dough stage than milk
stage. Higher hemi cellulose contents in pearl millet than Rio at both stages of growth have been observed.
Das et al (1974) also reported higher hemi-cellulose percentage in bajra fodder compared to dinanath grass
and sorghum forages. Lower value of cellulose content at milk stage but almost similar contents at dough
stage were recorded for the fodders under study
The acid detergent lignin (ADL) percentages of Rio and pearl millet also increased with stage of maturity.
Similar trend but higher values were reported for sorghum (Verma, 1975). Slightly higher ADL percentage
for sorghum than Pearl millet has been observed in present study. Das et al (1974) also reported higher
lignin content in jowar, as compared to dinanath grass and bajra. Total ash percentage decreased with
maturity of plants for both fodder crops. This might be due an increase in cellulose and total water-soluble
carbohydrates. Nath and Das (1953) reported similar reduction in ash contents of grasses with an increase
in maturity. Gross energy showed a slight increase with maturity. Such trend was also reported by Gill et
al (1979) for Pearl millet.
Apparent Digestibility
Dry matter (DM) digestibility percentage of Rio at milk stage showed significant difference than at dough
stage, but non-significant difference for pearl millet between the stages. Pearl millet differed nonsignificantly but higher DM digestibility on pearl millet than Rio at dough stage. Gupta (1975) studied the
dry matter digestibility of 4 varieties of sorghum at 3 different maturity stages. The digestibility values were
66-71, 58-68, and 53-58 percent respectively for flowering, full flowering and post flowering stages. This
significance difference might be due to lignin deposition. Organic matter (OM) digestibility coefficients for
both fodders were higher at milk stage compared to dough stage. Both fodders differed non-significantly, but
the overall digestibility of OM at stage I (60.68%) was significantly higher than stage II (54.10%), indicating
that stage of growth has a negative effect on digestibility of the nutrients.
Significantly (p<0.01) higher digestibility coefficients of crude protein were observed for Rio (54.58%) and
pearl millet (66.18%) at milk stage than at dough stage (45.22%) and (55.15%), respectively. The crude
protein digestibility decreased significantly with maturity for both plants and such decline is attributed to
the progressive lignifications of the plant material. Overall higher crude protein digestibility was observed
on pearl millet (60.67%) than Rio (49.90% ) fodder. The variation in digestibility between these two crops
might be due to variation in their chemical composition especially the crude protein content and
palatability. Higher crude protein digestibility for pearl millet than sorghum was also reported by
Randhawa et al (1988).
Many scientists have recognized the detrimental influence of cell wall constituents of forage on digestibility
and intake. The digestibility of neutral detergent fiber (NDF) for Rio (52.09%) at milk stage was
significantly (p<0.05) higher than that at dough stage (39.55%), with the difference of 13 % units. The
difference is attributed to stage of harvest. This difference in NDF digestibility between milk stage and
dough, might be due to more structural carbohydrates synthesis and lignin deposition in the cell wall
during later stage of growth. Incase of pearl millet the digestibility of NDF differed non-significantly
between the two stages of growth. The overall value of neutral digestibility coefficient of pearl millet
234
(51.82%) was significantly (p<0.05) higher than Rio (45.82%). However, superior digestibility of NDF in
sorghum than bajra was reported by Pradhan et al (1991). The digestibility coefficient of neutral detergent
fiber for stage I (51.98%) was significantly higher than that at stage II (45.67%), indicating that the
digestibility of NDF is highly influenced by the stage of growth. Non-significant but slightly higher ADF
digestibility in pearl millet in comparison to Sorghum (Rio) has been observed in this study. Higher acid
detergent fiber digestibility in sorghum than pearl millet was reported by Pradhan et al (1991), and they
reported that ADF digestibility ranged from 37.6-41.0 percent for sorghum and 37.9-39.0 percent in pearl
millet. The ADF digestibility at stage I for Rio and pearl millet were significantly higher than that at stage
II (Table 2). The hemi cellulose digestibility coefficient for Rio fodder at milk stage (65.73%) was
significantly (p<0.01) higher than that at dough stage (58.32%) with stage difference of 7.41 percent units.
In case of pearl millet hemi-cellulose digestibility values of 70 and 72 percent at milk and dough stage of
growth, respectively, were recorded. These values were higher compared to Rio. Gupta et al (1975)
alsoreported higher hemi-cellulose digestibility in bajra than jowar. Cellulose digestibilities in pearl millet
at both stages, and Rio at milk stage, were significantly higher than Rio at dough stage. The overall
digestibility value on pearl millet was significantly higher than that of Rio. Significantly higher gross
energy digestibility value (61%) was observed for pearl millet followed by Rio (59%) at milk stage of growth
and pearl millet (56%) at dough stage. Randhawa et al (1988) also reported non-significant but higher
gross energy digestibility for bajra (66.0%) than sorghum (63.4%).
Dry matter Intake
Dry matter intake (kg/day) were significantly (p<0.01) different amongst the treatments. The dry matter
intake (kg/d) for both Rio and pearl millet at milk stage was significantly (p<0.01) higher than at dough
stage. This variation in dry matter intake expressed as kg/day might be due to better palatability of the
fodders at younger stage of harvest. The variation in dry matter intake (kg/100kg body weight) and (g/kg
w0.75) at two different stages of growth of both crops followed similar trend as in case of dry matter intake
(kg/day). At milk stage, significantly higher dry matter intake per metabolic weight was observed in pearl
millet fed heifers, compared to Rio fed. The intake value was also significantly different between Rio and
pearl millet at dough stage of growth (Table 3.)
Conclusions
Significant differences have been observed, on stages of growth at harvest and chemical composition,
digestibility and intake of the two fodder crops. The variations observed are a reflection of variation in
chemical composition, even though the two crops were grown under similar agronomic practices. Therefore,
these differences are attributable to the genetic make up of the crops.
Variation due to stages of maturity indicated that harvesting of a fodder crop at early stages of growth is
an essential consideration as it affects the nutritive value of forages.
It may therefore be concluded that ruminants can feed on either of the two green fodders, provided that
they are harvested at a younger stages of growth, thereby allow more of the nutrient availability per unit
of body size. The overall nutrient utilization was higher in pearl millet than sorghum (Rio) at both stages of
growth.
Acknowledgments
The authors are indebted to Department of animal Sciences, Directorate of Research, Joint and Assistant
Directorate, Livestock Research Center of the G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology,
Pantnagar, U.P., India, for their assistance in providing the necessary facilities during the course of the
investigation.
Graduate Scholarship awarded by the Ethiopian Government is duly acknowledged.
References
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Pradhan, K.; Bhatia, S.K., and Sangwan, D.C. 1991.Relative rumen ecosystem and nutrient digestibility in cattle and
Buffaloe fed on fibrous diets. Haryana Agricultural Univesity, Hassar. 103pp.
Randhawa, S.A.; Gill, R.S.; and Hundal, L.S. 1988. Effect of feeding green sorghum, its silage or hay on milk production
in Buffaloes. Indian Journal of Dairy Science. 4(93):255.257.
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236
Table 1. Chemical composition of Sorghum (Rio) and Pearl millet green fodder at two stages of growth
Sorghum (Rio)
Chemical composition
Stage I
(Milk stage)
%DM
Pearl millet (ICMV-221)
Stage I
(milk stage)
Stage II (dough stage)
Stage II (dough stage)
24.40
34.93
18.82
23.43
OM
93.64
94.06
90.58
92.04
CP
7.00
5.60
8.56
7.53
63.40
67.80
63.60
66.30
% Nutrient composition on DM basis
NDF
ADF
38.50
39.80
34.60
36.30
Hemi cellulose
24.90
28.00
29.00
29.60
Cellulose
29.00
31.90
26.50
30.10
ADL
5.20
6.60
5.00
6.30
Total Ash
6.36
5.94
9.42
7.96
Gross energy
M cal/gDM
3.97
4.19
3.85
3.90
Table 2. Average percent digestibility coefficient of nutrient for green fodder of sorghum (Rio) and pearl millet at two stages of growth
Percent digestibility coefficients for the nutrients
Treatments
DM
OM
T1 (Rio stage I)
57.27a
T2 (Rio stage II)
49.93b
T3 (P.millet stage I)
T4 (P. millet stage II
Fodder avg.
Stage avg.
Cellulose
Gross
energy
CP
NDF
ADF
HC
60.24ab
54.58b
52.09a
43.02a
65.73a
47.43a
58.63ab
53.25c
45.22c
39.55b
31.30b
58.32b
40.94b
57.20b
58.26a
61.14a
66.18a
51.86a
41.95a
70.10a
50.17a
60.90a
54.42a
56.74bc
55.15b
51.77a
39.14a
72.04a
49.14a
56.02b
T1+T2
53.60a
56.74a
49.90b
45.82b
37.16a
62.03b
44.14b
57.92a
T3+T4
56.84a
58.94a
60.67a
51.82a
40.54a
71.07a
49.65a
58.46a
T1+ T3
57.76a
60.38a
60.38a
51.98a
40.49a
67.92a
48.80a
59.77a
T2+ T4
52.68b
54.10b
50.19b
45.67b
35.22b
65.18a
45.05a
56.61b
NB values bearing different superscripts within the same column indicate significance at (p<0.01)
Table 3. Average dry matter intake of heifers fed on green sorghum (Rio) and pearl millet (ICMV-221) at two stages of growth
Treatment
DMI (kg/day)
DMI (kg/100 kg body wt.)
T1 (Rio stage I)
2.52b
2.56b
T2 (Rio stage II)
2.10c
2.14c
67.46c
T3 (pearl millet stage I)
3.22a
3.03a
97.29a
T4 (pearl millet stage II)
Fodder Avg.
Stage Avg.
DMI (g/kgw0.75)
80.51b
2.76b
2.53b
81.77b
T1+T2
2.31b
2.35b
73.99b
T3+T4.
2.99a
2.78a
89.53a
T1+T3
2.87a
2.80a
88.90a
T2+T4
2.43b
2.34b
74.60b
Values bearing different superscript with in the same column indicate significance at (p< 0.01)
237
Plant growth characteristics and productivity of Napier Grass
(Pennisetum Purpureum (L.) Schumach.) as affected by plant height at
cutting, sources and levels of fertiliser
Tessema Zewdu1**, R.M.T Baars2 and Alemu Yami3
1Adet
Agricultural Research Centre, P. O. Box 08, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
2Alemaya
University, P. O. Box 138, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia
3 Ethiopian
Agricultural Research Organization, P. O. Box 32, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia
Abstract
Plant growth and dry matter yield (DMY) of Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.) were studied under
field conditions at Adet Agricultural Research Center, Northwestern Ethiopia. The treatments were five fertiliser
applications (0, 46 and 92 N kg ha-1, and 1 and 2 t ha-1 cattle manure) and three plant heights at cutting (0.5, 1 and
1.5 m). There was a significant (P<0.05) effect on DMY due to plant height at cutting, fertiliser application and their
interaction. The highest DMY was obtained from an interaction of cutting at 1.0 m by 92 N kg ha-1 with 12.34 t ha-1.
Plant height at cutting showed a significant (P<0.05) effect on number of leaf per tiller (NLPT), total leaves per
plant (TLPP), leaf length (LL) and leaf: stem ratio (LSR). Internode number per tiller (INPT), internode length per
tiller (ILPT), number of tiller per plant (NTPP) and basal circumference per plant (BCPP) were affected (P<0.05) by
both plant height at cutting and fertiliser application. Plant growth characteristics, which positively influenced
DMY of Napier grass were NLPT, TLPP, NTPP and BCPP while the effect of LSR was negative. Research on Napier
grass should consider these plant growth characteristics to achieve optimum DMY and quality of Napier grass
genotypes.
Introduction
Napier grass is a tall, stout and deep rooted perennial bunch grass well known for its high yielding
capability and usage as a forage for livestock (Woodard and Prine, 1991). Napier grass, Pennisetum
purpureum (L.) Schumach, also known as Elephant grass, occurs naturally throughout tropical Africa (Robert
et al., 1995) and particularly in east Africa (Kariuki et al., 1998). Napier grass has been introduced to all
tropical countries and to sub tropical areas of the world (Butt et al., 1993) and grows from sea level to
altitudes of 2000 m where rainfall exceeds 1000 mm (Bayer, 1990). It is a vigorous and highly productive
forage that withstands considerable periods of drought although little or no growth is produced during these
periods (Butt et al., 1993). But it rapidly recovers with the onset of rain and can survive for more than five
years at elevations exceeding 900 m (Sollenberger et al., 1990). Since seeds are not viable, Napier grass could
be propagated from stem cuttings of three nodes, or by division of rootstocks or shoot tips. However, older and
hardened stems are more reliable than young materials (Alemayehu Mengistu, 1997).
Napier grass can provide a continual supply of green forage throughout the year and best fits in all
intensive small scale farming systems (Alemayehu Mengistu, 1997). Before Napier grass becomes a
valuable forage source, however, more should be known about its adaptation and yield performance under
different agronomic conditions by exposing it to various growth promoting factors. The development of
regular harvesting systems and application of inorganic fertilisers or farmyard manure can significantly
improve the productivity of Napier grass to a reasonably good quality (Annido and Potter, 1994). Therefore,
this study was designed to assess the influence of plant height at cutting as well as different sources and
levels of fertiliser on the growth characteristics and yield of Napier grass.
*
Corresponding author
Experimental site
Productivity and plant growth characteristic studies on Napier grass were conducted from 1999-2000 crop
seasons at Adet Agricultural Research Centre (AARC), northwestern Ethiopia, 445 km away from Addis
Ababa. The area is located at 11o 17’ N latitude and 37o 43’ E longitude at an elevation of 2240 m above sea
level. The centre is characterised by alluvial soil and to some extent by red and black soils. The research
activities reported here were conducted on red soil representing one of the typical soil types of the region. The
annual rainfall of the area is 1285 mm with a range from 860 to 1771 mm and 109 rainy days per year
(average of 14 years, 1986-99) (AARC, 1999). There is one main rainy season extending from May to October
with a peak during June-August. The average annual minimum and maximum air temperatures are 8.8 and
25.4 oC, respectively (AARC, 1999). In 1999, the annual rainfall was 1215 mm and the average monthly
minimum and maximum air temperatures were 7.5 and 26.1 oC, respectively. The 0-40 cm soil layer of the
study area is characterised by a PH of 4.72-4.95, a total N content of 0.1363-0.1528%, an available P content
of 0.66-0.88ppm, and an organic C content of 2.5-4.4%. The total N content, OC, OM and available P content
of cattle manure were 1.549, 53.08, 92.34% and 50mg/kg, respectively (Table 1).
Experimental design and treatments
The study was conducted using a 5 × 3 factorial experiment arranged in a randomised complete block
design (RCBD) with three replications. The treatments were five fertiliser applications (0, 46 and 92 N kg ha1, and 1 and 2 t ha-1 cattle manure) and three cutting heights (0.5, 1 and 1.5 m, in which the grass harvested
at 10-15 cm above ground). The plot size was 3 by 5 m. The spacing between replications and plots were 2 and
1 m, respectively, while spacing between individual plants within rows and between rows was 0.5 and 1 m,
respectively.
Planting and management practices
One high yielding Napier grass accession (ILRI accession no. 14984) previously tested at AARC was
selected and vegetatively propagated using root splits on a well prepared red soil under rainfed conditions in
last weeks of July 1999 when the soil was moist. Diammonium phosphate fertiliser was applied at planting at
a rate of 100 kg ha-1 for establishment according to the recommendation (Bogdan, 1977; IAR, 1988). Nitrogen
(N) fertiliser was applied after establishment (one month after planting) by placing near root slips depending
on the treatment. The cattle manure applied on the plot was more than three months old. The manure was
crushed, ground and broadcasted on the plot and raked in the soil one month before planting for proper
decomposition. Soil and manure samples were taken for major nutrient analysis before planting of Napier
grass and analysed according to standard procedures.
Data collection and analytical procedures
Data on plant growth characteristics were recorded throughout the growing season. Growth characteristics
recorded were number of tillers per plant (NTPP), number of leaves per tiller (NLPT), total number of leaves
per plant (TLPP), internode number per tiller (INPT), internodal length per tiller (ILPT), leaf: stem ratio
(LSR), basal circumference per plant (BCPP) (cm) and leaf length (LL) (cm). Three plants in each plot were
randomly selected for recording data on NTPP, BCPP and TLPP. Two tillers from each selected plant (a total
of six tillers) were randomly used for determining NLPT, INPT, LL and ILPT. In the first year of sampling
only one cut was obtained for all treatments. In the second year of the experiment two cuts were obtained for
1.5m height and three cuts for 0.5 and 1.0m height. Napier grass was harvested 10-15 cm above the ground
from all the treatments excluding guard rows (a net plot size of 2 by 3m) and individual samples were taken
for DMY analysis. DMY was determined by oven drying at 65oC for 72h until constant weight was obtained.
Statistical analyses
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried out using SAS (1998) by the general linear Models (GLM)
procedure for plant growth characteristics and DMY applied to factorial experiment in RCBD. The model
included the effects of fertiliser, plant height at cutting, their interaction and replications. Mean separation
was tested using the least significant difference (LSD). Correlation analysis between plant growth
240
characteristics and DMY were determined. Mean differences for growth characteristics and DMY were
considered significant at P=0.05.
Plant growth characteristics
Plant growth characteristics of Napier grass are presented in Table 2. Number of internode per tiller was
significantly affected by plant height at cutting and fertiliser application. The highest INPT value was
obtained at 0 N (8.3 internodes) and 1.5m cutting height (9.0 internodes). However, harvesting at 0.5 m
height and applying 46 N kg ha-1 had the lowest INPT (5.6 and 6.9 internodes), respectively. The highest
INPT recorded might be due to undisturbed vegetative growth for the highest plant height at cutting or for
longer periods of growth for the grass (Butt et al., 1993). Plant height at cutting showed a significant effect on
NLPT, TLPP, LSR and LL. However, there were no significant differences observed for these plant growth
characteristics by fertiliser application. The highest NLPT and TLPP were obtained at 1.5m cutting height
with 33.8 and 1036.5, respectively. However, the highest LSR (3.0) was obtained from 0.5m cutting height.
Number of leaves per tiller and TLPP increased with increasing cutting heights while LSR and LL were the
highest at the smallest cutting height. This might be due to the reduction in leaf proportion and an increase
in an overall stem fraction of the grass at the highest cutting height, due to maturity of the plant. The result
was in agreement with the findings obtained by Butt et al. (1993) which also suggested that the optimum
cutting regime necessary to produce an optimum response differ for each growth characteristics of Napier
grass. Leaves per tiller and TLPP were significantly few at the shortest cutting height due to cutting at
younger stage.
Number of tillers per plant, BCPP and ILPT were significantly affected by plant height at cutting and
fertiliser application. Similarly, Kamel et al. (1983) reported that number of tiller per plant for Napier
grass increased significantly by plant height at cutting and increasing N levels from 0 to 300 kg N ha-1 in
Egypt. However, animal manure and chemical fertilisers had no effect on number of tillers per plant at the
early stage of growth in Taiwan (Liang, 1982). The shortest BCPP (60.3 cm) and ILPT (12.8 cm) were
obtained from the shortest height of 0.5 m. The highest NTPP (31.1) and BCPP (71.3 cm) were obtained by
applying 92 kg N ha-1 while the highest ILPT (16.9 cm) was obtained at 42 kg N ha–1. The shortest plant
height at cutting reduced ILPT and BCPP, NLPT and TLPP values. This was because of reduction in
photosynthesis and carbohydrate reserves occuring in the lowest defoliation heights of the grass while on
the other hand a continuous incremental photosynthetic rate throughout the growing season in the highest
cutting height (Butt et al., 1993).
Cattle manure did not affect most of the growth characteristics of Napier grass harvested at different
harvesting heights compared to N fertiliser. This might be due to many factors. These include the small
amount of manure applied in the study and its low nutrient contents of cattle manure or the long-term
effect of cattle manure in the soil-plant interaction systems. A ton of cattle manure on DMY basis in
Ethiopia contains 8 and 4 kg of N and P, respectively (Ange, 1994 as cited by Taye Bekele, 1996). The use
of 30 t ha-1 farmyard manure for increased growth and DMY of Napier grass harvested at 1.5m height is
reported in Paraguay (Aveiro et al., 1991).
Dry matter yield (DMY)
The DMY was significantly affected by plant height at cutting and fertiliser application as well as their
interaction effect. The highest DMY was obtained from an interaction of cutting at 1.0 m by 92 kg N ha-1 with
12.34 t ha-1. The DMY of cattle manure applied at 2 t.ha-1 was significantly higher than the DMY of cattle
manure applied at 1 t.ha-1 and the control plot (Table 3). Plant height at cutting and fertilisation increase
DMY. This is reported by several other studies (Liang, 1982; Kamel et al., 1983; Hassan et al., 1990; Muinga
et al., 1992). In the central highlands of Ethiopia, the highest DMY yield of Napier grass was obtained from
the intermediate plant height at cutting (1m) (Seyoum et al., 1998). The present study shows higher DM
yields for both 1.0 and 1.5 m plant height at cutting and applying 92 kg N ha-1. However, according to
Tessema et al. (2001; 2002) the yields of CP and digestible dry matter of Napier grass were higher at 0.5 and
241
1.0m plant height at cutting. Therefore, utilising Napier grass at 1 m height is advantageous in terms of
forage yield and quality than applying inorganic N fertiliser, which needs extra cost and not friendly to the
environment.
The effect of cattle manure on DMY was compared to chemical fertiliser application and was not found
pronounced. This might be due to the small amount of manure applied and the slow nutrient releasing as
the manure was not yet fully decomposed. Despite these relatively low values, application of 2 t ha-1 of
cattle manure significantly effected DMY. The growth attributes of Napier grass were proportional to the
amount of applied manure in Taiwan (Liang, 1982).
Relationship between plant growth characteristics and dry matter yield
Table 4 shows the correlation analysis between plant growth characteristics and DMY of Napier grass.
The DMY of Napier grass were positively correlated with INPT, ILPT, NLPT, TLPP, NTPP, BCPP and
negatively correlated with LL and LSR. The negative linear correlation between DMY and LL was not
significant which might be caused due to chance rather than by treatment effects. The negative relationship
between DMY and LSR might be associated mainly because of the shorter the leaf length and the higher the
LSR, the lower DMY of the morphological fractions. Most plant growth characteristics showed positive
correlation with each other while LL and LSR showed negative relationship. The DMY of the different
morphological fractions were also positively correlated with each other. The result of the correlation analysis
of most growth characteristics and DMY of Napier grass was found similar with past research works (Hassan
et al., 1990; Kamel et al., 1983).
Conclusion
Number of leaf per tiller, TLPP, LL and LSR were affected significantly by plant height at cutting while
INPT, ILPT, NTPP and BCPP were influenced by both cutting height and fertiliser application. Plant height
at cutting, fertiliser application and their interaction had a significant effect on DMY. Higher DM yields were
obtained for both 1.0 and 1.5 m plant height at cutting and applying 92 kg N ha-1. Utilising Napier grass at 1
m height therefore is advantageous in terms of forage yield and quality than applying inorganic N fertiliser,
which needs extra cost and not friendly to the environment. Plant growth characteristics that highly
positively influence Napier grass DMY were TLPP, NTPP and BCPP, and negatively was LSR. Future
research on Napier grass should consider these plant growth characteristics among others to achieve
optimum DMY and quality of Napier grass.
Acknowledgement
The authors acknowledge the Amhara National Regional Council and AARC, Ethiopia, for financing the
research. All the staff of Animal Feeds and Nutrition Division of AARC are highly appreciated for their
assistance during the execution of the research.
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243
Table 1. Soil and manure quality parameters before fertilisation and planting of Napier grass
Soil
Total N
(%)
OC*
(%)
OM
(%)
Available
P (ppm)
pH (H2O)
1:1
EC
(Mmhos/cm)
0.1363-0.1528
2.5-4.4
5.0-8.8
0.66-0.88
4.72-495
0.027-0.069
1.549
53.08
92.54
50mg/kg
-
-
Cattle manure
*
OC = organic carbon; OM = organic matter; EC = electric conductivity
h
Plant height at cutting
x
N fertiliser (kg.ha-1)
y
Cattle manure (t.ha-1)
Table 2. Plant growth characteristics of Napier grass as influenced by plant height at cutting and fertiliser application
Plant height at cutting (m)
Fertiliser application
Plant growth
characteristics
0.5
1
1.5
SE ±
0d
46d
92d
1e
2e
SE ±
INPT
5.6c
7.7b
9.0a
0.19
8.3a
6.9b
7.3b
7.4ab
7.3b
0.24
ILPT (cm)
12.8c
15.0b
17.4a
0.41
14.7b
16.9a
14.9ab
14.3b
14.3b
0.54
NLPT
20.5c
25.6b
33.8a
1.58
28.8
25.1
25.9
26.2
27.4
TLPP
438.7c
728.9b
1036.5a
860.2
717.3
834.4
620.6
640.6
53.3a
48.5b
48.6b
48.8
52.8
51.4
48.5
49.2
LL (cm)
LSR
3.04a
1.33b
53.2
1.47
1.17b
2.05
68.7
1.90
0.16
1.91
1.84
1.72
2.14
1.62
0.21
NTPP
21.3b
28.2a
30.3a
1.23
28.5ab
27.9ab
31.1a
23.0b
22.5b
1.59
BCPP (cm)
60.3b
63.1b
73.7a
1.94
67.3ab
67.9ab
71.3a
58.9c
62.9bc
2.50
Means within rows with different letters are significantly different, P<0.05; d = N kg ha-1 and e = cattle manure (t ha-1).
Table 3. Least square means of dry matter yield (t ha-1) of Napier grass as influenced by plant height at cutting and fertiliser application.
Plant height at cutting (m)
0xy
46x
0.5
6.99defg
6.95defg
1.0
6.48efg
1.5
8.45bcdef
9.05abcde
Mean
7.31
8.89
10.67abc
92x
1y
2y
5.51fg
5.88efg
4.18g
5.90
12.34a
7.84cdef
8.58bcdef
9.18
10.28abcd
8.16cdef
9.38
Mean
11.72ab
9.53
8.16
8.21
7.29
abcdefg
Numbers with similar superscript do not significantly differ (P < 0.05). SE (±) for comparing any two means = 1.18; for comparing plant height means = 0.53
x
N fertiliser (kg ha-1)
y
Cattle manure (t ha-1)
Table 4. Correlation coefficients (r) between plant growth characteristics and dry matter yield of Napier grass
INPT
ILPT
ILPT
NLPT
TLPP
LL
LSR
NTPP
BCPP
LDMY
SDMY
0.77a
NLPT
0.91a
0.72b
TLPP
0.89a
0.78a
0.94a
LL
-0.38
-0.01
-0.31
-0.18
LSR
-0.79a
-0.72b
-0.67b
-0.71b
0.32
NTPP
0.74a
0.56c
0.68b
0.84a
-0.36
BCPP
0.69b
0.79a
0.74a
0.87a
0.16
-0.58c
0.70b
LDMY
0.77a
0.86a
0.68b
0.76a
-0.30
-0.85a
0.77a
SDMY
0.58c
0.64b
0.51c
0.61c
-0.33
-0.75a
0.71b
0.53c
0.81a
TDMY
0.76c
0.86a
0.72b
0.79a
-0.27
-0.87a
0.79a
0.74b
0.98a
-0.76a
0.70b
0.82a
N = 27; Significance level a = P < 0.001; b = P < 0.01; c = P < 0.05.
244
Effect of manure and nitrogen fertilization on establishment, herbage
yield and seed productivity of perennial grasses
Getinet Assefa, Fekede Feyissa and Abreham Gebeyehu
Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO), Holetta Research Center, Forage and pasture crops
research program P.O.Box 2003, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Abstract
This paper assesses establishment, herbage yield and seed yield response of three perennial grasses (Phalaris
aquatica cv. Sirossa, Chloris gayana cv. Massaba and Panicum coloratum) to different manure and N-fertilizer
levels applied annually or only once during the establishment year. To take seasonal variations in to account,
planting was made for two years (1996 and 1997). Stand counts taken a month later after planting indicated that
manure or fertilizer N did not significantly affect germination of the three grass species during both planting years
(P>0.01). However, herbage yield results during the establishment years showed an increasing trend with an
increase in manure or N fertilizer levels and yields were found to be nearly similar in response to manure levels of
10 -15t ha-1 and N levels of 46-92kg N ha-1 for all the species in both planting years. The three grasses attained their
peak herbage productivity during the second years of establishments. Mean herbage yields during this peak growth
stage were 6.90t, 8.05t and 7.59t ha-1 DM for Phalaris, Rhodes and Colored Guinea respectively in 1996 plots. For
the 1997 planted trial, the figures were 6.12t, 9.75t and 7.77t ha-1 DM respectively for the three species. The overall
mean herbage DM yields were 5.57t and 6.40t ha-1 for Phalaris, 5.85t and 6.40t ha-1 for Rhodes and 6.35t and 5.49t
ha-1 for Colored Guinea in 1996 and 1997 plots respectively. Number of harvests and total herbage yields were
higher for Rhodes and Colored Guinea; but the lower yields obtained during the short rains lowered mean herbage
yields of these species. Fertilization with manure or N fertilizer had significant effect on the overall herbage
productivity of the three species for both planting years (P<0.01). Mean herbage yields were higher in response to
the higher manure and N levels (15 t ha-1 manure and 92kg N ha-1) especially for Rhodes grass; but the response of
Phalaris and Colored Guinea was slightly inconsistent. Continuous annual manure application did not significantly
improve herbage yields of the species as compared to annual application of N fertilizer (P>0.01) indicating the
residual fertilizer value of the initially applied manure. All the grasses gave two seed harvests in the second and
third years of establishment for each planting year and alike herbage yield, higher seed yields were obtained during
the second year of establishment for all the species. Mean seed yields were significantly higher in the 1996 planting
than 1997 planting for all of the species (P<0.01). In 1996 planting, Phalaris gave higher mean seed yield in
response to 23kg N ha-1; whereas Rhodes and Colored Guinea gave higher mean yields in response to 92kg N ha-1.
Rhodes was also equally responsive to 15t ha-1 manure. In the 1997 planting, mean seed yields were still higher in
response to 92kg N ha-1 for Rhodes and Colored Guinea but in response to 15t ha-1 manure for Phalaris. Seed yields
showed an increasing trend with an increase in N fertilizer levels for all the species; but the trends were inconsistent
in response to the manure levels used. The overall mean seed yields were 167.9kg and 69.9kg ha-1 for Phalaris,
172.9kg and 93.6kg ha-1 for Rhodes and 123.5kg and 64.5kg ha-1 for Colored Guinea in 1996 and 1997 plantings
respectively. Similar to the herbage yields, annual manure application did not significantly improve seed yields in
all the grasses. Generally, both herbage and seed yields of the species were better in response to higher levels of
manure or N fertilizer initially applied to the fields.
Introduction
Natural pastures that provide the bulk of ruminant feed in Ethiopia are depleting from time to time and
their average annual productivity does rarely exceed 1.5-2.5t ha-1 dry matter under continuous communal
grazing system (EARO, 2000). Crop residues as other major sources of livestock feed could not meet the
nutritional requirements of the animals due mainly to low protein and high fiber contents. Hence, these feeds
have to be complemented with cultivated pasture species of high forage yield with reasonable quality if any
meaningful production level is to be expected from livestock. Among the perennial pasture species tested so
far, Rhodes (Chloris gayana), Colored Guinea (Pannicum coloratum) and Phalaris (Phalaris aquatica) are
very well adapted grasses to mid and high altitude areas up to 2400m above sea level (IAR 1985 – 94). These
species are among the very few perennial pasture species selected for their adaptation and herbage yield in
the central highlands at Holetta. Once established very well, they stay green for most part of the year and
resume active growth during the short rains in the area. However, lack of seed coupled with other policy
problems has impeded the passage of these grasses from the evaluation stage to an on-farm testing and largescale production in the country (Lulseged, 1987). Despite this, seed production has received little attention
and evaluation of improved pasture species has been solely based on environmental adaptation and herbage
yield. Unless seed is produced in sufficient amount, the eventual step of large-scale production of improved
pasture species would be critically hindered and all the preceding plant introduction and evaluation works
will be wasted.
Poor establishment especially in the cooler highlands is one of the major problems encountered from
previous works on these species. Once they are well established the overall productivity will be very good
in subsequent production life of the pasture. Fertilization with manure or fertilizer N is of paramount
importance for successful establishment of these grasses both for forage and seed production. Experiences
of other countries also indicated that a good perennial pasture requires high input and intensive
management during the establishment year.
Seed production from forages is technically difficult and is quite complex as species are recently
domesticated and retain many characteristics of wild species such as early shedding of seed at maturity
and various dormancy responses. Preliminary observations at Holetta have indicated that average seed
yields of 150, 86 and 66kg ha-1 year-1 were obtained from Chloris gayana, Pannicum coloratum and
Phalaris aquatica respectively (IAR, 1991-94). Besides cultural manipulation and agronomic practices,
proper plant nutrition is important in increasing forage seed yields. Some varieties that are regarded as
poor seeders have been observed to produce high seed yields when grown under suitable fertilizer regime.
Nitrogen is one of the most important fertilizers for encouraging grass growth and has great influence on
growth and development of seed crops. It accelerates flower initiation, increases the rate of floret
production and inflorescence development.
The most commonly used sources of nitrogen in Ethiopia are the imported commercial fertilizers. On the
other hand, animal manures are other important sources of major and minor plant nutrients. Dry
farmyard manure on average contains about 2% nitrogen, 0.4% phosphorous and 1.7% potassium; but
different batches may contain very different percentage of nutrients depending on origin and storage
(Murwira et al, 1995). Besides nutrient provision, manure has a beneficial role in improving the soils
physical characteristics. The existing pressure of feed shortage and high prices of agro-chemical inputs will
favor the use of farmyard manure for both backyard and field production of improved perennial pasture
species. Using manure for perennial pasture species is also advantageous in that because of their long life
cycle, they can efficiently exploit the residual fertilizer value of the manure. However, although Chloris
gayana, Pannicum coloratum and Phalaris aquatica are some of the most promising perennial forage
grasses recommended for the highlands of Ethiopia, there is no dearth of information on seed and herbage
yield response of these species to manure and nitrogen fertilizer application. Moreover, the optimum
fertilizer rate that can maximize both seed and herbage output from these species has not been established
under highland conditions. The objectives of this experiment were therefore:
9.
10.
To assess the effect of different manure and N-fertilizer levels on the establishment, forage yield and
seed yield performances of the three perennial grasses; and
To determine the optimum level of fertilizer for the species in the area
The study was carried out in the central highlands of Ethiopia at Holetta Agricultural Research Center
from June 1996 to December 1999. The trial was planted in 1996 and 1997. The experimental site is situated
45km Northwest of Addis Ababa at an altitude of 2400masl and receives an annual rainfall of 1100mm with
bimodal distribution over 70% of which occurs during the main rainy season that extends from June to
246
September and the rest during the short rainy season extending from February to April. The minimum and
maximum air temperature ranges of the site are 2 to 90C and 20 to 270C respectively. The site is characterized
by occasional frost that occurs in the months of October to November and temperatures below 00C are
recorded for few days during these months. The trial was conducted on a Nitosol with a PH of 5.0 and usually
deficient in total nitrogen (0.18%) and available phosphorous (9.0 ppm) and potassium (1.544 meq/100g). It
has also an organic matter content of 2% (Holetta Research Center Soil Laboratory).
Three perennial grasses including Phalaris (Phalaris aquatica cv. Sirrosa), Rhodes (Chloris gayana cv.
Massaba) and Coloured Guinea (Pannicum coloratum cv. Coloratum) with respective germination rates of
57, 79 and 79% (determined at room temperature using bloating paper) were sown broadcast on a well
prepared seedbed using a seeding rate of 15kg ha-1 on the 17th and 19th of June 1996 and 1997 respectively.
The treatments were laid out in split-plot design with RCB arrangement in four replications using the
grass species as main plots of size 256m2. Partially decomposed cattle manure at the rates of 5, 10 and 15t
ha-1 and nitrogen fertilizer at the rates of 23, 46 and 92kgN ha-1 were applied in the sub-plots of size 32m2
leaving one unfertilized plot as a control. Nitrogen was splitted in to two so that one half was applied at
planting and the other half at tillering. Phosphorous at the rate of 46kg P2O5 ha-1 was applied across all
nitrogen plots in the establishment years.
To assess the residual effect of the manure and N fertilizer, the plots were further splitted in to two
starting from the second year of planting. The same manure and nitrogen fertilizer levels were applied to
one half of the plots annually while the other half was left unfertilized until the termination of the trial.
Data was collected for three years for each planting year. Forage yield was estimated by harvesting the
grasses at the stage of 50% flowering whenever seed was not expected such as in the short rains. 50%
flowering is the recommended harvesting stage for perennial grasses for compromised herbage yield and
quality in the highlands. The stubble herbage yields after seed harvest was also determined for all the
grasses. Herbage samples were dried to constant weight using forced air-drying oven to determine the drymatter percentage. All the grasses set seed starting from the second year as the area is cool and grasses
grow slowly during the first year. The mature inflorescences were harvested 10-15cm below the Panicle;
then sun dried, piled for few days and manually threshed and cleaned to estimate seed yields.
The collected agronomic, forage and seed yield data was subjected to analysis of variance using the SAS
statistical procedures. Combined and separate analysis was done for planting years, grass species and
harvests.
Establishment years
The seedling counts taken a month after planting were inconsistent over the treatments suggesting that
fertilizer had no much effect at initial germination. Despite its low seed germination percentage in the
laboratory, higher number of seedlings (almost twice of Rhodes and Colored Guinea) was recorded per square
meter for Phalaris in both establishment years (Table 1). This might have been attributed to the suitability of
the highland conditions for its establishment as the species is of temperate type. However, because of the
stoloniferous nature of Rhodes and the decumbent stems of Colored Guinea which root at the nodes, they
later on covered the plots more densely than Phalaris and this was reflected in their subsequent herbage and
seed yields. Previous observations also indicated that plant population at establishment was very important
for bunch/tuft type of grasses but were not much determinant in subsequent production seasons for creeping
type of grasses like Rhodes. Fertilization with manure or N-fertilizer did not significantly improve
germination as compared to the control in all the species in both establishment years. This implies that
germination depends more on climatic conditions and species than nutrient supply.
In 1996 planting year, all the grasses gave significantly higher herbage yields in comparison to the control
when the higher manure rate (15t ha-1) was applied (P<0.05). On the other hand, higher herbage yields
were recorded in response to 92 kg N ha-1 for Rhodes and Colored Guinea and in response to 10t ha-1
manure for Phalaris in 1997 plots (Table 1). The general trend was that there was an increase in herbage
247
yield with an increase in manure or N-fertilizer levels in both establishment years. It has also been noted
that manure levels of 10-15t ha-1 affected herbage yields of the species in a comparable manner to N levels
of 46 - 92kg ha-1 (Table 1).
As growth performance of perennial pasture species during the establishment year is very slow in the cool
highlands such as Holetta, the corresponding herbage yield is generally low even under the regime of
fertilizer application. This implies that nutrient supply in the establishment year may enhance more root
development than vegetative biomass growth in perennial grasses. This in turn would determine
subsequent herbage or seed productivity of the species in the following production seasons. Mean herbage
yields were lower during the 1997 than 1996 especially for Phalaris and Colored Guinea. This might have
been attributed to climatic variations between the two seasons. Performances of perennial grasses in the
establishment year are highly influenced by weather, the degree of control over weeds and the difference in
speed with which seeds germinate and establish, and less so by the specific factors under investigation
(Boonman, 1993). In general, average herbage yields are less than 3t ha-1 DM with average height at
harvest of below 1m for all the three species during both establishment years.
Performance in the second and third year of establishment
A) Herbage yield
In the cooler highlands, herbage yield and number of harvests per year are highly determined by the
availability of moisture. Most of the perennial grasses could be harvested 2 or 3 times per year. If short rains
are timely and adequate, high herbage yields could be obtained. Moreover, tropical species like Rhodes and
Colored Guinea are usually favored by the warmer season and grow very well even with little moisture
available during the short rains. On the other hand temperate grasses like Phalaris are not performing very
well in the short rains and sometimes may not give any harvest.
During the second and third years all the grasses gave two harvests per year; one during the short rains
when only herbage was estimated and the other following the main rains when both seed yield and stubble
herbage yields were determined. However, Phalaris in some cases did not give harvestable forage during
the short rains. As yield is a function of growth rate and time, herbage yields during the short rains were
low as compared to the herbage or stubble yields obtained following the main rainy season. All the grasses
attained their peak herbage productivity in the second year of establishment. However, herbage yields
were also comparatively higher especially towards the later stage of growth in response to continuous
annual manure or N-fertilizer application; but the yield improvements especially in response to annual
manure application were not significant (P>0.01). Rhodes and Colored Guinea were relatively more
responsive to annual N fertilizer application. Treatment effects on herbage yields of each of the grasses are
described below.
Phalaris grass: Herbage yields in both the planting years are indicated in table 2. In the 1996 planting,
no significant herbage yield variation was observed in response to the different manure and N-fertilizer
levels during the second harvest (P>0.01). Higher herbage yield was recorded in response to 92 kg N ha-1
followed by 23kg N ha-1 and 5t ha-1 manure. The third and fourth harvests were the stubble herbage yields
determined after the first and second seed harvests respectively. Phalaris attained its peak herbage
production during the third harvest that was made in the second year of establishment following the main
rainy season. This was as expected since herbage yield is not equally distributed during the life period of
perennial grasses and yields are usually at their best in the first 12-18 months and then drop rapidly
followed by a rather steady state (Boonman 1993). During the peak growth stage, mean herbage yield was
higher when 92kg N ha-1 was used and the lower average herbage yield was recorded in response to 5t ha-1
manure. However, the different manure and N-fertilizer levels didn’t bring about a significant variation in
herbage yield as compared to the control (P>0.01). This implies that herbage yield of Phalaris is less
affected by fertilizer during its peak growth stage. During the fourth harvest, mean herbage yield was
lower than the third harvest. However, the effect of fertilizer became significant after the peak-growing
season and accordingly significantly lower mean yield was recorded for unfertilized plots during the fourth
harvest (P<0.05). N-fertilizer levels of 23kg and 92kg N ha-1 and 10t ha-1 manure significantly improved
248
mean yield in comparison to the control (P<0.05). There was also significant difference between mean
yields of the different harvests (P<0.05)
In 1997 plots, no harvest was taken following the short rains and only two stubble harvests were taken
after seed in 1998 and 1999. During both harvests, herbage yield showed an increasing trend with an
increase in manure levels and the response was significantly different (P<0.05) between the lower manure
level (5t ha-1) and the other two levels (10t and 15t ha-1). The yield trends in response to the different Nfertilizer levels were variable but not significantly different (P>0.01). The overall mean yield was higher in
response to 15t ha-1 manure. Unlike the 1996 plots, there was no significant difference between mean
yields of the different harvests in 1997 plots (P>0.01).
In both establishments, continuous annual fertilization with manure or N-fertilizer did not significantly
improve herbage yield in comparison to the control (P>0.01). This may be attributed to the residual effect
of manure and the inevitable losses of N applied as urea. Based on the percentage of N recovered in the
forage, urea is usually the least efficient of the common sources of N because losses of up to 60% of the N
applied as urea have been reported through volatilization and leaching (Bogdan 1977). In general, overall
mean herbage yields of Phalaris excluding the establishment years ranged from 4.96 t to 6.06 t ha-1 and
5.01 t to 7.25 t ha-1 in 1996 and 1997 plots respectively. These results were in the ranges reported by
Getinet et al (1996).
Rhodes grass: As in the case of Phalaris, Rhodes grass attained its peak productivity during the second
year in both establishments (Table 3). In both the planting years, herbage yield showed an increasing
trend with an increase in manure and N fertilizer levels during all the harvests. Higher mean yields were
obtained in response to the higher manure and N fertilizer levels (Table 3). During the third harvest when
herbage yields were peak, fertilizer had no significant effect (P>0.01). However, at later stage during the
fifth harvest, significantly higher herbage yields were recorded in response to 15t ha-1 manure and 92kg N
ha-1 as compared to the control treatment in 1996 plots (P<0.05). Mean herbage yields of Rhodes during the
peak growth (third harvest) and later stage (fifth harvest) were not significantly different in contrast to
Phalaris (P>0.01). This is inline with Boonman (1993), which stated that the decline of productivity from
the second year onwards is common to all cultivated tropical grasses, but N-fertilizer maintains their
productivity for prolonged period of time. This indicates that tropical grasses such as Rhodes grass are
more responsive to continuous annual fertilization towards the later growth stage than temperate grasses
such as Phalaris. In 1997 plots, although mean herbage yield during the peak growth stage was better
than that of the 1996 plots, yield has declined towards the later stage regardless of fertilization (Table 3).
This may be attributed to variation in climatic conditions between the two seasons. Accordingly, average
yield during the peak growth stage (third harvest) was significantly higher than the other harvests
(P<0.01). Generally, the overall herbage yield of Rhodes varied from 5.51 t to 6.79 t ha-1 DM and from 5.34
t to 7.26 t ha-1 DM in 1996 and 1997 plots respectively. Mean yields were significantly higher than the
control when the higher manure and N fertilizer levels were used (P<0.01) indicating that Rhodes is more
responsive to higher rates of manure or N fertilizer.
It has been indicated (Bogdan 1977) that herbage yields of Rhodes grass range from 1.5t to 25t DM ha-1
depending on soil fertility and fertilizers applied, frequency of cutting or grazing, rainfall and other factors.
The results of this experiment also lie within the specified range with remarkable variations depending on
fertilizer regime; growth stage, season and the overall mean herbage yield was closer to the result reported
by Getinet et al (1996).
Coloured Guinea grass: The number and types of harvests taken from Colored Guinea were similar to
Rhodes in both plantings. In 1996 planting, significantly higher mean herbage yield was obtained in
response to 10t ha-1 manure followed by 92kg and 46kg N ha-1 (P<0.05). Mean herbage yields of Colored
Guinea showed an increasing trend with an increase in N levels; but the trend in response to the different
manure levels was inconsistent (Table 4). This was in contrast to Rhodes. Moreover, unlike Rhodes, there
was no significant difference between mean yields during the peak growth stage (second year of
establishment) and the later stages (P>0.01). This indicates that herbage yield of Colored Guinea could be
249
maintained higher relatively for prolonged period of time. Herbage yields during the short rains (the
second and fourth harvests) were better than those of Rhodes and Phalaris in 1996 plots indicating that
Colored Guinea is more responsive to small amount of rain than Rhodes and Phalaris. The overall average
herbage yield of Colored Guinea ranged from 5.22t to 7.38t DM ha-1 in 1996 planting and it is higher than
the results reported by Getinet et al (1996).
Fertilizer treatment effects were inconsistent in the 1997 planting (Table 4). But all the manure and N
fertilizer levels significantly improved herbage yield in comparison to the control (P<0.05). In contrast to
the 1996 planting, herbage yields declined significantly towards the later stage (P<0.01). This may be
attributed to seasonal climatic effects. Fertilization with manure or N fertilizer significantly improved
herbage yield in comparison to the unfertilized plot during the peak growth stage (P<0.05). This shows that
Colored Guinea is more responsive to fertilization than Rhodes and Phalaris during the peak growth stage.
Its response to continuous annual fertilization was also better than the two grasses.
B) Seed yield
While herbage yield was determined in all possible seasons when the grasses reach 50% flowering, seed
was harvested usually once a year during the main growing season (main rains) under Holetta condition. All
the three grasses gave two seed harvests for each planting year, during the second and third year of
establishment. Alike the herbage yield, higher seed yield was also obtained during the second year of
establishment from all the species for both planting years. Mean seed yield of the two planting years was
higher by 138, 62.6 and 66.2% during the second year of establishment than the third year for Phalaris,
Rhodes and Colored Guinea respectively. Seed yields were significantly higher in plots established in 1996
than 1997 for all the three species (P<0.01). Mean seed yields were higher by 140, 84.7 and 91.4% for
Phalaris, Rhodes and Colored Guinea respectively in 1996 plots. The overall mean seed yield of the two
planting years was 118.9, 133.3 and 94kg ha-1 for Phalaris, Rhodes and Colored Guinea respectively. Mean
seed yields of Rhodes showed an increasing trend with an increase in levels of manure or fertilizer N; but the
seed yield trends of Phalaris and Colored Guinea was slightly inconsistent. Continuous annual fertilization
with manure or N-fertilizer had improved mean seed yield of the species during the second seed harvest
(third year of establishment). The results indicated that Rhodes and Colored Guinea were found to be more
responsive to annual fertilizer application. Seed yield of each of the grasses in response to the different
manure and N-fertilizer levels is presented as follows:
Phalaris grass: In the 1996 planting, manure or N fertilizer had significantly affected seed yield of
Phalaris during the first harvest (P<0.01); but not during the second harvest (P>0.01). No significant seed
yield variations have been realized in response to the different manure levels applied during both harvests
(P>0.05) (Table 5). Seed yield trend in response to the different manure and N fertilizer levels was
inconsistent and higher mean seed yield was obtained in response to 23 kg N ha-1. This shows that the
high seed yield of Phalaris in the 1996 planting than the 1997 planting might have been associated with
better establishment conditions, soil and weather conditions than treatment effects.
Seed yields were lower and also fertilizer treatment effects were insignificant in the 1997 planting. The
overall mean seed yield was almost half of that of the 1996 planting (Table 5). This may be attributed to
poor establishment during the 1997 planting and subsequent weather conditions. The seed yield trend in
response to the different manure and N fertilizer levels was similar to the 1996 planting. Continuous
annual fertilization improved seed productivity of Phalaris especially in the 1997 planting. Except in the
1996 planting when seed yield of exceptionally higher during the first harvest, seed yield and response of
Phalaris to fertilizer application was lower as compared to Rhodes and colored Guinea grass. The seed
yield results of Phalaris in this study the reports of Getinet et al (1996).
Rhodes grass: Seed yield was significantly affected by manure and N fertilizer treatments during both
harvests in 1996 planting (P<0.01). Higher average seed yield was obtained in response to 92 kg N ha-1 and
15t ha-1 manure in the first and second harvests respectively (Table 6). There was an increasing trend in
seed yield with an increase in N level during both harvests. On the other hand, the yield trend in response
to the different manure levels was inconsistent during the first harvest; but it increased with an increase
250
in manure level during the second harvest. This indicates the residual fertilizer value of manure in
improving crop response towards the later stage of growth. Comparably higher mean seed yields were
obtained in response to 92kg N ha-1 and 15t ha-1 manure in 1996 planting. This does not imply that 15t
manure is equivalent to 92kg N in nutrient concentration; but their efficiency may differ as much of the
nitrogen applied as urea is expected to be lost through leaching and volatilization (Bogdan, 1977).
In plots established in 1997, higher average seed yields were obtained in response to 92kg N ha-1 during
both harvests (Table 6). Seed yields were significantly (P<0.01) affected by the different N fertilizer levels
during both harvests showing an increasing trend with an increase in N level. Similarly, although not
significant (P>0.01), seed yields showed an increasing trend with an increase in manure levels indicating
that Rhodes grass is responsive to fertilization. In general, the overall mean seed yields of Rhodes grass in
this experiment ranged from 145.8kg ha-1 to 194.1kg ha-1 in 1996 planting and from 74.2kg ha-1 to 132.8kg
ha-1 in 1997 planting. Taking climatic and seasonal variations in to account, this yield range is in
agreement with Bogdan (1977), which stated that under tropical conditions, Chloris gayana (Rhodes grass)
often produces two crops of seed per year, and seed yields range very widely from 65 to 650kg ha-1year-1.
Subsequent annual fertilization with N had significantly improved seed yield of Rhodes grass as compared
to the unfertilized plots especially during the second harvest for both planting years (P<0.05). However,
annual manure application had no much effect on seed yield. This is attributed to the residual effects of
manure and indicates that high level of initial manure application might be more essential than
continuous application as the extensive root system of perennial grasses would enable them to efficiently
utilize the residual manure towards the later stage of growth.
Coloured Guinea grass: In the 1996 planting, higher seed yield was obtained in response to 23 kg N ha-1
during the first harvest and in response to 92 kg N ha-1 during the second harvest. No any level of manure
used did significantly (P>0.01) improve seed yield in comparison to the control (Table 7). A significantly
higher mean seed yield was obtained in response to 92 kg N ha-1 in the 1996 planting (P<0.05). Seed yields
in response to the different manure and N levels were inconsistent during the first harvest; but showed an
increasing trend with an increase in manure or N levels during the second harvest and higher mean seed
yield was obtained in response to 92kg N ha-1 (Table 7). Mean yields in response to the different manure
levels were lower than the control treatment indicating that Colored Guinea is less responsive to manure
than Rhodes and Phalaris in terms of seed yield.
In the 1997 planted trial, significantly higher (P<0.01) seed yield was obtained when 92 kg N ha-1 was used
during the first harvest and when 46 kg N ha-1 was used during the second harvest. Alike the 1996 plots,
significantly higher mean seed yields were obtained in response to 92 kg N ha-1 and 46kg N ha-1 as
compared to the control and manure treatments (P<0.01). This indicates that Colored Guinea is relatively
more responsive to higher rates of initially applied nitrogen fertilizer. Moreover, in contrast to Rhodes
mean seed yields of Colored Guinea were significantly improved by subsequent fertilization during the
third year of establishment especially in 1997 planting (P<0.01). This may indicate that Rhodes is more
efficient than Colored Guinea in utilizing the residual nutrients in the soil. Mean seed yields of Colored
Guinea for both the planting years were higher when the higher N fertilizer level (92 kg N ha-1) was used.
In general, Phalaris grass; Rhodes grass and Colored Guinea grass can serve as potential perennial
pasture species for the highlands of Ethiopia. The results of this trial have indicated that both herbage and
seed yield potential of these grasses could be increased by proper fertilization management. This could be
more materialized if fertilization is accompanied with other management options such as cutting or
grazing. It has also been proved that annual application of N fertilizer can sustain both herbage and seed
yields higher. However, annual manure application did not improve both herbage and seed yields in
comparison to the control plots. Herbage and seed yields were higher towards the latter stage of growth in
response to the higher level of initially applied manure. This is inline with the results of long-term manure
trial in Kenya in which significant yield increases were observed in first year potatoes and maize and in
third and fourth year Rhodes grass but only at the highest level of initial application, 27t ha-1 animal
manure (Boonman, 1993). Positive manure effects are generally limited to very poor soils and its
251
nutritional effects are usually disappointing when the nutrients contained in the manure are not deficient
in the soil for the particular crop to be grown. The low response of the grasses to manure in this trial may
be attributed mainly to the small amount used and its low content of desirable nutrients, especially of N,
and to the associated low efficiency of manure as N-source. The nutrients that are relatively high in
manure such as K are also reported to be in a better status in soils of the study area.
Both herbage and seed yields of the three grasses during the peak growth stage (second year of
establishment) were less influenced by the different manure and N fertilizer levels used. Rhodes and
Colored Guinea showed a declining tendency of productivity sooner than Phalaris after the second year of
establishment especially when fertilizer was not applied. Booman, 1993 also stated that grasses, especially
only lightly fertilized or not fertilized at all, are usually most productive in the second year of growth and
stoloniferous grasses loose their productivity sooner than tufted grasses but if the grass is well fertilized it
may remain productive for a longer period of time and stoloniferous and rhizomatous species of old stands
can then be as productive as younger stands and live as long as tufted species or even longer.
The over all herbage and seed productivity of the three grasses evaluated in this experiment under Holetta
condition was better in response to the initially applied high levels of manure and N fertilizer (15t ha-1
manure and 92kg N ha-1). Rhodes and Colored Guinea were also more responsive to annual N fertilizer
application than Phalaris especially towards the later stage of growth. There is a need to evaluate the
productivity of these grasses under higher levels of initially applied manure or continuous N application in
combination with other management options such as cutting and the corresponding time of fertilizer
application since time of application has an overriding effect in addition to rate of application in post
establishment crops.
References
Bogdan A.V. 1977. Tropical pasture and fodder plants. Tropical Agricultural Series, Whistable Litho Ltd., Whistable,
Kent, Great Britain.
Boonman J.G. 1993. East Africa’s Grasses and Fodders: Their Ecology and Husbandry. Kluwer Academic Publisher, The
Netherlands.
EARO. 2000. Forage and pasture research strategy
Getinet Assefa, Lulseged Gebrehiwot and Tadesse T/Tsadik. 1994. Establishment and subsequent forage production of
perennial grasses as affected by different sowing dates and soil types. Ethiopian Journal of Agric. Sci. 14: 46-59.
Getnet Assefa and Tadesse T/Tsadik. 1996. Effect of harvesting stage on yield and quality of perennial grass seeds in the
highlands. In-proceedings of the 4th annual conference of the Ethiopian society of Animal production. 18-19 April
1996, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; pp. 208-215
Hanson, J. (ed) 1994. Seed production by smallholder farmers. Proceedings of the ILCA/ICARDA Research Planning
Workshop on Seed Production by Smallholder Farmers, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia), 13-15 Jun 1994. ILCA, Addis
Ababa (Ethiopia); ICARDA, Aleppo (Syria). 56p.
Herbage seed unit, 1994. Forage seed production. ILCA Training Manual. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Humphreys L.R. 1978. Tropical pastures and Fodder crops. Intermediate tropical Agricultural Series, Wing Tai Cheung
printing Co Ltd, Hong Kong.
ILCA/ICARDA 1994. Tropical Forage Seed Production. (Training Module). ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia and ICARDA,
Aleppo, Syria.
Loch, D.S. 1984. Commercial seed increase of new pasture cultivars: Organization and practice. In proceedings of a
workshop on Pasture improvement research in eastern and southern Africa, held in Zimbabwe, Harare, 17-21
September 1984.
252
Loch, D.S. and Ferguson, J.E. 1999. Tropical and subtropical forage seed production: an overview. In: Loch, D.S. and
Ferguson, J.E. (eds). Forage Seed Production 2. Tropical and Subtropical species. CABI publishing. P.1-40.
Mays D.A. 1974. Forage fertilization. American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wis. USA
Murwira K.H., Swift M.J. and Frost P.G.H. 1995. Manure as a key resource in sustainable agriculture, p131-144. In
proceedings of an international conference held by ILCA on Livestock and sustainable nutrient cycling in mixed
farming systems of sub-Saharan Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 22-26 November 1993.
Table 1. Herbage DM yield (t ha-1) and seedling counts m-2 of perennial grasses in response to different manure and N fertilizer levels
during the establishment year at Holetta.
Seedling count
Planting year
1996
Treatments
Phalaris
Rhodes
Herbage yield
Colored
Guinea
Phalaris
Rhodes
Colored
Guinea
5 t ha-1 manure
1008a
560a
368c
1.12c
2.10c
1.36bc
10 t ha-1 manure
992a
484ab
360c
2.33abc
2.63bc
2.29abc
15 t ha-1 manure
760ab
440ab
612ab
4.17a
3.72a
3.35a
23 kg N ha-1
688ab
364ab
456abc
2.82abc
2.92abc
1.58bc
46 kg N ha-1
800ab
340ab
444abc
2.18bc
3.01abc
2.55abc
504b
244b
388bc
3.12ab
3.49ab
2.58ab
864ab
520a
648a
1.94bc
2.05c
1.03c
Mean
802
421
468
2.53
2.85
2.11
lsd (0.05)
401
254
241
1.96
1.01
1.52
92 kg N
ha-1
No fertilizer
1997
5 t ha-1 manure
892
680a
596
0.58bc
2.31
1.29bc
10 t ha-1 manure
940
464ab
500
1.29a
2.71
1.06bc
15 t ha-1 manure
848
536ab
452
1.04abc
3.31
1.82ab
23 kg N ha-1
804
676a
628
0.95abc
2.66
1.69ab
46 kg N ha-1
792
412ab
572
0.67bc
2.26
2.16a
92 kg N ha-1
700
332b
536
1.07ab
3.35
2.30a
No fertilizer
1056
584ab
556
0.56c
2.28
0.57c
Mean
862
526
548
0.88
2.70
1.56
lsd (0.05)
469
278
198
0.50
2.00
0.79
Means within a column and a year with different letters are significantly different
Table 2. Mean herbage DM yield (t ha-1) of Phalaris in response to different manure and Nfertilizer levels during the second and third
year of establishment at Holetta
1996 planting
Treatments
Harv2*
Harv3**
Harv4**
1997
1997
1998
1997 planting
Mean
Harv2**
1998
Harv3**
1999
Mean
5t ha-1 manure
3.79
6.23b
6.20ab
5.41ab
4.70b
5.34b
5.01c
10t ha-1 manure
3.62
6.98ab
6.67ab
5.76a
6.98a
7.36a
7.17a
15t ha-1 manure
3.52
6.81ab
5.91ab
5.41ab
6.72a
7.79a
7.25a
23kg N ha-1
3.80
7.28ab
7.12a
6.06a
7.03a
6.23ab
6.63ab
46kg N ha-1
3.42
6.93ab
5.96ab
5.44ab
5.37ab
5.60b
5.50bc
92kg N ha-1
3.98
7.52a
6.30ab
5.93a
6.29ab
7.49a
6.89a
No fertilizer
3.29
6.52ab
5.07b
4.96b
5.74ab
6.95ab
6.35ab
Mean
3.63
6.90
6.17
5.57
6.12
6.68
6.40
lsd (0.05)
0.88
1.28
1.64
0.73
1.80
1.72
1.31
- Means within a column with different letters are significantly different
*- Herbage yield determined during the short rains
** - Stubble herbage yield determined after seed harvest
253
Table 3. Mean herbage DM yield (t ha-1) of Rhodes grass in response to different manure and N fertilizer levels during the second and
third year of establishment at Holetta.
1996 planting
Treatments
Harv2*
1997
Harv3**
1997
5t ha-1 manure
4.59ab
10t ha-1 manure
4.56ab
15t ha-1 manure
1997 planting
Harv4**
1998
Harv5**
1998
Mean
Harv2*
1998
7.70ab
2.56cd
7.65ab
2.74bc
7.47bcd
5.60cd
5.24a
8.28abc
5.81bc
4.00bc
5.43a
8.61a
3.29ab
9.84a
6.79a
5.08a
23kg N ha-1
4.33b
7.14b
2.04d
6.35d
4.96d
46kg N ha-1
4.59ab
8.16ab
2.42cd
6.86cd
92kg N ha-1
5.21ab
8.80a
2.99abc
8.56ab
No fertilizer
4.66ab
8.30ab
3.35a
7.37bcd
Mean
4.80
8.05
2.77
7.82
lsd 0.05)
0.95
1.28
0.59
1.65
0.66
Harv3**
1998
Harv4**
1999
10.45a
Mean
4.80b
6.83abc
4.69b
5.91de
10.60a
4.94b
6.87ab
3.47c
8.22b
4.33b
5.34e
5.51cd
3.92bc
9.03ab
5.11ab
6.02cde
6.40ab
4.47ab
10.80a
6.52a
7.26a
5.92bc
4.74ab
10.13a
4.14b
6.34bcd
5.85
4.42
9.75
4.93
6.40
0.99
1.79
1.44
0.83
9.02ab
Table 4. Mean herbage DM yield (t ha-1) of Colored Guinea grass in response to different manure and N fertilizer levels during the second
and third years of establishment at Holetta.
1996 planting
Treatments
Harv2*
1997
Harv3**
1997
Harv4**
1998
1997 planting
Harv5**
1998
Mean
Harv2*
1998
Harv3**
1998
Harv4**
1999
Mean
5 t ha-1 manure
4.59c
6.92b
3.40c
5.97c
5.22d
3.73bc
7.29bc
4.60abc
5.21bc
10t ha-1 manure
6.54a
8.38a
5.18a
9.40a
7.38a
3.71bc
7.03bc
4.19bc
4.98c
15t ha-1 manure
5.51abc
7.43ab
4.14abc
8.33abc
6.35bc
4.27ab
8.64ab
5.42ab
6.11ab
23kg N ha-1
5.91ab
7.54ab
4.41abc
6.90bc
6.19bc
3.80b
7.66ab
4.33bc
5.26bc
46kg N ha-1
5.99ab
7.70ab
5.06ab
8.38ab
6.78ab
5.30a
9.72a
5.12ab
6.71a
92kg N ha-1
6.49a
8.28ab
4.11abc
8.42ab
6.82ab
4.68ab
8.68ab
5.77a
6.37a
No fertilizer
5.24bc
6.90b
3.51bc
7.31abc
5.74cd
2.41c
5.39c
3.57c
3.79d
Mean
5.75
7.59
4.26
7.81
6.35
3.98
7.77
4.71
5.49
lsd (0.05)
1.18
1.41
1.60
2.40
0.83
1.36
2.17
1.27
0.96
Table 5. Mean seed yield (kg ha-1) of Phalaris in response to different manure and N fertilizer levels at Holetta.
1996 planting
Treatments
Harv.1
1997
Harv.2
1998
5t ha-1 manure
233.0b
80.6
10t ha-1 manure
278.1ab
83.7
15t ha-1 manure
254.6ab
23kg N ha-1
1997 planting
Harv.1
1998
Harv.2
1999
Mean
156.8b
51.6b
45.5b
48.6b
180.9ab
70.6ab
76.3a
73.4a
76.7
165.6ab
81.7ab
74.8a
78.2a
317.0a
85.3
201.2a
75.2ab
51.1ab
63.1ab
46kg N ha-1
236.5b
61.5
149.0b
79.9ab
63.9ab
71.8a
92kg N ha-1
269.0ab
57.9
163.4b
76.2ab
74.0a
75.1a
No fertilizer
235.1b
81.6
158.4b
87.1a
71.1ab
79.1a
Mean
260.5
75.3
167.9
74.6
65.2
69.9
68.7
30.5
21.5
34.5
27.7
21.8
lsd (0.05)
Mean
-Harvest1 and Harvest2 are the two seed harvests made per the two planting years
254
Table 6. Mean seed yield (kg ha-1) of Rhodes in response to different manure and N fertilizer levels at Holetta.
1996 planting
Treatments
1997 planting
Harv.2
1998
Mean
Harv.1
1998
Harv.2
1999
Mean
222.5abc
112.7bc
167.6ab
111.4ab
59.9c
85.6c
10t ha-1 manure
193.9bc
153.6ab
173.7ab
108.7ab
67.1c
87.9bc
15t ha-1 manure
209.0abc
177.9a
193.5a
102.2ab
68.6bc
85.4c
23kg N ha-1
176.4c
115.2bc
145.8b
84.70b
46kg N ha-1
224.5abc
116.4bc
170.5ab
92kg N ha-1
261.6a
126.5bc
No fertilizer
236.6ab
Mean
217.8
55.9
5t
ha-1
manure
lsd (0.05)
Harv.1
1997
63.6c
74.2c
127.8a
93.4b
110.6ab
194.1a
138.4a
127.3a
132.8a
165.4ab
112.7ab
45.0c
78.8c
128.1
172.9
112.3
74.9
93.6
43.2
44.4
42.1
26.02
24.7
94.20c
Table 7. Mean seed yield (kg ha-1) of Colored Guinea in response to different manure N fertilizer levels at Holetta.
1996 planting
Treatments
Harv.1
1997
Harv.2
1998
1997 planting
Mean
Harv.1
1998
Harv.2
1999
Mean
5t ha-1 manure
140.3ab
72.5c
106.4b
84.5abc
42.8bc
63.6bc
10t ha-1 manure
150.3ab
97.2bc
123.7b
71.5bc
34.5c
52.9c
15t ha-1 manure
120.6b
93.2bc
106.9b
90.7ab
39.1c
64.9bc
23kg N ha-1
175.4a
78.6bc
126.9b
89.0ab
43.1bc
66.1abc
46kg N ha-1
148.3ab
94.2bc
121.2b
81.7bc
58.4a
70.1ab
92kg N ha-1
172.4a
131.3a
151.9a
110.6a
54.0ab
82.3a
No fertilizer
150.3ab
105.2ab
127.7ab
58.8c
44.5abc
51.7c
Mean
151.1
96.1
123.5
83.8
45.2
64.5
38.5
30.4
24.5
28.6
14.5
16.9
lsd (0.05)
255
Methods of Perennial Grass Establishment, Forage Productivity on Fallow
Lands and Their Effect on The Subsequent Barley Crop
Getnet Assefa1, Abreham Gebeyehu1, Fekede Feyissa1 and Berhane Lakew2
Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO), Holetta Research Centre,
and Pasture Crops Research Program,
1Forage
2Barley
Improvement Research Program P.O.Box, 2003, Addis Ababa,
Abstract
Establishment methods of Phalaris, Rhodes and Colored Guinea grasses by intercropping with barley and in pure
stands on lands to be fallowed in the following seasons were evaluated at Holetta. The performance of grasses
during the first, second and third year as an improved grass fallow and their residual effect on the subsequent
barley crop were also assessed. Establishment methods of grasses by intercropping with barley did not show any
significant effect on the performance of barley. Grasses established in pure stands produced average forage yield
about five times more compared to the grasses established by intercropping during establishment but the variation
sharply reduced then after. The actual total herbage yield during the fallowing period was higher for grasses
established by intercropping as grasses established by intercropping stayed longer as a pasture for the same length
of fallowing period compared to the pure stands. Besides that there is an advantage of covering and protecting the
soil from erosion for longer time.
Generally Rhodes grass produced significantly (P<0.05) higher forage yield
followed by Colored Guinea and Phalaris under both the establishment methods. The residual effects of these
grasses on the subsequent barley crop revealed that Colored Guinea and Phalaris had significantly (P<0.05)
increased barley yield compared to the control while the highest forage yielder Rhodes grass had significantly
(P<0.05) depressed the performance of barley. As fallowing season increased from 1 to 3 years the residual effects of
grasses were also improved. This experiment revealed that establishing perennial grasses by intercropping was an
advantageous strategy to improve natural fallow land. If fallowing is only for one year and if the forage crops are to
be established in pure stands, it is advisable to cultivate productive and fast growing annual forage crops such as
vetches and oats. When grasses are established by intercropping on fallow lands Colored Guinea grass is suitable
and appropriate grass species to be used as improved grass fallow to produce high amount of forage and better
residual effect on the subsequent cereal. Rhodes grass also showed a trend of beneficial effects both for high forage
yield and better soil conservation and improvement if fallowing is longer.
Introduction
In the Ethiopian highlands poor soil fertility and feed shortage are major constraints limiting crop and
livestock productivity. To overcome these problems fallowing is practiced to maintain soil fertility and to use
the fallow land as a source of forage usually by grazing (Chilot et al, 2001).
In these areas adapted perennial legumes are scanty and low in forage productivity. There are, however,
many productive and well-adapted perennial grasses, which could be extended to farmers preferably in
integration with food crops and other suitable techniques to the farming systems. Reports on integration of
forage and food crops indicating that the recommended annual legumes such as vetch had a depressing
effect on the main crop like barley, unless proper precautions are taken in selecting vetch species, cereal
varieties and status of soil, while other legume such as clovers have problems of establishment and produce
very low amount of herbage (Getnet et al, 2001).
Perennial grasses, which are well adapted, productive and relatively available, could be an option to be
integrated with cereals like barley and wheat, especially on land to be fallowed for longer periods. Grasses
appeared to be much more effective than legumes in soil structure formation which was largely attributed
to the differences in root systems. Grasses add effective fresh organic matter and nitrogen and can draw up
minerals from lower soil depth through a deep and extensive root systems. This feature of grasses has also
made a major effect in improving soil structure and water economy through aggregate stability and
permeability (Boonman, 1993). The risk of erosion is also reduced on lands covered with grasses. The lower
fertilizer requirement of crops following grasslands is perhaps the most striking effects of crop-grass
rotations on crop yields in East Africa. This especially applies to N fertilizer. Though the amount is not to a
large extent, Allen (1972) found little response to N dressing following grassland. The same applied to
wheat even in the second year after grass (Seitzer et al, 1970). Nitrogen fixation by associative symbiosis
between grass and bacteria has been reported for Azotobacter paspali, Azosprillum brasilense and
Beijerinka indica (Dobereiner et al, 1972). A review of N fixation in tropical grasses has been given by
Crowder and Chheda (1982), who state that this phenomena holds tremendous potential and is more likely
to occur with tropical grasses due to their C-4 pathway of photosynthesis.
Conventional pasture establishment is very expensive in terms of cost incurred for land preparation, labor
and fertilizer; moreover in cool weather conditions their forage yield is very low during the establishment
year. Hence the cheapest and widely utilized way of perennial pasture crop establishment is by relaying or
intercropping food and forage crop which have an advantage of producing grain while establishing the
pasture on the same land and produce forage in the subsequent years.
Generally when grasses are sown in rotation and integration with food crops, it is a step-up to the
conventional weed fallow, and therefore not an alien concept. Mixed farming based on alternating grazed
pastures with crops, is still a solid platform from which efforts for sustained development can be launched,
in the nearest possible harmony with the environment, however, information is very limited therefore the
objectives of this experiment were 1. to evaluate the best establishment method of grasses on land to be
fallowed in the following year(s), 2. to evaluate performance of barley when established in mixture with
grasses, and 3. to assess the performance of forage crops during the fallowing period and their residual
effect on the subsequent barley crop.
Description of the Site: The experiment was conducted at Holetta Research Center on well-drained red
soil. The total annual rainfall for the area is 1012.4mm (average from 1996-2000) and the average minimum
and maximum air temperature was 5.7oC and 22.6oC respectively. The area is located at an altitude of 2400
masl. The land used for the experiment was a field planted to oats for seed production
Testing crops: Three perennial forage grasses, namely Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana variety Massaba),
Colored Guinea grass (Panicum coloratum) and Phalaris grass (Phalaris aquatica, variety Sirossa) were
used. Barley variety HB-42 was used as a test cereal in this experiment. The grasses were sown at the rate of
15 kg ha-1 and barley was 125 kg ha-1.
Experimental Design and field management: The trial was laid out under two experimental sets. In
the first set the grasses were established as crops on the fallow land in pure stands. In the second set the
grasses were intercropped with the barley (simultaneous sowing date of barley and grasses) on lands to be
fallowed in the following one, two and three years. The cropping calendars for the two establishment
methods are indicated in Figure 1. In each set there were 4 treatments with and without fertilizer
recommended level for barley. The treatments were, three perennial grasses and pure barley planted on a
plot area of 3.5x5 m2 arranged in randomized complete blocks (RCB) in three replications.
The performance of the forage grasses established by both methods and the barley were assessed. The
forage grasses then evaluated during the entire fallowing period of one, two and three years. Re-growth of
the grasses was harvested at the stage of early heading to 50% blooming. All forage samples dried to a
constant weight using forced draft oven to determine dry matter percentage and yield. Barley was
harvested at maturity for grain and straw yield determination.
Statistical Analysis: Analysis of variance procedures were used to compare treatment means. Combined
and separate analysis were made using SAS statistical package (SAS, 1996) for the measured parameters
including yield (forage, barley grain and straw) and agronomic data.
258
Figure 1.
Cropping calendar of barley and grasses used in the trial for the two grass establishment methods, by intercropping with
barley and pure stands on lands to be fallowed for one year.
BgBgBgBgggggggggggggggggggggbbbbbbbbbbb
Intercropped
BBBBBBBffffffffffffffggggggggggggg bbbbbbbbbbb
Pure
Year 1
Jan Apr Jul
Year 2
Oct Jan
Apr Jul
Year 3
Oct Jan Apr
Jul
Year 4
Oct Jan Apr
Jul
Oct
Bg – is barley and grass intercropped, g – grass pasture, f – traditional fallow land, B – pure barley before fallowing the land, and b – barley after forage grass pasture (fallow)
Establishment methods of grasses and their effect on the companion crop
Establishment methods of grasses when intercropped with barley or pure stands had an impact on the dry
matter forage yield of grasses. When grasses were established by intercropping with barley their performance
was significantly lower in comparison when they were established in pure stands during establishment in the
first year (Table 1). Nevertheless, the total forage biomass produced over the fallowing period was higher for
grasses intercropped as it stayed longer and hence many harvests for similar length of fallowing period
compared to grasses established in pure stands (Tables 2 and 3). The establishment method determines the
length of fallowing period in which the cultivated grasses stay on the field. Intercropping helps to use the
land for forage production up to 20 months during the actual one year fallowing practice of farmers (Figure
1). While pure grass establishment reduces this period to only 10 months.
Barley grain and straw yields did not showed any significant yield reduction due to the effect of
intercropping with grasses as compared to the control, pure barley (Table 1). This reveals that the grasses
had very little or no effect as a weed in the barley crop. As grasses are not sensitive to broadleaf herbicides,
it is also simple to weed broad leaves easily either by hand or using herbicides. Undersowing experiments
of four temperate grasses (Phalaris, Lolium, Setaria and Fescue) in wheat at Holetta and Ginchi also
showed non-significant effect on wheat grain yields but still the vigorous growth of Lolium had a tendency
of depressing wheat grain yield (Lulseged Gebrehiwot etal, 1987)
Intercropping grasses with barley was found to be advantages in such a way that grasses would re-grow
and continue to be a pasture after the barley crop had been harvested and provide soil coverage and protect
soil erosion during the whole fallowing period. Moreover, while harvesting the barley some amount of
forage was also produced together with the straw (Table 1). Among the grasses Rhodes grass was the
highest producer followed by Colored Guinea and Phalaris grasses during the establishment year under
both establishment methods of grasses as pure and intercropped (Table 1).
Even though it was not statistically significant Phalaris, which is a typical temperate grass, had a
tendency of depressing the barley grain and straw yield. This might be due to the vigorous and competent
growth of Phalaris grass with barley at the initial stage of growth compared to other grasses, which are
slow and not vigorous. However, the vigor of Phalaris towards the maturity of the barley and the end of the
rain season was weak while that of Rhodes and Colored Guinea grasses were very good, which resulted in
high herbage yields. Various experiments revealed that forage yield during the establishment year is
usually higher for Phalaris than Rhodes and Colored Guinea grasses in cooler highlands (Lulseged et al
1997)
The response of barley to fertilizer application was not significantly different to that of the control, which
might be the low response of barley to fertilizer. Even though the overall forage yield was low, fertilizer
had a significant effect on the intercropped grasses for better establishment.
259
Performance of grasses during the fallowing period
The first harvest of grasses (both the pure and intercropped) was made at the same time when the barley
was harvested in December. After the first harvest the grasses were harvested usually once after the short
rains (April to June), and twice during the main rainy season (in August and November/December) every
year. The performance of the grasses during the short rains was highly dependent on the amount of moisture
available. In 1999 the amount of rainfall in the short rains was very low and hence there was no any harvest.
The performances of grasses established by intercropping with barley and in pure stands during the
fallowing period indicated that establishment of grasses in pure stands was not advantageous if the land is
planned to be fallowed only for one year. This was because the test grasses generally require very long
establishment period, as they were very slow in growth due to the cool temperature in the highlands. As a
result they produced very low amount of herbage during the entire fallowing period. Hence if fallowing is
for one year and establishment is in pure stands, it is advantageous to use highly productive and fast
growing annual legumes and grasses such as vetches and oats. The cumulative effect was also similar
when grasses were established in pure stands for a fallowing period of two and three years. However, when
grasses established in pure stands seedlings were vigorous with good ground cover, which in turn gave
high herbage yield during the first and subsequent harvests. In spite of that the total number of harvests
during the fallowing period was few compared to grasses established by intercropping, which reduces the
actual total yield. Five harvests were made in a one year fallow when established by intercropping on the
other hand similar number of harvests were made in a two years fallow period when grasses established in
pure stands (Table 2). Similarly Table 3 shows forage yields when grasses established by intercropping
(two years fallow period) and in pure stands (three years fallow period).
The performance of the different grasses showed similar trend to the effect of establishment methods.
Intercropping grasses in barley had more impact on the productivity of grasses than the barley. The
average forage yield of grasses were about five times higher when sown in pure stands compared to
intercropping in the establishment year. However, the wide differences in forage yield between the
different establishment methods were highly reduced in the second year and then after. A well-established
perennial pasture performs very well during the subsequent production seasons and years. This
experiment also revealed such trend. Grass establishment by intercropping was found poor compared to
the pure stands. Hence the performance was also poor during the fallowing period. But generally grasses
established by intercropping stayed longer in the field and many harvests made during the fallowing
period compared to the pure stands. Due to this the actual herbage yield during the fallowing period was
higher when established by intercropping.
On the other hand the grass species produced significantly different dry matter forage yield during the
fallowing period (Tables 2 and 3). Rhodes grasses, which reproduced by many stoloens and rhizomes
rapidly covers the ground and performed very well, especially during the short rains. Coloured Guinea
grass had also fairly covered the ground by creeping and reseeding. Phalaris grass however was very poor
in extending and covering the ground and highly determined by the condition of establishment. This
indicates that grasses like Rhodes and Coloured Guinea could be less affected during the subsequent
growing period by the condition of establishment such as by intercropping with barley than the bunch/tuft
type of grasses like Phalaris.
All the three grasses had response to fertilizer application on their average forage yield of the second and
third harvests but did not show much response in the fourth, fifth and sixth harvests. Boonman (1993) in
his study of tropical grasses in Kenya indicated seasonality of grass growth. Yield and quality of the first
harvest and its response to N fertilizer are considerably high. Growth rates are reduced before rising
again. Yield is not constant over the years either. Yields of Rhodes were at their best in the first 12-18
months and then drop due to decreasing N availability. These conditions are in agreement with this
experiment.
260
Residual effects of grasses on the subsequent barley crop
The residual effects of grasses grown as a pasture on fallow lands for a period of one, two and three years
on the subsequent barley grain and straw yields are shown in Table 4. Generally the residual effect of the
different grasses showed similar trends for both the establishment methods and lengths of fallowing period.
Average barley grain and straw yields were significantly higher when fertilizer was applied. In spite of that
performance of the barley crop varied over the years due to the seasonal variations of rainfall and climate.
Residual effect of a one year fallow on the barley grain and straw yield was not statistically significant
except for the straw yield under unfertilized condition. Grain and straw yields were lower on plots of
Rhodes grass followed by the control while it was higher on plots of Colored Guinea and Phalaris plots. The
over all average grain and straw yield of barley planted after two years fallowing period established in
pure stands and by intercropping with barley was generally low compared to the other cropping years. In
spite of that the residual effects of grass species showed highly significant differences. Where Rhodes grass
had resulted in lower barley yield while Colored Guinea and Phalaris gave higher yields similar to the oneyear fallow. The residual effect of the grasses stayed for three years and fertilizer levels were very similar
to the one and two years fallowing period.
Increased in barley grain yields after Colored Guinea and Phalaris grasses might be due to improvement in
soil conditions. Simpson (1961) reported that deep rooting grasses pump up N, P and K from subsoil
resources to be deposited ultimately in the upper soil. N accumulation under grass, unlike under legumes,
is accompanied by an increase in pH due to upward transfer of subsoil cations and nitrate. By contrast
continuous cropping decreases pH (Stephens, 1969). Foster (1971) in his study on the effect of Napier grass
leys used for grazing and cut and removed on the following crop yields indicated that maize and beans
yields were increased compared to continuous cropping. The increased yield could also partly be attributed
due to the reductions in the incidences of pests, diseases and weeds where their life cycles are usually
broken by the grass pastures (Bonnman, 1997)
The depressing effect of Rhodes grass could be explained due to the shorter fallowing period under pasture.
It was produced high amount of forage, which requires high amount of nutrients and hence may exhaust
the nutrients in the soil very fast. Bonnman (1997) suggested that the crop: pasture duration ratio is to be
chosen for balancing costs against benefits. In a study on the effectiveness of grasses and dicots to
interrupt yield depression Paul et al (1997) conclude that the closely related grasses such as sorghum and
Sudan grass were relatively ineffective rotation crops for corn
Generally the trend showed that Colored Guinea and Phalaris grasses had improved the barley grain and
straw yields compared to the control. However, the high forage producing Rhodes grass had depressed the
performance of barley especially on shorter fallowing periods. Both establishment methods were shown
similar trends and effects on the subsequent barley crop.
The results of this experiment strongly justified that one year fallowing should be made if the grasses are
established by intercropping from a point of view of acquiring adequate amount of forage and protect the
soil from erosion than pure stands. The total yield advantage of grasses established in pure stands was not
beneficial due to very short growing period and very slow growth. Hence if pure stand establishment of
forages is required in a one-year fallow very productive annual legumes such as vetch or grasses like oats
or their mixtures are advisable. Moreover, one should consider the over all biological productivity of the
land rather than analyzing the level and effect of each grass on the barley grain yield per se. Seasonal yield
variation of barley crop could be attributed by many biotic and abiotic factors. The greatest advantage of
residual effects of the grasses is especially in low input farming and on poorer soils. Including a grass
pasture phase within the rotation is an easier way to replenish the soil with organic matter. Immediate
benefits, easier and appropriate options are understandably more convincing especially to smallholder
farmers.
261
References
Boonman J.G. 1993. East African grasses and fodders: Their ecology and husbandry. Kluwer Academic Publisher. The
Netherlands.
Boonman J.G. 1997. Farmers’ success with tropical grasses: Crop-pasture rotations in mixed farming in East Africa.
Netherlands Development Assistance (NEDA) The Hague. The Netherlands.
Chilot Yirga and Mohammed Hassen. 2001. Crop livestock farming systems in the highlands of Ethiopia: Smallholder
farmers management practices and constraints. In Wall P.C. (ed). Wheat and weeds: Food and feed. Proceedings of
two stakeholders workshops. Santa Cruz, Bolivia, CIMMYT pp 145-165
Crowder and Chheda. 1982. Tropical grassland husbandry. Longman Inc. New York USA.
Dobereiner, Johanna, J.M. Day and P.J. Dart. 1972. Nitrogenous activity and oxygen sensitivity of the Pspalum notatum
Azotobactor paspali complex. J. gen. microbiol. 71:103-116
Foster. H.L 1971.Crop yields after different elephant grass ley treatments at Kawanda Research Station, Uganda East
Africa. Agric. For. J 37:63-72
Getnet Assefa, Abreham Gebeyehu, Fekede Feyissa and Tadesse Tekletsadik. 2002 . On-farm performance of forage crops
and assessment of natural pasture productivity in west Shewa zone. Proceedings of a workshop on client oriented
research (Oct 16-18, 2001), Holetta Research Center, Ethiopia
Lulseged Gebrehiwot, Gebremedhin Hagos and Tadesse Tekletsadik.1987. Undersowing of forage crops in cereals some
achievements. Proceedings of the first National Livestock Improvement Conference (NLIC). Institute of Agricultural
Research (IAR), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Lulseged Gebrehiwot, McGraw R.L and Getnet Assefa. 1997. Dry matter yield and forage quality of perennial grasses
interseeded with annual legumes in the tropical highlands of Ethiopia. Trop. Agric. (Trinidad) 74(3): 173-179
SAS Institute Inc. 1996. SAS/STAT Users Guide, Release 6.12. Statistical Analysis Systems Institute Inc. Cary, NC, USA
Seitzer J.L., M.J. Butt and H.A. Mulamula. 1970. Fertilizer response to wheat in Kenya. East Afr. Agric. For. J. 36: 131138
Simpson J.R. 1961. The effects of several agricultural treatments on the nitrogen status of a red earth in Uganda. East
Afri. Agric. For. J. 28: 158-163
Stephen D. 1969. The effects of fertilizer manure and trace elements in continuous cropping rotations in Southern and
Western Uganda. East Afri. Agric. For. J. 34: 401-417
Table 1. Effect of establishment methods of grasses by intercropping with barley and in pure stands on croplands to be fallowed in the
following year(s) on grass dry matter (DM) forage and barley (grain and straw) yields (t ha-1) during the establishment year.
Grass intercropped with barley (Jun-Dec)
Fertilizer
Treatments
Barley
Grain
F1
F0
Mean
LSD (0.05)
Straw
Pure stand grasses (Jun-Dec)
Grass
Grass
H#1
H#1
Control (Pure barley)
1.91
2.04
-
Phalaris
1.96
2.52
0.16
Rhodes
2.39
2.02
0.50
2.34a
Colored Guinea
2.06
1.96
0.23
0.92b
1.12b1
Control (Pure barley)
1.92
2.43
-
-
Phalaris
1.60
1.89
0.03b
0.71b
1.86a
Rhodes
1.98
2.07
0.13a
Colored Guinea
1.99
2.22
0.03b
0.85ab
F1
2.08
2.14
0.30
1.46
F0
1.87
2.15
0.06
1.14
F1
0.87
1.47
0.50
0.61
F0
1.01
1.44
0.05
1.14
H#1 - the first harvest of grasses, F1 – 41/46 N/P2O5 kg ha-1 fertilizers for barley and F0 – Zero fertilizer level
1 - DM forage yield means within a column and fertilizer level with different letters are significantly different
262
Table 2. Average dry matter (DM) forage yield (t ha-1) of grasses during the fallowing period when established by intercropping with
barley (for one year fallow) and in pure stands (for two years fallow) after establishment at Holetta.
Fertilizer
Treatments
Intercropped with barley in the first year
One year fallow
H#2 Jun
F1
F0
Mean
LSD (.05)
Control
H#3 Aug
f
H#4 Jan
f
Pure stand
Two years fallow
Total
H#5 Apr
f
H#3
Aug
H#2 Jun
f
Total
H#4
Jan
H#5 Apr
f
f
f
f
*
5.36
1.88b
0.14c
7.38
10.40
3.05
4.80
3.33a
1.05a
12.23
7.26
3.84
5.24
2.72ab
0.50b
12.30
f
f
f
f
1.17
*
3.32b
2.82
0.20c
6.34
7.61
2.13
4.52ab
3.45
1.28a
11.38
Phalaris
*
0.15b1
1.05b
0.12c
3.32
Rhodes
1.42
4.97a
2.82a
1.19a
Colored Guinea
1.29
3.93a
1.59ab
0.45b
Control
f
f
f
f
Phalaris
*
0.45b
0.39b
0.33b
Rhodes
0.76
2.46a
2.94a
1.45a
Colored Guinea
0.45
2.83a
1.94a
0.56b
5.78
2.34
5.11a
3.20
0.62b
11.27
F1
1.36
3.68
1.82
0.59
7.45
3.45
5.13
2.64
0.56
11.78
F0
0.60
1.91
1.76
0.78
5.05
2.24
4.32
3.16
0.70
10.42
F1
1.38
1.33
1.30
0.20
2.92
1.49
1.38
0.21
F0
0.44
1.20
1.45
0.76
0.82
1.41
1.02
0.31
H#2-5 - second to fifth harvest of grasses, *= no harvestable forage yield, f –natural fallow
F1 – 41/46 N/P2O5 kg ha-1 fertilizers for barley and F0 – Zero fertilizer level
Table 3Average dry matter (DM) forage yield (t ha-1) of grasses during the fallowing period when established by intercropping with barley
(on two year fallow) and in pure stands (on three year fallow) after establishment at Holetta.
Fertilizer
Treatments
Intercropped with barley in the first year
Two years fallow
H#2
Jun
F1
F0
Mean
LSD (.05)
H#3
Aug
H#4
Jan
H#5
Apr
Pure stand
Three years fallow
Total
H#6
Dec
H#2
Jun
Control
f
f
f
f
f
Phalaris
*
0.94b1
0.71b
0.93b
1.30
3.32
Rhodes
1.63
4.57a
2.95a
4.17a
2.01
10.40
Colored Guinea
1.75
4.61a
2.45a
4.77a
1.43
7.26
Control
f
f
f
f
f
Phalaris
*
1.10b
1.09b
1.63b
2.01
Rhodes
1.42a
3.62a
3.28a
4.18a
2.18
H#3
Aug
H#4
Jan
Total
H#5
Apr
H#6
Dec
f
f
f
f
f
*
3.71b
1.73b
2.69b
1.72
7.38
3.81
.51ab
3.50a
4.18ab
2.24
12.23
4.07
6.23a
.56ab
5.51a
1.82
12.30
f
f
f
f
f
1.17
*
4.28
2.91b
4.07b
1.94ab
6.34
7.61
2.34b
4.45
3.78a
3.76b
2.42a
11.38
Colored Guinea
0.72b
3.44a
2.46a
4.92a
1.73
5.78
3.09a
4.34
3.20b
5.25a
1.70b
11.27
F1
1.69
3.37
2.03
3.29
1.58
7.45
3.94
5.15
2.60
4.12
1.93
11.78
F0
1.07
2.72
2.28
3.58
1.97
5.05
2.72
4.36
3.30
4.36
2.02
10.42
F1
1.46
1.61
1.39
1.37
1.03
1.84
2.25
1.24
2.05
1.23
F0
0.56
1.89
2.06
2.18
1.38
0.48
2.18
0.49
0.90
0.65
H#2-6 - second to the sixth harvest of grasses, *- no harvestable forage yield, f – natural fallow
F1 – 41/46 N/P2O5 kg ha-1 fertilizers for barley and F0 – Zero fertilizer level
Table 4.Effect of different grass species established by intercropping with barley and in pure stands on fallow lands for one, two and three
years on the subsequent barley grain and straw yields (t ha-1) at Holetta.
Intercropped
One year
Pure
Two years
Intercropped
Two years
Pure
Three years
Fertilizer
Treatments
Grain
Straw
Grain
Straw
Grain
Straw
Grain
Straw
F1
Control
0.88
1.81
0.88c1
1.22b
2.41ab
4.35
2.00b
3.06b
Phalaris
1.20
2.41
1.67a
3.15a
2.35ab
3.40
2.98a
4.15a
Rhodes
0.78
2.20
0.92bc
2.46a
1.74b
3.39
1.90b
3.40ab
Colored Guinea
1.22
2.34
1.55ab
2.91a
2.56a
4.30
2.42ab
3.61ab
Control
0.47
1.13ab
0.37b
0.59c
1.82a
2.62b
1.63a
2.58b
Phalaris
0.60
1.23ab
1.21a
2.21a
1.52ab
2.74ab
1.96a
2.75ab
Rhodes
0.23
0.65b
0.15b
0.72bc
1.04b
2.23bc
1.00b
1.98b
Colored Guinea
0.54
1.34a
0.71ba
1.60ab
2.02a
3.32a
1.90a
2.76a
F0
Mean
LSD(.05)
F1
1.02
2.19
1.26
2.44
2.40
3.86
2.57
3.88
F0
0.46
1.09
0.61
1.28
1.62
2.73
1.70
2.53
F1
0.59
0.93
0.66
0.76
0.68
1.70
0.70
0.76
F0
0.42
0.62
0.76
0.98
0.52
0.68
0.68
0.77
F1 – 41/46 N/P2O5 kg ha-1 fertilizers for barley and F0 – Zero fertilizer level, Control – Natural fallow
1 – Grain and straw yield means within a column and fertilizer level with different letters are significantly different
263
Potential of forages legumes to replace the traditional fallow-barley
rotation system in the cool - high land of bale
Teshome Abate, Tekleyohannes Berhanu, Solomon Bogale and Dagnachew Worku
Oromia Agricultural Research Institute Sinana Agricultural Research Center, P.O.Box 208, Bale-Robe
Abstract
The study was conducted in between 1997 - 2000 at upper Dinsho (3125ma.s.l) in cool Bale high lands to assess the
potential of forage legumes-barley rotation systems. Two forage legumes (vetch and Snail medics) were planted in
1997/98 and 1998/99 including, barley with and with out fertilizer as a first phase rotation crop. A fallow plot was
also taken as a control. In 1998/99 and 1999/2000, the local barley ’falibaye’ was sown on the fallow and on all plots
which were under the precursor crops (Vetch, Snail Medics, barley with and without fertiliser, and fallow) in
1997/98 and 1998/99. Result indicated that both forage legumes (vetch and snail medics) successfully established
and gave mean dry matter yield of 2.0 and 0.7t/ha, respectively. There was significant (P<0.05) variation in barley
grain and straw yield due to the effect of the first phase rotation crops. The combined analysis of the two years
indicate that barley grain and straw yield increased by 30.29 and 27.38 % over the fallow, respectively, in vetchbarley rotation system. Barley grain and straw yields were also relatively higher in medics-barley and fallow-barley
rotation system than after the barley- barley rotation systems. Therefore, forage legumes such as vetch and snail
medics have the potential to replace the traditional fallow rotation system in the cool highlands of Bale.
Introduction
Livestock production in highlands of Bale is mainly dependent on communal grasslands, weedy fallow and
crop residues. These feeds resources are generally low in quality and quantity as a result livestock production
like milk, meat are poor (Tekeleyohannes and Worku, 2000). On the other hand, farmers particularly at
Upper Dinsho district practice fallowing land to restore soil fertility. According to Bekele et al.(1998), in this
area barley is a sole subsistence crop primarily produced by small holder farmers under low input
management . Barley fields are fallowed to maintain soil fertility every other year. One of the strategies for
solving feed inadequacy and soils fertility maintenance through integration of forage crops with food crops.
Therefor, introduction of forage legumes into the existing barley based cropping system would provide an
opportunity to substitute the fallow lands and to produce more quality feed and also accelerate fertility
building through nitrogen fixation and decomposition of the leguminous root (Nnadi and Haque, 1996).
Several improved forage crops have been tested at upper Dinsho among which vetch and snail medics are
productive and well adapted.
The objective of the study was to assess the potential of forage legume to replace the traditional fallowbarley rotation system in the cool highlands of Bale.
Material and methods
The experiment was undertaken for three years from 1997/98 to1999/2000 at Upper Dinsho (3120 ma.s.l)
in the cool highlands of Bale. According to Bekele et al. (1998), the area is characterised by cool or Dega type
of climate (65%), 1200-1300mm of rainfall per annum, the absolute maximum temperature is below 20°c. The
soil type is clay- loam with vertic property.
The first experimental phase of the precursor treatments was conducted from May to December, 1997/98
while the second phase of the precursor treatments was undertaken at the same time in 1998/99. The
precursor treatments were vetch (Vicia dasycarpa), snail medics (Medicago scutellata), and barley with
fertiliser, barley with out fertiliser application and fallow (control plot). Two annual forage legumes vetch
and medics, and barley (under fertiliser and with out fertiliser) were planted as precursor crops leaving a
fallow plot as a control in 1997/98 and 1998/99.
The local barley cultivar ‘falibaye’ was planted on May 18, 1998 and May 14, 1999 on all plots which were
under precursor treatments in 1997/98 and 1998/99 respectively. The trial site was cultivated three times
with local ox-plow ”marasha” prior to sowing.
The plot size was x 5m,and laid out in randomized complete block design with three replications. Sowing
method was broadcasting using seed rate of 30, 15, and 100 kg/ha of Vetch, Medics and Barley,
respectively. The fertilized barley plots received 100 kg/ha DAP and 50 kg/ha Urea. Fertilizer was not
applied for the rest of the year or after the precursor treatment phases. Weeding was done once for all
seasons as the same as farmers’ practice. Data on barley grain and straw yield, legumes dry matter yield
and agronomic parameters were recorded for analysis from the net plot of 3m x 3m.
All data were subjected to analysis of variance using MSTAT-C software, and means were separating using
the LSD test.
Result and Discussion
Two Precursor treatments of forage legumes vetch and medics were harvested in October for both years
1998 and 1999. Yield and other agronomic parameters of precursor treatments were presented in (Table1).
Forages were successfully established during experimental periods. Mean dry matter yields of forage legumes
(vetch and medics) were 2.0 and 0.7t/ha respectively. Plot cover and canopy height for vetch was relatively
better than medics (Table1), due to vigorous growth habit of vetch which has implication for erosion
minmization and weed competitiveness.
Subsequent harvests of barley first and second phases were done in December 1999 and 2000 for 1997/98
and 1998/99 precursor treatments, respectively. The effect of precursor treatments on barley grain, straw
yield and other agronomic parameters were presented in (Table 3&4).
Analysis of variance showed that barely grain and straw yield was significantly higher (P<0.05) in
1999/2000 than 1998/99 cropping seasons as shown in the (Table 3). This was perhaps due to the waterlogging problem at the early stage that might create a difficulty in soil aeration and nutrient absorption
might account for reduction grain and straw yields and moisture stress during the late growing period of
the crops in 1998/99 cropping year. In both years barley grain and straw yields responded significantly
(p<0.05) to the precursor crops effects in the respective preceding years, except straw yield in1998/99.
On the first phase of forage legumes - barley rotation study (1998/99), grain yield of barley after vetch (8.4
q/ha) was significantly (p< 0.05) higher than barley after fertilised barley (6.7 q/ha) or barley after
unfertilised barley (5.5 q/ha) and barley after medics (6.67). But there was no significant (P>0.05) grain
yield difference between vetch and fallow (8.2q/ha) precursor treatments. On the second phase of forage
legumes - barley rotation study (1999/2000) barley after vetch (25.4t/ha) was significantly higher (P<0.05)
than barley after fallow, medics and barley with and with out fertiliser application treatment with mean
yield of 15.4, 19.9, 12.4 and 15.2 t/ha respectively (Table 3).
Combine analysis of variance revealed that barley grain and straw yield was significantly difference at
(P<0.05) among the treatments. The highest barley grain and straw yield was recorded in barley after
vetch treatment with mean grain yield of 16.9q/ha&5.56 t/ha respectively, followed by snail medics with
mean yield of 13.3 q/ha & 4.24 t/ha. While the lowest yield was obtain after barley fertiliser application
treatment with mean grain and straw yield of 9.55 q/ha & 3.44t/ ha (Table3). Adamu (1991) also reported
the highest barley grain and straw yields after vetch precursor treatments for the work done at Sheno.
Result indicated that barley grain and straw yield after fallow was comparably higher than barley with
and without fertiliser application treatments. In precursor treatment barley grain and straw yield with
fertiliser application treatment significantly higher than (P<0.05) barley with out fertiliser with mean
grain and straw yield of 19.0,11.5 q/ha and 8.4, 6.0 t/ha, respectively (Table2).
Most of the barley agronomic parameters such as spike length, seed per spike, plot cover, were not
significantly (p >0.05) affected by the precursor treatments except plant height and thousand-kernel
weight (Table4). Generally the performance of barley agronomic parameters were higher for forage
266
legumes plots than plots previously fertilised or unfertilised. The over all result of the experiment
indicated that vetch-barley rotation system, increased grain and straw yields of barley by 30.3% and
27.38% respectively over the fallowing system (control plots). This revealed the contribution of forage
legumes to the yield of subsequent cereal crops which is in line with Zewdu Yilma and Tanner (1996).
In all agronomic and yield parameters measured, higher results were obtained after forage precursor crops
especially for Vetch. This was due to leguminous nature of Vetch as well as Medics and their ability to fix
atmospheric nitrogen, maintain soil organic matter and improve physical condition of the soil (ICARDA,
1997; Zewdu Yilma and Tanner, 1996) than when the land left fallow or mono-cropping effects. Hence,
fallowing of land favours soil erosion, invasion of unwanted weeds and occurrence of crop diseases.
Conclusion
According to the result obtained planting of forage legumes as a precursor crop in rotation with barley
increased barley grain and straw yield when compared to the fallowing practice. Therefore, forage legumes
such as vetch and snail medics have the potential to replace the traditional fallow barley rotation system in
the cool highlands of Bale.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank Mr. Gulilat Jara, Mr. Tesfaye Dhaqaba, and Mr. Feseha Siyoum for their
assistance during the trials.
References
Adamu Molla.1991.Effect of preceding crops and N, P fertilizer on barley yield in North eastern Ethiopia. Rachis: Barley
and wheat newsletters10 (2), ICARDA.
Bekele Hundie, Worku Jima, Feyisa Tadase, Mulugrta Amsalu, Mengistu Yadesa and Arfasa Kiros (1998). The Dinsho
farming system of Bale Highlands. In Chilot Yirga, Fikadu Alemayehu and Woldeyesus Sinebo (eds.). Barley- based
farming system in the highlands of Ethiopia. Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organisation, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
117pp.
ICARDA, (International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas) Germplasm Legume Program Annual
Report.1997. 241pp
Nnadi, L.A and Haque, I. 1986. Forage legume-cereal systems: Improvement of soil fertility and agricultural production
with special reference to sub-saharan Africa. In: Hailu Gebre and Joop van Leur (eds.). Potentials of forage legumes
in farming systems of sub-saharan Africa. proceedings of a workshop held at ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 16-19
September 1985.ILCA, Addis Ababa.
Tekelyohannes Berhanu and Worku Jima, 2000. The effect of undersowing barley with forage legumes on grain and straw
yields of barley and herbage yield of forage legumes in the high lands of Bale. ESAP (Ethiopia Society of Animal
Production). 2000. Livestock Production and the enviroment-implications for sustainable livelihoods. Proceedings of
the 7th annual conference of Ethiopia Society of Animal Production (ESAP) held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 26-27
may 1999. ESAP (Ethiopia Society of Animal Production), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.442pp.
Zewdu yielma and D.G. Tanner, 1996. An evaluation of double cropping of forage legumes and bread wheat in Bale
Region of Southeastern Ethiopia. In: Tanner, D.G., Payne, T.S., and Abdalla, O.S. eds.1996. The Ninth Regional
Wheat Workshop for Eastern, Central and Southern Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: CIMMYT.
267
Table 1. Dry matter yield (t/ha) and agronomic parameters of forage legumes used in the forage legumes -barley rotation system at upper
Dinsho district (3125 ma.s.l) in 1997/98and 1998/99 years.
Types of forage
DM Yield ( t/ha )
Canopy height (cm)
1997/98
1998/99
Mean
V. dasycarpa
1.284
2.74
2.0
Medicago scutellata
0.896
0.42
0.7
Mean
1.09
1.58
1997/98
Plot cover %
1998/99
mean
1997/98
1998/99
mean
77.7
103.4
90.5
76.0
80.0
78.0
26.0
36.0
31.0
50.0
36.0
44.0
54.6
69.7
63.4
58
Table 2. Grain (q/ha) and straw (t/ha) yield of barley planted as first rotation crops at upper Dinsho district (3125 ma.s.l) in 1997/98and
1998/99 years.
1997/98
Precursor Crops
Barley with Fertilizer application
1998/99
Mean
GY
SY
GY
SY
24.5
10.3
13.9
6.5
GY
SY
19.0
8.4
Barley with out Fertilizer application
14.0
6.7
8.9
5.4
11.5
6.0
Mean
19.25
8.5
11.4
5.95
15.25
7.2
LSD5%
*
*
NS
*
*
*
Fertilazer =(100 DAP & 50 kg Urea): GY = Grain Yield; SY = Straw Yield ; LSD = Least Significant Difference; NS = Non Significant, * = P<0.05,
Means within the column followed by the same letter or by no letter do not differ significantly at the 5% level of LSD test.
Table 3. Grain (q/ha) and straw (t/ha) yield of barley under different crop rotation systems at upper Dinsho district (3125m a.s.l) in
1998/99 and 1999/2000 years.
1998/99
Rotation Systems
1999/2000
Mean
GY
SY
GY
SY
GY
SY
Barley
8.18ab
2.62
15.39 c
5.44 b
11.78 bc
4.03 b
Barley F1-
Barley
6.70 bc
2.69
12.40 c
4.18b
9.55 d
3.44 b
Barley F0 -
Barley
5.45 c
2.05
15.21 c
5.24 b
10.33 cd
3.65 b
Vetch-
5.56 a
Fallow-
Barley
8.42 a
3.13
25.39 a
7.98 a
16.91 a
Snail medics- Barley
6.67bc
2.90
19.93b
5.57b
13.30 b
4.24 b
Mean
7.08
2.68
17.66
5.68
12.37
4.18
9.4
14.15
10.75
15.93
CV
12.49
LSD 5%
18.28
1.666
NS
3.125
1.514
1.628
0.8146
GY = Grain Yield; SY = Straw Yield; LSD= Least Significant Difference; NS = Non Significant at 5%, CV = Coefficient of Variation. Barley F1=Barley with Fertiliser (100 DAP & 50 kg Urea): Barley
F0= Barley without Fertiliser application
Table 4. Agronomic parameters of barley under different crop rotation systems at upper Dinsho district (3125 ma.s.l) in 1998/99 and
1999/2000 years.
1998/99
Rotation systems
PH
(cm)
SL
(cm)
1999/2000
S/S
PC%
TK
W
(gm)
PH
(cm)
SL
(cm)
S/S
Mean
PC
%
TKW
(gm)
PH
(cm)
SL
(cm)
S/S
PC%
TKW
(gm)
Fallow- Barley
84.9
6.13
40.67
89.67
23.33
96.33b
5.67
39.3
3
78.33b
38.23a
90.6b
5.9
40
84
30.8a
Barley F1-Barley
81.57
6.23
44.23
87.50
22.33
91.00b
5.97
51.0
0
71.67b
33.73b
86.3b
6.1
47.6
79.6
28.03b
Barley F0- Barley
80.23
6.00
45.47
83.50
21.33
96.67b
6.63
52.0
0
80.00b
33.27b
88.5b
6.3
48.7
81.8
27.3b
Vetch- Barley
91.8
5.93
46.00
80.00
21.67
114.00
6.63
50.3
3
93.33a
35.07b
102.9a
6.3
48.2
86.7
28.4b
6.17
46.3
3
91.67a
34.50b
98.1a
6.1
48.6
85.3
28.9ab
101.67
6.21
47.7
1
83
34.96
93.3
6.1
46.6
83.5
28.68
a
Snail medics- Barley
85.90
6.03
50.80
78.83
23.33
110.33
a
Mean
84.88
6.06
45.43
83.90
22.30
CV
6.95
2.74
9.22
7.00
7.56
6.01
7.79
9.99
7.46
4.28
6.33
6.02
9.96
7.23
5.57
LSD5%
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
11.51
NS
NS
11.66
2.814
7.221
NS
NS
NS
1.954
PH = Plant height; SL = Spike Length; SS = Seeds per spike; PC = Plot cover; TKW = Thousand Kernel Weight
CV = Coefficient of Variation; LSD = Least Significant Difference; NS = Non Significant; * = significant; Barley F1=Barley with Fertilazer =(100 DAP & 50 kg Urea): Barley F0= Barley without
268
Effects of intra-row spacing and cutting height of Calliandra calothyrsus
on maize grain yield in alley cropping system
Abebe Yadessa
Bako Agricultural Research Center, Forestry Research /Agroforestry Research Division P.O. Box 03, Bako,
Oromia, Ethiopia.
Abstract
A field experiment on Calliandra calothyrsus Meissner alley cropped with maize was conducted for four cropping
seasons (1997/98 – 2000/01) at Bako Agricultural Research Center in Oromia Region, Ethiopia. The objective of the
study was to assess the effects of intra-row spacing and cutting height of C. calothyrsus on maize grain yield in alley
cropping system, and also to estimate the effect of alley cropping on maize yield in comparison to maize yield under
no hedge-plot. Three intra-row spacings (25, 50, and 75 cm) were combined with four cutting heights (25, 50, 75 and
100 cm) factorially in randomized complete block design (RCBD) plus control (no hedge) plot with three replications.
Results showed that the grain yield of maize was significantly (p=0.05) affected by intra-row spacing, but not by
cutting height. The interaction between intra-row spacing and cutting height was not significant. Wider spacing
gave higher maize grain yield, which might be due to less competition with maize as compared to those closely
planted ones. On the other hand, the non-significant effect of hedge cutting height on maize yield might be due to
systematic hedge pruning; that is, totally leaving the hedge intact during off-season but carefully monitoring it
during the growing season to minimize the shading problem. This suggests the need for giving more attention to
Calliandra planting space than its cutting height. Combined across years, maize grain yield showed significant
(p=0.001) variation; it was lower at the beginning and the end of the experimental period, higher during the second
and third years. But the interaction between treatments and year was not significant. Although it was generally
low, the yield under alley cropping was not significantly different when compared with no-hedge plot, indicating that
the wood obtained from Calliandra hedge was additional benefit resulting in better overall production efficiency the
system. The low yield obtained in this finding could be attributed to lower biomass from hedges and lack of some
inorganic fertilizer to supplement the tree biomass. There is a case for integrated nutrient management study
(prunings together with some inorganic fertilizer) for sustaining maize production in the area.
Key words: Calliandra, cutting height, intra-row spacing, Kulani.
Introduction
Farming systems in most African countries are under serious threat due to increasing population growth
and environmental degradation. These difficulties have highlighted the need to take an overall view of land
management that is not limited only to livestock and crop production systems but also includes the need to
conserve natural resources on which production is based (CTA, 1994). Alley cropping is one of such farming
systems that combine production with conservation of natural resources, and it holds promise for sustainable
crop production. It is an intercropping system in which arable crops are grown in between hedgerows of
planted trees which are usually leguminous (Karim et al, 1993). The hedges are pruned regularly to prevent
excessive shading to the companion crop and the prunings are used as green manure (Kang et al, 1984). It is
about integrating multipurpose tree species like Calliandra into existing land use systems so as to improve
soil fertility, fodder quality, and wood availability and make food production sustainable from both
environmental and economic standpoints.
Calliandra calothyrsus Meissner is a small leguminous browse species native to Central America and
Mexico (Macqueen, 1991). It is a versatile tree species currently receiving international attention because of
its multiple values. The species has the capacity to biologically fix free atmospheric nitrogen and hence
provides nitrogenous fertilizer for the companion food crop production and quality fodder for livestock
production. In addition, it has good coppicing ability, rapid growth, dense foliage and deep root system, and
hence particularly suitable for erosion control and for rejuvenating degraded soils (Tomaneng, 1990).
Calliandra foliage can be used either as fodder (animal feed) for livestock production or as green manure
(soil ameliorant) for crop production. To exploit the potential of this species as animal feed, the Animal Feeds
and Nutrition Research Division at Bako Agricultural Research Center has been doing research on
Calliandra and tested its potential for this purpose (Diriba et al, 2001). But its potential for soil improvement
and enhancing crop production including in alley cropping has not been assessed so far in the area, and
currently the Agroforestry Research Division at Bako is conducting trials to address the research gap in this
area. In species selection trial conducted at Bako for about four years, this multipurpose tree species showed
an impressive growth performance (Abebe et al, 2000). Concerted research effort on the spacing and cutting
height was not conducted on this important species. Specing and cutting height are very important
management techniques by which woody perennials are manipulated in alley cropping in order to harmonize
the interaction between the woody and non-woody components of the system. The objective of this study is
therefore to assess the effect intra-row spacing and cutting height of C. calothyrsus on maize yield in alley
cropping system, and also to estimate the effect of alley cropping on maize yield under Bako site conditions.
Site characteristics
The study was conducted at Bako Agricultural Research Center in Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia,
located at about 9o07' N latitude and 37o05' E longitude. The area is mid-altitude, sub-humid with unimodal
rainfall pattern (Figure 1) experiencing an average annual rainfall of 1270 mm and an average annual
temperature of 21oC, with the maximum and minimum values of 28oC and 13oC, respectively.
300
24
250
23
22
200
21
150
20
100
19
50
18
0
Temperature, Oc
Rainfall (mm)
(c). Long-term rainfall and temperature data
17
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
Rainfall
Jul
Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Temperature
Figure 1. Mean monthly rainfall and mean monthly temperature of Bako area
The topography of the area ranges from gently undulating to dissected hills, and the geology is
characterized by Tertiary and Quaternary age rhyolite and basalt volcanics (MoWR, 1996). Soils are
dominantly reddish brown Nitosols and generally clay dominated and characterized by low available
phosphorus, with pH of 5-6 in surface soils (Legesse et al, 1987; Abebe, 1998). Some properties of the soil at
Bako Agroforestry Research Site is shown in Table 1.
Experimental design and data analysis
Intra-row spacing (spacing between plants) and pruning height were the experimental treatments. The
intra-row spacing had three levels (25, 50 and 75 cm) and pruning height four levels (25, 50, 75 and 100 cm),
and they were arranged in 3x4 factorial set of treatments in randomized complete block design (RCBD) with
3 replications plus a control plot (no hedge). The intercropped maize variety was Kulani, a popularly used
open pollinated variety at Bako. Plot size was 7 mx12 m (gross) and 6 mx12 m (net). The hedge width was 6
m. Maize was planted at spacing of 0.25 m between plants and at 0.75 m between rows.
270
The data were subjected to the general linear model analysis of variance using MSTAT-C and SPSS
computer software programs. All comparisons of treatment means were made at P<0.05 level of
significance using Duncan's Multiple Range Test (DMRT). And at the end, yield data under alley cropped
plots were pooled and compared with that of the control plot to estimate the effect of alley cropping on
maize yield.
Table 1. Some physical and chemical properties of the topsoil (0-15 cm) at Bako Agroforestry Research site.
Soil property †
Mean
Standard deviation
Minimum
Maximum
Organic carbon, %
2.294
0.693
2.254
2.374
Total nitrogen, %
0.159
0.0404
0.154
0.161
Available P, ppm
2.353
0.257
2.06
2.54
pH
5.36
0.3204
5.10
5.72
CEC, meq/100 gm
18.4
0.6928
17.6
18.8
Base saturation, meq/100 gm
47.33
6.807
42
55
Clay, %
47.33
4.163
44
52
Silt, %
18.67
3.055
16
22
Sand, %
34
3.464
32
38
CEC = Cation exchange capacity
† These values are only for control plots, and are averages of three samples
Source: Abebe et al (in press)
Results showed that maize grain yield was significantly (p<0.05) affected by Calliandra intra-row spacing
(Figure 2), but not affected by its cutting height (Figure 3). The interaction between intra-row spacing and
cutting height was also not significant; that is, the effect of intra-row spacing did not depend on the cutting
height. Thus, both factors can be considered separately.
Effect of intra-row spacing
Higher intra-spacing of Calliandra plants within hedgerow gave significantly higher maize yield. This may
be because once planted, the influence of spacing can't be changed and difficult to manage as opposed to that
of the cutting height, which can be managed by devising systematic pruning cycle. As a result, the closely
spaced plants might have competed more for growth resources with maize than those widely spaced ones
even though closely spaced Calliandra plants gave relatively higher biomass for soil amelioration. This shows
that the competition for resources due to closer planting of Calliandra was more important for maize than
the advantage of getting higher mulch/green manure from closely spaced Calliandra plants. This argument is
also supported by weak and non-significant correlation between maize grain yield and Calliandra foliar
biomass yield.
2000
Maize grain yield, kg/ha
1750
1500
1250
1000
750
500
25
50
75
Intra-row spacing (cm)
Figure 2. Maize grain yield as influenced by intra-row spacing.
Mitiku and Abdu (1995) also reported significant effect of intra-row spacing on sorghum yield in Hararghe,
Ethiopia, which is in agreement with this study. But study by Karim et al (1993) indicated that maize
grain yield was not significantly affected by alley width, nor by intra-row spacing or by their interaction.
271
2000
1750
1500
1250
1000
750
500
25
50
75
100
Cutting height (cm)
Figure 3. Maize grain yield as influenced by hedgerow cutting height.
Effect of cutting height
Though not statistically significant, sorghum yield was higher when lower pruning height was used, and
vice versa (Figure 3). The probable reason for the non-significant effect of cutting height on maize yield
may be due to systematic hedge pruning regime practiced during the experimental period. The Calliandra
hedges were totally left intact during off-season (when maize was not in the field) but carefully monitored
during the growing season (when maize was in the field) to minimize the shading effect of the hedge on
maize crop. This scenario might have masked the effect of cutting height on maize yield obtained in this
study even though increasing the cutting height normally increases the shading problem on food crops
Therefore, intra-row spacing of C. calothyrsus is more important management factor deserving due
consideration than the cutting height for maize production in alley cropping system at Bako. Brook (2000)
also recommend that pruning cycles should be timed to minimize shading effect on the sweet potato, and
this conforms with the present finding.
Alley cropping versus monocropping
Generally, maize yield was low as compared to what was previously reported under monocropping system
where fully recommended inorganic fertilizer rate normally used (Benti et al, 1993). But compared with local
check (where no Calliandra hedges), maize yield under alley cropping (under Calliandra hedge) could not
differ significantly (Figure 4). This indicates that the fuel wood obtained from alley cropping is additional
benefit of the hedges without adversely affecting maize yield as compared with that of the control plot. This
agrees with the results reported by Mitiku and Abdu (1995) in Hararghe and Kidane et al (1989) at Melkassa
and Sirinka areas. Another study by Dhayni and Tripathi (1999) agrees with the present finding. But Okorio
et al (1994) report that in most cases trees tend to negatively affect the growth and consequently the yield of
crops grown in association with them. The low maize yield could be attributed to lower biomass from hedges,
wildlife pressure on the trial and lack of some inorganic fertilizer to supplement the tree biomass.
When combined across years, maize yield was significantly (p < 0.001) varied, but the interaction between
treatments and year was not significant (Figure 5). Maize yield was lower during the first (1393.67 kg/ha)
and fourth (989.91 kg/ha) years of the experimental period, but higher during the second (2374.16 kg/ha)
and the third (2485.41 kg/ha) years. It exhibited an increasing trend up to third year, and started to
decline thereafter. This may be because during the first year, the hedgerow was at establishment stage and
it might have contributed no or little biomass for the soil. After two or three years, the biomass from
Calliandra hedge might have contributed for higher maize yield, but thereafter aging of stumps probably
have reduced the biomass production and consequently lowered maize yield together with the ill-effects of
cropping maize after maize for four years continuously without any crop rotation.
The alley cropping results suggest that the prunings from trees alone might not sustain maize production,
and there might be a need for supplementing the Calliandra prunings with some amounts of inorganic
272
fertilizer, notably at the beginning and after some years of hedges establishment (Figure 4). Thus the need
for integrated nutrient management deserves due consideration in the future.
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
Cropping system
500
Monocropping-control
Alley cropping
0
1997/98
1998/99
1999/00
2000/01
Figure 4. Maize yield as influenced by cropping system
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
1997/98
1998/99
1999/00
2000/01
Figure 5. Maize grain yield as influenced by cropping season
Conclusion
Although hedge-row cutting height could not significantly affect maize grain yield, intra-row spacing
significantly affected maize yield. Higher intra-row spacing of Calliandra plants within a hedge gave better
maize yield. If the cutting cycle is systematically planned, the problem of shading on maize yield by hedgerow
heights can be minimized. Thus, intra-row spacing is more important silvicultural management factor for
Calliandra in alley cropping system than that of cutting height under Bako site condition.
As maize yield under alley cropping was not significantly lower than the control plot (no hedge), the wood
obtained from Calliandra hedge was additional benefit, and this resulted in better overall production
efficiency of 'tree + crop' situation (alley cropping) compared to 'tree only' situation (monocropping).
Maize yield showed an increasing trend up to the third year and declined thereafter; maize yield exhibited
the order of: first year < fourth year < second year < fourth year.
The low maize yield obtained in this study (alley cropping) as compared to what was previously reported
under high input system (monocropping with the use of recommended inorganic fertilizer) may be more
related to the need for additional inorganic fertilizer to supplement the biomass from hedges rather than
the shading effects of Calliandra hedges on maize. But the amount additional inorganic fertilizer required
has to be determined by research in the future, and this deserves special attention in the future. Another
273
important area for further investigation is to determine the stage of the maize at which the addition of
prunings would be most beneficial (appropriate time of pruning application).
Reference
Abebe Yadessa and Diriba Bekere. (in press). Determination of optimum nursery soil conditions for propagation of
Leucaena pallida: a promising browse species at Bako. In: Proc. of the 7th Annual Conference of Ethiopian Society of
Animal Production (ESAP), August 30-31, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Abebe Yadessa, Diriba Bekere and Taye Bekele (in press). Maize grain yield under taungya with different multipurpose
trees at Bako. Paper presented at the Tenth Bi-annual Conference of Crop Science Society of Ethiopia, June 19-21,
2001, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Abebe Yadessa, Diriba Bekere and Taye Bekele. 2000. Growth Performance of Different Multipurpose Tree and Shrub
Species at Bako, Western Oromia. In: Nutrient Management for Improving Soil /Crop Productivity in Ethiopian
Agriculture. Proceedings of the Fifth Biennial Conference of Ethiopian Society of Soil Science (ESSS), March 30-31,
2000, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Abebe Yadessa. 1998. Evaluation of the contribution of scattered Cordia africana Lam. trees to soil properties of cropland
and rangeland ecosystems in western Oromia, Ethiopia. M.Sc. Thesis from Swedish University of Agricultural
sciences, Sweden.
Benti Tolessa, Tasew Gobezayehu, Mosisa Worku, Yigzaw Desalegne, Kebede Mulatu and Gezahegne Bogale. 1993.
Genetic improvement of maize in Ethiopia: a review, pp. 13-22. In: Benti and Ransom (eds.), Proc. of the First
National Maize Workshop of Ethiopia, May 5-7 1992, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Brook, R.M. 2000. Hedgerow intercropping with sweet potato in the humid lowlands of Papua New Guinea. Tropical
Agriculture (Trindad), 77(3): 137-143.
CTA (Technical Center for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation). 1994. Spore: Bi-monthly bulletin of the CTA, No. 53.
Wageningen, the Netherlands.
Dhyani, S.K. and Tripathi, R.S. 1999. Tree growth and crop yield under agrisilvicultural practices in north-east India.
Agroforestry Systems, 44: 1-12.
Diriba Geleti, Temesgen Diriba, Lemma Gizachew and Adane Hirpha. 2001. Planting density and cutting interval effects
on productivity of Calliandra calothyrsus Meissn. Ethiopian Journal of Animal Production, 1(1): 25-31.
Kang B.T., Wilson G.F., and Lowson, T.L. 1984. Alley cropping: a stable alternative to shifting cultivation. IITA, Ibadan,
Nigeria.
Karim, A.B.,Savill, P.S., and Rhodes, E.R. 1993. The effects of between-row (alley widths) and within-row spacings of
Gliricidia sepium on alley cropped maize in Sierra Leone: Growth and yield of maize. Agroforestry System, 24: 81-93.
Legesse Dadi, Gemechu Gedeno, Tesfaye Kumsa and Getahun Degu. 1987. Bako mixed farming zone, Wellega and Shewa
regions. Diagnostic survey report No. 1. Institute of Agricultural Research, Department of Agricultural Economics
and Farming Systems Research, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Macqueen, D.J. 1991. Exploration and collection of Calliandra calothyrsus as a foundation for future genetic
improvement. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports 9: 96-98.
Mitiku Haile and Abdu Abdulkadir. 1995. Potential and limitation of alley farming in a sorghum - chat based cropping
system in Hararghe highlands, eastern Ethiopia, pp. 87-92. In: Sebil vol 6: Proceedings of the 6th Annual Conference
of Crop Science Society of Ethiopia, 3 - 4 May 1994. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
MoWR (Ministry of Water Resources). 1996. Omo-Gibe River Basin Integrated Development Master Plan Study. Final
Report, Vol. VII Land Resource Surveys. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Ministry of Water Resources,
Richard Woodroofe & Associates with marcott, UK.
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Okorio, J., Byenkya, S.N., Wajja, N., and Peden, D. 1994. Comparative performance of seventeen upperstorey tree species
with crops in the highlands of Uganda. Agroforestry Systems, 26: 185-203.
Tomaneng, A.A. 1990. Calliandra calothyrsus: observations on coppicing characteristics. Agroforestry Today 2(2): 15.
275
Strategy of leguminous fodder tree seedlings to cope with poor nursery
growing media
Abebe Yadessa
Bako Agricultural Research Center, Agroforestry Research Division P.O. Box 03, Bako, Oromia, Ethiopia.
Abstract
A comparative study on six important multipurpose tree species, raised under different nursery soils (growing
media) (three leguminous fodder species and three other non-leguminous species) was conducted at Bako tree
nursery. The objective of the study was to investigate the response of these leguminous fodder tree seedlings to
nursery growing media (potting substrates). Parameters considered were growth, biomass yield, survival and coping
mechanisms under poor nursery soil conditions. The growing media consisted of four soil mixtures.
Different
proportions of local soil, sand, forest soil and farmyard manure were included based on volume. Seedling height, root
collar diameter, survival, and shoot and root dry weights were measured. Results showed that seedling survival of
leguminous fodder species was significantly (p = 0.000) affected by type of the nursery growing media. Seedling
survival was lower in growing substrates with higher farmyard manure for the legume browse species, but no
apparent difference was noticed for the non-legumes. Generally, the growth of seedlings in poor substrates was
relatively better for the legumes than for the non-legumes, the former thriving more in substrates without farmyard
manure, whereas the latter in substrates containing higher farmyard manure. This may be due to their biological
nitrogen fixation and their capacity to compensate for N. This is an adaptation strategy of leguminous fodder tree
seedlings to cope with poor nursery soils, as this was evidenced by significantly higher number (p = 0.000) and
weight (p = 0.003) of nodules in substrates without farmyard manure as compared to those with farmyard manure.
Therefore, growing media without farmyard manure are suitable and are recommended for leguminous fodder
species, whereas those containing farmyard manure are suited for non-leguminous tree species in nurseries, and
using farmyard manure for raising leguminous fodder tree seedlings is simply incurring an opportunity cost.
Key words: Coping strategy, growing media, leguminous fodder tree, nodulation and non-leguminous tree.
Introduction
Nitrogen is a key constituent element in all organisms. It is one of the essential nutrient elements upon
which plants and animals depend for completing their life cycles (Legesse, 1995). But currently soils are
getting depleted in nitrogen and other nutrients due to accelerating deforestation, intensive agriculture,
overgrazing and other factors. Nitrogen-fixing trees have a potential for land reclamation and soil enrichment
(Högberg, 1982), and nitrogen fixation increases soil N (Bofa, 1999). The number of woody legumes forming
nitrogen-fixing root nodule symbioses with Rhizobium species is very high in tropical areas, reaching some
thousand species (Allen and Allen, 1961: as cited in Högberg, 1982). The trees considered for this study Acacia mearnsii, Calliandra calothyrsus and Leucaena pallida belong to this category, and they are
important fodder species in Bako area.
Nitrogen, despite its abundance in the atmosphere, is not available to plants in a form that is suitable for
metabolism until it is converted to ammonia or other reduced forms. This task of converting molecular
nitrogen in to its corresponding reduced forms is accomplished by a special partnership (symbiosis)
established between a group of bacteria (rhizobia) and leguminous plants like A. mearnsii, C. calothyrsus
and L. pallida. In this association the leguminous plant provides energy in the form of photosynthetic
products (carbohydrates) to the rhizobium, while the rhizobium supplies the plant with the reduced forms
of nitrogen. When the symbiosis is a success, the amounts of N fixed are considerable - between 50 and 100
kg/ha per annum and even sometimes more (Dupriez et al, 1998).
The industrial fixation of nitrogen (Haber-Bosch process), in which N2 is made to react, at high
temperature, with H2 to produce NH3 is an expensive venture consuming large amounts of energy
(petroleum-dependent), and it also requires foreign currency. Consequently, the process of biological
nitrogen fixation should be encouraged and it is comparable to a localized small-scale fertilizer industry,
especially in poor countries like Ethiopia. But little information about this potential nitrogen source exists.
Thus, systematic study on the propagation of these nitrogen-fixing leguminous fodder species should be
analogous to the establishment of life-supporting industry.
Leguminous plants are rarely fertilized with nitrogenous fertilizers because they contain root nodules in
which the complex process of nitrogen fixation occurs. If at all they are fertilized, they usually do not yield
significantly more than the control plots. On the other hand, most non-leguminous plants respond well if
they are fertilized with inorganic nitrogenous fertilizers or with organic fertilizers having high nitrogen
content (Legesse, 1995).
Many tree seedlings (both leguminous and non-leguminous) are raised in different tree nurseries of the
country. In this vast area, these nurseries use different soil substrates (growing media) for raising
seedlings. But currently substrates containing higher organic matter like farmyard manure are getting
scarce because of other uses of farmyard manure (as fuel). This calls for the need to search for other options
as nursery growing substrates. The leguminous fodder tree seedlings may respond differently from that of
other non-leguminous. Therefore, the objective of this study was to investigate the response of these
leguminous fodder tree and other non-leguminous tree seedlings to different nursery growing media
(potting substrates) and assess their coping mechanisms under poor nursery growing media.
The study site
The study was conducted at the tree nursery of Bako Agricultural Research Center, Oromia Regional
State, Ethiopia. The Center is situated at an altitude of 1650 m above sea level with a mean annual rainfall
of about 1270 mm and mean temperature of 21oC (minimum 13oC, maximum 28oC). The dominant soil type is
Nitosol with soil pH of 5-6 and clay dominated texture (Legesse et al, 1987; Abebe, 1998).
Table 5. Some chemical and physical properties of the nursery growing media used for the study.
Soil property
Local soil
Forest soil
Sand
Manure
Organic C, %
2.174
5.426
0.279
15.162
Total N, %
0.196
0.448
0.028
Available P, ppm
7.88
4.7
5.7
C/N
11
12
1.589
136
10
10
Na, meq/100g
0.86
0.34
0.09
K, meq/100g
2.82
1.13
0.13
8.47
Ca, meq/100g
14.17
17.51
2.17
32.39
7.83
0.92
45.9
5.2
58.04
Mg, meq/100g
5.41
CEC, meq/100g
31.4
43.4
BS (%)
74
62
pH(H20
6.9
2.14
64
5.86
153
6.82
6.07
6
8
Clay
56
34
Silt
26
40
2
18
Sand
18
26
92
74
CEC = Cation exchange capacity
BS = Base saturation percentage
Tree species
Six important multipurpose tree species (three leguminous fodder species and three other non-leguminous
species) were used for this study, as indicated in Table 2. These trees were selected based on their importance
in the area.
Table 6. Details of the tree species used for the study.
Scientific name
Family
Category
Habit
Calliandra calothyrsus Meissner
Fabaceae - mimosoideae
Legume
Shrub
Acacia mearnsii De Wild
Legume
Tree
Leucaena pallida Britton and Rose
Legume
Shrub
Grevillea robusta A. Cunn. Ex R. Br.
Proteaceae
Non-legume
Tree
Melia azederach L.
Meliaceae
Non-legume
Tree
Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh.
Myrtaceae
Non-legume
Tree
278
Source of materials
The materials used for the study were obtained from different sources. Seeds of L. pallida and C.
calothyrsus were collected locally from the already existing stands, while others were obtained from Forestry
Research Center /National Tree Seed Project. The polyethylene bags were purchased from market. The forest
soil was collected from the remnant patches of natural forest dominated by Acacia tortilis and Albizia
gummifera at Maqi Bafano (nearby area of Bako Agricultural Research Center), the sand along Gibe river,
the farm yard manure (fairly decomposed) from the Livestock Research Department of the Center, and the
local soil directly from the agricultural land of the Center. The soil was sieved, mixed in different proportions
and then filled into different pots. Some chemical and physical properties of the substrates used for the
experiment are indicated in Table 1.
Treatments and experimental design
The treatments were tree category (legume and non-legume) and soil mixture proportions based on volume
(3 part local soil: 2 part sand:1 part forest soil; 3 part local soil:1 part sand:2 part forest soil; 3 part local soil:2
part sand:1 part farm yard manure; and 3 part local soil:1 part sand:2 part farmyard manure), and handled
as factorial arrangement in randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications.
Sampling procedure, data collection and analysis
Seedling height, root collar diameter, percent survival, shoot dry matter, and root dry matter were directly
measured, while sturdiness index and root/shoot ratio were calculated from the other parameters. Sturdiness
index was determined by dividing the seedling height in cm by root collar diameter in mm as described in
Jaenicke (1999), and root/shoot ratio (carbon allocation to both root and shoot) by dividing root dry weight by
shoot dry weight as described in Otieno et al (2001). All the seedlings were assessed for determining percent
survival, but seedlings from the inner of the plot were assessed for height growth and root collar diameter.
The number of seedlings contained in each plot and those sampled from each plot for each species is indicated
in Table 3.
Table 7. Number of total and sampled seedlings per plot for each tree species.
Tree species
Seedling per plot
Seedling sampled
A. mearnsii
40 (10*4)
16 (8*2)
E. camaldulensis
40 (10*4)
16 (8*2)
C. calothyrsus
40 (8*5)
18 (6*3)
L. pallida
40 (8*5)
18 (6*3)
G. robusta
36 (6*6)
16 (4*4)
M. azedarach
36 (6*6)
16 (4*4)
Numbers in brackets indicate the way the pots are arranged.
The inner seedlings were used for destructive sampling to determine average shoot biomass, and root
biomass. Seedling height was measured by using ruler, and root collar diameter by caliper. The seedling
biomass was partitioned into shoot and root components and their fresh weights taken. Each component
was oven-dried and weighed. Percent survival values were log transformed before the analysis of variance.
All data were analyzed using SPSS. Means of treatments that showed significant difference were
identified using Tukey's Honestly Significant Difference Test (Tukey's-HSD test).
Seedling growth response
For both leguminous and non-leguminous seedlings the index values for height, root collar diameter and
sturdiness were significantly affected by quality of growing media. Compared to non-leguminous seedlings,
leguminous seedlings showed greater height growth under poorer nursery growing media (no farmyard
manure). However, under higher farmyard manure, leguminous seedlings showed lower height growth
compared to the non- leguminous (Figure 1). The higher concentration of N in farmyard manure (1.589%)
might have depressed nodulation in leguminous seedlings, whereas lower N in forest soil (0.448%) might
have enhanced nodulation (Table 1). Thus, higher rate of growth in poorer growing media for legumes could
be due to higher N availability though biological N fixation. Significantly higher number of nodules were
279
observed in substrates with no farmyard manure (Table 4). This argument is in line with earlier works by
Roskoski (1982).
Leguminous plants are rarely fertilized with nitrogenous fertilizers because they contain root nodules in
biological nitrogen fixation occurs. Fertilization does not increase yield significantly. Most non-leguminous
plants, however, respond well to fertilizers having high nitrogen content like farmyard manure (Legesse,
1995). The better performance of leguminous seedlings in poorer growing media could be explained as an
adaptation mechanism to low substrate quality by enhancing biological N fixation.
Seedling height (cm)
40
30
20
Tree category
Non-legume
Legume
10
3LS:2SD:1FS
3LS:2SD:1FYM
3LS:1SD:2FS
3LS:1SD:2FYM
Figure 4. Growth height of leguminous and non-leguminous seedlings as influenced by soil mixture; LS = Local soil, SD = Sand soil, FS =
Forest soil, FYM = Farmyard manure.
Seedling dry weight
As indicated in Tables 4 and 5, shoot and root dry weight did not respond differently to nursery growing
media. Leguminous and non-leguminous seedlings dry weight per individual plant was significantly higher in
substrates containing farmyard manure. There was no significant difference in root/shoot ratio in both
leguminous and non-leguminous seedlings as affected by the quality of growing media. This suggests that
carbon partitioning (allocation to both root and shoot) is not affected by growing media quality. This may be
more related to the genetic factor rather than the environment (substrate quality in this case).
Seedling survival
Seedling survival in the nursery was significantly affected by the composition of the growing media for
leguminous seedlings (Tables 4 and 5). When no farmyard manure was used for pot filling, legumes showed
higher seedling survival compared to non-legumes. The opposite trend was observed, however, when higher
farmyard manure was used (Figure 2). Generally, increasing the forest soil in the soil mixture was favorable
for legumes. Increasing the farmyard manure content favored the growth of the non-legumes. Forest soil
increased the survival of non-leguminous seedlings (10%), whereas increasing the amount of farmyard
manure decreased the survival of legumes seedlings by about the same amount (10%). Both type of legume
seedlings responded similarly in growing media containing more sand and some farmyard manure (3 part
local soil: 2 part sand: 1 part farmyard manure).
280
100
Survival (%)
90
80
Tree category
Non-legume
Legume
70
3LS:2SD:1FS:0FYM
3LS:2SD:0FS:1FYM
3LS:1SD:2FS:0FYM
3LS:1SD:0FS:2FYM
Figure 5. Survival of leguminous and non-leguminous seedlings as influenced by soil mixture; Abbreviations as indicated in Figure 1.
Table 8. Mean values for different parameters measured for leguminous fodder tree seedlings as influenced by soil mixture.
Soil mixture
Survival
(%)
3LS:2SD:1FS
97.94a
3LS:1SD:2FS
96.58a
3LS:2SD:1FYM
84.23b
RCD
(mm)
Sturdiness
quotient (Q)
Shoot DM
(gm/seedling)
Root DM
(gm/seedling)
25.15c
3.48b
6.97b
1.22b
0.29b
26.51bc
3.59b
7.31b
1.36b
0.30b
0.21
74.33a
32.94ab
4.11ab
8.01a
2.05a
0.43ab
0.23
22.63b
Height (cm)
Root/shoot
ratio
0.22
3LS:1SD:2FYM
78.73b
35.18a
4.38a
8.09a
2.43a
0.45a
0.19
Mean
89.16
29.94
3.89
7.59
1.77
0.38
0.21
SE ±
1.43
0.98
0.10
0.13
0.09
0.02
P value
0.000
0.000
0.001
0.005
0.000
0.004
CV (%)
LS = Local soil
14.38
FS = Forest soil
31.35
23.79
SD = Sand
17.46
40.09
55.53
0.09
NS
43.55
Nodule number
per seedling
69.78a
6.74b
43.37
4.88
0.000
37.63
FYM = Farmyard manure
Table 9. Mean values for different parameters measured for non-leguminous tree seedlings as influenced by soil mixture
Soil mixture
Survival (%) Height (cm)
RCD (mm)
Sturdiness
quotient (Q)
Shoot DM
(gm/seedling)
Root DM
(gm/seedling)
Root/shoot
ratio
3LS:2SD:1FS
91.90
17.32b
3.13b
5.72b
1.04b
0.21b
3LS:1SD:2FS
86.11
18.27b
3.17b
5.81b
1.15b
0.30ab
0.21
0.26
3LS:2SD:1FYM
85.19
31.31a
4.26a
7.63a
2.16a
0.44a
0.23
3LS:1SD:2FYM
88.19
34.52a
4.39a
8.05a
2.38a
0.43a
0.20
Mean
87.85
25.35
3.74
6.80
1.68
0.35
0.22
SE ±
P value
CV (%)
1.24
NS
14.72
1.07
0.11
0.22
0.10
0.03
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.002
33.11
26.48
30.47
34.13
65.29
0.02
NS
64.23
Means followed by similar letters within each column are not significantly different by Tukey's-HSD test; NS =Not Significant.
Abbreviation as in Table 6.
Number and weight of nodules
Number of nodules were significantly affected by type of growing media. Higher number of nodules were
observed in less fertile growing media than in more fertile media (Table 6). Nodule weights were significantly
higher in nursery substrates without farmyard manure compared to those with farmyard manure (Figure 4).
This may be due to higher N in growing media containing farmyard manure as compared to those containing
no farmyard manure. High N content in the soil normally reduces the extent of nodulation by leguminous
browse plants because the plant utilizes the already existing N in the soil (Roskoski, 1982). Dupriez et al
(1998) also noted that the soil should be fairly poor in mineral nitrogen for enhancing nodulation. There was
also significant difference in number of nodules between species; it was significantly higher for Acacia than
for Calliandra and Leucaena (Figure 3). But there was no significant difference in nodule number and nodule
weight between Calliandra and Leucaena seedlings. This shows that nodulation is a coping strategy of
leguminous fodder tree seedlings to grow in poor nursery growing media. Although nodule number
281
significantly differed for the different growing media, the effectiveness of nodulation (ability of nitrogen
fixation) has to be studied in the future and this needs due consideration.
80
Average nodule number per seedling
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Calliandra
Leucaena
Acacia
Figure 6. Number of nodules in leguminous seedlings as influenced by species.
.6
Nodule weight (mg/seedling)
.5
.4
.3
.2
.1
0.0
3LS:2SD:1FS
3LS:2SD:1FYM
3LS:1SD:2FS
3LS:1SD:2FYM
Figure 7. Average nodule weight of Calliandra and Leucaena seedlings as influenced by growing substrate (p = 0.003).
Conclusion
The effect of quality of growing media on seedling survival was more evident in leguminous species than in
non-leguminous ones. Under higher farmyard manure (more fertile growing media), the non-leguminous
seedlings grew and survived better than the leguminous ones. In this case, non-legumes appeared to take
advantage of soil fertility (substrate quality) to grow faster and survive better than the legumes. But under
less fertile growing media (no farmyard manure), the opposite trend was observed. The ability of leguminous
fodder seedlings to grow and survive better under poor nursery growing media because of their biological N
fixation to compensate for N was an adaptation strategy that may be important in species survival under
poor soil situations. Thus, using farmyard manure for legumes is just incurring an opportunity cost.
The practical significance of this study is that growing media without farmyard manure are suitable and
are recommended for leguminous fodder species, whereas those containing farmyard manure are suited for
non-leguminous tree species in nurseries.
282
However, the increase in the number of nodules in poorer growing media due to the symbiotic association
between legumes and rhizobial bacteria alone may not warrant higher nitrogen fixation. There may also be
rhizobial specificity for effective nodulation and N-fixation. Thus, further study might be required in
understanding the contribution of leguminous seedlings to the nitrogen economy of the soil.
References
Abebe Yadessa. 1998. Evaluation of the contribution of scattered Cordia africana Lam. trees to soil properties of cropland
and rangeland ecosystems in western Oromia, Ethiopia. M.Sc. Thesis from Swedish University of Agricultural
sciences, Sweden.
Abebe Yadessa and Diriba Bekere. (in press). Determination of optimum nursery soil conditions for propagation of
Leucaena pallida: a promising browse species at Bako. In: Proc. of the 7th Annual Conference of Ethiopian Society of
Animal Production (ESAP), August 30-31, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Bofa, M.J. 1999. Agroforestry parklands in sub-Saharan Africa. FAO Conservation Guide 34. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.
Dupriez, H and De Leener, P. 1998. Trees and multistorey agriculture in Africa. CTA and Terres et Vie, Brussels,
Belgium.
Högberg, P. and Kvarnström, M. 1982. Nitrogen fixation by the woody legume Leucaena leucocephala in Tanzania. Plant
and Soil 66: 21-28.
Jaenicke, H. 1999. Good tree nursery practices: Practical guidelines for research nurseries. ICRAF. Nairobi, Kenya.
Legesse Dadi, Gemechu Gedeno, Tesfaye Kumsa and Getahun Degu. 1987. Bako mixed farming zone, Wellega and Shewa
regions. Diagnostic survey report No. 1. Institute of Agricultural Research, Department of Agricultural Economics
and Farming Systems Research, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Legesse Negash. 1995. Indigenous trees of Ethiopia: biology, uses and propagation techniques. SLU Reprocentralen,
Umeå, Sweden.
Otieno, D.O., Kinyamario, J.I., and Omenda, T.O. 2001. Growth features of Acacia tortilis and Acacia xanthophloea
seedlings and their response to cyclic soil drought stress. East African Wildlife Society, Afr. J. Ecol., 39: 126-132.
Roskoski, J.P. 1982. Nitrogen fixation in a Mexican coffee plantation. Plant and Soil, 67: 283-291.
283
Effect of undersowing annual forage legumes on grain and dry matter
stalk yield of Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) and dry matter forage yield in
the Eastern Amhara region
Samuel Menbere and Mesfin Dejene
Sirinka Agricultural Research Center, P.O. Box 74, Woldia, Ethiopia
Abstract
Three annual forage legumes (Lablab purpureus, Vigna unguiculata and Vicia dasycarpa) were undersown at three
different dates (10, 25 and 40 days after emergence of sorghum) on two spacing (every and every two rows of
sorghum) to evaluate the effect of forage legumes, undersowing dates and row spacing on sorghum grain, DM stalk
and DM forage yield. The trial was conducted at Sirinka and Chefa trial sites of northeastern Amhara region for two
consecutive years (1999 and 2000). Among tested forage legumes, undersowing Vigna unguiculata and Vicia
dasycarpa respectively, gave significantly (P<0.01) highest grain yield of 29.2 and 61.8q/ha, which were higher than
sole sorghum grain yield by 13.6 and 4.5% at Sirinka and Chefa. Also significantly (P<0.01) higher DM stalk yield of
8.1 and 7.3t/ha were obtained from Vicia dasycarpa and Vigna unguiculata at Chefa respectively, which were lower
by 0.8 and 10.5% than sole sorghum DM stalk yield. However, Lablab purpureus that gave significantly (P<0.01)
lower grain yield (23.7 and 53.6q/ha) at Sirinka and Chefa respectively gave significantly (P<0.01) higher DM forage
yield of 3.0 and 1.2t/ha. The interaction effect of forage legumes and date of undersowing had only shown significant
(P<0.01) effect on DM forage yield of each locations. As a result indicated, undersowing Lablab purpureus at 10 days
after emergence of sorghum gave highest DM forage yield of 3.9 and 2.3t/ha at Sirinka and Chefa respectively.
Therefore, based on the result obtained from this study, undersowing Vicia dasycarpa at 40 DAES at Sirinka, and
Vigna unguiculata at 10 DAES at Chefa on every rows of sorghum were found to be the best for its higher grain and
DM stalk, and optimum DM forage yield. Further study is required to evaluate the impact of these forage legumes
on the N economy of companion and subsequent main crop.
Key words: date of undersowing, row spacing, annual forage legumes, grain yield, dry matter stalk yield,
dry matter forage yield, days after emergence
Introduction
The main source of livestock feed in Ethiopia comes from natural pasture which are low in quality and
quantity. Moreover, these areas are also diminishing in size due to conversion into farm land because of high
human population growth.
Rugged topography and high population pressure are causes of farm-land shortage. Due to this critical
problem, growing forage crops as sole crop for animal feed is difficult. The only possibilityis the use of land
for food and forage production. Growing of forage legumes through undersowing/intercropping is one way
of introducting forage crops so as to use the small farm land for both crop and feed production. The system
offers a potential for increasing fodder without appreciable reduction of grain production. One of the
conspicuous advantages of undersowing is to get a variety of returns from land and labor to increase
efficiency of resource use and to reduce risks which may be caused by bad weather, disease and pests
(Tessema Zewdu et al., 1995).
Intercropping annual forage legumes with row crops has been proposed as a strategy to control erosion,
suppress weeds, and contribute biological N to companion or subsequent crops (Jeranyman et al 1998). The
production of the companion crop will also increase and the quality of crop residue will improve. Moreover,
biologically fixed N is transferred in to leguminous protein and this may be consumed directly by animals
to meet their protein requirements and the excess returned to the soil via animal wastes. Very high
yielding leguminous crop can add up to 500kg of N to the soil per ha/year. The biologically fixed N by these
legumes are critical to maintain the N balance in the nature (Gutteridge and Shelton 1994).
In similar studies, the decomposition of leguminous roots may contribute between 5 and 15kg N/ha to the
soil N (Tekalign et al. 1993, Nnadi et al. 1988) and the return of nutrients in the aerial part of the forage
285
after grazing would increase this considerably. Moreover, the undersown forage legumes can also help in
suppressing weed growth (Tessema Zewdu et al. 1995) and control the rate of available moisture
evaporation on the cropland by their canopying effect.
In the past few years screening and adaptation trial of different forage legumes were carried out to identify
promising forage species for further use. Among tested forage legumes Lablab purpureus (lablab), Vigna
unguiculata (cowpea) and Vicia dasycarpa (vetch) were identified for their adaptability and good DM
forage yield (SARC 1999). Therefore, this study was conducted to evaluate the feasibility of producing
forage legumes and to identify suitable forage legumes with its best undersowing date and spacing, which
could successfully establish when undersown in sorghum with out greatly affecting the grain and DM stalk
yield.
The study was conducted for two years (1999 and 2000) in northeastern part of Amhara region at two trial
sites of Sirinka Research Center (Sirinka and Chefa). Sirinka represent the midland with an altitude of
1850m.a.s.l and Chefa represent lowland with an altitude of 1450m.a.s.l. Details about rainfall, temperature
and soil type of the testing sites is presented in table 1.
Sorghum was sown on tie ridge with a spacing of 75cm between rows and 20cm between plants on a plot
size of 6 X 4m. Each plot consisted of 8 rows of sorghum.
Three species of forage legumes (lablab, cowpea and vetch) were sown at three different undersowing dates
(10 days after emergence of sorghum (DAES), 25DAES and 40DAES) on two types of row spacing (on every
and every two rows of sorghum). Recommended rate of fertilizer 100 and 50kg/ha DAP and Urea were
applied at planting and at knee height of main crop respectively. Seeding rate of 12kg/ha for lablab and
6kg/ha each for cowpea and vetch were used. The design was 3 by 3 by 2 factorial combinations in RCB
with three replications. Including the control (sole sorghum), the trial consists 19 treatments.
Table 1: Mean rainfall (mm), maximum and minimum temperature (OC), and soil type of Sirinka and Chefa trial Sites.
Parameters
Sirinka
Chefa
Soil type
Mean annual RF
Maximum temperature
Minimum temperature
Eutric vertisole
950
26.34
13.43
Vertisole
NA
NA
NA
N.B: NA is data not available
The forage legumes were undersown according to their undersowing dates and spacing. Prior to crop
harvest, soil sample was taken at 20 and 40cm depth starting from 10 days after the crop emergence with
an interval of 15 days for soil moisture availability determination. Weeding was done by hand pulling, and
weed biomass was measured fresh for determination of weed controlling potential of undersown forage
legumes.
Sorghum was harvested at physiological maturity. The middle rows were harvested for grain and stalk
yield estimation. Moreover, the middle rows of undersown forage legumes were harvested when they reach
50% flowering. Fresh sub sample were taken from stalk, forage and soil sample and put in drought oven at
105OC for 24 hours to determine forage and stalk dry matter and moisture content in the soil.
Data was analyzed using ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) by Genstat statistical software (Genstat, 1993).
Results and discussions
Grain yield.
The mean grain yield of undersown and control (sole sorghum) treatment of each location is presented in
table 2. Difference among treatments in combined mean grain yield of the two locations was significant
(P<0.01). The highest mean grain yield of 47.8 and 45.1q/ha were harvested from treatments on which
cowpea and vetch were undersown on every two rows at 40 and 10 DAES respectively. These two treatments
gave 9.4 and 3.3% higher mean grain yield compared with control (sole sorghum) treatment, which gave a
mean grain yield of 43.7q/ha (table 2).
286
Moreover, as the result in table 2 indicates significant (P<0.05) mean grain yield difference was obtained at
Chefa among the control and undersown treatments. Treatment on which vetch was undersown on every
rows at 20DAES of sorghum gave highest mean grain yield of 64.8q/ha, followed by mean grain yield
(64.3q/ha) obtained from cowpea undersown on every two rows at 40DAES of sorghum. The mean grain
yield harvested from control treatment was less by 8.4 and 7.6% respectively, compared with the first and
second treatments that gave highest mean grain yield in the location (table 2). However, the differences
among treatments were not significant at Sirinka.
Type of undersown forage species had also shown significant (P<0.01) effect on the combined mean grain
yield of the two locations. The highest mean grain yield of 44.6q/ha was harvested from treatments on
which vetch was undersown, followed by cowpea with a mean grain yield of 43.7q/ha (table 3). The mean
grain yield obtained from vetch and cowpea was higher by 5.7 and 3.6% respectively than sole sorghum
(43.7q/ha) mean grain yield (table 4).
Similarly, the effect of forage species was also significant (P<0.01) on each location mean grain yield.
Accordingly, vetch and cowpea gave the highest mean grain yield of 29.2 and 61.8q/ha at Sirinka and
Chefa respectively (table 3). The mean grain yield obtained from these forage species (vetch and cowpea)
were higher than sole sorghum by 13.6 and 4.5% with a mean grain yield of 27.7 and 59.8q/ha at Sirinka
and Chefa respectively. Unlike these species, undersowing lablab decrease the mean grain yield by 9.0 and
9.6% compared with control treatment at Sirinka and Chefa respectively. Moreover, lablab decreases the
mean grain yield by 9.3% than control treatment of both locations (table 4).
The interaction effect of forage species and date of undersowing has also shown significant (P<0.05) effect
on the mean grain yield of the two locations. Highest mean grain yield of 45.7q/ha was obtained from
cowpea undersown at 40DAES. Moreover, vetch undersown at 40 and 10DAES gave the next highest mean
grain yield of 45.0 and 44.6q/ha respectively (table 3). In the above forage species and date of undersowing
cases, cowpea undersown at 40DAES and vetch undersown at 40 and 10DAES increases the mean grain
yield by 9.8, 6.2 and 3.2% than control treatment respectively (table 4).
Table 2: Mean grain (q/ha), DM stalk (t/ha) and average weed biomass (t/ha) of undersown and Control (sole sorghum) treatments at
Sirinka and Chefa, 1999 and 2000.
Treat.
No.
Forage
Species
Row
Spacing
Sowing
Date
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Control (sole sorghum)
Vetch
ER
Vetch
ER
Vetch
ER
Vetch
ETR
Vetch
ETR
Vetch
ETR
Lablab
ER
Lablab
ER
Lablab
ER
Lablab
ETR
Lablab
ETR
Lablab
ETR
Cowpea
ER
Cowpea
ER
Cowpea
ER
Cowpea
ETR
Cowpea
ETR
Cowpea
ETR
10DAES
25DAES
40DAES
10DAES
25DAES
40DAES
10DAES
25DAES
40DAES
10DAES
25DAES
40DAES
10DAES
25DAES
40DAES
10DAES
25DAES
40DAES
Mean
LSD
Grain
yield
Sirinka
Chefa
DM
stalk
yield
Grain
yield
DM
stalk
yield
Weed
biomass
27.7
26.9
25.2
29.1
29.6
23.8
30.0
21.2
23.6
22.7
20.3
29.0
25.2
29.4
24.8
30.9
32.7
26.2
31.3
6.4
7.0
8.1
7.6
8.1
7.6
6.6
5.8
6.1
8.1
6.7
5.4
5.9
7.9
6.5
7.0
8.3
6.9
7.2
7.1
6.1
7.1
7.7
6.4
6.9
6.4
5.6
6.4
6.1
6.6
7.8
6.8
5.9
6.8
5.6
6.2
7.1
6.5
59.8ABC
61.1AB
64.8A
60.8AB
60.6ABC
63.0A
60.1ABC
42.6D
57.9ABC
52.2BCD
50.3CD
59.3ABC
59.1ABC
55.2ABC
60.3ABC
56.1ABC
55.6ABC
57.3ABC
64.3A
8.1
7.5
7.9
8.2
8.5
8.3
8.3
7.0
7.0
7.6
6.8
7.4
7.5
6.7
7.0
8.5
7.5
7.0
7.0
26.8
NS
7.0
NS
6.6
NS
57.9
0.05
7.6
NS
Location mean
Weed
biomass
8.6
10.1
9.7
8.2
7.0
7.5
8.4
6.2
9.9
8.1
6.6
8.3
8.8
8.4
7.4
6.2
8.5
8.5
9.2
8.2
NS
Grain
yield
DM
stalk
yield
43.7ABC
44.0 AB
45.0AB
45.0AB
45.1AB
43.4ABC
45.0AB
31.9D
40.8ABC
37.5BCD
35.3CD
44.1AB
42.2ABC
42.3ABC
42.5ABC
43.5ABC
44.1AB
41.8ABC
47.8A
7.3
7.3
8.0
7.9
8.2
8.0
7.5
6.4
6.5
7.8
6.8
6.4
6.7
7.3
6.8
7.8
7.9
7.0
7.1
7.9
8.1
8.4
8.0
6.7
7.2
7.4
5.9
8.2
7.1
6.6
8.1
7.8
7.1
7.1
5.9
7.3
7.8
7.9
42.4
0.01
7.3
NS
7.4
NS
Weed
biomass
N.B: ER (Every rows), ETR (Every two rows), DAES (Days after emergence of sorghum),
Means in the column followed by different letters are significantly (P<0.05 and 0.01) different
287
Table 3: Effect of undersowing date and forage species mean grain (q/ha), DM stalk (t/ha) and DM forage (t/ha) yield at Sirinka and
Chefa, 1999 and 2000.
Sirinka
Forage species
Vigna unguiculata
(Cowpea)
Sowing
date
Grain
yield
DM
stalk
yield
Location mean
DM
forage
yield
Grain
yield
DM
stalk
yield
DM
forage
yield
31.0
8.1
0.8 D
55.4
7.1
1.3 B
43.2 AB
7.6
1.1 CD
25DAES
25.5
6.7
1.0 D
58.8
7.0
0.6 CD
42.1 AB
6.9
0.6 EF
40DAES
31.1
7.1
1.1 D
60.2
7.8
0.2 D
45.7 A
7.4
0.2 F
29.2 A
7.3
1.0 B
58.1 AB
7.3 B
0.7 B
43.7 A
7.3 AB
0.8 B
10DAES
20.7
6.3
3.9 A
46.5
6.9
2.3 A
33.6 C
6.6
3.1 A
25DAES
26.3
5.8
3.1 B
58.6
7.2
0.9 BC
42.5 AB
6.5
2.0 B
40DAES
23.9
7.0
2.0 C
55.7
7.6
0.4 D
39.8 B
7.3
1.2 C
23.7 B
6.3
3.0 A
53.6 B
7.2 B
1.2 A
38.6 B
6.8 B
2.1 A
10DAES
28.3
7.5
0.8 D
60.9
8.0
0.3 D
44.6 A
7.7
0.5 EF
25DAES
24.5
7.9
1.2 D
63.9
8.1
0.2 D
44.2 AB
8.0
0.7 DE
40DAES
Forage mean
Vicia dasycarpa (Vetch)
Chefa
DM
forage
yield
10DAES
Forage mean
Lablab purpureus
(Lablab)
Grain
yield
DM
stalk
yield
29.5
7.1
1.3 CD
60.5
8.3
0.2 D
45.0 A
7.7
0.7 DE
Forage mean
27.4 AB
7.5
1.1 B
61.8 A
8.1 A
0.2 C
44.6 A
7.8 A
0.7 B
Forage LSD
0.01
NS
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
NS
NS
0.01
NS
NS
NS
0.05
NS
0.01
6.4
-
59.8
8.1
-
7.3
-
Forage * Sowing date LSD
Control mean
27.7
43.7
N.B. Means in the column followed by different letters are significantly (P<0.05 and 0.01) different
Table 4:
Comparison for the effect of undersowing date and forage species on mean sorghum grain and DM stalk yield with mean
grain and DM stalk yield of control (sole sorghum) (%) at Sirinka and Chefa, 1999 and 2000.
Sirinka
Forage species
Sowing date
Grain
yield
Cowpea
10DAES
25DAES
Grain yield
DM stalk
yield
Grain yield
20.0
42.7
(7.4)
(15.0)
6.3 AB
2.5
18.5
(0.3)
(11.8)
1.1 AB
3.3
40DAES
18.4
32.6
1.1
(4.7)
9.8 A
14.0
13.6 A
31.3
(10.5) B
5.7 A
10.4 AB
10DAES
(22.6)
8.3
(22.9)
(17.0)
(22.7) C
25DAES
(0.4)
3.2
(0.4)
(12.2)
(0.4) AB
(4.5)
40DAES
(3.9)
31.1
(5.6)
12.2
(9.0) B
14.2
(9.6) B
Forage mean
Vetch
Location effect
DM stalk
yield
Forage mean
Lablab
Chefa
(2.2) AB
DM stalk
yield
13.8
(4.4)
(6.7)
(4.8) B
(12.0) B
(9.3) B
2.7
(2.7
3.2 AB
15.1
1.1 B
10DAES
3.6
33.0
25DAES
(5.0)
36.4
7.7
(0.4)
1.4 AB
18.0
40DAES
9.2
26.5
3.1
0.6
6.2 AB
13.6
Forage mean
2.6 AB
32.0
4.5 A
(0.8) A
3.6 A
15.6 A
Forage LSD
0.01
NS
0.01
0.01
0.01
NS
NS
NS
0.05
NS
0.05
NS
Note: Numbers that are found in the parenthesis are negative values
Stalk yield
As the mean DM stalk yield in table 2 indicates, differences among sole sorghum and undersown
treatments were not significant for mean DM stalk yield obtained at each location and combined mean yield
of these locations.
Like the mean grain yield, the mean DM stalk yield obtained were significantly (P<0.01) affected by type of
forage species in the combined mean yield of the two locations. As a result, the mean DM stalk yield
obtained from treatments undersown by lablab was lowest (6.8t/ha). However, vetch gave the highest mean
DM stalk yield of 7.8t/ha, followed by cowpea with mean DM stalk yield of 7.3t/ha (table 3). As compared
with control mean DM stalk yield (7.3t/ha) undersowing vetch and cowpea increases the DM stalk yield by
15.6 and 10.4% (table 4).
Moreover, mean DM stalk yield differences obtained among tested forage species were only significant
(P<0.01) at Chefa. Accordingly, the highest mean DM stalk yield of 8.1 and 7.3t/ha were harvested from
vetch and cowpea respectively (table 3). However, vetch and cowpea decreases the mean DM stalk yield by
0.8 and 10.5% compared with mean DM stalk yield (8.1t/ha) of control treatment (table 4).
288
Forage yield
Dry matter (DM) forage yield differences among undersown treatments were not significant at each
location and in combined mean. However, the mean DM forage yield obtained among tested forage species
were significant (P<0.01) for both locations. Unlike the mean grain yield, the highest mean DM forage yield of
2.1t/ha was harvested from lablab, followed by cowpea with mean DM forage yield of 0.8t/ha (table 3).
As the mean DM forage yield of each location indicates in table 3, the DM forage yield differences among
tested forage species were also significant (P<0.01) at each location. Accordingly, lablab gave the highest
mean DM forage yield of 3.0 and 1.2t/ha at Sirinka and Chefa respectively. However, vetch and cowpea
respectively gave the second highest mean DM forage yield of 1.1 and 0.7t/ha at Sirinka and Chefa (table
3).
The interaction effect of forage species and date of undersowing had shown significant (P<0.01) effect on
the mean DM forage yield obtained at each location and in the combined mean of both locations. Among
the tested combinations of forage species and date of undersowing, lablab gave the highest mean DM
forage yield of 3.1, 2.0 and 1.2t/ha when it was undersown at 10, 25 and 40DAES of sorghum respectively
(Table 3). Highest mean DM forage yield of 3.9 and 2.3t/ha were harvested from lablab that was
undersown at 10DAES at Sirinka and Chefa respectively (table 3). Similar to the combined result of the
two locations, the second highest mean DM forage yield (3.1 and 2.0t/ha) at Sirinka were obtained from
lablab when it was undersown at 25 and 40DAES respectively. Unlike to Sirinka, the second highest mean
DM forage yield of 1.3t/ha at Chefa was obtained from cowpea undersown at 10DAES (table 3). In general,
this result indicates that as the date of undersowing delays the mean DM forage yield would decreases
significantly. Results are similar to those reported by Stute and Posner (1993)
Soil Moisture Content
Undersowing forage legumes had a great role for increasing soil moisture availability. The canopying effect
of those forage legumes protect the solar radiation to not increase the rate of evaporation from the ground. In
related with this fact, the role of undersown forage legumes for the control of soil moisture availability for the
main crop could be affected by the type of forage species (leaf area and growth habit), plant density and stage
of growth. Especially, the type of forage species in related with its canopy effect, and growth stage of the
forage at which the solar radiation become intensive plays a significant effect towards soil moisture
availability.
The interaction effect of forage species type and date of undersowing had shown significant (P<0.01) effect
for soil moisture availability of both locations. Accordingly, a treatment that was undersown by cowpea and
vetch at 40 and 10DAES has the same highest moisture content of 26.4% (table 4). These forage species
had erect growth habit and they tend to cover more ground surface than lablab with a climbing growth
nature.
On the other hand, the interaction effect of date of undersowing and forage species where significant
(P<0.01) for soil moisture availability at Chefa. Among the tested undersowing date and forage species
combinations, undersowing (cowpea and vetch) at 40 and 25 DAES showed highest moisture availability of
30.6 and 30.2% respectively at Chefa (table 4).
Weed biomass
Undersowing forage legumes with food crop play a great role for suppressing weed growth. Tessema
Zewdu et al (1995) also indicate that the use of undersown forage legumes for the control of weed infestation.
Even if the weed biomass difference of undersown and control (sole sorghum) treatments were not significant,
the result obtained from this study indicated that the average fresh weed biomass of most undersown
treatments were less than the mean average weed biomass obtained from control (sole sorghum) treatment at
each locations (table 2).
289
Table 4: Effect of forage legume and date of undersowing on fresh weed biomass (kg/ha) and soil moisture content (%) at Sirinka and
Chefa, 1999 and 2000.
Sirinka
Forage species
Sowing date
Cowpea
Av. Weed
biomass
Moisture
content
10DAES
6.0
21.8
8.4
29.1 B
7.2
25DAES
7.0
21.0
8.0
29.5 AB
7.5
25.3 B
40DAES
6.0
22.2
7.7
30.6 A
6.9
26.4 A
Forage mean
Moisture
content
25.5 AB
6.4
21.7
8.0
29.7
7.2
25.7
6.1
22.4
6.4
29.6 AB
6.3
26.0 AB
25DAES
7.1
21.7
9.1
30.2 AB
8.1
25.9 AB
40DAES
6.5
22.1
8.4
30.1 AB
7.4
26.1 AB
6.6
22.0
8.0
30.0
7.3
26.0
10DAES
6.3
22.8
8. 6
30.0 AB
7.4
26.4 A
25DAES
7.0
21.3
8.6
30.2 AB
7.8
25.8 AB
40DAES
6.6
21.4
8.3
29.5 AB
7.7
25.5 AB
5.8
21.9
8.5
29.9
7.6
25.9
Forage LSD
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
Control mean
Av. Weed
biomass
10DAES
Forage mean
Vetch
Location mean
Moisture
content
Forage mean
Lablab
Chefa
Av. Weed
biomass
7.1
22.3
8.6
NS
0.01
28.9
NS
NS
7.9
NS
0.01
25.6
N.B. Means in the column followed by different letters are significantly (P<0.01) different
Undersowing forage legumes with cereals offers a potential for increase forage production through
effective use of available resource such as labor, land and time. However, in such system the yield depression
of cereal grain yield should be minimal, possibly not more than 15%, for it to be acceptable to the farmers.
The time of sowing of cereal and forage legume is critical for the yield of each crop (Nnadil and Haque, 1986).
Lulseged Gebrehiwot et al. (1987) also showed that the right choice of both food and forage crop and the right
time of planting also important factors.
In spite of this fact, from our study the maximum reduction for grain yield at Sirinka and Chefa was 22.6
and 22.9% respectively, and for DM stalk maximum yield reduction of 17.0% was obtained at Chefa as
compared with sole sorghum mean grain and DM stalk yield. However, at Sirinka no DM stalk yield
reduction was observed in all possible forage species and undersowing date combinations. These maximum
grain and DM stalk yield reduction was obtained from treatments on which lablab was undersown at
10DAES. Unlike lablab, undersowing vetch and cowpea at 25 and 10DAES at Sirinka and Chefa
respectively maximize the obtained grain yield by 20.0 and 7.7% than sole sorghum mean grain yield.
Based on the results, undersowing vetch at 40DAES and cowpea at 10DAES on every rows of sorghum
would give better DM forage yield without affecting sorghum grain and DM stalk yield at Sirinka and
Chefa respectively. However, additional study is required to identify the economic feasibility of
undersowing these forage legumes as compared to growing sole sorghum in terms of efficient use of
resource and contribution of these forage legumes to soil N for the companion and subsequent food crop.
Acknoledgment
We would like to extend our thanks to Ato Mesfin Lakew, Ato Yohannes Alemu, Ato Ayalew Wudu and Ato
Belay Tadesse for their assistance and collaboration in data collection during the execution of the experiment.
We would like also to thanks all staffs of Forage Genetic Resource Department (ILRI) especially Ato Abate
Tedla for their great collaboration in providing us the required planting materials and their assistance in
timely completion of the experiment. Our thanks also goes to Ato Getenet Assefa (Holetta Research Center)
and other individuals at different research centers, who provided us technical assistance during the course of
the experiment.
References
Genstat 5, Committee of the statistics department, 1993. Roth Amsted Experimental Station. Lawes Agricultural Trust.
Oxford Science Publications, CLAENDON press Oxford.
290
Gutteridge R.C. and H.M. Shelton, 1994. The Role of Forage Tree Legumes in Cropping and Grazing System. Forage Tree
Legumes in Tropical Agriculture. CAB International, Oxford, UK. Pp 3-11.
Jernanyama P., Hesterman O.B. and Sheaffer C., 1998. Medics Planting Date Effect on Dry Matter and Nitrogen
Accumulation when Clear seeded or intercropped with Corn. Agronomy Journal. 90 (5): pp 616-622.
Lulseged Gebre Hiwot, Gebre Medhin Hagos and Tadesse Tekle Tsadik, 1987. Undersowing Of Forage Crops in Cereals:
Some Achievements. Proceeding of 1st National Livestock Improvement Conference. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Pp 151154.
Nnadi, L. A. and Haque I., 1988. Forage Legumes in African Crop-Livestock Production System. ILCA Bulletin. No 30. pp
10-19.
SARC, (Sirinka Agricultural Research Center), 1999. Annual Research Progress Report. Sirinka, Ethiopia.
Stute J. K. and Posner J.L., 1993. Legume Cover Crop Options for Grain Rotations in Wisconsin. Agronomy Journal, 83
(6). Pp 1128-1132 (CAB Inter.)
Tekleyohannes Berhanu and Worku Jima, 1999. The Effect of Undersowing Barley with Forage Legumes on grain and
straw yield of Barley and herbage yield of forage legumes in the Highlands of Bale. Proceeding of 7th Annual
Conference of Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP) held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, pp 245-249.
Tessema Zewdu, Getenet Assefa and Yohanes Tereffe, 1995. Effect of Undersowing of Annual Forage Legumes and
fertilization on Wheat grain, straw and forage production at Adet. Proceeding of 3rd Conference of Ethiopian Society
of Animal Production (ESAP), pp 245-249. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
291
On-farm evaluation of different seeding rates of Oat and Vetch mixtures
in barley-based double cropping system of the Bale highlands
Tekleyohannes Berhanu, Teshome Abate, Solomon Bogale and Dagnachew Worku
Oromia Agricultural Research Institute, Sinana Agricultural Research Center P.O.Box 208, Bale-Robe
Abstract
An on-farm experiment was conducted over six seasons, from March 1999 until December 2001, around Sinana
Agricultural Research Center to evaluate six seeding rates of oat/vetch mixtures (80/30, 60/7.5, 40/15, 20/22.5,
80/0[sole oat] and 0/30[sole vetch] (kg/ha)) for forage yield. Effect of the oat/vetch seeding rates on the yields of the
subsequent crop was also studied in a barley-based double cropping system. The results indicate that dry matter
(DM) yield increased with increasing oats seed rate in the mixture but decreased with increasing vetch seed rate.
The highest mean DM yield (7.0 t/ha) was recorded in the 80/30 (kg/ha) oat/vetch seeding rate followed by the sole
oat (6.5 t/ha DM). However, DM yield difference in the 60/7.5, 40/15, and 20/22.5 (kg/ha) oat/vetch seeding rates was
not significant (P>0.05).
Barley grain and straw yields in the subsequent season increased with an increase in vetch seed rate in the
precursor oat/vetch mixture. The highest mean barley grain (20.8 q/ha) and straw yields (72.1 q/ha) were recorded in
barley after the sole vetch precursor. On the other hand, lower grain and straw yields of barley were observed when
barley was sown after sole oat , after fallow and after the 80/30 (kg/ha) oat/vetch seeding rate. However, the 60/7.5,
40/15 and 20/22.5 (kg/ha) oat/vetch seeding rates sustained significantly (P<0.05) higher barley grain and straw
yields in the subsequent season than the fallow, sole oat and the 80/30 (kg/ha) oat/vetch seeding rate. Therefore,
oat/vetch mixtures could be cultivated in fallow seasons at a seeding rates of 60/7.5, 40/15 or 22/22.5 (kg/ha) to
maximize both forage and food crop production in Bale highlands. However, more information on the effect of
seeding rates on growing good quality oat-vetch mixture is required.
Introduction
In Sinana district of Bale zone, rainfall is distributed bimodal with the annual total of approximately 850
mm being split roughly equally between two season; the first or ‘belg’ rains from March to July and the
second or ‘meher’ rain from August to December (Alemayehu and Franzel, 1987). Both seasons are suitable
for crop production. However, few farmers utilize both rainy seasons to produce sequentially two crops on the
same piece of land. Most farmers prefer to fallow their land in one of the two annual cropping seasons
(Alemayehu and Franzel, 1987), probably due to the narrow time gap that exists between the two production
seasons.
In view of the feed shortage in Bale highlands, forage crops can be established in the fallow seasons. Zewdu
and Tanner (1996) also confirmed it that a double cropping system based on bread wheat and forage
legumes in areas of Bale highlands receiving bimodal rainfall distribution is feasible. Among the forage
species tested and selected in Bale highlands, fodder oats (Avena sativa) and vetches (Vicia species) have
received acceptance by the small holders. Cultivation of oat and vetch in mixture for livestock feed would
benefit farmers by increasing the quantity and quality of the feeds (Getnet, 1999; Mesfin and Samuel,
2001). It also maintains soil fertility. Hence, cultivation of oat/vetch mixtures has the potential to integrate
food and forage crop production in Bale highlands where the traditional fallow/food crop system have
remained a dominant practice. However, under such a system, attention should be given in the
identification of the compatible oat/vetch variety combination or seeding rates that could sustain crop
yields in the succeeding season.
The objective of the current experiment was, therefore,
1.
2.
To investigate the effects of different seeding rates of oat/vetch mixtures on forage yield of the mixtures
To assess the residual effect of the oat/vetch mixtures on the yield of succeeding crop (food barley) in an
oat/vetch-barley double cropping system
Material and methods
The experiment was conducted for six seasons, from March 1999 until December 2001, under on-farm
condition around Sinana Agricultural Research Center, in Sinana-Dinsho district of Bale Zone. The soil in
this district is generally classifieds as pellic vertisol, and the mean altitude is 2400m a.s.l (Alemayehu and
Franzel, 1987).
The trial consists seven treatments, representing six different seeding rate combinations of oat (Avena
sativa cv, CI-8251) and vetch (Vicia dasycarpa cv ‘lana’), and a fallow treatment (Table 3). The sixoat/vetch mixtures were sown in 1999, 2000 and 2001 “belg” (March to July) seasons according to
recommended practices (IAR, 1980). The trial area including the plots designated for fallow was plowed by
the traditional ox-plow (“maresha”) three times prior to sowing. Plots measured 3m*4m, and were laid out
in randomized compete block design with four replications. All the oat/vetch crops received a uniform
application of 100kg Diammonium Phosphate (DAP)/ha (18-20kg N-P/ha) broadcast at sowing (IAR, 1980).
No fertilizer was applied to the fallow plots. Subsequent to broadcasting seed and fertilizer, the trial area
was raked once to cover the seed. All crops were hand weeded twice. On the fallow plot, weeds were
harvested manually before they flowered. Subsequent to the harvest of oat/vetch mixtures during July, the
entire area was plowed twice for seedbed preparation using a local plow. In the “meher” (August to
December) season of 1999, 2000 and 2001, all plots were sown to food barely cv. ‘Aruso’ at seed rate of 150
kg/ha. Seed and fertilizer (100 kg/ha DAP) were then broadcast, and covered by one pass with the plow.
Weeds were controlled twice by hand weeding. Data collected on a plot basis for the “ belg” crops each year
consisted of seedling count, plant height and forage yield. For the “meher” barley crop, data collected
included plant height; spike length, tillers per plant and grain count per spike. A net plot of 3m*3m was
harvested at ground level and weighed, excluding weeds, to facilitate the measurement of straw and barley
grain yield. Thousand-grain weight was measured from the grain harvested from each net plot.
All data were subjected to analysis of variance using MSTAT -C soft ware, and means were separated
using the LSD test.
Result and Discussion
First cropping “Belg “ season (Oat/Vetch mixtures)
Data of the treatments was presented on Table 2. There was a significant (P<0.05) variation in seedling
count, plant height, and dry matter yield among the treatments. Seedling count/0.25m2 of oats was
significantly (P<0.05) higher when oats was sown at a seed rate of 80 kg/ha either in pure stands or in
mixture with vetch than sown at seed rates of 60, 40 and 20 kg/ha. However, there was no significant
(P>0.05) difference in seedling count when oats sown at seed rate of 60 and 40 kg/ha. A significantly (P<0.05)
higher seedling counts at emergence of vetch was observed when vetch was sown at a seed rate of 30 kg/ha
either in pure stands or in mixture with oats (Table 2). There was no significant (P>0.05) difference in
seedling counts at emergence of vetch and oats when both vetch (30 kg/ha) and oat (80 kg/ha) were sown in
pure stands or in-mixture. The variation in seedling counts of oats and vetches observed due to the seed rate
variation in oat/vetch mixtures also can have an effect on the quality of forage from oat/vetch mixtures even
though this was not quantified by the present study.
Plant height at harvest of vetch was affected significantly (P<0.05) due to the seed rate variation in
oat/vetch mixtures compared with oats. A significantly lower height of vetch was observed in the lowest
vetch proportion (60/7.5 oat/vetch seeding rate) (Table 2). This is probably due to the reduction in
competitiveness of vetch compared with oats in response to the lower vetch seed rate.
Dry matter yield from the oat/vetch mixtures increased with increasing oats seed rate in the mixture
(Table 2). This is as expected since oats has higher DM content than vetches. The oat has also showed
suppressive effect on vetch at higher seeding rates. The highest mean dry matter yield (7.0 t/ha) was
recorded in the 80/30 (kg /ha) oat/vetch seeding rate followed by the sole oat (6.5 t/ha DM). However, there
was no significant (P>0.05) difference in dry matter yield among the 60/7.5, 40/15 and 20/22.5 (kg/ha) oat
/vetch seeding rates.
294
Average dry matter yield was significantly (P<0.05) lower in the years 1999 and 2000 compared with the
mean DM yields of “belg” 2001, the values being 2.6, 1.1 and 13.4 t/ha, respectively for the years. This was
due to the sub-optimal rainfall in the “belg” cropping season of the years 1999 and 2000 compared with the
rainfall in the “belg” 2001 season (Table 1).
Second cropping “Meher” season (Food Barley)
Yield and agronomic data of the treatments was presented on Table 3 and 4. There was a significant
(P<0.05) variation in barley grain and straw yields in the subsequent season due to variation in seeding rates
of oat/vetch precursor mixtures planted in the first “belg” cropping season of 1999, 2000 and 2001. Barley
grain and straw yields increased with an increase in vetch seed rate in the precursor mixture (Table 3). This
can be attributed to the role legumes play in the restoration of soil fertility through nitrogen fixation.
Accordingly, the highest mean barley grain (20.8 q/ha) and straw yields (72.1 q/ha) were recorded for barley
after vetch precursor. On the other hand, lower grain and straw yields of barley were observed in barley after
sole oat, after fallow and after the 80/30 (kg/ha) oat/vetch seeding rate. However, compared with barley after
fallow and after sole oat precursors, both grain and straw yields of barley increased significantly (P<0.05)
when barley planted after oat/vetch mixtures sown at a seeding rate of 60/7.5, 40/15 and 20/22.5 (kg/ha).
Daniel (1993) reported that wheat yield can be improved by 35 to 65 % with fertilizers and by incorporating
vetch or oat/vetch mixtures in forage legume-wheat rotations. However, information on the effect of seeding
rates of oat/vetch mixtures on forage yield of the mixtures and on the yields of food crops in the subsequent
season is meager.
The mean barley grain yield in the1999, 2000 and 2001 “meher” cropping seasons was 13.6, 22.4 and 14.1
q/ha and straw yield was 50.4, 74.2 and 51.2 q/ha, respectively. The amount and distribution of rainfall in
the “meher” 1999, 2000 and 2001 cropping seasons was comparable (Table 1). Therefore, the variation in
mean barley grain and straw yields among the three cropping seasons can be regarded as mainly due to
soil variation within the site selected. Among the agronomic parameters, significant (P<0.05) variation was
observed only in barley plant height due to the various precursor effects (Table 4).
Conclusion
Seeding rates of oat/vetch mixtures can significantly affect forage production from oat/vetch mixtures and
the yields of food crops in the subsequent seasons. According to the study, oat/vetch mixtures could be
cultivated in fallow seasons at a seeding rates of 60/7.5, 40/15 or 22/22.5 (kg/ha) to maximize both forage and
food crop production in Bale highlands. However, more information on the effect of seeding rates on growing
good quality oat-vetch mixture is required.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to acknowledge the technical assistance of Mr. Gulilat Jara, Mr. Tesfaye Dekeba
and Mr. Fiseha Seyoum in all aspect of the trial.
References
Alemayehu Mamo and Franzel S., 1987. Initial Results of Informal Survey: Sinana Mixed Farming System Zone.
Working paper No. 1/87. IAR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 52pp.
Daniel Keftasa. 1996.Research on the integration of forage legumes in whet-based cropping system in Ethiopia: A Review.
In: Ntikumana J. and de Leeuw P. 1996. Sustainable Feed Production and Utilization for Smallholder livestock
enterprise in Sub-Saharan Africa. Proceedings of the Second African Feed resources net work (AFRNET), Harare,
Zimbabwe, 6-10 December 1993. AFRNET (African Feed Resource Network), Nairobi, Kenya. 201 pp.
Getinet Assefa, 1999. Feed resource assessment and evaluation of forage yield, quality and intake of oats and vetches
grown in pure stands and in mixture in the highlands of Ethiopia. M.Sc. Thesis. Swedish University of Agricultural
Sciences, Department of Animal Nutrition and Management. Uppsala. Sweden.
IAR, 1980. Handbook on pastures and fodder crops for animal feeding in Ethiopia. 1st ed. Addis Ababa. Ethiopia.
295
Mesfin Dejene and Samuel Menbere, 2001. Compatibility and yield performance of different oat/vetch mixtures during
fallow period in the highlands of Wello. In: ESAP (Ethiopian Society of Animal Production) 2001. Pastoralism and
Agro-Pastoralism-which way Forward. Proceedings of the 8th Annual Conference of ESAP held in Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia, 24-26 August 2000. ESAP, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 358pp.
Zewdu Yilma and D.G. Tanner, 1996. An evaluation of double cropping of forage legumes and bread wheat in Bale Region
of Southeastern Ethiopia. In: Tanner, D.G., Payne, T.S., and Abdalla, O.S. eds. 1996. The Ninth Regional Wheat
Workshop for Eastern, Central and Southern Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: CIMMYT.
Table 1. Air temperature and seasonal rain fall around Sinana Research Center during the Experimental period.
1999
2000
2001
731.3
662.7
874.4
“Belg”(March to July)
357.8
310.5
508.0
“Meher”(August to December)
371.7
340.1
354.3
Total rain fall per annum (mm)
Seasonal rain fall (mm):
Air temperature (0c):
Maximum
20.74
19.54
21.35
Minimum
9.39
8.54
7.59
Table 2. Effect of different seeding rates of oat /vetch mixtures on dry matter yield and other agronomic parameters of the mixtures in the
first cropping (“belg”)season of 1999, 2000 and 2001
Oat/vetch seeding rates
(kg/ha)
Seedling
Count/0.25m2
1999
2000
2001
23.5a
11.1a
96.2
81.1bc
3.2a
1.7a
16.0a
7.0a
60/7.5
16.5b
4.0d
90.4
76.5c
2.0b
1.2bc
13.5c
5.6c
40/15
13.7b
6.8cd
88.0
89.0a
2.8ab
1.0bcd
13.8bc
5.9bc
6.6c
7.5bc
83.9
88.2ab
3.0a
0.8cd
12.4c
5.4c
-
91.8
2.7ab
1.4ab
15.5ab
6.5ab
82.2abc
1.9b
0.7b
9.4d
83.4
2.6
1.1
Sole oat (80kg/ha)
26.5a
Sole vetch (30kg/ha)
Mean
LSD (P<0.05)
CV %
Vetch
Oat
Dry matter yield (t/ha)
80/30
20/22.5
Oat
Plant height (cm)
-
10.6ab
-
17.4
8.0
90.1
5.238
36.5
3.32
50.1
NS
12.8
Vetch
-
7.414
10.7
0.957
24.2
0.464
26.8
13.4
1.921
9.5
Mean
4.0d
5.7
0.691
14.6
Means with in the same column followed by the same letter or by no letter do not differ significantly at the5%level of LSD test.
NS= Non significant (P>0.05)
Table 3. Effect of different seeding rates of oat /vetch precursor mixtures on the grain and straw yield of barley in the second cropping
(“meher”)season of 1999, 2000 and 2001.
Oat/vetch seeding rates in
precursor mixture (kg/ha)
Grain yield of barley (q/ha)
1999
2000
Mean
1999
2000
2001
Mean
80/30
10.3c
21.0bc
12.0c
14.4d
41.5cd
70.0b
38.0c
49.8e
60/7.5
15.9a
23.2ab
10.3c
16.5bc
62.1a
77.8b
44.7c
61.5bc
40/15
15.6a
22.6b
12.5c
16.9bc
55.1ab
77.8b
41.9c
58.3cd
20/22.5
15.4ab
26.3a
12.8c
18.1b
55.7ab
92.4a
53.4bc
67.2ab
Sole oat (80kg/ha)
11.6a
23.7ab
11.7c
15.7cd
45.5bc
70.1b
40.2c
51.9de
Sole vetch (30kg/ha)
17.7a
21.3bc
23.6a
20.8a
63.4a
75.7b
77.1a
72.1a
8.7c
19.0c
15.7b
14.4d
29.6d
55.4c
63.0ab
49.3e
13.6
22.4
14.1
16.7
50.4
74.2
51.2
58.6
Fallow
Mean
LSD (P<0.05)
CV %
3.807
18.7
3.224
9.7
2001
Straw yield of barley (q/ha)
2.653
12.7
1.797
13.1
12.11
8.277
15.93
16.2
7.5
20.9
6.888
14.4
Means within the same column followed by the same letter do not differ significantly at the 5% level of LSD test.
296
Table 4. Effect of different seeding rates of oat /vetch precursor mixtures on the agronomic parameters of the barley crop grown in the
second cropping (“meher”) season of 1999, 2000 and 2001(mean of the three years).
Oat/vetch seeding rates
In precursor mixture (kg/ha)
Plant height
(cm)
Spike length
(cm)
No. of Tillers per
plant
80/30
92.0bc
6.6
4.3
35.5
35.5
60/7.5
95.2b
6.6
4.2
34.2
34.9
40/15
93.7bc
6.7
4.3
33.4
34.8
20/22.5
90.8c
6.4
4.5
32.0
34.6
Sole oat (80 kg/ha)
Sole vetch (30 kg/ha)
No. of grains per
spike
Thousand grain
weight (gm)
91.9bc
6.8
4.3
33.5
36.0
101.5a
6.7
4.2
36.9
34.3
Fallow
91.0c
6.7
3.8
34.8
35.7
Mean
93.7
6.6
4.2
34.3
35.1
LSD (P<0.05)
3.856
CV %
5.03
NS
7.1
NS
16.6
NS
16.8
NS
4.3
Means within the same column followed by the same letter or by no letter do not differ significantly at the5%level of LSD test.
NS= Non significant (P<0.05)
297
ANIMAL NUTRITION
Effect of plant height at cutting on rumen organic matter and neutral
detergent fibre degradation of Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum (L.)
Schumach.) and their relationship with in vitro dry matter digestibility
Tessema Zewdu1*, R. M. T. Baars2 and Alemu Yami3
1Adet
Agricultural Research Centre, P.O. Box 8, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
2Alemaya
University, P.O. Box 138, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia
Agricultural Research Organisation, PO Box 32, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia
3Ethiopian
Abstract
An experiment to investigate the effect of plant height at cutting on in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD), in
sacco rumen Organic matter degradability (OMD) and neutral detergent fibre degradability (NDFD) of Napier grass
were conducted at Adet Agricultural Research Centre, North western Ethiopia. Five by three factorial experiments
arranged in RCBD with three replications were used and the treatments were five fertiliser applications (0, 46 and
92 N kg ha-1, and 1 and 2 t ha-1 cattle manure) and three plant heights at cutting (0.5, 1 and 1.5 m). The fertiliser
treatments did not yield any significant difference on OMD, NDFD or IVDMD. Plant height at cutting had a
significant (P<0.05) effect on rumen OMD for all incubation times and NDFD beyound 24 h as well as on their
degradability characteristics. There was a reduction in OMD and NDFD and their degradability characteristics as
plant height increased at cutting. Similarly, as plant height at cutting increased there was a decline in IVDMD.
There was a positive linear correlation between IVDMD and both OMD and NDFD at 48, 72, 96 and 120 h (r =
0.896, 0.921, 0.933 and 0.809 for OMD; r = 0.937, 0.994, 0.978 and 0.988 for NDFD). Hence, further study on intake
and animal performance is suggested to develop Napier based diets for smallhoder farmers.
Introduction
One of the major constraints, which strongly limit livestock production in tropical countries, is
unavailability of both high quantity and quality feeds (Osuji et al., 1993). Like anywhere in the country, the
main feed resources for livestock in north western Ethiopia are natural pastures, crop residues and to a
lesser extent fallow lands and stubble grazing (BOA and CEDEP, 1999). These feed resources are poor in
quality (Daniel, 1990) and animals are dependent predominantly on high-fibre feeds that are deficient in
nutrients essential for microbial fermentation (Osuji et al., 1993). This results in slow growth rates, poor
fertility, high rates of mortality and weak draught power, and consequently reduces the production and
productivity of livestock.
However, the cultivation of high quality forages with a high yielding ability, adaptable to biotic and abiotic
environmental stresses is one of the possible options to increase livestock production under small holder
farmers conditions (Tessema, 1999; Tessema and Halima, 1998). Amongst the improved forage crops
promoted in Ethiopia, Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum (L.) Schumach.) could play an important role
in providing a significant amount of high quality forage. It is highly adaptable and popularly used in the
Ethiopian highlands (Ndikumana, 1996; Seyoum et al., 1998; Tessema and Halima, 1998). Based on
chemical composition and in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD), Napier grass could be categorised as
high quality forage (Tessema et al., 2002b).
For determining the nutritive value of feedstuffs, digestibility ranks next to intake in importance (Minson,
1990). Accurate data on the digestibility of forages would greatly assist diet formulation and economic
valuation of different forages (Weiss, 1994). One of the best methods currently available for estimating the
digestibility of feedstuffs is the in vitro dry matter digestibility (Van Soest and Robertson, 1980; Van Soest,
1982; Weiss, 1994). Laboratory in vitro methods digest feedstuffs by preparation of micro-organisms or of
enzymes which are similar in function to those present in the digestive tract of ruminants and sensitive to
undetermined factors that influence rate and extent of digestion (Tilley and Terry, 1963; Van Soest and
*
Corresponding author
301
Robertson, 1980; Van Soest, 1982). An understanding of the factors which affect rumen degradability of
low quality basal diets and microbial protein production will assist in designing diets that will be utilised
more efficiently. The nylon bag technique is one of the available techniques for evaluating rumen
degradability of feedstuffs. It is the best currently available method for estimating digestibility similar to
in vitro disappearance in terms of accuracy, and is easier to perform than the in vitro method (Weiss,
1994). In sacco digestion of feed samples in the actual rumen environment is probably of the most accurate
non in vivo procedures (Kitessa et al., 1999).
Management of forage through appropriate harvesting will result in improved productivity of Napier grass
of a reasonably good quality (Annido and Potter, 1994). Therefore, an experiment was conducted to assess
the effect of plant height at cutting on IVDMD, in sacco rumen organic matter degradability (OMD) and in
sacco rumen neutral detergent fibre degradability (NDFD) of Napier grass.
Location of the study
In sacco rumen OMD and NDFD as well as IVDMD experiments were conducted in the 1999/2000 crop
season at Adet Agricultural Research Centre (AARC), north-western Ethiopia, 445 km from Addis Ababa.
The centre is laid between 11o 17’ N latitude and 37o 43’ E longitude at an altitude of 2240 m above sea level.
The area is characterised by alluvial soil and to some extent by red and black soils. The research activities
reported here were conducted on red soil representing the typical soil type of the region. The annual rainfall
of the area is 1285 mm with a range from 860 to 1771 mm and 109 rainy days per year (average of 14 years,
1986-99). There is one main rainy season extending from June to September. The average annual minimum
and maximum air temperatures are 8.8 and 25.4 oC, respectively (AARC, 1999). In 1999, the annual rainfall
was 1215 mm and the average monthly minimum and maximum air temperatures were 7.5 and 26.1 oC,
respectively.
Experimental design and management practices
The experiment was carried out using a 5 x 3 factorial experiment arranged in a randomised complete
block design with three replications. One high yielding Napier grass accession (ILRI accession no. 14984) was
selected and vegetatively propagated using root splits on a well prepared red soil under rainfed conditions on
21st July 1999 when the soil was moist. The treatments were five fertiliser applications (0, 46 and 92 N kg ha1, and 1 and 2 t ha-1 cattle manure) and three plant heights at cutting (when height of the grass reached 0.5, 1
and 1.5 m). The plot size was 3 by 5 m. The spacing between replications and plots were 2 and 1 m,
respectively, and 0.5 and 1 m for individual plants within rows and between rows, respectively. Diammonium
phosphate fertiliser was applied at planting at a rate of 100 kg ha-1 for establishment according to the
recommendation.
Data collection and analytical procedures
Samples representing the whole plant in each treatment were taken randomly and sun dried until the
moisture has been lost for partial dry matter analysis. The partially dried samples were then oven dried
overnight at 105oC for final analytical processes. The dried samples were ground to pass through a 1-mm
sieve for IVDMD and a 2-mm sieve for the in sacco rumen degradability determinations. The ground samples
were stored individually in airtight containers until analysis. Duplicate samples of each treatment were
analysed and the average was taken as the final result.
In vitro dry matter digestibility was determined by the modified Tilley and Terry system (Van Soest and
Robertson, 1985) at the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) Analytical Services Laboratory
in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. OMD and NDFD were determined at the ILRI Debre Zeit Research Station by
incubating 2.4-2.5 g of the dry samples in a nylon bag (41 µm pore size and 6.5 x 14 cm dimension) in two 6
years old rumen fistulated Boran x Holstein Friesian steers. The steers were fed ad libitum grass hay and
mineral block and 2 kg cotton seed cake once per day. The steers were kept indoors and water was offered
ad libitum. The bags were incubated one hour after the steers were offered feed and withdrawn
sequentially after 6, 12, 24, 48, 72, 96 and 120 h, washed 5 times for 6 minutes in a washing machine and
302
Animal Nutrition
dried for 48 h at 60 oC. Washing losses were determined by soaking three bags per sample in warm tap
water at 60 oC for 48 h followed by washing and drying. The OMD and NDFD or disappearance data for
each incubation time were calculated as follows (Kabuga and Darko, 1993 and Osuji et al., 1993):
OMD% = (OM in forage – OM in residue x 100)/OM in forage
NDFD% = (NDF in forage – NDF in residue x 100)/ NDF in forage
The OMD and NDFD data were fitted to the exponential equation Y= a + b (1–e–ct) (Ørskov and McDonald,
1979) where Y is OMD and NDFD (%) at time t. Since washing losses (A) were higher than the estimated
rapidly soluble fraction (a), the lag time was estimated according to McDonald (1981) by fitting the model Y
= A for t < to, Y = a + b (1 - e-ct) for t > to and the degradation characteristics were defined as A is equal to
washing loss (readily soluble fraction); B = (a + b) – A, representing the insoluble but fermentable material;
c = the rate of degradation of B per hour and the lag phase (L) = (1/c) loge [b / (a + b – A)]. The effective
degradability (ED) was calculated using the formula, ED = A + [Bc / (c + k)] (Dhanoa, 1988) where A, B and
c are as described above and k is rumen outflow rate which was assumed to be 0.03 h-1 (Ørskov et al.,
1988). The potential degradability (%) was calculated as A + B.
Statistical analyses
Analyses of variance (ANOVA) were done using SAS (1998) for IVDMD, in sacco rumen OMD and NDFD
by the General Linear Models (GLM) procedure. The model included plant height at cutting, N fertiliser and
replications. Because of the non-significance of N treatments on OMD and NDFD, only the plant height at
cutting was considered in the analyses. Before subjecting the degradability data to ANOVA, the data were
tested by multiple curve analysis. Mean separation was tested using the least significance difference (LSD).
The relationships between IVDMD and in sacco rumen OMD and NDFD were determined by correlation
analysis. Rumen degradability characteristics of OM and NDF were also calculated.
In sacco rumen organic matter degradability
Plant height at cutting had a significant effect on rumen OMD (%) and OMD characteristics for each
incubation time (Figure 1 and Table 1). There was a reduction in OMD and NDFD and their degradability
characteristics as plant height increased at cutting. Increased plant height at cutting of Napier gras increases
fibre content, which contributes to a decrease in digestibility of cell wall constituents. The maximum OMD of
Napier was obtained at 96 h of incubation and reduced thereafter.
There was no significant difference in the rate of degradation (c) of insoluble but gradually degradable
fraction among the three heights at cutting. Potential (PD) and effective degradabilities (ED) at 0.03 h-1
rumen outflow rate were higher for Napier grass cut at 0.5 m height (86.38%) than at 1.0 (80.36%) and 1.5
m height (76.85%). This might be explained by the higher leaf to stem ratio (LSR) of the grass at 0.5 m
height (3.04 LSR) than at 1.5 m height (1.33 LSR) (Tessema et al., 2002c). The OMD (%) and its
degradability characteristics in this study is higher than the DMD of Napier grass at different plant height
at cutting as reported by Tessema et al. (2002a). Similarly, Kabuga and Darko (1993) indicated that DMD
declines with increasing age of growth of grass species in the tropics which is generally attributed to the
increase in structural components (cell walls), a decline in the leave to stem ratio and to an increase in the
level of senescent plants.
The OMD result observed for Napier grass in the present study follows the general trend reported for in
vitro and in vivo of forages (McDonald et al., 1988; Minson, 1990; Vieira et al., 1997; Kabuga and Darko,
1993; Tessema et al., 2002a). The DMD (%) and its degradability characteristics of Napier grass increased
as plant height at cutting reduced (Tessema et al., 2002a). The nutritive value of Napier grass remained
unchanged from 76 cm to 137 cm height. The point of significant change lay between 137 and 183 cm
height in Kenya (Odhiambo, 1974). Digestibility decreases as plants mature and differences in digestibility
of grasses are influenced by leaf to stem ratio (McDonald et al., 1988). In very young grass the stem is more
digestible than the leaf, whereas with advancing maturity the digestibility of the leaf fraction decreases
slowly and that of the stem fraction falls rapidly (Minson, 1990). Minson (1990) also indicated that the
303
organic matter digestibility varies with the proportion of cell contents and cell wall constituents. The cell
contents are digestible, while cell wall digestion depends on the degree of lignification, the activity of
rumen microbes and the time retained in the rumen.
The potential degradable and undegradable fractions and the duration of the lag time of grasses are
affected by cutting age (Vieira et al., 1997). The slowly degradable fraction (B), PD and ED of Napier grass
DMD harvested at 0.5 m height in Kenya were 458, 713 and 498 g kg–1 DM, respectively (Kariuki et al.,
1998). The slowly degradable fraction (656.0 g kg-1 DM), PD (863.8 g kg-1 DM) and ED (627.3 g kg-1 DM) of
Napier grass OMD in the present study harvested at the same height were greater. The difference might
be due to bag characteristics, particle size of the feed sample, species of animal used, washing procedures,
basal ration fed to the cannulated animal, poor reproducibility of the nylon bag results between
laboratories, or the variation in the chemical constitution of dry matter and organic matter, or the change
in environmental factors during the growth of Napier grass.
In sacco rumen neutral detergent fibre degradability
Neutral detergent fibre degradability (%) after 24 h incubation and NDFD characteristics were
significantly affected by plant height at cutting. However, NDFD beyond 24 h incubation did not show any
significant difference by Napier grass cutting height (Figure 2 and Table 2). The maximum NDFD of Napier
grass is obtained at 120 h incubation. This was similar for N degradability of Napier grass at different
cutting height (Tessema et al., 2002a). The NDFD at 6 h incubation was lower compared to other incubations
in all heights at cutting. There was a reduction in NDFD and NDFD characteristics with increased height at
cutting. The reason for NDFD reduction with increasing in height at cutting might be that a high fibre
content could contribute low digestibility of Napier grass (Tessema et al., 2002b).
There was no significance difference in washing loss (A) and lag time (L) among the three heights at
cutting. Higher lag time of NDFD was observed in all heights at cutting compared to OMD in this study. A
lag time of greater than 7 h in maize DMD studies at different stages of maturity was observed in Ethiopia
(Adugna et al., 1999). The long lag time in NDFD of Napier grass could be a reflection of its higher
lignocellulose content. Ørskov (1991) explained the lag time in the degradation of fibrous feeds is caused by
the time taken for adherence of cellulolytic micro-organisms to the substrate. Van Soest (1988) also
mentioned a long lag time is one of the factors limiting intake and utilisation of fibrous feeds. The PD and
ED harvested at 0.5 m were higher than at 1.0 and 1.5 m height. The decline in NDFD and NDFD
characteristics observed in this study with advancing plant height at cutting might be explained by the
increase in structural components (cell wall) that could be obtained in Napier grass (Kabuga and Darko,
1993).
Correlation of rumen degradation and their degradability characteristics
Table 3 and 4 show the linear correlation between rumen OMD and NDFD at 48 h and their degradability
characteristics. Organic matter and NDFD at 48 h showed positive correlation with washing loss (A), the
insoluble but fermentable fraction (B), potential degradability and effective degradability of Napier grass. On
the other hand, the rate of degradability and lag time in OMD and lag time in NDFD had negative
correlation. The rate of degradability and lag-time were negatively correlated with the other degradability
characteristics in OMD. The rate of degradability had positive correlation for all NDFD characteristics.
However, the lag time was negatively correlated with 48h NDFD and its degradability characteristics. The
48h DMD was positively correlated with the washing loss, degradation rate and effective degradability and
the effective degradability was negatively correlated with the insoluble but fermentable fraction, washing
loss (A) and degradation rate (c) in a maize DMD study (Adugna et al., 1999).
In vitro dry matter digestibility
Plant height at cutting had a significant effect on IVDMD content. As plant height at cutting increased
from 0.5 to 1.5 m, there was a decline in IVDMD content from 71.74 to 61.03 %, respectively (Table 2). This
was supported by Taliafero et al. (1975) who reported that grasses harvested at a relatively advanced stage of
development depressed IVDMD contents in general.
304
Animal Nutrition
Relationships were higher between IVDMD versus 48, 72, 96 and 120 h OMD with correlation of 0.896,
0.921, 0.933 and 0.809, respectively (Table 5). Lower correlation were recorded between 6, 12 and 24 h
OMD and IVDMD with values of 0.325, 0.479 and 0.637, respectively. The relationship between IVDMD
and NDFD showed a similar trend to that of IVDMD and OMD. The highest correlation between IVDMD
and NDFD was observed after 48 h incubation. The relationship between IVDMD and NDFD of Napier
grass at 48, 72, 96 and 120 h of incubations were 0.937, 0.994, 0.978 and 0.988, respectively. However, the
relationship between IVDMD and NDFD before 48 h incubation time was low compared to other
incubation times. The difference in correlation coefficient before and after 48 h OMD, NDFD and IVDMD
could be due to the duration of fermentation of feed samples in the rumen. When estimates of maximal
digestibility are desired, longer incubations are usually required. longer incubations are associated with
reduced variation between duplicate samples (Nocek and Kohn, 1988). Therefore, the correlation between
OMD, NDFD and IVDMD values after 48 h to be higher. The particle size difference between the in sacco
and in vitro samples might also explains the difference. Increasing particle size may increase lag time and
decrease the extent of disappearance for short term incubations (Nocek and Kohn, 1988).
Conclusions
Plant height at cutting had a significant effect on IVDMD and in sacco rumen OMD and NDFD (%) and
their degradability characteristics of Napier grass. Ther

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