century

Transcription

century

CONTENTS
ART STUDIES ...................................................................................................7
Beldean, L.: Possible Links between “The History of Sound” and ”The Personal
History” of a Composer ........................................................................................ 9
Bostan, M. C.: The Concertizing Spirit in the European Music in the First Half of the
20th Century……………………………………………………………………….. 17
Demenescu, V. L.: The Compositional Context in the First Half of the 20th Century
from the Perspective of the Main Representatives of the Musical Culture from
Banat, the Romanian and European Musical Culture ......................................... 21
Filip, I.: On the Ornamentation of Baroque Music......................................................... 27
Măniut, P. M.: Mathematical Concepts in Aurel Stroe’s Music...................................... 31
Niresteanu, L.: Creativity in the Musical Game – Major Element in the Education
Pupils. ................................................................................................................ 37
Pepelea, R.: Paul Constantinescu – Representative of the Romanian Modern
Composition School ........................................................................................... 41
Petrescu, A. R.: Robert Wilson or Time and Immovability.. .......................................... .45
Petrescu, C. F.: Sonorous Hypostases for a Tanka Poem. ............................................. .49
Pop, C.: The Singing Pedagogue (part II), a Parallel between Vocal Therapy
Exercises and Vocalization-Proposal. ................................................................. 55
Rucsanda, M.: Tradition and Contemporaneity in the Dragaica ................................... 61
łuŃu, C.: The Functional Pyramid in Bachian Music..................................................... 67
Vârlan, P. M.: The Hexa- and Heptacord Modal System in T. Ciortea’s Piano
Compositions. .................................................................................................... 73
SPORT STUDIES ................................................................................................... 79
Albulescu, E.: The Suffering Musician A Position Paper on Music-Related Injuries
and their Relationship to Sports Injuries............................................................. 81
Cioroiu, S.G.; Moldovan, E.: The Impact of Physical Activity on Health – A Current
Problem ............................................................................................................. 85
Chicomban, M.: Technical Training – Fundamental Component of the Sports
Training in the Basketball Game ....................................................................... 93
Enoiu, R.; Enoiu, R.S.: Dribble Improvements in Basketball Game through
Multimedia Means ............................................................................................ 101
6
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) – 2009 • Series VIII
Feşteu, D.; Balint, L.: Improving Pupils' Initiative Taking Capabilities through
Physical Education Lessons ............................................................................. .107
Ionescu-Bondoc, D.: From the Biomechanical Analysis to the Development of the
Explosive Muscular Force Specific to the Sprinter ............................................ 115
Martoma, A.: Non – Nutritional Natural Antioxidants ............................................... 119
Moldovan, E.; Cioroiu, S.G.: Physical Deficiencies and Hydrokinesitherapy in their
Correction ....................................................................................................... 127
Nechita, F.: Biomechanics in Sport.............................................................................. 135
Scurt, C.; Zanfirescu, G.: Contributions on the Optimization of Strength Conversion
Training in Junior Sprint Events ....................................................................... 139
Scurt, C.; Zanfirescu, M.: Study of Dynamics of Certain Motrical Capacity Indicators
in 12-14 Year Old Children over One Athletics Competition Year ..................... 145
Simion, G.: Considerations on Specific Resistance in a Soccer Game ......................... 151
Tohănean, D.: Morpho-functional and Psychiatric Aspects Children at the Age
of 10-14 years .................................................................................................. 157
Turcu, I.: Performance Management in the Institutions of Physical Education and
Sports ............................................................................................................... 163
Authors Index ............................................................................................................ 169
ART STUDIES
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009
Series VIII: Art • Sport
POSSIBLE LINKS BETWEEN THE HISTORY
OF SOUND AND THE PERSONAL HISTORY
OF A COMPOSER
LaurenŃiu BELDEAN 1
Abstract: ,The history of sound’, a notion which belongs to the composer
Aurel Stroe, finds its correspondence in the temporal envelope of the acoustic
sound and it refers to its evolution in time, going through the three stages of
its existence: attack, sustainment and decay.
Key words: Stroe, history of sound, tuning systems, micro-intervals.
Aurel Stroe shared with me, during some
discussions at the Busteni villa, some of
his thoughts, which resonate beyond art. In
his opinion, “the human being lays his
personal history, under multiple shapes, in
his creation”.
According to this affirmation and having
a proper knowledge of the semantic fields,
Stroe operates with the ,multiple shapes’,
which could be the forms of sounds, their
,history’.
The forms of sounds cannot be imagined
by Stroe as predestined monads, which are
condemned to temperance. For him, they
are ,tunings’, and the composition
technique through which the tuning of a
sonorous structure changes, in many of his
works, is interesting. The distinctive
patterns of these ,tunings’ are described by
the musical microtonal intervals of
different sizes, among which the most
preeminent are the commas.
To reinforce the argument about the
,tuning’ technique, we need to mention that
the composer calls on the sources of
inspiration coming from his childhood, a
period in which he found himself, through
predestination, accompanied by music:
1
Composer.
“I listened in my childhood many times
to the peasants singing. In Urlati. There
were some girls, a group of 5-6 girls,
coming to the mountains for vintage, and
oh they sang, sir: some of them had more
vibrato, some others had less vibrato…
some of them simply attacked and held
the sound. This influenced me a great
deal. You can find all these influences in
my Oresteias, in Choephoroi...”
Stroe later transformed the experiences
of sound perception from the times of his
childhood into skills and the craft of
creation. He understood and reevaluated
the fact that through the oscillations of
intensity and frequency, shown in ,the
history of sound’, its pitch will distort
the sound: “if one heightens or lowers
[the pitch], the fact that something is not
tuned will be heard”. If, for example, a
structure carries on, at the beginning, in a
normal tuning, through these oscillations,
at a certain moment, in the same
structure, another tuning can be
encountered, and this one could fit a well
known tuning such as: the Pythagorean,
the Tibetan, or the Zarlinian tuning.
10
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
An important influence for the creation of
In his scores, especially in his latest works
for piano and violin such as the suite
“Childhood Impressions” (in this context,
look for fragments from “The Well’s
Spring” or “Cradle Song”), or the Violin
Sonata No. 3 “In Folk Romanian
Character”, Stroe explores the meanings
of ,history’. In some fragments of these
works, the ,histories’, transformed into
color, have the permanent capacity of
narrating something new.
The Violin Sonata No. 3 seems to be
among the first works in the history of
music which expects the interpreter to
create a ,personal history’; the musical
work has the interpreter look for a certain
sound through his fingering technique. In
this way, the interpreter has the possibility
to touch the pitch and the color a priori
imagined.
In his pages, Enescu changes with great
ingenuity the techniques of attacking the
sound, maintaining it within the same
parameters, and accessing a microtonal
interval zone, in its interior. For example,
he succeeds to modify the effect of a
passage evoking the blowing of the wind
through attacking the sound each time in a
different way, diversifying thus, different
parameters in ,the history’ of a particular
sound.
The impregnation of sound with
liveliness, with ,history’, cannot appear but
within this compositional option. In the
tonal, or serial (dodecaphonic) music,
where its form is almost callous, through
the conviction to temperance, the ,history’
is absent.
In musical practice, the conception and
the performance of music uses only
unchangeable, standard tones, c, d, e, f, g,
a, b; thus, it is possible to play only on 7
steady pitches (or swaras, as musical notes
are named in Indian music). This is already
known since the researcher Alain Danielou
presented in his work “Le semantique
Stroe was the music of George Enescu.
musicale” a table of the subtle intonation
deformations,
which, according to
Danielou, are perceived by our psyche as
privileged points (easily perceivable), and
which are situated on the axe of the
sonorous continuum. He discovered and
determined the existence of a multitude of
swaras, classifying and placing in the table
all the existing intervals in the European
and extra-European musical practice.
Sustaining the existence of perception at
the level of our psyche, the author gave
them a formal model, showing that these
could, in fact, be constructed by the
Pythagorean relations (which are easiest to
be remembered by our psyche: the
multiples of 2, 3 and 5). He affirms that the
sounds of the temperate European system
are lifeless, and illusory.
This assertion seems somewhat hilarious,
since we know that people have operated
for centuries with such “illusory” sounds,
these standing at the foundation of the
master sonatas of Beethoven, Brahms and
other composers of temperate, tonal works.
The traditional vocabulary and grammar
references (tonal, serial and neo-modal
references) do not allow the composers to
trouble themselves to use more than 12
sonorous elements; nor do these references
allow to attain the ethos of these elements
completely. Following the deadlock ,which
resulted as a consequence of the uniformity
of the vocabulary, composers try to make
up for the deficit of the ,temperate’ ethos,
through the emphasis of secondary
parameters in the sound’s instrumentation
like, for example, its emission with a
certain intensity and a certain attack
modality (sweet or less sweet sound). This
produces in the sonorous conscience of the
listener the specific difference, afferent to
a certain affective zone (zone present in
the interaction among these vocabulary
elements).
Beldean, L.: Possible Links between “The History of Sound” and …
Classical and dodecaphonic composers
present,
through
their
scores,
a
unidirectional mode of conceiving and
perceiving sonority. It is, thus, clear that a
temperate d sound will sound different
from an attacked d. But through this
distinction we can discover only half the
truth because, in fact, none of the
composers using this vocabulary has
started the rigorous work of studying all
sounds under the aspect of their ,history’,
and no scientific research has been led to
permit the exact observation of quality.
A supplementary explanation to Stroe’s
assertion that “the human being lays his
personal history, under multiple shapes, in
his creation” permits us to imagine what
meant for George Enescu the experience of
those times, of the contact with the
fiddlers’ song, either when he listened to
them on his native lands, or when he was
around them during his stay in Paris. The
fact that violins produce, above all, nontemperate sounds is well known; for a
violin, music is represented by the notes B,
C, D, E, F, G, A, H, which are the same
notes used by any European musician.
Each time they play what they have to
play, however, through deviation, they put
together, on an ad hoc basis, a multitude of
swaras which results from the specific
notes. In the interstice between the formal
object (represented by notes) and the real
sonorous image, the special ethos can be
found, which the violinists drag to the
surface in a matchless way.
Starting from the reality given by the
non-temperate entities, in the two works of
Enescu appear some features of the
musical form: the differentiation between
note as a musical notation element and
sound.
It is necessary to understand that notes
are poorer in meaning than sounds because
they always appear schematically (as any
written sign). We can say that a note is the
formal expression of a sound (translated
11
into sound; a note can become a sonorous
image). The notes cannot be ,music’ but in
the moment of instrumentally displaying
the structure the notes describe, the
sonorous restoration occurs only through
notes transformed into sounds.
The sounds themselves take a completely
different meaning, which is the effect of
the translation of notes into sonorities. The
sound appears in the act through ,history’,
succeeding in this way to control through
analyzing the temporal envelope (which
can be pictured as an oscillograph giving
the frequencies' coordinate system to the
intensities of the partial components of that
sound).
In all the scores of the past centuries, but
also in many contemporary scores, a sound
can only be fixed through a note. From
here results the distinction appearing in the
German theoretic interpretation, which
associates a musical tone (der Ton) to a
written note (in whichever sonorous
system), while a sound (der Klang) is
viewed as a sum of associated notes, a
configuration made up of multiple
sonorous elements. Thus, the “Klang”
notion can be attributed to a chord or
cluster, but it cannot be mistaken for a
“Ton”, which follows a singular sound, its
given image through a written note. The
reality, according to which, in classical
composition, the sound we hear is equal to
the written note on the paper, has not been
conceived only for the practice of
composers, but also for the manufacturers
of musical instruments. The manufacturers
wanted to temperate the intervals, which
had been, until that time, non-temperate (it
suffices to mention only the ones
belonging to the Zarlinian intonation
system). Through tempering all intervals
appeared the possibility of writing on
paper the chromatic scale, which
represents all notes which can be used by a
European composer. We point out the fact
that ,the personal history’ of the composers
12
that subscribe to using the temperatechromatic scale is, in general, a history of
the fixation of a sonorous construction.
We have mentioned already the
connection between the written note and
the sound in the music of any given
composer (Bach, Haydn, Mozart and
Beethoven). It is the prototype of the
composer that draws up the sounds of
tonalities through notes (and other signs).
The composers of those times could not,
however, fix into scores the ethos
associated to the notes, which is, in fact,
part of the sounds. Grammar gave them
only the possibility to write some of these
notes (the most important ones).
The ethos of sonorities can, however, be
imagined and deduced from notes in
different ways: the formal structures,
which are generally dynamic, are suited to
be analogized to some play characters;
these characters do not have an existential
status only because they are built on
temperate-chromatic pitches criteria. They
are ontologisms, ,histories’, because they
exhibit the formation of a great idea (of
existential, philosophic, religious nature).
Thus, in the art of sounds, a familiar way
through which the human being displays,
concerning the great classics, his personal
history’, under multiple forms can be, for
example, the multiple ways to present the
musical material: the expositive sonata
forms in which, in the real execution,
deviations from the composer’s tablature
use to take place.
One can easily observe that ,the personal
history’ of the classical creator recurs to
the myth of ,the eternal coming back’. The
procedure of the imitative polyphony is an
example for this, with the models held by
the fugue form. Some other examples are
offered especially by the sonata and
symphony genres, in which the extreme
movements (Allegro) have a sonata form,
and where the expositive section is
repetitive.
One can observe in instrumental sonatas,
rather than in symphonies, how frequent
the manner of perturbation of the initial
model appears. In the moment in which the
exposition continues (when the music
begins again, after the repetition sign), it
continues the harmonic-melodic pattern of
the first exposition, but with small
transformations of the relations between
notes, and thus, by changing sounds. Here
appears, in continuous emancipation, the
procedure of ornamental variation.
The skill of the classic creators, to handle
the pattern of discourse (the 0 moment and
the final ,coming back’, at the same
moment), belongs to the attributions of the
musician interpreter (either conductor or
instrumentalist); we recognize the source
of this practice from the experiences
described by the history of music: an array
of harpsichord and violin players, like
those from the 17th century (Giuseppe
Tartini, Pietro Locatelli and others),
created in time (until the moment when
Nicolo Paganini appeared as an excellent
virtuoso)
schools
specialized
in
instrumental improvisation.
Concerning the act of vocal performance,
related to the ,sound as searching
typology’ (which is to be discovered by
Enescu and some of his contemporaries),
we want to give another example which
differs from the norm: the graphics of the
pitches from the scores. In the time of the
classic opera composers Vincenzo Bellini,
Gaetano Donizzeti and Giaccomo Puccini,
singers knew how to attack a sound, even
if they had to look on a score with notes
written in the temperate system.
One can, therefore, assume that
interpretation has always belonged to the
nature of artist. By modifying indications
appeared the tiny differences among the
above mentioned ,swaras’, differences
between the pitches of notes. Since then,
there have been respected, through
tradition, some rules for sounds which do
not exist for notes; the simple notes (B, C,
D, E, F, G, A, H) are those which reiterate
in whichever intonation system (be it nontemperate or temperate). The ethos of a
melody modifies unconditionally from one
,tuning’ (intonation system) to another,
which makes perceivable the fact that the
sound has always been a variable which
can take multiple possible values, while
the note has remained the invariable
element to which multiple sonorous
correspondences can be attributed. This is
only perceivable during interpretation,
when the artist on stage defines the dogma
given by the grammar and vocabulary of
the temperate system, a grammar and a
vocabulary of notes, especially. Under this
aspect, the classical grammar can be
considered imperfect or incomplete.
We must bind the constructive
consistence of the musical form,
encountered at the classics, with the
interpretation of the musician that steps
into the concert hall with his own ,history’.
Through his level of understanding, the
musician gives life to the notes, to the
,personal histories’ displayed by them: the
,Bachian’,
,Mozartian’
or
the
,Beethovenian’ history. The transfer from
notes to sounds can manifest in different
ways. This can only be possible through
the fact that the interpreter mentions an
authentic dictionary of ,sounds-ideas’,
which are only his, transforming the
existence of the written form in the
existence of the sensible form, musically
accurate and dynamic. Through the
interpretation that he offers, there can be
made
qualitative
analogies
and
differentiation among the types of
,personal histories’ of the composers
displayed in the scores.
The integration of the interpretative act
in the codified creation by a score of notes
leads us to discovering another face of
Aurel Stroe’s statement, for whom there is
a singular form of thinking: that of
13
fixation, univocal and ,temperate’, through
which the ,personal history’ becomes
objective. Through the interpretative act,
the sound modifies constantly, detaching
itself from the notes (from the starting
schemes), even if the reality of the score is
presented in the relation note-sound.
Without an authentic interpretation, they
could seem ,poor’, but confronted with an
abstract projection, with a virtual, more
suggestive image, which is richer in
semantics, another image is invented by
the intelligence of the modern musician in
the 20th century. Pictured in this way,
presented by a more complex grammar
than the classic one (which would have
enabled another kind of enrichment field
for these ,histories’), the ,personal
histories’ of a composer could manifest in
a different way at the level of what is noted
and given than at the level of musical
semantics.
An envy-sparking fact is to be remarked,
which is almost unbearable for the need of
the modern-day creator: without the ethos
of the ,musical words’, the 18th, 19th and,
partially, 20th century composer subdued to
the univocal construction relation existing
between note and sound, which enclosed
him; he laid his ,personal history’ in
manuscripts of a remarkable conceptual
consistence, turned immortal through their
strength of expression.
In the 20th century, however, a change
occured, concerning the interpretation of
the noted work and ,the personal history’
of an artist. Following the appearance of
the interest for ethnomusicology and
folklore, the composers of the national
schools and the folklorists discovered in
their research field a multitude of melodies
which could no longer be noted according
to the exact correspondence note-sound,
present at the classical composers.
An example of this new perspective is
encountered at Béla Bartók, who wrote the
pitches of the sounds with special
14
alterations,
looking
for
additional
notations. Already at Bartók, the relation
between note and sound does not resemble
anymore to the one employed by the
grammar of the classical composers. This
is due to the wave of oral tradition in
written creation (look for the functional
notation of the micro intervals in his
Carrols). We can argue that Bartok bridges
the natural gap between the interpreter’s
intuition and the composer’s strict way of
noting. Alike George Enescu, Bartók
explains the preexistent notation system.
Being very close to the artist’s conscience,
he no longer writes notes in his scores, but
intentional notes (semantics of the micro
intervallic type).
Bartok’s ,personal history’ infiltrated in a
creation situated at the balance of synthesis
of certain traditional languages accustomed
with the renewal generated by archetypefolkloric Weltanschaung. It appears as
different, as very individualized, in
comparison to the ,predestined’ histories of
Bach, Mozart, Beethoven and Wagner; in
this context, we only have to think of the
last three Bartokian string quartets.
Coming back to the Sonata No. 3 for
Piano and Violin by George Enescu, we
can observe that the relation note-sound
appears in a special way, the massive share
being given by the interpretation of the
text, which leads to the necessity of a
careful analysis of the construction aspects
of the work. Its structure resides in a
multitude of shapes acquired by sounds.
Here, we can distinguish sounds that are
imprecisely attacked, and which filter their
pitch on the way, as well as sounds which
are clearly attacked, which then lose
themselves in a flow, through sinking in
the continuum from which it came from:
we observe sounds which are clear from
the beginning to the end and, of course,
there are also the imprecise sounds. Apart
from these, some other sound categories
can be observed.
A moment from the third part can be
taken as an example, in which a sound
noted with a quarter of tone is discovered
and played on the d chord a little higher.
Through its position and the fingering
technique, chosen deliberately by Enescu,
this sound fluctuates, and produces a
sonority that, in our psyche, is intercepted
as a turbid feeling, as something reaching
for clearing.
Here appear micro-intervals, a category
of sonorous pitches, whose ,inhabitants’
take on morphism, applied between the
steps of the intervals, which had been
codified from the 17th and 18th century in
the temperate European music, and which
have been used by all classic composers
(being then considered an ultimate
clarification of the ultimate acoustic
construction process of the vocabulary that
a musician could use).
Aurel Stroe links this morphism to the
revolutionary cultural-historic phenomena
which take place in music, and which have
established a perception and assimilation
paradigm, different from the classical one:
“The discovery of some extra-European
musical traditions: Asian, African music,
the music of the two Americas, led to
interesting observations concerning the
formation of musical scales, which all
seem to be different from the so-called
,temperate’ scale used by the European
musician. Surely, European music has
gained a lot through temperateness,
especially from the construction point of
view: we couldn’t have imagined neither
the symphonies
of
Mozart,
nor
Beethoven’s string quartets, nor Richard
Wagner’s dramas, without a preliminarily
temperateness,
without
a
precise
codification of sounds with which the
composer works. In the extra-European
music there is a greater variety of sounds
and, in addition, there is something very
important: the power to create semantemes
- minimal unities significant at the level of
relation between two sounds - and this is
obtained precisely through these microintervals. Said in a simple manner: on a
piano, between the C-D notes only C sharp
exists, respectively D flat. In the extraEuropean music, however, we encounter
other notes in the C-D interval, other
beside C sharp and D flat. This fact has
long been preserved in the European music
as well when certain instruments used to
be played like the violin, the cello, the
flute, but this was lost with time. But it
appears frequently in the extra-European
music being not just an empty virtuosity,
but linked - as I was saying - to powers to
signify at very small levels”.
Looking at the quarter of tone categories
from the Sonata in folk Romanian
character, which presents an intonation
grammar through which the ,histories of
sound’ are being pushed towards
successive formation stages until their last
definition,
Stroe
makes
certain
observations to Enescu’s mentality in
relation to those of other quarter of tone
theoreticians (who eluded the possibility of
the creation of semantemes through a
static, roughly productive division of tone):
„The Third Sonata seems
the
reappearance of the micro-intervals after
several centuries of absence. I don’t know
exactly if Enescu is the first one to use
them again, my impression is that the
Czech Alois Haba intented this some time
before and I think that the Frenchman
Wyschnegradsky also. But these two
scholars started from an initial mistake:
they made a temperance based on quarters
of tones, this establishing certain errors
which make the perception of the sonorous
material difficult and destroy the semantic
effect concerning micro levels. These
errors appeared- let’s say- doubled, thus
multiplied in comparison with those of the
classic temperance. Enescu - maybe in an
intuitive manner - but with a vision out of
the ordinary - manages to use these micro-
15
intervals not as some temperate intervals
but as producers of new effects, as
producers of meaning at a very tiny level.
A quarter of sharp - for example - by
Enescu, doesn’t necessarily mean that the
specific note climbs up with the quarter of
temperate tone, but that the instrumentalist
is invited to look in that moment (in that
very moment when he plays the violin) a
certain point in which a musical interval is
happening - meaning that the pitch relation
between two sounds in which a new
expressive effect appears, like - let’s say an ,unusual word’, never before used until
then, and this ,word’, maybe evidently turn
upside down at the highest levels the
whole grammar of the respective section.”
The study of this aspect should also be
integrated into a sonorous structure
analysis: it is the material with which the
composer works and which represents the
,history’ enciphered by him.
“If for the classical music the sound is a
given thing, a constant lasting as long as
the sound, in Enescu’s music the sound
becomes a variable, it becomes more
flexible. A sound can be attacked higher,
then lowered, the again risen - and not
necessarily
in
glissandi
forms,
schematically enough - (as modern music
sometimes teaches us), but in some fine
undulations, very rich - in the length of a
sound. From electronic music we know the
fact that a sound can be changed from
multiple points of view: it can be changed
as attack, it can be changed as form, thus it
can fluctuate from diverse points of view
in a given time; it can be changed from the
point of view of its relation with the
surroundings - in which it manifests itself ,
and thus the outer envelope (,history’) of
the sound can be changed, factors like its
intensity can be changed, timbre variations
can be obtained on the same sound, and
evidently, from all these variations
different combinations can rise, which
practically leads to endless possibilities to
16
modify, to vary, to give life to a sound.
This leads to some sort of continuum in
this variation, continuum which links to
the idea of psychological continuum
created by its musical form. He creates
sonorous forms, lied-forms, he makes
variation-forms, - all kinds of forms
(having a predilection though for the
sonata-form). But his forms never appears
obvious when listened to, the cuts
(discontinuities) are blurred by the
continuous flux.”
Alike Aurel Stroe’s saying, from which I
started, the way to grasp the semantics of
the art work and the complexity between
,the history of sound’ and ,the personal
history’ of the composer (both contained in
different quantities in the musical work)
have to be rethought and completed again
ontologically, at multiple levels, together
with the content of the score, to
reestablish, through the dynamism of
conscience, the musical composition
identity.
References
1. Vieru, Anatol. Cartea Modurilor.
Bucureşti: Editura Muzicală, 1980.
THE CONCERTIZING SPIRIT IN THE
EUROPEAN MUSIC IN THE FIRST
HALF OF THE 20TH CENTURY
Maria Cristina BOSTAN1
Abstract: A preference of the 20th century composers is to be noticed not only
in the combination of the symphonic with the concertizing elements (Prokofiev,
Honegger, Enescu) but also in the impregnation of the compact orchestra
assembly (symphonic or chamber orchestra) with specific concertizing elements,
thus developing the genre of ‘concerto for the orchestra’. The rapport between
the soloist and the orchestra changes in direct connection to the configuration of
the form in which the concertizing compositions are made up: if the latter consist
of structures of the classical form, the soloist instrument is attributed the leading
role. The soloist instrument is integrated in the symphony (starting from the
transformation of the musical soloist discourse into a symphony within the
instrumental concerto), in Prokofiev’s (Concerto Symphony for Cello and
Orchestra opus 125, 1953) and Enescu's creation (Concertizing Symphony for
Cello and Orchestra, 1901).
Key words: concertizing spirit, European music of the 20th century.
After the supremacy held within the
framework of the instrumental-soloist concerto
by piano and violin (besides assigning the
soloist role to the cello and to other wind and
brass instruments, such as: the flute, the oboe,
the clarinet, the bassoon, the horn), in the 20th
century the composers extend the soloist's
instrumental range, orienting to instruments
such as the viola (Batrók, Hindemith), the
trumpet, the saxophone (Debussy and Milhaud
compose a rhapsody and a concerto for
saxophone and orchestra, alongside with Astor
Piazzolla), the clavichord or the Martenot
waves (André Jolivet). The timbre range
diversifies both on the soloist plan and within
the symphonic assembly by the soloist
individualization of an instrument or group of
instruments, accomplished by virtuosity or
increased expressivity, integrated in the
thematic discourse.
One witnesses in the 20th century the
spreading of the concertizing genre in the
composers’ creation, by the enrichment of
the elements of technical difficulty. The
1
Faculty of Music, Transilvania University of Braşov.
concertizing virtuosity reflects on the
entire orchestra assembly in whose
structure the soloist instrument is, most of
the times, an “integrated” voice. The new
tendencies of the dodecaphonism of the
Second Viennese School become concrete
in Schönberg and Berg’s concertos and
will also influence the creation of the
composers belonging to the national
modern schools (Stravinski, Batrók,
Prokofiev). The creation of the composers
of the national schools reveal the structure
of the composing language based on neomodals, triggered by the melodic content
with folklore influence. The tonal-modal
synthesis in their creation contains
“generating archetypal modal cells”
(oligochords,
pentatones,
hexatones)
characteristic of the popular modes.
The soloist instrumental concerto preserves
the coordinates of form and the conditions of
the harmonic amplitude (from abundant
chromatics to atonalism).
18
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov ▪ Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
The structure of the soloist instrumental
concerto is different from a composer to
another, still preserving the classic patterns
bi-, tri-, and quadripartite (as I shall try to
prove further on). Some baroque structures
such as Passacaglia, Fugue, Aria can be
resumed.
In Max Reger’s creation, one can meet
quotations from the protestant chorals (the
second part of the Concerto for Piano and
Orchestra opus. 114, 1910), the Concerto for
Violin and Orchestra opus 101 (1908) is
composed as an ample concertizing sonata.
Similarly, Hans Pfiztner is responsible for
the interference between the symphonic
writing and the form of the theme with
variations, in Concerto for Violin and
Orchestra opus 34 (1924) and in Concerto
for Piano and Orchestra in E flat major
(1923) he distributes the working out of the
themes both to the whole orchestra and the
soloist instrument. Beginning with the
second decade, the structure of the form and
the compositional technique develop new
aspects within the framework of the soloist
concerto. Within the bi-, tri-, and
quadripartite structures one can identify
musical structures which are constituted on
the polyphonic forms of baroque, the
treatment of the musical elements (melody,
rhythm, harmony, instrumental timbre
modulations, dynamics, agogics), unique to
the new musical orientation (expressionism,
neoclassicism). For example, one can meet
Passacaglia, Toccata and Aria as parts of the
concerto
(Schönberg,
Stravinski,
Şostakovici). Hindemith is, as I have already
pointed out, an example for the reevaluation of the concertizing genre of the
baroque (Concerto Grosso). In this context,
Hindemith, as well as the modern
composers such as Poulenc, orients towards
instruments such as the organ, the
clavichord, the viola d’amore, the viola and
the cello. The title changes in Kammermusic
(Hindemith),
Concertino
(Stravinski,
Honegger, Şostakovici) for miniatures,
whose dominant instrumental character is
part of the concertizing spirit, Capriccio
(Igor Stravinski, Capriccio for piano) and
Fantasy (Claude Debussy – Fantasy for
piano and orchestra, 1891, where the
orchestra score is impregnated with soloist
elements, the piano being treated as a
“voice” integrated in the symphonic
discourse, and Feruccio Busoni – Indian
Fantasy for piano and orchestra, 1913). The
accent falls on the motility characteristic of
the instrument, with a focus on the emphasis
of the soloist virtuosity with composers such
as Batrók, Stravinski, Prokofiev (as
presented lower) or with the composers
from the “Group of the six” who resume the
forms of the 18th century (Germaine
Taillefère) in Concerto in D Major for Piano
and Orchestra (1926), Darius Milhaud who,
besides the Concerto for Saxophone and
Orchestra (1938), with jazz and southAmerican elements, composes also a series
of concertos for piano and orchestra, études,
spiritually and humorously written, and
André Gedalge, who composes the Concerto
for Piano and Orchestra opus 16 in C Minor.
We meet a symbiosis of elements
characteristic to the soloist and rhapsodic
concerto (Ravel, Rhapsody – Concerto
Tzigane, 1924), between concerto and the
symphonic poem or fantasy. The score of
the orchestra accompaniment is written
either for a great symphonic assembly, for a
chamber orchestra (Hindemith, Şostakovici),
or for wind instruments (Kurt Weil –
Concerto for Piano and Woodwinds, and
Igor Stravinski with his Concerto for Piano
and Wind Instruments, 1924). Within the
framework of impressionism, French
composers such as Debussy and Ravel focus
on the concertizing style, Debussy
composing the Fantasy for Piano and
Orchestra (1935) amply developing the
symphonic discourse, and Maurice Ravel,
the Concerto for Piano and Orchestra: № 1
in G Major and № 2 in D Major for the left
hand (1935) which I will present further on.
The return to the old art, especially for the
polyphonic constructions and the modal
language, is reflected by Ottorino Respighi
in the Gregorian Concerto for Violin and
Orchestra (1921) and in the Mixolidian
Concerto for Piano and Orchestra (1922). In
Bostan, M.C.: The Concertizing Spirit in the European Music in the First Half of …
contrast to the modal preoccupations of
some composers such as Respighi, the
dodecaphonic technique was adopted by
Alban Berg in Concerto for Violin and
Orchestra (1935) and Arnold Schönberg in
Concerto for Violin and Orchestra opus 36
(1936), a threefold work, and Concerto for
Piano and Orchestra opus 42 (1942), a
fourfold work, with strong contrasts
between the assembly and the soloist.
By synthesizing the already introduced
aspects and summarizing the issues related
to the evolution of the instrumental soloist
concerto, one pictures the diversity of the
options which refer either to the
compositional writing or to the instruments
for which the concertizing works are
composed. Starting from the “classic”
instruments, the concertizing works address
such instruments as: the saxophone, the
panpipe, the bandoneon, the clavichord, and
the Marternot waves.
The concertizing spirit reflects on the
symphonic and chamber genre also by the
symbiosis
among
the
particular
characteristics of these genres (the
instrumental soloist virtuosity of the
assembly’s compartments, with a strong
individualization of the timbre, the
complementary thematic discourse within
the symphonic assembly, the increase or
reduction of the assembly and the direct
involvement of the soloist instrument in the
symphonic discourse). The new language is
experimented by A. Jolivet in Concerto for
Marternot waves (1947). André Jolivet is a
modern composer who pays special
attention to the instrumental soloist
concerto, composing a significant number of
the following works: Concerto for Piano
(1951), 2 concertos for trumpet (1948, 1954)
Concerto for Percussion (1958), 2 concertos
for cello (1962, 1966) and Concerto for
Violin (1972). The French composer
achieves a vocal-symphonic symbiosis in
Concerto for Soprano and Orchestra –
Songe nouveau rêvé (1971). The
constructivist
technique
and
the
mathematization of the musical language are
reflected in Concerto for Keqrops Piano
19
(1986) by I. Xenakis. Composers such as
Bartók, Stravinski, and Lutoslawski address
also the orchestra assembly which they
enrich with concertizing elements specific to
the instrumental soloist style, by
individualizing the instrumental timbre and
the highlighting within the assembly of the
individual soloists marked by virtuosity.
A preference of the 20th century
composers is to be noticed not only in the
combination of the symphonic elements
with the concertizing ones (Prokofiev,
Honegger, Enescu) but also in the
impregnation of the compact orchestra
assembly (Symphony or chamber) with
specific concertizing elements, thus,
developing the “concert for orchestra”. The
relationship between the soloist and the
orchestra changes according to the
configuration of the form in which the
concertizing work is made: if it is based on
classic forms, the soloist instrument is
attributed the main role without the
orchestra’s being, its mere accompaniment
support and the harmonic and modular
atmosphere, this representing also a means
of support and technical work. The soloist
instrument is integrated in the symphony as
well (starting from the transformation into a
symphony of a soloist musical discourse in
the framework of an instrumental concerto),
in
Prokofiev’s
creation
(Concerto
Symphony for Cello and Orchestra opus
125, 1953) and Enescu (Concertizing
Symphony for Cello and Orchestra, 1901).
Together with Prokofiev and Şostakovici,
the concerto for the soloist instrument is also
of interest for the Russian composers Aram
Haciaturian and Dmitri Kabalevski.
Known for his symphonic music and his
ballet suite, Aram Haciaturian (1904-1978)
dedicates soloist concertos to piano, viola
and cello where he uses the resources of the
Armenian folklore from the perspective of
the genre’s modernity.
Dmitri Kabalevski (1904-1987) as a
representative of the Russian music avantgarde, together with Haciaturian and
Şostakovici (although he is forced to blame the
dodecaphonism), composes 3 concertos for
20
piano and orchestra (1936-1937), the Concerto
for Violin and Orchestra (1940), and the
Concerto for Cello and Orchestra (1946).
The instrumental virtuosity predominates
both in the construction of the soloist score
and in the one of the concertizing instrument,
by impregnating the symphonic discourse
with specific elements (ample passages in an
improvisational style or of an increased
proportion and technical difficulty) and the
individualization of the instruments in the
assembly. The rapport between the orchestra
and the soloist instrument can change by the
equal involvement of the two partners in the
development of the symphonic dramaturgy.
The soloist instrument tends to be considered
a “voice” in the symphonic assembly and the
characteristics of the soloist instruments, of
individual assertion and virtuosity, are to be
found in the orchestra assembly as well.
In the Romanian music of the 20th century,
the composers, starting from George Enescu’s
example and using elements of the traditional
popular songs, resort to the stylization of the
folkloric material, capitalizing the melodicrhythmic characteristics of authentic song and
dance. Even when they use compositional
modern techniques, Romanian composers
introduce modal elements within the rigorous
serial organization.
Starting with 1950, the concertizing
creation is based on the synthesis of forms
and includes a variety of musical languages,
from tonalism to serialism and modalism
(Paul Constantinescu and Sigismund
ToduŃă). Despite these contributions, one
can notice that harmony still constitutes a
main element. Similarly, the role of the
soloist instrument in the genre has, in
relation to the orchestra, a different
contribution. Either it manifests as a
foreground element, as a soloist voice, or it
is assimilated in the orchestra assembly. The
seventh decade brings along the tendency to
dissipate the melodic substance to promote
the timbre punctualism where the technical
effects of the instrumental writing represent
an important means the expression. The
atmosphere, the musical idea, the expression
are evasively suggested, without depriving
the musical substance of tension (by using
flageolets, trills, tremolos, “col legno”, “sul
tasto” effects) (A. Vieru, W. Berger).
If up to the 8th decade of the 20th century
the interest of the Romanian composers
headed mostly towards string instruments
(violin, cello), currently it is decreasing for
the concertizing genre generally. Some
composers are heading towards viola and
double bass (M. Moldovan, M. Marbé) [1].
Thus, the composers of the 20th century
continue to promote the instrumental soloist
concerto in their creation, focusing on the
expressivity of the instrumental timbre, on the
amplitude of the traditional forms and the
combination of the characteristics of the
concertizing genre with symphonic principles.
The role of the soloist instrument has an
impact on the symphonic conception of the
score as well.
The concertizing spirit is reflected in the
20th century as a tendency towards
playfulness and the explanation and
exhaustion of the technical-expressive
resources of the instruments that are used. To
the emancipation of the concertizing spirit
has also contributed the new vision on
instrumentation within the orchestra
assembly; new research on rhythm, the music
exterior to the European space (jazz, the
music of the Extreme Orient), traditional
folklore and electronic music. The symbiosis
that the romantic composers achieved by
transforming the concertizing score into a
symphony, the individualization of the
instruments in the symphonic assembly, as
well as the enrichment of the symphonic
works with concertizing elements has been
amplified by modern musicians. The
concertizing spirit from the creation of the
composers of the 20th century is transferred to
the symphonic or chamber assemblies and
gains new stylistic coordinates.
References
1.
Firca, L.C. Modernitate şi avantgardă
în muzica ante-interbelică a secolului
XX (1900 - 1940). Editura FundaŃiei
Culturale Române, 2002.
THE COMPOSITIONAL CONTEXT IN THE
FIRST HALF OF THE 20TH CENTURY
FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF THE MAIN
REPRESENTATIVES OF THE MUSICAL
CULTURE FROM BANAT, THE
ROMANIAN AND EUROPEAN MUSICAL
CULTURE
V. L. DEMENESCU1
Abstract: This study follows the development lines, which attract the
creations toward the rural folk music direction, the transformation of
original melodies (rural or lectern music) according to the affinities for the
neo-romantic, neoclassical, folkloric, impressionistic or expressionistic
orientations, characteristic to some representative creators.
Key words: modal harmony, musical language, dialects, popular melody.
1. Introduction
The 20th century, considered relevant as
regards the elaboration, the broadcasting,
and the knowledge of a new sonorous
world, is characterized by the detachment
of the major-minor functionality, in favor
of modal sonorities. The compositional
orientations, the currents and the directions
of the 20th century can only be the result of
an upper musical endowment that helped
the European composers to succeed with
the force of their creations, and with a new
impulse, to cultivate a fertile ground for
the next generations [2], the ground of
music able to artistically and harmonically
absorb the features of traditional folklore.
Following the same ideal, because of the
folk melodic thesaurus, which was ready to
receive valorization, the Romanian
composers started off on a road of
1
Faculty of Music, Vest University of Timişoara.
renewals, managing to make spectacular
changes, due to the variety of possibilities
offered by the European musical idioms, at
the end of the 19th and the beginning of the
20th century, due to the relationships
between the Romanian composers and the
western musical environment, or due to
their studies at the western schools of
composition.
Comparing the initial data of the
autochthonous traditional Melos with the
studies made within the national school of
composition, one could notice the gradual
emancipation of stylistic processes [5].
The consequences of these new
directions are debated by Romanian
musicologists, who do not hesitate to call
the specialists’ and the public’s attention to
various studies, ample paper works with an
analytical character, thus offering a solid
basis regarding the historical and
22
progressive aspect of the original musical
creation.
Alongside the development of the two
segments of composition and of musicology,
the second half of the 19th century and the
beginning of the 20th century sustains the
necessary steps regarding the organization
of a new cultural society. The organization
of musical education was accomplished by
the foundation of the Conservatory for
Music and Declamation in Iaşi (1864) and of
the Conservatory of Music in Bucharest
(1864).
The main problem of the Romanian art
creators seems to be the cultivation of
modal harmony. Gavriil Musicescu and
Dumitru Kiriac form such stylistic
orientations, grafted and derived from the
two traditional lodes of Romanian song,
the folkloric, and the clerical.
Romanian music at the beginning of the
20th century, with all its aspects, on the
level of the architectonic form and musical
languages, is the result of the interference
between West and East, between the
folkloric and cultured creation, between
laic and church music. Sonorously, the
consequence of the interference offers a
European language with diversified
aspects.
The connection of Romanian creation to
European creation of that period is made with
the common elements within the musical
language typologies, identified in the musical
creation
of
the
national
schools’
representatives. Thus, the modal harmony,
imposed
through
the
polyvalent
functionalism as well as through modal
cadences, is met in Seven Songs on Lyrics by
Clement Marot, by George Enescu, in
Concert for String Orchestra, in Rustic
Entertainment, by Sabin Drăgoi (1894-1968),
and in The Christmas Byzantine Oratorio, by
Paul Constantinescu (1909-1963) [4].
The tritones with a double major-minor
aspect are also met in The Third Sonata for
Piano and Violin, by George Enescu; the
harmonies of fourth are present in
24 Popular Songs and Doinas, by Sabin
Drăgoi, and in the ballet At the Market, by
Mihail
Jora
(1891-1971);
the
accompaniment and the modal cluster are
present in the suite Impressions from
Childhood, by George Enescu.
In the folkloric creation of a people, the
tune not only plays a very important role,
but it also represents the trace of mental
and historical structure of that people. This
affirmation is also valid for the Romanian
people and for the popular song born from
the people’s lives along centuries [6].
Gottfried Herder pleads in his work
“Concerns about the Philosophy of
Humankind” for the liberty of all nations
to express themselves in their own
languages. This shows that all nations have
their own national values, which define the
characteristic Melos that distinguishes
one's origins. Thus, within the expressive
framework of every people, music and
melody represent the basic elements for the
creation of the national specific, which is
passed off from one generation to another,
through the inherent evolutions that
metamorphose the human being and its
concepts.
The Romanian popular melody has its
roots in the cultural, social and
geographical evolution of the Romanian
people; their tumultuous history has
contributed with all kinds of influences to
creating the popular melody along time. It
reflects the spirituality and artistic genre of
a nation, and many art personalities have
been interested in the deep beauty of
folklore.
The evolution of Romanian music leads
us to the conclusion that the popular
melody is at the basis of our musical
school. Our folkloric song entails a special,
unusual mystery, and it requires deep
knowledge to understand its meaning.
The expressive power of music comes
from the blending of verse and melody,
Demenescu, V.L.: The Compositional Context in the First Half of the 20th Century
which are different from one region to
another. In order to not destroy the
authenticity and originality of customs of
certain regions, we must avoid certain
processes of deliberate and uncontrollable
obscuration of the specific of certain
folkloric melodies.
One knows that since ancient times,
people have built a series of popular,
rudimentary, or modern instruments, which
had the role to amplify the expressivity of
the used sonorous material, and to
complete it when it exceeded the
possibilities of the human voice. This led
to the crystallization of two distinct styles
in popular melody: the vocal and the
instrumental style.
The main characteristic of Romanian
popular music is that it is predominantly
vocal, the instrumental style being more
suitable for dance tunes, pastoral, and
fiddler’s songs.
Another important feature of Romanian
folklore is the idea and the horizontal
development of tune, the monody, which is
present when the tune is performed by a
group of interpreters.
In time, we notice a permanent
development of popular song, which
acquires new elements: ornaments,
melismas, a wider range, and dialectal
melodic formulas. These elements need a
colored harmony if they are included in the
professional creation, to keep the
expression of tunes significant.
Because of the historical and socialcultural circumstances, which have formed
the Byzantine religious music, adopted in
general by the South-East European
people,
because
of
the
various
heterogeneous influences, and because of
the
autochthonous
popular
music
influences that have marked it [1], because
the different musical ideas of some of its
reformers, because of its oral circulation
for centuries, because of the deficiency of
notation systems as well as of
23
psychological determinants, which have
given it a certain physiognomy, Byzantine
religious music has been not only adopted,
but also adapted to various people,
according to their specific musical thinking
and feeling. Thus, it has received a new,
original expression and dimension, specific
to the people that have adopted it.
Generally regarded, all these people
form, from a clerical music’s point of
view, the same spiritual community, as the
last researches on compared South-East
European folklore show, each of them
contributing by their original and specific
aspects to the crystallization of their own
national church music.
The causes that have lead to forming
these national variants of the same original
Byzantine music are decisive; thus the
differences imposed by them are present
not only in each nation, but also within the
same nation, in small social communities
like villages. In other words, Byzantine
church music may show artistic expression
differences from one social unity to
another.
In fact, the variant of unity is an
aesthetical law known ever since Aristotle,
confirmed
by
various
modern
experimented researchers, who have
proved that the lack of variation in unity
would lead to monotony and dullness. This
aesthetical law of variety in unity governs
the arts of all times, being expressed in
fine arts, in music, language, clothes,
customs, etc. Therefore, no one has ever
thought to homogenize and generalize
dialects, popular music, or the clothes
specific to a region. Such an attempt would
not only create adverse reactions, it would
also be considered absurd.
Thus, referring to church music, not only
the national variants of Byzantine music,
but also the regional variants within the
same people, or its dialects, correspond
folkloric regions. Folkloric regions and
musical dialects do not only exist in our
24
country, Romania, but in all countries;
they are determined by the contribution of
the autochthonous element, specific as
expression of soul and spiritual community
to a social group [3]. Thus, for example, in
his work, entitled The Serbian Orthodox
Church Popular Song, which appeared
posthumously in 1969 at Beograd, the
Serbian bishop Stefan Lastavici establishes
numerous variants of local dialects
(napev), differing from one another in
richer or poorer melodic lines.
As regards our church music, one of the
most individualized local dialects is the
dialect from Banat, a dialect of great
artistic beauty, differing from other
dialects in its rich and varied melodic,
nuanced expressivity, as well as in the
organic interpenetration and unity between
the musical substance and the sacred
content of the text. Our church music, in
general, as well as the music from Banat,
has reached the present structure as a result
of a natural evolution, after it assimilated
all influences along centuries, which
created an entity of autochthonous
elements by spiritual needs specific to the
thinking and musical predisposition of our
people. In some regions, like in the old
Romanian counties, which have been
influenced by the Greek and Turkish
music, foreign influences have imposed in
a different way due to historical and socialcultural
circumstances;
these
circumstances are different from the ones
of the Romanian people from Ardeal and
Banat.
2. Modal Structures in the Byzantine
Cantata from Banat
The music performed in the Church of
the Orthodox Orient is known as
Byzantine music; musicologists and
historians of the modern era, those who
have focused their attention towards the
study of medieval arts, named it that. In
the first centuries of Christianity, the
church cantata had as model the
synagogue canticle, which had been
joined, along centuries, by the musical
influences of people from Minor Asia,
Syria, Antiochia, Armenia and the
Ancient Greece. Together with the
apparition and development of Christian
hymnography and with the passing of
time, the church canticle suffered a certain
synthesis, beginning to get a determined
specific. The creation and evolution centre
of canticle was Byzantium, the capital of
the East Empire; from here it spread
towards other great monarchal centers
from Greece, Mount Athos, Palestine,
Alexandria and the Romanian countries.
Along centuries, in the Romanian
countries, the Byzantine music was an
objective reality, an integrant part of the
art and culture of the Romanian people.
This specific art has been kept, developed
and passed off in a traditional spirit,
together with its manuscripts written by
Romanian copyist musicians, well-known
of the neumatic singing and writing, who
opened schools close to the great
monasteries in the country.
The human voice cannot be defined by
mode or tone notions, but by the
complexity of elements: the musical scale,
the genre to which it belongs to, the
sonorous system, the system of cadencies
and melodic formulas. Speaking of a
musical scale, we consider a fragment of
scale, counting sometimes three, four, or
five sounds, and other times even going
beyond the octave. The groups of three,
four, or five sounds sometimes form
sonorous systems; from their chaining or
joining are created scales with a greater
range.
In psalm music, for example, the
systems of four or five sounds can be met
in the diatonic genre, as well as in the
chromatic genre. Their use slowly leads to
the forming of cadence systems
Demenescu, V.L.: The Compositional Context in the First Half of the 20th Century
approximately specific to each voice, as
well as to the creation of a melodic
formula, determined by the melodic
tessitura, which appears between the basic
sounds of each voice: tonic and dominant
(this differs from voice to voice, or,
sometimes, from a category of canticles to
another, within the same voice).
The cadences and melodic formulas are
two categories of elements met in
Byzantine and Gregorian cultured music.
In cultured music, there are melodic
formulas that show, starting from different
heights, the same melodic tessitura. This
happens in psalm music with the seventh
and the eighth voice’s hymn.
The more the canticles spread orally, the
more typical the melodic formulas and the
cadences became. This phenomenon is
met in the entire lectern music. The
reduced number of melodic formulas
constraints the ones who perform this
music orally, making it seem, for the less
skilled people, poor and monotonous.
Terentiu Bugariu speaks about three
models in the church canticle from Banat:
the proper voice, called the voice itself,
the equivalent of verse style, the voice of
“stihoavna”, an Orthodox Church song,
and the hymn’s voice, which is similar to
the irmologic style.
Timotei Popovici affirms that each of the
eight voices usually has two or three tunes
approximately different, which in our
country are called the voice itself, the
hymn’s tune and the antiphon’s tune. The
same division is made by Dimitrie
Cuntan, except the fact that he adds a
fourth tune called the “podobia”. Aurel
Popovici mentions the following patterns:
the voice’s tune, the antiphons’ tune, the
hymn’s tune and the “pobobia” tune.
The musical art from Banat was
remarked through its originality, related to
the mentality of the people of that region.
The national feeling of the Romanian
population from Banat in the period under
25
the domination of the Hapsburg Empire
rises again in the second half of the 19th
century with the foundation of the choral
societies and reunions, explaining thus the
development of music and the attempts of
folklore harmonization. Among the oldest
bands from Banat stands the Lugoj choir
(founded in 1810), and the ploughmen
choir from Chizătău (founded in 1857).
The knowledge of the essential data of
the history of music from Banat is very
important, because it proves the existence
of an artistic climax. The study of musical
values inherited in time completes the
horizon of knowledge, and this is an
efficient way to form and cultivate
traditional thinking.
Following the ascension of the
representative composers from Banat,
related to the size of the Romanian and
European composition, we conclude that
the apogee of the creation from Banat is
similar to the apogee of the Romanian and
European creation, and this fact sustains
the choice of this article’s subject. Thus,
1922 is marked, concerning the creation
from Banat, by the conclusion of the
Three symphonic paintings by Sabin
Drăgoi, and in the European creation by
the publication of Sonata Nr. 2 for Violin
and Piano by Bela Bartok, by the opera
Master Peter’s Puppet Show by Manuel
de Falla, by the first version of the
orchestral work of Mussorgsky’s Pictures
at an Exhibition by Maurice Ravel, by the
plays entitled Fünf Klavierstücke by
Arnold Schönberg, and by the opera
Mavra and Wind Octet by Igor
Stravinsky.
The year 1923 brought for the creation
from Banat the apparition of Suite of Folk
Dances for Piano, The Romanian Dance
of Concerto for Piano, the 25 Doinas for
Piano and the Eight Miniatures for Piano
by Sabin Drăgoi as well as the opera The
Girl from Cozia by Emil Montia.
26
The opera Prince Charming by Herman
Klee, a composer from Banat, and the
choral poem King of Mountains by
Thimotei
Popovici,
complete
the
compositional picture of the year 1924,
which includes the opera Doctor Faust by
Feruccio Bussoni, String Quartet by
Gabriel Faure, Kammermusik Nr. 2 for
piano obbligato and 12 Solo Instruments
op. 36 by Paul Hindemith, the rhapsody
for concerto for violin and piano Tzigane
by Maurice Ravel, Concerto in
Mixolydian Mode for Piano and
Orchestra by Ottorino Respighi, Winds
Quintet op.26, Serenade op 24 and Suite
for Piano op. 25 by Arnold Schoenberg,
Concerto for Piano and Winds by Igor
Stravinsky, and Symphony VII op.105 by
Jan Sibelius.
The Prelude, Fugue and Toccata for
piano, Five lieder on lyrics by Reiner
Maria Rilke and Romanian Rhapsody nr.1
by Zeno Vancea mark the year 1926,
together with The Third Sonata for Piano
and Violin “in Romanian folk character”
by George Enescu, Two Romanian
Dances for Winds, Battery and Piano at
Four Hands by Theodor Rogallski,
Lyrische Suite für Streichquartett by
Alban Berg, Concerto for Clavicorn,
Flute, Oboe, Clarinet, Violin and Cello by
Manuel de Falla, Simfonietta by Leos
Janacek, Concerto for Wind Orchestra
op.41 by Paul Hindemith, the poem
Tapiola op.112 by Jan Sibelius, and
Oedipus Rex by Igor Stravinsky.
In 1927 the opera Năpasta by Sabin
Drăgoi and the Psalm 127 by Zeno
Vancea were finished. In the same year
George Breazul founded in Bucharest The
Phonogramic Archive for the Gathering
and Study of Musical Folklore, and the
Romanian repertoire was enriched with
The Chamber Symphony op.5 by Mihail
Andricu, the Fantasy for Symphonic
Orchestra
by
Mihail
Mihalovici,
Concerto grosso nr.1 op. 17 by Filip
Lazar; the European repertoire was
enriched with: The String Quartet nr.3
and Micro-Cosmos by Bela Bartok,
Kammermusik Nr.5 and Nr.6 by Arnold
Schönberg, and The Second Symphony by
Dimitri Sostakovici.
What we attempted to underline in the
last part of the article sustains the idea that
the modal musical thinking represents an
important conquest of the European and
Romanian musical language, including
the musical language from Banat, through
the extraordinary above mentioned works.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Cinci, E. Sfânta Liturghie – creaŃia
supremă a
gândirii
religioase.
Panciova – Serbia. In: Revista pentru
artă şi cultură Lumina, anul LVIII,
nr. 7-8-9, 2005, pag.51.
Demenescu, V. L. Modele de gândire
modală în creaŃia muzicală europeană
din prima jumătate a secolului XX.
Timişoara: Editura Eurostampa, 2006.
MăniuŃ, P.M.; MăniuŃ, L.C. Cronica
ideilor contemporane - studii şi
publicistică, vol. 1 (compendiu al
dominantelor de gândire ale culturii şi
civilizaŃiei secolului al XX-lea).
Braşov:
Editura
UniversităŃii
„Transilvania” din Braşov, 2005.
Stoianov, C. Coordonate stilistice ale
creaŃiei lui Sabin Drăgoi şi Zeno
Vancea. Bucureşti: Revista Muzica
nr. 4, 1990.
Stoianov, C. Repere în neoclasicismul
muzical românesc. Bucureşti: Editura
FundaŃiei România de mâine, 2000.
Vărădeanu, V. Originea muzicii
noastre bisericeşti - manuscris. Arhiva
Episcopiei Aradului.
ON THE ORNAMENTATION OF
BAROQUE MUSIC
Ignac FILIP1
Abstract: The contrastive mentalities of the two nations represent the
generating sources of their music: Italians are extroverted and passionate,
used to expressing their joy and pain directly and spontaneously, whereas the
French filter their feelings intellectually. This is the way the both contrastive
mentalities gave birth to two contrastive styles of musical expression. Italian
music is characterised by drama, spontaneity, a fantastic richness of musical
forms and a colourful expression, which also includes bizarre elements. Its
opposite, French music, emerged as a reaction to the volcanic music: it is
intellectual, aristocratic, and it provides clear musical forms and precise
rules for interpretation. These contrastive elements of expression influenced
the entire European musical life strongly, and led to a gradual polarisation
of baroque music in relation to the two styles.
Key words: baroque, Italian music, French music, mentality, difference.
French Ornamentation Compared to
Italian Ornamentation
In the European art music from the 17th
and the first part of the 18th century, there
was no stylistic unity. Different
compositional and interpretative manners
existed in different musical centres, which
evolved farther away from the common
roots of the musical baroque.
The musical communication among
these centres was established during the
journeys of the famous interpreters and
composers of the time. By their trips, the
musicians familiarized the Europeans with
the musical language characteristic to their
native places.
Starting from a common source, Italian
music, the baroque European music,
became more diverse.
The stylistic diversity, which emerged
mainly from the specifics of each nation,
1
began to express itself by the means of
baroque music. The tendency towards
diversification was promoted through the
inevitable connections and the reciprocal
influences of the traveller-musicians and it,
finally, resulted in two contrastive forms:
the French and the Italian style.
The emergence of these forms of musical
expression is not randomly related to the
two peoples. The contrastive mentalities of
the two nations represent the generating
sources of music: Italians are extroverted
and passionate; they use to express their
joy and pain directly and spontaneously,
whereas the French filter their feelings
intellectually. This is the way the both
contrastive mentalities gave birth to two
contrastive styles of musical expression.
Italian music is characterised by drama,
spontaneity, a fantastic richness of musical
forms and a colourful expression, which
also includes bizarre elements. Its
Dept. of Musical Interpretation, Transilvania University of Braşov.
28
opposite, French music, emerged as a
reaction to the volcanic music; it is
intellectual, aristocratic, and it provides
clear musical forms and precise rules for
interpretation. These contrastive elements
of expression influenced the entire
European musical life strongly, and led to
a gradual polarisation of baroque music in
relation to the two styles. One element
that should not be ignored is the traditional
political, cultural and spiritual rivalry
which existed between the two nations.
This rivalry marked the two musical styles,
the conceptions of the music lovers and the
contemporary professional musicians. The
French considered the Italian music tasteless
and vulgar. On the other hand, the Italians
considered the French music inexpressive
and useless, destined for the ears, and not for
the heart. To understand the atmosphere of
the period and of its musical rivalries, some
of the most controversial opinions are worth
to be quoted:
Marin Mersenne (Harmonie universelle
– Paris, 1636-37, p. 356): ‘Italians strive
themselves to render passions, spiritual
states ... for us, the French, it is enough to
please the ears’ [1].
Georg Muffat (Florilegium, I. –
Augsburg, 1695): ‘The French are
characterized by a natural melodic spirit
and suppleness – a soothing character
which is dispersed by excessive and
useless variations, by too frequent and
uninspired intervals’ [2].
Francois Raguenet (Parallele des Italiens
et des Francais, en ce qui regarde la
musique et les opera) [3]: [The French]
‘play the violin with much more delicacy
and care, in comparison to the Italians who
agonise every time: the cellist tortures his
instrument and his body, he loses control
and is so agitated, as if this impetuous
movement were an infirmity. I have not seen
anyone so seized with passion while playing
the violin, like the famous Arcangelo Corelli,
whose eyes reddened countless times, whose
face maimed, and whose eyes moved as if in
agony, so that the interpretation of the music
seemed to have transformed him into a
different man’ [4].
Quantz (chapter X. 19): ‘Italian music is
less balanced; French music is yet much
too restrained and, probably, because of
that, in French music even what is new
seems old. But, the French style should not
be despised; we recommend to beginners
to combine the decent and clear conduct of
the French interpretation with the Italian
clear-obscure’ [4].
Quantz (chapter XVIII): ‘The taste of
these two nations determine the others'
taste as well.’
These two contrastive styles led to two
different styles of ornamentation. In the
Italian style, the figurative ornamentation
was primordial for the use of the proper
ornamentations. The Italians preferred a
spontaneous
improvisation,
an
embellishment of the melodies through
melodic notes, figures and rhythmicmelodious cells. The French used the
ornamentation of the musical sounds as the
basic unity of melody.
There are some quotations about the
French and Italian ornamentation:
Quantz (chapter XIV, p. 2): ‘Man kann
das Adagio, in Unsehung der Art dasselbe
zu spielen, und wie es nötig ist, mit
Mannieren auszuzieren, auf zweherlen Art
betrachten; entweder im französischen,
oder im italianischen Geschmachte…Die
erste Art erfordert einen netten und an
einander
hangenden
Vortrag
des
Gesanges, und eine Auszierung desselben
mit den wesentlichen Manieren, als
Vorschlägen, ganzen und halben Trillern,
Mordanten, Doppelschlägen, battemens,
flattements, u.d.gl.; sonst aber keine
weitläuftigten Passagien, oder großen
Filip, I.: On the Ornamentation of Baroque Music
zusatz willkührlicher Verzierungen….’
[The interpretation of the Adagio and its
ornamentation can be dealt with according
to two ways: the French or the Italian way
… The first way demands an engaging
and fluent interpretation, and an
ornamentation of the melody with basic
elements such as appoggiaturas, trills,
mordents, groups, vibratos, but without
further arbitrary ornamentations] [4].
Quantz (chapter XIV, p. 3): ‘Die
französische Art das Adagio auszieren,
kann man durch gute Anweisung, ohne die
Harmonie zu verstehen, erlernen.Zu
italiänischen
hingegen
wird
die
Wissenschaft der Harmonie unumgänglich
erfordert.’ [The French ornamentation of
the Adagio can be learned under good
guidance, without having to study
harmonies. In comparison, the Italian
ornamentation requires knowledge of
harmony] [4].
Quantz (chapter XIV, p. 4): ‘Daß die
französischen
Componisten
die
Auszierungen
mehrenteils
mit
hin
schreiben; und der Ausführer also auf
nichts weiter zu denken habe, als die gut
vorzutragen, ist schon gesaget worden. Im
italiänischen Geschmachte wurden, in
vorigen Zeiten, gar keine Auszierungen
darzu geseßet; sondern alles der Willkühr
des Ausführers überlassen;…Die denn
nicht zu läugner ist, daß in der
italiänischen Musik fast eben so viel auf
den Ausführer, als die Componisten; in der
französischen aber, auf den Componisten
weit mehrals auf den Ausführer ankomme,
wenn das Stück seine volkommene
Wirkung thun soll.’ [The French
composers used to display most of their
ornaments; thus, the interpreter did not
have anything else to do than to interpret
them correctly. Italians preferred not to
display the ornamentations at all; they
were left to the interpreters' ingenuity …
29
One cannot deny the fact that, in the Italian
music, the interpreters have the same merit
as the composers; but, in the French music,
the contribution of the composers to the
perfect achievement of the melody is
greater than that of the interpreters] [4].
After all, the two musical styles got
together through their synthesis, from
which the German baroque emerged, and
through the great artists of the time such as
Telemann, Händel and Bach.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Bruce, Haynes. Das Fingervibrato
(Flattement) auf Holzblasinstrumenten
im 17., 18. und 19. Jahrhundert, Teil
1, in Tibia 2/97, p. 401-407.
Bruce, Haynes. Das Fingervibrato
(Flattement) auf Holzblasinstrumenten
im 17., 18. und 19. Jahrhundert, Teil
2, in Tibia 3/97, p. 481-488.
Donnington, Robert. A performer’s
guide to baroque music, Faber and
Faber, Londra, 1973 (în limba
maghiară:
A
barokk
zene
elıadásmódja). Budapest: Editura
Zenemőkiadó, 1978.
Ganassi, Sylestro. Opera intitulata
Fontegara/La quale insegna a sunare
di flauto. VeneŃia, 1535 (în limba
germană după Peter, Hildemarie:
Schule des kunstvollen Flötenspiels
und Lehrbuch des Diminuierens).
Berlin: Robert Linau Verlag, 1956.
Harnoncourt, Nikolaus. Musik als
Klangrede, Editura Residenz Verlag,
Salzburg und Wien, 1982 (traducerea
în limba maghiară: A beszédszerő
zene). Budapesta: Editura Editio
Musica, 1988.
Mersenne,
Marin.
Harmonie
universelle. Paris, 1636-1637, p. 356.
Muffat,
Georg.
Florilegium.
Augsburg, 1695.
30
8.
regarde la musique et les opéra. Paris,
1702.
11. Raguenet, François. Parallele des
Italiens et des Francais, en ce qui
regarde la musique et les opéra. Paris,
1702.
Quantz, Johann. Versuch einer
Anweisung die Flöte traversiere zu
spielen. Berlin, 1752.
9. Quantz, Johann. Versuch einer
Anweisung die Flöte traversiere zu
spielen, 1752.
10. Raguenet, François. Parallele des
Italiens et des Francais, en ce qui
MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS
IN AUREL STROE’S MUSIC
PetruŃa M. MĂNIUł1
Abstract: Professor Dinu Ciocan is the first person who found similarities
between works of art and fuzzy sets, which are subject to gradual change. In
compositional art, Aurel Stroe translates these notions into his music. This
perspective is adequate, since mathematical notions are very close to the aesthetics
of works of art, which involve a poetic dimension, the ethics of intentional
ambiguity and vagueness, features which promote musical interpretation.
Key words: fuzzy sets, contemporary music, (non-)Euclidean geometry.
The music of Aurel Stroe is one of the
best Romanian works of art of the XXth
century. The aesthetic approach on fuzzy sets
is a way to analyze the profound signification
of his art. The explanations I will provide
further refer to the way mathematical
arguments simplify the understanding of a
work of art, especially in the context of the
XXth century, when philosophy and art
introduced ”the primacy over the real”.
Mathematics is useless within a world in
which the possible does not take
precedence: ”if you take the real for
granted or consider it unique, you miss the
unit of deeper mathematics. But if you
double, triple or polymerize the real, if you
dive into the ocean of the possible, then
mathematics becomes a means to know, to
explore the possible” [1, p. 61]. The work
of art is itself a reality meant to multiply
reality in a deeply recreative way, which is
neither photographic nor mimetic. The
musical masterpieces composed by Aurel
Stroe are the best examples to support the
statement above, as they reflect a perspective
of the possible, infinite world, as well as the
marginal visions of reality. The composer’s
spiritual refinement is transposed to his
musical work, which is the fruit of his
approach on world and art, and which
explains why these concepts can naturally
1
and organically be identified in his
compositions.
Professor Dinu Ciocan is the first person
who found similarities between works of
art and fuzzy sets, ”which are subject to
gradual change” [2]. This perspective is
adequate, since mathematical notions are
very close to the aesthetics of works of art,
which involve a poetic dimension, ”the
ethics of intentional ambiguity and
vagueness”, features which promote
musical interpretation” [3, p. 62].
There is an obvious compatibility
between mathematical notions and
phenomena, which are deeply related to
each other, and the artistic background, as
it is shown in the specialized literature.
Goethe promoted the mathematic approach
concerning art, by pointing out the spiritual
dimension
of
mathematics,
which
contributes to the development of the
creative
artistic
phenomenon:
”mathematics is an element of the inner
superior sense; practically, it is an art.
Nevertheless, mathematics is not able to
perform any moral act; a mathematician is
accomplished only if he is accomplished as
an individual” [4, p. 53]. The end of the
quotation made by the Romantic German
artist makes the distinction between the
artistic valuation of the artistic piece of work
32
and its creator’s moral profile, which proves
to be so important. As one fundamental law
of aesthetics states, ”every aesthetic end
product may not always be moral”; it
proclaims the superiority of the spiritual
quality over the aesthetic aspect.
”The Euclidean geometry is the perfect
introduction to philosophy” [5, p. 35]. The
work of art has a lot in common with the
philosophical conceptions of non-Euclidean
geometry, especially as regards the meaning
of Aurel Stroe’s composition work which
displays complex ideational understood
implications. Euclid, the famous Greek
geometrician, who lived around 300 B.C.,
was a professor in Egypt; among other
works, it is worth mentioning his book,
”Elements”, a geometry manual, which
contains individual theorems for plane and
special geometry, algebra and the theory of
numbers. He promoted the logical reasoning
and deduction and influenced Newton in his
work ”Principia”. Today it is known that the
Euclidean geometry is not the only
independent geometric system due to
Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity (”the
Euclidean geometry is not respected in
vicinity of the black holes and the neutron
stars, where the gravitational fields are very
intense)” [6].
Mathematics is usually defined as the
science which is concerned with structure,
change and space. A modern approach on
mathematics states that it is concerned with
the investigation of abstract structures,
axiomatically defined by formal logics.
The basics of the structures investigated by
mathematics are sometimes found in
natural sciences (especially in Physics).
Mathematics defines and investigates its
own structures and theories, to synthesize
and unify multiple mathematic fields as a
unique theory, a method which usually
simplifies generic methods for calculation.
Occasionally, mathematicians study fields of
mathematics strictly for their abstract
interest; therefore this approach is more
related to art than to science. The specific
domains of mathematics are used to mark
generically the limits of the trends
approached by mathematics to date, in the
sense of delineating three specific directions:
the study of structure, space and changes.
The study of structure generally focuses
on the theory of numbers (elementary
algebra); abstract algebra is the result of a
deep investigation and abstracting of these
theories (abstract algebra studies the
structures which generalize the properties
of numbers in the usual sense). The
”vector” concept, generalized in the sense
of vector space, and studied by linear
algebra, is specific both to the study of
structure and space. The study of space
naturally starts from (Euclidean) geometry
and
three-dimensional
familiar
trigonometry which later becomes nonEuclidean geometry and plays an essential
role in the theory of relativity. The study of
change, as it reflects the dramatic
background of the musical discourse, is
necessary, especially in case of arts, where
measurement
and predictability of
changing some variables are essential.
The current development process of
human society requires ever more
resources, both material and human. We
can notice a constantly changing scale of
values and lifestyles; we are on the
threshold of supportability, at a critical
point in human evolution. It is the energy
and the space-time of the habitat in which
we are dwelling that keeps us together. All
these barriers are also related to the level
of civilisation we are living in, to the way
people create, achieve and consume artistic
products, and to the present cultural
paradigm. Therefore, we should consider
music from a space-limit perspective (a
philosophical limit of non-Euclidean
geometry): the conquest of a new
dimension, the perception and pragmatic use
of the properties of a new dimension could
be more than an intellectual challenge, a step
towards self fulfilment and, implicitly, a
proof that man can survive in a world which
seems to be consumed.
The issue regarding the fourth dimension
is not only a mathematical issue, but also
an aesthetical one. Nevertheless, nobody,
excepting for the mathematician Howard
Hinton who had intensively trained his
MăniuŃ, P.M.: Mathematical Concepts in Aurel Stroe’s Music
imagination, has got a picture of the
volume in a non-artistic act with
significant expressive implications. All
great mathematicians, except for a few of
them (Henri Poincare was ahead of them),
agree to the fact that there is incontestably
a four-dimensional space. Nowadays, a
great number of scholars and philosophers
are concerned with the issue of the fourth
dimension. This issue replaced the interest
people used to have for the squaring of the
circle or for the perpetuum mobile. To
conceive the fourth dimension, we should
leave the strictly scientific, concrete
dimension of the human universe which
can be directly analyzed, and study
thoroughly the meanings of art.
It is known that Euclidean geometry has
three dimensions: length, width, height or
thickness. It is only since 1621, due to the
research done by Sir Henri Saville, that a new
type of (non-Euclidean) geometry was born
because of certain obscure issues specific to
geometry (especially as regards parallel
lines); this discipline was the result of the
contributions made by Saccheri, Lambert,
Gauss, Lobatschevsky (his research was
highly appreciated by the scientific world),
Bolyai, Riemann, Helmholtz, Beltrami and
many
others.
Simultaneously
with
Lobacevski, the Hungarian mathematician
from Transylvania Janos Bolyai (1802-1860)
created non-Euclidean geometry. During his
studies, but especially after he graduated the
Academy in Vienna, Janos Bolyai made
important discoveries which contributed to
his major work "Appendix" (1832); his work
was published in Latin as a completion of the
manual written by his father. The results
achieved are a thorough dialectic study of the
issues of mathematics. Bolyai’s research set
up the foundation of new trends in geometry
which, however, were not understood and
appreciated by his contemporaries.
The research of the reference works
mentioned above proves the profound
correlation between them and the musical
phenomenon created by Aurel Stroe, which
has a unique interior geometry, developed
according to other macro and micro formal
laws than the ones commonly used in
33
modern composition art. The tragic feature
of the paradox of the non-Euclidean
knowledge” [7, p. 122] is very well adapted
to the aesthetic background approved by
contemporary art.
This new geometry shows that space is no
longer the Euclidean space. It is also obvious
that we are able to understand various types
of spaces with different properties, where
parallel lines meet, where the angles of a
triangle scale down unlimitedly while its
sides become longer, and other similar
anomalies. The non-Euclidean geometry
turns into a hyper geometry or a
metageometry, a theoretical background to
investigate hyperspace, the fourth dimension.
But what is hyperspace? Once this question is
asked, difficult issues are brought into
discussion. Is it a space accessible to man, to
his spirituality, or is it a hypothetical space
similar to Einstein’s space?
Here we are very close to the concept of
the infinity of the (aesthetic, expressive)
universe which raises the following question:
what is a bound? It may be more than ”the
extremity of a certain surface”. The issue
related to infinity is abnormally complex and
out of the intricate network of numbers, of
abstract or concrete geometry; it suffices to
remember the difference between ”the
undefined” and ”the infinity”. The infinity
which pushes our imagination to limits is
nothing else but the undefined. It is nothing
else but a variable infinity which oversteps
the imposed bounds. Our imagination cannot
perceive but a finite area, to which is added
another finite area, and this circuit is endless.
It can neither reach big infinity nor small
infinity, only what is left finite. Imagination
cannot reach infinity, neither the bound of big
infinity nor zero, the bound of small infinity.
These two ”extreme states” of infinity are
ideas which only reason can understand.
”The infinity made of more pieces is nothing
but the mobile and fugitive shape, the parody
of infinity”.
Mathematical
infinity
removes
imagination and first appeals to reason. To
conceive and reach infinity, reason does
not have to cover the domain of infinity
and waste the series of undefined bounds.
34
It is enough for reason to find that a finite
right line can be prolonged on both sides,
to find also that any given number can be
added to a unit, and to notice that this is
always possible, independent of the
number or the line. The mathematic
infinity is a kind of ”spontaneous infinity”,
similar to the artistic infinity; it is an
infinity which is made up outside
imagination and reason, which gives birth
to the force of things, the infinite numbers
or the projections of superior geometry.
According to Jouffret, ”a geometrical
being would be created with its own
individuality, which is above the finite and
the unlimited”, while the unlimited is
connected to our mind. Such a superior
being could act in an interpersonal space
which would overstep our imagination,
either in big infinity or small infinity,
without having anything in common with
this imagination. It is a space which people
can conceive beyond their reason, and this
had been impossible but for the mysterious
force of art, whose impact on the concepts
of new mathematics has become obvious;
it imposed the ideas of an extra human
space, which at first sight seems more
unreal than our hereditary space, where
things happen similarly to the way they do
in our familiar space.
It is not easy to know or to define a
hyperspace (from a cultural, not from a
geophysical point of view). It is difficult to
define the three dimensional space: the
Kantian formula, which states that space is
subjective, a required supposition of all
experiences, cannot be ignored. The
comparison between aprioricists, who state
that the idea of space is innate, and
empiricists, who argue that this idea is the
result of experience, does not ease the
issue under discussion; neither do we find
out whether to accept the idea that space is
a structuration order in time and that time
is a succession order, as Leibnitz stated.
We do not go any deeper in understanding
this issue if we state that time can be
represented by space or that space is
necessary for all representations.
All Kantian and Neokantian efforts made
by idealist empiricists finish up by
preserving the same obscure information
on this issue; all philosophers who were
preoccupied with space and time (Spencer,
Helmholtz, Renouvrier, James Sully,
Stumf, Wiliam James, Ward, Stuart Mill,
Ribot, Foille, Iuyan, Bain, Lechalas,
Balmes, Donnan, Bergson, and many
others) were not able to solve the double
enigma; their most controversial theories
are still obscure. Among the scholars
preoccupied with the exploration of the
multiple dimensional geometry, it is worth
mentioning Poincare and Goursat (France),
Cayley, Hinton (United Kingdom and the
United States of America). Certain theories
promoted by Hinton or some remarks of
Boucher’s geometry state that the one who
can use the fourth dimension will be able
to see the whole interior of the material
bodies, without being stopped by their
surface and even without taking it into
consideration; the tiniest interior and
exterior particles of objects will appear as
juxtaposed, not as superposed. Whatever
we may think, what happens beyond our
being is much more fertile than anything
which happens anywhere else.
Schofield (Hinton’s disciple) presented
the three dimensional life in an ingenious
way. He started from the non-dimensional
being, who cannot see anything, not even
herself/himself; everything is non-being
and s/he is convinced that the non-being is
her/his universe. On the next level, there is
the linear being, who lives together with
her/his fellows; s/he cannot see anything
but the extremities of the line, a point.
Then he analised the plane being, or the
two dimensional being, who cannot see
anything but two lines; in the end, the
thinker described the volume being, who
cannot see anything but surfaces and the
hypervolume being (the artistic work), who
can perceive volumes instantaneously and
completely. All revelations and apparitions
in the Old and New Testament come from
beings who possess the fourth dimension:
the spiritual dimension which makes the
MăniuŃ, P.M.: Mathematical Concepts in Aurel Stroe’s Music
perception and feeling of the artistic act
possible.
Hinton proved to be the scholar who
passionately
dedicated
himself
to
researching the fourth dimension. He was
not only a mathematician, who used to
make fun of the thrilling game of the most
daring hypotheses, but also a balanced,
gifted man with a vast, unique imagination,
which allowed him to put forward viable
theories for most of his abstractions.
Besides the mathematical works, he also
wrote scientific literary works, but only a
few of them were successful. This is the
case for the novel Stella, which narrates
the life of a young girl, who was made
invisible by her father (he took the
principle of the refraction of light as a
basis). In ”The Fourth Dimension”, the
reader is led to the darkest of the greatest
enigmas: the author pretends to have built
some solid four-dimensional cells called
tesseracts which are a close transposition
of a four-dimensional space.
What Hinton wants us to develop by this
experience is a special feeling (comparable
with the fundamental power of the spirit).
This means that we have to train our
conscience to look at things from a
different, non-conventional point of view:
an artistic, aesthetic point of view. Hinton
stated that ”when we meet infinity at a
certain moment of our thinking, this is a
sign that this way of thinking is related to a
reality which proves to be higher than the
one we are used to”. The space we usually
conceive is limited, not in terms of surface,
but in a way which cannot be grasped. But
why
does
space
have
to
be
tridimensionally limited? The spiritual
experience is the only capable of
answering this question. We may
experience the cultural existence of the
fourth dimension; in a way or another, the
human being is not simply a tridimensional
(material) being. There have been put
forward certain suppositions, which in an
arbitrary and artificial way provided a draft
of the relation of our body with the existence
of the fourth dimension; it states that our
35
spirit is able to identify it. Our spirit can
develop a superior conception of the fourth
dimensional space, adequate to our
tridimensional space and it can use it
likewise. The only difficulty is to decide or at
least to sense that there is a fourth dimension
(or even more dimensions) in the universe.
Therefore, the three dimensions are the
measurements of matter in space. These
measurements take into account only one
feature or characteristic of matter: the
extension in space. From this point of view
it is impossible to find other dimensions,
except for length, width and thickness. But
it is likely that other senses (like the
cultural sense) could reveal other
unexpected coordination characteristics of
space and time; thus, we might discover an
extension of the fourth dimension. As
Ouspensky stated, ”by time we understand
”the distance” which separates the events
in their succession, connecting them to
different entities. The distance can be
found in a direction which does not exist in
the three dimensional space: the fourth
dimension. By the term ”time” we express
a reality, a certain space and a movement
within the space and, consequently, the
time extension is the extension in an
unfamiliar space, which explains why time
is the fourth dimension of space”.
Nevertheless, from a certain point of view,
time and space are interchangeable.
Mathematicians use time as it were the
fourth dimension of space. The idea of
explaining space by time and time by
space is similar to the one by which we try
to explain the night by the day and the day
by the night. According to Ouspensky, ”the
sense of time is an imperfect sense of
space, it is the limit of our space”. Space is
the visible present; time is a burning space
which becomes past or future. Space is an
intense time, a horizontal time; time-space
is the lasting time, time is the ephemeral
space. We cannot measure our limited
space but as related to time. If we want to
give time a reality, we can only represent it
as an immaterial space. It provides a total
lack of objects; in exchange, it is full of the
36
events it develops. For us, time begins
when we cannot understand each other any
longer; the picture of space is made up
around us, when we follow the passing of
time. Space and time share certain
properties; for example, the centrifugal
force (this mysterious energy which is the
eternal enemy of gravitation), as the rotary
motion of the Earth, has a mathematical
representation by the formula in which
time and space intervene. By virtue of this
principle, time is limited only by time and
space is limited only by space; space is
almost always limited by time, and time is
surrounded by space. They fight for
supremacy and vanish in the dark. Space
necessarily exists in time.
Eddington stated that ”the fundamental
measure is not between points in space, but
between two points in space associated to
some moments in time (the case of the
work of art). We consider time a moving
of space and space a break of time; in
reality, time is as motionless as space. We
picture it as a river which flows
unceasingly. In reality, it has never moved,
it is we who are flowing, not time. We are
kept between space and time and end in a
cosmic deadlock. When mathematicians
get us out of space, when they get to a
critical point in which space gives no feed
back to their calculations, they make a
fourth variable break into the background,
time, which restores the balance of their
calculations and allows them to go further.
The work of art is related to this
temporal reality which contributes to the
embodiment of the work of art and the
cultural (even more, the spiritual)
dimension, which is in fact the fourth
dimension (left aside by mathematicians).
In conclusion, Hilton assures us that we
will never be able to see a four
dimensional figure physically, but only
with the mind’s eye. The real, three
dimensional and strictly material world is
obsolete; it has to be replaced by nonEuclidean properties and by four
dimensional space and time. The four
dimensional world is not just a mere
mathematical figure; it is the real world of
physics, the way pursued by physicists to
reach reality. Metageometry also looks
outside our space for less conventional and
subjective situations which have uncertain
relations with the space we created (or
which was created inside ourselves) to help
us understand the phenomena of the
universe.
”There is not only the sensuous music;
there is also a spiritual music. There is not
only the music which is being performed at
present, but also the eternal music, which
exists even when it is not performed. All
lonely people have their silent music inside
themselves and I am glad that there is such
music. But where do people get the music
from? They get it from us, the musicians,
because it has to be first performed and
listened to (…) so that any person can
think about it and dream of it when s/he
returns home” [8, p. 134-135].
References
1. Noica, C. Jurnal de idei. Bucharest:
Humanitas Press, 1991.
2. Dediu, D. Fenomenologia actului
componistic. Bucharest, 1995.
3. Larson, C. Persuasiunea – receptare şi
responsabilitate. Iaşi: Polirom Press,
2003.
4. Goethe, J. W. Maxime şi reflecŃii.
Bucharest: Univers Press, 1972.
5. Goethe, J. W. Maxime şi reflecŃii
(Meditations
and
reflections).
Bucharest: Univers Press, 1972.
6. Hart, M. O sută de personalităŃi care
au influenŃat evoluŃia omenirii.
Bucharest: Lider Press, 2003, art.
Euclid.
7. Noica, C. Jurnal de idei. Bucharest:
Humanitas Press, 1991.
8. Hesse, H. Lupul de stepă. Bucharest:
Rao Press, 1995.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov ▪ Vol. 2 (51) - 2009
CREATIVITY IN THE MUSICAL GAME –
A MAJOR ELEMENT IN THE
EDUCATION OF PUPILS
Lucian NIREŞTEANU 1
Abstract: The paper, which belongs to the field of pedagogical
methodology, aims at emphasizing the game as a permanent activity in a
person’s life. This activity manifests itself in the first years of life by the
employment of the so-called ‘functional games’ for the coordination and
gradual organization of the child’s physical movements; it continues with
fictional games, and creation games. These games are also employed in the
creative work of adults, and they seem necessary for the maintenance of one's
moral and psychic balance.
Key words: game, creation, modeling, activity, stimulation, mission,
emotional background, creative work.
Musical games have a long tradition in
the history of universal music, representing
sources of inspiration in the practice of
composition; they are needed to promote
the instructive, educational and formative
development of children.
Equally, due to their importance, musical
games
have
been
subject
to
methodological research concerning the
identification of the most efficient means
for teaching music in relation to the
physical,
psychologic
and
artistic
necessities of children. These methods
have been perfected by the teachers in the
Romanian educational system, who, by
elaborating
the
necessary
musical
materials, have contributed to the
development of the children’s personalities
as future professional musicians.
Talking about games, one can assert that
they are adapted to the age of a person.
Being a human activity, the musical game,
1
in particular, fulfills several functions: it
promotes the creativity, the modeling, and
the development of the children’s
personalities. Due to this factor, games
have always represented an important
research topic in the fields of education,
psychology, and biology. Despite its
spread, research on games became
functional only in the 20th century.
From a large range of opinions and
observations of some thinkers, philologists
and famous artists, the most useful can be
considered the ones referring to the
purpose of the game in connection to the
life and activity of children and youth at
different ages.
Thus, one of the most comprehensive
definitions about games is that of
Friederich Schiller (1759-1805), who, in
his work called “Letters on the Aesthetic
Education of Man”, states that “the human
becomes truly human when he plays, the
Dept. of Musical Pedagogy, Transilvania University of Braşov.
38
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 ▪ Series VIII
game representing the main means of his
full expression of freedom”.
According to the poet’s statement, the
game reflects a person's creativity.
The Dutch historian and theoretician of
culture, Johan Huizinga (1872-1945),
presents in his famous book, “Homo
ludens” (1938), a conception about game
that is close to that of Schiller. Huizinga
considers the game “an essential,
stimulating element of all forms of human
culture”.
According to the psychologist Edouarde
Claparede (1873-1940), the game stands
for the most important preoccupation
towards which the child manifests its full
interest, since it supports its biological and
psychological needs. In Claparede’s
conception, the meaning of game consists
in the very ‘action of playing’, which
‘prepares the future, by quenching the
needs of the present’.
The Russian psychologist Serghei
Leonidovici Rubinstein (1889-1960),
defines the game as being ‘the child of
work’. He demonstrates that the game is a
product specific to human activity, and that
the essence of the game consists of the
children's preoccupation with the ‘reflected
transformation of reality’. For example,
one social function of a mother is that of
preparing food for her family; in games,
the child takes over the function of the
mother, pretending to cook for other
children, an activity which causes it much
satisfaction and joy. Paul Popescu
Neveanu states in the “Dictionary of
Psychology” (Dictionarul de psihologie Bucharest, 1978) that a child's game is ‘a
kind of … determining activity for his
psychological development’.
In the children's and youth’s life, the
game fulfills a formative function: ‘by
playing games, they prepare for life’; the
games represent, thus, the practical
exercises necessary to becoming mature.
Throughout this presentation, there have
been made references to a signifying
definition of the game, as a formative and
creative action, bearing a great importance
for the children's and adolescents’ life to
their gradually becoming mature. To an
equal degree, the game fulfills a functional
role of great significance in the life of
adults as well.
For an adult, the work on a daily basis
should not represent a mere obligation,
relative to the function that he has, for
which he is paid; work should be viewed,
instead, as a permanent creating activity
which might be interpreted as a superior
manner for the manifestation of game.
An occupation which lacks the emotional
background created by the permanent
addition of novelties, progressively added
to the process of the daily activity from a
particular field, (the addition of novelties
means creative work), will degrade in time.
If one limits himself to the operations
based on a daily routine, he will end
performing an activity which lacks
satisfaction, a necessary feature in the
process of work.
On the other hand, active adults, as well
as retired people, have during their free
time vital energies. These need to be
consumed to avoid boredom, which is a
psychically
extremely
dangerous
phenomenon. The free time of an adult
should be filled with different challenging
preoccupations of a creative type; adults
could also get involved into society or
sports games with a festive character
which have the purpose of bringing joy
and satisfaction.
Nireşteanu, L.: Creativity in the Musical Game – Major Element in the Education …
A special category of games is
represented by gambles. These ones, by
their nature, have a double effect: either
the euphoria of the gain, or the failure
which can trigger personal dramas in
association to drugs, or even to dramatic,
sometimes, fatal actions.
From here the necessity of finding an
occupation for one's spare time, and of
consuming supplementary energy, by
choosing creative actions, such as society
games, which have the benefit of inducing
a state favorable to creative work,
rightfully considered as happiness.
For adults, the game has also an
important function, for their daily
professional activities, in emphasizing
other features: fun and entertainment,
relaxation after work, the escape from the
influence of preoccupations that may
negatively affect a person's sensitivity.
These games can be categorized as: society
games, artistic-musical or sportive games,
destined to the satisfaction of one’s desire
to win in fair competitions, according to
some precise rules among groups of
partners participating in the game.
One can argue that the totality of the
spiritual and material productions, as
consequences of the human mind and
effort, have been born within processes of
creative work, which, at times, may be
taken for the game itself, the latter thus
becoming the most moral human activity,
the most serious ‘child of work’.
The creative game is the type of game by
which the child builds, draws, models,
sings, dances, plays different musical
instruments, etc. By getting familiar with
different working materials, from different
activity fields, in the process of playing a
game, the child will perform the practical
exercises which correspond to their use.
39
Thus, the child prepares for activities far
more complex, getting prepared to attend
school.
During school, the creative games
change gradually into practical activities,
creating thus a consciously created
product. This represents the stage where
we can already talk about an equivalence
of games and creative work.
The different types of games played at
different school ages actively participate in
the development of the creative initiatives
of the pupils.
The importance of the educative value of
the musical game consists of the fact that,
because of the emotional states that it
induces, it can become an efficient method
in the harmonious development of the
human psyche at all ages. This is why we
stress the necessity of using modern
teaching procedures, inspired from the vast
field of instructive games, in the
instructive-educational process. It is worth
mentioning the vital energy comprised in
the musical games; this energy stimulates
valuable creative performances.
Unlike other games, the musical game, as
a dynamic form of instructive games, will
influence a child more strongly in his
educational development, due to the
strengthening of the transfer qualities of
music.
Musical games carry different aesthetic
values which become materialized in:
songs, different rhythms, polyphonies,
catchy lyrics, adequate to the actions
linked to the children’s age, songs,
associated to physical movements,
choreography, the use of school musical
instruments, etc. These values promote the
development of the pupils’ creativity on
several levels.
40
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 ▪ Series VIII
The several reflections related to the
creativity of the musical game reveal the
great importance of the musical game in
the socialization of pupils; the musical
game proves to be, thus, a major factor in
the education of pupils.
References
1. Munteanu, G. Jocul în educaŃia
muzicală.
Bucureşti:
Editura
UniversităŃii NaŃionale de Muzică.
2. Vasile,
V.
Metodica
educaŃiei
muzicale. In: Muzica. Bucureşti:
Editura Muzicală, 2004.
3. Ivăşcanu, A. Jocul muzical cu cântec.
ContribuŃii la educaŃia muzicală
preşcolară. Cluj-Napoca: Academia de
Muzică „Gh.Dima”, 1969.
4. Niedermayer, A. EducaŃia muzicală
modernă. ConcepŃia pedagogică şi
instrumentarul Orff. Sibiu: Editura
Hora, 1999.
PAUL CONSTANTINESCU –
A REPRESENTATIVE OF
THE ROMANIAN MODERN
COMPOSITION SCHOOL
Roxana PEPELEA1
Abstract: Paul Constantinescu distinguishes himself as a representative of
the folk trend as well as the father of the Romanian Byzantine style; he also
discovered the comic stream of Romanian spirituality and acquired a
prominent place among the neoclassic Romanian composers. These four
directions outline the stylistic tendencies reflected in his creation.
Key words: Paul Constantinescu, modal, neo-modal, diatonic, chromatic.
1. Introduction
The entire modern national school of
composition is centred on the folkByzantine axis that sets its traditional
nuances, being permeable to worldwide
trends like the Expressionism or the
Neoclassicism. Displaying a unitary
character, Paul Constantinescu’s creation
sets itself in this traditional reality by
particular aspects.
2. Content
The folk direction goes along the steps of
Enescu’s creation, from using the
quotation, through the creation in folk or
Byzantine vein, to the stage of essentials
and extraction of archetypes. With P.
Constantinescu, the existence, between
these steps, of some transition phases
related to the elaboration level of folk data
is to be noted: the harmonization of folk
melody (the Romanian Suite, the
Symphonic dances, Three Pieces for the
Piano), its utilization as a theme generator
1
for larger forms (Symphonietta), the
amplification of folk motif by pasting other
citations or personal motives (the
Romanian Suite, the Concerto for the
String Orchestra), the creation of some
more complex modal melo-rhythmic
structures (the Symphony), the formation of
melodic profiles of folk essence based on
the utilization of the whole-step and halfstep structure (the Concerto for the String
Orchestra, the Piano Concerto), the
application of the cyclic principle (the
Symphony), the exploitation of the modal
archetypal cell as a generating element (the
Triple Concerto).
The Byzantine direction registers only
the first two steps of processing (the same
as with folk music). If the folk creation
follows a method towards complexity, the
Byzantine one comes to simplification,
from
the
instrumentalism
and
chromaticism of the Two Byzantine Studies
to the diatonic aspect of the Byzantine
Variations for Cello and Orchestra and the
Byzantine Sonata for Cello Solo, finally
reaching the vocal style of the Psaltic
42
Liturgy. Thus, the peak of this direction,
the Oratorios in Byzantine style, represents
the most faithful expression of the
composer’s modal diatonicism. The
utilization of a common potential of
intonations,
with
cantus
firmus
individuality, taken over, probably, from
Macarie, is remarkable for proving the
unitary character of the Byzantine style.
The neoclassic direction originates, on
the one hand, in the recovering of some
classical valences (symmetry, equilibrium)
of the Eastern European folklore, and
harmonizes, on the other hand, with a
worldwide tendency of the epoch –
recovering and applying the classic
composition forms and techniques to the
Romanian ethos. The Neoclassicism in
Constantinescu’s creation belongs to the
area of syntheses: between the neoclassic
(neo-baroque) style and the folk one
(Three Pieces for the Piano, Symphonietta,
Prelude for the Piano Solo) – a synthesis
achieved by most Romanian creators in
this epoch; between the neoclassic and the
Byzantine style (Liturgy, Oratorios) – an
unusual synthesis in the Romanian musical
creation, but typical of the world music –
as, for example, the fusion between the
neoclassic
(neo-baroque)
and
the
Gregorian
intonation
(Respighi,
Hindemith, Stravinsky etc.); between the
traditional form and the innovative modal
language involved by the folk-Byzantine
direction (Symphony, concertos).
The expressionist direction, for Paul
Constantinescu, is another modality of
expression of a basic folk mode, as
opposed to other composers who, within
this esthetics, also conceived works that
generally lack the Romanian element (M.
Jora, Joujoux pour Ma Dame). The works
belonging to this direction are either
melodies with a text, or they are based on a
literary theme or a programme argument.
One feature of this direction is the comic
nuance, which for Constantinescu takes on
separate expressions: the humorous, the
grotesque, the transcendental comic (with
a view to philosophy). The humorous
expression (caricature) refers to a
miniature type programme music (Four
Fables for the Piano), or it is in Arghezi’s
manner (Cântece pentru voce şi pian,
lyrics by Arghezi, or Ciurezu). The
grotesque receives tragic-comical, absurd
(Din cătănie, Gornistul, Şapte cântece din
uliŃa noastră), or frivolous, parodic,
realistic-critical nuances, or nuances in the
manner of Caragiale (O noapte
furtunoasă). The transcendent humour
directs the Balkan spirit to the border of
sublimated play; it is of ludicrous subtlety,
and combines elements of the Turkish
Orient (Isarlîk) with the philosophic
essence of Ion Barbu’s poetry (Riga
Crypto şi Lapona Enigel). Under the
influence of Anton Pann’s style, the source
of inspiration is confounded here with a
certain level of folklore (the urban type)
robustly coloured with the Greek-oriental
influences of the time (augmented second,
diminished third, rhythmic melismas), used
as
fashionable
quotation,
often
superimposed in the palimpsest technique.
The tendencies of bringing out the value of
the artistic attributes of the folk song
require currently clearer and realistic
(even naturalistic) ways of perception,
encountered at the level of melodic
procedures and of harmonic-polyphonic, or
orchestral techniques (leitmotivs, violent
harmonies,
polymodality,
ostinati,
mixtures, aggressive brass band sonorities
or folk instruments). The presence of the
programme
argument
oriented
to
expressive spheres is observed in the songs
on lyrics by Eminescu, Şt. O. Iosif, and
C. Theodorescu, in which the composer
employs the following modal techniques:
the use of minimal scales, the
superimposition of the melody elements,
fourth
chords,
the
modal
complementarity etc.
Pepelea, R.: Paul Constantinescu – Representative of the Romanian Composition School
Overall,
the
composer’s
style
demonstrates a unitary aspect with a high
extent of musical language consistency.
The evolution of Paul Constantinescu’s
composition language had not undergone
spectacular changes of optics; it consists of
the steps he took on the modal domain,
from diatonicism towards chromaticism.
An attempt of dividing Constantinescu’s
creation into periods suggested in this
thesis will refer to the temporal
subdivisions,
according
to
Vasile
Herman’s attempt of dividing the
Romanian music in Formă şi stil în noua
creaŃie românească (Editura muzicală,
Bucureşti, 1977). Therefore, the following
stages in the composer’s creation are
suggested: I. 1929-1938 – marks the
opening of directions and establishing the
parameters of genuine creation. II. 19391948 – rounds up the final affirmation of
his creation. III. 1949-1956 – settles the
maturity of his style and language. IV.
1957-1963 – marks the delimitation of a
new vision on the modal treatment. The
first period represents, besides his debut,
the moment of certain openings – within
the modal spheres of the folk and
Byzantine style, even with touching some
stability points (the Psaltic Liturgy, 1936),
or anticipations (Nuntă în CarpaŃi,1938),
marks an apogee (O noapte furtunoasă,
1934) and a final point (Riga Crypto and
Lapona Enigel, 1936) of the comic
tendency,
musically
doubled
by
expressionist
techniques,
anticipates
neoclassical tendencies (Sonatina, 1933,
Symphonietta, 1937, Prelude for the Piano
Solo, 1934 and Burlesque for the Piano,
1938). The second period represents the
fulfilment of a creation cycle of Byzantine
inspiration (the composer will only once
come back this direction, in 1963, with The
Triple Concerto for the Violin, Cello,
Piano and Orchestra, but in a new mode),
and the masterly opening of the performing
section of his creation, the most important
43
from now on. The third period is that of
“compromises” that the composer makes
on the ground of accessibility, to educate
the “taste” of the masses, on the aesthetic
patterns of the newly-installed regime in
power (the dances for the orchestra, the
instrumental and choral pieces). In the
following concerto literature, we notice an
evolution of the modal language towards
chromaticism (The Piano Concerto, 1952).
The fourth period, containing the
composer’s last opus – The Triple
Concerto for the Violin, Cello, Piano and
Orchestra - overtakes the prerogatives of
the culminating moment of his whole
creation, the synthesis of all composition
procedures, excepting the comic aspect.
The unity of Paul Constantinescu’s
creation is determined, first, by the
tendency towards a common specific
potential of intonation, which marks the
constants of the inspiration sources of the
theme. Based on these constants, works
belonging to different expressive spheres,
or to different style directions, achieve the
unifying element, reaching, through
generalities, the possibility of establishing
certain parameters, between which
Constantinescu’s modal thinking retains
certain melodic types. This common
potential of intonation can be detected in:
I. the melodic source of Anton Pann
(quotation from Spitalul amorului or
Cântece de lume) – a unifying element
between the folk and the Byzantine
Neoclassicism and the comic-parody
creation with Greek-oriental nuances; II.
Macarie’s Irmologhion – a unifying
element inside the Byzantine creation (the
Byzantine Studies, the Oratorios and the
Liturgy); III. the occasional folk species,
for example Doina recrutului; in the comic
creation (Din cătănie, O noapte
furtunoasă), and also in the neoclassical
creation (The Piano Concerto); IV. the
melo-rhythmic style, common for themes
proceeding from an archaic folk level,
44
developing an identical ascendingdescending tetrachordal profile (the slow
parts from Symphonietta, the Concerto for
the Violin and the Concerto for the Harp);
V. the archaic type of melody, laid on
octosyllabic meter, used for outlining epic
themes; VI. the improvisatory type of
melody, illustrating the rubato principle,
polyphonically distributed in unison or
octave, regarding the atmosphere of slow
movements (the Concerto for the String
Orchestra, the Triple Concerto); VII. the
Dorian-Phrygian cell in association with
the subtonic relation of modal harmony – a
unifying element placed above the
thematic spheres or style directions (with
examples from MioriŃa or Riga Crypto şi
Lapona Enigel).
3. Conclusions
Constantinescu’s contribution to the
progress of the Romanian composition
school registers two stages: one of an
absolute genuineness, in which the
composer has the upper hand, and a second
one, displaying him as the initiator of the
modern direction promoting the Byzantine
background. The second stage also
displays him as a creator of the Romanian
comical opera, having his own vision in
approaching the folk direction - through
new modalities of carrying out folk music
at a high (melodic, harmonic, polyphonic,
instrumental-orchestral, formal) level. In
close connection with the style directions,
the field of modal innovation oscillates,
and affects one or another parameter of the
musical flow.
Therefore, following the new stylistic
directions, the composer’s mind probes in
the depth of modal monody, while other
directions represent (in his modal
conception) the domain of harmonic,
polyphonic or instrumental–orchestral
innovation. Therefore, the conclusion is
that
the
originality
of
Paul
Constantinescu’s creation regarded from
the perspective of the analyzed melodic,
harmonic, and polyphonic parameters
becomes real in enlarging the processing
area of the folk music regarding the
contemporary folk trend, in building the
foundation of his creation in Byzantine
style, in sensing the peculiarities regarding
the comic musical elements and in molding
this material into forms and types specific
to the cultured art, by processing
techniques adequate for a personalized
modal language.
References
1. Constantinescu, Paul. Despre „poezia”
muzicii. Ploieşti: Editura Premier,
2004.
2. Firca, Cl. L. DirecŃii în muzica
românească 1900-1930. Bucureşti:
Editura Academiei, 1974.
3. Giuleanu, V. Melodica bizantină.
Bucureşti: Editura muzicală, 1982.
4. Vancea, Zeno. CreaŃia muzicală
românească, sec.XIX-XX, vol. II.
Bucureşti: Editura muzicală, 1978.
5. Tomescu,
Vasile.
Paul
Constantinescu. Bucureşti: Editura
muzicală, 1967.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov ▪ Vol. 2 (51) – 2009
ROBERT WILSON OR TIME AND
IMMOVABILITY
Alexandru-Radu PETRESCU1
Abstract: Being convinced that “we should set the traditional school of
theatre on fire”, Wilson troubled the strong tradition of Western theatre,
founded on the idolatry of the word. His options unveil his affinity to mystery,
symbol, ritual and the sonorous beaches on which he uses to superpose his
unique imagistic scenic vision, the slowed down motions and elaborated
lights.
Key words: image, light, ritual, opera management.
Nowadays, one rarely finds time to think
about TIME. This is, though, what Robert
Wilson
succeeds
in
his
shows,
transforming the scenic space in temporal
images.
Robert Wilson (b.1941) first studied
business management at the University of
Texas (1959-1962), afterwards he studied
the art of painting in Paris and then
architecture, interior design and painting
(again) in New-York. He has not attended
a school of theatre. As major influences
which have affected his creation, he
mentions, beside the activity developed
with disabled children, the avant-garde
group formed by Martha Graham, Merce
Cunningham and John Cage. This group
has
experienced
different
stylistic
orientations, it has moved away from
serialism and electronic music to graphism
and qualified sonorous constructions, and
was labeled by Sorin Lerescu as free from
any constraint. The musical creations of
the group use to shock through the
originality of the language, the exploitation
of new manners of attack and the
employed instrumental techniques. Cage
1.
supports the idea that one can choreograph
any music and also dance to it (see his
compositions directed as motion shows,
during the period 1940-1960, most of them
in Cunningham’s choreography).
Robert Wilson’s creation for the stage
has been immense, since his first motion
shows were held at the end of the 60-ies,
and the last ones in 2005. His shows were
named by certain critics tableaux vivants.
Just to name a few: the Life and Times of
Joseph Stalin (1973), Einstein on the
Beach by Philip Glass, Leonce and Lena
by Georg Büchner and Peer Gynt by
Henrik Ibsen (2005). As regards opera
stage management, he produced Médée by
Charpentier, presented together with the
music version by Bryars (1984); Salomée
by Richard Strauss at Scala of Milan
(1987); Pelléas et Mélisande (1997); Le
Martyre de Saint Sébastien by Debussy;
Die Zauberflöte by Mozart (1991, 1995,
1999); Parsifal by Wagner la Hamburg
(1991); Madame Butterfly by Puccini
(1993, 1994, 1997); The Castle of BlueBeard by Bártok; Erwartung by Schönberg
in Salzburg (1995); Oedipus rex by
Transilvania University of Braşov, Faculty of Music, Musical Interpretation Department.
46
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol.2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
Stravinski (1996); Alceste by Gluck at
Théâtre Châtelet in Paris (1996); Lohengrin
by Wagner at Metropolitan Opera in NewYork (1998 and 2006); Der Ring des
Nibelungen by Wagner at the opera in Paris
(2002) and at the opera in Zürich (2006);
Osud (Destiny) by Leoš Janáček in Prague.
In 1992, Wilson founded the Watermill
Center, a “laboratory” in which the didactic
activity interweaves with the activity of
production
and
of
archiving
his
achievements. Wilson has been distinguished
with numerous prizes.
Wilson’s
temporal
For
Robert
communication the second is the most
important time unit: “Every second is
perpetually something else, very different
(...). The only constant thing is change”
[8, p. 473-474]. Every cliché, every second
has its own space in time – for Wilson, it is
much dilated – so that the message should
find its time to be both exposed and
received. It is, if the comparison is
allowed, like watching photographs of our
childhood, in which there is comprised not
only an immovable image, but a
succession of images – known only by us –
that only we, the watchers, can „remake”
with the eyes of the mind and of the soul.
In the very same way, Wilson’s shots
succeed, leaving us the time to receive the
succession of his intentions through our
own perceptions. Wilson does not submit
image to music, he uses music to create
images. Even if, in theory, the images
might be deemed in conflict with the
dramatic musical developments (how
could we imagine a static allegro vivo?),
they submit to the latter through the very
imagistic construction which supports the
images of musical dynamics (not in the
sense attributed by Music Theory, which is
the sum of the indications with respect to
the intensity of the musical sonority, but in
the sense of the evolution of musical
discourse as a whole). It is like the
difference
between
(dynamic)
instantaneous photographs and (static)
family photographs from the time of our
grandparents, in sepia colours, that we
surely still have, forgotten, in a drawer of
old furniture.
It is said that an image makes a thousand
words. If we were to decipher and describe
every image in any of his settings and if we
multiplied them by one hundred, we would
discover a story which could not be
displayed in days. This is the case of his very
first shows, King of Spain (1969) - 3 hours,
Deafman Glance (1970) - 7 hours, Overture
(1972) - 24 hours, KA Mountain and
Guardenia Terrace (1972) - 7 days and
7 nights. For instance, in Overture, only the
passage of a procession from one part of the
stage to the other lasted an hour – “the
advancement is imperceptible, like an
immobile painting in space and time” [2].
Quite similar, in The Life and Times of
Sigmund Freud, on a beach full of sand we
could see “a turtle which traversed the
stage in 34 minutes, [and] a runner which
traversed the stage in approximately 7 or 8
seconds – different actions which were
performed according to different rhythms,
[and] different speeds” [1].
The development of Wilson’s studies
with reference to the relations sound-image
and space-time in the scenic space
originates in the communication that he
has developed with the children he
adopted: Raymond Andrews – a deaf-mute
child – whom he met in 1967, and with
Christopher Knowles – an autistic child –
whom Wilson met in 1971.
Because of their handicaps, each of the
children had a different perception on the
communication with the environment,
being much more sensitive in receiving the
“messages” coming from the exterior.
Wilson noted that the scale of shading,
Petrescu, A.R.: Robert Wilson or „Time and Immovability”
graduation and differentiation of the
stimuli was much more sensitive as
compared to the one of a normal person,
giving this way birth to a wider diversity of
reactions-responses. This fact led to the
development
of
the
system
of
communication
stimulus-receptionstimulus (through feedback), based on
“codes” of images and sounds. Up to the
framing of the “code” within a structure of
space-time there was but a step, a necessity
appeared from the attempt at quantifying
the dimension (as form) and the time that it
needs to be perceived and understood.
Based
on
this
(nonverbal)
communicational
alphabet,
Wilson,
starting from the dramatic and musical
text, substantiated and developed a new
“formula”, a new modality of scenic
communication based on visual codes.
These had to be explicit as to be
deciphered by anyone,
even by
handicapped people, who might, only by
seeing the shows, understand them. The
codes had to possess a universal character,
to exceed linguistic and cultural barriers.
In this way, as I have shown above, to
every “cliché” in the stage manager’s
settings there should be attributed a form
and a dimension, which has to be placed in
a space and which has to contain their own
time interval (an interval necessary to
perception).
It is argued that Robert Wilson is a
continuator of Gordon Craig, since the
actors playing in his settings turn into
marionettes. The manager’s (Wilson’s)
work with the actors focuses on the
architectural dimension of the corporal
design, the precision and expression as
synthesized and direct as possible,
determined by the moment of the situation
in which the character finds himself in the
respective context. “He does not want
actors or singers; he wants models,
1.
47
patterns” [6]. In this way, corporalexpressive mini-structures are created and
integrated within a mega-structure of
image. This happens because Wilson does
not “present” humans and human passions,
but, using this ballet in images with a cold,
glacial, non-real appearance, with an
almost
non-human
precision
of
movements, he proposes a series of
esthetical-moral and scientific values
which are only created by human bodies,
values which do not need a real “time”
frame but which exist within a spatial
temporality.
An aspect which has a deep impact on
the audience is Wilson's use of light; with
its help he creates the spatial dimension of
the stage. An empty stage, with no light, is
static and frozen.
Whoever steps onto a stage with no light,
in complete darkness, is acquainted with a
non-time sensation. Wilson considers that
time “flows” on a horizontal surface and
space (light) on a vertical surface; the
intersection of the two axes space-time
creates what he calls “tension”. The
dimension of this dramatic tension is
deciphered by the stage manager on the
basis of what we call musical dramaturgy.
According to this dimension, he constructs
every shot, every “cliché”, developing
relations of complementariness among the
drama, the musical discourse and the
scenic image. The fragmentation of the
actors’ movements and characters is like a
“dissection” of the whole creation, up to
words, syllables, and sounds, its
reconstruction and transformation into
scenic composition ensuing afterwards.
Being convinced that “we should set
the traditional school of theatre on fire”
[5], Wilson has troubled the strong
tradition of Western theatre, founded on
the idolatry of the word. Wilson has also
changed the way in which the theatre
48
looks like and sounds” [3, p. 76].
This deeply creative stage manager, whose
name has often been associated with
innovation in art, has succeeded in
bringing out a unique vision on theatre and
opera shows. Wilson's interpretations of
Wagner’s and Gluck’s works (two
reformers of the genre who “acknowledged
the priority of the drama, but [who]
flooded the stage with symphonic
commentaries” [4, p. 31]) unveil his
affinity to mystery, symbol, ritual and the
sonorous beaches on which he uses to
superpose his unique imagistic scenic
vision, the slowed down motions and
elaborated lights.
Although a controversial artist, Wilson
hopes that his inheritance will be “a footnote
in the history of theatre”, being aware of the
uniqueness of his artistic approach and of the
influence it exercises on humankind [7].
References
1. Entretien avec Robert Wilson. In:
Résonance no.11 (1997). Available at:
http://mediatheque.ircam.fr/articles/te
xtes/Ircam97b. Accessed: 30-08-2008.
2. Hernandez Andrade, L. Robert
Wilson.
Available
at:
http://classes.design.ucla.edu.
Accessed: 17-08-2008.
3. Holmberg, A. The Theatre of Robert
Wilson. Cambridge & New-York:
Cambridge University Press, 1996.
4. Ionescu Arbore, A. Realizarea
spectacolului
liric.
Bucureşti:
Muzicală Publishing House, 1992.
5. Lupu, Gabriela; Wilson, Robert. Ar
trebui să dăm foc şcolii de teatru
tradiŃional. In: Cotidianul (1 May 2008).
Available at:
www.cotidianul.ro.
Accessed: 7-05-2008.
6. Robert Wilson’s „Butterfly” poses in
L.A.
Available
at:
http://www.operawest.com/index.php
?option=com_content&task=view&id
=18&Itemid=9. Accessed: 1-10-2008.
7. Stuart, R.B. The Extraordinary Life of
Multi-Media Artist Robert Wilson.
Available at:
http://www.hamptons.com/detail.php?
articleID=1858. Accessed: 3-09-2008.
8. Tonitza Iordache, M. and Banu, G.
Art of Theatre, Second Edition revised
and completed. Bucharest: Nemira
Publishing House, 2004.
SONOROUS HYPOSTASES FOR
A TANKA POEM
Cezara Florentina PETRESCU1
Abstract: The vocal miniatures pertaining to the composers Theodor
Grigoriu and Dan Dediu, on which we make a series of analytical
considerations, prove the richness of the musical means through whose
intermediary there may be associated the word and the music. The lyrics
offer an original interpenetration between Zen and Christianity; there will be
insisted on the diversity of the two aphoristic sonorous hypostases, one based
on sonorous metaphors, the other one based on metastylism.
Key words: haiku, Romanian lieder, analytical landmark.
“To write vocal music means, after all, to
create relations between a multitude of
words and a multitude of musical sounds”
[5, p. 51]; the manner in which these
relations are built pertains to every
composer’s style. The lied, the supreme
sign for the musical refinement of a
culture, is a complex genre, with certain
features of structure and attitude, in which
the sounds express themselves, beside the
words, even more than poetry can do by
itself, as the sonorous completeness is
being built in connection to the meanings
of the text with whom it inseparably
merges for ever.
In an exposé dedicated to the Romanian
lied, the composer Carmen Petra
Basacopol stated that “the basic element of
lied is poetry” [4], also quoting the opinion
of the essayist Nicolae Steinhardt: “poetry
is not a simple genre. It is a state of mind,
of the psycho-somatic complex, of the
temperamental disposition. It is in the most
obvious manner a state of grace (…) it is a
manner of knowledge analogous to
intuition
or
revelation,
therefore
1
Transilvania University of Braşov, Faculty of Music.
unutterably deeper, more precious, more
fragile” [4].
The lieder we submit for analysis belong to
Theodor Grigoriu (b.1926) and Dan Dediu
(b. 1968), two reference names of the
Romanian school of composition. The text
was written by the poet Şerban Codrin (b.
1945), who, through his lyrical creation of
Japanese type, inscribes in the “austere sign,
Zen, of the high altitude poetry”[1, p. 71].
It is about the third stanza in Agnus Dei
from Missa Requiem in which the poet,
adapting the Oriental fixed forms to the
spirit and letters of the Romanian
language, manages an interpenetration of
maximum
originality,
beyond
the
doctrines, between Zen and Christianity,
leaving free way to interpretation, in a
waltz of spirit through symbols. „Missa
requiem unifies gunsaku and sequences on
the tissue of ideas in the Christian hymn of
the Middle Ages. The suggestions of the
verses in Latin melt in a few dozens of
tanka and haiku, where Buddha seems
forgotten, there being accepted God’s
kingdom instead of the path towards
nirvana, or inversely, which is the very
50
same thing” [2, p. 235]. The poems haiku
and tanka by Şerban Codrin have also
“lured” other Romanian composers
(Eduard Térenyi, Vasile Spătărelu,
Cornelia Tăutu), but those who opted for
the lyrics “Thorns and wild roses / grow
red around / a wood triptych - / bleeding
once more / the crucified body” are
(according to the information we hold for
the time being) only Theodor Grigoriu and
Dan Dediu.
The lied composed by Theodor Grigoriu
is part of the cycle of 9 haikus for voice
and piano Dincolo de tăcere, Iisus [Beyond
Silence, Jesus]. Its lyrics are chosen after
an anthological criterion and follow a
central idea. Dan Dediu’s lied belongs to
the cycle Wolfiana op.59, unified
especially through the metastylistic manner
of musical treatment. Although it is an
important element, we will not discuss as
follows every cycle of lieder integrally and
the elements of musical dramaturgy it
contains, but we will try – through
revealing formal aspects as well as aspects
of musical language – to decode the
“interpretation” that each composer gave
to the same poem, and the different manner
in which each master translated through
music the signification of the words.
Both lieder, created on a poem of only
three lines are likewise of small
dimensions – 17 measures at Theodor
Grigoriu and 10 measures at Dan Dediu –
having as possible model Weber’s
aphoristic creations; the composers did not
feel the need to bring an instrumental
“supplement”, of music without text,
except an intervention for the piano
(measures 4-6) in Dan Dediu’s musical
piece. Both creations unfold in a unique
measure of 4/4 and in a unique tempo
which suggests for the interpreters rather
an atmosphere, a state, then a developing
speed (Quasi lento at Grigoriu’s lied, and
Malincolico at Dediu’s lied). There is to be
mentioned that in the first case there do not
appear terms of expression, beside the
numerous rallentandos (measures 4-5;
measures 8-9; measures 12-13; measures
16-17) followed by the return to the initial
tempo, while in the second case there are
doloroso, sostenuto, dolce, but there are no
rallentandos or ritenutos, the composer
seemingly leaving at the interpreters’ will
the eventual – and minimal – fluctuations
of the unfolding speed that he proposes
(the crotchet ~ 80). Dediu’s lied, globally
seen, is seemingly more alert than the one
of Theodor Grigoriu, especially due to the
values of the notes which are being used
(subject on which we will return) and to
the “fugitive vision” on Jesus on the cross,
made iridescent by the transparent
sonorities used in small and very small
nuances by the younger composer whose
creative approach is marked by the speed
typical of the century.
As formal structure, the square shaped
construction created by Theodor Grigoriu
brings a little form with reprise, based on
the varied resumption of the segment
(phrase) b and a small evolution (the
segment/phrase c). The segmentation of
the musical articulation is generally
modelled by the poetical text, the
composer enhancing the text and creating a
certain expression through intuition and
imagination,
through
delving
into
substance, and not through technical
means.
Dan Dediu’s lied proposes the formal
structure a av. In phrase a (measures 1-4),
it is like an homage in metastylistic
manner brought to the “Cantor from
Leipzig”, the symbol BACH is well
incrusted in the piano accompaniment. The
series of seven descending perfect fifths
(measure 4), articulated in groups of two,
which lead to a movement of crotchets in
the grave register of the piano, with a
melodic motion from phrase a are to be
noted. With small modifications, phrase a
v (measures 7-10) is the shift upwards of
Petrescu, C. F.: Sonorous Hypostases for a Tanka Poem
the first two measures of phrase a; the
accompaniment undergoes an inferior
chromatic translation which produces on
the expressive plan a more accentuated
darkening of the atmosphere generated by
the view of the Crucified body. In the last
two measures, the piano brings the symbol
BACH once more to the right hand;
51
afterwards, the left hand closes the lied
with two ascending fifths in the acute
register of the piano. (END).
Unlike Dan Dediu, who successively
brings (at the piano) the sounds of the
interval of fifths, both during the musical
piece (ex.1) and in its end (ex.2).
Ex. 1
Ex. 2
Theodor Grigoriu exploits the sonorous
effect created by simultaneously bringing
out the acoustic potential of the interval
sounds, both in some moments during the
lied (ex.3), and in its end (ex.4), bathed by
the sonority of the same interval.
52
Ex. 3
Ex. 4
Both lieder undergoing the analysis are
deprived
of
dimensioned
piano
introductions, the instrument is the one
which “advances” the sonority: through a
single sound at Grigoriu (ex.5), through
accord structures at Dediu (ex.6).
Ex. 5
Ex. 6
As regards the type of writing, Theodor
Grigoriu resorts to a unique solution,
which is the harmonized (choral) carol.
The main melody, entrusted to the voice,
has a Byzantine „scent”, seemingly
invoking Jesus’ sacrifice for every mortal.
The vocal melodic line, unfolded in a
relatively restrained range (re1 - re2),
„sounds” in a si minor with mobile steps
(II, VI, VII), but it is practically
neutralized by stereotyped accords of the
piano, which „glide” on parallel
sextaccords in a likewise restrained range,
between re - la2, all notes being
distributed, according to the writing, to be
executed with a single hand. This is one
moment in which the pianist is required
maximum
expressivity
and
a
differentiation of the manners of attack,
control and safety on the fingers, to render
with a single hand the three voices of the
accompaniment.
Likewise, the pedalling – extremely
diversified and adapted both to the
instrument one disposes of during the
execution and to the expected (desired)
sonority – is an element which will give
the measure of the instrument’s qualities.
Dan Dediu creates a page of music with
orchestral valences through a generous
musical range (Do1 – lab4), resorting to
elements of suggestion and symbol,
without doing this however directly,
preferring to submit a modal atmosphere
strongly diluted by bringing the chromatic
completeness ever since the very
beginning. The profile of his melodic lines,
completely different from the linearity of
those of Theodor Grigoriu, sends our
thought to the dodecaphonic manner of
treatment: almost in zigzag, in which
Petrescu, C. F.: Sonorous Hypostases for a Tanka Poem
prevail the increased and diminished
intervals, beside the frequent exchange of
instrumental registers. The voice unfolds in
a comfortable range re1 – mi2, but the
interpreter is required greater selfassurance and ability because of the
intonation difficulty of the intervals and of
the frequent exchange of the sonorous
registers in the general sonority brought by
the piano.
As regards the set of intervals resorted
to, it seems interesting to mention that
Theodor Grigoriu pre-eminently uses (in
the melody of the voice) the intervals of
seconds (13 Big seconds 9 small seconds,
especially in a descending sense, although
from the expressive standpoint there is an
„equilibrium” masterly created through
compensating the descending intervals
with an almost equal number of ascending
intervals or of perfect primes, situations in
which there is resorted to the „effect”
given by intervals used a single time along
the musical piece (3m, 3M, 4p, 6M).
Rhythm, the fundamental parameter of the
musical discourse is approached in a
different manner by the two composers.
The vocal line created by Grigoriu is preeminently constructed with values of
crotchets, minims or minims with point, in
close correlation with the text; the
segmentation of the musical articulation is
generally modelled by the poetical text, the
composer enhancing the word and creating
53
a certain expression through intuition and
imagination,
through
delving
into
substance. The piano especially has
minims, complete notes and crotchets,
which creates conditions for the sonorities
to „live”, to develop themselves. The
distribution at a single hand of the piano
accompaniment does not constitute an
impediment for enhancing the pluriphonic
syntax but, on the contrary, stands for an
interpretative challenge in aphoristic
manner launched by the composer. The
two plans, the voice and piano
accompaniment, do not seem to merge,
giving the impression of a permanent
„discordance”, although, separately, each
may justify itself through the prism of the
consonance concept.
Dan Dediu resorts to a higher diversity
of intervals, both in the vocal and
instrumental part using, for instance, in the
melody of the vocal part 2m,3m, 4-, 2M,
3M, 1p, 6M, and also increased and
decreased intervals, in a pre-eminently
descending evolution starting in the high
points of the vocal range.
To exemplify this view, the two
important elements in the poetic text, the
„wood triptych” (ex. 7 and ex. 8) and the
„crucified body” (ex. 9 and ex. 10) are
dealt with in a different manner by the two
composers, concerning the melody of the
vocal
part
(intervals,
sense
of
development, rhythm).
Th. Grigoriu
Dediu
54
Th.Grigoriu
Dan Dediu
And about the piano part, in both cases
there exists a complementariness of the
senses.
For both musical pages, the relation
music-poetical text may seem surprising at
a first research. The composer Dan Dediu
puts aside sonorities obtained through a
metastylistic language to a poem of the
oriental type, tributary as aesthetics to
elements taken over from Zen thinking.
The composer Theodor Grigoriu
considers that Japanese poetry is capable
of being associated to the reduction of the
range of expression means up to a
minimum level, which offers however an
infinity of interpretative solutions. The
master provokes the interpreters to search
perpetually for something „else” in the art
of interpreting the lied and to recompose
not only the musical signs of the score, but
also their spirit, their inferred meaning, the
„unsaid”, decoding the signification
contained in the „richness of nuances and
indications with respect to expression,
which model the sonorous discourse, (...)
with a finely dosed charge of the sentiment
expressed through music” [3, p. 247].
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Basa, V. Merii în floare. Eseu despre
structura poeziei lui Şerban Codrin.
ConstanŃa: Ex Ponto Publishing
House, 2002.
Codrin, Ş. Marea tăcere. Slobozia:
Star Tipp Publishing House, 2001.
Cosma, V. Muzicieni din România,
vol.3. Bucureşti: Muzicală Publishing
House, 2000.
Simpozion dedicat liedului românesc
în context universal Festivalul şi
concursul liedului românesc. Braşov:
October 2006.
Vieru, A. Cuvinte despre sunete.
Bucharest:
Cartea
Românească
THE SINGING PEDAGOGUE (part II)
A parallel between vocal therapy
exercises and vocalization
Claudia POP 1
Abstract: As a vocal pedagogue, I am trying to create a school to promote a safe
pedagogy, to prevent the damage of the voice. Moreover, if the voice is damaged, I try
to cure it through non-medical methods, together with the vocal therapist and the
phoniatrician.
Keywords: Vocal therapy exercises, vocal exercises, vocalization.
1. Introduction
2. Exercises for Resonance
First, if the voice is already damaged,
we, the team formed
with a
phoniatrician, recommend to determine
the vocal range of the dysphonic voice,
comparing it to the medium of the
speaking voice (by the way, Dr. Bogdan
is the first phoniatrician in Romania; he
developed an original method to recover
the speaking voice. I have taken over and
researched, building a method to recover
the singing voice, based on Dr. Bogdan's
exercises. I have included these exercises
in my everyday singing lessons).
Usually, for a healthy voice, the
“medium tone” is a note between C1 (the
central C is C1 ) and F1. For a dysphonic
voice, this medium tone is lower or
higher than normal, so we will try to
higher it up or lower it down, according
to the phoniatric evaluation.
If the voice is healthy, I recommend to
start the vocalization with the “medium
tone” of speaking, meaning C1 for mezzosopranos or altos, and D1 for sopranos. For
masculine voices, B for baritones and
basses, and E flat for tenors.
The goal:
1
• To lift the vocal sound into the
superior resonance system, especially
into the nasal cavity, by the activation
of the soft palate. One gets then a “nasal
resonance” or a “honky” muffled
sound [34].
Means of doing:
• The student will stand up and inhale
slowly, keeping in mind the correct posture
and breathing technique. The exhalation
will be only through the nose, trying to
phonate using the “[h]m” consonants with
the mouth opened;
• The larynx will be comfortably low,
the pharynx is large, the tongue is relaxed
and lifted posteriorly, the velum is relaxed
and the mouth large opened;
• The placement of the sound should be
localized in the anterior facial bones;
• The emotional atmosphere should be
relaxed, the student should picture a
perfect day, exclaiming in mind: “hm-hmhm-hm, what a wonderful day!”
56
• The glottal attack will be aspirate,
firm, light, with the “imaginary h”
(meaning a rate of air flowing through
the nose, before the sound is heard);
• The student sings the sound “[h]m”,
shortly, repeating it 5-10 times, on
different notes, from semitone to
semitone, focusing on the forward
placement of the nasal sound and the
abdominal “appoggio”. Then s/he will
sing a sustained tone;
• The glottal attack should be clear,
firm, light, with the “imaginary [h]”, and
the forward placement of the sound
resonance into the anterior facial bones
and the feeling of the abdominal
“appoggio”.
This is somehow similar to the “yawnsigh” technique used in vocal therapy.
The various ways to use the “yawn-sigh”
in a regular vocalization for resonance
may be summarized in the following
notations:
Not to forget:
Fig. 1. Range for all exercises
Fig. 2. A vocalization for resonance
These exercises can be continued as followed:
Fig. 3. A vocalization for resonance in major second
Fig. 4. A vocalization for resonance in major third
Pop, C.: The Singing Pedagogue
57
Fig. 5. A vocalization for resonance in perfect fifth
3. Exercises which Combine the Consonant
m with the Vowels a, e, i, o, u:
the soft palate, since arching the velum is
necessary for the implosion phase.
The goal:
To obtain the relaxation of the
pharyngeal muscles, the “open the throat”movement for the vocal expression of the
vowels a, e, i, o, u, without any effort,
means to display a larger pharyngeal
resonance cavity. It is known that the nasal
consonants and the plosives can discipline
Means of doing:
This exercise is like taking inventory of
one’s voice.
The pharynx should be enlarged, to
acquire
freedom
of
phonation,
pronouncing [h]m (an imaginary h, for the
light glottal attack) about 3-4 seconds, then
lightly pronouncing the vowels a, e, i, o, u.
[h]
[h]
[h]
[h]
[h]
[h]
M
M
M
M
M
M
– MM – MA – MM – MA –
– MM – ME – MM – ME –
– MM – MI – MM – MI –
– MM – MO – MM – MO –
– MM – MU – MM – MU –
– MM – MA – MM – ME –
MM – MA – MM – MA – MM – MA – MM;
MM – ME – MM – ME – MM – ME – MM;
MM – MI – MM – MI – MM – MI – MM;
MM – MO – MM – MO – MM – MO – MM;
MM – MU – MM – MU – MM – MU – MM;
MM – MI – MM – MO – MM – MU – MU – MM.
The jaw will be moderately low, being a
guarantee for a low larynx, trying the “yawnsigh” sensation, by picturing the “interior
smile”. This avoids the muscular tension
which can appear in the tongue, pharynx and
larynx;
The subject must be sure to get a deep
breath before the attack of the tone, to
sustain the phonation;
The articulation of each vowel will be soft
and clear, avoiding the hard glottal attack,
having in mind a good breath control, a
forward and high placement of the vowels,
as nearly as possible in the same place as
the consonant m, the so-called “mask”
resonance;
This exercise can be repeated 5-6 times,
each time in a much higher key, and can be
transposed upward and downward, from
semitone to semitone, depending on the
range of the individual subject.
Not to forget:
• The vocal sound should have both
“pointed and round” qualities;
• The glottal attack should be firm and
light in the same time, using the
“imaginary [h]”;
• The abdominal support and the
resonance placement of the vowels as well
as for the consonant [m] should be as near
as possible.
Fig. 6. Range for all exercises
58
Fig. 7. A vocalization for the relaxation of the pharyngeal muscles
Fig. 8. An enumeration exercise, using legato and the intonation of only one sound,
counting from one to ten
This exercise continues from semitone to
semitone within the recommended range.
Fig. 9. An enumeration exercise of the days
of the weeks, from Monday to Sunday,
using legato and the intonation of only one
sound
This exercise will also continue from
semitone to semitone within the
recommended range.
All these exercises present the physical
part of the “work itself”. I believe that
beyond the exercises, the individual work
with a subject means to focus also one's
particular attention on the education of the
student’s mind, the student’s soul and the
student’s body. Paraphrasing Novalis (who
was the pseudonym of Georg Philipp
Friedrich Freiherr von Hardenberg (May 2,
1772 - March 25, 1801, an author and
philosopher
of
early
German
Romanticism), [35], the fusion of all the
above mentioned aspects creates the
“magic of the pedagogical art”, which
consists in “using arbitrarily the world of
the sensibilities”.
Pop, C.: The Singing Pedagogue
Thus, if we, the singing teachers, the vocal
coaches, the vocal therapists or, the vocal
retrievals, named by me singing pedagogues,
use a proper vocal technique, based on or
related to the phoniatric exercises, we will not
only succeed on the vocal field, keeping the
voice healthy, but also train the singers'
minds, preventing the illness of the voice, and
offering an alternative for a healthy and longliving voice.
In the first and second part of this study,
I firmly recommend not to respect the
dictum: “just relax and sing naturally”,
because that can induce the laziness of the
whole mechanism which produces the
singing voice.
My opinion is that this is a matter of
muscular independence which is necessary
for any delicate skill. The extrinsic
laryngeal musculature, the neck muscles
have to be consciously controlled and the
intrinsic musculature, which is largely
unconscious, must be activated. Only then,
we can have the sensation of the
“resonance” or the sensation of the
forward placement of the sound. This
means the perfect coordination between
diaphragmatic action and the vocal cord
activity during the process of emission of
the singing voice.
We, the singing pedagogues, will always
be concerned with freedom and natural
voice production, acquired through years of
assiduous and conscious professor-student
work. The real development of vocal technic
comes not only with a stronger and louder
voice, but with the addition of freedom,
agility, brilliance and beauty to the voice.
We will also succeed to acquire a healthier,
professional voice, both in speaking and in
singing.
Singing is one of the most competitive
professions. In my point of view, the
knowledge of the mechanism which
produces the voice, the correct body
posture, the breathing technique, the
phonation, the vocalization, and the
59
training of the speaking voice are the
foundation of an objective singing
pedagogy and mastery of the vocal technic,
both of the singing and speaking voice, it
is the sovereignty of a singing pedagogue.
References
1. Berg, Van den J.; Tan, T. S. Results of
Experiments with Human Larynxes.
In: Practica Oto–Rhino Laryngdegica,
1959.
2. Berg, Van den J.; Tan, T. S. Données
nouvelles sur la function laryngee. In:
J. Franç. O.R.L., 1959.
3. Cohen, A. L'Art de bien chanter, 1666,
of Jean Millet. France, 1969.
4. Bogdan, C-tin. Foniatrie clinică. In:
ViaŃa
Medicală
Românească.
Bucharest: Publishing House, 2001.
5. Bica, N. The phoniatria in a
conductor’s vision. The Doctorate
Thesis, Cluj, 2000.
6. Brodnitz, Fr. Keep your voice healthy.
New York:
Harper & Brothers
7. Brown, R. The Singing Voice. New
York: Macmillan Publishing House,
1966.
8. Cernei, E. Enigme ale vocii umane.
Bucharest: Litera Publishing House,
1982.
9. Cleall, Ch. Voice Production in Vocal
Technique. Paris: Alphonse Leduc
10. Curry, R. The Mechanism of the
Human Voice. New York: Ed.
Longmans Green, 1960.
11. Deyoung, R. The Singer’s Art.
Chicago: DePaul University, 1958,
litography.
12. Dupon-Tersen, Y. Physiologie et
psychophysiologie de la phonation.
In : La Voix, cours International de
Phonologie et de Phoniatrie. Paris:
Librairie Maloine Publishing House,
1953.
60
13. Eckert-Mobius, H. C. A. Lehrbuch der
Hals
Nasen-Ohren-Heilkunde.
Leipzig: Georg Theime Publishing
House, 1964.
14. Fucks, V. The Art of Singing and Voice
Technique. New York: Ed. London
House & Maxwell, 1964.
15. Fugére, L. Nouvelle Methode Pratique
de Chant. Paris: Enoch De Cre
16. Garde, E. Le monophassage de la voix
parlée. Bordeaux: Studii, 1979.
17. Garzanti della Musica Encyclopedia.
Available at:
http://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/887469
18. Gârbea, Şt.; Cotul, G. Fonoaudiologia.
Bucharest: Didactical and Pedagogical
19. Gârbea, Şt., Pitiş, M. Patologia vocală.
Bucharest: Didactical and Pedagogical
20. Gould, J. W. The Clinical Voice
Laboratory: Clinical Application of
Voice Research. In: Journal of Voice,
1988.
21. Grant, J. C. An Atlas of Anatomy.
London: Ed. Bailliere. Tindall & Cox,
1962.
22. Husson, R. Vocea cîntată. Bucureşti:
Ed.
Muzicală
a
Uniunii
Compozitorilor, 1960.
23. Lawson, F. The Human Voice: A
Concise Manual on Training the
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
Speaking and Singing Voice. New
York: Ed. Harper & Brothers, 1964.
Lewis, J. Singing Without Tears.
London: Ed. Ascherberg, Hopwood
and Crew, 1970.
Marchesi, M. Ten Singing Lessons.
New York: Macmillan, 1901.
Miller, F. E. Vocal Art-Science. New
York: G. Schimmer, Inc.1917.
Petrescu, L. RespiraŃia, vorbirea, şi
viaŃa. Bucureşti: Editura Tineretului.
Pop, I. ŞtiinŃa, Arta şi Pedagogia
cântului. Bucharest:. Music Academy,
1996.
Perelló, J. The Break of the Singing
Voice. Folia Phoniatrica, 1993.
Pommez,
J.
Les
disphonies
fonctionnelles.
Bordeaux: Studies,
1972.
Raskin, J. American Bel canto. In:
Opera News, Jan.15, 1966.
Ross, K. Final report of the voice
teachers’ survey. In: Research Comm.
N.A.T.S., 1947.
Sarafoleanu, D.; Sarafoleanu, C.
Compendiu O.R.L. Bucharest: National
Vennard, W. Singing: the Mechanism
and the Technic. Carl Fisher, Inc.
1967.
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Available at:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism
TRADITION AND CONTEMPORANEITY
IN DRĂGAICA
Mădălina RUCSANDA1
Abstract: Drăgaica (Midsummer’s Day) is a custom specific to the summer
period and integrated into the group of customs and songs which anticipate
or accompany picking the harvest; it is celebrated on the 24th of June, on the
eve of the summer solstice, and it both means the protective agrarian divinity
of the eared cornfields, cattle and married women, being the equivalent of
Sânziana1 (St. John’s Day), and the ritual which refers to the prosperity and
protection of grain crops. Nowadays, the custom has disappeared, but
sporadically it is still performed in the areas of Buzău and Teleorman. The
custom is also known by the Slav peoples: Polish people, Ukrainian people
and Bulgarian people.
Key words: Custom, songs, prosperity, protection, grain crops.
Customs should be known in their
beauties and splendour, as besides their
spectacular character, they also embrace
the human valences embedded, by
harmoniously combining ritual acts and
ceremonies, juridical and economical acts,
moral values and aesthetic expressions, old
myths and knowledge provided by the
people’s experience. All these are
syncretically expressed by poetry, music
and dance. Independently of their name or
manner of performance, the customs do
not belong only to the village in which
they are performed, but to the nation, to the
whole country due to the echo felt in the
cultural life and the place they take in the
contemporary
Romanian
culture.
Nowadays, songs and dances have become
cultural goods by including them into
shows, TV programmes, radio programmes
or concerts, as unlike other times, they are
not produced for the needs of those who
dance the dances or sing the songs, they
are especially produced for the outside
1
audience. As regards customs, things are
slightly different: a great part of them are
integrated into the people’s everyday life
and their important moments in life, which
have not changed.
Drăgaica (Midsummer’s Day) is a
custom specific to the summer period and
integrated into the group of customs and
songs which anticipate or accompany
picking the harvest; it is celebrated on the
24th of June, on the eve of the summer
solstice and it both means the protective
agrarian divinity of the eared cornfields,
cattle and married women, being the
equivalent of Sânziana1 (St. John’s Day),
and the ritual which refers to the prosperity
and protection of grain crops.
Etymologically, Drăgaica (Midsummer’s
Day) – an autochthonous custom whose
Dacian native name has been lost – is also
the equivalent of Sânziana (St. John’s
Day), a word which comes from the
Romans from Sancta Diana (which is also
common nowadays in Transylvania) and it
62
is also known under this name in Oltenia,
the Banat, Transylvania, Maramuresh,
Bucovina; it is also known under the
following names: Dârdaică, Împărăteasă
(Empress), Stăpâna Surorilor (Mistress of
the Sisters), Regina Holdelor (Queen of the
Grain Crops), Mireasă (Bride), Sora cea
Mare (Elder Sister). In the groups of
people in which Drăgaica is accompanied
by a girl dressed like a boy, the custom is
called Drăgan, Drăgănoi, Mire (Groom),
BăieŃoi (Big Boy).
Nowadays the custom has disappeared,
but sporadically it is still performed in the
areas of Buzău and Teleorman.
For the first time, this custom was
mentioned by Dimitrie Cantemir in the
work Descrierea Moldovei (Description of
Moldavia), where he identified the
character Drăgaica with Ceres, the Roman
agrarian goddess: ”Drăgaica seems to
represent the goddess Ceres. Indeed, when
the grains begin to ripen, all the girls in
the neighbourhood villages select the most
beautiful and good-looking one, whom they
call Drăgaica. They crown her with an ear
wreath, ornamented with many finely
embroidered head kerchiefs, with the keys
of the granaries suspended on her hands
and accompany her with great ceremony
on the fields. In such ornaments, with the
arms unfolded and the head kerchiefs
against the wind, as if she were flying,
Drăgaica gets back home, singing and
dancing, while she passes through all the
villages she passed before with the great
train of people and surrounded by all the
other girls who often call her their sister
and mistress in very nice songs. Moldavian
girls, who live in the countryside, are
willing to be honoured like this, although
an eternal tradition states that the girl who
performs the role of Drăgaica does not
marry for the next three years".
The customs, beliefs and the Romanian
folklore of Drăgaica trace back to a
Neolithic goddess, a lunar, equinoctial and
agrarian divinity, a counterpart of Diana and
Iuno in The Roman Pantheon and of Hera
and Artemis in the Greek Pantheon; in the
popular belief it is considered that Drăgaica
would walk on ears or float in the air during
the summer solstice and would enjoy
singing and dancing over fields and forests,
accompanied by her bridal train of virgin
deities and beautiful girls.
It is also considered that Drăgaica is
born on the 9th of March, the spring
equinox in The Julian Calendar, the day
when Mother
Dochia died;
she
miraculously grows up and becomes
mature until 24th June, the day of the
summer solstice in The Gregorian
Calendar, when Sânziana (Our Lady’s
Bedstraw) or Drăgaica, the plant which
bears her name, is in bloom. She is also
invoked by virgins at marriage age and by
wives holding their children in arms during
the wedding dance.
In Teleorman, the custom is performed
as a show presented at the housekeepers’
houses on 24th June by a group of 5-7 girls
aged between 14 and 19, dressed in white,
with a veil on their faces, on which flowers
of Our Lady’s Bedstraw are pinned. The
girls hold a scythe in their hands and their
meaning is to announce the forthcoming
harvest and the symbolic death of the spirit
of wheat. One of them is selected to be
Drăgaica, who is wreathed with wheat
ears. In the groups of people in the south of
Muntenia, the girl who performs the role of
the divinity is dressed like a bride, in a
white dress, wearing an Our Lady’s
Bedstraw wreath on her head.
A few weeks before the event, the bride
(Drăgaica) and the groom (Drăgan,
Drăgăicoi, BăieŃoi) are selected. In
Dobrogea, girls use to wear men masks.
The scythe is an important object, which
girls with men masks and other female
participants hold in their hands; in
Teleorman there is a banner ornamented
with garlic, coloured ribbons and flowers
Rucsanda, M.: Tradition and Contempotaneity in Dragaica
(similar to those used by the căluş
dancers). Once set up, Drăgaica’s train of
virgins goes to the village or over the
fields; at stopping places or crossroads, the
girls get into a circle singing and
performing a lively dance whose
movements draw up a cross.
An important element of the dance of
Drăgaice is the imitation of a scythe fight,
which uses to happen especially when two
groups of people meet; in old times, this
custom used to cause much pain, as it was
a kind of bravery, similar to a duel2. After
the dance, the girls receive gifts from the
owner of the grain crops for whom the
girls dance and sing and, in some places in
Dobrogea, they are also offered honey. All
the people whose grain crops have been
passed through by Drăgaice believe that
their harvest will be rich and protected
from drought and hail. The group of girls
wanders in the village accompanied by a
child who is holding a banner (on which
ears, garlic, absinth, Our Lady’s Bedstraw
flowers are pinned), a whistler (who
accompanies the girls’ song and dance by
playing the flute, the bagpipe or the
clarinet) and sometimes by a drums player.
The ritual song of Drăgaica is followed
by Hora drăgăicii (Drăgaica’s Hora),
which is usually a dance tune, and by other
two, three dances, specific to the custom:
Brâu and Geamparale or Cârligu and
Floricica (in Brânceni village) or BăluŃa
and Floricica in Beiu village (always
present in the ritual dance of the Căluşari)
or Buceacul (in Poroschia).
Among other ritual acts, Drăgaicele use
to tear strips of their handkerchiefs or head
kerchiefs and give them away to the hosts
while the women who attend the
performance use to give them in return
items of their children’s clothes to be
pinned on the banner. Children are often
hold by Drăgaice in their arms to be
dandled. Although in Moldavia and in
some counties of Muntenia and Oltenia
63
fights among the groups of Drăgaice armed
with sticks, sickles or scythes have not
been attested, they are mentioned in the
folk expression with reference to fight,
scuffle, wrestle, tussle: ”Iată Drăgaica"
(Here is Drăgaica ),”A căpătat Drăgaica"
(They received Drăgaica), ”S-a făcut
Drăgaică" (He/She became Drăgaică) (Dolj, Prahova, Râmnicu Sărat, Putna,
Suceava).
In Transylvania, on 24th June, the girls
pick up Our Lady’s Bedstraw; they make
up bunches and plash circular and crossshaped wreaths on the musical background
performed by the country lads and their
extempore songs. These wreaths and
bunches are brought to the village, where
they are hung on gates, doors, windows,
sheds, beehives and even on vegetable
beds or thrown over houses and leant
against eaves; people believe that they will
protect their house and household against
evil forces, and they will also bring good
luck, health and wealth to people, animals
and crops.
From a musical point of view, the lyrics
of the song are made on an octosyllabic
catalectic or acatalectic pattern, by the
appearance of the completion vowels (like
u, in example no.1 or î, in example no. 2);
the melody is generally syllabic,
unornamented, the profile is sinuously
descending.
The loss of the initial ritual character
allowed the amplification of the lyrics
with new, satirical, moralising elements.
The aksak rhythm is characteristic to the
vocal melody of Drăgaica, which is based
on the identical repetition of the same
specific formula (see examples no. 1, 3):
The sonorous patterns are varied, from
the hemitonic tetrachord system in which
64
the fourth step is situated at an increased
fourth interval as compared with the
fundamental chord (like in the example
no. 1).
Tetra chord system
Anhemitonic pentatonic system type 1
The anhemitonic pentatonic chordsystem of type 1, with a crenellated profile,
is in favour of the perfect fourth intervals
and the great third (e.g. no. 2) and the
modes
like
the
Doric-Mixolydian
heptatonic chord system with increased
second between the steps III-IV; here, the
characteristic is the presence of the great
third, which is ascendant on the
fundamental and the perfectly ascending
jump of the fourth to step I at the end of
the melodic stanza (example no. 3).
Chromatic mode 1
The architectonic pattern is fixed, and
binary; the song has two melodic lines,
which are similar in terms of content; the
second line or both lines are repeated: in
example no. 2, the pattern is ABBv, in
song no. 3, the pattern is AAvBBv.
The custom is also known by the Slav
peoples: Polish people, Ukrainian people
and Bulgarian people.
In the Romanian mythology, Drăgaica is
a special name given to a certain category
of female aerial spirits dressed in white
and appearing at night to bewitch men
(Iele), who according to the folkloric
superstition, take revenge on people
scalding them with boiled water. People in
villages state that Drăgaica (Midsummer’s
Day) is an ”evil” feast; in case they do not
celebrate it, they could have many
misfortunes: for example, the ones who
ignore the feast, continuing to perform
their daily chores, could die by drowning
or be struck by lightening.
Old people also believe that the girls
who want to get married soon have to turn
somersaults naked in grass and wash
themselves with dew early in the morning.
Married women can also perform this
ritual to be loved by their husbands all year
long and have healthy and beautiful
children. The dew in the Midsummer’s
Eve has mysterious qualities; in many parts
of the world it is believed that if you
sprinkle with it all over your body it will
become attractive and fit, and if you wash
your face with it, you will become goodlooking and haughty.
On Drăgaica it is believed that medicinal
plants can be successfully picked up in the
forests. Many of the flowers and plants
picked on this day to be used as remedies
are brought to church to be consecrated
and thus purified of the negative influences
of Rusalii/ Iele (Whitsuntide/Female Aerial
Spirits), the evil fairies of the forests. The
laurel leaves and the plants picked before
the first rays of the sun, still covered with
dew (then dried and kept in a white silk
sachet) get magical properties.
Sânzienele are also considered by the
young girls a way to find their predestined
husband and the time they are supposed to
marry. The men’s cross-shaped wreaths
and the girls’ circle-shaped wreaths are
thrown over their houses. If they get stuck
on the roof, this is a sign of wedding,
otherwise the predestined man or woman
still have to be expected. In some villages,
Rucsanda, M.: Tradition and Contempotaneity in Dragaica
there is another custom: on their way back
home, the girls watch through the wreath,
and the age and the physical appearance of
the person they can see are signs of the
moral qualities of their future husband.
If on Drăgaica’s Eve, the girls put
untwined Our Lady’s Bedstraw under their
pillow, at night they will dream their
predestined husband; if the flower is
pinned in their hair by virgins or young
wives, they will become attractive and
lovable.
65
After Drăgaica, there are first signs that
summer turns to winter: days become
shorter, and nights become longer, the
wheat’s root gets dried and grains get
ripen, the hen constellation (the Pleiades)
is visible, flowers lose their perfume and
their healing power decreases, cuckoos
stop singing, fireflies start roaming in
forests, the leaves in the elm tree, poplar
tree and lime tree turn upside down. The
cultured country or mountainous feasts to
celebrate the agrarian goddess have
become opportunities for young people to
meet each other in view of marriage.
1. DRĂGAICA
2. HAI, DRĂGAICĂ, SĂ SĂRIM
Muntenia, Teleorman
66
3. DRĂGAICA
Poroschia, Teleorman
References
1.
Petriceicu Haşdeu, B.: Etymologicum
Magnum
Romaniae.
DicŃionarul
limbii istorice şi poporane a
românilor, vol. I-II. Bucureşti: Editura
Minerva, 1972-1974, p. 490.
2.
3.
1
Nicola, Ioan R. et al. Curs de folclor
muzical, part I. Bucureşti: Editura
Didactică şi Pedagogică, 1963, p. 192.
Oprea, G.; Agapie, L. Folclor muzical
românesc.
Bucureşti:
Editura
Didactică şi Pedagogică, 1983, p.172.
Our Lady’s Bedstraw is a yellow-golden
flowered plant, nicely perfumed, which grows
in the lawn, in grasslands, in forest edges and
glades.
THE FUNCTIONAL PYRAMID IN
BACHIAN MUSIC
Ciprian łUłU1
Abstract: Being at the border between the polyphonic and the harmonic
period, J.S. Bach’s creation represents a synthesis of the values of past and
the referential founding of the classic harmony. The exploitation of the field
of his creation reveals the multitude of parametric nuances which the author
combines in each opus, exquisitely offering a valuable simplicity, enriched by
spirit and love. This study proposes a review of the functional presences and
of their continuation in different hypostases, imagined under the form of a
pyramid of harmonies, part of Bach’s spectromorphologic universe.
Key words: harmony, parametric nuance, pyramid of harmonies,
spectromorphology, functional coloring, functional cellularity.
The spectromorphology has as object of
study the revelation of the multitude of
facets that a musical entity may contain,
the “multiplicity” that they can exist into.
Permanently submitted to an influx of
multi-parametric selections, the analysis
focuses on the different segmental paths
which compose the architectural spectral
“multiplicity”, starting from the detail of
the uniqueness and going to complex
sonorous constructions.
The multiple existence of an entity is
perceived at the level of two basic
standards:
a. “the actant” which represents the
main, active and explicit level where the
information is directly presented;
b. “the adjuvant” which represents the
passive,
shadowed,
implicit
level,
companion of the main level, where the
information is latently present, waiting for
the appropriate context for manifesting and
explaining.
1
The spectromorphology presupposes
formal launchings in the analysis of a song
focalized on several levels, starting from
the explicit level (the analysis according to
the “classic” parameters: rhythm, melody,
polyphony, harmony, heterophony, etc.)
and continuing with more refined analyses.
The latter part implies a collection of the
analytic material and a division into plain
samples of specific or connective interparametric particularities as well as a
pyramidal structuring of the sonorous
material.
It is this type of structuring that I intend
to focus on by reviewing their functional
presences and their manifestations in
different, singular or complex hypostases
on different contextual levels. This fact
triggers a complex spectrum which
demands organizing rules for the
functional
typologies
and
their
classification. These typologies and their
classification are established according to
the pyramidal model under the form of
“absorbing
columns
of
functional
68
consistencies whose organizing sight
projects against a referential scale which
derives, in a different manner, from the
very typological development of all
classifications with conjectural-parametric
fulfillment”[3]. At the same time, the
analytic focalization on the functional
detail, latently or explicitly formulated,
imposes a detached approach by the proof
of a real pyramid of vertical, multi-layered
harmonies.
A. THE FUNCTIONAL COLORING
In the tonal-functional system (musical
system based on the gravitation of sounds
towards a tonal centre) any accord can
reveal its functionality, according to its
“relationship” to the tonal centre, where its
contribution to the support of the
gravitation is tributary to a pre-established
hierarchy. On the one hand, the accord, as
a functional cell, manifests in different
hypostases,
revealing
its
valences
according
to
ornamental-functional
criteria.
1. The simple functional cell (blank) –
the zero accord: is a “pure”, unique accord,
free of any dissonance (element that does
not belong to the accord) which supports
by its own power, more exactly, by its
constitutive elements (tierce, quint,
dominant seventh or, as the case may be,
lowered seventh).
Fig. 1. Three-part invention in B minor, m.
3 (the second thematic motive)
2.
The
simple
functional
cell
(ornamental) – the colored accord:
consists in ornamentations of unique
accords by the help of an isolated
melodious note (passage, embroidery, etc).
Fig. 2. Two-part invention in D minor (the
theme)
3. The complex functional cell: it is
noticed by functional launchings in more
complex hypostases,
charged with
ornamental accords (with coloring
functions) whose composition comes from
the cooperation of the foreign sounds
among them, or by the conversion of a
base component. The functional units
which compose the functional cell are: the
main accord (referential) and those of
ornamental coloring. There are several
types of composed functional cells, starting
from the palette of the melodiousornamental formulas by rapport to the
main accord. Thus, each ornamental
accord “acts” according to the model
imposed by the corresponding melodiousornamental formula.
COLORING FUNCTIONS,
COMPONENTS OF THE COMPLEX
FUNCTIONAL CELL
a. Passage-coloring function: Ax B
Fig. 3
There are two different main functions
(A and B), and the coloring function (x)
placed, by substitution, at the end of the
first accord (A), is related (by the help of
the passage) to the second accord (B).
łuŃu, C.: The Functional Pyramid in Bachian Music
Thus, there are involved three functional
units (pylon-ornament-pylon) placed in the
formula of the passage, Ax B, within two
functional cells, one complex (Ax) and one
simple or complex (B).
69
c. Appoggiatura-coloring function: A xB
Fig. 7
Fig. 4. WK I, Prelude in G-sharp minor,
m. 3-4
b. Embroidery-coloring function: A x A
There are two main different functions
(A and B) and the coloring function (x)
placed, by substitution, at the beginning of
the second main accord (B).
formula of the appoggiatura, AxB, within
two functional cells, a simple or complex
one (A) and a complex one (xB).
Fig. 5
There is one main function (A), and the
coloring function (x) placed, by
substitution, inside the pylon accord (A).
Thus, there are involved two functional
units (pylon-ornament-pylon), which, by
the repetition of the former, justifies the
embroidery function (type A x A) within a
single complex functional cell (A x A).
Fig. 8. WK II, Fugue in B-flat major,
thematic answer (fragment, m. 7-8)
d. Anticipation-coloring function: Ab B
Fig. 9
Fig. 6. WK I, Fugue in A-flat major,
(the theme, m. 1-2)
(A and B), and the coloring function (b)
placed, by substitution, at the end of the
first accord (A), which has an anticipatory
function for the second accord (B).
70
formula of the anticipation, Ab B, within
two functional cells, a complex one (Ab)
and a simple or complex one (B).
Fig. 10. Piano Partita no. 3 in A minor
(Fantasia), m. 10-11
e. Delaying-coloring function: A aB
Fig. 11
(A and B), and the coloring function (a)
placed, by substitution, at the beginning of
the base accord (B), as a lengthening of the
first functional pylon on the territory of B,
which suggests the already-known pattern
of the delaying formula.
specific formula of the delay, A aB, within
two functional cells, a simple or complex
one (A) and a complex one (aB).
Fig. 12. WK II, Prelude in D minor,
m. 3-4 (the theme)
B. THE FUNCTIONAL CELLULARITY
As it was pointed out in the previous
pages, in Bach’s composition the
functional cell is presented in two
hypostases:
- the simple functional cell, which has a
single accord, as main unit equivalent from
a dimensional-metric point of view to the
cell itself.
- the complex functional cell, which is
denser than the simple cell, and marked by
the presence of some secondary functions
of an ornamental coloring, whose
contribution increases proportionally to
their dimension and linear consistency.
Some further explanations shall clarify
the proposed terminology.
1. The main function represents a main
functional unit, a pylon accord, a harmonious
resistance structure which sustains the
melodic,
harmonic, polyphonic and
heterophonic paths (see example 1 - 12).
2. The additional function refers to any
coloring accord which, usually, substitutes
a main functional unit; more exactly, it is
about the replacement of one segment in
the development of the main function with
a supplementary accord, different from this
one. This additional functional unit appears
because of the cooperation of notes that are
exterior to the main functional unit (see
example 1 - 12).
The components of an additional
function cooperate either for the definition
of an accord or for the confirmation of the
accord’s identity: either both elements are
exterior to the base accord, or an element
of the main function cohabitates with an
element exterior to it.
As a consequence, the addition function
can be expressed differently, more
precisely or more ambiguously, depending
on the degree of detachment to the
reference accord, such as:
łuŃu, C.: The Functional Pyramid in Bachian Music
a. The real additional function of sounds
exterior to the main functional unit (see
example 6).
b. The ambiguous additional function
which is composed of hybrid elements: at
least one exterior sound and, respectively,
one component of the main functional unit
(see example 4).
c. The ornamental additional function (the
ornamental function) which is composed
of sounds exterior to the main accord,
which have, each, melodious-ornamental
and expressive formulas.
Fig. 13. WK I, Fugue in A minor, .m.49
d. The additional function is composed of
sounds exterior to the main accord, which
enter the composition of this additional
function,
isolated
sounds
whose
functionality cannot be inserted in the
already-known formulas.
3. Particularizations of the additional
function
As it was pointed out before, the
additional function, localized within the
functional cell, is to be found in five
variants, differentiated by the involvement
manner in correlation with the pylon, the
supporting accords. Each of these state
their affiliation to or their detachment from
the main function by the status of sounds
which compose them, as exterior notes to
71
the main accord pylon which they can
ignore or to which they can adhere under
the form of a known melodious formula
(ornamental or expressive) as functions of
the ornamental addition.
By cumulating these two categories, an
entire vision on the ornamental addition
results, which is mixed on the grouping of
the five types of functional coloring:
• Passage addition functions –
ornamental
• Embroidery addition functions ornamental
• Appoggiatura addition functions –
ornamental
• Anticipation addition functions –
ornamental
• Delaying addition functions –
ornamental
4. The typology of the functional cellularity
The
variety
of
the
functional
particularizations on a determined temporalmetric unit forms a rich typological palette of
functional cells, starting from a simple accord
to most elaborate formulas resulted from the
interference with the additional units, with
multi-layered productions according to the
cumulative densities, in direct or latent
expressions.
Bach’s harmonic recipes rely on three
categories of constituents:
a. The simple functional cell is made of a
single accord – the main function,
dimensionally equivalent to the cell itself,
which we can find in two variants
previously presented:
• The blank functional cell, where the
zero accord is expressed in exclusive
formulations by only its basic
constituents (see example 1);
• The colored functional cell, whose
main function is enriched by
melodious-ornamental, expressive,
unique notes, without having the
intention of deriving from an
additional accord (see example 2).
72
b. The compound functional cell is made
of two functional entities, a main,
referential one, and an additional one. The
typology of the compound functional cells
derives from the nomenclature of the
additional cells which enter their
constituency:
• Ornamental compound functional
cells: of passage, of embroidery,
of anticipation, of appoggiatura,
of delay;
• Additional functional cells: of
passage, of embroidery, of
anticipation, of appoggiatura, of
delay.
c. The complex functional cell is made of a
minimum of three functional units (a main
one and additional ones) whose linear and
between-level combinations generate a
typological pyramid which is much more
elastic and complex than the previous one.
Fig. 13. Goldberg Variations, var.21,
Canone alla Settimana, m. 8
Known as “melodic note”, the melodic
dissonance does not belong to the
composition of the accords [2]. The
traditional harmony accords them a special
treatment. At the opposite side of this
vertical harmonic concept is the linear
concept promoted by Ernst Kurth [1], who
assigns an absolute priority to the melodic
vector,
considering
the
harmonic
parameter a “secondary phenomenon”.
The bachian style is positioned at the
crossing of both orientations (the
horizontal and the vertical one), as a
symbiosis of the harmonic concept and the
melodic/polyphonic one.
References
1. Kurth, E. Grundlagen des linearen
Kontrapunkts,
Bachs
melodische
Polyphonie. Bern, 1917.
2. ToduŃă, S. Formele muzicale ale
barocului în operele lui J.S. Bach, vol. I.
3. łuŃuianu, T. Spectromorfii în partituri
palestriniene şi bachiene. Bucureşti:
Editura Vergiliu, 2005.
THE HEXACHORD AND HEPTACHORD
MODAL SYSTEMS IN T. CIORTEA’S
PIANO COMPOSITIONS
Petre-Marcel VÂRLAN1
Abstract: In his piano music, the composer Tudor Ciortea used different types
of modes, extracted from the Romanian folk music or from the music of other
cultures. Some of these modes have up to seven intonation elements, a feature
which, according to T. Ciortea, represents the Romanian national musical spirit.
Key words: Ciortea, hexachord, heptachord, modes, piano.
The piano works represent an important
part of Tudor Ciortea’s compositions; they
consist of 42 piano works, grouped into
suites like Suita pentru pian pe teme
populare târnăvene, Suită pentru pian (on
folk themes from the Banat collected by S.
Drăgoi), Patru cântece maramureşene
pentru pian or into cycles like six piano
sketches De-ale copiilor, Trei piese
(Elegie, Capriciu, Poveste) or self
independent plays like Cântec de joc and
Cântec (based on input collected by Bela
Bartok in Bihor), Colind (collected by
S. Drăgoi in Banat), Toconelile (children’s
song in Gorj), Preludiu, Rondoletto,
Toccatina, RomanŃă or the symphonic play
VariaŃiuni pentru pian şi orchestră pe o
temă populară. Three sonatas for piano
and a sonatina are added to the plays
mentioned above.
1
The composer Tudor Ciortea resorts to
the modes specific to the Romanian
folklore in a great part of his piano work,
as they are a resource to capitalize the folk
inspiration for piano, moreover, in other
plays, the composer uses the particular
expression of the modes due to the
sonorous charm they give to the musical
discourse.
The hexachords used in the plays are
both major and minor. In case of this
modal formation one can notice the
cadences on various sounds as well as the
mobile steps which appear against a
harmonic background. In case of the
example mentioned in Cântec (collected
by B. Bartók in Bihor), measure 1-7, the
cadence requires two sonorous centers
(G and C) due to the formation of two
chord layers:
74
E.g. 1
The composer develops heptachord
formations [1] of the Dorian type with
fixed and mobile steps (E.g. 2 – a: Cântec
from Suita pe teme bănăŃene) and of the
Aeolian type (with the seventh step
mobile) from hexachords by the
appearance of a new sound in the harmonic
background (E.g. 2 – b):
E.g. 2
The hexatonic scale is used in the piano
play Elegie (measures 6-14 from Trei piese
pentru pian) in a structure of three harmonic-
tonal layers – the hexatonic modal system
with the double third (F, F #) / the hexatonic
mode in transposition 1/minor chord on E b:
E.g. 3
The hexatonic mode is also used in other
works like Joc (Voiniceşte) in Suita pe
teme târnăvene or Rondoletto:
Vârlan, P.M.: The Hexachord- and Heptachord Modal System in T.Ciortea’s Piano….
75
E.g. 4
In Bocet (Suita pe teme bănăŃene), this
mode appears with a changing note which
does not interfere with its structural profile
(the sound C appears only in measure 8 as
a changing note):
E.g. 5
The following examples will present the
heptachord modes used under varied types,
diatonic, with fixed or mobile steps, like the
Ionian mode (a) the Ionian mode with
acoustic 1 agreement (b), the Ionian mode
with acoustic 2 agreement (c), the Ionian
mode with acoustic 5 agreement (d) and
others like the Dorian mode, the Dorian
mode with Istrian agreement or the
chromatic mode [2] 1a agreement, the
Dorian mode with Aeolian agreement, the
Phrygian mode, the Lydian mode, the
Mixolydian mode, the Mixolydian mode
with Doric agreement, the Aeolian mode,
the Aeolian mode with acoustic agreements
2, the Aeolian mode with Doric agreement,
the Aeolian mode with Istrian agreement,
the Locrian mode, acoustic mode 1,
acoustic mode 2:
76
E.g. 6
In case d, mentioned above, (Cântec la clacă de tors), the mode consists of two
tetrachord submodes, which in fact coincide with the tetrachords of the heptachord mode
(in E.g. 6: *it is sharp in the score; we consider it B flat because it shows the mobility of
the modal third; **it appears only at the end as a Mixolydian characteristic).
The composer also uses chromatic heptachord modes, out of which some also have
mobile steps, like in the following example – the chromatic 1a (a), structure b (b) and
structure d (c) or the agreements of the structures a and b (e):
E.g. 7
An octachord mode is also found, which
is the result of the combination of the
tetratonics of the melodic conduct – to be
noticed in the example no. 2 – and the
harmonic background:
E.g. 8
The acoustic modes (E.g. 9) are well
displayed by the uses with or without
modified steps – acoustic 1 (a) and
acoustic 2, acoustic 1 with Doric
agreement (b) and other modes with
agreement – acoustic 1 with Lydian
agreement, acoustic 1 with Mixolydian
agreement – some of them with a cadence
on various steps:
Vârlan, P.M.: The Hexachord- and Heptachord Modal System in T.Ciortea’s Piano….
77
E.g. 9
The acoustic 2 appears in the following
cases without agreements (a), with
chromatic 2a agreement (b) or with Aeolic
agreement:
E. g. 10
The acoustics 5 and 6 appear in the plays
Joc (Pe loc and Călniceana) and Colindă
in Suita pe teme bănăŃene and in Piano
Sonata no. 1:
E.g. 11
Mode 2 is also used, with limited
transposition (in second transposition – a,
and in first transposition – b) [3]:
E.g. 12
In Piano Sonata no. 1 the composer used with limited transposition in transposition
the second and third transposition, while in 3, with marked inconsistencies which
Piano Sonatas no. 2 and no. 3 he used the appear sporadically and create harmonic
first and the third transposition. This mode layers):
also has mobile steps (E.g. 13 - *mode 2
E.g. 13
78
In Preludiu, which reflects the
composer’s apprenticeship period, we can
identify an application of the wheel
principle (trohos) in the Byzantine music,
as a system of modal construction and
melody composition, based on chromatic
tetrachords, by placing their modal centers
on other pitches rather than on the initial
one. The connection among the respective
centers is made by a common sound like
the Greek sinaphé.
The following example shows the
application of the principle according to
the fourth wheel (tetrachord, 4 sound
micro mode) against the chromatic mode 6
in the modal system of the Byzantine
music:
E.g. 14
The plays called Preludiu and Piano
Sonata no. 1 (part I, measure 84) are plays
in which the composer resorts to the
inverted chromatic formula, which is also
an aspect of the mobility of steps, a
resonance of the Byzantine music, but
especially of folklore. The following
example shows this case by a gravitational
stratification C/ F [4]:
E.g. 15
References
1. Giuleanu, V. Tratat de teoria muzicii.
2. Oprea, Gh.; Agapie, L. Folclor
muzical românesc. Bucureşti: Editura
Didactică şi Pedagogică, 1983.
3. Messiaen, O. Technique de mon
langage musical. Paris: Edition
Musicales, Leduc, 1944.
4. Terényi, E. Armonia muzicii moderne
(1900-1950). Cluj-Napoca: Editura
MediaMusica, 2001.
SPORT STUDIES
THE SUFFERING MUSICIAN A POSITION
PAPER ON MUSIC-RELATED INJURIES
AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP TO
SPORTS INJURIES
Eugen ALBULESCU1
Abstract: This paper is a modern vision of training both technical and physical way
in musician work art .For the musician I think that this vision is the key to achieving a
good technique and to being able to keep performing for long periods of time without
complications. Between musical performing and sport performing it is a strong
connexion because the psychological war with oneself is very similar. The elevation
of adrenaline levels is common to both musicians and sports players. In order to
understand injury in the music word, one needs to study the commonalities and the
differences between the music world and the sports world.
Key words: technique, instrument, musician, holistic, sport.
1. Introduction
Musicians get plenty of training in
technique, the ability to deliver the best
rendition on their instrument. We also get
training in interpretation, music history,
expressivity, large formal architecture,
musicianship, teamwork, and a host of
other qualities. Musicians often experience
pain associated with making music. The
pain often is emotional, due to the work
performed, but often the pain is more
physical, and quite real. In dealing with
this pain one often encounters common
and trendy diagnoses such as Tendonitis,
RSI (Repetitive Strain Injury), Carpal
Tunnel, etc. The problem is that the way in
which these diagnoses are given often
reflects the likening of musical activity
with that of typing (hence the commonality
of RSI in musicians and typists in the
1980’s) and more recent, to computer work
(hence the commonality of Carpal Tunnel
1
in both heavy computer users and
musicians in the most recent decades).
This likening is useful, but limited in
scope. Musicians do not repeat motions in
the same way computer users do. We
repeat actions in the service of a musical
idiom – often some ostinato passage that
repeats feverishly, and there is an
emotional context in which our muscles
are dependent on amounts of tension and
release. Often the tension and release is
part of the musical language, and cannot be
dissociated through a simple “relax your
muscles as you play” mantra, the way a
computer user might.
As a performing pianist I have
encountered injury often. In fact, being
able to discern between a simple sprain
and a more complicated inflammation of
one’s tendons is key to achieving a good
technique, and to being able to keep
performing for long periods of time
without complications. In piano technique
it is essential to understand the way in
Associate Professor, Lehigh University, Bethlehem PA, USA.
82
which muscles act. Although one could talk
about sophisticated phrases –specific
motions that shape a musical idea, there are
two basic types of motion in piano
technique. There is an upward motion and a
downward motion. Every muscle reacts
either pulling away from the key or pushing
toward the key. Contrary to common
perception, piano technique is more
concerned with the upward motion of our
muscles. This is the motion through which
we lift our fingers giving amplitude to our
downward motion that usually follows.
The downward motion is marked by a
few elements. First, any amplitude from
the surface of the key makes the downward
motion easier, and less exhaustive
physically.
This is due to the creation of
momentum, and the inertia that occurs
when the finger bumps the key.
Secondly, we are helped by gravity, as
well as the elasticity of our fingers on
this downward movement.
The result is that with a good upward
preparation, the downward movement is
relatively easy. The injury occurs when
pianists do not understand the basic
physics of piano playing. On one hand,
they are taught to keep fingers close to the
keyboard. This unfortunately prevents the
necessary amplitude from occurring. The
fingers start moving together with the
piano key, as opposed to already being in
motion when the finger makes downward
motion do double duty as both moving
themselves from a resting point to full
speed, as well as doing the same to the
entire mechanism of the piano key.
The resulting injuries are common, and
unfortunately the research has been
insufficient in dealing with this type of
injury. Most common, the injury becomes
something of a stigma on the performer.
Their technique is deemed inadequate when
there are injuries prevalent. This leads many
musicians to hide their injuries, so as not to
prejudice presenters from hiring them, and
even potential students from studying with
them. This is unfortunate, because it assumes
that there is a right way for all technique.
Technique in fact is individual for every
person. The right way is the way in which
the performer is in touch with their body.
Every mechanical aspect hinges on our
understanding of how our own physical
systems work.
The Sports Analogy Now it is time to
offer a new perspective on musicians and
physical injury. Instead of looking at ways
in which to make music analogous with
other repetitive tasks, we should perhaps
look at endeavors that stress our muscles to
their limit in a similar way. Perhaps such
an endeavor is the world of sports. There
are many similarities, as well as
differences. For starters, just like sports,
music making is often competitive – most
young performers start their careers
through competitions. The music world
often bestows instant fame for young and
able performers, and the younger and more
able, the better. Hence there is an implicit
race towards the ability to deliver technical
wizardry, often at the cost of musical
individualism and stylistic relevance. Still,
many schools push the notion of technique
for technique’s sake. The race is for better,
faster, more bombastic, more accurate, and
usually more “flashy.” In the race to do this,
often young musicians reach an unrealistic
potential with the added cost of long-term
injury. The major differences between music
and sports are obvious. Music does fulfill a
more artistic ideal, and competition is
incidental. Another not so obvious difference
is that the music world is not as holistic as
the sports world is when it comes to injury.
We do not have trainers who coach us on our
movements, we do not have designated
doctors that stand by at our concerts and
massage our arms or fingers. Our injuries are
often kept from our audiences and often from
other musicians.
However there are many reasons why the
two fields – music and sports should be
researched collectively when it comes to
physical injury. First, the nature of injuries
a pianist experiences would be very similar
to the types of injury a tennis player
would. We do a similar level of repetitive
tasks in our training and in our
Albulescu, E.: The Suffering Musician a Position Paper on Music –Related …
performances. What is different is that a
tennis player is in a constant battle with
him/herself for a faster serve, for an errorless point, and is in a constant
psychological war with their own
selfsabotaging mechanisms, not to mention
with their opponent. A concert pianist is
also in a battle with him/herself for a
faster/better technical delivery of the
music. The psychological war with oneself
is very similar, and self-sabotaging
elements occur just as vividly. On top of
this, we contend with the act of
interpreting
a
great
work;
our
psychological attitude reflects also that of
the composer, and whatever competitive
“edge” we may want over other artists as
we play a concert, we are in a constant
fight to tame an instrument that is usually
foreign to us (not many pianists travel with
their own instruments as in the old days,
Horowitz ,Michelangeli and others did).
Tennis players need the crowd on their
side. One can safely assume their playing
will be extra tense muscularly if the public
roots for their opponent.By comparison, a
performing pianist also needs the crowd on
their side as well. But this is so that the
music achieves a closed circuit between
the performer and his/her audience, in
which mutual inspiration occurs. Usually
the better energy this abstract circuit
generates, the less damaging tension
occurs in a pianists’ body. The Big
Elephant in the Room
When dealing with injury in the music
field, as well as in the sports field, one has
to contend with chemical modifiers that
put immense pressure on our physical
systems. As mentioned previously, injuries
stemming from piano playing have been
assigned historically as RSI and Carpal
Tunnel – in the same way these conditions
surfaced in typists and data entry computer
operators. The problem is that when typing
or doing computer work, one does not feel
sorrow, or ecstasy or angst, in the same
way one does within a musical
composition. One also does not get the
thrill or the pain from opening one’s soul
in front of a live audience. Hence
83
classifying physical injuries as stemming
from the same set of repetitive tasks
invalidates the central tenet of a musical
context.
When musicians tense up, they are tense
for individual reasons. Perhaps their
physique demands it – a small hand needs
more tension to stretch for instance. Perhaps
their performance anxiety manifests in a
tensing of muscles that in turn triggers long
or shortterm injury. Perhaps the way they
react to passion present in the music they
interpret, is to tense up physically. Simply
assigning their injury as stemming from
repetitive motion is short sighted. The big
elephant in the room, the central modifier for
our tension points in front of an audience is
the secretion of adrenalin. Amongst its many
functions, it has the physiological effect to
contract our muscles faster and to heighten
their tension, and disregard pain in the
process. Perhaps this is one of our
evolutionary holdovers – the “fight or flight”
response. Our bodies evolved to secrete large
quantities of this substance in our
anthropological past when we faced
predators. Even though we are never in
physical danger when playing music or
sports, we still experience the same chemical
instinctual secretion, and this is not
something we can shake off, though many
use betablockers and other chemical/
psychological devices (alcohol, affirmations,
etc). In fact, in both music and sports,
adrenalin is one of the key ingredients that
gives us the upper edge. This exhilarating
substance is one of the reasons ironically that
we love both music and sports.
The elevation of adrenaline levels is
common to both musicians and sports
players. In order to understand injury in the
music word, one needs to study the
commonalities and the differences between
the music world and the sports world. In
many ways music is athletic. In order to
deliver the amounts of notes to an
audience, musicians need to have their
muscles toned. Pianists, for instance,
need a clear understanding of the hinges
that act to create the sound on the piano.
The common tendons, as well as the
84
flexing of the joints ranging from the
smallest at the tip of the fingers, and
moving back to the wrist, the elbow, the
shoulder, as well as every vertebrae on our
spinal column. Sounds on the piano can be
created from flexing any one of these joints.
Working in synergy, these joints create an
effortless technique. Muscles need to be
trained at every level for this to happen.
Certain toning and conditioning is key for
the prolonged tension that these muscles
need to exert in he space of a concert.
Without the proper toning, adrenalin stops
being exhilarating, and rather becomes a
poison. Even in the sports world,
professional players often have to deal with
the fact that in practicing a tennis serve for
instance, one does not experience the
adrenalin present in front of an audience in
Wimbledon. Once muscles contract
differently in that new “live” condition,
often the element of precision changes
dramatically, and the possibility for other
adverse effects like cramping, trembling,
etc., also becomes imminent. Further
research is needed to form the basis for a
cohesive understanding of the crosscurrents
and benefits of treating musical injuries as a
sport injury.
public, an artist needs to take a serious and
long-term approach to physical injury. This
approach needs to be exploratory, well
guided by an expert in sports injuries, and
monitored dynamically. At least some of the
monitoring has to take place in the context
of a live performance, as only then do some
of the conditions leading to injury occur.
Musicians need to be fully conversant in the
injury advances and diagnoses in the sports
fields. They also need to think of this as an
ongoing holistic approach, rather than a
crisis mode prompted by a condition that
makes their continuation of “business as
usual” impossible. Medical research and
even rudimentary analysis of musicians by
“trainers” will be unfortunately be hampered
by commercial unfeasibility. Sports injury is
a true industry because of the economics of
professional sports. Music will never attain
the critical mass when it will be
commercially advantageous to study those
injuries to be on par with sports. However
one may hope that researchers into sports
injury may also learn more about sports
injuries by studying what happens to
musicians, given the different types of
stressors that are incumbent on musicians, as
described above.
2. Conclusions
References
This research needs to emanate from the
medical profession, and needs to take in
consideration the adrenal gland’s effect on
muscle contracting and how this triggers
such conditions as tendonitis. My
conclusion from the perspective of a
performing pianist is based on the
empirical experience from my own
performing career, of and from teaching
students up to university level. What is
needed from the performers is a serious
attitude towards injuries. Our proneness to
injury, minor and serious, should be a
given, not the exception reserved for those
with “poor technique”. In order to fully
appreciate one’s own physical aptitude,
and to relate it to a betterment of the ability
to deliver a musical composition to the
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Billings, Andrew C. Olympic Media.
Inside the Biggest Show on Television,
Published by Routledge, UK, 2008.
Fuller, Linda. Sports casters/Sports
casting. Principles and Practices.
Published by Routledge, UK, 2008.
Sport, Media, Culture Global and
Local Dimensions. Edited by Alina
Bernstein, Neil Blain, UK, 2002.
Sport
in
the
City.
Cultural
Connections. Edited by Michael Sam,
John E. Hughson. Published by
Routledge, UK, Publication Date:
30/03/2010.
Sporting
Sounds
Relationships
between Sport and Music. Editors:
Anthony Bateman;
John Bale
Publisher, Routledge, UK, 2008.
THE IMPACT OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ON
HEALTH – A CURRENT PROBLEM
S. CIOROIU 1 E. MOLDOVAN2
Abstract: Through this work we try to draw an alarm signal, in our
country, on a change in the individual life of today’s society, with important
repercussions on the health and quality of life. The lack of physical exercise
is a major risk factor for many diseases, a fact that is shown by multiple
WHO analyses, through the increase of morbidity and mortality due to these
illnesses. We are trying to help by presenting the advantages of swimming,
which can be a used as a solution, as many European countries believe.
Key words: physical activities, health, swimming.
1. Introduction
The importance of physical exercise for a
healthy life has been highly appreciated
since ancient times. The following Indian
quotation is very significant "Body activity
that is designed to increase body power
and strength is called physical exercise. It
should be practiced regularly and in a
correct manner. Physical fitness, body
firmness,
work
capacity,
physical
resistance to weight lifting, eliminating
physiological disorders and stimulating
digestive functions can be effectively
achieved through correctly done exercise.
In contrast, enhanced effort leads to
fatigue, exhaustion, or may give rise to
other body weaknesses" [24].
Where health is seen not only as a state
characterized by the absence of disease but
as a positive concept, encompassing
physical, social and emotional wellness,
the importance of physical activity for
1
2
health is already clearly established and
quite well known [23].
An important, though unwelcome, feature
of modern life is that physical activity has a
low level. Due to the many technical means
available in
modern
human life,
opportunities which may require the body to
perform physical exercise have been
considerably reduced [17].
Current epidemiological studies have
shown that sedentary living and the obesity
associated with it are important factors
contributing to the emergence of serious
diseases with a significant impact on health
and the quality of life, such as diabetes and
atherosclerosis. Currently, the coexistence
of these two diseases is a frequent cause of
mortality and morbidity [24].
It is a truism today that physical
inactivity, sedentariness, is a great danger
for the individual. For example, WHO
estimates that physical inactivity is
annually responsible for 1.9 million
premature deaths in the whole world, and
Dept. of Theory and Individual Sports, Transilvania University of Braşov.
Dept. of Theory and Collective Sports, Transilvania University of Braşov.
86
that 600 000 (something less than 1/3) of
these occur in the European Region, in the
53 countries that belong to this region
[7, p. 53-57].
Among the projects initiated by the
European Union, some are mentioned in
the following:
The European Network on Nutrition and
Physical Activity - NPA is a network
established by the European Commission in
2003, which included experts nominated by
EU Member States and WHO [23]. The
first meeting of its members took place
on 30.06 - 01.07.2003, [20] and on 15
September 2003 was issued material on
the NPA "mandate", which noted that
"the network was initiated to provide a
forum for discussion and exchange of
views on the contribution of nutrition and
physical activity to improve and maintain
health" [22].
The role of NPA is to advise the
European Commission on nutrition and
physical activity problems, providing
material for the annual work plans of the
CAP FPH (2003 to 2008) (Community
Action Program in the Field of Public
Health) and will be maintained throughout
the action of this program. At the first
meeting
of
the
NPA
Network,
representatives of several EU countries
presented studies that focused on our
country and were meant to bring about a
positive and constructive attitude of those
responsible [3].
The EU Platform for Action - Diet,
Physical Activity and Health was launched
on 15 March 2005 and is also an initiative
that sought to accelerate and improve the
effectiveness of CAP FPH actions (2003 to
2008).The launching initiative belongs to
the European Commission, its purpose
being "to provide a common forum for all
stakeholders at European level interested
in preventing and tackling obesity through
diet and physical activity" [14]. The
platform offers possibilities to:
• submit plans to improve nutrition and
increase the number of those who do
exercise;
• analyze the effectiveness of these plans
and programs, to have a better record of
examples of good practice [14].
2. Benefits of Exercise
– developing the heart muscle;
– improving blood circulation through
blood vessels;
– normalizing the blood pressure - high
pressure tends to decrease, while the
lower one tends to increase;
– strengthening the bones in order to
sustain body weight;
– improvement of the immune defense
system by increasing the number of
circulating red blood cells, lymphocytes
and neutrophils; by stimulating the
production of beta-endorphin at brain
level the anti-tumoral activity of NK
cells (natural killer) increases; one
picogram (the billionth part of a gram) of
beta-endorphin increases the activity of
NK cells against tumors by 42%;
– lung development by stimulating deep
breathing;
– reduction
of
negative
emotional
experience, improving the self-image by
reducing anger and frustration;
– improved digestion and stimulated
intestinal activities, reducing the
production of gas and constipation;
– -developing muscle, bone and connective
tissue;
– improving the beauty of the body;
– increasing the systolic flow;
– slowing down the aging process;
– ensuring a good quality sleep
[8], [13-14], [16], [25].
Cioroiu, S. et al.: The Impact of Physical Activity on Health …
The concern of authorities, and the
various professional organizations’ worries
for tendencies manifested in health in
general, and the various indicators of
health in particular are based on a huge
amount of information that results in
significant figures.
Further studies and epidemiological data
collected within them are those which
draw attention to a continuing increase in
the proportion of sedentariness, an
alarming decrease in the percentage of
those who manage to accumulate a
sufficient amount (for the benefit of
favorable effects) of motion, of physical
activity, per week. Thus, statistics show
that 17% of the world’s adult population is
totally inactive physically, and a rate of
41% of it are adults who do a slight form
of activity - insufficient for them to benefit
from its effects [7, p. 53-57]. Of the
multitude of existing data and statistics
about what happens to the European
population and, especially, the population
of children and young people, a study from
England is mentioned, done in 1989 on
over 10 000 children aged between 9 and
15 years: the average number of hours of
exercise - regardless of sex - was 4.7 hours
/ week, also including physical activity at
school. As always, boys, compared to girls,
accumulated a greater number of hours of
physical activity [13].
Design and implementation in schools of
programs characterized by a genuine
openness
to
educational
content,
promoting the practice of various
systematic exercise would contribute to the
success of the school and the family
regarding
a
harmonious
physical
development of young people [9, p.42-43].
There are many types of exercise. The
most beneficial to health are those from
which the body benefits the most. The
87
human body is endowed with 650 muscles,
which give it the ability to move. If not
used, these muscles begin to lose their
shape and function and, if remaining
inactive for a long time they can become
useless [25].
Swimming is one of the special sports,
since it doesn’t show the typical
restrictions of most sports. Swimming is
addressed to all age categories, can be
practiced regardless of physical condition
does not require special equipment or
"team-mates" and can also be practiced by
pregnant women without any risk [19].
Some people can practice swimming
alternating high intensity exercises with
low intensity ones, while others can only
see it as a means of relaxation [27].
Swimming has been known since
prehistoric times, the earliest swimming
records, according to Stone Age
paintings, are about 7000 years old.
Written references date back to 2000 BC.
Some of the earliest references include
the Gilgamesh, the Iliad, the Odyssey, the
Bible, Beowulf and other epopees. In
1538, Nikolaus Wynmann, of German
origin, wrote the first book on swimming,
a dialogue on the art to swim (Der
Schwimmer oder ein Zwiegespräch über
die Schwimmkunst) [16].
In the next section of the work we
present the strengths of this sport and
why it should be practiced by many of us.
3. The Influence of Swimming on the
Locomotory System
The greatest advantage of swimming is
that muscles and joints work without
having to bear any weight. Thus, over two
thirds of the entire muscle mass grows
without joints having to suffer. Ligaments
88
become stronger and develop their
flexibility.
Swimming does not only ensure the
maintenance of good condition but also a
harmonious
physical
development,
movements made in immersion processes
detensioning all muscle groups, in
particular the para-vertebral muscles.
An adequate combination of static
exercises with dynamic ones determines a
good blood circulation and a good
maintenance of muscular structures,
having positive effects on the body
position.
By symmetrical movements, axialsymmetric in "back" and "crawl" and
central-symmetrical in "butterfly" and
"breaststroke", swimming ensures the
adoption of proper positions and remedies
any orthopedic deficiencies.
Adopting a horizontal position in water,
the bone and joint system is freed of
tension and has positive effects upon
growth [2, p. 45-57].
American physiologists even determined
an increase of the STH hormone which
intensifies protein development and
synthesis. In association with other
pituitary
hormones
(ACTH
and
thyrotropin), thyroid and gonadal ones
with an anabolic role, STH stimulates the
growth
process
in
height.
[5, p.234-239].
Used
for
therapeutic
purposes,
swimming assures the healing of neuromotor, bone and joint affections, and
prevents affections such as spinal cord
deviations, physical deficiencies or
metabolic problems (obesity).
In the morpho-functional recovery
program, swimming is the most common
therapeutic factor, even used in
hydrokinetotherapy
(under-water
movement therapy) [21].
Cardio-Vascular System
The particularities of the effort made in
swimming, the position of the body under
water, water pressure on the thoracic box
and low body weight are just some
elements that enhance the functionality of
vital importance for the organism: the
cardio-vascular and the respiratory
systems.
Related to the cardiac function,
swimming practiced regularly leads to the
development of the heart – hyperthrophia.
In general, a sport that requires intense
effort from the thorax (gymnastics,
wrestling, weight lifting, boxing and
swimming) favors the right half
development of the heart;
however,
depending on the degree of adaptation of
the heart muscle and on the specific effort,
on the training methodology used
[1, p. 227-228], the heart may be right, left
or entirely hypertrophiated. Once having
given up on competitive activities,
regressive or nonregressive phenomena
occur on a functional level for the right or
the left heart, apparently depending on the
specific
type
of
effort
[11, p. 98-102].
Swimming
switches
from
the
quantitative engagement of the heart,
tachycardia, to a commitment to quality,
bradycardia, with fewer heart revolutions
per minute. Bradycardia training provides
a biologically reduced consumption in
resting. Therefore there is a controlling
expansion of heart cavities. Heart muscle
elasticity associates swimming with
longevity. Swimming opposes cardiovascular morbidity and risk factors of this
system: excessive weight, hypertension,
hypercholesterolemia, aterosclerosis, high
neuro-psychological intensity.
In 1999, Italy, a complex of hypoaerobic and hydro-aerobic exercises with
moderate intensity were applied by a group
of researchers to a sample of young
women (aged 15-30) for one month, in
daily 20 minute meetings. Devices such as
the portable spirometer and the telemetric
heart monitor were used, which
highlighted adaptive changes and allowed
data comparison. There were statistically
significant differences only in the group
that practiced in water. And Japanese
researchers in comparative studies of
various exercises carried out on land and in
water,
concluded
that
myocardial
adaptations occur in particular due to water
pressure on the thorax that intensely
stimulates
pressure
receptors
and
intensifies venous circulation in particular
by chest suction.
Respiratory System
The use of oxygen, differences between
arterial and venous blood or decreasing the
effort of the contracting muscle are the
functions that best benefit from swimming
[6, p. 67-69].
There is an adaptation period of time
when people begin to swim, when oxygen
consumption is greater than its admission.
In this period the body meets its energy
requirements in particular by providing
anaerobic energy processes, and increasing
the capacity of absorbing and using oxygen
is achieved through training as a result of
increasing the vital capacity, the heart flow
(volume range) and an optimal adaptation
of the circulatory system.
Enhancing the use of oxygen, increasing
the capacity of tolerance to oxygen deficit,
improving irrigation blood, gradually
develops the respiratory system. Therefore,
89
when initiating swimming in sports
particular attention should be given to
respiration [12, p. 45-48].
A correct technique of aquatic
respiration is used curatively for people
with respiratory, heart or circulatory
problems.
The rhythm of breathing, properly
synchronized
with
the
pace
of
implementation of various movements and
beating water pressure, has a positive
influence on such diseases.
Voluntary influence on respiratory
phases is possible because breathing is a
cortical function; voluntarily, it may be
temporarily halted – apnea, can be
accelerated (hyperventilation) or slowed
down (hypopnea).
Neuromuscular System
Swimming develops sensitivity to
sensations as a signal function through the
transformation of internal and external
influences on the body. This sport
develops psychomotric skills by the
prioritary processing and integration of the
spatial parameters of movement (direction,
shape, amplitude), and then the temporal
ones. Unlike other sports, except for
gymnastics, swimming helps the mind
form body schemes by developing
impressions about the body [10, p. 64-67].
7. The Influence of Swimming on
Metabolism
As for the sensory interference,
continuous adaptation to water temperature
and humid air from the pool improves
thermal sensitivity. Water temperatures
between 24-26 Celsius degrees represent
strong stimuli that induce the constriction
90
of blood vessels. As a consequence, a
greater quantity of heat is produced and
circulation and energy metabolism are
intensified.
Nervous System
By perceiving a lower weight than in
reality, the effects of aquatic exercises on
relaxation or therapeutic practices go
beyond the anatomic-functional scope, and
swimming, in association with natural
environmental factors, ensures the mental
health of the individual, stabilizing the
psycho-affective and the neuro-vegetative
balances.
Swimming in the Netherlands is
required. Children from ages 4 or 6 go
swimming twice a week. Swimming
diplomas are listed A, B and C. A and B
diplomas are required. Those who want a
C swimming diploma can do this
optionally. To obtain such swimming
diplomas a period of 2 years is needed [4].
Practice in Denmark is one hour of
swimming per week in grades IV to VI [8].
in society. I chose swimming because it is
a complete sport, with very few side
effects and more benefits and advantages
than other sports. Our view is that
Romania could follow the example of
other countries regarding the introduction
of swimming as a compulsory or optional
subject in primary school.
The role of empowered people in this
regard is essential, and the general interest
should be maximal. Reducing the waiting
time in front of medicine cabinets,
reducing the number of patients, a decrease
in the number of obese children, a decrease
in the number of people with disabilities,
are ethical problems that we all need to
solve, whether we are teachers, doctors,
kinetotherapists,
sports
instructors,
nutritionists etc. Many of us are first of all
parents and our children's future health is
uncertain. Certainly, to a lesser or greater
extent, we all have the means to do
something, we just need to be aware of
them and to start using them!
References
1.
9. Conclusions
Prevention of diseases has become a
trend in today’s medicine, and everybody
in Romania tries to change things in this
regard. Specialists in the field recognize,
after decades of experience, that it is more
useful to prevent a disease than to treat it,
firstly in terms of life-quality and secondly
from an economic point of view, since the
costs are considerably reduced over time.
Many illnesses can be avoided by lifestyle
changes: physical activity, diet, tobacco,
alcohol, etc.
In the present work we wanted to
emphasize the impact of physical activity
2.
3.
4.
Cioroiu, S. Efecte ale înotului de
performanŃă asupra organismului
uman. Teză de doctorat, Universitatea
din Piteşti, 2007.
Dragnea, A. Antrenamentul sportiv.
Bucureşti: Editura Didactică şi
Pedagogică, 1996.
Dumitru, G. Activitatea fizică - factor
de promovare a sănătăŃii în
Europa(I), 2006. Available at:
http://www.medicinasportiva.ro/sport/
articole/Activitatea%20fizica%20in%
20Europa%20I.html
Gavrilă, A. "Mami, e prea greu!"
2008. Available at:
http://www.adevarul.ro/articole/mamie-prea-greu.html
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Guyton, A.C. Fiziologie. Bucureşti:
Editura Medicală Amalteea, 1999.
Jivan, I.; Cirla, L. NataŃie – culegere
de texte de specializare vol. I.
Bucureşti: Centrul de multiplicare
A.N.E.F.S., 1992.
Martin,
B.W.;
Kahlmeier,
S.;
Racioppi, F. et al. Evidence-based
physical activity – HEPA Europe, The
European Network for the Promotion
of
Health-Enhancing
Physical
Activity. In: J Public Health 14,
2006.
Mita, B.; Miclescu, L. Dezvoltarea
spiritului competiŃiei sau dezvoltarea in
spiritul competiŃiei (eseu). In: Stiinta
Sportului, nr.1, 2003. Available at:
http://www.sportscience.ro/html/revist
e_2003_37-7.html
Moldovan, E. ActivităŃi de timp liber
în natură şi în alte arii cognitivformative.
Braşov:
Editura
UniversităŃii Transilvania din Braşov,
2007.
Monciu, I. Fiziologia EducaŃiei fizice
şi sportului. Bucureşti: Editura
Didactică şi Pedagogică, 1997.
Mureşan, E. Înot – Sinteză. Bucureşti:
Editura FundaŃiei România de Mâine,
2000.
Todea, S. ExerciŃiul fizic în educaŃia
fizică şi kinetoterapie. Bucureşti:
Editura FundaŃiei România de Mâine,
2003.
Benefits of Swimming - Health
Benefits. Available at:
http://www.benefitsofswimming.com/
Children, obesity and associated
avoidable
chronic
diseases.
Available at:
http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_projects/
2003/action3/action3_2003_04_en.htm
91
15. Diet, Physical Activity and Health EU Platform for Action. Available at:
http://scholar.google.ro/scholar?
16. ExerciŃiul fizic - moda sau necesitate?.
In: Perspective, nr.5, 2005. Available at:
http://www.perspectivechicago.com/ar
ticle.php?id=64
17. The Health Benefits From Swimming .
Available at:
http://www.24hrfitness.co.uk/fitness/th
e-benefits-of-swimming.html
18. Health Education Authority. Health
update 5. Physical Activity. London:
1995.
20. History of swimming. Available at:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_o
f_swimming
21. International
Physical
Activity
Questionnaire (IPAQ) . Available at:
http://www.ipaq.ki.se/ipaq.htm
22. Inotul - calea spre sănătate.
Available at:
http://www.medicas.ro/fitnesswelness/inotul/
23. Nutrition and Physical Activity (NPA)
network first meeting. Luxembourg, 30
June – 1 July 2003. Available at:
http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_determin
ans/life_style/nutrition/ev_20030630_e
n.htm
network. Mandate. Luxembourg 15
September 2003. Available at:
ants/life_style/nutrition/documents/ev_
20030630_rd02_en.pdf
Network members. Available at:
ants/life_style/nutrition/documents/ev_
20030630_rd01_en.pdf
92
26. Rolul exerciŃiilor fizice în menŃinerea
stării de sănătate. Available at:
http://www.armonianaturii.ro/Rolulexercitiilor-fizice-in-mentinerea-stariide-sanatate.html*articleID_420-articol
26. Swimming.
Available
at:
http://www.uihealthcare.com/topics/ex
ercisefitness/exer3116.html
27. Swimming - health benefits. Available at:
http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv
2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Swimming?Open
28. U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, Physical Activity and Health.
A report of the Surgeon General.
Pittsburgh: National Center for
Chronic Diseases Prevention and
Health Promotion, 1996.
TECHNICAL TRAINING –
A FUNDAMENTAL COMPONENT
OF SPORTS TRAINING IN THE
BASKETBALL GAME
Mihaela CHICOMBAN1
Abstract: The technique of a sports branch includes all the motor actions
ideally executed from the point of view of their efficiency. The technique
implies the rational and economic execution of a type of movements specific
to sport branches. It includes a specialized system of motor structures
established according to the regulations of the basketball game in order to
obtain the optimum efficiency in competition.
Key words: technique, technical training, components of the technique,
style, technical procedure, technical elements.
1. Introduction
The content of sports training became
more and more complex as sport
performances evolved and as the work
methodology for each sports branch was
outlined and established. Due to such
progress, it became necessary to
systematize the content of sports training
according to well-defined rules, among
which those related to the purpose or the
effects physical exercises have on various
elements of the athlete’s training.
Therefore,
physical
exercises
–
differentiated according to their specificity
and addressability, applied according to
price rules - represent the content elements
of sports training.
The fields such exercises address are: the
technique, the tactics, the effort capacity,
the mental, theoretical, artistic and
biological sphere. Nowadays, sports
training is based on: technical training,
1
tactical training,
physical training,
psychological training, artistic training and
biological training for competition.
Technical training is a fundamental
component of sports training.
The technique of a sports branch
includes all the motor actions ideally
executed from the point of view of their
efficiency. The technique implies the
rational and economic execution of a type
of moves specific to sport branches. It
includes a specialized system of motor
structures established according to the
regulations of the basketball game in order
to obtain the optimum efficiency in
competition [5, p. 234].
The technique of the basketball game
represents all the specific moves executed
by an athlete while playing the game,
according to the rules and duties imposed
by his/her team playing in a competition.
Dep. of Theory and Collective Sports, Transilvania University of Braşov.
94
Technique differentiates sports branches
from one another: the basketball technique
is different from the tennis technique, the
ski technique or wrestling technique and so
on, each having specific systems of motor
structures.
2. Technical Training
The technique is conditioned by the
other components of the sports training,
especially by the physical training. When
training beginners, we must make sure of
the physical availabilities that shall
represent the fundamentals of their
technical training, consisting of various
repeats (in order to become skills). The
development of the effort capacity at an
inappropriate level leads to faulty
technique. In sports games, technique
influences in a priority manner the solution
of complex game situations and conditions
and the economy of the movements.
The level of technical training of an
athlete greatly depends on his/her initial
level and on his/her motor experience, a
fact that determines appropriate methodical
measures. Thus, for beginners, the training
process aims at enlarging the motor basis
that shall include means from the running
class, jumping class, throwing the ball etc.,
while for trained athletes the specialization
is a strict one. The appropriation of a sum
of motor abilities and skills stresses the
sensorial system to a larger extent –
comparing the internal information with
the external information and relating them
to the verbal one – thus favoring the
appropriation of the move.
3. Components of the Technique
Analyzing the technique and the
technical training, the scholars point out
the following components:
1. The technical element is a
fundamental motor structure substantiating
the practice of a sports branch (passing,
throwing the ball through the basket). The
technical element is an abstract notion, as
the passing is executed by certain welldefined motor structures.
2. The technical procedure designates a
concrete motor structure or a particular
way of executing the technical element.
For example, throwing through the basket
from the semi distance jump is a concrete
technical procedure designed to execute a
characteristic action of the basketball game
with maximum of efficiency.
The technical procedures in each
particular sport exist due to various factors,
among which the coach and the athlete
creating new models of efficient
procedures: the morpho-functional and
mental particularities of athletes who leave
their mark on the execution of a certain
technical procedure, the quality of the
sports materials (boards, baskets etc.).
3. The style represents the particular way
(the personal mark) of executing a
technical procedure. It shows in high class
athletes and its result is the efficient
execution of a certain procedure. As far as
beginners are concerned, the style is out of
the question, as it is well known that in
various phases of forming motor skills,
moves with direction are not always the
best.
4. The fundamental mechanism of the
technical procedure is made up of a logical
series of motor actions, objectively
necessary to efficiently execute this
procedure. Running, stamping on one foot,
detaching, throwing and landing represent
the fundamental mechanism of throwing
the ball through the basket while moving.
To this mechanism we must also associate
the spatial-temporal and dynamic features
of that particular procedure, namely the
position of the body or of its segments
Chicomban, M: Technical Training – Fundamental Component of the Sports Training …
during the execution of the exercise
(procedure), the final efforts or the
emphasis of different moments of the
action execution. Consequently, the
fundamental mechanism of a technical
procedure needs to be understood as a
system of strongly connected (spatial,
temporal, dynamic and energetic) factors
determining an increase in efficiency.
The fundamental mechanism of the
technical procedure is featured by:
Spatial – temporal aspects
− distance
− amplitude
− position
− direction
− duration
− rhythm
Dynamic – energetic aspects
− of force
− of speed
− of coordination
− of precision
− of balance
− of internal and external force
that result in the efficient performance of
the muscles.
3. Learning the Technical Procedures
The laws and the steps of learning the
motor acts and actions substantiate
learning the technical procedures, with
certain specific,
differential
notes,
determined by the particularities of each
sport.
“Sports skills” are formed by long-term
practice, with and without self-control, and
they are influenced by tiredness, by the
variety of the performance conditions etc.
Thus, it results that the skills are not
exclusively motor, they are formed by the
participation of the second signaling
system, turning into complex abilities.
95
Learning the moves in sport [3, p. 207] is
special
because
performance
is
materialized in the quality level of the
execution itself. If objects are used (for the
sports games), these are intermediate tools
to achieve and assess force, speed or
resistance features of such moves. In sport
we learn how to conduct our own body
movements in unusual conditions jumping, unbalance – coordination that
requires a complex system of abilities.
The requirements of the competition
regulations related to the display of the
motor and effort capacities, also determine
the particularities of learning a technique
in sport (the duration of the attack in
basketball is of 24 sec).
Learning a sport technique consists of
three types that determine as many types of
technical abilities.
1. The perceptive motor (or sensormotor) learning resides in changing the
conduct depending on the actual conditions
emerging during training or competitions.
The athlete reacts by a preferred answer
that may be perfected from the
coordination, precision or finesse point of
view (e.g. launching the ball on the counter
attack). This type of technical ability is
executed
by
the
spatial-temporal
organization of the directly perceived
“external events”. The perceptive images
program and adjust the motor actions,
correcting them (when appropriate) by
several interventions until obtaining a
synchronization between the anticipated
image and the efficient action [3, p. 135].
2. The motor learning results in the
abilities on the grounds of the sensor,
kinesthetic or proprioceptive components,
in which the end of a move is the sign for
initiating the next move. The abilities
attain the final level of the fluency,
precision, coordination and tempo by
stereotype repeats.
96
3. The intelligent motor learning is
determinant in the training process of the
“heuristic” sport branches techniques - like
wrestling, box, sports games, fencing – in
which the opponent is opposive and
inventive, its actions being executed in
high uncertainty conditions.
The technical procedures pertaining to
the sports branches belonging to this
category are also called tactical or
“technical – tactical” (underline the
content of the learned elements for tactical
application purposes).
The steps of technical learning need to
be passed through for the technical
procedures and they have certain
particularities determined by the specific
rules of certain sports branches –
regulations – and they are set depending
on it.
The steps of technical learning are the
following:
I. The step of information and of
representation formation, is the step in
which the athlete creates his/her
conception and the fundamentals of the
process that is to be learned – on the
grounds of explanations and intuitive
means. The athletes elaborate a section
project (on the grounds of their previous
motor experience) depending on the motor
qualities, on the effort capacity and on the
observation spirit they have.
II. The step of the "raw" or insufficiently
differentiated moves is featured by the first
practical executions of that particular
technical process in which the verbal
indications of the coach represent the main
information received by the athlete. The
phenomena featuring this step are:
excessive effort, jerky (improper) rhythm,
decreased amplitude, precision and so on.
If the motor acts are appropriated with
mistakes, such mistakes will be difficult to
correct at a future time. For these reasons,
particular motor measures (using the
necessary means, executing the procedures
with restriction) and methods favoring
correct practice are imposed, mainly
referring to the components of the
fundamental mechanism of the technical
procedure.
III. The step of fine coordination and of
technical procedure consolidation is
essentially featured by the correct
execution of the move, generally in
varied
standard
or
"stereotype"
conditions: the execution with increased
speed and force rates and in resistance
conditions, fluent execution, with correct
rhythm, precision and amplitude. The
information is meant to "finish" and
improve the execution of the previously
learned procedure.
IV. The step of improving and
overlearning the technical procedure is
featured by its execution in various
conditions with superior efficiency rates
(coordination, precision, fluency and so
on). The athlete is able to anytime adapt
the executions to the most varied external
conditions created by the opponent, the
atmosphere, the field, the public and so
on. Overlearning is an effect and a
condition determined by the need for an
increased number of repeats, and it is
determined by each type of sport. In
basketball,
overlearning has massive
intellectual
participation
as
its
valorization (throwing the ball through
the basket from 3 points) requires a
thorough mental analysis of the effective
circumstances in which the shoot is
executed (opponent, field, viewers).
Learning all the technical procedure is
done on the grounds of certain models set
by specialists after numerous and
comprehensive studies that mainly refer
to the fundamental mechanism of the
procedure and also of the execution
details specific of various styles.
Important competitions provide the best
conditions to study the technique at the
highest
level.
Accordingly,
the
competition organizers or the methodic
forums of the international or national
bodies organize technical data collection.
The audio-video means are located in
various positions to include all the
trajectories of the body and of its
segments, and are highly important in the
technique analysis. Such cameras are
installed at least in three points in order to
provide
the
analyst
with
a
multidimensional picture (horizontal,
lateral, frontal), and they are equipped with
hi-fi chronometers and chronographers
which precisely offer the duration of each
move sequence.
Studying the technique and elaborating
its rules results in the increase of the
execution speeds, optimum coordination,
mistake correction etc.
Going through the learning steps implies
the permanent comparison of the execution
to the model, analyzing the positive and
negative aspects of the execution and the
setting of corrective measures: circuit
(feed-back) that may be repeated until the
overlearning step.
Feed-back has three phases:
a. The premotor phase (corresponds to
the first learning step) when the subject
acknowledges the objectives of learning,
depending on which intention appears, and
a project containing the execution desired
parameters is set.
b. the motor phase (corresponds to the
second step) when the subject passes to the
effective execution of the procedure with
mistakes that cannot be avoided.
c. The post-motor phase of the
execution’s appreciation (afferent to steps
III and IV), in which the athlete’s mental
scheme is compared to the model shown
by the coach.
97
4. Methodic Priorities Related to
Learning a Sports Technique
Although the techniques in sport are
quite varied, we may emphasize some
common traits of their learning
organization as follows:
1. Establishing the basis of the technical
training (for each training level –
beginners, advanced, performance) is
equivalent to the action of specifying the
main technical procedures that shall
represent the objective of those particular
athletes’ training. The coaches are
supposed to establish the technical
procedures to be appropriated and
improved (during a certain period of time)
on the grounds of the requirements of each
quality level of the athletes [4, p. 203].
As far as the beginners are concerned,
the essential requirement shall be the
correct and thorough appropriation of the
main technical procedures, acknowledging
that they may be efficiently applied in the
competition activity. The fundamental
condition of appropriating in due time the
technical procedures scheduled for certain
training periods is to provide an increased
volume of work materialized in numerous
repeats.
2. Maximal valorization of the athlete’s
availability to obtain technical virtuosities
may be found at all training levels and it is
carried out at the same time as the solid
appropriation of the scheduled technical
procedures. Therefore, the coach must take
into account the personal inclinations and
options of the subjects related to some
technical exercises. Hence, the technique is
not a pattern including the nondifferentiated training of all athletes, yet it
is an instrument for optimizing the activity
of each separate athlete.
3. For all training levels, technique
appropriation is strongly related to the
complex requirements of competitions.
98
Considering the effective requirements
of the contest, technique may be scheduled
in adversity conditions depending on the
circumstances that may appear during the
sports contests, thus specifying a
competition technique and not an abstract
technique, segregated from the concrete,
multiple and permanently changing needs
of a competition.
4. The individualization of training is the
best method to appropriate and improve
technique. As not all athletes have the
same qualities, (some of them have better
joints mobility, other better speed or better
ability etc.) individualizing technique
appropriation represents a rule of training.
5. The tendencies towards "technical
exaggerations" need to be stopped as such
exercises
cannot
be
applied
in
competitions and they are not efficient.
Such attitudes are mostly shown within the
beginners groups, as they do not realize the
requirements of the true virtuosities of the
competition technique, thus being tempted
to appeal to meaningless tricks.
6. The action system necessary for each
technical procedure is set by the coaches,
who specify a set of exercise structures
afferent to learning that particular
procedure quickly and thoroughly. To
attain such objectives, we must also take
into account the development of the motor
qualities needed to optimize their
execution. The algorithm shall be repeated
systematically and for a long time, until
obtaining the desired outcome of the
repetition. Related to learning evolution,
coaches may change the exercise
structures, replacing them with other, more
efficient ones for the new circumstances,
even more interesting in order to fight
monotony.
7. Independent exercise of the technical
procedures or of some of their structures
has an important role, yet it must be
continuously doubled by repeats made in
circumstances similar to the competition
ones, as they are not learned as a purpose
itself, but to be easily and efficiently
applied in competitions. For the better and
more correct appropriation of such
procedures, coaches resort to various
methods, among which making their
execution easier (e.g. throwing the ball
through the basket at the sound signal,
regardless of the position of the player
when the signal is heard).
In the contemporary concept of technical
training, practicing in conditions that are
analogous or identical to the competition is
highly important, being able to validate the
effects and efficiency of training
[1, p. 187].
8. Periodic evaluation of the technical
training by means of control norms and
tests.
Specialized teachers establish some
exercise structures, depending on the
specific nature of each sport, that are
highly significant to emphasize the level of
the technical training (e.g. executing a
certain number of throws through the
basket in limited time and with a certain
percentage for scoring).
5. Causes Leading to the Stagnation of
Technical Evolution
Learning a sports technique, as all
processes of motor learning is not a linear,
ascending process, but follows the path of
a discontinuous curve, featured by
ascending parts and by still times.
The main causes determining “still
times” in learning are:
1. Too much information provided by
the coach – such as explanations and
demonstrations – that the athlete cannot
assimilate. In the initial phases of motor
learning, attention is stressed to a larger
extent, leading to accentuated mental
tiredness, and due to the large number of
repeats, physical tiredness installs. Too
much information, considering the already
existing tiredness, causes the normal
reaction of the body shown by lack of
coordination
and
precision,
faulty
fundamental mechanism of the move etc.
Reducing the quantity of information and
optimum time pauses between repeats may
prevent tiredness (both mental and
physical). Thus it is important to carefully
analyze the indications, specifying only
those related to the moments of executing
the technical procedure.
2. Accentuated physical tiredness, shown
by the decrease of the effort capacities, of
the general coordination reduces the
control capacity. Therefore, the athlete
must be permanently monitored and when
tiredness symptoms appear, repeats must
be ceased.
3. Incomplete information (verbal and
intuitive) that does not create a clear
representation of the ability or action to be
learned.
4. A subject’s lack of motivation
consequently entails insufficient attention,
low will etc.
5. The incongruity between the
aspiration level and the athlete’s capacities
at a certain time requires the development
of the factors conditioning learning and the
improvement of the technical abilities
(force, speed, resistance indicators etc.).
6. Using inappropriate materials and
equipment from the quality point of view,
which may determine incorrect learning of
the procedures.
6. The Evolutional Character of Sports
Technique
The technique of various sports branches
overdeveloped in the last 15-20 years due
to the following causes:
99
1. Collaboration between the coach and
scholars of other fields (biomechanics,
aerodynamics, ballistics, electronics).
2. High technicality rates of the sports
materials and equipments. For example, in
basketball, the balls, the boards with rings,
and last but not least the footwear, play an
important part. The materials they are
manufactured from overthrow many of the
precepts of past technique and help to
attain high performance.
3. The innovative search of athletes and
coaches is the effect of the existence of
more competitions, both internal and
international, and aims at finding and
promoting novelty to surprise the
opponents and to ensure sport success.
Higher technical executions appear in
each important competition (European and
World championships, Olympic Games) in
sports games.
Due to the fact that all that is presently
promoted at an international level – as far as
techniques are concerned, may be relatively
easy to accomplish (assimilate), the scholars
in the field are concerned with renewing
them. Yet, the future belongs to technicians
and athletes able to create new models,
superior to the presently known ones. The
personal mark of the athlete in executing a
technical procedure is highly important in
establishing new technical procedures and
needs to be maximally valorized as they
favor the creation of particularly efficient
motor structures to gain success.
There is no doubt that sports techniques
are continuously evolving, constantly
improving from one step to another,
changing in a spectacular manner. Because
of this, scholars are permanently concerned
with
studying all
the technique
(continuous) improvement possibilities,
thus orienting athletes’ training both to the
inheritance from the past as well as to the
perspective of the future requirements of
sports development.
100
References
1.
2.
3.
Alexe, N. Antrenamentul Sportiv
Modern. Bucureşti: Editura Editis,
1993.
Dîrjan, C.; Hrişcă, A.; Predescu, T.
Baschet la copii şi juniori. Bucureşti:
Editura Sport – Turism, 1995.
Epuran, M. Metodologia cercetării
activităŃilor corporale, Volumes I
and II. Bucureşti: ANEFS, 1992.
4.
5.
Ionescu, St.; Dârjan, C. Instruire şi
performanŃă în baschet la copii şi
juniori. Bucureşti: Editura Didactică şi
Pedagogică R.A, 1997.
Negulescu,
C.;
Popescu,
F.;
Moanta, A. et al. Metodica învăŃării şi
perfecŃionării tehnicii şi tacticii
jocului de baschet. Bucureşti:
ANEFS, 1997.
DRIBBLE IMPROVEMENTS IN THE
BASKETBALL GAME THROUGH
MULTIMEDIA MEANS
R. ENOIU1
R.S. ENOIU 2
Abstract: This paper is a modern training instrument by which small athletes
are attracted to learning, strengthening and improving the dribbling map in
basketball, using techniques and computer multimedia. The CD that resulted
from this work contains no less than 100 drills for learning and strengthening
the technical element, presented in a software application for PC.
Key words: basketball, dribbling, skill, PC application, improving.
1. Introduction
Modern
technology
penetrates
increasingly more and increasingly fast in
all fields of science. In Romania, sports’
training is an area in which computer
technology and multimedia is used quite
little, and this happens only at major sports
clubs. Multimedia applications for PC and
tapes / DVDs used in training are often
"imported",
production
is
almost
nonexistent. This paper is meant as an
incentive and also a modest contribution to
the guideline for creating new local
applications, enriching and improving
methods of training.
"The first of the basics of the basketball
game that you need to train, as it is processed
individually, is driving the ball," said Oscar
Robertson, one of the best professional
offensive basketball players in the U.S.,
quoted by Vasile Popescu in 1969
[1, p. 371-374]. “Why is dribble ranked
more important before throw?" Simply
because before shooting you need to know
how to approach. To become a
professional, you should be an excellent
1
2
dribbler. Later you will learn not to abuse
by dribbling. Dribble must be learned and
perfected without watching the ball, and
the ball must be driven with the same
dexterity with both hands", concluded the
same great player [2, p. 52-54].
2. Objectives
In this context, the work is meant to be a
modern training instrument by which small
athletes are attracted to learning,
strengthening and improving the dribble
map in basketball, using techniques and
computer multimedia. The CD that
accompanies the paper contains no less
than 100 exercises for learning and
strengthening the technical element,
presented in a software application for PC.
Exercises are specifically selected and
structured so that they can be completed
according to the principles of the theory of
sport and physical education, from easy to
difficult, from simple to complex
[3, p. 220], [4, p. 170]. The program
includes videos of all exercises and a
selection of materials in video format,
Department of Collective Sports and Theoretical Subjects, Transilvania University of Braşov.
Department of Individual Sports and Theoretical Subjects, Transilvania University of Braşov.
102
selected research bibliography on the
Internet.
Basically, the multimedia CD can be
used successfully in junior training.
Statistical data from research results show
an improvement from the training obtained
by uncompromising modern techniques.
The application for PC can be used for
any other component of the game of
basketball training, so it can achieve a
whole set of CDs for each technical
element, or technical process action tactics.
The aim of the paper is to propose using
multimedia means in preparing the young
for the future of operating systems.
Acquiring dribbling at an early age is
actually launching the great performance,
and must be allocated due importance
[5], [6, p. 141-145], [7, p. 64-68].
Using modern technology is primordial in
the future to obtain competitive results at
European level and also internationally
[8, p. 34-37].
3. Material and Methods
Practice has shown that to achieve a high
degree of skill in basketball, a period of 810 years of training is necessary [9, p. 27].
Starting from this reality, to achieve the
purpose, we have established the main
problems and tasks arising from this,
namely:
• What is skill and how it is manifested in
juniors;
• By what methods and means can skills
develop through dribbling at the junior
age.
To solve these problems, the tasks
required are:
• Documentation for skills development by
strengthening the dribbling of juniors;
• Formulating the paper’s hypotheses;
• Selection and development of the
methods and means to strengthen and
improve the dribble, which can develop
skills;
• Establishing the methodology for using
these methods and means in the practice
of juniors;
• The experimentation of means can
develop skills;
• The video recording of gross selected
exercises;
• Processing and editing a recorded video
material;
• Creating a design and program interface
for PC;
• Bringing together all elements and
achieving a final application;
• Conclusions and recommendations.
For this work we have established the
following research hypothesis: the
application of multimedia means to
strengthen and improve the dribble, for a
period of approximately 200 days,
determine improvement in the event skill
indices, following the tests used to check
the specific skill to assess progress (or
regress) made in conducting the
experiment.
The duration of the research deployment
has stretched over a period of approx. eight
months.
The Junior II and III samples researched
were divided into two groups. One group,
called witness group, continued training
exactly the same as before. A second
group, called experiment group, performed
using this preparation for systems and
methods of operation proposed by us.
Observing that there were 20 in a lot of
team players, we have formed groups, each
having 10 players.
Dividing the two groups was done after
ranking the initial testing. The first was
distributed in the first group, the second in
the second group, the third in the first
group, the fourth in the second group and
so on with all 20 players.
In the experiment, we tried to operate
with a variable (the independent variable),
represented by the training on the
strengthening and improvement of dribble
Enoiu, R. et al.: Dribble Improvements in the Basketball Game through Multimedia Means
in the basketball game by means of
multimedia, to see what happens to the
variable effect (dependent variable),
represented by the development of
coordinative ability, achieved at the end of
the research. If changes occur at the
accumulation level of quality, power,
"skill", and the psycho-motor level, then
the variable can assume that we have
handled it a product changes. We can
therefore say that we have established a
cause-effect relationship between the two
variables. This was the logic by which we
designed the experiment.
Thus, at the beginning of the
experimental period we tested all the 20
players. This was the initial testing and
found in 3 control tests made to see the
skill level and degree of mastery in
dribbling. At the end of the experimental
period we performed the same series of
tests, following which we found an
improvement in the results of the
experiment group compared to the witness.
The details of the computer application
were carried out by a former student in the
final year of the Faculty of Physical
Education and Sport - Bogdan Cojocaru. The
application on the CD "Learn to dribble" is a
form of multimedia presentation of the 100
exercises proposed for learning / improving
dribble. This multimedia CD was used in the
experiment group for this exercise. It is in a
video format and is included in a PC. Photos
and graphics, sounds, video sequences are
made entirely with free software available on
the Internet.
Videos were recorded using a Canon
camera and then were processed in
"Windows Movie Maker" (available on
any computer running Windows XP).
Images, buttons and all the graphics used
were edited using the free "GIMP". The
sound track of the film was made with the
help of VST Plug-in "DrumAndBase"
imported in the software Magix Music
Maker. All components have been
103
compiled into a menu with the auto run
program freeware "AutorunMaker. The
CD starts automatically when inserted in
the drive. The next step is to display the
top page, which is stationary for 15
seconds. One can continue pressing the
first button or click on the image anywhere
or wait 15 seconds. (Figure 1)
Fig. 1
Next is Menu appearance (Figure 2).
This menu allows browsing through the
CD. On the first page are some general
data (Area 1) and the navigation menu
(Zone 2).
Fig. 2
To view the contents of the CD press on
the left on "Exercises". Clicking this
button, the image that is joined will appear
(Figure 3).
104
watch a short video of 10 drills in plus.
The last menu option is "Record". This
world record was approved by the
Guinness Book of Records in 2003 for
"Most balls dribble at the same time"
The application may be terminated at any
time by clicking the 'X' shaped ball in the
right corner.
4. Results and Discussions
Fig. 3
At left are some general data and on the
right are 10 images that represent the
buttons that launch and last exercises. If
you have stationed a little more on an
image, a description block of exercises
appears next to your mouse cursor. By
clicking on the picture it opens the movie
in full screen (full screen) from its own
application. Each image opens about 10
exercises, grouped by category.
From the main menu, the second option
is the "Bonus". By clicking on it you can
Control Tests used were:
• dribbling between the feet on a distance
of 35 m;
• milestone dribbling with changing
direction;
• dribbling with two balls on the long
field.
Presentation and interpretation of data
obtained from experiment (for lack of
space we will examine only one of three
control tests)
Control test 1
The difference in seconds between the initial and final testing on two groups, Table 1-2
PO
RN
SO
TO
VM
SM
HE
JK
ZI
BV
(TI-TF)
seconds
1,9
1,9
2
1,8
2,2
2
2,1
1,9
1,9
2,2
Average
Standard deviation
Coefficient of
variance
Experiment group
BA
AM
MA
CS
IM
CM
IC
UI
CO
AS
TI-TF
(seconds)
1,2
1,4
1,2
1,4
1,5
1,3
1,2
1
1,4
1,3
1,99
Average
1,29
0,14
Standard deviation
Coefficient of
variance
0,14
6,89%
Witness group
11,23%
Enoiu, R. et al.: Dribble Improvements in the Basketball Game through Multimedia Means
As can be seen from the table, the
arithmetic mean of the differences
recorded between the initial and the final
testing on the experiment group is 1.99,
while on the control group it is only 1.29.
105
From this experiment it results that the
group had an overall performance
approximately 35% better than the control
group for the first test of control.
Individual time improvement of TI and TF reported in
percentage points
Performance percentage
10,0
9,5
9,3
9,0
8,5
9,1
8,9 8,9
8,1 8,2
8,0
7,5
7,5
7,7
7,1
7,0
6,5
6,8
6,0
6,0
6,4
5,8
5,5
6,0
5,2
5,0
5,1
4,7
4,6
4,5
4,0
4,3
3,6
3,5
3,0
2,5
2,0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
Player
Chart 1
From the tables above and from Chart 1
it follows that the players in the
experiment group had an improvement in
average time by 8.16%, while the control
group of players had only 5.18%.
Analyzing the first tests we could come
with a partial conclusion: the application
experiment has succeeded in improving the
performance of the experimental group by
approximately 35% compared to the
control group, and thus the effectiveness
was demonstrated.
5. Conclusions
Based on the results obtained after using
the PC in the control samples and their
statistical interpretation, we reached the
following conclusions:
Indicators for coordinative ability and
the skill of driving have shown a real
progress, based on the results of final tests.
The kids involved in the experiment are
more aware of the importance of
improving coordination skills, pay greater
attention to the dribble and have greater
willingness to work independently.
Besides driving ability, moral-volitional
qualities have also been developed:
courage,
perseverance,
willingness,
ambition.
The various situations in which athletes
find themselves during the game, allowing
the development of creativity and
initiative, because you need an increased
rate of application and stages that follow
up rapidly, require a fast analysis. At the
same time, the education of thinking skills
was improved, as well as a sense of
orientation in space, and mobilization of
physical resources.
The multimedia application on CD has
proven effective and can be used
successfully in junior training. Statistical
106
data from research results show an
improvement compared to the training
received by uncompromising modern
techniques.
References
1. Alexe, N.
Antrenamentul sportiv
modern. Bucureşti: Editura Editis, 1993.
2. Bompa, T. Teoria
şi
metodica
antrenamentului.
Periodizarea.
Bucureşti: Ex Ponto, 2002.
3. Chicomban,
M.
Pregătirea
baschetbaliştilor începători, proces
complex şi de lungă durată In:
International Scientific Conference New Educational Evolutions for Sports,
Management, Health Therapy and Free
Time in the European Context BRAŞOV 2009. Braşov: Transylvania
University of Braşov.
4. Cioroiu, S. Antrenamentul Pliometric
în Sport. In: International Scientific
Conference - New Educational
Evolutions for Sports, Management,
Health Therapy and Free Time in the
European Context - BRAŞOV 2009.
Braşov: Transylvania University of
Braşov.
5. Dragnea, A.; Mate-Teodorescu, S.
Teoria sportului. Bucureşti: FEST.
2002.
6. Enoiu, R. Baschet de la teorie la
practică.
Braşov: Editura Univ.
Transilvania, Braşov 2008.
7. Enoiu, R.S.; Oancea, V. Fotbal –
ConsideraŃii asupra factorului fizic.
Braşov: Omnia UNI SAST, 2002.
8. Moldovan, E. Baschet. Braşov: Editura
Univ. “Transilvania” din Braşov, 2004.
9. Popescu, V. Baschetul în America.
Bucureşti: CNEFS, 1969.
IMPROVING PUPILS' INITIATIVETAKING CAPABILITIES THROUGH
PHYSICAL EDUCATION LESSONS
D. FEŞTEU1 L. BALINT2
Abstract. This article addresses the theme of personal and social
development through physical education and sport activities. The aim is to
present a possible solution to the problem of improving pupils’ ability of
taking initiative in activity. We started from the assumption that taking
initiative is a personal quality that is learned and could therefore be taught.
The approach is based on Goldstein’s (1981) method of social learning and
is different from what has been proposed so far. It is, within certain limits,
similar to the way concepts are taught in schools. It is mostly based on
explaining, questioning, demonstrating, reasoning, and reflecting. It could be
implemented as a group activity. Its implementation presupposes the
completion of a series of stages: concept learning, discrimination learning,
principle learning and problem solving.
Key words: antioxidants, non-nutrition, alpha-tocopherol.
1. Improving Pupils' Social Skills
The development of qualities such as
co-operation, honesty, communication,
initiative, responsibility, self-control is
part of the complex process of
maturation. Taking initiative is regarded
as important in the context of young
people’s social development. Taking
initiative to accomplish different tasks is
a quality that our society expects from its
members. The emergence of the new
informational society we are witnessing
at the beginning of the third millennium
shows
that
entrepreneurship
and
intrapreneurship is becoming vital to the
new working environment. Taking
initiative has become a personal quality
1
2
that can no longer be expected from
leaders only but from ordinary people as
well. Taking initiative in tackling
problems in daily activity is crucial for
the working places of the future.
Initiative encompasses such qualities
such as the readiness to start a first step
in a process, willingness to be involved in
improving
things
around
you,
confidentiality in your physical and
psychological resources, capability of
understanding what happens around you,
willingness to achieve success, readiness
to assume responsibility and take
reasonable risks.
Faculty of Enterprise & Innovation, Buckinghamshire Chilterns University College.
Dept. of Physical Education and Sport, Transilvania University of Braşov.
108
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
The problem is that people still need to
learn what taking initiative means, as
there is a widespread lack of knowledge
and practice. Young people are often
incapable of initiating an activity, and
many ignore the possibility of being
involved in an activity that can improve
things around them. Often, people are not
aware of their own physical and
psychological resources and are not
confident in their strengths. Not few
people lack the drive to understand what
the field forces are in their domain and
how forces act upon them. Many young
people dream of reaching success without
assuming responsibilities or working
hard. Many young people do not know
what taking reasonable risks means. Too
few young people experience success as a
result of taking initiative. In the new
informational society, more and more
individuals are expected to manifest
initiative and entrepreneurial attitude.
Initiative, responsibility and reliability are
crucial qualities in the global economy we
have just entered. In spite of the fact that
many subjects, modules and courses
taught in schools or universities
emphasize the need to encourage and
develop qualities such as team-work, cooperation, leadership, decision making,
initiative, responsibility and others, little
has been done and the results are far from
being satisfactory. There seems to be no
subject matter in the school curriculum
aiming at systematically teaching the
concept and working to create the specific
associated skills.
There are, though, many outdoor
activities providers throughout the world
who do use specific activities to enhance
initiative, but their impact is limited as the
number of participants is still limited [7].
2. Improving Social Skills through
Physical Education
Education in general is expected to
encourage social skills, teach moral values,
form character, shape personality and
improve knowledge. The educational
factors in society work in a corroborative
manner; family, school, peers, television,
youth organizations, church and others,
all influence young people’s social
development. In my opinion, school should
play a leading role in enhancing young
peoples’ social capabilities, as school
represents for young people their local
society. The mini-society which is school
constitutes a somehow safe environment in
which pupils can learn and test a wide
range of social behaviors related to power
relationships, roles, peer pressure, social
rules, co-operation, conflict solving,
decision making, leadership and so on.
Physical education is one of the subject
areas within school that could substantially
contribute towards pupils’ personal and
social development, as activity in the gym
is inherently social and qualitatively
different from what occurs in the
classroom. Because movement is the
focus, many classroom formalities are
suspended. Within specified limits,
behavior that is unacceptable elsewhere is
here permitted, or even encouraged. For
example, touching and other forms of body
contact,
loud and
often
chaotic
vocalization and spontaneous encounters
with others are all an integral part of many
physical education activities.
A vast literature mirrors the increasing
interest in and concern for using physical
education as a setting for enhancing the
socialization of young people. The trend to
ground educational interventions in
Festeu, D. et al.: Improving Pupils' Initiative-Taking Capabilities through Physical ...
physical education on theories from
psychology, sociology or ethics has
resulted in the employment of a wide range
of concepts. Some of the most frequently
used are: ‘socio-moral education' [9],
'socio-moral development' [12], 'sociomoral growth' [11], 'social education'
[13], 'social skills' [8], 'moral growth'
[1],
'moral development' [4], 'value
development'
[6],
'character
development' [10], 'character education'
[3] and 'affective development' [2].
3. How is Initiative to Be Learned through
Physical Education Lessons?
We start from the assumption that taking
initiative is a social process that is learned
and can therefore be taught. It is generally
admitted that the extent to which young
people are involved in co-operative
activities strongly influences their future
ability. Involving young people in
initiative taking activities is certainly
important, but equally important is that
they perceive participation as useful and
enjoyable. The way pupils perceive
initiative-taking situations determines the
likelihood of using initiative in a tasksolving situation.
The approach we propose to teachers
through this article is based on
Goldstein’s (1981) method of social
learning and is different from what has
been proposed so far. We have chosen to
use this model for a number of reasons:
first, this approach is, within certain
limits, similar to the way concepts are
taught in school. It is mostly based on
explaining, questioning, demonstrating,
reasoning, and reflecting. Second, it can
be implemented as a group activity. In
fact, the presence of the group is
essential. Third, its implementation
109
presupposes the completion of a series of
stages, which can be relatively easily
identified by the teacher. Fourth, the
results of its implementation can be quite
accurately assessed and do not demand
sophisticated psychological tests.
4. Some Suggestions on Teaching Initiative
-Taking through Physical Education
Lessons
1. Concept learning is the first step in
learning initiative-taking. Teachers may
ask pupils to express their opinions
regarding “taking initiative”, listen
carefully and then complete. Initiative is
the readiness to take the first step in a
process. The opposite is being inert (a
property by which matter does not change
or move). Some cues useful in defining the
concept are:
i. To initiate means to be willing to be
involved in improving things around
you.
ii. To initiate means to be confident in
your physical and psychological
resources.
iii. Initiate means to understand clearly
what happens around you.
iv. To initiate means to be more willing
to achieve success than being
frightened by failure.
v. To initiate means to assume
responsibility and take reasonable
risks.
The teacher must explain that initiative
may lead the individual to achieve
success in all kinds of activity. At the
same time, a team whose members act
expressing a high degree of initiative is
most likely to achieve success in solving
problems. The introductory part of
lessons may be used to discuss and define
the term. Teachers should encourage
110
pupils to think about the meanings and
discuss initiative. The goal of this stage is
to bring the concept to their attention and
specify its meaning. The ability to talk
about initiative and its meaning denotes a
good level of concept learning. (a set of
phrases such as “I’ll do that”, “I will take
care of it”, “We have to improve this”,
“This needs to be done”, etc.).
2. Discrimination learning of initiativetaking is the next step and should mostly
focus on improving the perceptual
functions of consciousness and attention.
These functions should be developed to
enable the pupil to become more sensitive
and responsive to initiative-taking. This
means helping pupils distinguish initiativetaking behaviors from inertial behaviors.
The teachers’ activity could include:
a) Encourage pupils observe group
activities and focus perception toward
actions, gestures and words that have a
certain significance for initiative-taking.
Observing how some pupils try to
understand problems around them, how
some propose things to be done, how some
assume tasks within a group, how some
come up with suggestions to improve
activity, how some assume certain risks to
carry on tasks, how some dare to do
something others do not, how some
volunteer to do something without being
asked, all these could enhance the
perception
of
responsible
related
behaviors.
b) Direct pupils’ thoughts reveal the
meaning of other pupils' actions and
discuss them in relation to initiative. The
significance of behaviors during physical
education
lessons
could
remain
undiscovered by pupils. In order to assist
pupils make sense of their behavior,
teachers could reveal the meaning of
certain activities. This could be done
during the activity, by highlighting
significant behaviors, or post-activity,
when the teacher could ask pupils recall
certain behaviors and discover their
significance in relation to initiative-taking.
Some questions will direct their thoughts:
Have they been sensible and concerned
about the team’s problems? Have they
tried to understand the team’s problems?
Have they tried to solve the problems? Did
they do something to improve activity
without being asked? Do they know what
their strengths are? Do they have
confidence in their strengths? Did they
dare to start an activity? Did anyone
become involved in the team’s problems
more than in his/her assignments?
c) Encourage pupils to take initiatives
within the group. Games, but individual
events as well, are good opportunities in
which pupils could be demanded to
volunteer to accomplish different tasks,
could be encouraged to take over roles
such as team leader, advice provider,
conflict solver, activity initiator and others.
At the beginning of a series of lessons the
teachers may announce that in addition to
technical skills and performance, initiative
taking will be evaluated. To encourage
pupils to take initiatives over normal
expectations, teachers should reward those
who take initiatives. The reward could
range from blinking an eye to tapping the
pupil’s shoulder, praising him/her in front
of the group and offering him/her decision
power during a certain activity.
d) Analyze pupils’ activity and express
feelings regarding the way in which those
who took initiatives have accomplished
their tasks. Focusing pupils’ attention and
thoughts on relevant behaviors during a
variety of physical activities enhances their
capability of attention in discriminating
stimuli. Other people’s behavior is a
complex stimulus difficult to perceive and
hard to attach correct significance to. By
analyzing how pupils are aware of their
strengths, how they try to solve problems,
how they dare to start an activity, how they
assume risks during games or play, how
they suggest new answers to problems,
how they seek to successfully accomplish
their tasks, by analyzing all this, pupils
could not only better understand what
taking initiative means but they could
become more capable of distinguishing
relevant behaviors. By increasing their
sensitivity to initiative-taking behaviors,
pupils could end by better understanding
what taking initiative means and by taking
initiative more often themselves.
3. Principle learning is the integration of
competent knowledge, values and conduct.
The aim of principle learning is to help
pupils create harmony and reciprocity
between what they know, what they value
and how they act. Principle learning should
be an exercise in value clarification and
validation in the process of personal
development. The teachers’ activity could
consist in:
a) Asking pupils to answer questions
such as: Is it good to acknowledge your
strengths? Is it good to use your strengths?
Is it good to start an activity? Is it
important to assume tasks within the
group? Is it good to try to understand what
is going on around you? Is it good to create
something new? Is it good to risk solving a
problem in a new way? In this way pupils
could be determined to understand and
define their values related to initiativetaking.
b) Encouraging debate on topics such as
endeavor, risk-taking, starting something
new, assuming difficult tasks, willingness
111
and others. The debate should be grounded
on examples from the groups’ own activity
and refer to real situations and real people.
c) Encouraging pupils to clarify their
views and define their position regarding
initiative-taking. This could be done by
demanding pupils to recall their own
actions and the actions of peers that
illustrate desirable and undesirable
behaviors connected with specific aspects
of initiative-taking.
d) Organizing activities such as games,
contests, relay races, outdoor pursuits, in
which pupils are assessed against their
involvement in the group's problems,
willingness to take over tasks and
assignments, capability of organizing the
group, desire to achieve success, interest in
performing, drive to take the lead in the
activity, and other elements that define
initiative-taking
behaviors.
Peer
assessment is important to be done under
the teacher’s supervision, as pupils could
learn how to formulate opinions in a
constructive manner.
c) Asking pupils to formulate a set of
principles that they want to follow.
Teachers could not talk to each
individual pupil and pay attention to every
significant behavior, but frequently
bringing the above-mentioned issues to the
pupils’ attention and initiating debate is
very likely to produce significant effects
on pupils.
4. Problem solving could be the next step
in teaching pupils to take initiatives. It
does not mean the achievement of correct
solutions to conventional problems, but
rather the development of behaviors which
are useful in a world that presents
problems demanding creative as well as
conventional solutions. In generic terms,
the teacher’s helping role involves
112
management of the learning experience to
take place in a rewarding and effective
manner that takes account of the pupils’
motives, values, energies and capabilities.
In specific terms, the teacher could help
pupils to develop a strategy to solve their
personal problems caused by a lack of
awareness, misunderstanding, by lack of
skills or by lack of experience regarding
initiative-taking.
a) Teachers could firstly help pupils
identify whether the problems they
encounter while interacting with peers or
teachers have a certain connection with
initiative-taking. Pupils might have
problems related to their integration within
a group, gaining the group’s confidence,
losing the group’s support, feeling ignored
by the group, losing group sympathy,
being often blamed by peers, and others. If
the teachers see that the cause of such
problems resides in the area of initiative
taking, they should point out the specific
problem and help the individual define it.
b) Once the problem has been identified,
the teachers could assist pupils in
evaluating the situation and formulating
possible solutions. This could include
formulating principles for future behavior
that might help the individual face the
problem. Pupils could be encouraged to
formulate specific actions in specific
situations. For example, one could propose
being more actively involved in initiating
meetings, discussions, activities within the
group as a way to avoid being ignored by
the group.
c) In order to help pupils follow
principles, the teachers could discuss
possible
consequences
of
specific
behaviors.
By
considering
the
consequences, pupils could choose the
actions they think are more appropriate to
their purposes.
d) Further, in helping pupils solve
problems, teachers could encourage pupils
to test solutions in reality. For example, a
pupil encountering problems deriving from
'low status' within the group could try to
assume difficult tasks that the group has to
achieve. By assuming difficult tasks within
a group, one could gain support and
sympathy and reach the desired status.
e) Equally important to testing solutions
is evaluating consequences. We do not
learn by doing, we learn by doing and
realizing what has come out of what we
did. Teachers could direct pupils’
thoughts, but they should encourage
pupils to evaluate the outcomes of their
own actions. Taking initiative should be
seen by pupils as an effective way of
solving problems.
5. Issues Related to Program
Implementation
The method outlined here is an example
of a larger strategy aiming at enhancing
pupils’ socialization. The effects of this
program were assessed. Five groups of
between fourteen and seventeen year old
boys attended lessons in which the method
was introduced through physical education
lessons during one school year. There were
also five control, matching groups. In order
to assess the results of the program
implementation,
direct
observation,
questionnaires and socio-metric techniques
were used as part of a triangulation
procedure. The results show that the
intervention can successfully be used to
improve pupils’ initiative-taking abilities.
The aim of this article is to encourage
teachers to use this program. By choosing
to implement it, teachers might add value
to their work, pupils might gain knowledge
and skills that can help them improve their
lives. PE teachers will be teaching pupils
something that may not be taught
elsewhere in school, and the pupils' interest
in physical activity might be increased; last
but not least, teachers might benefit by
teaching initiative-taking.
The method can be implemented within
the existing PE curriculum. Co-operation
learning activities could be part of each
lesson during a period of six months. At
the beginning, planning is crucial and
includes
proposing
educational
objectives in close relation to PE’s
specific activities.
Working
out
the
plan
needs
commitment. Experience shows that you
might not succeed at the beginning, but
you will learn as you work. In early
stages you will do what you have
planned, after a while you will do what a
specific situation requires. The work
becomes more and more interesting and
more and more rewarding. Teaching
initiative-taking during your lessons will
become routine: you will plan, act,
observe, listen, judge and react.
Assessing behaviors is an important
part of the intervention. Taking initiative
should be judged as effective or
ineffective rather than good or bad.
Offering feedback to the group or to the
individual is also important and should
be done in the most constructive way.
References
1. Bredemeier, B.; Weiss, M.; Shields,
D. et al. Promoting moral growth in
the summer sports camp: The
implementation of theoretically
grounded instructional strategies. In:
Journal of Moral Education, 1986
(15), p. 212-220.
113
2. Cutforth, N.; Parker, M. Promoting
Affective Development in Physical
Education - The value of journal
writing. In: Journal of Physical
Education, Recreation and Dance,
September, 1996, p. 19-23.
3. Fisher,
S.
Developing
and
implementing a K12 character
education program. In: Journal of
Physical Education Recreation and
Dance 1998, 69 (2), p. 21-23.
4. Gibbons, S.; Ebbeck, V. and Weiss, M.
Effects on the moral development of
children in physical education. In:
Research Quarterly for Exercise and
Sport 1995 (66), p. 247-255.
5. Goldstein, H. Social learning and
change. New York and London:
Tavistock Publications, 1981.
6. Hellison, D. and Georgiadis, A.
Teaching values through basketball.
In: Strategies, 1992 (5), p. 5-8.
7. Humberstone, B. Outdoor Education in
the
National
Curriculum.
In:
Armstrong, N. (ed) New Directions in
Physical Education, Vol. 2; Toward a
National Curriculum, Champaigne, Il:
Humano Kinetics (1992), p.155-168.
8. Mc Hugh, E. Going beyond the
Physical: Social Skills and Physical
Education. In: Journal of Physical
Education, Recreation and Dance,
April 1995, p. 18-21.
9. Miller, S.; Bredemeier, B. and
Shields, D. Socio-moral Education
Through Physical Education With AtRisk Children. In: Quest, 1997 (49),
p. 114-129.
10. Sage, G. Does Sport Affect Character
Development in Athletes? In: Journal
of Physical Education, Recreation and
Dance 1998, 69 (1), p.15-18.
114
11. Solomon, G. A model for the
enrichment of socio-moral growth. In:
Journal of Applied Sport Psychology,
1995, 7, (supplement), S109.
12. Solomon, D.; Watson, M.; Battistich,
S. et al.: Creating a caring community;
a school based program to promote
children’s socio-moral development.
Paper presented at the International
Symposium on Research on Effective
and Responsible Teaching. Fribourg:
Switzerland, 1990.
13. Underwood, M.; Williams, A. Personal
and
social
education
through
gymnastics. In:
British Journal of
Physical Education 1991, 22 (4),
p. 15-19.
FROM BIOMECHANICAL ANALYSIS
TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE
EXPLOSIVE MUSCULAR FORCE
SPECIFIC OF THE SPRINTER
Dragoş IONESCU-BONDOC 1
Abstract: At present, the importance of developing explosive muscular
force in training the high performance sprinter is beyond discussion.
Practical experience has been consolidated from this standpoint for more
than a few decades. In exchange, the contents have considerably evolved for
the last years. Initially inspired, for the greatest part, from the bar bell
techniques, there have gradually appeared contents better adapted to the
characteristics of the activity and, consequently, more specific.
Key words: explosive muscular force, propulsive force, flying phase,
support phase, muscular chains.
1. Introduction
The objective of this presentation is to
contribute to defining an assembly of
exercises aiming at developing specific
muscular
force
starting
from
a
biomechanical analysis.
Our attention will be directed, in the
present case, towards the phase of running
at full speed.
In general, the runner’s muscular activity
will be organized around three main
functional elements.
Propulsion: the runner acts upon the
ground through the intermediary of a
unilateral support (on a leg)
During the interaction ground-sole, the
propulsive forces are applied to the runner,
and the muscular strain is maximal. The
development of the muscular force may be
deemed as a propitious means for
obtaining the best efficiency of the motion.
1
Fac. EFS Univ. Transilvania of Brasov.
The present paper will mainly focus on the
analysis of this functional element.
Equilibration (development of the
muscular support pelvis –trunk)
The rigidity of the connection pelvistrunk is determined as regards the
effectiveness of the support. As a matter of
fact, the runner has to be considered as a
deformable mechanical system. At the
moment of the support, the reaction forces
of the soil may cause the relative drive of
certain elements of this assembly, some in
relation to others. (basin-trunk).This effect
is undesirable to the extent that it may
totally or partially annul the dynamic effect
of the soil reaction, leading this way to an
objective aimed at. Driving the abdominal
dorsal-lumbar muscles may considerably
reduce the deformation of the pelvis-trunk
connection during the support phase, this
way contributing to a better effectiveness
of the support. Consequently, the exercises
116
of developing muscular force, of the socalled “muscular support for the assembly
pelvis-trunk“, will constitute a constant
element of the specific work in sprint.
The dynamic equilibrium of the body in
motion and continuity (enlacement) of
the action
During the support phase, the central
axis of the body carries out a rotation
movement around the support leg. This
rotation movement has to be at the same
time extremely quick forwards and stopped
at the end of the support for the
maintenance of the general equilibrium of
the body during the flight (aerial) stage
which will follow.
The free segments (in the first place, the
free, osculating leg and in the second place
the arms) ensure a great part of this double
function. In the framework of the
development of muscular force there has to
be taken into consideration the muscular
strain which ensured the sequence of return
forwards and of impending the free leg.
The amplitude, the frequency of the
running step and the “cycle of the step” stand
for the technical indicators most frequently
used in order to assess the effectiveness of
this step. The present study aims at
specifying the modifications of the cinematic
parameters of the running step in connection
with the optimization of the frequency and/or
of the amplitude during the running phase “at
full speed“ for the sprinters, and hence
deduce the new requirements that should be
met by the muscular chains which ensure the
phase of support of the running. Eventually,
we will infer from this analysis a series of
organizational
principles
for
the
development of the speed runner’s specific
muscular force.
2. Explosive Force Training in Sprinters
During the last 20 years, especially after
the PG years, the training of explosive force
in the sprinters has constituted one of the
most important factors in achieving
performance. In settling an optimal program,
there have to be taken into consideration
certain factors: the athlete’s chronological
age, his/her general physical development,
the years of practicing athletics, the level of
training, the period of training.
It was noted that, over the last years, many
trainers have used the same ideas and
theories. After 1977, a new system was used
in which exercises with dumb bells were
made, followed by multiple jumps which
ended with short sprints. This system was
used by the Italian trainer Carlo Viitori, and
it is deemed to be erroneous. However,
practice has proved the contrary, the results
not lingering, especially after it was adopted
in the USA.
The reason for this style of work is
simple: so that the sportsman should
manifest an explosion, he/she has to work at
maximal frequency during a long period of
time, also avoiding accidents. The
explanation for this system is the following:
when the training with dumb bells is
executed, the contractions are concentric,
therefore the muscle is rarely extended or
elongated. For this purpose it was resorted to
an experimental study upon the sprinters’
behaviour through the method of repeating
some series of quick grazing step, on
different distances.
The research was developed from
January 15th to April 15th 2007 at L.P.S.
Brasov.
All the eight subjects at the beginning of
the research were tested in the five events,
plus the one we proposed (50 m running
with quick grazing step):
• 30 m running downward start
• 30 m running launched start
• 100 m running downward start
• long jump without running start
• triple jump without running start
• 50 m running with quick grazing step
(proposed event)
Ionescu-Bondoc, D.: From Biomechanical Analysis to the Development of …
117
INITIAL TESTING
NAMESUB.
G.S.
S.Z.
B.A.
T.P.
H.I.
P.A.
C.R.
GHE.S.
30 m
a.S.j
4,32 sec
4,35 sec
4,32 sec
4,2 sec
4,4 sec
4,3 sec
4,26 sec
4,2 sec
NAME SUB.
G.S.
S.Z.
B.A.
T.P.
H.I.
P.A.
C.R.
GHE.S.
30 m
a.S.j
4,27
4,2
4,28
4,1
4,27
4,25
4,2
4,1
30 m
a. S. l
3,1 sec
3,3 sec
3,24 sec
3,1 sec
3,3 sec
3,21 sec
3,1 sec
3,12 sec
100 m Long jump triple
50 m running steps
a.S.j
no running no running
Nr steps
time
11,8 sec
2,35 m
8,29 m
22 steps
8,9
12,0 sec
2,3 m
8,25 m
23 steps
9,01
11,85 sec
2,35 m
8,27 m
22 steps
8,91
11,5 sec
2,4 m
8,35 m
20 steps
8,89
12,4 sec
2,34 m
7,93 m
23 steps
9,11
11,75 sec
2,38 m
8,3 m
21 steps
8,9
11,7 sec
2,4 m
8,3 m
21 steps
8,91
11,5 sec
2,45 m
8,35 m
22 steps
8,9
FINAL TESTING
30 m
a. S. l
3,08
3,25
3,21
3,05
3,27
3,18
3,07
3,05
100 m Long jump
triple
a.S.j
no running No running
11,61
2,46
8,39
11,92
2,35
8,36
11,63
2,41
8,39
11,31
2,61
8,45
12,05
2,39
8,2
11,5
2,49
8,39
11,45
2,5
8,4
11,3
2,64
8,45
As we noted from the final testing, the
program submitted for the rationalization
and standardization of the working values
achieved the tasks proposed by:
- the working volume during the 4 months
used for the development of the force, of
the resistance, of the motric qualities
prevailing in the event.
50 m running steps
Nr steps no running
20
8,5
21
8,8
21
8,7
19
8,4
21
8,8
20
8,4
20
8,7
20
8,5
- working intensity upon effort stages as
well as the speed for going through the
different distances of training; the
distances and the number of repetitions
during the training used for the
development of one of the motric
qualities mentioned.
Graphical representation of the results obtained during the initial testing and the final
testing in the event of 50 meters running quick grazing step
NUMB
ER OF
STEPS
CHART SHOWING THE NO. OF QUICK
GRAZING STEPS PERFORMED OVER A
DISTANCE OF 50M IN THE INITIAL TESTING
24
22
20
1
2
3
4
5
6
NUMBER OF SUBJECTS
7
8
118
NU
MB
ER
OF
ST
EP
CHART SHOWING T HE NUM BER OF
QUICK GRAZING ST EPS PERFORM ED
OVER A DIST ANCE OF 50M IN T HE FINAL
25
T EST ING
20
15
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
NUMBER OF SUBJECTS
Comparative table of the results obtained following the application of the operative
model and the results presented in the Fischer Table, for a number of eight subjects.
EVENTS
"t"according to"
Fischer" table
30 m.S.l.
100 m.S.j.
Lg jump no running start
Triple with no running start
50 m running quick step
No steps
50 m running quick step time
Calculating the significance of the
differences between the averages of the
correlated samplings, in the initial testing
and in the final testing, “t” calculated
seemed to be higher than the “t” present in
the ”Fischer Table of values”, which
confirms the working hypothesis and
rejects the void hypothesis, with a
percentage of probability of 99,99%.
2.
3.
4.
5.
References
6.
1.
Centre of Research for P.E.S.:
Antrenamentul sprinterilor în sportul
de performanŃă, nr.182.
"t"obtained in
research
3,49
3,499
3,49
3,499
3,499
5,31
4,25
3,66
4
4,14
2,365
2,83
Centre of Research for P.E.S.: Bazele
ştiinŃifice ale antrenamentului sportiv
(11), A.T.A.M. vol. XIII.
Centre of Research for P.E.S.: Ce ştim
despre viteză. Bucharest, 1971.
Centre of Research for P.E.S.:
ConŃinutul
şi
metodica
antrenamentului sportiv contemporan.
Pithip, V.; Rozumowski, U. Modelul
teoretic
al
antrenamentului
alergătorului.
Trouillon, P. Antrenamentul în
atletism – abordarea fiziologică în
sportul de performanŃă, nr.104.
NON – NUTRITIONAL NATURAL
ANTIOXIDANTS
Alina MARTOMA1
Abstract. Within this group are framed the substances which are found in
vegetal and animal organisms, but do not represent components of human
alimentation, not being edible. They are found in great quantities, especially
in the vegetal regnum.
Key words: antioxidants, non-nutrition, alpha-tocopherol.
Non-Nutritional Natural Antioxidants
Antioxidants
Ubiquinone (Coenzyme
Q10)
1
Sources
In all cells of the body of
animal
origin:
fish
(salmon, macro, sardines),
heart and liver of bovines
Roles
– participates in the chain of
electronic transport
– antioxidant role in reduced form:
it
protects
the
cellular
membranes,
together
with
vitamin E; it directly acts upon
the radicals R-OO or reduces the
tocopheroxyl
radical
to
tocopherol
– ubiquinolol-10, reduced form of
ubiquinone-10 is a strong
lipophilic AO
– ubiquinolol-10 protects human
LDL against lipoperoxidation
much more efficiently than
vitamin E; the plasmatic level of
ubiquinolol represents a faithful
index for the oxidative stress in
vivo
– CoQ10 protects the ventricular
function from lesions through
ischemia-reperfusion in animals
and in humans
120
Antioxidants
Flavonoids
Sources
Roles
- medicinal tree Ginkgo – strong AO agent in vitro, depurates
Biloba
contains OH• , O2• – , H2O2, NO
ginkgoflavonoids
– in vivo were tracked the effects of the
(quercetin,
cumaroil, therapy with the extract Egb 761; it
kemferol,
diminishes platelet aggregation and
stimulates
the
synthesis
of
glucoramnosides)
prostacyclin.
– it protects the myocardium from
lesions through ischemia -reperfusion
– tonic, role in increasing intellectual
capacity, tranquilizing, antitumoral,
antiviral, anti-inflammatory
– it diminishes the cholesterol level
and the formation of uric acid
– chronic treatment with ginseng raises
the HDL fraction, cAMP, stimulates
the biosynthesis of phospholipids
and of corticosteroid hormones.
– it depurates the free radicals (1 O2, O2•
–
, OH•, lipoperoxides, NO)
– it recycles the radicals ascorbyl/tocopheryl
economizing the
- rind of the maritime pine reserves of vitamin C and E
tree contains pycnogenol – it amplifies the activity of AO
(procyanidins)
enzymes (SOD, CAT, GSH)
– it stimulates endotelium-dependent
vasodilatation and it inhibits platelet
aggregation.
– it raises resistance to physical effort
through economizing the reserves of
AO, is cytoprotector, immunemodulator, anti-inflammatory, antiedematous, it protects the skin from
UV radiations, has a venotonic action
in chronic venous insufficiency with
static oedema
– it has been proved that the ethanolic
propolis extract protects mice from
irradiation with γ rays
– bactericide properties, bacteriostatic
properties, antiseptic, cicatrisation
- propolis contains the properties, haemostatic, anesthetic,
natural balsam prepared anti-inflammatory properties
from honey
– strong
antioxidant
effect:
depuration Η 2Ο2, 1Ο2, lipoperoxides
– depuration O2• – is proportional to the
degree of polymerization of the
taniures
Martoma, A.: Non-Nutritional Natural Antioxidants
Antioxidants
Metallothionein (MT)
121
Sources
Roles
exercise
anti- the oak rind contains – cumarines
taniures
inflammatory effects, through the
- tea leaves, persimmon inhibition of the lipo-oxygenasic path
leaves contain taninures and cyclo-oxygenasic path of the
and
phenylpropenoids arachidonic acid and blocks the
(cumarines)
generation of O2• –
- ubiquitary proteins – MT are involved in numerous
fixating transition metals intracellular functions: regulation of the
mineral homeostasis for Cu, Zn, Cd
Cd, Zn, Cu, Hg, Bi
Obs. They occur under through: control upon the expression of
the action of exogenous the genes for the regulation, synthesis
inductive factors of SO: and functional activity of the proteins
radiations,
hyperoxia, (metalloproteins) and of the metaltranscription
factors
cold, isolation, inanition, dependent
physical effort
especially for Zn (Zn MT prevail in the
blood); control of the absorption of Zn
and Cu; deposit for essential metals such
as Zn and Cu and thereby contributes to
the prevention of toxicity of the metals
in case of antioxidants (Bi, Co, Cu, Zn,
Hg, Cd; donation of metals for watermetal-proteins
in
physiological
conditions, a process which is facilitated
by GSH; control of the hepatic
metabolism of Zn and Cu; antioxidant
against SRO and SRN, with direct
action in vitro and indirect in vivo.
– . in vivo the protective action of MT
has been indirectly, experimentally
proved: through the supra-expression
of MT in transgenic mice they offer a
direct model for the physiological
role of MT; through the protection
offered against lesions induced by the
oxidative stress in cultures of
epithelial human cells (HE) and
mouse fibroblasts (C1 1D); through
protection against the oxidative stress
induced by radiations: ZnMT and
CdMT are depurators of OH• and O2•
–
; in the protective action are
involved 20 atoms SH of cysteine;
the effect is predominantly AO
against OH• and is 340-800 times
superior to GSH; through the
inhibition of the lipoperoxidation in
erythrocytes incubated with ZnMT
and CdMT
122
Antioxidants
Sources
Roles
– in humans, there have been evinced
high values of MT in the liver and in
the kidneys, in some congenital
diseases such as Wilson disease and
Menke disease, during the gestation
and postnatal period, in some
pulmonary tumours and in cardiac
affections
(ischemia-reperfusion
lesions, cardiac hypertrophy)
Superoxide-dismutase
- liver, brain, lungs, – CuZnSOD plays a major role in the
(SOD)
hematies
first antioxidant line of defence,
through catalyzing the dismutation of
CuZnSOD (SOD-1)
the radicals O2• –
– antioxidant action, ensured by the
enzymatic couple SOD + CAT; both
enzymes have high reaction speeds
Extra-cellular CuZnSOD
– pharmacological effects depending
(EC-SOD or SOD-3)
- plasma, lymph, synovial on the administered dose; small doses
liquid
have moderated protective effect
upon the extension of infarct in
rabbits; high doses (50 µg/kg) raise
the dimension of the infarct
– prevention of the formation of the
chemotactic factor for neutrophils,
the formation depending onO2• –
– the modification (inversion) of the
inhibiting effect of MDA upon the
relaxation of the arterial wall,
induced by Ach, on precontracted
veins with NA)
– protection of dehydrases, inhibition
of the formation of metHb through
the anions of O2• –, inhibition of the
peroxidation PUFA
– anti-apoptotic role (SOD exercises an
indirect anti-apoptotic effect, through
the inhibition of the apoptotic effect
of H2O2
– rise of the production of NO on the
endothelial level of its activity
– role upon the neurobehavioral
functions; EC-SOD was involved in
the learning process: in mice, the
phenotypic expression of the
genotypic
alterations
of
the
production
of
EC-SOD
is
characteristic for spatial learning and
memory
Antioxidants
Sources
Catalase (CAT)
- liver
Glutathione (GSH)
- liver
Ceruloplasmin
Melatonin (ML)
123
Roles
– daily administration ameliorates
inflammatory cutaneous reactions
– SOD is involved in: allergy, cancer,
cardiovascular and arteriosclerosis
ischemic lesions, infections with
Helicobacter pylori, infections with
viruses, genetic diseases
(Down
syndrome),
neurodegenerative
diseases:
Alzheimer
disease,
amyotrophic
lateral
sclerosis,
Huntington disease, Prion disease;
cataract
– detoxification H2O2
– role in growth and development
– oxidation of ethanol
– tumour protection evinced through
experimental studies
– inhibition of apoptosis
– CAT has been involved in cancer,
infections with viruses, genetic
diseases: chronic granulomatous
disease, diabetes, cataract
– important depurator of OH• and 1O2
– regulation of the cellular sulphydryl
redox status
– role in growth and development
– regulation of the metabolism of the
leukotrienes and PG
– immune function
– it
is
involved
in
viral,
neurodegenerative,
pulmonary
diseases
– protein of acute phase, with an antiinflammatory role, against SRO
liberated by the macrophages and as
inhibitor of the reactions mediated by
SRO, through blocking the formation
of
hydroxylanions
and
of
lipoperoxides
– it fixes Cu ions and prevents
reinitiating the reactions
– it acts as feroxidase, transforming
Fe2+ into Fe3+
– the protective determinant role of ML
in oxidative stress may be:
– primary, direct, as direct depurator
OH•; secondary, indirect through:
stimulating effect upon GSH-Px,
124
Antioxidants
Estrogens
Polyamines
Sources
Roles
which
decomposes
H2O2;
stimulating effect upon SOD,
inhibiting the formation of 1O2 and
H2O2; inhibitor of lipoperoxidation
– anti-apoptotic effect proved through
the reduction of the DNA
fragmentation
– inhibitor of 5-lipooxigenase, enzyme
involved in the synthesis of the
leukotrienes
– it suppresses the NOS activity,
probably through coupling the
calmodulin
– favorable
effects
in
neurodegenerative
diseases,
protective effects towards paraquat
and CCl4, ionizing radiations
– potential remedy for HIV due to the
inhibiting action against NF-kB
induced by the cytokines, mitogens
and ionizing reactions
– it inhibits the LDL oxidation at
supra-physiological concentrations
– favourable effects upon cardiac
arrhythmia, the nefrotoxicity induced
by cyclosporine A and gentamicin
– favourable influences upon the cellular
and humoural immune response
– it inhibits the peroxidation of fats
(lipids: estrona 11, estradiol 12 and 2OH-E213)
– 17 β-estradiol has AO activity at
physiological concentrations
– the
administration
at
supraphysiological concentrations reduces
the lipoperoxidation lesions in the
myocardium and in the skeletal muscle
both in vitro and in vivo
liver:
putresceine, – antilipoperoxidating action through
spermidine, spermine
the capacity to fix on the membranal
phospholipid
– spermine stabilizes α-tocopherol l,
carotenoids
– anti-inflammatory action (it chelates
the metals, it inhibits the proliferation
of lymphocytes, diminishing the
secretion of IL-2
Antioxidants
α-lipoic acid
Sources
- it was evinced in the
form of lipoil-lysine in
different natural sources,
especially in vegetal stuff:
spinach > flower buds of
broccoli > tomatoes >
peas
and
Brussels
cabbage > rice bran; in
animal tissues, lipoillisine has been evinced in
bovines, in kidneys >
heart > liver > spleen >
brain > pancreas > lungs
Adenosine
Nicotinamide
Lactoferrin
Arginine
- human secretions (milk,
saliva,
tears,
nasal
secretions)
125
Roles
– high affinity for Fe, protecting the
tissues in inflammatory processes
– anti-radiation action
– anti-mutageneous action (protector
effect of spermine upon DNA
exposed to SO)
– useful in neurodegenerative diseases,
they prevent the toxicity of the
paraquat
– depuration effect of the free radicals
(OH• , HOCl, chelation of the
transition metals, especially Fe and
Cu)
– regeneration of other AO (C vitamin,
α-tocopherol, GSH, ubiquinolol)
– inhibition of NF-kB activation, with
favorable
effects
in
HIV,
arteriosclerosis, diabetes
– lipoate presents in clinics a special
importance as tiol regenerator and
redox modulator agent; it intervenes
in producing energy and in reducing
equivalents
– it has been evinced that the treatment
with lipoate selectively facilitates the
death of the cancerous cells through
intensifying the inductible activity of
capsase 3, the protease of death
– the unique property of the lipoate is
metabolic AO
– it inhibits the production of O2• – by
the human neutrophils in culture with
FMLP
– protective against lesions with
postischemic re-oxygenation
– prolonged ingestion of the nicotinic
acid leads to the rise of NAD+ in the
circulating lymphocytes, determining
resistance to the oxidative aggression
– protein fixating the Fe ions, is an
endogeneous acid AO on the level of
the mucous membranes
– it is the precursor of NO
– Arginine ameliorates the reperfusion
lesions after the ischemia of the
myocardium
– inhibits the liberation of O2• –
126
Antioxidants
Potassium
Sources
Copper
References
1. Biasi, F.; Chiarpotto, E.; Poli, G.
Molecular basis of antioxidants. In: Int.
Acad. Biomed. Drug&Res. Basel, 1994,
vol. 7, p. 138-143.
2. Bonorden, W.R.; Pariza, M.W.
Antioxidant nutrients and portection
from free radicals. In: Raven Press,
1994, p. 19-47.
3. Dejica, D. AntioxidanŃi naturali. In:
AntioxidanŃi şi terapie antioxidantă.
Dejica D. (sub red.). Cluj-Napoca: Casa
CărŃii de ŞtiinŃă, 2001, p. 105-148.
4. Olinescu, R. Radicali liberi în
fiziopatologia umană. Bucureşti: Editura
Tehnică, 1994.
Roles
– it inhibits the generation of O2• – by
monocyit-macrophage cells and
PMN circulation
– organic complexes of Cu, they have
anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antidiabetic,
anticonvulsive,
antiulcerous, anti-carcinogeneous effects
5. Olinescu, R.; Gruia, M.I. and
Mihăescu, Gh. De ce şi cum
îmbătrânim.
Bucureşti:
Editura
Cermaprint, 2004.
6. Sies, H. Oxidative stress. In: Oxidative
stress. Oxidants and antioxidants. Sies
H. (Ed). Acad. Press, 1991, p.15-25.
7. Tache, S. AntioxidanŃii endogeni. In:
AntioxidanŃi şi terapie antioxidantă.
Dejica D. (red.). Cluj-Napoca: Casa
CărŃii de ŞtiinŃă, 2001, p. 23-70.
8. Tache, S. Capacitatea antioxidantă a
organismului. In: AntioxidanŃi şi
terapie antioxidantă. Dejica D. (red.).
Cluj-Napoca: Casa CărŃii de ŞtiinŃă,
2001, p. 71-104.
PHYSICAL DEFICIENCIES AND HYDROKINESTHETIC THERAPY IN THEIR
CORRECTION
E. MOLDOVAN1 S. CIOROIU2
Abstract: This paper is meant to offer more information about the beneficial effects
of kinesthetic therapy and orthopedics in the treatment of scoliosis, a treatment
which should be followed by swimming in a constant and systematic manner. In the
case of those who suffer of scoliosis, swimming should be practiced for several years
in order to have a good effect. In swimming, the patient shall practice various arts of
swimming, namely: backstroke, bras and butterfly. This is an excellent active way of
self-control and rebalancing of the backbone and of the pelvis, and sustains the
harmonious development of the chest.
Key words: physical deficiencies, hydro-kinesthetic therapy.
1. Introduction
Physical deficiencies are being studied
not only because they are quite frequent,
but especially related to the consequences
they have on the body. The emergence of
vertebral deviations before starting
attending
school
requires
special
investigation of the vertebral column,
establishing both the etiology of the
vertebral deviations and particularly their
evolution, taking into consideration that
their prognosis is more serious if they
emerge at a younger age.
Vertebral deviations found in school
age children are considered as vertebral
statics imbalances, accompanied by
changes of the minimal vertebral
structure, which in time determine and
cause the emergence not only of statics
disorders of the intra-thorax viscera, but
also aesthetic changes of the body.
Vertebral deviations found at school age
are faulty positions (habitual at the work
1
2
desk, during the execution of certain
professional abilities etc.), as well as
differences between the development of
the bone support - the vertebral column
and the muscles-ligaments support,
determined by permanentization. Thus,
vertebral deviations at school age cause,
besides
aesthetic
inconveniences
(asymmetry of the shoulders and of the
shoulder blades, of the thorax and of the
abdomen),
also functional
troubles
(especially of the vertebral column that
highly depends on the function of the
internal organs in the thorax and abdominal
inlets [4, p. 87-90].
Accordingly, the specialty literature
underlines the need to precociously track
down vertebral deviations by initial and
timely check-ups that are mandatory
carried out at all levels of education.
Physical deficiencies are acquired
pathological aspects of the human body,
determined by genetic factors or by
microbial factors or that emerged as a
Dept. of Theory and Individual Sports, Transilvania University of Braşov.
128
consequence of defective, incorrect
positions of vertebral statics, walking,
global or segmental posture in daily
attitudes (orthostatism, sitting, at the
writing desk, walking). A physical
deficiency represents a change from the
normal of the form and function of the
musculoskeletal system that negatively
influences the body and that may totally or
segmentarily change the body form or its
functions. Physical deficiencies are the
result of a hypo or of a hyper-function, of
an imbalance or of the non-coordination of
the musculoskeletal system functions.
Pathological physical deficiencies are
determined by structural changes of the
elements making up the musculoskeletal
system [6, p. 56-58].
- Adrian N. Ionescu described four
groups of pupils classified on the grounds
of the seriousness of the deficiency.
- Group I includes children without any
physical, organic or mental deficiencies,
with a harmoniously developed body, with
a good nutrition condition, having a correct
posture of the body and of its segments.
All these pupils execute the tasks
stipulated in the physical education
curriculum and take part in all forms of
physical exercise at school.
- Group II includes pupils with minor
physical deficiencies (deficient attitudes)
that may concern the whole body or only
certain segments and that, by the execution
of the corrective move – functional test,
are corrected and hyper-corrected (correct
= partial remedy of the global or segment
deficiency is carried out; hypercorrect =
when we obtain not only the position
rectification, but also the opposite aspect
of the deficiency). These children do not
show weight troubles or marks of organic
or mental diseases. They are not exempted
from physical education and, on the
contrary, they are recommended additional
exercises to remedy those deficiencies.
Consequently, it would be advisable to
organize special moments of kinesics
prophylaxis including 3-5 corrective and
straightening exercises during the class or
even special corrective lessons.
- Group III includes pupils with average
deficiencies, showing stationary or slow
evolution of morphological and functional
faults, which are partially corrected or stay
the same according to the functional test.
Most of the average deficiencies are
segmentary. These children are not
exempted from physical education either,
but only from certain exercises and moves
that might aggravate the existing
deficiency. They shall not take part in
contests. The pupils showing average
deficiencies shall follow a special life
regime where the most important are the
corrective physical exercises.
By
conforming both at school and at home to
the recommendations of the physician and
of the physical education teacher related to
educating a correct posture of the body
depending on the physical deficiencies
found: rational alternation of work and
resting time, as well as performing certain
exercises daily, such deficiencies may
partially remedy, their evolution may be
stopped or they may be eradicated, up to
their complete rectification.
- Group IV includes pupils with
accentuated deficiencies residing in
pathological changes that are in an
advanced evolutionary stage. Such pupils
are exempted from the physical education
class, yet we organize special lessons with
them in order to correct their physical
deficiencies. Systematic and organized
practice of corrective physical exercises by
these individuals is required both to
provide normal bringing up, good psychomotive ability, and to correct the existing
deficiencies, to prevent the compensating
ones etc. It is highly important that the
teacher of physical education, being aware
of the differential characteristics of these
groups, should correctly appreciate the
Moldovan, E. et al.: Physical Deficiencies and Hydrokinesthetic Therapy in …
biological value of a group. The large
number of deficiencies found in schools is
explained by the non-differentiation of the
minor deficiencies that are deficient
attitudes, without changes in the tissues’
structure, from the average and the
accentuated deficiencies. Taking this
classification into consideration, we may
divide
physical
deficiencies
into
deficiencies of first, second and third
degree (according to groups II, III and IV).
It is true that sometimes the differentiation
between the minor deficiencies and the
average ones is not an obvious one,
especially as far as the transition forms are
concerned. At the same time, we would
like to emphasize the importance of
acknowledging such deficiencies for the
harmonious development of teenagers and
youngsters. Found in due time, properly
guided and monitored, minor and average
deficiencies may be corrected. Denying
their existence is a big mistake, as big as
the one of not correcting them or
disregarding them. Only by knowing the
biological and medical data of all pupils
may the teacher of physical education
establish the possibilities of the pupil’s
integration in the physical education
process, decide and apply the most
appropriate measures to prevent and to
correct physical deficiencies.
The issue of finding, preventing and
remedying physical deficiencies existing
in children represents a permanent
concern for both parents and teachers
involved in their bringing up and
education.
This paper deals with the possibility
that the complex treatment of scoliosis
(kinesthetic therapy and orthopedics) is
associated with symmetrical aquatic
procedures and moves, in a systematic
and continuous manner, with the aim of
considerably improving curative results.
As far as people suffering from scoliosis
are concerned, the hydro-kinesthetic
129
therapy by swimming must be symmetrical
and practiced for several years. They must
swim backstroke, breaststroke or butterfly
stroke styles. This is an excellent active way
of self-controlling and re-balancing the
shoulder girdle and the pelvic girdle, of rebalancing the vertebral column and of
directing the proportioned development of
the thorax. Breathing gymnastics in water is
executed as swimming or as special
programs
of
breathing
moves,
10-15 minutes, the patient being in water
up to the chin, with stretched lower limbs
and touching the pool with the tip of the
toes [5, p. 67-69]. Inhaling and exhaling
shall be simultaneous with the arms
moving up, to the lateral, with or without
inflexion,
symmetrically or
asymmetrically), with moves of the head and of
the neck (flexions – extensions). As well,
the level of the water in the pool may
lower, so that the water reaches the line of
the shoulders (the underarms). In such
circumstances, to the moves of the upper
limbs and of the head we add slow flexions
and extensions of the body. The suppleness
of the vertebral curvatures balances the
girdles, stimulates the self-control of the
deficient position and favors the
development of the thorax symmetry, as
well as the increase of the vital capacity
[2, p. 145-148]. The main motivation of
the paper is the high frequency of vertebral
deviations, especially of scoliosis type
ones, in pupils aged between 7 and 18
years. Such deviations are asymptomatic in
the first stage – the attitude stage that may
be found only on the occasion of a rigorous
medical check-up. The pain occurring in
maintaining certain positions or the
permanent pain in the vertebral area
noticed by teenagers determines the
ascertaining of the already advanced
scoliosis. Scoliosis, the physical deficiency
with
multiple preventive, therapycorrective,
recovery
and
social
implications - represents an incompletely
130
solved issue [3, p. 112-114]. "Idiopathic
scoliosis" or "scoliosis disease" as well as
"congenital scoliosis" still do not have
causal therapeutic solutions, as scholars are
still searching for the most efficient
solutions possible. Wishing to obtain a
correct, aesthetic attitude of the child,
parents appeal to the orthopedists. Yet we
must understand that not all physical
deficiencies are exclusively solved by
medicine, most of them may be corrected
also by doing therapy physical exercise
[2, p. 145-148].
Scoliosis is the deviation from the
normal of the vertebral column, in all the
three planes: sagital, horizontal and
mostly frontal. Not found, not treated in
an appropriate manner and neglected, it
may become a serious, severe problem,
with several negative effects on the form
of the body, of the position of the upper
and lower limbs, as well as on the
operation of the thorax internal organs
[1, p. 88-89]. The study does an
applicative research to develop the field
of hydro-kinesthetic therapy of physical
deficiencies by means of specific
swimming. Research is intended to adapt
the means of swimming to the recovery
of the potential physical deficiencies,
establishing new directions to diversify
the recovery programs, elaborating
complex exercise systems to improve the
results
related to the correction of
physical deficiencies, a direction in
which we shall study the relationship
between hydro-kinesthetic therapy and
the specific means of swimming from the
point of view of remedying physical
deficiencies, studies meant to elaborate
appropriate programs in the field of
kinesthetic therapy necessary to train
specialists in the field.
2. Hypothesis of the Paper
We start from the assumption that
associating kinesthetic therapy with the
specific means of swimming we may
obtain visible results in remedying
scoliosis in school age children. Tasks of
the Paper: the following tasks of the study
derive from this purpose:
– demonstrating the importance of the
study related to the physical deficiencies
of school age children;
– selecting the specialty bibliographic
material;
– demonstrating the efficiency of the
proposed exercise complexes and
attaining the objectives related to the
evaluation and comparison of the initial
and final deviation values of the studied
scoliosis;
– highlighting the need of hydrokinesthetic therapy in the treatment of
scoliosis;
– demonstrating the efficiency of the
proposed exercise complexes and
attaining the objectives related to the
evaluation and comparison of the initial
and final deviation values of the studied
scoliosis;
– selecting the teenagers making up the
experimental group;
– composing exercise complexes for the
medical gymnastics lesson, in the
kinesthetic therapy gym (by the
specialist in kinesthetic therapy) and of
the special exercises for the pool.
The Research Methods were: analysis of
the specialty literature,
pedagogic
observation, conversation method, tests
method, graphic method.
The methods of analyzing specialty
literature – a method by which we obtained
data related to the results obtained by other
researchers in the field of that particular
theme. This method implied the search for
bibliographic sources, consulting them,
information selection, processing and
interpretation.
Studying school documents – especially
of the medical record sheet of each pupil
where we found data on the causes that
determined the installation of the physical
deficiency, on its severity.
The method of the case study – as a
research method, resides in the analysis
and debate of a proposed case, of a pupil in
our case. The feature of this method is that
it allows a direct confrontation with the
real
circumstances,
considered
as
representative for a class of phenomena;
the circumstances serve as premises for
inductive knowledge. Its functionality is
revealed both in the process of acquiring
new theoretical information as well as in
the study of concrete situations. In order to
collect data for each pupil, we used the
study of the medical record sheet,
anthropometrical data in accordance with
the hypotheses of this paper.
The mathematical – statistics method –
we used it to express quality relations from
the quantity point of view. The data
supplied by this method helped us establish
the progress made in remedying the
physical deficiencies.
The execution of the experiment: we
included 8 children in the research who
represented the experimental sample; these
cases were selected after the examination
of 102 pupils of secondary school. The
term of the experiment was of 10 months.
The subjects included in the experimental
group had two classes per week in the
kinesthetic therapy gym (60 min) and two
classes at the Olympic Swimming Pool of
Brasov (50min). The research includes the
data of the subjects related to: identity,
anamnesis,
clinical
examination,
anthropometrical examination.
Specific
measurements:
Thorax
imbalance, cervical, thorax, lumbar arrows,
right
hemi-thorax,
radiological
examination.
131
The
research
was
especially
substantiated on:
- the personalized study of the subjects;
- establishing the objectives of the
kinesthetic
therapy
and
hydrokinesthetic therapy program;
- the study and elaboration of the
recovery programs;
- going through the proposed complexes
together with the subjects;
- comparing the initial parameters to the
final ones.
3. Steps of the Research
1. Theoretical documentation by exploring
the specialty literature.
2. The contact with the kinesthetic
therapist.
3. The study and the elaboration of the
recovery programs.
4. The direct contact with the subjects of
the experimental group.
5. The registration of the initial data.
6. Providing the best conditions to carry
out the lessons and their content at the
swimming pool together with the other
two specialist collaborators, swimming
instructors.
7. Initial and final testing
8. Data registration and interpretation.
The programs elaborated during the
recovery classes and the methodology of
elaborating the programs related to
scoliosis remedy had the following
objectives:
- correcting physical deficiencies,
scoliosis and stopping its evolution;
- ensuring correct body posture;
- ensuring
harmonious
physical
development and a correct body
posture;
- improving control and adjustment of
the breathing cycle;
- improving static and dynamic
balance;
132
The achievement of such objectives was
possible by implementing special programs
to prevent and remedy the deviations of the
lumbar column in the anterior-posterior
plane, all through the academic year and
during the physical education classes of the
children
with
potential
physical
deficiencies.
Table 1
Data related to the studied experimental group (initial testing)
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Full
name
Length of the Weight
Vital
Thorax perimeter/
lower limb cm
kg
capacity
Inhalation /
exhalation
Value indexes of the
scoliosis deviation (cm)
cm
Right
cervical dorsal lumbar
Right
88
82
89
82
87,5
81,5
61,5
86,5
88,5
82,5
89,5
81,5
87
82
61
87
50
50
51
50
52
49
47
53
2500
2450
2550
2550
2600
2450
2350
3200
82/88,5/79
81/84,5/79
86/92/81,5
74/81,5/69
75/81/69
78,5/83/74,5
63 / 68 / 60
75,5/79/72,5
0,3
0,2
0,2
0,5
0,8
0,8
0,3
0,2
0,5
0,5
0,8
1,0
0,8
0,5
0,3
0,7
Table 2
Data related to the studied experimental group (final testing)
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Full Length of the
name lower limb Weight
kg
cm
Righ
t
87,5
81,5
88
82
87,5
81
61
86
Vital
capacity
Thorax perimeter/
Inhalation /
exhalation
Left
8
8
8
8
8
8
6
8
1, 0
0,8
1
0.7
1,3
0,8
1,1
0,7
Value indexes of the
scoliosis deviation (cm)
cm
cervical dorsal lumbar
52
50
55
53
55
48
47
55
2400
2300
2500
2500
2600
2300
2250
3150
4. Conclusions
It is necessary to find such deviations as
early as possible and this may be achieved
by medical examination of the whole class
of pupils, each beginning of the academic
year, thus using the somatoscopic
81,5/86,5/77,5
80/83/78
85/90/80
73/80/69
74/77,5/68
77/82/73
62 / 67 / 58
73 / 78 / 70
0,3
0,2
0,2
0,5
1,0
1,3.
0,9
0,8
1,2
0,9
1,4
1,8
1,8
1,0
1,2
1,5
2
1,3
2,0
1,5
2,3
1,8
2,1
1,7
examination, in which the teachers of
physical education should take part.
In the correction of the physical
deficiencies, the teacher of physical
education plays an important part, by
organizing the methodical forms of
interfering in the prevention and remedy of
vertebral column physical deficiencies in
collaboration with the medical room of the
school.
The identification of the physical
deficiencies must be as early as possible
and the treatment means should be set as
fast as possible to obtain the maximum
possible correction.
A major physical deficiency may
prevent the future adult from exerting a
certain trade (connection of the flat foot –
trade with long-term standing up, scoliosis
with rotation – asymmetric sports).
Also, in certain conditions, physical
deficiency (scoliosis with thorax gibbosity
or accentuated kyphosis) may generate
conduct disorders or psychopathy. The
benefits obtained from associating
kinesthetic therapy means with aquatic
gymnastics on the human body are the
following:
- joint release;
- reinforcement of the kinesthetic
system;
- training of the breathing muscles;
- training of the bloodstream;
- fortification and relaxation of the body;
- improvement of the tactile sense;
- improvement of balance and of
coordination.
The association of melotherapy with
kinetic means makes children participation
be a better, more active and more
motivated one. The sports stressing and
straining the body in a harmonious and
symmetrical manner have beneficial
effects on scoliosis, especially in the
starting phase, while their prophylactic
valence is essential.
Scoliosis shows as a deviation from
normal of the vertebral column, not only in
the frontal plane, but also in the sagital and
horizontal planes. Not treated, they may
become a serious and severe problem, with
multiple negative effects on the body, the
upper and lower limbs as well as on the
operation of certain internal organs.
133
The examination of a child suffering
from scoliosis must include:
• identification data;
• anamnesis;
• measurements;
• radiological examination;
The treatment must be complex:
• orthopedic,
• kinesthetic,
• electrotherapeutic
• physiotherapeutic.
It was proven that swimming plays a
particularly important part.
A high percentage of children aged
between 11 - 15 years have this type of
deficiency, out of which, according to the
studies, 71 % are girls. Educating a correct
attitude of the body must start even from
the early ages of childhood and must be
maintained all life long.
The outcome depends on the precocity of
the deficient attitude, on the choice of the
remedy means and especially on the
therapy factors used to obtain a correct
posture.
5. Practical Methodic Recommendations
We would like to propose kinetic
exercises grouped in complexes that turned
out to be efficient among teenagers.
We would recommend swimming that
meets certain particularly valuable
qualities from the point of view of
scoliosis treatment: it is executed in
conditions of maximum release of the
vertebral column;
it represents a type of excellent
breathing gymnastics;
it develops all muscles by equal
strain, the symmetry of the girdles
and of the body / we recommend
symmetric swimming styles and the
complexes from the previously
presented examples.
134
References
1.
2.
3.
Cioroiu, S. NoŃiuni elementare de
kinetologie şi masaj. Braşov: Editura
UniversităŃii
“Transilvania”
din
Braşov, 2003.
Codrun, M. Kinetologia medicală.
Bucureşti: Editura Axa, 1999.
Codrun,
M.;
Cirla,
L.
Hirdokinetoterapia în afecŃiunile
reumatice.
Bucureşti:
Editura
Printech, 1999.
4.
5.
6.
Dimitriu, V. Studiul dezvoltării fizice
la şcolari printr-un sistem de
proporŃii. Acad. de Şt. Medicale,
1979.
Enoiu, R.S. Manual pentru învăŃarea
înotului. Braşov: Editura UniversităŃii
„Transilvania”
din
Braşov,
2006.
Ionescu, A. Creşterea şi dezvoltarea.
Bucureşti: Editura Stadion, 1970.
BIOMECHANICS IN SPORT
Florentina NECHITA1
Abstract: This paper highlights the continuing modernization of the driving
technique, and the optimization of the technical preparation of
biomechanical parameters in the 110 meter fence race. Through this
monitoring technical faults in the event can be objectively established.
Key words: technical, biomechanics, parameters.
1. Introduction
Today we are talking more about the
modernization of the driving technique,
about the optimization and rationalization
of the means of training. Optimizing the
preparation of technical parameters
through determining the biomechanics of
fence races occupies a conspicuous place
in current scientific research
The biomechanical model reflects in the
specific training, in the methodology of
action, enables the functional anatomy,
physiology and biochemistry of biological
discovery, and discovers the causes of
mechanical phenomena.
Another purpose of biomechanical
models is to find objective mistakes
occurring during the driving performance,
in "crossing fences”, to discover the
mechanical causes and their effects in the
ownership of the rational technique in a
rational fence race. Through these
biomechanical parameters there can be
indicated the measures to be taken in order
to obtain a proper technique and different
methodological indications that should
contribute to this purpose.
In crossing fences, the biomechanism
investigated is the movement of the
athlete’s body, the manner of crossing
fences, the cinematic performance and the
1
Transilvania University of Braşov.
athlete’s dynamics within this motric
action. Using biomechanical modeling of
the step over a fence contributes to
obtaining an optimal technique and
therefore the optimal yield. Without using
such a study the objective (i.e. the
improvement of the fence-crossing
technique) cannot be achieved.
In the biomechanics of the step over the
fence every system or subsystem must be
analyzed in anatomic-physiological terms
in normal conditions. The modeling of this
stage is done by determining the elements
of the locomotive apparatus, each
component of the joint and muscular
system, and contributing in this way to the
elaboration of the biomechanical model of
fence-crossing. The cinematic phase of
action can be determined only after the
elaboration of this model, and for
determination on a very high precision
scale one must resort to identifying the
instruments, apparatuses and techniques
for determining the biomechanical
elements that can be used in our country.
For example, for the segments’ movement
are observed the joints, muscles, their
moments of inertia by means of regression
equations, models and measurements, and
in kinematics it is aimed at the execution
times, the movement, the speed, the
contraction of body segments in space
136
using a stopwatch, measuring gadgets,
filming flat and three-dimensional, computer
simulation – the “moving” device.
So, after their registration, the individual
analysis
of
each
cinematic and
biomechanical parameter is done.
2. Biomechanical Analysis of the Step
over the Fence in the Event of a 110
Meter Fence Race
Running over fences is a complete and
independent motric activity, which is
repeated cyclically and which constitutes
the projection of the body through triple
muscle extensions, starting with the
contraction of muscles in the lower limb
under impulse, and ending with its contact
with the ground beyond the fence.
The important characteristic in the event
of fence crossing is the rapidity and
scraping during jumping over fences. The
trajectory of the athlete’s body during
flight over the fence is a parabola. The
smooth trajectory of the parabola depends
on the lower limb angle of detachment
during the impulsion phase and on the
horizontal velocity of the body during the
flight. It should be noted that the shape and
size are standard, a fact which allows us to
determine more precisely the parameters
involved in the act.
The fence race technical scheme includes
the following:
- Start and acceleration from the start;
- Crossing fences;
- Running between fences;
- The run from the last fence to the finish
line.
The start in the race is made from down,
which gives athletes the opportunity to
speed up in the first 13.72m. to the first
fence and to cross it; at this moment,
besides the force that the foot imprints
upon the soil there is also the horizontal
speed, an inertial speed which is imprinted
on the body during the flat run. It can be
said that running on flat technique may
influence the crossing of fences in the race.
Besides getting the horizontal speed,
another important role is played by the
muscular tension of the muscular chain
triple extension in the lower limbs, both
imprinting a flight path as quick as
possible. The general trajectory of the
athlete’s center of gravity when he is over
the fence is traced from soil to soil contact.
This way its length and height depend on
the speed of the mass center and the
impulse angle.
The speed the athlete gets from the start
moment reduces when jumping over the
fence occurs, because there is a small loss
of speed when touching the ground (the
sole braking foot at ground level), and to
these losses there are added some other
losses, the results of CGG oscillations of
the body. But fence race horizontal speed,
maintained as close to the maximum as
possible, allows the athlete a more efficient
crossing of the fence and a more favorable
depreciation to resume the acceleration, in
terms of kinetic energy gained.
If at the moment of jumping the
trajectory of the body is high, this entails a
decrease in high speed gained from
running on flat, or if the athlete is running,
this time a slight jump over a fence
involves a sudden upsurge of CGG and
vertical default, including the loss of
horizontal velocity and the corresponding
adaptation of the renewal of the
acceleration after the fence only through
additional effort.
This should be avoided, and therefore
one should focus on the development of
biomechanical models, which contribute
more efficiently to the technique of
stepping over the fence.
The most effective passage over the
fence requires a waiver of the body’s CGG
and the trajectory of other components
involved in the action to perform on a
smooth curve.
Nechita, F.: Biomechanics in Sport
2.1. The Impulsive Phase before the
Fence
At this time, the athlete’s body detaches
from the ground due to muscle
contractions, the triple extension of the
lower limbs; to obtain a minimal path from
CGG over the fence, the explosive force of
these muscles must be used through the
coordination of partial impulses, so that the
contraction of the muscle groups that
perform lower limb extension and
planetary flexion should occur at the same
time. If the contraction does not
synchronize the path segments will be held
on the vertical force due to the braking
force, and will spend for recovery the
kinetic energy obtained from the ground
impulse.
This way, the CGG trajectory is achieved
due to the force of muscle contraction in
the lower limb, followed by the
acceleration force of the leading leg and
the swing of the upper limbs. This force of
contraction makes a horizontal projection
of the CGG, a projection that has to be
grazing over fences and quick because of
the composition of the horizontal velocity
of flat running forces that occur at the
impulse moment.
During the ground impulse, the inferior
limb executes an attack motion on the
thigh flexing muscles of the basin, with the
role of lifting the inferior limb. If this
waiver must have an optimal angle, the
attack leg can be found in the first phase of
flex knee joint which then extends through
a rigorous shank motion forward, a
movement which is achieved by femoral
quadriceps.
After separation from the ground, the
thigh motion is done in the coxo-femoral
joint as a result of the positioning of the
motor muscles and thigh muscles. The
thigh muscles are designed to maintain the
vertical position of the torso and to provide
137
a balance through the basin that offers
swing movements.
The optimal flexural angle in which the
triple extension attains
the best
performance is given by the flexible thigh
which can be increased to 145 degrees up
to contact with the thorax, but this angle
varies from sport to sport depending on the
segment’s size, weight, muscular mass and
length etc. This angle is very important
because the determination of a fence
jumping technique depends on it.
2.2. The Fence Crossing Moment
At this time the jumping foot executes a
combined movement represented by
flexing the knee and regulated thigh
abduction followed by its flexural basin to
avoid reaching the fence and make the foot
cross the fence. Within this movement
there occurs the triple flexion chain of
abductors and side rotaries of the thigh.
Besides the work of the feet, the upper
limbs coordinate movements with the legs,
having the role to ensure equilibrium in the
phase of flight over the fence.
In this action, the intensity of muscular
activity is reduced, but has a well defined
role at the moment of landing and in the
preparation for acceleration.
2.3. The contact Phase of the Foot with
the Ground after Jumping the Fence
This is the phase of landing and return to
acceleration, in which the contact of the
athlete’s body with the running track is
made through libratory foot (foot
remedies). This phase is intended to
cushion the contact with the ground, to
reduce the flight speed and to resume
acceleration.
At this time the braking force is the
body’s force because it turns the motor in
an elastic spring; this involves the
138
elasticity and strength of joints, tissues and
the running track.
The lower limbs are slightly flexed on
the thigh, when the speed reduction is
achieved by antagonistic muscle groups
(the triple extension), which transforms the
foot into a spring and then produces the
impulse that gives the start to those three
steps between the fences.
The specific biomechanism of jumping
over the fence implies the muscular groups
and muscular chains representing a
dynamic effort.
training content, achieving and even
outrunning the objectives of training and
performance.
So, through practical contribution,
specialists can access instruments with
objective value of correctness in sports
technique and increased opportunities to
compare the determined athletes to their
model of biomechanical fence run.
References
1.
3. Conclusions
Considering biomechanical parameters
in monitoring the fence crossing technique,
the following must be taken into account:
- Given the high level of performance
events at senior international level and the
poor one at home, it is necessary at least on
the juniors’ level to move to the
establishment of biomechanical models,
ensuring the achievement of such
performance.
- Depending on the biomechanical models,
competition results will evidence that
during a relatively short experiment we
will be able to work on modeling effective
2.
3.
4.
Burcă, I. Identificarea biomecanică a
probelor de alergare şi trecere peste
Garduri. Braşov: Publishing House of
„Transilvania” University of Braşov,
2008.
Donskoi, D. Biomecanica. Moscova:
Fizkultura and Sport Publishing
House, 1971.
Iliescu, A. Biomecanica exerciŃiilor
fizice. Bucureşti: Publishing House of
the National Council for Physical
Education and Sport, 1968.
Iorga,
S.;
Bărbuceanu,
M.
Biomecanica
Sportivă.
Piteşti:
Publishing House of the University of
Piteşti, 2003.
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE
OPTIMIZATION OF
STRENGTH CONVERSION TRAINING
IN JUNIOR SPRINT EVENTS
C. SCURT1 G. ZANFIRESCU2
Abstract: The conversion phenomenon, one of the major factors of highperformance physical training methodology, has been carefully monitored. It
is known that with age speed stabilizes at a maximum value. For a certain
stage, the increase or stability depends on the gradual development of other
parameters such as strength, endurance, coordination, flexibility. We assume
that the junior stage is a very fertile period in creating the pre-conditions of
high performance progress, with direct reference to high-speed explosive
power training which is specific to senior sprinters.
Key words: optimization, conversion training, sprint, juniors.
1. Present Situation
The current strength training of junior
sprinters is of crucial importance for
acquiring top performance. Practice has
undoubtedly demonstrated that during
puberty, the characteristic lability of the
processes taking place in young sprinters’
bodies is frequently a source of surprises
(even accidents) as a consequence of
misunderstood
correlations
between
motrical qualities. Another reason for
undertaking the present study is the high
variability of performance results and
frequent „staleness” occurrences.
This age offers good prospects for
progress but there are equally certain risks
involved. Practice has demonstrated that
muscular adaptation requires a long time,
measurable in years of training. Logical,
perseverant training will result in good
adaptation to sports activity, overcoming
trial constraints which become more
restrictive, as performance staleness or
1
2
C.S.S. Mediaş.
decline become evident. Well trained
athletes show adaptations that are
demonstrated by good synchronization
between a motor activity and a warm-up
pattern while, in our opinion, the greatest
challenge resides
in
physiological
adaptation, which is a critical moment for
power display and consists in setting free a
maximum of muscular fibers in a very
short time.
2. Research Hypothesis
Assuming an integrative image of longterm strength training through poly-athletic
workouts, we will create the approach
conditions
without
any
negative
consequences on the strength training for
juniors, by careful training management
during the conversion stage.
This will have a significant influence on
sport shape by improving results in major
performance competitions
140
2.1. Research Aim
The research aims to obtain improved
quality parameters in junior sprinter training
in order to optimize strength training during
the conversion stage, characteristic of the precompetition or competition period.
2.2. Research Tasks
- Data analysis based on technical
literature regarding training optimization in
sprint events;
- Determining the variation of dynamic
strength indicators in the pre-competition
period;
- Preparing the strength training
program in the conversion period;
- Assessing the sport shape level onset
in order to obtain the top level for the
major competition.
2.3. Organizing and Conducting the
Research
For this research, we chose to undertake a
case study. The subject of this study was the
athlete Zanfirescu Maria Ana, member of the
national junior group, Balkan junior II vicechampion in 4 x 100 m relay (Bar, Serbia
2008).
In the individual events she obtained the
following results:
400 m flat – 59.00 –IIIrd place N. Ch. J II
– indoor;
100 m flat – 12.30 –IInd place N. Ch. J II
– outdoor;
200 m flat - 25.57 – Int. Ch.;
400 m flat – 56.65 – G.P.J II – outdoor.
With strict reference to strength
exercises, the trainer presented us his
views regarding the approach of this biomotrical characteristic based on several
genetic prerequisites and the already
existing motrical endowment. Considering
the morpho–functional features of 15-17
year old girls, strength training is at the
same time interesting and challenging. The
training was based on the study of
specialized scientific materials and the
practical application of data during the
training period.
Remarkably, strength was approached only
within the context of the qualities system,
never separately. The level of maturity was
considered along with the impossibility of
applying through workouts at this level,
given the risk of physically overstressing the
subject and determining him to refuse a
prospective increased stress.
The athlete mentioned the mental stress
she experienced during the training and the
fact that she had to be aware of as many
motions as possible against a background
of extreme strain and fatigue. Another
remarkable aspect which was also worked
on was muscular coordination – “the
agonist – antagonist interplay and the
capacity of contracting and relaxing them
consciously
if
possible”.
These
considerations helped both trainer and
athlete to gain a clear view on placing and
distributing the means over the year plan –
including the strength ones.
Based on the fundamental laws of strength
training, a good anatomical adaptation was
acquired for training, especially through
articulation mobility exercises (knee, ankle,
hip), stretching and fortifying exercises for
these ligaments and tendons. A special
attention was granted to strength in the
midsection of the body (pectorals,
abdominals, pelvis, dorsal, thigh).
Also, special attention was granted to
achieving the support for ensuring future
load increase. The methodical indications
provided by the FRA during a conference
of the Senior National Group, the
participations and discussions with trainers
were extremely useful for the trainer. We
consider the great importance of the
principle “Train the movement, not the
muscle”. This methodical vision is
essential in athletic training for superior
classifications. “Not all that’s new applies
to me” – is another reasoning which was
helpful in understanding balance in terms
of constructing a coherent, long-term,
training plan. The training plan was
constructed over two macro-cycles:
Scurt, C. et al.: Contributions on the Optimization of Strength ..
141
Table 1
Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May
Training I
Competition I
T Training II
Conv. Maint.
AA
FMx
AA FMx
to P
Dominant energy systems: anaerobic,
alactacid, lactacid.
Energy generation: 80% alactacidic,
20% lactacidic,
Energy supplier: phosphocreatine.
Jun.
Jul Aug.
Sep.
Competition II
T
Conv. Maint. Compensation
to P
Limitative factors: reaction power, start
power, acceleration power, power endurance.
Training objectives: maximum strength,
reaction power, start power, acceleration
power, power endurance.
Table 2
Date
Oct Nov
Dec
Periodiz.
Training. I
Periodiz 5 AA
6FMx
of
strength
Periodiz A.L
of
energy
system
A.L.
Alactacid
O2
Jan.
Feb.
Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul Aug Sep.
Competition I
T
Training II Compet. II
T
4
10 Maint 2 AA 5 FMx 4
9 Maint 6 CompetiConve Power
Conve Power
tion
rsion improv,
rsion improv,
to P Specific
to P
Specific
Power
Power
Alactacid
A.L.
A.L.
Alactacid
Games
Alac- Alactacid
Tolerance
Sports
tacid
to lactate
O2
3. Main Objectives (pre-competition stage)
Gradual entry into competition stress
(especially in week 5-6)
Increase of general physical condition
indicators and proportional increase of
speed indicators
Factor correlations: physical – technical
training in order to increase traveling
velocity by conversion of power into
maximum speed
Modeling by mental training
Stress level: 80 – 95 %
Volume: 2 - 1 ½ x event
Precompetition Stage (May-June)
Mon
1 5-6 series x 2 min
ATM recovery
2 Special exs.
6-8 x 3 x 200 90%
p=7-10’
3 A1: long light
A2:10x30m slope
P=3-5min
4 Rehearsals 2x120
p=2min
Tue
Pliometry 9x8
fences
Wed
Thu
Fri
Power: lying leg
Speed
Pliometry:
lift (4x15) 2x (30, 60, 80, penta jump 6x
pull-ups (4x3)
120m)
boxes10x3
jumps
P=10min
(70cm→max)
Indoors dorsals:
Recovery:
Rep.
Pliometry:
5x40; 20kg: 5x20
swim
200m
fences (9x8)
abdomen: 5x12,
300m
15 g
A1:reh.
A1: light run
Pliometry:.
Walking
A2:indoors or
A2:technical
boxes 10x3
(warm-up)
slopes
Pliometry: 10x6
Starts
Break or light Warm-up for
fences (40cm)
run
competition
boxes10x3
Table 3
Sat
Crosscountry
Competition
– assessment
100m(achiev
ed 12.80)
Competition
(without
object.)
School N.Ch.
(achieved
200m- 25.70)
142
4. Main Objectives (competition period)
Conversion of power into maximum
speed at the beginning of the period.
The physical training indicators decrease
in contrast with quality indicators of work
intensity.
Prevalence of pliometric exercises for
explosive force.
Recovery and alimentation factors
become a priority.
Exploitation of intellectual capacity
indicators (attention and concentration)
through mental training.
Stress level: 85-98%;
Volume: 1½-1 x event.
Table 4
Mon
1 5-6 series x 2 min
ATM recovery
Tue
Pliometry 9x8
fences
Wed
Power: lying leg
lift (4x15)
pull-ups (4x3)
jumps
(70cm→max)
Recovery: swim
2 Special exerc. for Indoors dorsals:
technique
5x20 20kg: back:
5x20
6-8 x 3 x 200
90% p=7-10’
abdomen: 5x12,
15 kg
3 A1: long light
A1:rehears
A1: light run A2:
A2:10x30m slope A2:indoors or
technical
P=3-5min
slopes
4 Rehearsals 2x120 Pliometry: 10x6
Starts
p=2min
fences (40cm)
boxes10x3
5 Spec. tech exerc
Isotonic
3x200m p= 1min
6-8 x; starts 6x
dynamic: 20
85-90%
80%
grass p.s.r.
2x250 m90% Slope run 3-5x
50m 90% p=
p=7-10’ or
7min vol. can be
1x500m +
1x150m p=5- modif. dep. on
subject condition
7min
6 Training. model Pliometry: 10x6 2x120m 85-90%
400m: fences(40cm)
p=15min
5x80m 82-90% boxes 10x3□‫ □ٱ‬Fc=110-120/min
p=80m mL
(40-60 cm)
In the pre-competition and competition
period, when the athlete is running at
nearly maximum speed, were introduced
exercises which stimulate both anaerobic
capacity and the tolerance to lactate using
rehearsals of 60, 100, 150 m. The velocity
of the movement can be monitored by
calculating the difference between the 30-
Thu
Speed
2x (30, 60, 80,
120m)
P=10min
Rehears.
200m
300m
Fri
Pliometry: penta
jump 6x
boxes10x3
Sat
Cross-country
Pliometry: fences Competition –
(9x8)
assessment 100m
(achieved 12.80)
Pliometry:boxes
10x3
Walking
(worm-up)
Competition
(without obj.)
Break or light run
Warm-up for
competition
School N.Ch.
(achieved 200
m- 25.70)
Fartlek
60-70% pool
50m light run+
Pliometry.
50m accel run Penta jump 4x
90-98%
depth jump
2x400m
60cm
6-8x 10 p=5min
p=10min
Tonus. abd.,
back pull-up
acc.run : 68x80m
Specific.compet
warm-up 3-4
bend starts
400mp
200mp (Sunday)
60 m running sequences. If the recorded
times on the fractions (in the case of 150200 m rehearsals) are close, it can be
considered that the speed increase for the
endurance mode is good. If the time
recorded on the last fraction is longer (by
0.25”) this can indicate a non-adaptation or
an error in effort distribution. To correctly
143
Scurt, C. et al.: Contributions on the Optimization of Strength ..
determine the athlete’s capabilities the
trainer can impose an evaluation test in
order to redirect the training towards
performance improvement.
The evaluation test was achieved by
recording the times for 50, 100,150, 200
m. The time difference between the 200
run and the 150 m run should not exceed
by more than 0.25s the difference between
150 m and 100 m times. The differences
occur depending on the technique used,
manual or electronic timing (0.27”-0.50”)
but also on the start technique used. The
results of the initial test were recorded
during the training while the final test
results were recorded for the standard
events during competitions.
Table 5
EVENT
INITIAL TEST
20 - 25 April
FINAL TEST
14 May
COMPETITION
WITH STAKE
100m
12.8
200m
26.3
400m
60.0
30m
4,8
50m 80m
6.9
10.2
150m
20.2
300m
42.1
350m
51.0
12.5
25.8
58.1
4,6
6.6
19.7
40.6
49.2
12.37
25.57
56.65
9.8
PROGRESUL
DINAMICA REZU LTATELOR
TEST INIłIAL
TEST FNAL
CONCURS CU MIZĂ
100m
200m
400m
30m
50m
80m
150m
300m
350m
PROBELE
5. Conclusions
1. By examining the steadily ascending
curve of the athlete’s performance,
which was subject of the case study,
we can conclude that the training,
particularly the strength one, was
correctly coordinated.
2. Strength, a biomedical quality
characteristic in humans, has become
a dimension of human personality.
Therefore it is probably one of the
most coveted qualities. It requires
passion in order to approach the
development of this quality so
intensely desired by adolescents.
3. In the absence of a thorough study
and coherent teaching, training can
degenerate
producing
negative
effects.
4. Strength training can improve
performance dynamics in a normal
athlete condition, even in staleness or
decline moments.
144
Recommendations
References
The proportional distribution of training
methods during the conversion stage is
given by the following formula:
- Strength
trainings:
6-isotonic:
7-pliometric
- Speed and technical trainings: 20. The
greater amount of energy is reserved
for technical and tactical training while
much less is left for power training
- A strictly individualized load in
strength trainings, the selection of
means in accordance with the athlete’s
characteristics
- Power and speed level evaluation
through proposed events.
1. Baroga, L. Educarea calităŃilor fizice
combinate. Bucureşti: Editura Sport
Turism, 1984.
2. Bompa,
T.
Periodizarea
antrenamentului
sportiv,
planuri
stiinŃifice pentru forŃă şi condiŃia fizică
pentru 20 de discipline sportive.
Bucureşti: Editura Tana, 2006.
3. Dragnea, A.; Mate Teodorescu, S.
Teoria sportului. Bucureşti: Editura
FEST, 2002.
4. Drăgan I. (coord.). SelecŃia şi
orientarea medico-sportivă. Bucureşti:
Editura Sport Turism, 1989.
5. RaŃă, B. C. Alergarea de viteză–
biomecanică şi metodică. Iaşi: Editura
PIM, 2008.
6. Tudor, V.; Crişan, I. ForŃa aptitudine
motrică. Bucureşti: Editura BREN,
2007.
STUDY OF DYNAMICS OF CERTAIN
MOTRICAL CAPACITY
INDICATORS IN 12-14 YEAR OLD
CHILDREN OVER ONE ATHLETICS
COMPETITION YEAR
C. SCURT1
M. ZANFIRESCU2
Abstract: Sports training is a dynamic and flexible process. Since it
requires the participation of both trainer and athlete it calls for an
integrative approach of the training process by correlating age
characteristics with training methodology requirements.
The validity of developing psycho-motrical qualities in 10-14 year old
children is the rationale for the analysis of certain aspects that the specific to
this age. We propose to assess the effectiveness of our training methods in
terms of a providing strong basis for ensuring the young athlete a specialized
training, along with the means used for a good basic physical training.
Key words: indicators, dynamics, motrical capacities, competition year,
children.
1. Present Situation
The lack of basic physical training by
using adequate action means, as well as of
data on maximum stress level indicators,
generate early abandon of performance
athletics and in some cases are limiting the
access to performance sports due to
inappropriate basic physical training.
2. Paper Hypothesis
We assumed that an adequate
rationalization
(selection,
dosing,
sequencing) of the main means of action
which have a major influence on the level
of polyvalent and poly-athletic training can
ensure the basis of future performances
while systematic and methodical actions
during the competition year can modify the
structural and functional parameters of the
1
2
C.S.S. Mediaş.
children’s organism and improve their
motrical behavior.
3. The Objectives
• Determining the influence of the action
systems, considering the variability in
the athlete’s development in terms of
psycho-motrical aptitudes.
• The extent to which the level of the
physical training could be a criterion
for selecting the envisaged discipline in
the athletics discipline system.
• Assessing the effectiveness of working
with models and the training programme
algorithms in the present case.
• Recording the dynamics of some
specific parameters of physical and
technical athletic training progress rate
interpretation.
146
Research Aim
Development of an effective model for
the poly-athletic training in the initial stage
and orientation toward a presumed
specialty for children (aged 10-14).
During one year of poly-athletic training,
we monitored a sample of 16 children,
aged 10-14 from a beginner group from
CSS Mediaş. The selection criteria were:
health condition, training frequency,
discipline at work, movement motivation,
good
learning
efficiency,
parental
relationships.
The compulsory medical inspection was
provided at least twice each semester. It
provided useful information on the chosen
physiological level. The somatic data were
used in monitoring the nutritional
condition and its variations. The accurate
planning was made in accord with the
requirements of curricula standards and
norms for this class of children.
Components of the Training Module
COMPONENTS
Table 1
LEARNING
ANNUAL DISTRIBUTION OF LEARNING UNITS
UNITS
SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN
SPEED
MOTRICAL MOBILITY
QUALITIES STRENGTH
ENDURANCE
PERMANENT ASSIGNMENT
F-R COMBINED
WALKING
BASIC
RUNNING
MOTRICAL
JUMP
SKILLS
TOSS
BALANCE
APPLICATIVE
COURSES
CRAWL
UTILIZABLE
CUMB
MOTRICAL
STAIR CUMB
SKILLS
PULL UP
PUSH UP
SPEED RUNNING
ENDUR. RUNNING
CROSS
CROSS
HURDLE R.
RELAY RACE
RELAY
LONG JUMP
HIGH JUMP
OINA TOSS
MED. BALL TOSS
GIMNASTICS ACROB. & JUMPS
BASKET
B.,
SPORTS
HAND B
COMPLEMENTARY
GAMES
SOCCER
OTHER
SWIMMING
COMPENSATING
SPORTS
Scurt, C. et al.: Study of Dynamics of Certain Motrical Capacity …
147
JUMPS
RUNNING
Table 2
TRAINING DAYS, TOTAL
TRAINING HOURS, TOTAL
BREAK DAYS
TOTAL KM/9 months
MAIN MEANS
Light running
Recovery running
Flat ground accelerated running
Constant speed running
Variable speed running
Cross country running
Accelerated uphill running
Running technique exercises
Standing long jump
Jump step running
Hop step running
Various jumps
POWE
R
TO
SS
Medicine ball toss
Oina ball toss
Abdominal exercises
Back exercises
Pull-up exercises
ARTICULAR MOBILITY
MUSCULAR FLEXIBILITY
We provided initial and final tests and
the progress obtained was recorded.
At the end of the initiation and
promotion period, a number of 6 subjects
showed real aptitudes for prospective
performance.
One of them clearly distinguished
himself, as he was a national level
performer. The physical stress level (with
little exceptions) was almost the same
during each training session.
The effect of adaptation to physical
stress materialized in the children’s health
condition
and
performance.
The
multilateral and poly-athletic training were
priorities over the entire year.
We found out that work with children at
this level enables interesting studies with
281 days
453 hours (2½ hours/days)
18
1.000 km
20%
5%
25%
10%
10%
10%
5%
15%
960 rep
1.440 rep
1.440 rep
3.000/TOTAL
3.840
1.220
21.600
21.600
5.400
35 HOURS, 7% of the total of
training hours
surprising results. We selected a numbers
of 4 representative test events for a study
period extending over one competition
year in order to monitor the children’s
evolution in time and obtain a practical
confirmation of the theory in this field.
The evolution of metrical skills was
monitored over a period of 9 months
without programming any break. Five
training sessions per week of 1,5-2 hours
each were carried out. Although not all
volume and especially intensity parameters
could be observed, the obtained stress level
was 75-80 % of its maximum.
The first test included the four events
during the first week of October. The final
test was accomplished in the last week of
June, study year 2007-2008.
148
The test included following events:
– Speed running 50 m flat, standing start;
– 2 trials (traveling velocity);
– Standing long jump: 2 trials (legs
explosive strength);
Oina ball toss with 3-5 take-off steps:
– 2 trials (explosive arms strength);
– 600 m running (endurance);
– Anthropometric data:
• Height (cm)
• Body weight (kg)
The statistical data interpretation is presented in the following table:
Table 3
Event
50 m
600 m
St.long.
jump
Oina
ball toss
Height
Weight
Test
Average
(sec;m)
±S
C.V.%
•
L(s)
L(i)
W
%>M
%<M
T.I.
8,7
0,3
3,9
8,0
9,2
1,2
50
50
T.F.
8,0
0,3
3,4
7,6
8,5
0,9
56,3
43,7
T.I.
153
24
16,6
129
216
87
62,5
37,5
T.F.
132
10,2
7,7
118
158
41
68,7
31,3
T.I.
158
12,6
8,2
185
145
40
31,2
68,8
T.F.
174
11,3
6,5
200
160
40
50
50
T.I.
16
3
18,7
25
12
13
43,7
56,3
T.F.
20
6,2
31
30
13
17
50
50
T.I.
142,3
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
T.F.
144,7
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
T.I.
32,3
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
T.F.
33
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Speed Running
•
Extreme
Performance
For speed running, initial testing
has shown an average deviation of
0.3%. 11 of the 16 cases evolved
with normal distribution, only 5
cases were exceptions.
After final testing, the average
deviation is equally 0.3% but only
12 cases lay within the admissible
limits. Homogeneity is good. The
progress rate is 8.04%. The
number of results better than or
equal with average increase by
6.3%.
R.p.
%
8,04
13,7
8,3
20
1,7
3
Endurance Running
Initial testing has shown that
individual values deviate from the
central value by 24 seconds, only 2 cases
are exceptions. Homogeneity is average.
Final testing yielded a deviation of 10.2
seconds from the central value. 13 cases
have normal distribution, 3 cases are
exceptions.
The progress rate is 13.7%. The
percentage of subjects above average has
increased by 6.2%.
Scurt, C. et al.: Study of Dynamics of Certain Motrical Capacity …
Standing Long Jump
•
•
After initial testing the 13 cases are
within normal limits, 3 are exceptions.
Homogeneity is good.
After find testing, 12 cases have
normal distribution, 4 cases are
exceptions. Homogeneity is good. The
progress rate is 8.3%.
Oina Ball Toss
•
•
After initial testing, 13 cases have
normal distribution, 3 cases are
exceptions. Homogeneity is average.
After final testing, the dispersion
degree has increased, cv =31%,
Homogeneity is absent and result
increase is non-uniform. The progress
rate is 20%. The significant increase is
due to the acquired technical elements.
There is a positive correlation although
negligible, between endurance and speed
(r=0.15), the affirmation accuracy of the
affirmation is 30%, low, random
correlation.
There is a positive correlation between
endurance and strength (r=0.52), accuracy
of affirmation is 95%, good correlation.
Somatic indicators improved by 2% for
waist and 3% for weight.
The muscle mass has grown a little
compared with skeleton length. The
working programme had no negative
effects on the age’s specific nutrition
indicators.
The comparison was made using the
indicators provided by the Institute for
School Hygiene in 1992.
Conclusions
The study has ascertained that not all
psycho-motrical qualities have the same
149
level of development, at this age speed
precedes strength and endurance.
There is a significant correlation between
strength and endurance development
levels, at this age.
After studying metrical
capacity
indicator dynamics in child athletes, it
resulted that the employed means, methods
and methodical orientation were adequate
resulting in motrical and physical
development improvement.
Systematic
work
and
adequate
methodology over the entire competition
year are the warranty of significant
improvements in all structural and
functional parameters of the child’s
organism, with positive effects on general
motricity.
Recommendations
The annual training cycle extending over
11 months, around 280 days will become a
constant in our training plans already
providing motivation by enabling 13-14
year old children to participate in junior
N.C. finals according to FRA standards.
During the winter training period, the
application courses should be included in
the trainer’s planning’s as their dynamicity
and attractiveness compensate for the low
level of effort characteristic to indoor
activity period.
The action means should be properly
tried and dosed in order to ensure
polyvalent training levels capable to
simplify orientation to an envisaged event.
Working with patterns must be adapted
to the level of each training group
(initiation, beginners, advanced) since it is
helpful in systematic monitoring of the
training level and the way it is tolerated by
child athletes.
150
References
1. Baroga, L. Educarea calităŃilor fizice
combinate. Bucureşti: Editura Sport
Turism, 1984.
2. Bompa,
T.
Periodizarea
antrenamentului
sportiv,
planuri
stiinŃifice pentru forŃă şi condiŃia fizică
pentru 20 de discipline sportive.
Bucureşti: Editura Tana, 2006.
3. Dragnea, A.; Mate Teodorescu, S.
Teoria sportului. Bucureşti: Editura
FEST, 2002.
4. Drăgan I., (coord.). SelecŃia şi
orientarea medico-sportivă. Bucureşti:
Editura Sport Turism, 1989.
5. RaŃă, B. C. Alergarea de viteză–
biomecanică şi metodică. Iaşi: Editura
PIM, 2008.
6. Tudor, V.; Crişan, I. ForŃa aptitudine motrică. Bucureşti: Editura
BREN, 2007.
CONSIDERATIONS ON SPECIFIC
RESISTANCE IN A SOCCER GAME
Gabriel SIMION1
Abstract: In these pages we have tried to emphasize the quality of driving
and resistance and to underline the most important issues related to the
specific resistance of a soccer game. Soccer is one of the most complex sports
games, seeking quality driving, mental and technical merit, but especially a
perfect mixture between all these. Modern competitive soccer claims overall
resistance (as basic physical fitness). In the preparation of soccer players
specific training methods should be based on modelling the requirements of
preparing a competitive game.
Key words: soccer, resistance, specific resistance.
Soccer - generally considered the most
popular sport in the world - may owe its
appeal to simplicity as well as the skill and
cunning required in the fast-paced intrigue
of the game. Played at a professional level
all over the world as well as by serious
amateur teams, or for pure entertainment,
soccer is a regular pastime for over 240
million people in over 200 countries
worldwide. The Soccer World Cup, held
every four years, pits the top teams in the
world against each other and draws
enormous audiences for both the stadium
games and television.
In literature resistance is defined by
multiple formulations, all expressing the
same kind of issue:
- “The ability to cope with fatigue caused
by physical effort, without a decline over
the actions of those potential movements
of work necessary to achieve the
objectives” [14, p.206];
- “The ability to perform mechanical
work of certain intensity for a long time
without lowering the efficiency of the
1
work done in the state of repressing
fatigue” [1, p. 332];
- “The ability to work for a relatively
long duration and with a relatively high
intensity, maintaining constant indices of
optimal effectiveness” [4, p.47];
- “The ability to make efforts for a long
time
without
reducing
efficiency”
[13, p.169];
- “Resistance refers to the time required
for an individual to run with certain
intensity” [3, p.92];
- The ability to perform high intensity
work longer;
- Maintaining working capacity during
long-term efforts by defeating the
phenomenon of fatigue, and a high tempo
of restoring the body after tiring it;
- The ability to do any activity for a long
time without reducing its effectiveness;
- The psychophysical ability of the
performer’s body to cope with fatigue by
specific activity.
From these definitions come off a few
key elements which characterize the
driving quality, namely:
152
- Time (duration) effort, which can be
determined in advance, but on the basis of
work done and efficiency; when
determined in a time unit, it must be
carried out in a certain way;
- Effectiveness as a constant business
driver throughout;
- Rapid recovery after the effort made.
Work for the development of resistance
is still a battle to delay as much as possible
the appearance of the fatigue phenomenon
in an effort of certain intensity, being
aware that fatigue is the main factor
limiting the emergence of resistance over
time.
The phenomenon of physical and mental
fatigue of the organism appears naturally
following efforts of various types, intensity
and volume.
Fatigue is the transient activity produced
by prolonged or excessive effort,
characterized by a decreased functional
potential of the body and a subjective
sensation feature. Fatigue, as a replication
of complex and hyper-complex effort,
breaks
homeostasis
by
altering
biochemical processes, favoring the
transition to a new state of adaptation,
higher than earlier. Fatigue is thus a factor
stimulating the functional and emotional
resources.
Fatigue is a phenomenon accompanying
the necessary training, and at the same
time a prerequisite for enhancing sports
performance. In fact, it is only the
repetition of efforts that produces
phenomena causing fatigue processes,
overcompensation,
and
finally
an
adaptation of the organism. Training, on
the one hand, must produce those states in
adapting fatigue, and on the other hand,
must avoid being extreme.
A. Gage demonstrated by computer
simulation that fatigue is the body's acute
response to physical effort. At low and
moderate demand capacity the answer is
increased due to the activation of the
physiological functions involved in the
effort, to demand high capacity, showing
fatigue as a syndrome. In extremis, fatigue
maximum is equivalent to exhaustion.
In the production of fatigue after
muscular exertion, the following processes
take place:
- During
muscle
contractions,
a
transmission pulse occurs from the
receptive muscle, which alters the
nervous system and device drivers;
- Muscle contractions cause alterations in
the chemical composition of the muscle
tissue, leading to a request of the
interested receptor;
- Metabolism products spread into the
blood, changes of the body's internal
environment influence, in turn, the
central nervous system;
- The state of excitation of nerve cells in
the muscle activity cannot remain
untainted;
- In the muscle function are amended also
endocrine glands.
Intense muscle activity is related to the
potential of functions to return to previous
levels, and the level above.
The first installation of fatigue is
signalled by specific phenomena such as
sweating and involuntary tension of the
mimic. But these phenomena do not
preclude the possibility of continuing
effort, through an increased willingness on
the initial intensity. Therefore, this state is
called physiological phase offset fatigue.
By continuing the effort, the subject
decompensates in second-stage fatigue where, with every effort of will he cannot
maintain the same intensity of effort,
reducing it gradually to a total cessation of
activity. These phenomena are manifested
differently from one person to another,
depending on individual resistance, which
is determined in turn by the following
factors:
Simion, G.: Consideration on Specific Resistance in a Soccer Game
- The capacity of the central nervous
system to coordinate the activity of the
locomotive and vegetative functions;
- Aerobic capacity, aerobic potential
which enables the production of energy in
the presence of oxygen and anaerobic
capacity;
- The adaptation to effort of the
cardiovascular and respiratory systems and
of all body functions;
- The energy and oxidative metabolism
of the muscle, notably the fact that in
muscle cells there can be distinguished
three sources of energy to ensure muscle
contractions: alactacid anaerobic energy,
lactacid anaerobic energy, and aerobic
energy;
- Strength of will in sport – which is an
important component in training speed,
demanding the athletes in particular when
they have to make an effort in conditions
of fatigue, or when the level of fatigue
increases as a result of prolonged activity;
athletes command nervous centres to
continue or even intensify the effort;
- Book speed of athletes.
Moreover, development of resistance is
achieved only through efforts that lead to
the appearance of fatigue and attempts to
overcome fatigue and continue the effort
after it.
Oancea V. says: “Resistance depends on
many factors, including speed, muscle
strength,
technical
skills
in
the
implementation of effective actions, the
ability to use one’s potential economically,
physiological and psychological conditions
at the time of that effort.”
Regarding the forms of manifestation of
resistance, the author believes that a
systematic classification is appropriate:
- Depending on the participation share of
muscle groups: general strength, specific
strength (specific) and local resistance;
- Depending on how they are combined
with other driving qualities: resistance as
153
speed, strength as force, resistance in the
regime of detention, etc.;
- Depending on the nature of the effort:
constant resistance and variable resistance
in the effort;
- Depending on the duration of the effort:
long-term strength (with effort over 8
minutes), average resistance time (effort
2-6 minutes) and short-lasting resistance.
(effort between 45 seconds and 2 minutes);
- Depending on the energy sources and
the effort: resistance of the aerobic load
times are from 3-5 minutes to several
hours, of anaerobic resistance in the load
duration of 7-60 seconds, and mixed
resistance-types with variable durations
and intensity.
Aerobic resistance develops during the
transition period and the initial phase of
training using uniform and stable
conditions with a moderate intensity from
the average. As a consequence, the cardiorespiratory system of athletes improves
progressively. Along with the adaptation to
training, the work load should increase, in
particular the volume of training. There
must be a transition from aerobic
resistance specified by the pace of activity
and specific rhythmic exercises.
As a general line, the following are
significant in training to develop aerobic
resistance:
- Intensity of training below 70% of the
maximum speed; the intensity can be
measured by performance time on a certain
distance, the speed in meters per second or
heart rate (training stimuli that do not
increase heart rate more than 130 beatings
per minute do not develop significant
aerobic capacity);
- The duration of a stimulus in isolation
(a repetition) should differ from 60-90
seconds to 3-10 minutes;
- Calculate the rest breaks so that the
next stimulus can produce favourable
changes in the period from the previous
work (45-90 sec.) Aerobic resistance for
154
the rest should not exceed 3-4 minutes
(usually work may start when the heart rate
decreases to 120 BPM);
- Normally work during a rest break is
reduced in intensity to stimulate biological
restoration.
Anaerobic resistance is an important
physiological advantage. Most of the
development of anaerobic resistance is
cyclical and of high intensity.
The preparation for anaerobic resistance
presumes the following:
- The intensity of the situation may be
limited to the maximum sub-maximal,
even if the training intensity is varied; for
the development of resistance the
anaerobic intensities of 90-95% should
predominate;
- The duration of work must fall between
5 and 120 seconds, depending on the
intensity used by athletes;
- The break after a rest-activity must be
sufficiently long to compensate for the
oxygen debt, which can be 2-10 minutes; it
is recommended to divide the total number
of repetitions in some repetitious series of
4-6 each, with the most between longrange in order to oxidize lactic acid;
- Up to halftime the activity must be
active, easy and relaxing;
- The number of repetitions must fall
below the lower average.
In sports games in particular, the
development of resistance is a complex
task
because
sports
games
are
combinations of aerobic and anaerobic
components. To support the three energy
systems used in sports games, exercises are
proposed for specific intensified energy
systems such as:
- High intensity exercise with a duration
of 5-15 sec. alactacid system calls;
- High intensity exercises, with a
duration of 20-90 sec. lactacid calling
system;
- Years of continuous average intensity /
high duration equal to or longer than
2-5 min. develop requirements in aerobic
sports teams.
Resistance specific games can be
developed
using the
method
of
determination, where training will be
calculated so as to correspond to specific
physical or psychological characteristics,
and tactical game, respectively.
The development of resistance has a
series of specific variants:
- “The distance: distance less than the
sample equal to the sample distance with
tactical tasks, longer than the distance of
the sample;
- The speed intensity of playing: faster
than the speed of the game, as fast as the
speed of the game, slightly less, or less
than the intensity of the game”.
Football is one of the most complex
sports games, seeking quality driven,
mental and technical merit, but especially a
perfect mix of their own.
Modern competitive football claims
overall resistance (as basic physical
fitness). Even if we refer to the simple
parameters of the game, 90 minutes of
effort over 10-12 km, with many jumps,
processes, etc., resistance comes in clear
evidence. Although the general feature of
the game is determined by movements in
executions and speed, one should not
forget that a pronounced degree of fatigue
prevents the recovery potential. After 6070 minutes of a game, even the faster or
more technical players cannot cope with
competition requirements unless they have
good physical training.
The characteristic energy of the effort is
classified by most authors into anaerobic
types. Following complex measurements
made during the game on different
positions in different games, these data
have been reconsidered, increasing the
share of aerobic processes. They even
reached proportions of 40%, which is
explainable by the multitude of game
Simion, G.: Consideration on Specific Resistance in a Soccer Game
situations where there are movements at
moderate speeds.
Resistance considerations:
– Resilience is a basic quality developed
at a high level, enabling players to
perform all technical and tactical
procedures in the game without visible
effort and without a decline in
efficiency and precision;
– Performance in sports games is
achieved by superior mixed aerobic and
maintained at a high level through
appropriate training;
– Football strength is not only general,
but appears as a combination of speed
and force structure and, because of the
game demands, as particular, specific;
– The football game presumes resistance
in the following cases and situations:
resistance during a whole game,
resistance required by the physical,
technical, tactical action of a game,
resistance required by several actions,
resistance related to prolonged or
repeated efforts of speed, resistance to
repeated efforts to force the player to
continue execution, technical resistance
to the psycho-emotional demands of the
game;
– One must work at least 20 minutes for
the effort to be incentive (to have
endurance characteristics).
In the current literature there are
references to specific training methods for
sports games, based on modelling the
requirements of preparing the competitive
game in question.
I believe that it would be referred to
considerations relating to new approaches
in the current practice of sports games.
Method rehearsals may be used in games
and sports such as football by making
repeated requests for longer or shorter
distance than in tactical manoeuvres during
a major game of football, which aims to
develop resistance to a specific game.
155
Rehearsal exercises or longer exercises
lay stronger emphasis on the aerobic
component of the game.
Shorter repetition on the other hand is
specific of the game because the speed is
closer to the game speed. Multiple
repetitions of these exercises have the
effect of lateral development and power of
will.
The total work can be 20-30 minutes
with breaks of 3-5 minutes, depending on
the distance between the intensity and
repetition.
The training model is considered as a
variant of repetitive training, since a player
repeats several times in training actions
characteristic of the game (and here comes
the training model).
There are several training models:
training models for the training of specific
energy or momentum of the game and
complex training models.
Training models for the training of a
specific energy consumption rate or a
specific application offer an advantage for
players according to the specific rhythms
of a game.
Note that at the beginning types of
technical and tactical exercises and lacticalactic are used, in the middle especially
the aerobic type is used, and in late years
for both the lactic and aerobic systems.
The first part of the training consists of
several short rehearsals performed with
great intensity (which requires both the
lactic and the alactic); the means of
training uses aerobic exercise, and the
closing of new uses repetition of short
duration, to shape the intensity increased at
the end of the game. Players do the
repetition at a high degree of fatigue,
where the lactic and aerobic systems are
much prompted.
There are other possible variations, such
as the use of fast rhythms at the beginning
of each part of the lesson, or imposing a
fast pace and strong side of each lesson.
156
When lessons are organized, the training
model must take into account several factors
such as volume of work, speed, rest intervals,
the number of repetitions, individual
peculiarities and characteristics of the game
of soccer. This method is shown in precompetition and competition periods.
When taking into account the technical,
tactical and physical game, a complex
training model can be organized that may
require capacity building and driving the
necessary physiological football game.
In the game of football are recommended
the following distances and intensities of
the activities performed:
Sprint 30 m to 100%;
Running steps to 30-50 m high at 70%;
Heat resistance of 50-400 m low
intensity;
Acceleration
–
deceleration
to
10-20 m, 80-100%;
Starts-stops
on
the
5-15
m,
70-100%;
Variations of the direction changes at
50-100 m. 5-20%;
5-10 jump over simple obstacles
25-40 cm high.
In modern practice, the preparation of
sports requires a huge volume of daily,
monthly, yearly training, requiring full
body resistance. Phenomena that occur in
the body during exercise or subsequent
resistance effects are profound, easy to
dose, measurable techniques using both
simple and complex investigation.
References
1. Alexe, N.
Antrenamentul sportiv
modern. Bucureşti: Editura Editis, 1993.
2. Apolzan, D. Fotbal – 2010. Bucureşti:
F.R.F. Publishing House, 1998.
3. Bompa, T.O. Teoria şi metodologia
antrenamentului. Bucureşti: Ex. Ponto
4. Cârstea, Gh. Teoria şi metodica
educaŃiei fizice si sportului. Bucureşti:
Editura Universul, 1993.
5. Cernăianu, C. Fotbal. Manualul
antrenorului profesionist. Bucureşti:
Roteck Pro Publishing House, 2000.
6. Cojocaru, V. Fotbal de 6 la 18 ani.
Metodica
pregătirii.
Bucureşti:
A.N.E.F.S. Publishing House, 2002.
7. Colibaba, E.D.; Bota, I. Jocuri sportive.
Teorie şi metodică. Bucureşti: Aldin
8. Dragnea, A. Măsurarea şi evaluarea în
educaŃie fizică şi sport. Bucureşti.
Sport Turism Publishing House,
1984.
9. Dragnea, A. Antrenamentul sportiv.
Bucureşti: Didactic
and Pedagogic
10. Nicu, A. Antrenamentul sportiv modern.
Bucureşti: Editis Publishing House,
1993.
11. Oancea, V. Fotbal. Curs de
specializare. Braşov: Transilvania
University Publishing House, 1996.
12. Oancea, V. Fotbal. ConsideraŃii
asupra factorului fizic. Braşov: Omnia
S.A.S.T. Publishing House, 2002.
13. PrescorniŃă, A. Antrenamentul sportiv:
o viziune integrativă. Braşov: Editura
UniversităŃii
„Transilvania””
din
Braşov, 2006.
14. Şiclovan, I. Teoria antrenamentului
sportiv. Bucureşti: Editura I.E.F.S.,
1985.
MORPHO-FUNCTIONAL AND
PSYCHIATRIC ASPECTS OF
CHILDREN AT THE AGE OF
10-14 YEARS
Dragoş TOHĂNEAN1
Abstract: This paper refers to the particularities of somatic, functional and
psychiatric development of children aged 10-14 years. The morphofunctional changes that take place during the preadolescence period are
essential, displaying themselves through the intensity of growth, especially
physical growth, which is characterized by a superior rhythm in comparison
with other periods of ontogenetic development. This period is characterized
by intensified growth (especially in stature) with the obvious development of
secondary sexual characteristics. This is the site of the mental age of the
ontogenetic stage of shaping individuality and human conduct.
Key words: growth, development, stages, maturation, adaptation.
Middle school age, between 10 and 14, is
one of the most important steps of
development
in
which
start
the
transformations that will ultimately lead to
the organism’s maturation. During this
period we may find a combination of
certain characteristics that are part of the
junior high process along with others that,
in one way or another, prefigure those
characteristics of teenagers. The morphofunctional changes that take place during
the preadolescence period are essential,
displaying themselves through the intensity
of growth, especially physical growth,
which is characterized by a superior
rhythm in comparison with other periods
of ontogenetic development. The entire
process of development can take different
shapes, but regardless of these, it does not
take place proportionally and is not
produced instantaneously at all the body’s
segmental levels. Growth can be defined as
1
the expression of the quantitative
phenomena regarding the body’s growth in
size and its segments. Development
gathers the qualitative processes of the
evolution and consists of the functional
differentiation of the tissues, the functional
perfection of the apparatus and the systems
within the organism [7].
Growth dominates – first of all the
superior and inferior limbs grow and
afterwards the thorax and the pelvis. All in
all, the average growth in height is
between 3-4 cm and 6-7 annually. At the
age of 11-12 the girls overgrow the boys a
bit, being taller, but between 13 and 14
years old this difference fades away. The
growth in height is accompanied by a gain
in weight, and the process of calcification
is intense. Thus, the facial part of the brain
is developed, the process of calcification in
the bones of the hands is finalized and the
growth of the permanent denture occurs.
158
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Brasov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
The adjustment of the growth process is
being influenced by the extra hypothalamic
existence
of
certain
somatostatine
secretions (STH) at the hypothalamic level,
and the receptors of the adrenergic
hormones stimulate the STH secretion,
whereas the noradrenergic hormones
inhibit this stimulation; the free fat acids,
with the help of the ventral median
nucleus, have a positive action on the STH;
the priogenical substances have a positive
action with the help of the thermoadjusting hypothalamic nucleus. The laws
of normal growth and development, stated
by [5, p. 300], are as follows: the unequal
and asymmetrical growth law of tissues
and organs; the different rhythm law of
growth and development; the proportion
law; the alternance law; the opposite sex
law of growth and development. Growth is
generally uniform [1, p. 536] becoming
really accelerated at the end of the period;
it mainly occurs in the elongation of the
inferior limbs, which generates a severe
fragility of the child’s body. Up to the age
of 10, the differences in growth of children
of opposite sex are not big; starting with
this age, the girls proceed to growth
acceleration due to puberty. Between 9-11,
for girls, and 11-12, for boys, this period
represents an active proliferation, which
leads to the incubation of the apophasis, of
the sesamoidal bones as well as the
finalization of the medullar cavity, a stage
that continues along with puberty.
If at the age of 8 years old the muscular
mass represents approximately 27.2% of
the entire body mass, at the age of 15 it
increases to 32.6%. Along with the
development of the muscular mass the
force increases also, having a boost
between 13 and 14 years old. For children
at the age before puberty the muscular
fibers are relatively larger than those of
adults and the tendon portions are shorter.
At the beginning of the period they are still
thin, have a big nucleus and are relatively
rich in karyoplasms and water. Among
them one can find a great amount of
conjunctive tissue. The muscular tonus is
lower for children at the age before
puberty in comparison with the adult’s,
which favors a better execution of the joint
movements, but aggravates the execution
of certain smooth movements segregated
by precision [7].
The neuromuscular excitability is lower
at junior high children in comparison with
adults, the cronaximetric values being
higher. The speed in reaction and
execution is very good, but the strength is
still weak, due to the reduced muscular
mass. At the age of 10 the girls manage to
achieve over 87% of the speed they will
develop at the end of their physical and
functional (17 years old) growth and
development, whereas the boys 75% of the
speed they will develop at the end of the
growth period.
The heart reacts strongly to effort, but
uneconomically; the coronary irrigation is
rich, the control mechanisms are still weak
till the age of 7, are poorly developed and
more proper as far as easy solicitations are
concerned. The heart has a globule shape,
the transversal diameter is longer than the
longitudinal diameter and the atriums are
bigger than the ventricles. The heart’s
transversal diameter is proportionally
longer than that of the adult’s. The growth
of the longitudinal diameter occurs at a
slow pace, until puberty. At the age of 7
the circumference of the right ventricle is 2
cm bigger than that of the left ventricle.
Tohănean, D.: Morpho-functional and Psychiatric Aspects of Children at the Age of 10-14
159
Fig. 1. Growth dynamics of the muscle mass from 8 to 15 years
At the age of 8 the weight of the heart is
of 96.0 g. For children before the age of
puberty the vascular net is relatively well
developed. The fast development of the
elastic type arteries simplifies the
myocardium’s task. At the age of 9 the
cardiac frequency at rest is an average
90-96/minute and 88-91/minute at the age
of 10; 87-88/minute at the age of 11 and
80/minute at the age of 13. This
tachycardia present in the first years of
school represents a significant burden for
the myocardium, given the energetic and
relatively important consumption of
maintaining a high cardiac rhythm of rest
and the weak economical (metabolic)
efficiency of sustaining this. When it
comes to effort the situation is far more
precarious since the volume of the heart is
smaller, any excess of blood irrigation to
the respective muscles claiming a
considerable boost of the cardiac
frequency, which has a negative impact on
the functional
efficiency of the
myocardium, which poorly handles intense
solicitations for a long period of time.
The respiratory apparatus undergoes a
very important development as well,
acquiring new functional capacities, being
capable of ensuring a better oxygen supply
of the organism, both in rest and in relative
intense efforts.
Thus, the amplitude of the respiratory
movements increases on average from 230
ml of air current volume at the age of 11,
up to 300 ml air at the age of 13, and up to
350 ml air at the age of 15. Nevertheless, a
decrease in the respiratory frequency is
recorded from 22 breathings/minute at the
age of 11, to 20 breathings/minute at the
age of 13, and to18 breathings/minute at
the age of 15. The vital capacity (VC)
marks a great leap in the puberty period.
At the age of 11, the child’s VC is
somewhere between 2000-2200 ml air. In
the first stage of puberty (10-13 years old)
the annual increase of the vital capacity is
up to 250 ml air for girls and up to 300 ml
air for boys. In the second stage of puberty,
the vital capacity develops quickly, the
annual increase of this parameter reaching
values of 400-500 ml air at the age of 1415, thus, at the end of the stage reaching an
average of 3500 ml air [4, p. 43-54].
In accordance with the characteristics of
the morphological
development, a
decreased capacity of functional resistance
and a decreased adaptation to the cardiovascular and respiratory apparatus is
observed as far as intense physical effort is
concerned.
160
The great organic and somatic
transformations, common at this age, are
accompanied by proper transformations in
the mental life as well.
At the age of 10, the age that marks the
end of junior high and the beginning of the
middle stage, the relief of the brain cortex
is being finalized, the intellectual
capacities are approaching a very high
level and the entire superior nervous
activity
is
developing
quickly.
Psychologically speaking, the child shows
a good mental
balance,
dealing
successfully with school tasks and
extracurricular activities. Intellectually
speaking, he is still shaped by the concrete,
assimilating
knowledge
without
manifesting a critical spirit.
At this age, all mental processes undergo
an ascendant development, notable
modifications being achieved. Thus, the
voluntary attention is being developed, and
the involuntary attention is being modified,
becoming
more
efficient.
The
preadolescent can concentrate and can be
attentive longer (approximately 2 hours),
often making efforts of correction and self
education as far as attention is concerned.
Moreover, the memory has an important
growth rhythm after the age of 10.
During this period, there are obvious
changes not only in the way the child
memorizes, but also in what he memorizes.
He often tries to put his memory to work
calling upon different cultural fields
(music, film, sport), the memory capacity
to this extent being really high. Storing the
logic is gradually achieved after 12 years.
This form of storage schemes operate with
logic. Evocation of memory, which is still
required, develops at ages 12-14. Motorverbal memory develops in puberty, in
addition to visual memory (situation) and
verbal memory, continuing to be
particularly active.
The
sensory-perceptual
evolution
browses a significant route for mental
development and adaptation activities.
Given the process of biological
maturation, sensitivity is also restructured
by erotic functions. The phenomenon is
most obvious in visual, auditory and tactile
sensitivity. Perceptual experience is under
the influence of development orders, and
observations
constitute
associations
leading him to express what he feels. He
learns to observe, be attentive to
everything that surrounds him, to show
interest in knowledge and thereby
stimulate complex functions intellect.
Fig. 2. Dynamic growth in the amplitude of respiratory
movements at ages 11, 13 and 15 [4]
Tohănean, D.: Morpho-functional and Psychiatric Aspects of Children at the Age of 10-14
The development of perception allows a
wider spatial and temporal orientation. In
general, perceptual experience is enriched
gradually.
In terms of thinking, it is still concrete
(12 years). The student specifically
enriches his comments, and not his
knowledge. After 12 years of age
significant changes occur in the structure
of thinking. The learning process as a way
to solve problematic situations is
complicated. The critical spirit develops
causing the young to validate values in
comparison with no value and show
explicit attitudes towards ignorance and
incompetence. Although more mature and
industrious girls do not exceed the
intellectual development of boys, they are
more compared to some comprehension of
the failure of peers or adults. They often
excel in matters involving complex verbal
expression, while boys are better at science
and technology. Operations and thinking
skills are in the process of strengthening
the power of the intellect as rich, complex
and abstract information. Knowledge of
this becomes more diverse and complex. It
creates a habit of frequently used schemes,
images, symbols and concepts of
transparency
understanding
complex
situations and strategies of expression.
As I said previously, the child has a good
balance mentally, but he may feel
moments of fatigue, headaches, irritability,
or restlessness. There is an alternation
between moments of voice, exuberant
conduct, and times of fatigue, apathy,
laziness. The child may become conflicting
or less active, may take breaks to relax that
extend too much even if he has not made
too great an effort.
“Although eleven and twelve year olds
may start wanting to do things more
independently, and they do need to stretch
their wings a little bit, they are certainly not
as capable of dealing with the world as some
of them would have you believe or as they
161
sometimes think themselves, so it is good for
them to check out situations to make sure
they are safe before they go off on their own.
Because eleven or twelve year olds may
be making first efforts at independence this
can change their relationship with parents.
Boys may move away from a close
relationship with their mothers and girls
who have had a good relationship with
their fathers may become a little
emotionally distant with them” [9].
Some researchers believe that children
of 10-12 years can manifest defensive
behaviors especially in overpopulated
environments. Yet, young people at this
age tend to develop independent attitudes
in relation to their family, but it is
important for members to offer significant
affective support in a discreet manner [3].
School and learning requirements lead to
changes in personality. There is a structure of
needs, interests, preferences and skills as a
result of the discovery by the child of the
importance to obtain the best results in his
activity. A particularly important role in
child development has, on the one hand, the
social
development
of
relationship
characteristics, and on the other hand,
receiving influences in the personality
structure of the new experiences and
knowledge. A social relationship bears the
hallmark of social life as a whole, as well
as school and family life. Social life is
lived with a greater intensity than in any
other stage of life. Groups for the game,
for learning activities or any other form of
action, have a high stability and become
more uniform, relatively constant criteria,
but especially based on age and sex
[8, p. 163-183].
In another vein, and to conclude, one
can say that the process of development
and human growth occurs in steps, stages
and periods that characterize the entire
course of life. By growth and development
we understand a dynamic complex of
biological processes undergone by the
162
human organism in its evolution to
maturation. Growth is a quantitative
process of cellular reproduction concerning
the body’s gaining in weight, volume and
size, whereas development represents a
qualitative
process
of
cellular
differentiation; in other words we are
talking about functional modifications and
qualitative improvements that mark a
perfection and adaptation of the
apparatuses and the systems within the
organism, a complex evolution and a
coordinate integration of them in a whole.
Given the above, I think that it is very
important for coaches to take into account the
physical and psychological changes that
children pass through, and adapt their
methods of sports training to age peculiarities.
References
1. Baciu, C. Anatomia funcŃională şi
biomecanica aparatului locomotor (cu
aplicaŃii în E.F.S.). Bucureşti: Editura
Sport- Turism, 1977.
2. Demeter, A. Bazele fiziologice ale
educaŃiei fizice şcolare. Bucureşti:
Editura Sport –Turism, 1982, p. 15-80.
3. Evans, G. The Effects of the Physical
Environment
on
Children’s
Development.
Available
at:
http://www.parenting.cit.cornell.edu
Accesed in 12.04.2009
4. Firea, E. ParticularităŃile somatofuncŃionale, psihice şi motrice la copii,
în
perioadele
prepubertară
şi
pubertară, şi valorificarea lor în
domeniul sportiv// Culegere de
materiale tehnico-metodice. Bucureşti:
F.R.F. Şcoala de antrenori, 2002.
5. Ionescu, A. Despre atitudinea corectă
a
corpului.
Bucureşti:
Editura
U.C.F.S., 1961.
6. Maziu, V.; Nicu, A.; Focşăneanu, Al.
PotenŃialul biometric al populaŃiei
şcolare cls. I-IV. Bucureşti: C.C.
E.F.S. 1972, p. 5-90.
7. Verza, E. Psihologia vârstelor.
Bucureşti: Editura Hyperion, 1993.
8. Verza, E.; Verza, F.E. Psihologia
vârstelor.
Bucureşti:
Editura
ProHumanitate, 2000.
9. http://www.cyh.com/HealthTopics/He
althTopicDetails.aspx?p=114&np=122
&id =1865. Accesed in 13.04.2009.
PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT IN
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND
SPORTS INSTITUTIONS
Ioan TURCU
1
Abstract: The path followed by this thesis is supposed to cover succinctly
most of the concepts and components of performance management in
physical education and sports institutions – brought to light by the greatest
specialists in this field – from a new perspective of modern organization
management and a society based on knowledge. The society based on
knowledge is an essential element of the “outer environment” of organization
management and is carrying specific opportunities and threats, while knowledge
resources are considered the key constituent of the “inner environment” of
organization management.
Key words: management, physical education and sport, strategy,
organization, performance.
More than 20 years ago, under the name
of informational society, the real flow of
goods and services started to be replaced
by the flow of information with the help of
virtual economy. Nowadays this economy
appears under the name of “society of
knowledge”, having the continuous
improvement of the human part as the
main factor in the progress of humanity.
As presented in the UNESCO report
”Higher Education in a Learning Society”,
we can say that ”the societies formed at
present and in the near future become more
and more societies of knowledge and
learning. Production, transmission and
application of knowledge in any domain of
activity are means of raising productivity.
At the same time, if there is no continuous
learning, the personal adaptability or the
individual way of living becomes of poor
quality in content and performance, and
the quality of life decreases in terms of
economic standards, of diversity and
1
profoundness of actions or cultural
experience. The intelligence based on
knowledge and professional competence
which is analyzed through the assimilation
of new abilities and knowledge indicates a
personal life of high quality, able to
contribute to the development of the
national and local community” [5].
The whole world is changing in order to
achieve high performances. Change is
certainly the axis for the whole mankind of
the 21st century. We notice that the
phenomenon of change, even if it is often
controversial, is becoming more important
every day. The organizations that will
succeed on this “journey” of transformation
are the organizations of the future – which
will of course derive from classical
organizations having the ability to challenge
the future and to hold up against it. Change is
a permanent “journey” of the whole modern
organization, while the manager is the guide
– the key factor in the attempt to change.
164
Therefore, the managers of the future must
own a series of qualities, knowledge, skills,
and behaviors common to the employees and
specific of the management. We offered a
general presentation about them and
underlined the great importance they play
from the point of view of the performances
achieved by the organization and its
management.
The major programs for change must
initially be guided by the head manager, who
will also use the power of change in order to
implement the programs. This power of
change could offer the new technologies or
conditions
for
legislative
changes,
privatization, free trade etc. Many times a
combination of these factors calls for a
fundamental reorganization of the activity
field. All these changes raise questions about
strategy, while the answers to these questions
impose much more than the redesigning of
the organization processes; it is necessary to
reinvent the organization itself.
The change into a post-capitalistic society
widens the spectrum of scientific approaches
in the field of value and its capacity to rise on
the whole front of scientific research and the
passing to a society based on knowledge. As
a result, the change – the element of
transition to a society based on knowledge –
is the name of the game that involves
everyone in the 21st century. It is not
surprising that in some cases the progress is
slowing down. The change starts with the
ones that hold the power of decision and the
initiative – the managers in general – it
stimulates the executants and it never ends,
no matter how good the global economy is.
The civilization that has just arrived –
based on knowledge – brings a new genuine
way of life based on: diversified resources
that are interchangeable and easy to replace;
production methods that replace the outdated
present fabrication systems; training systems
based on the capacities and virtues of the
individual versus the ones based on the
group. The new civilization based on
knowledge comes with a series of mutations
at the level of society: mass production is demassified; the mass market is segmented
down to “atoms”; the relative homogeneous
society becomes heterogeneous; the socialpolitical and economic life that once was
centralized becomes decentralized; the
problems of life which appear minor are
becoming global; the social-economic life,
relatively stable and stationary, is
accelerating. Under these circumstances we
are stressing the important role of
knowledge as the main resource for modern
organization and a fundamental resource
for the creation of value. The revolution of
cognizance leads to the expansion of
knowledge frontiers and decisively marks the
evolution of all components of the global
system. The acquiring, the ownership and the
capitalization of knowledge are becoming
the keys to a modern society.
The fortune and the power of the future
society will be based mainly on intangible
intellectual resources and on the knowledge
capital. The acquiring of fortune won’t be
possible without the rational combination of
the production factors, where the
“knowledge” factor will play the leading
role, being capable of substituting the others
without completely replacing them. The
acquired fortune will modify its structure in
favor of the created super-symbolic goods.
Traditional resources are exhaustible, finite
in time, while knowledge is unlimited and
inexhaustible at all levels, and continuously
grows if used.
The society based on knowledge is an
essential element of the “outer environment”
of organization management, and it carries
specific opportunities and threats, while
knowledge resources are considered the key
constituent of the “inner environment” of
organization management. The managerial
strengths and/or weaknesses end with a
success or failure of the managerial task of
the organization which operates in the
context of the emerging of three global
Turcu, I.: Performance Management in the Institutions of Physical Education and …
processes: the globalization of the economy,
the managerial revolution and the society
based on knowledge [4, p. 118].
The doctoral thesis entitled Performance
Management in Institutions of Physical
Education and Sports is written in the
context of the predictable mutations of the
21st century (change, globalization,
organization and management based on
knowledge) and distinguishes in the
conceptual part between the main
characteristics of the intellectual capital,
which represents the creational engine
for performance in the modern sports
organization:
the mobility of the intellectual
capital is much higher than that of
tangible assets;
the value of the intellectual capital
mostly depends on the capacity to
use it efficiently and to motivate
the people involved;
the value of the intangibles will get
higher and higher in the value
content of the future capital;
the multiplication capacity of the
intellectual capital is much higher
than other capitals;
the investments in intellectual
capital generate a series of other
investments;
the intellectual capital has a
specific circuit (with its help we
understand
the
economic
mechanism that permits adding
value to knowledge with an
economic finality).
There are plenty of reasons why the
management concept needs to be
introduced in physical education and
sports. The majority of respondents
confirm that the future world is based on
knowledge. Therefore it is obvious that the
leading features of the contemporary world
(change, economy, organization and
management based on knowledge), and the
knowledge capital have a great impact on
165
the activity of physical education and
sports.
In this society of knowledge and learning
we observe that the world’s leading
orientation is towards performance. It is
performance that really and highly
evaluates all kinds of resources, being the
most efficient and certain way to achieve
this goal.
Based on the same theory, the following
is confirmed about the activity of physical
education and sports:
the managerial act must be
streamlined on a social scale;
concrete criteria are needed in order
to distinguish between values;
strategic management is becoming
more important every day (the
adaptation of strategic management
depending on the possibilities,
objectives, needs and applying
individual strategic management –
in every sports branch, elaborating a
strategy for performance of a
minimum of four years).
The respondents also confirmed the
necessity of management in the activity of
physical education and sports. More so,
this management must be realized as a
subsystem of general management. Its
object consists of the functions, the
operations and the subsystems applied in
sports.
In order achieve performance, the
management of the modern organization
must consider three distinctive forms:
efficiency and effectiveness; completing
the strategic objectives; creating value.
Therefore, performance is the way to
satisfy both the needs of the internal
environment and those of the external
environment by finding a perfect
combination
of
efficiency
and
effectiveness. The latter measures what is
being done, while the efficiency shows us
how it is being done; it is not the same if
166
an institution generates a smaller or a
greater value in its attempt to achieve its
goals. This value appears in diverse forms,
sometimes tangible and sometimes not,
and is delivered to the clients,
shareholders, employees and partners. The
more value is being produced by one
institution, the longer the period of time
will be for investment in the competitive
battle.
Performance is the object and the subject
of management, and therefore we are
witnessing a fundamental interest of
management in performance.
Performance is the starting point for
competitiveness, and therefore performance
must become the basic philosophy for the
modern organization and for its management
[1, p. 79], [2, p. 63].
Although semantically performance is
widely accepted and utilized, from a
practical and theoretical point of view the
concept is poorly defined and has major
consequences on multiple levels [3, p. 9].
Because of a mixture of interdisciplinary
approaches, a miscellaneous research
methodology was necessary in regard to:
the study of a general and a special
bibliography concerning the theoretical
and practical status needed for the
elaboration of a scientifically founded
thesis; referring to the bi-dimensional
and/or tri-dimensional – past, present,
future – while elaborating concepts and
phenomena from the general to the
particular or from the particular to the
general; the questionnaire method for the
elaboration of a selective scientific
research.
Our research is based on an exploratorydescriptive investigation which serves our
goal the most and allows the gathering of
information from significant groups from
the point of view of their contribution to
identifying the problems and the solutions
from the field of physical education and
sports.
Before initiating any research we must
determine a set of presumptions which in
the end will be proved right or wrong. We
get started from the following hypotheses:
1. The subgroups of the research sample
offer diverse information from the
point of view of the problematic and
solutions in the field of physical
education and sports.
2. By processing the information we
observe a large number of statements
regarding the things that are not
functional and a smaller number
regarding the possible solutions.
3. Regarding the managerial solutions in
the field of physical education and
sports, we observe mainly theoretical
explanations to the detriment of
practical solutions.
4. The collection of data offers per
ensemble valuable and original
literature for the extraction of viable
solutions in the problematic of
physical education and sports.
The reasons for choosing this topic for
the
thesis
entitled
Performance
Management in the Institution of Physical
Education and Sports are:
I am working in this field; I am a
lecturer at the Faculty of Physical
Education and Sports of Transilvania
University in Braşov, chief assistant at
the Department of Theoretical Subjects
and Collective Sports;
the sports activity has a deep
managerial character anywhere and no
matter how it is being practiced;
management plays an important role in
the contemporary world;
sports is re-evaluated at governmental
and institutional levels, and under the
circumstances of an in-depth study one
can find possibilities for managerial
promotion on the steps of the
hierarchy.
Turcu, I.: Performance Management in the Institutions of Physical Education and …
The research goal is to integrate the
institutions of physical education and
sports in the economic-social structure of
the country in the context of European
integration and the internationalization of
organizations.
The main objective of the research is to
identify the present problems in the field of
physical education and sports and to find
possible solutions to get over them.
Starting from unity through diversity, the
four
subgroups
of
participants
(beneficiaries of the sports activity,
professors, managers and postgraduates in
management) all bring complementary
information which will outline a whole on
two different levels: problematic and
solutions.
In order to achieve the goals and general
objectives of this thesis we set a number of
specific objectives resuming the opinions
of those questioned regarding the
following aspects:
1. Positioning the institutions of physical
education and sports in the gear of the
Romanian society.
2. The role of the management in the
contemporary world and its impact on
the management of physical education
and sports institutions.
3. Predictable
mutations
in
the
contemporary world and their impact
on the management of physical
education and sports institutions: the
necessary assimilation and adaptation
to change.
4. Elements of general management
involved in the management of
physical
education and sports
institutions and their impact on
creating a
new
segment
of
management.
5. The economic, organizational and
managerial
impact
based
on
knowledge in the management of
institutions for physical education and
sports.
6.
167
The concept of performance in the
activity of physical education and
sports and its role in the contemporary
world.
7. The specificity of the management for
sports performance and its role in
completing the mission of physical
education and sports institutions.
8. The material resources of physical
education and sports institutions and
the role of financial management in
acquiring and administrating those
funds.
9. The systemic approach to physical
education and sports in the general
context of education and civilization.
10. The need to edit a handbook and
produce a specialty like the
management of physical education
and sports.
All these opinions form a large
spectrum, but we made a selection of four
categories of respondents involved in one
way or another in the topic of the thesis.
The first group of respondents, the
beneficiaries, solves problem situations
on a pragmatic level by anchoring the
state of affairs from the field of physical
education and sports to reality without
passing them through the filter of
experience in this specialty. They will
offer great value to the research because
change is very important at this level.
Their opinion counts.
We are asking from the second group of
respondents, from the educational system,
to handle problem situations and to solve
them practically with the person as the
beneficiary.
The third group, the managers, is
expected to offer solutions by respecting
the equation costs-benefits referring to
the modalities of modernization. They
aim for the investment system.
The fourth group, the postgraduates in
the field of management, who show a large
168
spectrum of interests and preoccupations,
and who use the newest sources of
theoretical and practical accumulation of
material, will offer dynamic points of view
and interactive visions.
The results of this research stand as a
reference point not only for the institutions
involved in the analyses but for all the
factors involved or interested in this
problematic, and who believe that it is
important to offer professional education
to the people involved in the activity of
physical education and sports, and to those
who do performance management in
institutions of this type.
All these objectives are the foundation of
the doctoral thesis entitled Performance
Management in the Institution of Physical
Education and Sports, which is built on
consulting a vast bibliography, part of which
(60%) was published after the year 2000.
The path followed by this thesis is
supposed to cover succinctly most of the
concepts and components of performance
management in physical education and
sports institutions – brought to light by the
greatest specialists in this field – from a
new perspective of modern organization
management and a society based on
knowledge.
The thesis delimits the essential
coordinates of performance management in
institutions of physical education and
sports under the major impact of the
predictable mutations of the 21 st century –
change,
globalization,
economy,
knowledge-based
management
and
organization – and offers solutions along
these coordinates to some of the problems
by proposing improvement for the
managerial activity and by bringing
arguments for some of the theories. After
saying all this we do not consider the
subject closed and we admit that there are
some problems that require subsequent
detailed research.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Bogdan, I. Managementul afacerilor
internaŃionale.
Sibiu:
Editura
UniversităŃii „Lucian Blaga”, 2007.
Bogdan, I. Managementul eficienŃei
investiŃiilor.
Bucureşti:
Editura
Universitară, 2004.
Herciu, M. Managementul financiar
al firmei viitorului. Sibiu: Editura
Continent, 2005.
Nicolescu, O. Economia, organizaŃia
şi managementul bazate pe cunoştinŃe.
Bucureşti: Editura Economică, 2006.
http://www.edu.ro/index.php/articles/t
ext/8417
AUTHORS INDEX
A
Albulescu, E. ..................................... 81
B
Balint, L. .......................................... 107
Beldean, L. .......................................... 9
Bostan, M. ......................................... 17
C
Cioroiu, S. G. ..............................85, 127
Chicomban, M. .................................. 93
D
Demenescu, V. L. .............................. 21
N
Nechita, F. ....................................... 135
Nireşteanu, L. .................................... 37
P
Pepelea, R........................................... 41
Petrescu, A. R. . .................................. 45
Petrescu, C. F. .................................... 49
Pop, C................................................. 55
R
Rucsanda, M. ..................................... 61
S
Scurt, C. ....................................139, 145
E
Enoiu, R. .......................................... 101
Simion, G. ....................................... 151
Enoiu, R. S. ...................................... 101
T
Tohănean, D. ................................... 157
F
Feşteu, F. ......................................... 107
Turcu, I. ........................................... 163
Filip, I. ............................................... 27
ł
łuŃu, C. .............................................. 67
I
Ionescu-Bondoc, D. ......................... 115
V
Vârlan, P.M. ....................................... 73
M
Martoma, A. .................................... 119
MăniuŃ, P. M. ..................................... 31
Z
Zanfirescu, G. .................................. 139
Moldovan, E. ..............................85, 127
Zanfirescu, M. ................................. 145

century

Transcription

Similar documents

NEWSLETTER

11/21/03 – PITTSBURGH POST-GAZETTE - BUSINESS

onam competition- floral rangoli

12th edition, 2013

2014–2015 Season Content Guide

Adolescent Health Center http://adolescent.ChildrensAL.org

Perform acquires Turkish digital sports media co Mackolik

JUNE Tue 16 Young Musicians Platform Thu 18

pajulahti speed endurance conference

Dirty Rotten Scoundrels