integrated protection of field crops

Transcription

INTEGRATED
PROTECTION OF
FIELD CROPS
Edited by
I.PERI] and M.IVANOVI]
Proceedings of the International Symposium organised
by the Plant Protection Society of Serbia in collaboration
with International Organization for Biological Control of
Noxious Animals and Pests–East Paleartic Section, held
in Vrnja~ka Banja, Yugoslavia, on 25th September 1998
Plant Protection Society of Serbia
Belgrade, 1999
Integrated Protection
of Field Crops
Edited by I.PERI] and M.IVANOVI]
Proceedings of the International Symposium
organised by the Plant Protection Society of
Serbia in collaboration with International
Organization for Biological Control of Noxious
Animals and Pests – East Paleartic Section
25th September 1998
Vrnja~ka Banja, Yugoslavia
Belgrade, 1999
PROCEEDINGS OF INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON
INTEGRATED PROTECTION OF FIELD CROPS
Vrnja~ka Banja, September 25, 1998
Published in Belgrade, 1999
Editors
Dr Ilija Peri}
Dr Mirko Ivanovi}
Published by
Nemanjina 6; 11080 Belgrade 80, Yugoslavia
E-mail: [email protected]; internet: www.plantprs.org.yu
Publisher's Representative:
Dr Ilija Peri}, President of the Society
Computer Layout
Dragan Obradovi}
Ivanka Kraus
Printed by
NEPEX- Belgrade
CIP - Katalogizacija u publikaciji
Narodna biblioteka Srbije, Beograd
632:633 (063) (082)
Integrated Protection of Field Crops: Proceedings of the International Symposium
organised by the Plant Protection Society of Serbia in collaboration with International
Organization for Biological Control of Noxious Animals and Pests - East Palearctic
Section, 25th September 1988, Vrnja~ka Banja, Yugoslavia / edited by I.[Ilija] Peri} and
M.[Mirko] Ivanovi}. - Belgrade : Plant Protection Society of Serbia, 1999 (Belgrade :
NEPEX). - VIII, 225 str.: ilustr.; 24 cm
"International Symposium ... in the scope of the 4th Yugoslav Congress of Plant
Protection (Vrnja~ka Banja, September 21-26,1998)..."
® Preface. - Str.IV-V: Preface / I.[Ilija] Peri} and M.[Mirko] Ivanovi}.. - Bibliografija uz
svaki rad. - Abstracts. - Registar.
1. Plant Protection Society of Serbia (Belgrade) 2. International Organization for
Biological Control of Noxious Animals and Pests. East Palearctic Section
a) Usevi - Za{tita - Zbornici
ID+87048716
YU-ISBN 86-83017-03-6
INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON INTEGRATED
PROTECTION OF FIELD CROPS
Vrnja~ka Banja, September 25, 1998
Organizing Committee
Dr Sreten Stamenkovi}/President
Dr Franja Ba~a
Dipl.Ing.Piljo Daki}
Dr Ibrahim Elezovi}
Dr Mirko Ivanovi}
Dr Stevan Jasni}
Dr Stevan Ma{irevi}
Dr Dimitrije Matijevi}
Dr Ljubodrag Mihajlovi}
Dr Ne{ko Ne{kovi}
Dr Nade`da A.Prilepskaja
Dr @Ivica Radin
Dr Eduard A.Sadomow
Dr Radoslava Spasi}
Dr Radojko Stankovi}
Dr Jelka Tiodorovi}
Dr Dragan Todorovi}
Dipl.Ing.Goran Milo{evi}
Scientific Committee
Dr
Dr
Dr
Dr
Dr
Dr
Dr
Dr
Dr
Mirko Ivanovi} / President
Jelica Bala`
Vaskrsija Janji}
Dragan KaradÌ}
Branka Krsti}
Jelena Levi}
Radmila Petanovi}
Du{an Petri}
Stefan S.Prushinsky
Dr
Dr
Dr
Dr
Dr
Dr
Dr
Dr
Dr
Milojko Rankovi}
Jurij F.Savotikov
Radosav Sekuli}
Anatolij A.Smetnik
Svetomir Stamenkovi}
Srbobran Stojanovi}
Milorad [estovi}
Slavoljub Vitorovi}
Zora Vu~ini}
Secretary of the Organizing and Scientific Committiee: Ivanka Kraus
PREFACE
Currently the world is faced with the need of increasing food
production whereby the use of both scientific and technological advances
is desirable in order to enhance crop production. Considering the
restricted arable land area, raising crop yields per unit area is the
necessary solution to issues that relate to food production increase.
Considerable results have been achieved in the field of
agricultural production in Yugoslavia whereby plant protection was based
on the application of appropriate pesticides. In our country no less than
in other countries research was primarily focused on integrated plant
protection. In practice, however, integrated plant protection was only
partially implemented. Thus the Plant Protection Society of Serbia in
cooperation with the International Organization for Biological Control of
Noxious Animals and Pests - East Palearctic Section has organized the
International Symposium on Integrated Protection of Field Crops in the
scope of the 4th Yugoslav Congress of Plant Protection (Vrnja~ka Banja,
September, 21-26, 1998) in order to contribute to the enhancement of
integrated plant protection in Yugoslavia and elsewhere. Both the
Congress and the Symposium have also been dedicated to the
centennial of the first plant protection beneficial animals act in Serbia
known as the Act on Pest and Plant Control and Beneficial Animals
Protection which has been passed by King Aleksandar Obrenovi} of
Serbia on 16 July 1898 following the decision of the National Assembley.
The Congress and the Symposium were held under the auspices
of the Federal Ministry for Agriculture, Federal Ministry for Development,
Science and Environment of Yugoslavia, Ministry for Science and
Technology and the Ministry for Agriculture, Forestry and Water
Resources of the Republic of Serbia.
The Organizing and Scientific Committee has decided to publish
the Proceedings of the Papers presented at the Symposium. Of the 27
papers presented 25 have been submitted by researchers from Belarus,
Hungary, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovak Republic and Yugoslavia.
The introductory paper which has been presented by Dr. Smetnik
discusses the achievements and the functioning of the East Palearctic
Section of IOBC (MOBB). Other papers deal with issues that relate to
integrated plant protection starting with some general remarks on the
results of the research activities and the functioning of the integrated
crop protection programs in some countries and ending with the specific
results with regard to crop protection problems.
iv
It is our hope that the Proceedings will contribute to scientific
references in the field of crop protection and provide information to those
whose field of interest is integrated protection.
We are appreciative to the East Palearctic Section of IOBC for
their cooperation with the Plant Protection Society of Serbia and thank
the authors of the papers who have contributed to the success of the
Symposium and the contents of this publication.
I.Peri} and M.Ivanovi}
EDITORS
v
CONTENTS
PREFACE ....................................................................................................... iv
INTRODUCTORY PAPER
A.I.Smetnik
EASTERN PALEARCTIC REGIONAL SECTION OF IOBC: SOME
CURRENT ACHIEVEMENTS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS ........................1
OTHER SYMPOSIUM PAPERS
Du{an âmprag, Tatjana Kere{i, Radosav Sekuli} and Petar [trbac
MONITORING OF PEST POPULATION DYNAMICS - A
CORNERSTONE OF INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT IN FIELD
CROPS ............................................................................................................7
V.A.Zakharenko
SCIENTIFIC MAINTENANCE AND PROTECTION OF FIELD CROPS
IN RUSSIA ....................................................................................................13
M.P.Lessovoi and N.M.Tron
INTEGRATED PROTECTION OF AGRICULTURAL CROPS IN
UKRAINE .......................................................................................................23
Vilor Samersov and Lyudmila Trepashko
PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT OF INTEGRATED PLANT
PROTECTION SYSTEMS.............................................................................29
Stefan Pruszyñski
CONDITIONS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTEGRATED CROP
PROTECTION PROGRAMS IN POLAND ...................................................37
J.Nawrot, J.Szafranek, A.Pradzynska, E.Malinski and Z.Winiecki
INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM) AGAINST STORED
PRODUCT PESTS........................................................................................53
vi
Károly Biber, Ilona Aponyi-Garamvölgyi, Gábor Princzinger, Tibor
Halmágyi and Rozália Rátai-Vida
WINTER WHEAT MANAGEMENT BASED ON THE TECHNOLOGICAL
VALUE OF FUNGICIDES IN HUNGARY....................................................67
Jano Tancik, Franja Ba~a, Ludovit Cagán and @ivica Radin
EFFECT OF SWEET MAIZE SOWING DATES ON THE DEGREE OF
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER (Ostrinia nubilalis Hbn.)
INFESTATION IN NORTH - WEST VOJVODINA ......................................75
Ioan Rosca, Felica Muresan, Elena Trotus, Angela Udrea, Constantin
Popov, V.Brudea, Elena Bucurean and M.Voicu
ROLE AND PLACE OF SYNTHETIC SEXUAL PHEROMONES IN THE
INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT IN ROMANIA..................................85
Du{ka Simova-To{i}, Radmila Petanovi}, Radoslava Spasi}, Olivera
Petrovi}, Draga Graora, Du{anka Jerini}
PHYTOPHAGOUS INSECTS AND MITES ON WEEDS IN WHEAT
FIELDS AND MARGINS...............................................................................95
Boìdar Manojlovi}, Anton Zabel, Sla|an Stankovi} and Miroslav Kosti}
ATTACK AND FREQUENCY OF PHYTOPHAGOUS INSECTS FROM
THE FAMILY Tephritidae (Diptera) IN THE FLOWER HEADS OF
Carduus acanthoides L. (Asteraceae, Tubuliglorae).................................105
Pantelija Peri}, Nenad Dimi}, Slobodan Krnjaji}, Marina Vuk{a and
Marina Cvetkovi}
USE OF PARASITIOIDS IN CONTROLLING Trialeurodes vaporariorum
Westwood IN GLASSHOUSE TOMATO PRODUCTION..........................119
Radoslava Spasi} and Dragica Smiljani}
STEM-MINING FLIES (DIPTERA, AGROMYZIDAE) AS POTENTIAL
WEED BIOCONTROL AGENTS ................................................................129
Constantin Popov, Alexandru Barbulescu, I.Vonica and Ioan Rosca
NEW APPROACHES REGARDING INTEGRATED SUNN PEST
(Eurygaster integriceps Put.) MANAGEMENT.........................................137
Alexandru Barbulescu and Ioan Rosca
CONTROL OF Ostrinia nubilalis Hb. BY INHERITED STERILITY AS
PART OF INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT .....................................147
vii
Voinescu Ion and Alexandru Barbulescu
EVOLUTION OF MAIZE LEAF WEEVIL (Tanymecus dilaticollis Gyll.)
IN VARIOUS CROPS DEPENDING ON THE PRECEDING CROP.......157
Franja Ba~a and Miladin Veskovi}
EFFECTS OF FERTILIZER RATES ON BOTH GRAIN YIELD AND
THE DEGREE OF PLANT LODGING CAUSED BY Diabroticia virgifera
virgifera Le Conte IN 1997 AND 1998......................................................165
Ragheb Thalji
SOME FACTORS DETERMINING THE EFFICIENCY OF
COCCINELLID LARVAE AS BIOLOGICAL AGENTS...............................175
Radmila Petanovi}, Dragica Smiljani} and Biljana Magud
ERIOPHYOID MITES AS POTENTIAL BIOCONTROL AGENTS OF
MEADOW WEEDS......................................................................................181
K.Ju.Samojlov
PRIMENENIE BIOPREPARATOV V TEHNOLOGIJAKH
PROIZVODSTVA ZERNOVYKH KUL'TUR ................................................189
Vera Stoj{in, Adam Mari} and Branko Marinkovi}
EFFECT OF DROUGHT, HIGH TEMPERATURES AND MINERAL
NUTRITION ON THE OCCURRENCE OF CHARCOAL ROOT ROT
OF SUGAR BEET (Macrophomina phaseolina Tassi Goidanich) ...........195
Milena Stanojevi}, Lidija Stefanovi} and Borivoje [inàr
MAIZE INFESTATION WITH Datura stramonium (L.) AND Xanthium
spp. (L.) IN RELATION TO CROP MANAGEMENT ................................205
Zlata Kloko~ar-[mit, Jano{ Berenji, Du{anka In|i} and H.Pastor
POTENTIALS OF Hadrotrichum sorghicola IN BIOCONTROL OF
JOHNSON GRASS IN VIEW OF CULTIVATED SORGHUM
SUSCEPTIBILITY ........................................................................................211
Du{anka In|i}, Radmila Alma{i, Zlata Kloko~ar-[mit, Slavica Jovanovi}
and Maja Vajovi}
EFFECT OF NONPESTICIDE PRODUCTS ON INSECTS IN
STORAGE ...................................................................................................219
INDEX OF AUTHORS ................................................................................225
viii
Proceedings of International Symposium on Integrated Protection of Filed Crops,
Vrnja~ka Banja, 1998
Introductory paper
EASTERN PALEARCTIC REGIONAL SECTION OF IOBC:
SOME CURRENT ACHIEVEMENTS AND FUTURE
PROSPECTS
A.I.Smetnik, President of the IOBC EPRS
IOBC EPRS was established in 1977. The main goal of the
Section as defined by its Statute is to promote researches and
incorporate biological control measures in plant protection practice.
The establishment of EPRS has created new possibilities of
expanding the realm of IOBC activities in the Region by means of
systematic exchange of beneficial organisms and the data on
investigations with the objective of using them in the context of the IPM,
the final goal being speeding up theoretic and practical development in
the field of biological methods of plant protection as a whole.
In order to achieve these goals 6 Standing Commissions have
been active within the Section: Editorial-and-Publishing Commission,
Entomophage and Weed Phytophage Commission, Commission for
Microbiological Plant Protection Measures, Commission for Integrated
Pest Management, Commission for Genetic and other new selective
methods, Commission for Biological Protection of Forests. Within the
framework of these commissions 16 ad hoc working groups have been
established with the objective of solving issues pertaining to biocontrol
measures in agricultural crops and forestry. Over 150 scientists and
specialists from Belarus, Bulgaria, Hungary, Georgia, Kazakhstan,
Moldova, Poland, Russia, Romania, Slovakia, Chech Republic, Ukraine
have been engaged. Recently specialists from Macedonia and Yugoslavia
have joind the Section’s activities. All in all there are about 30
institutions.
Of great importance in the matter of uniting the efforts of
scientists and specialist of the IOBC EPRS member-countries in the field
of biocontrol has been the works of Editorial-and-Publishing Commission.
Annual issues of the "Information Bulletin” provided the Section with the
possibility to inform its members of the main results of scientific and
practical biological plant protection activities achieved in its membercountries. Besides the “Information Bulletin”, a number of books and
subject collections of works on the topical problems of the biological
method and in particular “Determinator of species in Genus Tricogramma
in the World Fauna”, “Biological Method of Controlling Pests and
1
Diseases in the Protected Ground", “Microbiological Protection of Plants”,
“The Preparations for Plant Protection”, “Phytosanitary Diagnostics”,
“'Ecological Problems of Plant Protection in Modern Agriculture”,
“Integrated Method of Protection of Vineyards and Vegetable Crops”, and
some others.
Some years ago, the “Plant Protection and Quarantine Journal”
which is published in Russia under the auspices of IOBC EPRS has
instituted a special heading reflecting the latest news about the Section’s
current activities and the undertaking under consideration. The Journal
appears monthly providing thereby for a timely informing of a vast
audience of scientists and specialists in the area of plant protection and
quarantine. Under this heading, besides taking up questions of the
0rganization’s activities, the results of investigations of IOBC EPRS
members, subject selections of articles treating the problems of the
biocontrol method’s further progressing are being published, as well as its
part in integrated systems of plant protection, particular entomophages
and the methods of their use and rearing, microbiological preparations
etc. The authors of these articles from the CIS and East European
countries are mostly also the members of the Section.
There is a great interest in the results of our scientists’ works
witnessed by animated discussions at various international symposia.
The IOBC EPRS emblem is born by published in St.Petersburg a
Russian Academy of Sciences periodical “Zoosystematica Rossica”. This
publication comes out completely in English and reflects the results of
investigations in systematic and taxonomy of entomophages, insects and
other representatives of the animal world.
The main intention of the SC’s and “WG’s has been concentrated
on further progress and development of the biological method to combat
pests and diseases of agricultural crops in the EPRS member-countries.
A considerable attention has been given to such matters as studying
natural biological agents and evaluation of their potential to be used in
IPM systems, organizing biomaterials and biologically active substances
exchanges both between the EPRS member-countries and other IOBC
Regional Sections, to publishing accomplished works.
Let me briefly dwell on some achievements of the Section.
The SC on weed entomophages and phytophages for the first
time compiled the Determinator of 127 species of Genus Trichogramma,
which are most widely used in biocontrol practice. It includes both widely
used and newly described entomophagous species. This Determinator
shall facilitate quality monitoring of Trichogramma reared at biofabrics and
biolaboratories, which will be conductive to improving the effectiveness of
the method.
2
A.I. Smetnik: Eastern Palearctic Regional Section of IOBC: Some Current Achievements
and Future Prospects
The commission members have generalized the experience
obtained in introduction and acclimatization of promising beneficial
organisms in the countries of East Europe, it has published annotated
lists of entomophages of the most important pests of agricultural crops
and forests (Potato moth - Phtorimaea operculella, phytophageus mites Tetranychus spp., gypsy moth - Lymantria dispar, pineshoot tortrix moth Rhyacionia buoliana).
The IOBC RPRS member countries for introduction and
acclimatization of entomophagous agents have conducted large-scale
works. In the course of more than 20-year period, over 120 species of
parasitic and predatory insects have been introduced from 25 countries.
As a result of introductions a complete success has been achieved
against 8 species of adventive pests cottony cushion scale - Icerya
purchasi; white scale– Pseudaulacaspis pentagona; Comstock’s mealybug
- Pseudococcus comstocki; citrus white fly - Dialeurodis citri; Japanese
wax scale - Ceroplastes japonicus; wooly apple- aphid Eriosoma
lanigerum; black scale - Saissetia olea; citrus mealybug Pseudococcus
gahani (Izhevsky, 1990).
The entomophages introduced belong to 20 families of 5 orders:
62% of their number represent only 3 families: Coccinellidae, Encyrtidae
and Aphilinidae. As a whole, every fifth entomophage succeeded in
getting acclimatized of those that had been released in the field.
In prospect, the works for introducing entomophages in the IOBC
EPRS member-countries should be expanded as over 80 adventive pest
species have been established in their territory while programs for
introduction have been carried out against 41 species.
Introduction and acclimatization of natural enemies of
phytophagous insects are widely used in the protected ground where
phytophagous could be regarded as species of foreign origin (Beglyarov;
Smetnik, 1991).
Numerous works for colonization of phytoseiulus, Chrysopa
species and others have demonstrated that modern technologies of
cultivating vegetable crops exclude acclimatization of entomophages in
the protected ground. Thus, as a general strategy, introduction and
seasonal colonization are used. For polyphagous and wide oligophagous
agents incapable to reproduce in glasshouses on their own, a tactics of
inundation releases is used.
The maximum effect is generally achieved, both in the open field
and in the protected ground, by using narrowly specialized predators and
parasites.
As a whole, the scope of application of the biological method in
the protected ground in the recent years is as high as about 30 per cent
of the total glasshouse area.
3
In the open ground, the most widely used agent is oophage
Trichogramma: Tr. embryophagum, Tr. evanescens, Tr. euproctidis, Tr.
cacoeciae.
Using the method of seasonal colonization, Trichogramma is used
to control noxious noctuids: Mamestra brassicae, Heliothis armigera,
Scotia segetam and other species on vegetable crops, cereals, sugar
beet, cotton and other crops, as well as against the European corn borer
(Ostrinia nubilalis) and tortricid pea-leaf roller (Laspeyresia nigricana).
It must be noted that IOBC EPRS activities have made a
considerable contribution to developing and practical introduction of
mechanized lines for Trichogramma rearing. In the former USSR there
were more than 800 of these. One mechanized line provided for turning
out 4 to 5 mln Trichogramma individuals for 24 hrs, which was enough
for application on the 35 to 45 thousand ha, area, per season. In various
agroclimatic zones of the IOBC EPRS member-countries a vast
experience has been accumulated in using Trichogramma. A timely
application of standard quality Trichogramma ensured 60 to 80 per cent
of noxious noctuids and 40 to 50 per cent of European corn bores
individuals being parasitized. (IOBC EPRS Inf.Bull. No.11, 1985).
Some ways have been developed and introduced of improving
viability of Trichogramma reared on Angoumois grain moth, and in
particular, of raising its searching abilities. A stereotyped pattern of the
annual cycle of Trichogramma rearing has been recommended based on
the collection of parasitized eggs in nature with one or two autumn
passages on Noctuids’ eggs, with further inducing the biomaterial’s
diapause followed by two spring passages on the main host’s eggs and
three to four passages on Angoumois grain moth eggs prior to the
release in the field.
An equipment has been created which found a wide use for
aerial spreading of Trichogramma with the capacity up to 250 ha per
hour (IOBC EPRS Inf. Bull. To .11, 1985).
A great attention has been paid to the IOBC EPRS membercountries with regard to the problems of entomophages’ systematic and
ecology, their studying and surveys in agrobiocenoses. Methodological
instructions have been developed for the application of the performance
criteria to populations of natural enemies, the necessary identification
literature has been published, some methods of maintaining, the
landscape combinations for preserving and activizing natural
entomophage populations have been recommended.
Taking into account these recommendations, chemical treatments
are abolished annually on an area exceeding 10 mln ha owing to the
preservation and higher activity of natural entomophages.
4
A.I. Smetnik: Eastern Palearctic Regional Section of IOBC: Some Current Achievements
and Future Prospects
A number of biopreparations has been created to combat noxious
insects, which are now being produced at the microbiological industry
enterprises, which are based on various strains of entomopathogenic
bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis. They are used mainly against caterpillars
of white butterflies (Pieridae), moths (Yponomeutidae), tortrices
(Tortricidae), pyralidid moths (Pyralidae), measuring worms (Geometridae),
noctuids (Noctuidae), lasiocampid moths (Lasiocampidae), tussock moths
(Orgydae).
With two or three repeated treatments at the rates recommended,
a 70 to 90 per cent effectiveness is achieved in cabbage, in fruit
orchards, berry-fields, vine-yards, beet, alfalfa, cotton and other
agricultural crops. Preparation Bitoxibacillin including endo - and exotoxins
has proved to be effective in controlling the Colorado potato beetle not
yielding in effectiveness to chemical preparations. Industrial
biopreparations are used on a 2 mln ha area approximately.
For microbiological controlling mice-like rodents (Rodentia) a
bacterial preparation Bactorodencide has been created on the basis of
the Isachenko’s bacterium (Salmonella enteritidis). The preparation has
been put on the market in two formulations: one employing grain and the
other employing aminated bone meal. The species which have proved to
be susceptible to Bactorodencide are house mouse (Mus musculatus),
forest mouse (Apodemus silvaticus), striped field mouse (Microtus
arvalis). Bactorodencide’s physiological efficiency is equal to 70 to 90 per
cent. The greatest amounts of its application have been as great as 5
mln ha treated annually.
In IOBC EPRS member-institutions, collections of promising
producer-strains have been formed possessing a high biological activity
against dangerous pests to wit: rodents, aphids, whiteflies thripses, spider
mites and midges, noxious coleopterous and lepidopterous species, as
well as causal agents of vegetable crop diseases (root rots, powdery
mildews, antracnoses, bacterioses and viroses).
Some new biopreparations have been created: Nemabact (on the
basis of nematodes) to combat weevils, thripses, leaf miners, crikets,
cabbage flies Bacicol to combat noxious coleopterous species: Colorado
potato beetle, beetles damaging cruciferous plants and other dangerous
pests; Alirin-S, Alirin-B (created on the basis of streptomycetes) to protect
vegetable and cereal crops against root rots, alternarioses and other
diseases; Gamair (on the basis of Bac. subtilis) have proved to be
effective against tomato bacterioses (Pavlyushine, I998).
Investigations have been conducted on the action and afteraction
of microbiological means of plant protection on the entomophage
populations (Chrysopa sp., Aphidius sp., Aphidimisa midge etc.) with the
5
aim of integrating biopreparations in the systems of biological protection
of cabbage and vegetable crops in the protected ground.
The problem should be studied from the standpoint of creating
the system of regional small output works for production of
biopreparations taking into consideration the fact that in a number of
zones there are already biolaboratories engaged in their production.
Every such enterprise (the volume and list of items produced at
each one being dependent on its specialization and the needs of a region)
could put out not only microbiological means of plant protection but also,
using the same equipment, other biopreparations such as those intended
for soil fertilization or for veterinary purposes. The development of
infrastructure of such enterprises (with many of them already in operation
in Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, Poland) provides for the
biopreparations put out immediately for the season using energy saving
systems.
The agricultural industry of our countries has undergone
considerable changes. Under these new conditions the progress in
scientific researches and organization of introducing their results must
take into account the changes which had occurred.
As a positive phenomenon should be considered a general drop
in pesticides’ use though this is not only the result of IPM introduction
but rather the consequence of changes in the available range of
pesticides and of a considerable rise in the prices for them.
In Russia for example 20 to 25 thousand tons of pesticides (in
a.i.) are delivered and used annually for agricultural needs this being 1-2fold lower than in other countries.
This opens wider possibilities for using biological means and in
the first place for introducing pest and disease resistant and tolerant
varieties and hybrids.
It should be emphasized that this direction belongs to the
priorities in the research and practical programs for cereals, sunflower,
corn, potato and other crops in the IOBC EPRS member-countries
REFERENCES
Beglyarov,G.A., Smetnik,A.I.: Situation and Prospects on Biological
Control in Protected Crops. In: Technical Innovation Agriculture and
Environment, Rome, Italy, 1991.
IOBC EPRS, Inf. Bull., No.ll, 1985.
Izhevsky,S.S.: Introdukcia i primenenie entomophagov, Moskva, 1990.
Pavlyushine,V.A.: Protection biologique des vegetaux, element le
plus essentiel de l’ toptimization phytosaniteire des agroecosystemes in:
“Protection biologiquc des vegetau...” Tunis, 1998.
6
MONITORING OF PEST POPULATION DYNAMICS - A
CORNERSTONE OF INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT IN
FIELD CROPS
Du{an âmprag1, Tatjana Kere{i1, Radosav Sekuli}2
and Petar [trbac1
1
2
Faculty of Agriculture, Novi Sad, Yugoslavia
Institute of Field and Vegetable Crops, Novi Sad, Yugoslavia
ABSTRACT
In the period 1961-1995 the population dynamics of several major
pests of various field crops and specialized sugarbeet pests was
monitored in the chernozem fields of northern Serbia (the region of
Ba~ka). Insect samples were collected in wheat fields (a preceding crop
for row crops) and in sugarbeet fields. Pest densities per m2 ranged from
0.6 to 8.2 for Elateridae, 0.3 to 2.9 for Melolonthidae, 0.0 to 15.5 for
Bothynoderes punctiventris Germ., 0.1 to 18.6 for Mamestra spp. and 2
to 74 for Scrobipalpa ocellatella Boyd. Positive and negative correlations
were found between the numbers of xerophilous and hygrophilos species
and the occurrence of drought during growing season. The monitoring of
pest population dynamics allows an efficient and cost-effective control of
pests in field crops as well as the long- and short-term forecasting of the
intensity of pest occurrence. It is therefore an important part of integrated
pest management.
Key words: Pest, population dynamics, field crops, Serbia
INTRODUCTION
Integrated pest management (IPM), a new strategy of pest control
introduced in the mid-1980s combines various control methods.
Monitoring of pest population dynamics is an important part of IPM
because it allows the forecasting of pest occurrence.
This paper presents long-term data gathered in northern Serbia
on the population dynamics of several important general pests and those
specialized on sugarbeets.
7
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Population dynamics of several major pests of field crops was
monitored in the period 1961-1995 in the region of Ba~ka (the Vojvodina
Province, northern Serbia). The analyzed region has about 0.7 million
hectares of arable land and the chernozem soil type predominates. The
annual precipitation is 586 mm, the mean air temperature 11.2oC. The
major field crops grown in the region are corn, wheat, sunflower,
sugarbeet, etc.
The monitoring of population dynamics included the following pest
families, genera and species: Elateridae, Melolonthidae, Bothynoderes
punctiventris Germ., Scrobipalpa ocellatella Boyd. and Mamestra spp.
Scoutings were performed in September and October in the fields of
large state farms.
On average, 50 sugarbeet fields and 170 fields after wheat
harvest were checked each year. The size of the fields was about 80 ha.
The average number of soil samples taken was 0.4 per ha. Each sample
included an area of 0.25 m2 to the depth of 50 cm. These samples were
used for monitoring the Coleoptera and Lepidoptera species. The
presence of S.ocellatella was determined on 100 sugarbeet plants (10
plants in 10 sites). The material sampled was determined in the
entomological laboratory of the Faculty of Agriculture in Novi Sad.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Elateridae. Agriotes ustulatus Schall. was the dominant clickbeetle
species, followed by A. sputator L. etc. Multiplication of clickbeetles was
encouraged by humid weather. In the period 1961-1995 wireworms
density varied annually from 0.6 to 8.2 or 3.2/m2 on average. The
average densities per decade were 1.8 in the 7th decade, 3.9 in the 8th
decade, 4.6 in the 9th decade, but only 1.7/m2 in the first half of the 10th
decade of the 20th century. This large decline was due to a frequent
occurrence of dry years.
Wireworms are dangerous pests of row crops (corn, sunflower,
sugarbeet, etc.) and they are chemically controlled on a large acreage.
The use of insecticides may be considerably reduced by monitoring the
dynamics of pest population. Table 1 shows the 3-year data with low
numbers and the 3-year data with high numbers of wireworms. In the
years with low numbers of larvae it was possible to make considerable
savings in the cost of protection of row crops by scouting fields after the
harvest of wheat (a frequent preceding crop for row crops). The
8
D.âmprag et al.: Monitoring of Pest Population Dynamics - a Cornerstone of Integrated
Pest Management in Field Crops
economic thresholds for sugarbeet, sunflower and corn were 1, 2 and 3
larvae per m2, respectively.
By monitoring the wireworms population it was possible to reduce
the application of insecticides by 30 to 45% depending on the growing
year (Jovani}, 1996). Under the conditions of intensive agricultural
production, the use of economic thresholds allows savings crop protection
costs by about 30% (Nasedkina and Gavrilova cit. âmprag, 1994).
Table1. Different possibilities of forecasting based on cost reduction in
the chemical control of Elateridae larvae in row crops
No.of
larvae
per m2 *
Percentage o
smaller possibilities of cost
reduction
1979 1982 1983 mean
0.0
0.0
2.5
0.8
5.1
4.5
12.5
7.4
16.5 10.9
8.1
11.8
17.1
8.3
10.0
11.8
61.3 76.2 66.9
68.1
f wheat fields
greater possibilities of cost
reduction
1990 1992 1993
mean
6.5
13.2 13.0
10.9
51.0 49.1 57.4
52.4
22.9 17.0 13.0
17.6
8.5
13.2
5.6
9.1
11.1
7.5
11.0
9.9
0
0.1 - 1
1-2
2-3
>3
100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%
Total:
Average
density: 4.9
8.0
6.8
1.3
1.0
0.7
6.6
*
Economic threshold: sugar beet 1, sunflower 2, maize 3/m2
100%
1.0
Melolonthidae. Grubs of the following pests have been registered
in the fields after wheat harvest: Amphimallon solstitialis L., Rhizotrogus
aequinoctialis Hrbst., Anisoplia spp. etc. In the period 1976-1995, the
larval population ranged from 0.3 to 2.9/m2 (1.0 on average). The genus
Anisoplia predominated in wheat fields especially the species A. austriaca
Hrbst. Considerable savings can be made in the cost of protection of
subsequent row crops by counting the number of larvae of these pests
after wheat harvest.
Bothynoderes punctiventris Germ. The beet root weevil is the
most dangerous sugarbeet pest. Large amounts of insecticides were used
in years when the pest occured on large scale. For the past 50 years
large-scale occurrences of beet root weevils have been registered
throughout 20 years.
Since the beet root weevil produces one generation in a year and
it overwinters as the imago it was possible to achieve successful
9
forecasting of the intensity of pest occurrence for the following season. In
the period 1961-1995, beet root weevil populations ranged from 0.0 to
15.5 (Graph 1) or 3.7/m2 on average. These are very high figures if we
take into account that the economical threshold for this pest ranges from
0.1 to 0.3/m2.
Figure 1. Population dynamics of B.punctiventris and Mamestra spp.
(1961-1995)
In the 3 years with low pest populations (1970, 1973, 1979), 46%
of the scouted fields were free of the pest and 41% of the fields had
less than 1 imago per m2. In the 3 years with high pest populations
(1963, 1964, 1984) there were only 3% of the field that were free of the
pests and 4% of the fields with less than one imago per m2. In the
remaining 93% of the fields the number of imagoes ranged from 1 to
20/m2. Pest monitoring enabled forecasting its intensity and planning
suitable IPM measures.
Scrobipalpa ocellatella Boyd. The beet moth produces 4-5
generations annually. This is a dangerous sugarbeet pest which multiplies
during dry and warm weather. Large-scale occurrences were registered in
1949-1950, 1952, 1962-1963. and 1988. In the period 1976-1995,
caterpillar populations ranged from 2 to 74/m2 (16.2 on average). The
10
D.âmprag et al.: Monitoring of Pest Population Dynamics - a Cornerstone of Integrated
Pest Management in Field Crops
highest density of the pest was registered in 1950 - 320 caterpillars per
m2 (Stankovi}, 1954).
Mamestra spp. Mamestra cabbage moths are important periodical
pests of sugarbeets. The species M. brassicae L. predominated (80%). In
the period 1961-1995 moth populations ranged from 0.1 to 18.6, or
3.5/m2 on average (Graph 1). As reported by Mészáros (1993), largescale occurrences of cabbage moths in the neighboring Hungary took
place simultaneously with large-scale occurrences of the pest in northern
Serbia. It is explained by the similar climates in the two countries.
Multiplication of the pest was encouraged by humid weather. For
example in the period 1971-1980 (one dry year), the average number of
cabbage moths was 6.5 per m2. However, in the period 1981-1990 (four
dry years) the average number was only 1.1 per m2.
Of the pests analyzed B.punctiventris, S.ocellatella and
A.austriaca are xerophilous. Dry spells during growing season fostered
their multiplication. A positive correlation was found between the number
of beet root weevil and the number of dry years (Sekuli} et al., 1997). In
the period 1961-1964 (five dry years or 75% of dry years) there were 6.3
beet weevil adults per m2. In the period 1965-1980 (six dry years) only
one imago per m2 could be found. During dry years, the numbers of
Anisoplia spp. and S.ocellatella larvae were higher by 60% and 285%
respectively compared with humid years.
On the other hand, humid weather favored the multiplication of A.
ustulatus and M.brassicae. The average number of cabbage moth
caterpillars was seven times higher in humid than in dry years. In
Ukraine, irrigation practice increased the number of clickbeetles 5 to 10
times in relation to dry farming (Vasiljev, 1975).
Graph 1 shows the population dynamics of two sugarbeet pests
(B.punctiventris and Mamestra brassicae) during the period 1961-1995.
These pests differed in their requirements for humidity. The beet root
weevil is a xerophilous and the cabbage moth a hygrophilous species.
Therefore, increased numbers of one pest imply reduced numbers of the
other, and vice versa.
Long- and short-term forecasting of the intensity of pest
occurrence is an important segment of IPM. They are based on the
systematic monitoring of the dynamics of pest populations. According to
Manninger (1972) long-term forecasting was particularly successful for
pests which needed two or more years to produce a new generation
(e.g., species from the genera Agriotes, Anisoplia, Melolontha) and less
successful for pests which produced one generation annually (B.
punctiventris). For the species producing two or more generations
annually (Mamestra spp., S.ocellatella) it was possible to provide only a
tentative forecast of their multiplication trends.
11
CONCLUSIONS
In the period 1961-1995 the population dynamics of several
general pests and specialized sugarbeet pests was monitored on the
territory of northern Serbia (the region of Ba~ka). Pest densities per m2
ranged from 0.6 to 8.2 for Elateridae (3.2 on average), 0.3 to 2.9 for
Melolonthidae (1.0 on average), 0.0 to 15.5 for Bothynoderes
punctiventris Germ. (3.7 on average), 0.1 to 18.6 for Mamestra spp. (3.5
on average) and 2 to 74 for Scrobipalpa ocellatella Boyd. (16.4 on
average). Correlations were found between the numbers of pests and the
amount of rainfall during the growing season.
A systematic monitoring of pest population dynamics enables an
efficient and cost-effective control of the studied pests as well as the
preparation of long- and short-term forecasts of the intensity of their
occurrence. Also, the monitoring of pest population dynamics helps to
locate and destroy infestation foci. Destruction of such foci effectively
prevents large-scale multiplication of pests.
REFERENCES
âmprag,D.: Integralna za{tita kukuruza od {teto~ina. Feljton,
Novi Sad, 1994.
Jovani},M.: Suzbijanje sko~ibuba (Elateridae) na bazi prognoze.
Biljni lekar, Novi Sad, 3, 222-225, 1996.
Manninger,G.A.:
Prongózis
alapján
megtakaritható
vagy
elvégezhetö preventiv védekezés a növényvédelemben. Doktorska
disertacija, Budapest, 1972.
Mészáros,Z.:in: Jermy,T., Balázs,K.(edit.) "A növényvedelmi állattan
kézikönyve, 4/b. Akadémiai Kiadó, 637-642, Budapest, 1993.
Sekuli},R., âmprag,D., Kere{i,T.: Effect of drought on
reproduction of beet weevil (Bothynoderes punctiventris Germ.).
Proceedings: Drought and plant production, I, 297-302, Beograd, 1997.
Stankovi},A.: Repin moljac (Phthorimaea ocellatella Boyd.). Institut
za za{titu bilja, Beograd, posebna izdanja, 1, 1954.
Vasiljev,V.P. et al. : Vrediteli seljskohozjajstvenih kultur i lesnih
nasa`denij. Kiev, tom III, 1975.
12
SCIENTIFIC MAINTENANCE AND PROTECTION
OF FIELD CROPS IN RUSSIA
V.A.Zakharenko
Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Dept. of Plant Protection, Moscow,
Russia
The system structure of scientific maintenance of plant protection
in Russia, tasks of fundamental and priority applied researches focusing
on the issues that relate to integrated plant protection, results of
researches were found to contribute to the formation of assortment of
chemical and biological means of plant protection. The economic
efficiency of application of plant protection products, future prospects of
development are discussed considering the need to enhance the stability
of agriculture.
Key words: Scientific maintenance, crop protection
The Department of Plant Protection of the Russian Academy of
Agricultural Sciences is involved in the scientific maintenance of plant
protection in Russia. It is organized on the basis of the Department of
Plant Protection of the All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences
(1992). The Department employing 491 scientists (229 candidates of
sciences and 35 doctors of sciences) includes the All-Russian Scientific
Research Institute of Plant Protection
(VIZR, ST.PETERSBURG Pushkin-8), All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Phytopathology
(VNIIPh, B.Viazemi, Moscow region), All-Russian Scientific Research
Institute of Biological Plant Protection (VMIBPP, Krasnodar), the Regional
Far East Scientific Research Institute of Plant Protection (Primorye
Territory). Four valid members (academician) of the Russian Academy of
Agricultural Sciences, 3 members - correspondents, 9 foreign members of
academy from Ukraine, Byelorussia, Uzbekistan, Australia, Israel, Kenia,
Japan and Poland work in the Department.
The main activities of the Department focus on researches
coordinating over 50 departments and laboratories Scientific Institutes and
the University of various organizations addressing the issues of
optimization of phytosanitary conditions and monitoring of agricultural
crops, immunity and complexity of plant stability exposed to harmful
13
organisms, enhancing the development of biological and chemical plant
protection, mechanization, economy and organization.
The data on pest, disease and weed infestation researches, the
plant protection system are being introduced into state, collective and
private agriculture enterprises of the country by a network of the
Department of Agriculture Chemization and Plant Protection of the
Ministry of Agriculture and Foodstuffs of Russia, from 77 state regional
stations of plant protection, 1738 regional stations of plant protection.
The state service of plant protection of Russia organizes
measures of protection on the whole territory of the country, on 208.4
million hectares of agricultural land, including 126 millions ha of arable
land, 90.9 millions ha of crop-growing area, whereby the share of grains,
sunflower, sugar beet, soybean, fibre-flax, potato, vegetables, fodder
crops and fruits (small fruits and grapes included) accounts for 50.8; 4.1;
0.82; 0.48; 0.11; 3.3; 0.74; 30 and 1 million ha respectively (1998 data).
The state service organizes measures of protection of the agricultural
land area of 27 thousand state and agricultural cooperatives, 279
thousand farms and 42 million private agricultural enterprises
(Proizvodstvenno - ekonomi~eskie pokazateli …, 1998).
The researches are carried out based on 5-year plans.
The program of fundamental and priority applied researches that relates
to the issues of plant protection 1996-2000 "Phytosanitary optimization of
agricultural crops based on integrated plant protection" focuses on the
following:
- monitoring beneficial and pest (harmful) organisms and systems of
forecasting dangerous phytosanitary situations in some major cropgrowing regions of the country;
- developing principles for regulating biotic mechanisms for stabilization
and improvement of phytosanitary conditions of the agrosystem
(development of biological plant protection measures, creation of immune
grades, landscapes with specific and genetic variety);
- theoretical substantiation of new efficient assortment of chemical plant
protection measures and engineering for their application;
- developing principles for designing agroecosystems optimized on
phytosanitary and ecotoxicological characteristics.
The decision on the issues raised is affected by the practical task
of development of regional systems of plant protection optimized on
economic and ecological criteria.
Integrated plant protection is based on the results of fundamental
and priority applied researches. We understand the term integrated plant
protection as the system of plant protection that includes non-chemical
(agrotechnical and biological) methods with the purpose of decreasing the
amount pesticides used without reducing the efficiency of suppression of
14
V. Zakharenko: Scientific Maintenance And Protection Of Field Crops In Russia
separate harmful organisms and complexes of harmful organisms. The
data on the phytosanitary state of the agricultural land, economic
thresholds of harmful organisms and criteria of validity for the application
of most efficient and environmentally safe current methods of plant
protection are necessary for the final decision making.
Based on the results of researches the complexes of harmful
organisms for each crop-growing region of Russia are determined. The
most dangerous animal pests of field cultures are phytophagous insects:
Locusts (Acrididae), cutworm (Agrotis spp.), Pyraustra stictinalis, click
beetles (Elateridae), Citellus spp., Microtinae spp. The complexes of
harmful organisms on small grains include the following animal pests:
Eurygaster integriceps, Zabrus tenebrioides, Lema melanopus, Aphidoidae
spp., Apamea anceps; phytopathogenic organisms- Ustilago tritici, Tilletia
tritici, Erysiphe graminis, Puccinia spp., Fusarium spp., Septoria spp. The
animal pests complex Bothinoderes punctiventris, Tanimecus palliatus,
Chaetocnema spp., Cassidae, Aphis fabae and phytopathogenic
organisms Pithium spp., Fusarium spp., Erysiphe communis, Cercospora
beticola and virus diseases are distributed on sugar beet. The complexes
of harmful organisms on fibre flax include animal pests - flax flea, Thrips
linorius, Cochylis epiliana, Tipula paludosa, phytopathogenic organismsColletotrichum lini, Ascochita linicola, Melampsora lini, Polyspora lini,
Bacillus macerans; sunflowers, anninal pests - Psalidium spp.,
Tanymecus spp., Brachycaudus helichrisi, Homeosoma nebulellum, Lygus
pratensis, Aphis fabae; phytopathogenic organisms Botrytis cinnerea,
Sclerotinia libertiana, S.bataticola, Puccinia hellianthi, Phomopsis helianthi,
Orobanche spp. Potato is damaged by the following animal pests Leptinotarsa decemlineata, Epilachna vigintiomaculatus, phytopathogenic
organisms Phytophthora infestans, Macrosporium solani, Corynobacterium
sepedonicum, Erwinia caratovora and virus diseases.
Weed plants contribute to substantial crop yield loss on all
agricultural land. On arable land there are frequently more than 120
species of weed plants the most dangerous (10 weed plants) being:
- on winter grain crops - Convolvulus arvensis, Cirsium arvensis,
Sonchus arvensis, Chenopodium album, Barbarea vulgaris, Amaranthus
spp., Matricaria inodora, Setaria spp., Avena fatua, Echinochloa grus-galli;
- on summer grain crops - Sonchus arvensis, Cirsium arvensis,
Convolvulus arvensis, Avena fatua, Echinochloa grus-galli, Setaria spp.,
Chenopodium album, Amaranthus spp., Barbarea vulgaris, Matricaria
inodora;
- on corn - Convolvulus arvensis, Sonchus arvensis, Amaranthus
spp., Chenopodium album, Barbarea vulgaris, Setaria spp., Echinochloa
grus-galli, Avena fatua, Sorghum haleopense, Agropyron repens;
15
- on sugar beet - Chenopodium album, Amaranthus spp., Barbarea
vulgaris, Cirsium arvensis, Sonchus arvensis, Convolvulus vulgaris,
Echinochloa grus-galli, Setaria spp.), Avena fatua, Agropiron repens;
Table 1. Estimated annual potential crop yield losses due to pests,
diseases and weeds (1991-1995)
Crops
Grain crops
Fibar flax
Sugar beet
Sunflower
Potatoes
Vegetables
Fruit and
berries
Forage
crops
Crop
areas
with Yield losses on area
different degrees of with different degrees
of weediness,
weediness, infestation
infestation or infection
or infection
Low Averege High Low Averege High
Weeds
40
35
25
9
19
25
40
32
25
13
24
35
45
30
20
15
28
38
33
30
25
10
19
28
40
38
20
9
17
24
60
20
20
15
28
38
Yield losses,
The weighted
average
percentage
16.5
21.6
22.8
16
14.9
22.2
35
40
25
10
19
28
18.1
25
40
8
15
21
5.6
10
9
20
12
10
10
7,5
11
7
7
8
11
15
22
14
21
16
29
22.5
33
21
35
24
47
7.5
4.5
10
10
6.2
8.8
Grain crops
Fibar flax
Sugar beet
Sunflower
Potatoes
Vegetables
Fruit and
berries
Forage
crops
50
5
20
25
8
20
30
Pest
10
5
30
20
20
10
10
15
10
16
37
55
12.5
20
9
14
25
6.2
Grain crops
Fibar flax
Sugar beet
Sunflower
Potatoes
Vegetables
Fruit and
berries
Forage
crops
50
40
50
40
10
15
15
10
Diseases
30
20
30
20
30
20
20
30
30
60
30
30
6.2
6.2
6
6
8
12
12.5
12.5
12
12
20
22
18.8
18.8
18
18
30
34
10.5
10
10.3
11.2
25
18.8
16
15
15
15
17
37
57
15.6
15
30
10
6
12
19
6.3
- on sunflowers - Convolvulus vulgaris, Sonchus arvensis, Cirsium
arvensis, Amaranthus spp., Chenopodium album, Barbarea vulgaris,
Setaria spp., Avena fatua, Echinochloa grus-galli, Agropiron repens;
- on potatoes - Chenopodium album, Sonchus arvensis, Cirsium
arvensis, Agropyron repens, Raphanus raphanistrum, Stellaria media,
Galeopsis spp., Amaranthus spp., Echinochloa grus-galli, Galium aparine.
Potential crop losses evaluated based on the data from the cropgrowing areas with different levels of distribution of harmful organisms
(high, average, low) and the data on the harmfulness of animal pests,
pathogenic organisms and weeds on some major crops are given in
Table 1(Zaharenko,1975,1997).
The share of small grains, fiber-flax, sugar beet, sunflower and
soybean, potato, vegetables, fruits and small fruits and forage crops
accounts for 34.6%; 36.2%; 42.7%; 37.3%; 46.2%; 49%; 46.3% and
28.3% respectively of the annual potential yield losses due to pests,
diseases and weeds.
The quantitative data on the significance and effects of pest on
crop yield are given as crop losses and were calculated with respect to
the data of the assessed average percentage yield losses, yield and
area of crop for the period 1991-1995 (Table 2).
Average annual (1991-1995) losses amounted to 107 million tons
in recalculation per grain.
The Department focuses on developing the concept of purposeful
search and formation of assortment of pesticides efficient when applied at
low rates (grammes per hectare), environmentally safe (toxicity and
degradation rate in the environment) and safe biological measures
considering the ecological standpoint of integrated plant protection.
Table 2. Quantitative crop losses due to pests, diseases and weeds
(1991-1995)
Crops
Area,
Yield, Yied losses
Thousand ha tons/ha
Rate,%
Thousand tons
Grain crops
59092
1.49
34.6
30464
Fibar flax
246
0.29
36.2
25.8
Sugar beet
1272
17.04
42.7
9255
Sunflower
3724
0.99
37.3
1375
Potatoes
3377
10.89
46.2
16990
Vegetables
698
14.63
49
5004
Fruit and
berries
1015
2.79
46.3
1311
Forage
crops
40888
2.0
28.3
23141
17
The VIZR has created the bank of microorganisms including more
than 500 cultures of bacteria and actinomycetes, 120 fungi, 22entomopathogenic nematodes and microsporidium, 15 viruses of insects.
The bank is used for biological researches and development of
microbiological measures.
In Russia 60 biological preparations are in use, including 26 for
plant protection against animal pests, 19 preparations are based on
Bacillus thuringiensis 6 variations (Bt.var.dendrolimus, Bt.var.galleria,
Bt.var.insektus, Bt.var.kurstaki,Bt.var.tenebrionis, Bt.var.thuringiensis), 2
Beauweria bassiana, 3 Verticillium lacanii, 1- nenatode Steinernema
carpocapsa, and microbiological preparations on the basis of Bacillus
subtilis, Penicillium vermiculatum, Pseudomonas syrengae, P.fluorescens,
Streptomices griceoviridis, S.lavendula, S.falleus, Trichoderma lignorum
and virus preparations.
The Department has accepted the concept and regional system
of manufacture of microbiological means of plant protection. The system
includes 75 biolaboratories, 13 biofactories, 41 shops of regional stations
of plant protection, 159 laboratories in glasshouse facilities, 56 small
enterprises and cooperatives making biological means.
The laboratories receive from the developers strains of useful
organisms by direct contacts and make preparations. In Russia in 1996
laboratories have produced 350 tons of bactorodenced (Salmonella
eneriditis var. Isathenko), 150 tons trichodermin (Trichoderma spp.), 280
tons of rhizoplant (Pseudomonas spp.), 19 tons of lepidoced
(Bac.thuringiensis var.kurstaki), 15 tons of boverin (Beuaveria bassiana),
11 tons of agat (Pseudomonas fluorescens), 10 tons of bitoxibacillin
(Bac.thuringiensis var.thuringiensis).
Currently the biological preparations may be efficient (not concede
pesticides) in protecting small grains against root rot (agat 25, rhizoplant,
phitolavin); technical cultures against beet webworm (Lexostege
sticticalis), cut worm (baxin, bitoxibacillin, bicol, lepidoced, dendrobacillin);
potatoes against Colorado beetle (bitoxibacillin, bicol, dicimid, colorado),
against Phitophthora infestans - rhizoplan, agat; vegetable cultures
against vessel bacteriosis-rhizoplan, phitolavin, against wire stem trichodermin, against
insect Lepidoptera - lepidoced, dendrobacillin,
bitoxibacillin, bicol, homelin, Trichogramma spp.; fruit crops against
Podosphaera leucotricha and Venturia spp. - bactofit, against Ervinia
amylovora - pentafag, against insect Lepidoptera of the - astur,
lepidoced, baxin, bicol and bitoxibacillin. In the protected ground
biopreparations do not concede pesticides in controlling root rot bactofit, trichodermin, agat - 25, rhizoplan; powdery mildew - bactofit;
angular leaf spot-pentafag; bacteriosys - phitolavin, white fly – verticillin,
boverin, Encarsia; spider mites - Phitoseulus, bicicol, bitocsibacillin;
18
tobbaco thrips - Ambliseius, boverin; aphids – Chrisopa, Aphidoletes
aphidimyza, Cycloneda limbifera, Aphidius matricariae.
The economic and ecological comparative estimation of the use
of biological and chemical methods enables the determination of
advantages on the biological methods of vegetable, fruit and berry
cultures protection during the production of crops for combines involved
in children and dietary feed production, at cultivation of cultures near
large industrial centres, in water preservation zones and in sanitary
zones, in areas radioactive of pollution. The biological method of plant
protection is used on 1.5 - 2 millions of hectares (1 - 2 % of the arable
land).
The basic method of active plant protection is the chemical one.
The Institutes of Department have improved the assortment of chemical
and biological means of plant protection on the basis of the concept of
purposeful search effective and minimally dangerous herbicide influencing
specific systems, presenting no risk to man and mammals (in particular
synthesis of amino acid, photosynthetic processes), pheromones and
substances - inductors of protective reactions of a plant in relation to
harmful organisms - immunocitofit, analogues chitosan etc. active, in
miligramme norms on hectare, herbicides of classes sulfonylurea,
imidasolinon, and also mixture herbicides (kovboy, kross, kronos) and
complex preparations including fungicides, insecticides and herbicides
(type koprangs) active in gramme norms on hectare.
Currently the basic list of used pesticides includes preparations of
foreign chemical concerns. In 1998 for the application in agriculture the
use of 391 preparation (227 active substances) has been authorized,
switching 97 insecticides, half of which - 49 preparations belong to the
pyrethroides group and 17 are organophosphorus preparations; 70
fungicides of which 18 preparations belong to the azoles group, 8
benzimidazoles, 5 dithiocarbamates and 5 copper containing; 139
herbicides of which 19 belong to the sulfonylurea group, on 13 phenoxy
acetic acid, 12 ariloxyphenoxypropionic acid, 12 thiocarbamatic acid, 12
organophosphorus preparations. Except for general statistics the data
testify that it is of major importance to take into account the possibility of
resistence development of appropriate harmful organisms to specified
pesticides.
The perspective means for the application of pesticides and
biological substances is the ultra low volume pesticide application proved
in connection with the ecological and economic requirements of the
integrated plant protection. The importance is obvious if we take into
account backlog of technical base from the new requirements of
application pesticides. It cannot be considered reasonable on economic,
and furthermore by ecological criteria engineering developed for entering
19
of tens of kg/ha pesticides (TCA -50-100 kg/ha, DCU -25-60 kg/ ha,
DNOC -5-10 kg/ha etc.) for the application of preparations in gramme
norms on hectare. The Institutes of the Department are developing and
have begun to be let out at the conversion enterprises of a defensive
industry ultra low volume mechanisms for seed dressing and facilitated of
sprayers for low and – ultra low volume spraying. With the purpose of
reducing liquid and pesticide rates, model samples of sprayers for
pesticide spraying with separation and electrical charge of drops for exact
(with the minimal losses) treatment of processable objects are developed
It is necessary to note that under the conditions of the Russian
economy it fails to the full to realize scientific development. Plant
protection potentials have not been realized.
Considering the reform of the national economy taking place in
Russia currently the manufacture of pesticides has declined from 215.6
thousand (1986-1990) to 17 thousand tons (1991-1997); the pesticide
treated agricultural land area decreased from 76.9 to 30 million hectares.
The efficacy of the actual crop protection practice has been
assessed for the period 1991-1995 as the percentage loss prevented by
chemical control measures. The amounts of losses prevented by the use
of pesticides were determined based on the data of the crop area
treated with pesticides and additional yield ammounts per hectare of
pesticide treated area, Table 3.
Table 3. The losses prevented by chemical measures in Russia, 19911995
Crops
11203
285
1330
751
229
250
3726
78
441
143
1878
324
3275
10
145
130
1213
229
913
30
365
61
87
571
Additional yield
Thou- To
sandt potential
losses, %
3127
10,3
2,21
34,9
1447
32,6
428
9
4206
13,9
3074
17,9
15
1272
1105
151
1378
21
1511
2035
126
50
332
3
Herbicedes
Grain crops
Fibar flax
Sugar beet
Sunflower
Potatoes
Vegetables
Fruit and
berries
Forage
crops
Treated area,thousand ha
Insecti- Fungici- Biological
cides
des
control
Losses prevented by pesticide use and biological crop protection
measures amount to 14.2 million tons of grain units. Considering the
enormous potentials of plant protection in preventing yield losses,
20
possible future trends over the period 1999 - 2005 should involve
enhanced pesticide use and other control measures.
REFERENCES
Zakharenko,V.A.: Ekonomika i perspektivy primenenija pesticidov v
svjazi s intensifikacijej zemledelija. VIII Mezhdunarodnyj Kongress po
zashchite rastenij. Doklady, t II, Moskva, c.1-6, 1975.
Zakharenko,V.A.:
Tendencii
izmenenija
poter'
urozhaja
sel'skohozjajstvennykh kul'tur ot vrednykh organizmov v zemledelii v
uslovijakh reformirovanija ekonomiki Rossii. Agrohimija, N0 3, c.1-9,
1997.
Proizvodstvenno
ekonomicheskije
pokazateli
razvitija
agropromyshlennogo kompleksa Rossii v 1996 g., ch. 1, str.157, 1996.
21
22
INTEGRATED PROTECTION OF AGRICULTURAL CROPS
IN UKRAINE
M.P. Lessovoi and N.M. Tron
Institute of Plant Protection of the Ukrainian Academy of Agricultural
Sciences, Ukraine
Plant protection, i.e. prevention of yield loss due to pests is of
major importance for increasing agricultural production. In the history of
plant protection since the beginning of the XX century four major phases
have been recorded: namely, development and utilization of separate
means, mainly mechanical methods of pest control (1900-1930);
substantiation of the theory of pest species control by means of
agricultural practices, mechanical, chemical and biotic measures known
as the "system of measures" (1931-1945); development and wide
utilization and application of chemical substances for crop protection
(1946-1964). Pesticides of the new generation, i.e. preparations of
organic synthesis came into wide use and the chemical methods of plant
protection gained in importance. However, intensive production growth
and pesticide application affected hygienic and ecological evaluation and
usage. In a number of cases insufficient knowledge on the application of
chemical substances provoked adverse impacts on the environment and
pesticide residues in agricultural products. Pesticide application is an
issue of major importance to both scientific researchers and the
government. In Ukraine, since 1965 along with the improvement of
pesticide evaluation and application control at the state level considerable
attention has been focused on the development of pest control methods
as an alternative to chemical control methods. Since that time the use of
various methods and measures with the objective of substantially
decreasing the number of pesticide treatments gained in importance with
regard to plant protection development. Abroad the term integrated pest
control (or pest management) was used. Since the 1960s integrated pest
control has been considered the system of pest management which in
the context of the interaction between the environment and population
dynamics of pest species uses all the adequate means and methods
keeping pest populations below the economic threshold.
23
In accordance with the theoretical approaches of the Soviet
scientists, at the current phase of development, scientific and
organizational concepts of pest control are referred to as the "integrated
system of measures" (as opposed to the additive system of the 1930s).
In our country this system is a part of the overall technological advances
regarding crop cultivation with the objective of ensuring reliable crop
protection at minimal pesticide application by developing resistance to
adverse biotic factors, i.e. pests, in the ecosystem. Pests are represented
by various groups of herbivorous animals and plant pathogen agents.
The integrated system of measures includes the following:
information supply, solution projection, management by means of control
measures. Initial information data on the species composition of pest
fauna and crop pathogens are used taking into account the given
agroclimatic zone of Ukraine. In addition, the data of the State Service
for Monitoring and Forecasting the situation regarding pests and of
identical services in a given agricultural region are used. Both services
characterize the situation under the given conditions. The system of
measures of the integrated plant protection for a given year is projected
based on the typical zone scheme as well as forecasting pest arthropods
and pathogens population dynamics (Figure 1). Fields are inspected and
the final solution regarding the correction of the system by either adding
or excluding some planned measures is adopted. Plant protection
specialists make the final decisions regarding pesticide application,
optimal dates for pesticide treatments, most efficient composition of the
preparations used and application equipment used.
The efficacy of the protective measures applied including
chemical measures is assessed by comparing the actual pest density
with the economic threshold.
The use of fungicides in controlling crop diseases provoked by
parasites is mainly based on the principle of prophylaxy. Some major
control measures are the following: seed treatment, pesticide application
during the vegetation season prior to crop infection according to the
phenological calendar. This principle has been shown to ensure the
protection of plants in their most susceptible stages of development. The
decision whether to apply fungicides is made based on the potential
danger posed by the disease taking into account the crop variety
resistance and the weather conditions prevailing. The issue regarding
control measures is discussed below taking into account some of the
major crops grown.
Winter wheat. Pest resistance of the wheat varieties is one of
the major components of integrated plant protection system in Ukraine.
Namely, V.N. Remeslo Mironovka Institute of Wheat in cooperation with
the Institute of Plant Protection of UAAN have created a number of
24
M.P. Lessovoi and N.M. Tron: Integrated Protection of Agricultural Crops in Ukraine
winter wheat varieties (Mironovskaya 27, Mironovskaya 28, Mironovskaya
29, Mironovskaya 33, Mironovskaya 34, Mironovskaya 61, Mirich, Lira)
with complex pest resistance. In so doing various types of resistance unsusceptibility (antibiosis), tolerance (compensative ability) and evasion
were used. Unsusceptibility proved efficient against most plant pathogens
although in the case of the leaf rust, evasion and tolerance are quite
effective and long-lasting. Compensative ability excludes damages
provoked by cereal flies (Hessen fly, Mayetiola destructor Say); frit fly,
Oscinela frit L.; opomyza fly, Opomyza florum F.) during autumn and
spring periods. Evasion and tolerance are reliable protective measures
against the green bug, Sitobion evanae F. and the lema beetle, Lema
melanopus L., the thrips, Haplothrips tritici Kurd.
Figure 1. The system of pest forecasting with regard to agricultural crops
All the resistant types (factors) given above are components of
the triat complex of the so called intensive varieties of the winter wheat.
These traits were created by breeders in order to maintain high
25
productivity, favourable grain quality and total variety resistance. This
trend in breeding promises protection against the complex of pest
arthropods and pathogens attacking several hundred wheat species in
Ukraine.
A complex system of measures considering both soil and climatic
conditions of various geographic regions has been developed and
incorporated in the agricultural practice in Ukraine in order to contribute
to efficient cereal pest (insects, mites, pathogens, nematodes, rodents,
weeds) control. Based on this system, the existing methods of plant
protection (breeding, seed improvement, agricultural practices, pests'
natural enemies, pesticides, physical, mechanical and quarantine control
measures) have been harmonized. This system is used in combination
with pest distribution and population density forecasting.
Agricultural practices include crop rotation, optimal sowing dates
and correct fertilizer application.
It should be noted that there are numerous entomophagous
organisms in cereal crop fields which are able to substantially decrease
pest density, especially mass outbreaks. Measures focused on
maintaining populations of local species of entomophagous organisms in
the entomocomplexes structure have been developed. These measures
were found to contribute to the improvement of the phytosanitary
situation in crops.
The release of the common trichograma, Trichogramma
evanescens Wests., is used in the system of protection measures of
cereal crops against the turnip moth Scotia segetum Schiff. The
application of bacterodenticides is used against rodents.
The chemical method in the integrated system of measures is of
major importance. Major attention is focused on seed treatment before
sowing. Chemical weed control using herbicides during the tillering stage
is widely used. Pesticide treatments are employed against the cereal
bug, Tyigonotylus ruficornis Geffr. and other cereal aphids, wheat thrips,
cereal beetles (of the genus Anisoplia), the lema beetle and other pest
species.
A joint chemical protection method of cereals against the sunbug,
Eurygaster integriceps Put., the cereal aphid and wheat thrips using a
mixture of preparations has been developed at the Institute of Plant
Protection of the UAAN. This method is widely being used in the
agricultural practice.
Sunflower. Breeding of resistant sunflower varieties is of major
importance in the system of integrated sunflower protection because it is
an effective means with favourable prospects. However, the issue raises
broad concern. Namely, since the beginning of the 1960s a solution has
been found for varieties-populations with group immunity to downy
26
M.P. Lessovoi and N.M. Tron: Integrated Protection of Agricultural Crops in Ukraine
mildew, Plasmospora halstedii (Farlow) Berl. et de Tonif., the sunflower
rust, Puccinia helianthi Schwein., Phoma black stem, Phoma oleracea
Sacc., the verticillium wilt, Verticillium dahliae Kleb, the broom-rape,
Orobanche cumana Wallr. This successful creation has been achieved
thanks to the interspecial hybridization of the local varieties with the
North American species of the genus Helianthus.
In 1997 the sunflower hybrid resistant to phomopsis, Phomopsis
helianthi, white and grey rots, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum D.b., Botrytis
cinerea Pors. was transferred to the State Commission of Ukraine with
the objective of variety testing. The evaluation of this hybrid has been
planned for 1998 and 1999. This fact bears evidence on the favourable
prospects of the hybrid.
A system of integrated protection of sunflower against pests and
pathogens has been proposed focusing on organizational measures,
agricultural practices and the use of entomophagous organisms because
sunflower varieties and hybrids with complex resistance to pests are not
among those adopted in the agricultural practice of Ukraine. Chemical
measures are considered of major importance and obligatory means seed treatment against sclerotiniose infection, Sclerotium bataticola Taub.,
grey and dry rots, mould fungi, as well as wireworms (larvae of the
beetles of the genus Elateridae) pseudo wireworms and beetles of the
genera Tenebrionidae and Alleculidae. Mixtures of pesticides, magnesium
and zinc salts, are used in the agricultural practice of the developed
agricultural regions. This has been noted to contribute to favourable
seedling emergence under field conditions, decreasing sclerotiniose
incidence and increasing sunflower head diameter and 1000-seed weight.
Insecticide treatments preceding seedling emergence are employed
provided high population density of Opatrum sabulosum L. and Pedinus
femoralis I. is anticipated. If the population density of the above
mentioned species is high as well as that of the grey beet weevil,
Tanymecus palliatus F., the black beet weevil, Psalidium maxillosum F.,
the same control measures may be employed following seedling
emergence and the appearance of the first pair of true leaves. The
southern grey weevil, Tanymecus dilaticollis Gyll., may be controlled
using poisoned food lures. Treating soil with ammonia water may kill
both larvae and beetles of numerous pests. The release of
entomophagous pests may be quite efficient against butterflies
(Lepidoptera) and aphids (Aphididea).
Sugar beet. The protection of sugar beet against pests,
especially the common beet weevil Bothynoderes punctiventris Germ., is
an issue of major concern. At the Institute of Plant Protection of the
UAAN the method of plant toxication by means of seed treatment
presowing has been developed in order to protect sugar beet fields. The
27
results obtained indicated an 80-90% mortality of the common beet
weevil, the beet flee Chaetocnema concinna Marsch., numerous species
of the Chrysomelidae family, especially Cassida nobilis L., as well as of
the aphids, Aphis fabae Scop., Pemphigus fuscicornis Koch. Thus seed
treatment presowing contributes subsequently to 2-3 applications less.
Caenocrepis bothynoderes Grom. affected weevil eggs ranged from 8494% in seed treated plots whereas chemical beet plant control lead to
the total mortality of this species. Seed treatment is employed in order to
control wireworms, pseudo wireworms and other soil-dwelling insect
pests. Toxication proved effective for the protection of leguminous crops
(peas, beans, etc.) as well, being safe for the predacious carabid
beetles.
Thus chemical control of plants along with the other above
mentioned measures of protection proved advantageous in the
contemporary system of integrated protection of a wide range of
agricultural crops under the conditions of Ukraine. Thanks to scientific
advances in Ukraine methods have been developed and incorporated in
the agricultural practice of the plant protection system providing maximal
safety to both man and the environment.
28
PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT OF INTEGRATED
PLANT PROTECTION SYSTEMS
Vilor Samersov and Lyudmila Trepashko
Byelorussian Institute of Plant Protection,
Minsk p/o Priluki, Belarus
ABSTRACT
The base of advanced technologies is the economy of nonrenewed energy and material resources focusing on non-waste
ecologically safe productions. The authors objective was to develop the
methodological approaches for evaluating these parameters in designed
systems of agricultural crop protection. It was established that the lower
the efficiency of antropogeneous energy the stronger its negative
consequences. The medium forming role of plants in agrocenosis and the
leading regulating role of agrotechnical techniques in shaping the
phytosanitary situation in agricultural crops are stressed. The systems
of phytosanitary management of agrocenosises are constructed based on
forecasting the phenology of agricultural crop development, harmfulness
of agrophages, record-keeping of ecological and economic thresholds of
expediency of application of plant protection products. The economic and
power efficiency of the system and the level of its ecological safeness
are evaluated.
Key words: Integrated system, ecological and economic
threshold, efficiency, ecological safeness
INTRODUCTION
As it turned out the unilateral directions of agricultural production
technologies in achieving maximum production spend substantial
resources and are ecologically unsafe. The issue is not only of
economic, social-public, but also of ethic importance as the superiority of
technical intelligence above humanitarian always entails splash of
ecological aggression accompanied with the psychology of permission to
29
act with impunity, inexhaustibility of resources. Therefore, the higher the
production technology potentials, special sophisticated mechanisms of
constraining ecological aggression are required in order to preserve the
biosphere.
Comprehending the ecological fundamentals of the conflict
between man and nature is the first step in developing a rational system
of land tenure (Odum, 1975). Plant protection as one of the most
complex and specific technologies of modern agriculture is expected to
ensure simultaneously: phytosanitary health of agricultural production,
economy of power resources and ecological safety of recommended
agrophages control measures.
Over the past decade in all the countries pursuing technologies
combining the advantages of intensive factors of agricultural crop
cultivation with the technologies minimizing environmental pollution has
not been unintentional. The formulated concepts of sustainable and
precise and of Russian variant - adaptive agriculture offer technologies
adequate to the above-mentioned purpose (Shpaar, 1998 ).
DISCUSSION
At the Byelorussian Scientific-Research Institute of Plant
Protection
the concept of a management system of phytosanitary
situation in agrocenosises and also at higher hierarchical levels
(agroecosystem, agrolandscape) is based on agroecosystem regulated
crops whereby the mechanism regulating mutual relationships of
component constituents is determined by both natural elements and
organizational-economic activity of the individual. An efficient utilization of
the regulating role of natural resources of a landscape, agricultural
practice and natural stock of biological regulators (entomophagons,
predatory fungi, microorganisms) contributes to the reduced application of
antropogeneous energy reducing thereby its dissipation and consequently
minimizes environmental pollution.
The leading role in
shaping mutual relationships in
agroecosystems may be attributed to plants acting as a medium forming
factor. Accordingly, the long repeated technological methods
panoramically influenced the microclimate of crops, rhythmics of
physiological processes of plants and influenced the formation of the
entomo and phyto complexes structure, population dynamics, ecological
and physiological impacts on the microclimate and the quality of forage,
immunity to stress, pesticide resistance etc. Therefore, the deviation of
technological techniques from long-term norm resulted in the
30
V. Samersov and L. Trepashko: Principles of Development of Integrated Plant
Protection Systems
reorganization of
specific fauna and flora to a modification of
harmfulness of agrophages.
Its visual example is a modification of phytosanitary condition of
crops of agricultural cultures in Belarus. Following the recent sociopolitical reorientation of the society and in relation to the collapse of the
production economy, the defect of engineering, unstable fuel delivery in
agriculture have violated the terms and quality of soil tillage (stubble
breaking, disking, fall ploughing). Consequently the average amount of
weed plants during the 10-12 year- period (since 1986 till the present
day) was raised from 219 to 260 plants per m2, there was reorganization
of their botanical structure, weeds predominate in crops on pastures, the
perennial rhizome and sobole, the growth of root rots of grain crops
(from 25% to 39.6%) was observed, the number of Elateridae larvae
was raised from 13.5 - 20 individuals per 1m2 to 22 - 55 individuals per
1m2. The registered epiphytoty mass of Claviceps purpurea on winter rye,
barley, triticale and other cereals was recorded. These examples testify
not only of the high-power regulating role of agricultural techniques but
also of the necessities to develop plant protection measures as a part of
a uniform general system of crop cultivation, namely generally speaking
to take into account the uniform operation of agrocenosises (rotation) and
agrolandscape.
The integrated systems of plant protection developed by the
authors (V.F.Samersov,1998) are based on the collection and
management of flows of an information ensured forecasting (dynamics)
of the phytosanitary situation development in agroecosystems, damage
anticipated from harmful organisms and planning organizational and
eradicative measures accordingly.
The most complex is the forecasting of agrophages harmfulness
based on which the decisions on the number and rate of application of
plant protection products for the control of the infection, decrease of the
number of phytophagous populations need to be made - which, as a
matter of fact, is provided by an intellect a system of dispatching
management of data collection on prophylactic phytosanitary role of
adaptive varietal
agronomical practices of agricultural crops. The
information on the dynamics of phenological processes of plants and the
complex of agrophagous, the structure of biocenotic relationships,
ecological and toxicological properties of recommended plant protection
products is integrated in a uniform data bank controlled by means of
personal computers. The technique of an economic and ecological
evaluation of designed systems allows, reasonably a large share of
objectivity to accept solutions based on the sequentially considered
economic thresholds of harmfulness and complex ecological and
economical thresholds of expediency of application of plant protection
31
products, to forecast the effect of recommended measures, to control the
economic and power efficiency of systems and their ecological
consequences (Samersov V.F. and Trepashko, 1995, 1998).
Damages provoked by adverse effects of pesticides introduced
into record-keeping, permit precise assessment of the efficiency of the
IPM used. Particularly, by comparing three types of plant protection
systems: intensive, integrated and ecologically justified, the data on an
essential modification of the specific costs for the production of 1 center
of an additional grain amount may be obtained. In an ecologically
reasonable system of grain crops protection by introducing the parameter
of costs on identification of negative consequences, the specific costs
may be reduced and the factor of economic efficiency of the system may
be raised (Table 1). Accordingly, using this technology prominent
ecological safenessis may be anticipated (Figure 1).
Table 1. Economic efficiency of systems of grain crops protection against
pests, diseases and weeds
Parameters
The specific costs for
1cwt of an additional
production from plant
protection
Unit of
measurement
s
$/c
Factor of an
economic efficiency
of PPP
Influence of PPP on
norm of profitability
of grain production
%
The system of grain crops protection
against noxious organisms (MP)
intensive
Integrated, ecologically
justified,
4.91
6.97*
3.54
4.87*
2.33
2.63*
1.75
0.85*
3.8
2.25*
4.78
4.25*
10.8
-7.5*
25
16*
24.1
22.3*
* considering costs of indemnification of negative consequences of PPP
on ecology.
32
Protection Systems
100
1.41
1.37
80
59
60
%
1.6
87
1.12
48
1.2
0.8
40
0.4
20
0
0
Intensive
Integrated
Ecologically justified
Level of ecological cleanness from noxious organisms, %
Factor of negative action of means of protection against pests,
diseases and weeds on the environment
Figure 1. Parameters of ecological security of grain crops protection
systems against noxious organisms based on the data of
their economic efficiency
In our researches the natural decrease of efficiency (e) of
anthropogeneous energy lost on the production from 0.75 to 0.32 by the
decrease of productivity of grain crops from 55 - 60 c/ha to 20 - 22 c/ha
(Table 2) was established, i.e. the efficiency of any technology in plant
growing including plant protection is sharply reduced under partial
realization of potential productivity of a variety. The share of efficiency
from the application of plant protection products by considering the
compensatory expenses to their negative consequences was also
ambiguously changed. Moreover, calculations have shown that by
achieving target yield of grain crops at the cost of an additional
investment of chemical energy (mineral fertilizers, pesticides etc.) the
specific costs of antropogeneous energy necessary for the indemnification
of negative consequences from the application of pesticides will sharply
be raised (Figure 2).
33
Table 2.
Influence of different systems of plant protection against
pests, diseases and weeds on the magnitude of efficiency
(e) of antropogeneous energy, used in the technology of
grain crops growing
The system of grain crops protection
against noxious organisms (PPP)
calendar Integrated ecologically
justified
Parameters
By productivity of grain crops 55 - 60 c/ra
Efficiency (e) of antropogeneous 0.75
0.75
0.736
energy used for grain crops 0.689*
0.721*
0.730*
growing
Including share of
efficiency 0.137
from application of PPP
0.076*
0.137
0.108*
0.123
0.117*
Percent (%)
18.3
15.0*
16.7
16.0*
18.3
11.0*
By grain crops yield 20 - 22 c/ha
Efficiency (e) of antropogeneous 0.321
energy used for grain crops 0.312*
growing
0.321
0.317*
0.311
0.310*
Including share of
from PPP application
0.021
0.016*
0.011
0.010*
6.5
5.0*
3.5
3.2*
Percent (%)
34
efficiency 0.021
0.012*
6.5
3.2*
Protection Systems
100
80
80
40
70
60
60
55
30
45
35
40
25
22
20
28.6
19.8
8.5
4.55.1
%
cwt/ha
50
90
20
10
13.3
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
Yield of grain crops, cwt/ha
Yield increase from chemical antropogeneous energy, cwt/ha
Amount of grain necessay for restoration of negative consequences,
cwt/ha
Specific costs of chemical energy from total expenses for the production
(fertilizers + pesticides + retardants, %)
Specific costs of the energy necessary for restoration of negative
consequences, %
Figure 2. Efficiency of chemical antropogeneous energy spent on grain
crops production by different yield
CONCLUSIONS
The comparison of the three types of plant protection systems in
the production have revealed a basic possibility of ensuring
the
decrease of antropogeneous energy input and ecological tension without
any biological and economic efficiency loss in the process of realization
of the ecologically justifiable system of plant protection compared with
intensive and integrated systems. It was proved that by violating
agricultural practices the parameters and advantages of the ecological,
35
reasonable techniques not excluding
economic efficiency
were
substantially reduced.
The transition from the integrated system of plant protection to
phytosanitary health management of agroecosystems requires further
research with respect to the details on the biology of pathogens, weed
plants, noxious insects and also on agents of the natural complex
regulating the development of agrophagous; immunological evaluation of
the selection material of agricultural crops, decoding and record-keeping
of biocenotic relationships.
REFERENCES
Odum,Y.: Fundamentals of ecology. Edit.Board “Mir”, Moscow,
740 P., 1975.
Samersov, V.F.: Integrated system of grain crops protection
against pests. Mn.: Uradzhaj, 207 P, 1998.
Samersov,V., Trepashko, L.: A computational model of the
economic and ecological expediency of plant protection means use.
Arch.Phytopathol. Pflanz., 30, 77-83, 1995.
Samersov,V., Trepashko,L.: Power consumption of systems of
plant
protection as a criterion of their ecological safety,
Arch.Phytopathol.Pflanz., 31, 335-340, 1998.
Shpaar,D., Postnikov,A, Kratssh,V, Makovsky,N.: Grain crops
cultivation. Moscow, “Agrarian science” J.EB “Rodnik”, 334 P, 1998.
36
CONDITIONS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTEGRATED
CROP PROTECTION PROGRAMS
IN POLAND
Stefan Pruszyñski
Plant Protection Institute, Poznañ, Poland
ABSTRACT
Implementation of integrated plant protection programs into
agricultural practice depends on many factors not always confined to
carrying out research studies and their positive results.
In Poland, factors stimulating practical application of integrated
programs are:
- modern legislation assuring priority of integrated programs,
- obligation of technical control of spreyers,
- properly conducted registration of plant protection means,
- control system of quality and residues od plant protection chemicals
which is in force throughout the country,
- the availability of national registration system of agrophage
occurance, their intensity and forecast,
- a low use of plant protection chemicals,
- a large grup of research workers engaged in studies of biological and
nonchemical methods of plant protection and on integrated programs.
Negative factors include:
- a very large number of farms (about 2 mln) and especially of small
individual farms,
- a very large differentiation of environmental conditions (soil, climate,
humidity),
- a very different level of proffesional training of farmers,
- the lack of educational programs takeing into account integration
principles and functioning of agricultural environment,
- the lack of consulting services and their unsatisfactory training,
- a bad economic state of agriculture,
- the lack of motivation in farmers,
- the lack of coordination of scientific studies.
37
The above conditions do not confine the actions of scientific
institutions in spreading integrated plant protection programs and even
now we can speak about such programs with regard to winter rapeseed,
potato and cereal crops and partially with regard to other plants.
INTRODUCTION
The term „integration” has readily been accepted by the plant
protection vocabulary in Poland. In 1964 Lipa (1964) has for the first
time presented the conception of integrated pest control in the Polish
bibliography and a year later the same author (Lipa, 1965) has published
the results on the introductory research of integrated control of sugar
beet pests. An exhaustive description of integrated control of noxious
insects has been given by Wegorek (1970) and Lipa (1984).
At the same time several research programs were undertaken in
order to determine the role of natural factors in the reduction of pest
density but also in enhancing the role of biological and other nonchemical methods in crop protection.
Researches and activities undertaken at that time did not result in the
rapid elaboration and implementation of integrated pest control in
practice. However, they played an important role in research tasks,
creation of proper consciousness of farmers and decisionmaking
authorities, development of new training programs as well as
undertaking many-sided activities in order to prepare the background for
the real development and use of integrated pest management.
In the present paper factors stimulating researches and practical
application of integrated programs in Poland but also negative ones were
discussed.
STIMULATING FACTORS
New Plant Protection Law
The new Plant Protection Law introduced several important
changes in the regulation of plant protection in Poland, through, among
others, appointment of the State Plant Protection Inspectorate and also
through legal direction of plant protection development.
The Article 29 of this Law is as follows: „Plant protection products
can be used only for the purposes defined in the label and according to
the recommendations defined in it, in order to avoid the risk to human
health and animals and environmental pollution, taking into account
biological, agricultural and agrotechnical plant protection methods,
38
S. Pruszyñski: Conditions for the Development of Integrated Crop Protection Programs
in Poland
reducing the use of chemical plant protection to necessary minimum” this text contributes to the development of integrated pest management.
Authorization of plant protection products in Poland
Since 1965 based on the Decree of the Minister for Agriculture
permissions have been granted for placing on the market and use of
chemical plant protection products in Poland.
The procedure of granting such permissions is systematically improved
according to international requirements (Czaplicki et al.,1995).
New, very important activities connected with plant protection
products authorization, are the following ones:
- introduction of new classification of plant protection products
according to their toxicity accepted by the European Union,
- more restrictive requirements concerning authorization dossiers,
according to the Directives of the European Union,
- renewal of authorization of all plant protection products 10 years
following the first authorization,
- authorization of active ingredients purchased in order to formulate
plant protection products by the Polish industry,
- elaboration of the list of banned and prohibited active
ingredients,
- elaboration of the list of active ingredients permitted in water
protection zones.
Researches on plant protection products residues
In Poland at the beginning of the 1970’s and thanks to the
substantial support from the UNDP/FAO the system for the determination
of plant protection residues in plant and animal material has been
organized at the Plant Protection Institute.
This system based on the Plant Protection Institute and its
Experimental Stations has enabled the determination of residue levels,
mainly in intensively protected crops or in crops treated pre-harvest.
The data offer reliable information on the residue levels and
potential contamination (Table 1).
39
Table 1. Residues of plant protection products in 1991-1995 (Dabrowski
et al., 1996)
The total number of taken samples
The number of performed residue analyzes
12 974
74 293
Characteristics of samples:
31% outdoor vegetables
33% fruits
26% indoor vegetables
10% fooders and components,
field crops and soil
Results:
Lack of residues
Residues lower than admitted
Residues higher than admitted
67.0% of analyzed samples
Both the Ministry of Health and Welfare and the Ministry of
Agriculture and Food Economy prepare and issue in the form of a
decree the list of maximum residue levels of plant protection products in
plant and animal material.
Researches on plant protection products quality
In the Plant Protection Institute - Sosnicowice Branch a laboratoty
has been organized in order to analyze and confirm the conformability
with the standards of all plant protection products permitted to be placed
on the market and used.
The system of control allows to observe the market of plant
protection products as well as to analyze such products existing on the
market.
Implementation of good plant protection practice
Good plant protection practice consists of the rules on the proper
and safe use of plant protection products taking into account integrated
pest management, for example the need to employ treatment. In Poland
many-sided activities on the dissemination of good plant protection
practice among the farmers have been undertaken in order to reduce the
40
in Poland
risk resulting from the use of plant protection products as well as to
change the approach of users to plant protection treatments (Germaziak
and Podgórska, 1996).
Creation of the national system for registration of important pests
and diseases with short - and long-term forecasts of their
occurrence
In Poland the occurrence of principal pests and diseases has
been monitored for over 40 years. The Plant protection service sends the
information to the Plant Protection Institute, where they are converted
and in the form of communications sent to those interested.
At the end of each year a summary is elaborated containing also
the forecast on species expected to appear in the year to follow (Figure
1, and Figure 2) (Walczak et al., 1997).
Figure 1. The occurance of Turnip ceutorrhynchus (Ceutorhynchus napi
Gyll.) on winter rape plantations in Poland in 1996 (Walczak et
al., 1997)
41
Figure 2. The occurance of Cabbage seed weevil (Ceutorhynchus
assimilis Payk.) and Cabage gall midge (Dasyneura brassicae
Winn.) on winter rape in Poland in the years 1980-1996
(Walczak et al., 1997)
Such activities contribute to adequate plant protection treatments
as well as information on potential risks.
These activities include also the publication of economic
thresholds (Piekarczyk and Wozny,1986). This publication helps in
decision-making on the need to employ treatments and is to a great
extent based on foreign publications and presently it requires
improvement with special reference to climatic and natural factors
effecting pest development (Samersov, 1994).
SCIENTIFIC BACKGROUNDS OF INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT
The above mentioned activities pose the basis for the
implementation and use of integrated pest management in plant
protection, nevertheless we should remember, that real background of
integration and main condition of integrated pest management is a good
42
in Poland
knowledge of agrocoenoses taking into account factors such as:
susceptability of cultivars, effect of fertilizers, effect of climatic conditions
and as intensive as possible the application of biological and other nonchemical methods of pest control.
The need of research programmes is extremely high, but
unfortunately the progress here is not so visible.
In Poland over the past years researches have been undertaken
on specific composition of beneficial entomofauna, microbiological
method, selectivity of plant protection products, growing of resistant
cultivars, release of natural enemies etc., nevertheless the number of
practical results is insufficient. We should remember that we deal with
extremely complicated systems requiring many years of observations
which can react to introduced changes in an unpredictable way
(Pruszynski, 1995).
Application of biological method and integrated pest management in
the protection of horticultural crops
Straying from the main subject, i.e. from agricultural crops, I
would like to present shortly the application of the biological method in
Poland as well as practical achievements in biological method and
integrated pest management in glasshouse crops and apple tree
orchards.
Table 2. presents the current production and main uses of
biological method in Poland. It should be stressed that we dispose of
ready technologies of production of viral products for the control of
codling moth (Cydia pomonella) and Stilpnotia salicis as well as
bioproduct based on Beauveria bassiana, mainly for the control of
Colorado potato beetle and bioproduct based on Trichoderma harzianum
for the control of plant diseases.
When speaking of biological method, attention should be paid to
mutual USA, Poland and Czech Republic researches on the biological
control of Colorado potato beetle using bioproducts (Beauveria bassiana
and Bacillus thuringiensis), the predator Perillus bioculatus and the
parasite Edovum puttleri.
Glasshouse and orchard production is well developed in Poland
(Table 3). That is why scientific institutes are engaged in the research on
the application of biological method and integrated pest management in
indoor crops and fruit orchards.
There are considerable achievements in this field. The biological
control of glasshouse crops has been employed since 1970 (Pruszynski,
1992) and currently the method is estimated to be applied on 480
hectares of vegetable crops mainly (Bednarek and Goszczynski, 1997).
43
Unfortunately, during the period of economical changes the
centres rearing the parasites and predators closed their activity and
presently these species as well as pollinators are imported from abroad.
Table 2. Production of biological control agents in Poland
____________________________________________________
Domestic production:
Bacilan - Bacillus thuringiensis
Thuridan - Bacillus thuringiensis
Albarep - Garlic
Bioczos - Garlic
Owinema - Steinernema feltiae
Polagrycina - Lipid SL - Agrobacterium radiobakter
PgJBL - Phlebiopsis (= Phlebia) gigantea
Pheromons
Imported:
7 microbial insecticides with B.thuringiensis
Pheromons
Examples of application:
480 ha of glashouses protected using beneficial organisms,
150.000 ha of forest protected using microbial insecticides
________________________________________________________
Table 3. Commercial production of majore fruit species in Poland
Fruits
Apples
Strowberries
Curants
Sour cherries
Raspberries
Thousand
tones
1.600
250
165
100
43
Participation in
world
production
in %
3.4
11.2
28.2
12.1
Ranking in
global
production
8
3-4
1
3
Interesting achievements have been obtained by Polish scientists
in the biological control and integrated pest management in orchards.
44
in Poland
The organization of apple producers has been created as the result of
the activities of the Institute of Pomology and Ornamentals in
Skierniewice, and its members produce apples according to integrated
technology of production. The number of producers introducing such
systems of production systematically increases (Tables 4&5, Niemczyk,
1996), and presently integrated technology of strawberry production is
prepared to be implemented. In both cases plant protection is based on
integrated pest management.
Table 4. The development of IFP in Poland
Specification
No of regions/localities
No of fruit growers
No of extension workers
Area of apple orchard
in hectares
1991
3
70
18
1992
7
117
31
178
470
1993
24
430
55
about
2000
1994
32
570
65
about
3000
1995
39
776
72
4239
Table 5. Apple production in IFP orchards confirmed by certificates
Year
1993
1994
1995
No of fruit growers
having certificates
117
289
about 500
Amount of apples
confirmed by certificates
in tons
about 7.000
about 40.000
about 60.000
Total apple
production
about 0.4%
about 3%
about 5%
Application of integrated pest management
in agricultural crops
In Polish bibliography we are frequently encountered by
publications with titles having the word "integration" but the authors
present the result of research connected mainly with the reduction of
plant protection products use (Pokacka; 1992, Praczyk and Adamczewski,
1993).
In this report the researches and activities in the elaboration and
implementation of integrated pest management to agricultural crops in
Poland will be presented on the example of winter oilseed rape.
This crop is grown in Poland on the area of 400-500 thousands
hectares and requires intensive protection against pests, diseases and
45
weeds (Figure 3). That is why integrated pest management of this crop
is highly justifiable.
Figure 3. The occurance of the main pests and diseases on winter rape
plants in Poland
Researches on the programs of oilseed winter rape protection
play an important role in the scientific activity of the Plant Protection
Institute (Pruszynski et al., 1996). Attention should be paid to
considerable enhancement of research over the past twenty years: it has
been enhanced with issues that relate to: biological control, resistance,
biochemistry, ecology, environmental problems, use of plant protection
products in tank-mix, and first of all - integrated pest management.
Elaborated and present integrated pest management in oilseed
winter rape (Palosz et al., 1994)
This program is concerned with the use of some elements of
agrotechnology, natural elements of ecosystems as well as the proper
use of agrochemicals (Tables 6,7&8).
The recommendations presented concern the current state of
knowledge and changes provoked by new information on the
agrocoenosis of rape as well as the appearance of new plant protection
products on the market. Similarily to other cases, further intensive
researches are necessary.
46
in Poland
Table 6. Elements of integration in oilseed winter rape protection against
diseases, pests and weeds (according to Palosz et al., 1994)
Proper use of agrochemicals in oilseed winter rape
w renouncement of routine use of plant protection products
w not only signalization of need, but in justified cases
w renouncement of insecticide use during the flights of beneficial
entomofauna
w in the places, where it is possible, performing of treatments only on
the borders of fields togather with the sowing of trapping plants (do
not use pyrethroids in such the treatments)
w complying by the prevention for honey-bees
w use of recommended agrochemicals in tank-mix
w avoidance of mechanical plant damage
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Utilization of natural elements of ecosystem
-
knowledge of the most important species of beneficial organisms,
elaboration of the methods of their appearance and numerousness
adaptation of chemical treatments (choice of product, timing, border
treatment) to the time of appearance and flights of beneficial insects
in order to their protection
favourizing of the conditions for the development of beneficial
entomofauna
47
Proper agrotechnique
-
complying by at least 4 years break in rape growing on the same
field
complying by special isolation between this year and last year rape
field
increase of the area of perennial leguminous plants
complete before-sowing system of soil cultivation
complying by optimal date of sowing and quantity of seeds
soeing of winter turnip on the borders as traping plant
optimal level of nitrogen fertilization dividing spring application rate
into two parts
harvest in two stages, renouncing of desiccation
SOME NEGATIVE FACTORS
The structure of Polish agriculture
In Poland collectivization has been widespread and about 80% of
arable land has been left to private farmers. Currently (Table 9) there are
more than 2 million farms and their number changes very slowly. Thus a
great number of farmers of varying professional knowledge, working
under different climatic and soil conditions and farming on various area
has impeded the introduction of uniform or even similar methods of
implementation and dissemination.
Training programs
During the past years there has been a systematic increase in
the number of hours of lectures and practical exercises that relate to
integrated pest management both at universities and secondary
agricultural schools and professional trainings. This is highly favourable,
however, the general level of knowledge on integrated pest management,
of farmers mostly, is unsatisfactory and there is still much to be done in
this field. Without a good knowledge of an agricultural adviser and farmer
and without good understanding of integrated pest management and
ecological approach to – advances in plant protection programs will be
impossible.
48
in Poland
Others
-
current state of Polish agricultural science (Table 10),
unfavourable economic situation of agriculture,
lack of motivation,
substantial differences in soil, climatic and humidity conditions,
lack of favourable training and consultanting services.
Table 9. Changes in Polish agriculture (according to BOSS - Agriculture
17/18/97)
Number of farms
Area of land belonging
to private owners
Percent of arable land
belonging to private
owners
Average area of private
farm
Area of arable land in
the farm of area above
10 ha
Area of crops
1988
1996
2 167.6 tys.
2 041.4 tys.
13 537.6tys.ha
14 259.8 tys.ha
ró`nica
- 126.2 tys.
(5.8%)
+ 722.2 tys.ha
(14.4%)
76.3%
82.1%
+ 5.8%
7.05 ha
7.91 ha
+ 0.86 ha
46%
13 964.5tys.ha
54%
12 296.7 tys.ha
+ 8%
- 1 667.8 ha
Table 10. Staff and expenses for science (according to Krzymuski and
Nowicki, 1995)
Countries
Denmark, Germany, Finland,
Netherland, France, Sweden
Great Britain, Italy, Austria,
Luxemburg, Belgium
Greece, Portugal, Ireland,
Spain
Europian Union (in average)
Poland, changes 1986-1993
Number of
people
working in
the science
per 10
thousands
of people
Expenses for one head
in USA
dollars
in the % of
national product
brutto
35 - 60
390 - 585
1.47 - 2.12
18 - 37
143 - 209
0.70 - 1.07
1 - 11
31
42 Ù 25
30 - 73
351
38 Ù 18
0.31 - 0.54
1.28
1.60 Ù 0.62
49
CONCLUSIONS
Several factors should be given full consideration when disscusing
the current state and future integrated pest management of agricultural
crops in Poland.
Primarily the need to employ very intensive many-sided
researches. They should concern population problems in both
agrocoenoses and the surrounding ecosystems (Wegorek 1993). The
knowledge on the role of separate parasites and predators in the
reduction of pest density is still limited. A quite new problem is the
differentiation occurring within the same species (the forms of
differentiated noxiousness, of differentiated susceptibility to plant
protection products) as well as the changes of economic importance of
some pests. The resistance of cultivars is applied to a low degree. It
should be remembered that integrated pest management ought to be
adapted to local conditions.
When talking of the positive sides of implementation of integrated
pest control it should be underlined that the reduced use of plant
protection products in order to protect human health and the environment
has been the major objective in the majority of countries and such a
situation has effected the activities of those manufacturing plant
protection products. Instead of highly toxic and dangerous products, new
ones are being introduced, environmentally safe in different formulations
and other packages (for exemple watersoluble or returnable).
Considerable progress has been achieved in the plant protection
technique and from January 1st, 1999 periodical technical inspection of all
the sprayers will come into force.
The trends to elaborate and implement integrated technologies of
production can be assumed as positive. In such technologies the
application of integrated pest management is foreseen (Pruszynski 1997).
Though, the situation observed in world agriculture and world
plant protection should favourably influence the development of integrated
pest management.
Coming back to the present situation in Poland it should be
stressed, that the change of economic conditions in the agriculture
considerably influenced the reduction of chemical plant protection
products use. Presently their use is considerably lower from the one
expected in future integrated pest management.
As opposed to other countries in which the activities are
undertaken in order to reduce the use of chemical plant protection
products - in Poland proper crop protection means increasing chemical
plant protection product use.
50
in Poland
Polish agriculture is facing the opportunity of introducing
integrated pest management as well as improving crop protection
programs.
Will this opportunity be perceived by official authorities and
farmers? This remains to be seen in the years to come.
REFERENCES
Bednarek,A., Goszczynski,W.: Stan aktualny i perspektywy
integrowanych i biologicznych metod ochrony roslin uprawnych pod
oslonami. Progress in Plant protection/Postepy w Ochronie Roslin 37 (1),
1997.
Czaplicki,E., Podgórska,B., Rogalinska,M.: 30 lat rejestracji
pestycydów w Polsce. Materialy XXXV sesji Nauk. Inst. Ochr. Roslin.
Poznan. Cz. I, 52-59, 1995.
Dabrowski,J., Gasior,J., Janda,T., Krause,A., Morzycka,B.,
Murawska,M.,
Sadlo,S.,
Barylska,E.,
Gierschendorf,Z.,
Giza,J.,
Langowska, B., Martinek,B., Michel,M., Rupar,J.: Obraz skazen
pozostalosciami pestycydów upraw rolnych i gleb w Polsce w latach
1991-1995. Progress in Plant Protection/Postepy w Ochronie Roslin 36
(1), 57-76, 1996.
Germaziak,N., Podgórska,B.: Dobra praktyka ochrony roslin w
dokumentach Unii Europejskiej. Ochrona Roslin 5, 5-8, 1996.
Krzymuski,J., Nowicki,J.: Produkcja roslinna w Polsce na tle Unii
Europejskiej. W "Agricultural Sciences in the Context of European
Integration" Olsztyn 26-27.09.1995. 1/IV, 7-24, 1995.
Lipa,J.J.: Integracja biologicznego i chemicznego zwalczania w
ochronie roslin. Post. Nauk Roln. 45, 7-14, 1964.
Lipa,J.J.: Wstepne badania do integracji zwalczania szkodników
buraków. Biul.Inst.Ochr.Roslin 31, 395-407, 1965.
Lipa,J.J.: Integrowanie metod zwalczania i sterowania populacjami
agrofagów w nowoczesnych programach ochrony roslin. Materialy XXIV
Sesji Nauk. Inst. Ochr. Roslin. Poznan. Cz. I, 31-48, 1984.
Niemczyk,E.: Integrowana produkcja owoców w Polsce. W
"Integrowana Produkcja w Polsce i wybranych krajach europejskich”.
Materialy Konf. Warszawa 12-13 grudnia 1995, 112-122, 1996.
Palosz,T., Mrówczynski,M., Musnicki,Cz.: Podstawy integrowanej
ochrony rzepaku ozimego przed agrofagami. Materialy XXXIV Sesji Nauk.
Inst.Ochr.Roslin. Poznan. Cz. I, 111-116, 1994.
Piekarczyk,K., Wozny,J.: Progi ekonomicznej szkodliwosci chorób i
szkodników roslin uprawnych. Inst. Ochr, Roslin. Poznan. 37 str., 1986.
51
Pokacka,Z.: Integrowane programy ochrony w badaniach Instytutu
Ochrony Roslin na przykladzie zbóz. Materialy XXXII Sesji Nauk. Inst.
Ochr.Roslin. Poznan. Cz. I, 21-27, 1992.
Praczyk,T., Adamczewski,K.: Integrowany system zwalczania
chwastów w uprawach rolniczych. Materialy XXXIV sesji Nauk. Inst. Ochr.
Roslin. Poznan. Cz. I, 82-89, 1994.
Pruszynski,S.: Research on and use of biological methods of pest
control in glasshouse crops in Poland. Bull. OEPP/EPPO 22, 405-410,
1992.
Pruszynski,S.: Use and prospects for biological control methods in
field crops protection. Proc.Conf."Actual and potential use biological pest
control of plants” Skierniewice 22-23 November 1993, 12-15, 1995.
Pruszynski,S.:Znaczenie ochrony roslin w rozwoju rolniczych
technologii produkcji. Progress in Plant Protection/Postepy w Ochronie
Roslin 37 (1), 19-26, 1997.
Pruszynski,S., Palosz,T., Mrówczynski,M.: Badania Instytutu
Ochrony Roslin nad ochrona rzepaku przeciwko szkodnikom, chorobom i
chwastom. Rosliny Oleiste, Oilseed Crops XMII (1), 11-19, 1996.
Samersow,V.F.: Zasady opracowania systemów ochrony roslin w
integrowanej produkcji roslinnej. Materialy XXXIV Sesji Nauk. Inst. Ochr.
Roslin. Poznan. Cz. I, 79-81, 1994.
Walczak,F., Grendowicz,L., Manys,P., Piekarczyk,J., Piekarczyk,K.,
Skorupska,A., Wójtowicz,A.: Szkodliwos} wybranych agrofagów roslin
uprawnych w polsce w 1996 roku oraz wstepne prognozy na rok 1997.
Progress in Plant Protection/Postepy w Ochronie Roslin 37 (1), 250-270,
1997.
Wegorek,W.: Integrowane zwalczanie szkodliwych owadów. Post.
Nauk Roln. 6, 47-61, 1970.
Wegorek,W.: Influence of pesticides on agroecology. Rocz. Nauk.
Roln. Seria E 23 (1/2), 117-123, 1993.
52
INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM) AGAINST
STORED PRODUCT PESTS
J.Nawrot1, J.Szafranek2, A.Pradzynska1, E.Malinski2,
Z.Winiecki1
1
Institute for Plant Protection, Poznan, Poland
2
University of Gdansk, Gdansk, Poland
SUMMARY
Chemical control of storage pests is a dangerous procedure on
account of the necessity to use fumigants highly toxic to people and
animals. Two compounds - methyl bromide and hydrogen phosphide are commonly applied in practice. Methyl bromide will already be
withdrawn from use becouse of its harmful effect on ozone sphere in the
atmosphere. Only hydrogen phosphide will be used for a certain time
and there is a great danger that storage pests will become resistant to it.
In this situation, studies on integrated methods of stored grain protection
are urgently required.
The report will present results of studies on searching for new
antifidants and a possibility of using them.
A new trend of studies is chemistry of surface lipids of pests and
grain. These copmounds fulfil protective function, and for that reason
finding of a possibility of their damage would be a great achievements in
limitation of using chemical method. An effective way of reducing pest
population is application of temperature within 35-450C. This factor
causes pest sterilization and improves technological properties of grain.
INTRODUCTION
Grain is the principal food material worldwide. About 80% of all
food for human consumption comes from small grains, rice, maize,
sorghum, rye, barley and legumes (beans, soy beans, pea nuts). Annual
world production of grains amounts to about 2 billion tons and about 900
million tons need storage. Losses of grain during storage were estimated
to range from 9% (USA) to 30% (developing countries in the tropics).
Fumigation with phosphine and methyl bromide or contact insecticides
53
treatment of grain are the most frequent methods used for stored product
pest control. Both are harmful to humans and produce residues in
products intended for human consumption.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) involves the knowledge of
storage ecosystem, ecology of insects, their sampling and identification,
response to chemical and non-chemical agents. Our work involves natural
antifeedants, attractants and some physical methods to be used in
integrated pest management.
ANTIFEEDANTS
In 1980 the search for antifeedants among natural plant
compounds has been initiated. Plants produce a large number of defence
substances that make them difficult or impossible for pests to feed on.
About 400 000 metabolites have been estimated of which no more than
20 000 have been defined until now.
Antifeedants or feeding deterrents are usually defined as factors
that inhibit feeding or cause the cessation of feeding and they are being
received by taste receptors. They do not kill insects as insecticides.
Unfortunately, grain and seeds, the final products of farmers’ work
are deprived of a defence mechanism and protective substances must be
artificially provided. The ideal protective agent would be a compound that
repelled or killed pests and stopped their feeding and development.
Simultaneously, the compound would not change the taste or smell of
stored products, nor threaten the environment or consumer. Currently
fumigants and grain protectants used for stored product pest control do
not entirely fulfil these criteria.
We elaborated own test methods where 1 mm thick wheat flour
water discs containing only flour and water was used. The discs were
saturated with ethanol (non-treated discs C, for control) or with ethanol
solutions of the examined compound at the rate of 10 mg/ml (treated
discs T). Feeding of insects was recorded under three conditions: (a) on
pure food, composed of two non-treated discs CC (control); (b) on food
with a possibility of choosing between one treated disc (T) and one nontreated disc (C)(choice test); (c) on food with two treated discs (TT) (nochoice test). After evaporation of the solvent, the discs were weighed
and given to insects for 5 days as a sole food source. The discs were
then re-weighed and according to the amount of the consumed food in
the control (CC), choice test (CT) and no-choice test (TT), three feeding
deterrent activity coefficients were calculated:
1. Absolute coefficient of deterrency A = (CC-TT/CC+TT) 100
2. Relative coefficient of deterrency R = (C-T/C+T) 100
3. Total coefficient of deterrency T = A + R
54
J. Nawrot at al.: Integrated Pest Managment (IPM) Against Stored Product Pests
Table 1. The best antifeedants and their plant sources
The values of the total coefficient served as the index of
antifeeding activity expressed on a scale from 0 (inactive compounds) to
200 (maximum activity).
55
The best antifeedants were bisabolangelone, bakkenolide A
helenalin (Table 1). The test insects did not eat any food treated with
these three compounds throughout the 14 days of the bioassays and
died of starvation. The compounds mentioned above showed better
activity than azadirachtin. In the farther experiments three sequiterpenes
(helenalin, bisabolangelone and bakkenolide A) at the dose of 10
µg/insect were topically applied to larvae, pupae and adults of the
confused flour beetle (Tribolium confusum) the khapra beetle
(Trogoderma granarium) and adults of the granary weevil (Sitophilus
granarius). Bisabolangelone and helenalin were toxic to larvae and
caused deformation of pupae in all of the species. No adults from
deformed pupae which died within a few days were developed. When
deposited on the beetle cuticle these two compounds inhibited oviposition
and decreased longevity of Tribolium confusum and S. granarius adults.
The treated T.granarium beetles entirely lost their ability to oviposit.
Perhaps the presence of these compounds on the bodies prevented
copulation by disturbing the action of pheromones. These compounds
were used for spraying wheat grain at the rates of 50 and 250 mg/kg
and S. granarius and T. confusum adults and T. granarium larvae were
placed on the treated grain for 30 days. Only bisabolangelone
significantly reduced the survival of insects, their feeding intensity and
progeny number. The presence of each antifeedent on grain caused
difficulties to population growth.
Some compounds of plant origin for impregnation of paper,
wrapping parchment paper and polyethylene sheeting were also applied
as protection from Rhizopertha dominica and Sitophilus granarius beetles
invasion.
Rotenone and helenalin were the best agents against insect
perforation of wrapping materials (Bloszyk et al., 1990).
There are some general rules derived from our knowledge of
antifeedants:
1. It is easier to identify good activity of a compound against
monophagous insects than polyphagous ones. Since most of the
storage pests are polyphagous we have detected antifeedant activity
in only 7% of the compounds tested.
2. Some chemicals are antifeedants to only a limited number of species.
3. Besides the best antifeedant activity, bisabolangelone shows also
clear insecticidal properties and causes physiological disturbance in
development and oviposition.
4. The variety of chemical structures responsible for antifeedant activity
is very extensive. There is no direct relationship between chemical
structures and antifeedant activity.
56
At the present stage of research it is difficult to predict what may
be possible in the practical application of antifeedants. One can hope
that they may have use in the protection of seeds for sowing and in
packing materials. It seems unlikely that they will become the only tools
used in insect control or insecticide replacement. It is possible that in the
future several techniques will be used together to control pests in stores
and that antifeedants may provide one component of this integrated pest
management.
A useful additional benefit of research on antifeedants is that it
increases knowledge of physiological processes within insect organs and
thereby opens the way to synthesis of new active compounds. It is
probable that regular contact of insects with antifeedants would result in
habituation. This phenomenon has already been described in literature
and may be of as great significance in the future as is resistance of
insects to insecticides.
Nature contains an almost endless number of compounds
compared to the approx. 1000 tested so far. Evidently we have only
touched the surface of what is possible. We have to analyze as many
compounds as possible for all their potential activities (as antifeedants
and attractants and for toxicity) against different insect species of
economic importance. We should remember that even the most
apparently ideal substance must still be examined using physiological and
environmental experiments in order to determine their effect on other
organisms.
INSECT CUTICULAR LIPIDS
The second area of our interest has been identification of insect
cuticular lipids. These compounds play an important role in insect life.
The main function of cuticular in insect and plant lipids is the
reduction of water transpiration and protection of living organisms from
desiccation. The original habitats of stored product insects were rodent
burrows and bird nests. During evolutionary development insects adapted
themselves to extremely dry products and a desiccating environment by
appropriate composition of cuticular lipid layer. Just lipids deposited on
the surface are responsible for the observed water proofing. Furthermore,
the lipid layer protects insects from microorganisms infections and
absorption of insecticides. Some of the cuticular components are also
involved in chemical communication between species (parasites and
predators) and within species serving as aggregation pheromones, sex
attractants, short-range mating stimulants and kairomones.
57
The composition of cuticular hydrocarbons from 16 species and
their larval stages is shown in Table 2. Most of them (8 species)
represent Tenebrionidae, three Curculionidae, two Dermestidae and
Bruchidae, one Anobiidae, Bostrychidae and Cucujidae. Only one species
belongs to the order Lepidoptera, family Pyralidae. The composition of
cuticular lipids of the insect tested varies among species being a
chemical tool for taxonomy.
Table 2. Composition of cuticular hydrocarbons of stored product insects
The following classes of chemical compounds were found:
alkanes, isoalkanes, alkenes, esters, glycerides, aldehydes, ketones, fatty
acids and sterols. Only n-alkanes occurred in all the species examined,
58
though in variable proportion. They were tested as continuous
homologous series from nC16 to nC35 and compounds of nC23, nC25,
nC27 and nC29 usually predominated and were most abundant. Most nalkanes (98 and 83% respectively) amounts were found in Attagenus
megatoma and Lasioderma serricorne larvae. On the other hand,
Lasioderma serricorne, Callosobruchus maculatus and Acanthoscelides
obtectus adults had the least amounts of these fractions. n-Alkenes and
alkadienes were found in a few species only. The presence of
monomethylalkanes (terminally and internally branched) dimethyl – and
trimethylalkanes causes higher melting point of the lipid mixture, however
Attagenus megatoma larvae do not possess them at all.
Hydrocarbon composition is related to taxonomic group and for
example closely related species, such as congeneric, tend to have
qualitatively similar hydrocarbon mixtures but with sometimes different
proportion. Species distantly related have hydrocarbon composition which
differ qualitatively and quantitatively. Of the stored product pests
presented in Table 2 Tribolium confusum and T.castaneum as well as
Sitophilus oryzae and S.zeamais have very similar compositions. Three
methods of lipid layer destruction are known:
- inert dusts causing mechanical damages;
- temperature above 45°C causing melting;
- vegetable oils dissolving waxes and depriving them of insects.
WHEAT GRAIN LIPIDS
The chemical composition of the epicuticules of plant leaves,
fruits and flowers is a key factor for insects choosing the host plant for
feeding and oviposition. There is a great evidence that insects accept or
reject plants for feeding or oviposit due to variations in plant surface
composition. So this semiochemical interaction is a major factor for
settling the particular plant and its variety by the insects.
As yet, a little is known about semiochemicals and physical
stimulants behaviour on stored product insects because a protective layer
of grain is mostly composed of lipids, hopefully the knowledge on those
compounds can help understand some ecological interaction. From the
practical point of view it is of great interest to find the allelochemical
activity of grain lipid components. Qualitative and quantitative differences
of grain surface control of insect behaviour and minimize losses during
storage.
Table 3 shows the differences in lipid composition in extract from
grain surface and from 8 fractions of grain obtained by milling and
59
separating in laboratory mill. Hexane extract of grain surface lipids was
deposited on wheat water discs (previously extracted with hexane) using
three doses: 1.5; 3.0 and 6.0 µg of solid residues. All tests were done
according to the scheme described in part II "Antifeedants". Attractants
have the sign "-", antifeedants "+". The results are presented in Table 4.
There are no significant differences in attractant coefficient for the insect
tested. So we can state that the mixture of compounds is
phagostimulant. The adults of Sitophilus granarius and Rhizopertha
dominica as well Trogoderma granarium larvae are typical pests of
healthy grain and two others are polyphagous feeding the rest of plant
origin. Similar results have been obtained for extracts from different grain
part (Table 5).
Table 3. Composition of lipids from whole wheat grain and different
fraction of grain
A literature survey shows that the compounds found in cuticular
layers of green plants affect the behaviour of insects. Often a complex
mixture of compounds is responsible for bioregulation and the compounds
show neutral synergistic activities. We should also remember that insects
can gain information on food by peripheral sensilla and by internal sense
60
organs. They also have a self-selection mechanism for choosing optimal
diets.
Table 4. Intesity of feeding of some stred product insects on food with
grain surface lipids
Table 5. The influence of lipids from grinding products of wheat grain on
feeding of some stored products pests
Lipids pay an important role in insect cuticle and membrane
formation and are the key dietary constituent since they serve as
metabolic reserves. Triacylglycerols play the special role because they
have a high caloric value per unit weight and give two times more
metabolic water than carbohydrates. This is a crucial problem for insects
feed dry materials.
Stored product insect can recognize food by chemicals deposited
on the surface and inside grain. The detection of different group of
compounds should only be possible on short distance because of their
poor volatility.
61
HIGH TEMPERATURE
The control of insect-pests of cereal grain and food product in
stores encounters many problems. Practically, the only recommended
method to delouse food products is a gas treatment. Nevertheless, as a
result of many inconveniences and restrictions it is neither a safe method
to man nor the environment.
In search for effective, safe and cheap methods of control of
insects in stored grains, attention was drawn to temperatures employed
in the process of grain drying. Temperatures from 45 to 600C at a proper
exposure time, sterilize or kill insects in a number of goods. There was
found an efficient influence of a specific range of temperatures, close to
thermopreferendum in combating insect-pests without any adverse effects
on products or grain, their consumer values or sprouting ability of seeds.
Table 6. Influence of high temperatures on conecutive stages of
development of the granary weevil in wheat grain
The height of employed temperatures is much effected by product
humidity. At a high temperature damage occures rapidly. This work
shows the results of laboratory experiments on the effectiveness of the
temperatures 45-600C on all the stages of granary weevil (Sitophilus
granarius) development. The results of the experiments are shown in
Tables 6, 7, 8 and 9. Table 6 shows that granary weevil in grain can
stand the temperature of 450C for a long time. Finally, 420-minute
exposure causes 100% mortality of the hidden stages of development
62
and about 30% of adults stayed alive. They were at the end all dead
after 810-minute heating. The temperature of 500C was much more
efficient considering that after 180 minutes of heating all the stages of
development were dead and beetles died already after 120 minutes.
100% efficiency was achieved at 550C after 120 minutes and at 600C
after 90 minutes of a thermal exposure. Beetles fecundity after the
treatment at different times and temperatures was different depending on
these factors. It was found that adults survived a thermal treatment put
on wheat grain for 10 days in control tests they had just lower fecundity
indicator. An increase in beetles mortality 10 days after thermal treatment
in grain along with the time of treatment with the temperatures given was
noticed in the hatch of beetles progeny of the next generation. After 50,
180, 300 and 420-minute treatment at temperature 450C over beetles in
grain along with the time the percentage of imagines in F1 generation
hatch was decreasing and reached 69.9; 56.5; 12.6 and 2.5% (Table 7).
Table 8 shows a 60-minute treatment at temperatures 50, 55 or 600C on
all development stages of the granary weevil (S. granarius) reducing F1
generation beetle hatch significantly.
Table 7. Grain weevils' beetles fecundity (S.granarius L.) under a higher
temperature treatment in wheat grain
Temperatures 45 and 600C had no significant effect on wheat
grain sprouting ability (Table 9).
63
Table 8. Average number of the progeny after a thermical teratment at
given stages of development of the grain weevil (S. granarius L.)
Table 9. Sprouting power of wheat grain after a thermical teratment
64
REFERENCES
Nawrot, J., Harmatha, J.: Natural products as antifeedatns against
stored products pests, Postharvest News and Inform.,5(2):17N-21N, 1994.
Nawrot, J., Szafranek, J., Malinski, E.: Function and composition
of cuticular hydrocarbons of stored-products insects. Proc. 6th Inter.
Work. Conf. on Stored-product Protection, Vol. I: 533-560, 1995.
Pradzynska, A.: The role of higher temperatures to control
granary weevil (Sitophilus granarius L.). Prace Nauk. Inst. Ochr. Roslin
36 (1-2): 119-127, 1996.
65
66
WINTER WHEAT MANAGEMENT BASED ON THE
TECHNOLOGICAL VALUE OF FUNGICIDES IN HUNGARY
Károly Biber1, Ilona Aponyi-Garamvölgyi2, Gábor Princzinger1,
Tibor Halmágyi3 and Rozália Rátai-Vida4
1
Ministry of Agriculture and Regional Development, Department for
Plant Protection and Agroenvironment, Budapest, Hungary
2
Budapest Plant Health and Soil Conservation Station,
Budapest, Hungary
3
Plant Health and Soil Conservation Station of county Békés,
Békéscsaba, Hungary
4
Plant Health and Soil Conservation Station of county Jász-NagykunSzolnok, Szolnok, Hungary
ABSTRACT
In addition to their recognition in due time, the choice of the
adequate control method is of major importance in the system of
integrated pest management. To facilitate decision-making, the
technological value of fungicides has been worked out. Technological
value is a new index system which reflects the comprehensive relation
of a new fungicide used - under any epidemic condition - against any
pathogen. It expresses the maximum reachable effect with the use of
the registered fungicide for the well scheduled prevention or against
the heavy infection pressure. From the measurable properties of
fungicides, efficiency was calculated based on the extent of the effect
against four diseases, namely powdery mildew (Erysiphe graminis f.sp.
tritici), head blight (Fusarium spp.), rust diseases (Puccinia recondita,
P.striiformis) and Helmithosporium leaf spot (Pyreophora triticirepentis). When specifying the technological value of any fungicide, in
addition to the efficiency, its mode of action persistence, effect on
other diseases (e.g. septoriose), physiological action to wheat
environmental hazard, possible development of resistance and any
favourable or unfavourable properties were considered which could
influence their use.
Key words: wheat, diseases, fungicides, pest management
67
INTRODUCTION
The Ministry of Agriculture and Regional Development, acting
as the Hungarian plant protection authority has worked out an
evaluation system for some pesticides (differentiating by crops and
pests) supplying users with useful information on the choice of
products. In this paper, this system is described by giving the
example of fungicides applied to control leaf and ear diseases of
wheat.
Cereals and especially winter wheat predominate in the
Hungarian agricultural production. Of the 4,7 millions hectares of
arable land, winter wheat is grown on more than 1 million hectares.
Efficient plant protection, in our case the control of diseases is
considered the most important condition for producing high quality
yield. Currently more than 40 fungicides are known to be registered
for crop treatment against wheat diseases. It is difficult even for the
well-trained specialists to select the most appropriate product. In order
to make the decision easier, the Hungarian plant protection authority
has decided to work out an evaluation system which is
- relatively objective,
- independent from commercial interests and
- easy to understand.
METHODS
The system is based on the so-called "technological value"
which can be defined as a calculated index allowing comparison of
pesticides to be used for the control of a certain pest or a group of
pests, provided that
- all these pests are present in the area with high infection pressure,
- no external disturbing factors reduce the effect of the pesticides.
In order to define the technological value the following
information sources have been used:
- documentation presented by manufacturers to the authorities for
registration,
- results and data of registration trials carried out in Hungary ,
- experiencies from the agricultural practices and results of the so
called comparative studies.
The most important element is perhaps the biological efficacy
in controlling some pathogens which pose potential risks in Hungary
(Table 1).
68
B. Károly et al.: Winter Wheat Management Based on the Technological Value of
Fungicides in Hungary
Table 1. Parameters of the technological values I
Efficacy
Powdery mildew
Per pathogens (Erysiphe graminis f.sp. tritici)
Value
outstanding 10
points
Rust
(Puccinia spp.)
excellent 9 points
Fusarium blight
(Fusarium spp.)
good 7 points
Helminthosporium disease
(Helminthosporium triticirepentis)
medium 5 points
poor 2 points
As it can be seen the 4 pathogens which occur most
frequently in wheat in Hungary are: E.graminis, Puccinia spp.
Fusarium spp. and Helminthosporium tritici-repentis. The biological
efficacy of the various fungicides in controlling these pathogens are
classified into 5 categories and have been numerically described.
Further elements of the technological value are shown in
Table 2.
For a better understanding, pictograms on the mode of action,
pre-harvest interval, poisoning category, bee and fish toxicity and
other information have been used to describe some properties and
parameters.
Using these parameters the following calculation method will
contribute finding numerically the technological value of a specific
pesticide:
Technological value: A x B + C + D
A = average of the numerical value of effectiveness/pathogen
B = numerical value of the duration of fungicidal action
C = value of treatment date
D = value for all the other favourable properties
69
Table 2. Parameters of the technological values II
Duration of the action
Suggested date of the
treatment
Favourable effect on the
other pathogens or hosts
Environmental hazard
Risk of resistance
All the other favourable
properties
Long: 4-6 weeks
Medium: 3-4 weeks
Short: 3 weeks >
Tillering,
leaf-sheaths er.
heading and beginning of
flowering both date
if any
if not
if any
if not
if any
if not
many good properties
some good properties
less advantageous good
properties
2,5
1,75
1,25
0,5
1
points
points
points
point
point
1,5
1
0
0
1
0
1
2
1
points
point
point
point
point
point
point
points
point
0
point
DISCUSSION
It was purposeful that the price of the commodity was not built
into the calculation of this value but in a separate column giving the
average price of each product in the previous year. The technological
value is only an indicative index and does not mean the
unchangeable order of the pesticides under study. It only helps you
choose the proper product but when taking the final decision all the
local conditions have to be considered (e.g. variety, place of
production, climate, infection pressure, etc.).
Graphical presentation of the technological value
The fungicides are presented by groups of active ingredients
and within the a.i. the alphabetical order of the Hungarian trade
names has been followed. The parameters that are characteristic for
the formulations have been put in one column under the name of the
pesticide.
In order to make comparison easier each parameter is
presented in column diagrams because it is mostly their ratio related
to each other and not the numerical value of the parameters that is
important.
70
The first column diagram shows the biological efficacy in
controlling the 4 pathogens.
From the difference of the column heights showing the
fungicidal action and extent of efficiency the specialist can
immediately select the range of fungicides to be used in a particular
situation. Later (going downward in the figure) after studying other
properties, the range of fungicides can be further narrowed till the final
decision. In other words, when you choose the very product you want
to use.
The second line shows the application rate registered in
Hungary. Below it the diagram presents the technological value
calculated using the method. It is clear that the technological value of
fungicides containing sulphur is very low because they can efficiently
control only the powdery mildew from the 4 major pathogens and they
have short duration of action. The dithiocarbamate fungicides have a
much wider mode of action, therefore they have a slightly higher
technological value. The systemic benzimidazoles (if used alone) have
not so advantegeous an evaluation as do the dithiocarbamates (their
technological value is lower) because they cannot control rusts and
Helminthosporium. Their duration of action is shorter than that of the
morpholines or triazoles.
The highest technological value is given to the triazole
derivatives, namely the factory blends of triazole-morpholine. These
formulations have a broad spectrum and a long 4-6 week duration,
they can be, furthermore, well used both in cold and warm weather
and pose a low risk to the environment.
Below this diagram, a pictogram shows the duration of action
of each pesticide.
In the following line the cost of a single treatment for one
hectare is shown. It is not the absolute value of the costs that is
important but their ratio related to each other.
In the following lines, signs or pictograms show some other
parameters which have an influence on the technological value.
CONCLUSION
The method and its graphical presentation have considerably
been simplified and contain some technical inaccuracy or can even
violate some commercial interests. Nevertheless, based on a 2-year
experience, it can be confirmed that the main objective has been
achieved: namely, a useful material to help decisionmaking of the
plant protection specialists has been prepared.
71
72
73
Key to the signs used:
Fish Toxicity of the Applied Pesticides
Harmless
Moderate danger
Medium danger
Expressed danger
Duration of Action of the Applied Pesticides
Sort
Medium
Long
Bee Toxicity of the Applied Pesticides
Harmless
Moderate danger
Expressed danger
Mode of Action the Applied Pesticides
Contact
Systemic
The graphical presentation and other materials have continuously been
sent to the specialists. Up to now, this evaluation for the products that
can be used to control some other important pests have been worked
out.
Finally, it should be underlined that it is an ongoing task to
annually update this evaluation system taking new experimental results
as well as new registrations into consideration.
74
EFFECT OF SWEET MAIZE SOWING DATES ON THE
DEGREE OF THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER (Ostrinia
nubilalis Hbn.) INFESTATION IN NORTH - WEST
VOJVODINA
Jano Tancik1, Franja Ba~a2, Ludovit Cagán1, @ivica Radin3
1
Department of Plant Protection, Slovak Agricultural University in Nitra,
Nitra, Slovakia
2
Maize Research Institute, Zemun Polje, Belgrade-Zemun, Yugoslavia
3
Zorka Holding, Subotica, Yugoslavia
ABSTRACT
During 1989-1991 damages caused by the European corn borer
(ECB), O.nubilalis Hbn. have been observed in sweet maize plants in
north-west Vojvodina, Yugoslavia. Capturing light traps showed that the
European corn borer is a bivoltine population in this area and the number
of moths of the second generation was three-fold higher compared with
the first generation. A high number of damaged cobs was observed in
maize sown first half of April. Cob damage was low in maize sown
second half of April and the first or the second decade of May. Substantial
cob damage was observed in maize sown end May or later. The
investigation showed that maize sown very early or late usually needs to
be treated against the European corn borer in regions with two
generations of the pest.
Key words: European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis Hbn., sweet
maize, sowing date, cob damage, control
INTRODUCTION
The European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis Hbn. is the major
sweet maize pest in Vojvodina. Cob damage has an adverse impact on
the quality of the final product (Radin et al., 1989).
75
Insecticide treatments need to be employed in order to control O.
nubilalis (Hudon et al., 1989; Radin et al., 1989; Ba~a et al., 1990; Tancik
et al., 1993; Hutchinson, 1993; Gingera et al., 1993; Cagán, 1993; Tancik,
Cagán, 1998). Biological methods include the application of egg parasitoid
Trichogramma spp. (Bigler, 1986; Hassan, 1981; Tancik et al., 1994) and
the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bartles, Hutchison, 1995; Tancik,
Cagán, 1998).
Sweet maize was sown at different dates and these dates effected
the degree of O.nubilalis infestation. Early sown maize was less damaged
in areas with the pest bivoltine population while the attack of the second
generation of O.nubilalis was more severe in late sown maize (Showers et
al., 1989). In the region with the univoltine population of O.nubilalis, early
sowing resulted in greater damage of plants compared with late sowing
(Vukasovi}, 1953, Lazarevi}, Trifunovi}, 1962, Cagán, 1993).
The objective of the study was to analyze the effect of sowing
dates on the degree of sweet maize damage provoked by O.nubilalis in
north-west Vojvodina (Serbia, Yugoslavia) and determine the need for pest
control.
During 1989-1991 damages caused by the European corn borer,
O.nubilalis Hbn. have been observed in sweet maize plants.
Investigations were conducted in sweet maize fields in north-west
Vojvodina (Serbia, Yugoslavia) at locations Ruski Krstur, Kula, Sivac, Ba~ki
Gra~ac, Stara Moravica, Srpski Mileti}, Futog and Vrbas.
The following maize hybrids were used in the experiments: Seneca
Horisont, Sandance and Jubilee. The growing season (from emergence to
harvest) of the first two hybrids was 62 and 69 days respectively. The
vegetation period of the hybrid Jubilee was 82 days.
The Frozen Food Factory at Ruski Krstur requires cobs at a
particular developmental stage. Due to this maize was sown at different
dates from April 1 to July 15. The sowing dates of our experiment are
shown in Tables 2, 3 and 4 . Early sown maize was usually grown under
degradable foil whereas late sown maize was irrigated (Tables 2,3 and 4).
The cobs collected were analyzed at the laboratory of the Frozen
Food Factory at Ruski Krstur. Twenty cobs out of each 5-ton wagon were
collected at random, i.e. nearly 40 cobs per hectare. The data were used
to calculate the percentage of damage in a particular field.
Light traps placed at Ruski Krstur from May 1 to September 30
were used to monitor the flight of O.nubilalis moths.
76
J. Tancik et al.: Effect of Sweet Maize Sowing Dates on the Degree of the European
Corn Borer (Ostrinia Nubilalis Hbn.) Infestation in North - West Vojvodina
RESULTS
The light trap data, number of cobs damaged by the ECB larvae
on the locations analyzed, years and generations are shown in Tables 1,
2,3 and 4.
Table 1.
Number of moths of the European corn borer (Ostrinia
nubilalis) caught into the light trap at Ruski Krstur during
1989-1991
Month
May
June
July
August
September
Decade
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1989
0
0
0
40
172
328
167
25
103
397
691
246
34
19
11
1990
3
28
209
172
136
188
4
10
105
257
1168
179
63
50
67
1991
0
0
4
19
133
113
140
12
29
394
468
587
413
227
28
The number of moths caught into the light trap during 1989 - 1991
is shown in Table 1. In 1989 the flight of the O.nubilalis moths started
first decade of June. The peak flight of the first generation was observed
third decade of June whereas the peak of the second generation was
detected second decade of August. In 1990 first moths in the light traps
were found first decade of May. The first flight peak was recorded third
decade of May and the second one third decade of June. These moths
belonged to the first generation of the pest. The highest number of the
second generation moths was caught second decade of August in 1990.
In 1991 the flight of moths detected by the light trap started second
decade of May. The highest number of the first generation individuals was
77
observed second decade of June and first decade of July. The peak flight
of the second generation moths was observed third decade of August.
Table 2.
Average number of cobs damaged by the European corn
borer (Ostrinia nubilalis) at Ruski Krstur in 1989
Sowing date
Hybrid
April 6-10
April 13
April 27
May 5
May 23-25
May 31
June 15
June 29
Seneca
Horisont
Jubilee
Sandance
Sandance
Jubilee
Jubilee
Sandance
Sandance
Cropping
method
Harvest Date
% damaged
cobs
under foil
non-irrigated
non-irrigated
non-irrigated
irrigated
irrigated
irrigated
irrigated
July 20-21
July 15-22
August 10-13
August 15-16
August 16-22
August 15-16
August 18-25
September 5-10
31.1
8.2
3.1
10.9
24.2
56.8
55.7
56.1
The number of damaged cobs in 1989 is shown in Table 2. A very
high number of damaged cobs was observed in maize sown beginning
April and grown under thermo-degradable foil (Table 2). Cob damage was
low in maize sown under non-irrigated field conditions on April 13, 27 and
May 5. Substantial cob damage was observed in maize sown May 23-25
whereas very high cob damage was registered in late sown maize (May
31, June 15, 29).
The average number of maize cobs damaged by the European
corn borer (O.nubilalis Hbn.) on different locations of north-west Vojvodina
in 1990 is shown in Table 3. Sweet corn was grown in 16 fields and
chemical control was used in 9 fields. Chemical control decreased the
number of damaged cobs but their number was above 10 percent in late
sown maize (June 4-6, June 12-18, June 18). A very small number of
damaged cobs was observed in fields sown between May 5 and May 1420. The average number of cobs damaged by O. nubilalis was above 20
percent in fields sown May 23-25 and June 7.
The number of damaged cobs influenced by different sowing
dates in 1991 is shown in Table 4. Very early sown hybrids (from April 8
to April 20) were substantially damaged compared with hybrids sown
beginning May. Cob damage in hybrids sown end May - July 20 was
extremely high and exceeded 40 % irrespective of the dates analyzed.
78
Table 3.
Sowing
date
Average number of cobs damaged by the European corn borer (Ostrinia
nubilalis) in north-west Vojvodina in 1990
Hybrid
April
Seneca
5 - 25
Horisont
April
Seneca
13-18
Horisont
April
Jubilee
16-24
April 26 - Seneca
May 3
Horisont
April 26 - Sandance
May 3
April 27 - Jubilee
May 5
May 5
Jubilee
Location
Ruski
Krstur
Ruski
Krstur
Kula
Sivac
Sivac
Kula
Sivac
Cropping
method
Chemical
control
under foil
June 11
June 19
June 23
nonirrigated
nonirrigated
under foil
nonirrigated
nonirrigated
nonirrigated
nonirrigated
under foil
May 10
Jubilee
Sivac
May
10-13
May
14-20
May
23-25
May
26-30
June 7
Jubilee
Jubilee
Stara
Moravica
Sivac
Jubilee
Vrbas
Jubilee
irrigated
Jubilee
Ruski
Krstur
Futog
June18
Sandance
Sivac
irrigated
June 4-6
Jubilee
Vrbas
irrigated
June
Jubilee
12-18
July 1-7 Sandance
Kula
irrigated
Srpski
Mileti}
irrigated
nonirrigated
irrigated
irrigated
Harvest
date
July
6 – 23
July
23-27
July 1
August
4-7
June 12
August
June 19
1-4
August
4-7
July 1
August
8-11
August
13
August
14
August
15
August
20-28.
September
1-6
Aug.10 September
Aug.16
7-16
September
17
August 16 September
15-18
August 20 September
21-27
August 22 September
28-30
Aug 18
October
Aug 24
8-10
% damaged
cobs
control
7.1
no
control
-
10.5
-
5.0
-
5.0
-
-
5.0
2.5
-
-
2.8
-
0.0
-
0.9
-
4.2
-
20.4
9.5
-
-
23.5
11.7
-
20.5
-
15.4
-
7.6
-
79
Table 4.
Average number of cobs damaged by the European corn
borer (Ostrinia nubilalis) in north-west Vojvodina in 1991
% damaged cobs
Sowing
date
Hybrid
April 8
Seneca
Horisont
April 8
Seneca
Horisont
April
Seneca
16-20
Horisont
April 20 Sandance
May 2
Jubilee
May 3
Sandance
Location
Cropping
method
Chemical
control
Harvest
date
under foil
-
under foil
-
irrigated
-
under foil
-
irrigated
-
irrigated
-
nonirrigated
irrigated
-
irrigated
-
irrigated
-
irrigated
-
irrigated
-
Sivac
irrigated
-
Ruski
Krstur
Kula
irrigated
August
16
July
23-24
July
24-27
August
1-15
August
1-2
August
20-29
August
15-18
August
18-20
September
1-9
September
2-12
September
12-16
October
4-9
September
24-25
October
9-15
October
8-13
October
15
Ruski
Krstur
Ba~ka
Topola
Ruski
Krstur
Stara
Moravica
Kula
Ruski
Krstur
May 5 Sandance
Stara
Moravica
May 22
Jubilee
Ba~ki
Gra~ac
May
Jubilee
Ruski
24-30
Krstur
June
Jubilee
Ruski
5-10
Krstur
July 2
Jubilee
Srpski
Mileti}
July 5 Sandance
Sivac
July 7
Jubilee
July 12 Sandance
July 20 Sandance
irrigated
control
no control
-
44.5
-
25.3
-
21.6
-
29.5
-
8.9
-
18.2
-
21.4
-
28.9
-
41.6
-
40.3
-
79.3
-
54
-
53.8
4.1
100
57
DISCUSSION
The European corn borer is a bivoltine population in Yugoslavia
and the second generation predominated over the past twenty years (Ba~a
et al., 1996). The results obtained at Ruski Krstur confirmed these data
80
and the number of moths of the second generation was three-fold higher
compared with those of the first generation.
A similar situation as shown in these experiments was observed at
Zemun Polje (Belgrade) where the European corn borer is bivoltine (Ba~a
et al.,1995). The first generation of the pest caused the highest grain
damage in maize sown on the first sowing date - April 15. The second
generation of the pest provoked adverse effects, especially to late sown
plants (May 22 and June 5). Similar results have been reported in
Northern America. Late sown maize was more attractive for oviposition and
damage of the second generation of the pest in the regions with two
generations of the European corn borer in the US Corn Belt (Showers et
al., 1989). The damage potential caused by the second generation was
greater in central Iowa (Hill et al., 1973, Jarvis et al., 1986). According to
Ferro and Fletcher-Howell (1985), the most attractive plants for the
European corn borer were those sown in western Massachusetts on May
1. When maize was sown on May 15, 21 and 28 the infestation of maize
plants was lower. The greatest damage was observed in maize plants
sown from June 5 to June 29.
The study on hatching in Connecticut (Beard, 1943) showed that
there was a small number of egg masses on the plants at seedling and
early-whorl stages, a medium number on plants at mid-whorl stage,
whereas plants at the late-whorl or silk stages were preferred for hatching.
The peak flight of moths coincided with a very high level of damage. In
Vojvodina (Yugoslavia) such coincidence was registered in maize sown on
either very early (damage by the first generation of the pest) or late dates
(damage by the second generation of the pest). Based on the results
obtained in the study the conclusion which tends to emerge is the need to
control the European corn borer in regions with two generations
irrespective of either very early or late sowing dates.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank Mária [tajnfeld, head of the Laboratory at the
Frozen Food Factory ABC at Ruski Krstur for co-operation during this
study.
REFERENCES
Ba~a,F., Hadìstevi},D., Radin,@., Tancik,J.: Evaluation of four
years Andalin DC-25 (flucycloxuron) to control the European corn borer
(Ostrinia nubilalis) in maize. Za{t.bilja, 41, No. 194, 379-386, 1990.
81
Ba~a,F., Hadìstevi},D.: Flight of Moths of the European corn borer
(Ostrinia nubilalis Hbn.) in Zemun Polje in the Period 1966-1985. Acta
Phytopathologica et Entomologica Hungarica, 24, No.1-2, 37-41, 1989.
Ba~a, F., Videnovi},Z., Kaitovi},@., Dumanovi},Z.: Impact of planting
date of maize on the level of European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis Hbn.)
infestation, degree of plant damage and grain yield. IWGO - News Letter,
15, 7-8, 1995.
Ba~a,F., Radin,@., Tancik,J.: Mogu}nosti suzbijanja kukuruznog
plamenca (Ostrinia nubilalis Hbn.) u kukuruzu {e}ercu. Biljni lekar, 4, 310313, 1996.
Bartels,D.W., Hutchison,W.D.: On-farm efficacy of aerially applied
Bacillus thuringiensis for European corn borer (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) and
Corn earworm (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) control in sweet corn. J.econ.
Entomol., 88, 380-386, 1995.
Beard,R.L.: The significance of growth stages of sweet corn as
related to infestation by the ECB. Conn. Agric. Exp. Stn., New Haven Bull.
No. 471, 173-199, 1943.
Bigler,F.: Mass production of Trichogramma maidis Pint. et Voeg.
and its field application against Ostrinia nubilalis Hbn. in Switzerland. Z.
angew. Ent., 101, 23-29, 1986.
Cagán,L: Chemická ochrana proti vija~ke kukuri~nej, Ostrinia
nubilalis Hbn. /Chemical control of the European corn borer, Ostrinia
nubilalis Hbn./ Acta Fytotechnica, 48, 97-106, 1993.
Cagán,L.: Vijaéka kukuri~ná, Ostrinia nubilalis Hbn., {kodca
kukurice na Slovensku. /European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis Hbn., the
pest of maize in Slovakia/. V[P Nitra, Habilitation, 350 pp, 1993.
Ferro,D.N., Fletcher-Howell,G.: Controlling European corn borer
(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) on successionally planted sweet corn in Western
Massachusetts. J. econ. Entomol., 78, 902-907, 1985.
Gingera,G.J., Subramanyam,B., Hutchison,W.D.: Insecticides used
by Minnesota processors to control European corn borer and Corn
earworm in sweet corn. Educational Development System, Minnesota
Extension Service, FO-6322-B, 3 pp, 1993.
Hassan,S.A., Stein,E., Dannemann,K., Reichel,W.:Massenproduktion
und Anwendung von Trichogramma" 8.Optimierung des Einsatzes zur
Bekämpfung des Maiszünslers Ostrinia nubilalis Hbn.J. appl. Ent., 101,
508-515, 1986.
Hill,R.E., Chiang,H.C., Keaster,A.J., Showers,W.B., Reed,G.L.:
Seasonal abundance of the European corn borer Ostrinia nubilalis (Hbn.)
within the north central United States. Nebr.Agric Exp.Stn.Res.Bull., 255,
82 pp, 1973.
82
Hudon,M., Leroux,E.J., Harcort,D.G.: Seventy years of European
corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis) research in North America. Agricultural
Zoology Reviews, 3, 53-95, 1989.
Hutchison,W.D.: Dose-mortality response of European corn borer
(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) third-instar larvae to selected insecticides. Can.
Entomol., 125, 1137 - 1139, 1993.
Jarvis,J.L., Guthrie,W.D., Robbins,J.C.: Yield losses from secondgeneration European corn borers (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in long-season
maize hybrids planted early compared with short-season hybrids planted
late. J.Econ.Entomol., 79, 243 - 246, 1986.
Lazarevi},B., Trifunovi},V.: Uticaj vremena setve na ja~inu napada
kukuruznog plamenca i na visinu prinosa razli~itich sorti i hibrida kukuruza.
Arh.Poljopr.nauke, 47, 1962.
Radin,@.: Dinamika populacije kukuruznog plamenca Ostrinia
nubilalis Hbn. (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) u severozapadnoj Ba~koj u periodu
od 1979 do 1988. godine. Za{t. bilja, 41, 151-163, 1990.
Radin,@., Ba~a,F., Tancik,J., Ric,J.: Mogu}nosti za{tite kukuruza
{e}erca i semenskog kukuruza od kukuruznog plamenca (Ostrinia nubilalis
Hbn.). In: Book of Proccedings, Conference, Zorka, Subotica, 51-59, 1989.
Showers,W.B., Witkowski,J.F., Mason,C.E., Calvin,D.D., Higgins,R.
A., Dively,G.P. : European corn borer development and management.
North Centr.Reg.Extn.Publ. No. 327, Ames, Iowa, 33 pp, 1989.
Tancik,J., Radinová,@., Ba~a,F.: Ú~innost druhov Trichogramma
evanescens Westwood a Trichogramm maidis Pint, et Voeg. proti vija~ke
kukuri~nej (Ostrinia nubilalis Hbn.) na cukrovej kukurici. Ochr. Rostl., 30,
209-220, 1994.
Tancik,J., Ba~a,F., Radinová,@.:Chemická ochrana cukrovej kukurice
proti vija~ke kukuri~nej. In: Ochrana polnohospodárskych plodín proti
{kodlivÿm éinitel'om, VES V[P Nitra, 202-208, 1993.
Tancik,J., Cagán,L. : Control of the European corn borer, Ostrinia
nubilalis Hbn. with chemical and biological insecticides. Polnohospodárstvo
(Nitra), 44, 100-110, 1998.
Vukasovi},P.: Kukuruzni moljac i njegovo suzbijanje. Zadru`na
knjiga, Beograd, 65 pp, 1953.
83
84
ROLE AND PLACE OF SYNTHETIC SEXUAL PHEROMONES
IN THE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT IN ROMANIA
Ioan Rosca, Felica Muresan, Elena Trotus, Angela Udrea,
Constantin Popov, V.Brudea, Elena Bucurean and M.Voicu
Research Institute for Cereals and Industrial Crops - Fundulea, Romania
ABSTRACT
This paper discusses the results obtained in Romania during the
period 1982-1996 under field conditions at Fundulea and other research
stations all over the country using pheromone formulations with the
objective of identifying the specific characteristics and efficiency of
synthetic sexual pheromones (products of the Chemistry Institute "Raluca
Ripan", Cluj, Romani) in controlling the following species: Agrotis
segetum Den & Schiff., Agrotis exclamationis L., Cnephasia pasiuana
Hbn. and Ostrinia nubilalis Hb. (wheat and corn pests), Autographa
gamma L., Mamestra oleracea L., Amathes c-nigrum L., Discestra trifolii
Hbn. (forages pest), Plutella maculipennis Hbn. (rape pest) and Etiella
zinckenella Tr. (soybean pest).
Synthetic sexual pheromones for the species studied were
specific and efficient and can be used for the determination of pest
spreading, flight curve and pest biology in general.
New spreading areas for Cnephasia pasiuana Hb. have been established.
This paper discusses the possibility of pheromones to contribute
to essential information on pest management, reduce future pesticide
use, reduce environmental pollution and food contamination, minimize the
impact on useful organisms, reduce chemical treatments and thus reduce
the risk of developing pesticide resistant pest populations and especially
define the correct timing of chemical control, meaning thereby time and
money save.
Investigations were undertaken to develop the foundation for
future control of the European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis Hb. using a
pest management system based on pheromones. There is a relatively
good enough formulation of Z and E synthetic sexual pheromones, this
formulation being not efficient and specific enough. In Romania the Z
pherotype predominates all over the country. Phermone traps can be
85
used to draw up flight curves of O.nubilalis males. The control of the
ECB by mass trapping of males or male disorientation has failed in small
cornfields surrounded by forests.
The pheromone trap contributes to the future integrated pest
control system by determining the release of Trichogramma spp., or
males with inherited sterility.
Key words: Pheromones, Agrotis segetum Den & Schiff., Agrotis
exclamationis L., Cnephasia pasiuana Hbn., Ostrinia nubilalis Hb.,
Autographa gamma L., Mamestra oleracea L., Amathes c-nigrum L.,
Discestra trifolii Hbn., Plutella maculipennis Hbn., Etiella zinckenella Tr.,
IPM
INTRODUCTION
The synthesis of sexual pheromones has greatly contributed to
their use in agricultural practice. During the past years in Romania a
range of pheromone formulations has been produced by the Institute of
Chemistry "Raluca Ripan", Cluj-Napoca, using original technology
(Ghizdavu et al., 1983; Hodosan and Oprean, 1979). Based on this study
a series of 25 pheromones has been registered in Romania.
Previously, until 1982, sexual pheromones have been synthesized
and tested to capture Lepidoptera pests in orchards and grapevine
plantations and subsequently several variants of pheromone formulations
(lures) were formulated and tested with the aim of establishing the best
variants to attract and survey lepidopterous pests in various field crops
(Table 1). The results of the activities required in order to register and
test under field conditions were presented in different papers (Rosca et
al., 1984; 1985; 1988; 1990 A; 1990B; 1991).
Unfortunately over the past years pheromone prices have rosen
from 33 lei (Romanian currency) in 1991 to 54000 lei in 1998 making
field research and pheromone trap use in forecasting and controlling
pests very expensive. In the future a Romanian pheromone for Diabrotica
virgifera virgifera La Conte control which has been appeared in the
southwestern regions of Romania since 1996 will be registered.
Experiments were conducted at Fundulea, Turda, Secuieni, Valul
Traian, Suceava, Oradea and Podul Iloaiei during 1990-1996.
86
I. Rosca et al.: Role and Place of Synthetic Sexual Pheromones in the Integrated Pest
Management in Romania
Table 1. Lepidopterous species for which were tested pheromones for
field crops
SPECIES
No.of
tested
variants
No.of localities No.of localities
(for registration) (in which tests
were done)
REGISTERED PHEROMONES
Agrotis segetum
Agrotis exclamationis
Cnephasia pasiuana
Autographa gamma
Amathes c-nigrum
Mamestra oleracea
Discestra (Mamestra) trifolii
Plutella maculipennis
5
1
2
1
1
3
8
4
5
5
2
3
3
4
6
5
6
7
10
6
6
6
6
6
PHEROMONES IN REGISTRATION PROCESS
Mamestra suasa
Etiella zinkenella
Ostrinia nubilalis
11
1
14
7
5
9
PHEROMONES WITHOUT RESULTS
Heliothis armigera
Heliothis virescens
Grapholita nigricana
Grapholita delineana
Agrotis ipsilon
Mamestra brassicae
Loxostege sticticalis
2
1
2
5
7
4
3
3
3
2
2
7
6
4
Pheromone traps of the type F-1 (Ghizdavu and Rosca, 1986) in
2-4 replications at 50 m distance between traps were used in order to
test the efficiency and specificity of different pheromonal lures. A
polyizobuthilen based glue produced by R.C.I. "Raluca Ripan", ClujNapoca was used. Generally, pheromonal lures were changed once a
month and adhesive parts twice or once a month (depending on the
number of captures). The number of captured target males and other
87
macrolepidopterous or microlepidopterous species were registered while
changing the adhesive parts. Pheromone efficiency (the number of target
male species captured/trapped) and the specificity (percentage of target
species and other different lepidopterous, macrolepidopterous and
microlepidopterous species) were registered. New localities were
registered for the species Cnephasia pasiuana Hbn. in which pest
presence provoked no damage. For Ostrinia nubilalis Hb. the release
and recapture of marked moths from pheromone traps situated 25, 100
and 200 m in 1993; 100, 200 and 300 m in 1994; 300, 600, 900, 1200
and 1500 m in 1995 and 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000 and 5000 m in 1996
away from the releasing site in the north, south, east and west direction
were used in order to show the movement and behaviour of moths.
ECB males were mass captured using 16F-1 sticky traps/ha
(25/25 m) in order to use pheromones as part of the integrated pest
management.
Another possibility of using pheromones in the ECB control was
mating disruption (male disorientation) by 100 cis (Z) lure per hectare
which were changed weekly during the first moth flight (15 June - 30
July).
The pheromones for the species Agrotis segetum Den. & Schiff.,
Agrotis exclamationis L., Cnephasia pasiuana Hbn., Ostrinia nubilalis Hb.,
Discestra trifolii Hbn., Plutella maculipennis Hbn., Etiella zinckenella Tr.
proved to be efficient and specific in achieving the highest number of
captures (Figure 1).
Based on biological trials with pests pursuing capture variation in
different localities, years and life cycles it was shown that there were
sigificant differences between captures in various years and localities.
Considerable variations occurred depending on the life cycle which could
be properly established with pheromone traps.
Pheromone traps can be used to draw up flight curves for all the
species studied. In this paper only the flight curve of O.nubilalis CIS
males is given (Figure 2).
It is also possible to determine different pherotypes existing in
one or another region. The results (Table 2) reveal a relatively high
number of O.nubilalis males captured during the trial period. This number
varied according to year and the pheromone variant used. It should be
stressed that it was undoubtly that in Romania both pherotypes of this
species CIS (Z) and TRANS (E) exist. The greatest number of males
88
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
Ostrinia
nubilalis
Mamestra
suasa
Etiella
zinckenella
Plutella
maculipennis
Discestra
(Mamestra)
trifolii
Mamestra
oleracea
Amathes cnigrum
Autographa
gamma
Cnephasia
pasiuana
Agrotis
exclamationis
0%
Agrotis
segetum
Percentage from total captures
captured/trap [E5 (Z 11-14OAc + E 11-14OAc at a ratio of 97/3)] 35.25
was registered in 1994.
Species
Target species
Macrolepidopterous
microlepidopterous
Figure 1. Pheromone specificity (avarage for all localities during 1990-96)
12
8
6
4
1997
1996
1995
1994
YEAR
1993
2
6-12 IX
30 VIII-5 IX
23-29 VIII
9-15 VIII
2-8 VIII
1990
16-22 VIII
DATA
26 VII-1 VIII
12- 18 VII
1991
19-25 VII
5-11 VII
21-27 VI
28 VI-4 VII
7 -13 VI
14-20 VI
1992
31 V-6 VI
24-30 V
0
17 -23 V
No. of captured males/trap
10
89
Figure 2. Flight dynamic of species Ostrina nubilalis Hb. CIS Pherotype
(FUNDULEA 1990-1997)
Table 2. Number of Ostrinia nubilalis Hb. males captured/ trap/year –
FUNDULEA
Pherotype
E
Z
YEAR
1990 1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1,75
8,25
0,75
23,25
2,75
29,5
1,5
35,25
0,5
17,2
0
10,5
0
13.25
1,25
14,75
Pheromone use enables the determination of the limits, shape
and level of pest population and accordingly Fig. 3 presents the first and
second population of O.nubilalis in Romania. The results point that the
second generation generally occurs in Romania by end-August or early
September and is practically insignificant being low in number and the
fact that the maize crop has reached its maturity.
Special attention was paid to ECB dynamics and estimation of
the natural population by means of pheromone traps and markers. It is
obvious that the information on the flight of ECB is highly important and
that the knowledge on the dispersion and flight range of any insect in all
its aspects is insufficient. Thus our researches were focused on
establishing the distance a moth can fly. Very little was known on the
flight distance of the ECB. Jermy and Nagy considered that in nature
adults could migrate to long distances. Experiments conducted in 1995
and 1997 have shown that released tagged ECB moths have been
recaptured in pheromone traps at a distance no more than 3000 m from
the point of release (300 m/day) and probably it is to this distance moths
are capable of flying.
Table 3. Evaluation of Ostrinia nubilalis Hb. population by releasing of
“Calco red dye” males marked technique
RELEASING
DATA
12 VI-1993
21 VI-1994
5 VIII-1995
21 VII-1996
Number
of
released
marked
males
Number of
released
and
recaptured
males
Total of
captured
males
Surveyed
area
(ha)
Density of
natural
pest
males
*
(ha)
714
876
15132
16125
42
34
35
41
63
49
45
42
10,5
9,0
225
2500
34
43,8
13,22
1,36
* The population density is calculated using the formula of Jenkins.
90
Estimation of the ECB population is difficult. Tagging large
numbers of individual moths and employing a marking/recapture method
for estimating the density is a method that saves a lot of trouble (Table
3).
40
35.25
Total number of captured males /trap
35
29.5
28
30
23.25
25
21
19.25
20
17.25
14.75
10.5
15
13.25
8.75
10
10
11.5
8.25
8.25
8.5
5.5
7.25
8.5
4.75 4
2.75
5
2.25
1.75
0
TOTAL
1990
First generation
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
Second generation
1996
1997
Figure 3. Number of captured Ostrina nubilalis Hb. males, depending on
pest generation
It is also very important to know if the control of the ECB by
mass trapping of males and male disorientation can be a tool in
integrated pest control. Unfortunately these methods are unsuitable for
the control of Ostrinia nubilalis Hb. (Table 4).
Table 4. Effect of using pheromone in small isolated fields ŠFUNDULEA‹
Attacked stems
(%)
No.larvae/attacked
plant
Level of population
(%)
Variant
Mass trapping of
males (A sticky
trap at 25/25 m)
1993
1994
1995
1993
1994
1995
1993
1994
1995
28.3
28.0
12.6
1.12
3.1
0.75
+7.8
-8.5
+45.8
Check
Male disorientation
(AZ pheromone
lure at 10/10 m)
21.0
31.5
10.8
1.14
3.01
0.6
-
-
-
22.5
46.5
18.3
0.8
2.9
1.3
-43.7
-5.6
+12.7
91
Check
26.0
42.0
21.1
1.23
3.4
1.0
-
-
-
New points of pest infestation area were established in Romania
(Figure 4) using pheromones for Cnephasia pasiuana Hb., and recently
pheromones are used for monitoring of D.virgifera virgifera spreading in
Romania.
Figure 4. Extension of Cnephasia pasiuana Hb. area, registered with
pheromones (1986-91)
CONCLUSIONS
In Romania a large variety of pheromones was created and
registered, part of them are used in field crops but the price limits their
use.
The pheromones for the species Agrotis segetum Den. & Schiff.,
Agrotis exclamationis L., Cnephasia pasiuana Hbn., Ostrinia nubilalis Hb.,
92
Discestra trifolii Hbn., Plutella maculipennis Hbn., Etiella zinckenella Tr.
proved to be efficient and specific in achieving the highest number of
captures.
The pheromones can be used to determine the pest distribution
area, pest flight dynamics, the structure and size of different generations
and of course the time evolution of the pest in both time and space.
The control of the ECB by mass trapping of males or even male
disorientation have failed in small corn fields surrounded by forests.
The use of the release and recapture marked moth technique enables
the estimation of the population of the ECB in one particular area over a
certain period.
REFERENCES
Gghizdavu,I., Tomescu,N., Oprean,I.:Feromonii insectelor “pesticide
din a III-a generatie”, Ed.Dacia, 260 p., 1983.
Ghizdavu,I., Rosca,I.: Un nou tip de capcana adeziva cu
momeala feromonala pentru culturile de cimp.Prob.Prot.Plant, 14, 4, 273275, 1986.
Hodosan,F., Oprean,I.: Realizari si perspective in productia
nationala de feromoni sintetici, A VI-a Conf.Nat.Prot.Plant., 305-317,1979.
Rosca,I., Hodosan,F., Oprean,I., Ghizdavu,I.: Cercetari privind
raspunsul speciei Agrotis segetum Schiff. (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) la
feromonul sexual de sinteza. St.cerc.biol.Seria biol.anim., 36,1,70-72,1984.
Rosca,I., Hodosan,F., Ciupe,H., Ginsca,L., Oprean, I., Ghizdavu,I.,:
Cercetari privind raspunsul speciei Autographa gamma L. (Lepidoptera:
Noctuidae) la feromonul sexual de sinteza ATRAGAM. An. I.C.C.P.T.Fundulea, VII, 341-345, 1985.
Rosca,I., Botar, A.A., Brudea,V., Bucurean,E., Muresan,F.,
Popovici,N., Sandru,I., Voicu,M.: Cercetari privind raspunsul speciei
Agrotis exclamationis L. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) la feromonul sexual de
sinteza. An.I.C.C.P.T.-Fundulea, LVI, 385-390, 1988.
Rosca,I., Brudea,V., Bucurean,E., Mateias,M.C., Muresan,F.,
Sandru,I., Undrea,A., Voicu,M.,: Stadiul cercetarilor privind feromonii
sexuali de sinteza pentru lepidopterele daunatoare culturilor de trifoliene
din Romania. .St. cerc. biol.Seria biol.anim., 42, 2, 95-102, 1990 A.
Rosca,I., Brudea,V., Bucurean,E., Muresan,F., Sandru,I., Udrea,A.,
Voicu,M.,:Researches on the behaviour of Ostrinia nubilalis by the use of
pheromone traps as related to sterile insect release technique. Rev.
Roum.Biol., 35, 2, 105-115, 1990 B.
Rosca,I., Brudea,V., Bucurean,E., Muresan,F., Sandru,I., Udrea,A.,
Voicu,M.,: Achievements and perspectives in the use of sex pheromones
in cereal and technical crops in Romania. Proc. Conf. Insect Chem.
93
Ecol., Tabor 1990, Acad Prague and SPB Acad. Publ. The Hague, 1991,
373-388, 1990.
94
PHYTOPHAGOUS INSECTS AND MITES ON WEEDS IN
WHEAT FIELDS AND MARGINS
Du{ka Simova-To{i}, Radmila Petanovi}, Radoslava Spasi},
Olivera Petrovi}, Draga Graora and Du{anka Jerini}
Faculty of Agriculture, Belgrade-Zemun, Yugoslavia
ABSTRACT
The results of a 2-year investigation on phytophagous insects and
mites on weeds in wheat fields and wheat field margins in Serbia are
given in this paper. Of the 61 species collected or reared from 14
weeds, 13 arthropod species of the total number are discussed as
potential biocontrol agents.
Key words: Insects, mites, weeds, biocontrol agents
INTRODUCTION
Weeds are a constant component of our environment and man
has utilized combinations of various control techniques in an attempt to
suppress weed populations. The purpose in any weed management
system is to maintain an environment detrimental to the weed
populations using preventive, managerial, physical, biological and/or
chemical methods. Integration of biological control with other weed
control methods, and integration into modern crop production system are
essential (Watson & Wymore,1990).
The primary step in the implementation of weed biocontrol is a
good knowledge of autochthonous arthropod fauna of weeds.
For this study wheat fields have been chosen because they are
regularly infested by many weeds, such as Gallium aparine L.,
Convolvulus arvensis L., Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop., etc., of which most
have spread widely in the past years (Konstantinovi} et al., 1996).
The objective was a comparative analysis of phytophagous
arthropod fauna of weeds in wheat fields and field margins. The purpose
of the study was to compare the qualitative composition and the
distribution of arthropod species on the same weed species inside and
95
outside the field crop where chemical control was excluded, as well as
at numerous other sites irrespective of the field crop.
The studies were conducted in 1997 and 1998 on weeds in
wheat fields and field margins in Surcin and at many other sites
throughout Serbia. The samples of the whole plants or fragments of
weeds were taken at wheat experimental field every week during the
wheat growing season and in the same intervals during the vegetation
period of weeds on other places. Insects were collected in all stages
with standard entomological methods and by cutting infested plants and
their rearing in the laboratory.
The presence and distribution of mites on plant organs and
population density were established by inspecting the plants with a
stereoscope. For the correct identification of taxa, microscope
preparations were made in Heinze and Keifer media and observed under
a phase-contrast microscope at a magnification of 1250 x.
A total number of 54 insect species and 8 mite species were
collected or reared from 14 weed species.
Arthropod species determined on economically significant weeds
inside the wheat field and outside, their valence and damaged plant
organ, are given in Table 1.
More insects and mites were found on weed species outside the
wheat field than inside. The greatest number of species was found on
Cirsium arvense (9), Artemisia vulgaris (8), Sinapis arvensis (8),
Chenopodium album (7), and Gallium aparine (6).
96
D. Simova-To{i} et al.: Phytophagous Insects and Mites on Weeds in Wheat Fields
and Margins
Table 1. The arthropod species determined on economically significant
weeds in wheat field at Sur~in and at other sites
Weed species
Arthropod species
(insects, mites)
Sur~in
inside
the
wheat
1. Artemisia
vulgaris L.
2. Atriplex
tatarica L.
on the
margins
other
Plant
sites
organ
Valence
Homoptera
Macrosiphoniella
artemisiae B.d. F.
Cryptosiphum
artemisiae
Buckt.
Coloradoa artemisie
Guerc.
Pleotrichophorus
glandulosus Kalt.
Diptera
Rhopalomyia
artemisiae Bouche.
Rhopalomyia
baccarum Wachth.
Eriophyoidea
Aceria
artemisie
(Can.)
Aceria
marginemvolvens
Corti.
Diptera
+
Amauromyza
chenopodivora Sp.
Stephaniella
brevipalpis
Kffr.
Stephaniella sp. n.
Eriophyoidea
Aceria heimi (Nal.)
+
OP
M
+
L
M
+
L
M
+
L
M
+
TP
M
+
VB
M
+
L
M
+
L
M
+
S
O
+
OP
M
+
S
M
+
F
M
97
3.Chenopodium album L.
4. Cirsium
arvense (L.)
Scop.
5. Convolvulus
arvensis L.
6. Erigeron
canadensis L.
Homoptera
Aphis fabae Scop.
Aphis sambuci L.
Hayhurstia atriplicis L.
Macrosiphum
euphorbiae Th.
Myzus persicae Pass.
Pemphigus fuscicornis
Koch.
Coleoptera
Cassida viridis L.
Homoptera
Aphis fabae Scop.
Brachycaudus cardui
L.
Uroleucon cirsii L.
Coleoptera
Apion pisi F.
Cassida viridis L.
Phylobius sp.
Diptera
Dasineura
compositarum Kffr.
Clinodiplosis oleracei
Rubs.
Eriophyoidea
Aceria
anthocoptes
(Nal.)
Diptera
+
TP
R
L
L
P
P
O
P
OP
R
P
O
L
P
TP
OP
P
P
TP
M
OP
L
L
O
P
+
F
M
+
TP
M
TP
M
S
M
L
M
TP
OP
P
P
TP
M
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Melanagromyza
albocilia Hend.
Eriophyoidea
Aceria malherbae
Nuzz.
Homoptera
Aphis fabae Scop.
Brachycaudus
chelicrysi Boz.
Uroleucon
erigeronensis Ths.
98
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
and Margins
7. Gallium
aparine L.
8. Geranium
dissectum L.
9. Lathyrus
tuberosus L.
10. Papaver
rhoeas L.
11. Polygonum
amphibium L.
Homoptera
Aphis fabae Scop.
Disaphis pyri B. d. F.
Diptera
Gymnophytomyza
heteroneura Hen.
Geocrypta galli Rubs.
Dasineura aparines
Kffr.
Eriophyoidea
Cecidophyes galii
(Karp.)
Eriophyoidea
+
+
TP
L
P
P
SD
M
S
TB
M
M
L
M
L
M
P
O
+
F
L
M
M
+
L
O
+
+
+
+
+
Aceria dissecti Pet.
Coleoptera
+
Apion
gracillicollae
Gyll.
Diptera
Contarinia lathyri Kffr.
Dasineura lathyricola
Rubs.
Jaapiella volvens
Rubs.
Homoptera
+
Aphis fabae Scop.
Coleoptera
Ceutorrhynchus
albovittatus Germ.
Diptera
Dasineura papaveris
Wtz.
Hymenoptera
Aulax papaveris Per.
Orthoptera
+
+
TP
P
+
+
P
P
+
SD
M
+
SD
M
Tettigonia viridissima
L.
Homoptera
Aphalara polygoni
Först.
+
OP
P
+
L
O
+
+
99
12. Sinapis
arvensis L.
13. Stachys
palustris L.
14. Xanthium
strumarium L.
Coleoptera
Amalus haemorrhous
L.
Chaetocnema concina
Marsh.
Diptera
Wachthiella
persicariae L.
Lepidoptera
Arctidae
Hymenoptera
Tenthredinidae
Heteroptera
Eurydema ornata L.
Eurydema oleracea L.
Homoptera
Brevicoryne brassicae
L.
Coleoptera
Meligethes aeneus F.
Tropinota hirta Poda.
Ceutorrhynchus
pleurostigma Marsch.
Hymenoptera
Cephus pygmaeus L.
Diptera
Dasineura brassicae
Wtz.
Diptera
+
+
S
O
+
+
L
O
+
+
L
M
+
L
+
+
+
+
L
L
P
P
+
L
O
+
+
+
+
+
F
F
R
P
P
O
+
+
S
O
P
O
S
O
F
M
L
P
+
Ophiomyia labiatarum
Her.
Wachthiella stachydis
Bremi.
Diptera
Chromatomyia
horticola Gour.
L
+
+
+
+
Legend: L - leaf, TP - terminal plant part, S - stem, F - flower, SD seed, OP - oversurface plant part, R - root, VB - vegetative bud, TB terminal bud, P - pod, M - monophagous, O - oligophagous.
Among the collected and reared arthropod species the most
important for biocontrol programs are insects and mites which are very
specific for the host plant (monophagous or olygophagous), and which
100
and Margins
can damage the whole plant or prevent seed production. Such species
are listed in Table 2.
Table 2. The arthropod species that should be considered as potential
biocontrol agents
Weed species
Arthropod agents
Artemisia vulgaris L.
Aceria artemisiae (Can.)
Aceria marginemvolvens (Corti.)
Rhopalomyia artemisiae Bouche.
Amauromyza chenopodivora Sp.
Stephaniella sp. n.
Aceria heimi (Nal.)
Dasineura compositarum Kffr.
Clinodiplosis oleracei Rubs.
Aceria anthocoptes (Nal.)
Melanagromyza albocilia Hend.
Aceria malherbae Nuzz.
Gymnophytomyza heteroneura
Hend.
Dasineura aparines Kffr.
Cecidophyes galii (Karp.)
Atriplex tatarica L.
Cirsium arvensis (L.)
Scop.
Convolvulus arvensis
L.
Galium aparine L.
Plant
organ
L
L
TP
S
S
F
F
TP
TP
S
L
SD
Valence
M
M
M
O
M
M
M
O
M
M
M
M
TB
L
M
M
Legend: L - leaf, TP - terminal plant part, S - stem, F - flower, SD seed, OP - oversurface plant part, R - root, VB - vegetative bud, TB terminal bud, P - pod, M - monophagous, O - oligophagous.
Of the eight arthropod species collected on Artemisia vulgaris L.,
only three are interesting for their potential use in the biocontrol.
Rhopalomyia artemisiae Bouche (Diptera, Cecidomyidae) is the
monophagous species whose larvae damage the terminal buds and
under a heavy population density may prevent seed production.
Two eriophyioid species Aceria artemisiae (Can.) and A.
marginemvolvens (Corti.) registered in Yugoslavia (Boczek and Petanovi},
1996) are common species on Artemisia vulgaris in Europe as well.
Both species damage leaves of the plant, but A.artemisiae which
cause leaf galls seem to be good candidates for the biological control of
A.vulgaris.
One agromizid fly, Amauromyza chenopodivora sp. (Diptera,
Agromyzidae) known only as the internal stem-borer on Chenopodium
album in Europe (Spencer, 1976) has for the first time been reared from
the stem of Atriplex tatarica L. From the oviposition site in the leaf larva
feeds toward the midrib and through the petiole borrows into the stem.
101
Pupation takes place on the ground. On the same weed plant from the
stem galls a new gall-midge species, Stephaniella sp. n., was reared.
There is a complex of Stephaniella species on Atriplex spp., the
identification of which is very difficult and further research focusing on
the biology and host specialization is needed. These two flies and one
mite species Aceria heimi (Nal.), should be considered as potential
biocontrol agents for Atriplex tatarica.
Canada thistle, Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop., as one of the most
persistent weeds which spreads equally rapidly both by seed and
creeping root, is on a list of weeds for classical biological control in
North America (Julien, 1992).
The Europian Weed Research Society also regards this as one of
the six priority species for biological control (Maceljski, 1984).
During our investigations the most interesting species found on
C.arvense were Dasineura compositarum Kffr. (Diptera, Cecidomydae)
and Aceria anthocoptes Nal. (Acari, Eriophyidae).
Dasineura compositarum is monophagous species whoese larvae
cause thick flower buds and prevent seed production.
Aceria anthocoptes causes the hardening of green inflorescence
and sometimes also the formation of additional capitula on C.arvense.
The species is partly free-living on the abaxial side of the leaves and
partly the agent of the characteristic numerous dwarfed capitula of the
host plant. The leaves with more numerous eriophyids turn reddishbrown.
Convolvulus arvensis L., is one of the most troublesome perennial
weeds with the ability to reproduce by both seeds which may persist in
the soil up to 30 years and laterally spreading roots and rhizomes.
Because of its economic importance and a very difficult and expensive
control, a cooperative effort by the USDA and the University of California
has begun in 1970 in order to find the biological control agents in
Southern Europe to use on field bindweed in the USA. Until now
eriophyioid mite Aceria malherbae Nuzz., has been introduced in North
America and adopted (Boldt and Sobhian, 1993). This species has been
registered in a few localities in Serbia (Boczek and Petanovi}, 1996).
Colonization on C.arvense results in considerable contortion to leaves
and buds. Leaf feeding starts on the upper surface alongside the midrib,
usually towards the distal end of the leaf. This feeding causes leaf
furrowing along the midrib then along lateral veins as mites increase in
number and move laterally.
A heavily infested leaf has numerous tight furrows and folds
across the upper surface, it eventually becomes wrinkled and twisted
along its whole length. The mite colonies reside in tight leaf folds. Mite
attacks cause an abnormal growth of very small tubercles from leaf
102
and Margins
epidermis. The mite causes buds to swell and become irregular in
appearance.
For Convolvulus arvensis L. Melanagromyza albocilia Hd. (Diptera,
Agromyzidae) is the specific species known in many European countries,
in Israel and Egypt (Spencer, 1990). The larva feeds as internal stemborer and pupates inside the stem. This species could be a useful factor
in a weed biocontrol program, as it was suggested in other countries, too
(Spencer, 1973,1976). For the fauna of Serbia and Yugoslavia M.albocilia
is a new species.
Of the six arthropod species found on Gallium aparine L., two are
interesting for the biological control. Gymnophytomyza heteroneura Hend.
(Diptera, Agromyzidae) is a monophagous species whose larva feeds on
individual seeds of G.aparine. Attacking and destroying the seeds, under
a heavy population density, this species could be a useful agent in a
biocontrol program. It is a new species for the fauna of Serbia and
Yugoslavia.
Dasineura aparines (Kief.) damage terminal buds and stop
growing and blossoming of G.aparine. Eriophyioid mite Cecidophyes galii
(Karp.) which causes erineum and leaf curling of G.aparine has widely
been spread in our country and it can be the potential biocontrol agent.
As the biology of the mite is practically unknown it deserve further
investigation and host specificity too, as it is being studied in France and
other countries.
CONCLUSION
During 1997 and 1998, 62 arthropod species (54 insect species
and 8 mite species) were collected or reared on 14 weed species in
wheat fields, field margins and other sites throughout Serbia. As potential
biocontrol agents the following host specific insect and mite species are
suggested:
Aceria artemisiae (Can.), Aceria marginemvolvens (Corti) and
Rhopalomyia artemisiae Bouche on Artemisia vulgaris L.; Amauromyza
chenopodivora Sp., Stephaniella sp. n., and Aceria heimi (Nal.), on
Atriplex tatarica L.; Dasineura compositarum Kffr., Clinodiplosis oleracei
Rubs., and Aceria anthocoptes (Nal.), on Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.;
Melanagromyza albocilia Hend., and Aceria malherbae Nuzz., on
Convolvulus arvensis L.; Gymnophytomyza heteroneura Hend., Dasineura
aparines (Kief.) and Cecidophyes galii (Karp.), on Gallium aparine L.
103
REFERENCES
Boczek,J., Petanovi},R.: Eriophyid mites as agents for the
biological control of weeds. Proc. IX Internat.Symp. on Biol.Control of
Weeds: 127-131. In: Moran, V.C., J.H. Hofmann (eds.) 19 - 26. Jan.
1996, Stellenbosch, South Africa, University of Cape Town, 1996.
Boldt,P.E., Sobhian,R.: Release and Establishment of Aceria
malherbae (Acari: Eriophyoidea) for Control of Field Bindweed in Texas.
Environ. Entomol. 22 (1): 234-237, 1993.
Julien,M.H.: Biological Control of Weeds. World Catalogue of
Agents and their Target Weeds. CAB International, Oxon, U.K. & ACIAR,
pp. 186, 1992.
Konstantinovi},B., Draì},D., Veljkovi},B.: Problem zakorovljenosti
va`nijih ratarskih useva. XVIII Seminar iz za{tite bilja, Novi Sad, Rezimei
referata, str.19-20, 1996.
Maceljski,M.: Dosada{nji rezultati i perspektive biolo{kog suzbijanja korova. Drugi Kongres o korovima. Osijek, Zbornik radova, 255263, 1984.
Spencer,K.A.: Agromyzidae (Diptera) of economic importance.
Series Ent. 9. Dr.W.Junk, The Hague, pp. 1-405, 1973.
Spencer,K.A.: The Agromyzidae (Diptera) of Fennoscandia and
Denmark. Fauna ent.scand. Vol. 5, Part 1:1-304; Part 2:305-606, 1976.
Spencer,K.A.: Host specialization in the World Agromyzidae
(Diptera). Series Entomol., v. 45., pp. 444, 1990.
Watson,A.K. & Wymore,L.A.: Biological control, a component of
integrated weed management. In: Proc. VII Int. Symp. Biol. Contr.
Weeds, 6-11. March 1988, Rome, Italy. Delfosse, E.S. (ed.). Ist. Sper.
Patol. Veg. (MAF), CSIRO Publications, 101-106, 1990.
104
ATTACK AND FREQUENCY OF PHYTOPHAGOUS INSECTS
FROM THE FAMILY Tephritidae (Diptera) IN THE FLOWER
HEADS OF Carduus acanthoides L.
(Asteraceae, Tubuliglorae)
Boìdar Manojlovi}1, Anton Zabel1, Sla|an Stankovi}1 and
Miroslav Kosti}2
1
Institute for Plant Protection and Environment, Belgrade,Yugoslavia
2
Institute for Medicinal Plant Research "Dr Josif Pan~i}", Belgrade,
Yugoslavia
ABSTRACT
The least number of Carduus acanthoides L. plants with small
flower heads was registered in the locality of Stobi in Macedonia. At the
same time, the greatest number of the attacked flower heads with the
greatest number of the insects in them was registered in the same
locality. C.acanthoides population density varied from 0.63/m2 on the
average, with flower heads of 1.4 ± 0.4cm, and 36.3% of flower heads
with the number of 3.7 insects (from 4 orders and several families) in
1988, up to 0.81/m2 and flower head diameter of 1.8 ± 0.3cm were
attacked of which 50.3% were damaged by 3.8 insects on the average in
the locality of Stobi in 1990. The greatest number of this weed plant but
also the smallest number of damaged flower heads with low population
density of the insects were registered in the locality near Valjevo in
Serbia. In 1988, 1.36 plants/m2 were registered with flower head diameter
of 2.3 ± 0.4cm of which 19.3% of flower heads were attacked by 2.5
insects on the average. The flower heads of the ruderal plant
C.acanthoides were attacked by numerous insects among which by the
species from the family Tephritidae (Diptera): Urophora solstitialis (L.),
Urophora stylata (Fab.), Terellia serratulae (L.), and Tephritis heiseri (Fr.).
The number of all the species from the family Tephritidae was the
highest in the locality of Stoby (especially U.solstitialis). The smallest
number of insect species from the family Tephritidae were found in the
locality of Valjevo in relation to the other two localities (T.serratulae was
the most frequent). U.stylata was the most frequent species in the region
of Sur~in in Serbia. T.heiseri was not registered in the flower heads of
C.acanthoides in the region of Stobi while it was rare in the habitat near
105
Sur~in. T.heiseri occurred constantly but in a low number in the flower
heads of C.acanthoides, in the region of Valjevo.
Key words: Carduus acanthoides, Tephritidae, Urophora
solstitialis, Urophora stylata, Terelia serratulae, Tephritis heiseri, flower
heads, larva, imago
INTRODUCTION
Flower heads of many weed plants are miniature ecosystems and
they contain numerous insect species which exploit specific environmental
conditions. The qualitative and quantitative structure of insect community
was determined by the dimension and structure of flower heads such as
small leaves of involucrum, stamens, pistil, seed, ect. The flower heads
were attacked by some insect species in the exact phases of maturity.
According to the results Zwolfer et al. (1971) the attack and frequency of
insect species from the families Tephritidae in the flower heads of many
plants from the family Carduinae was determined among other factors
also by insect ovipositor length as well as flower heads size. Whiteflies
cannot oviposit in too small or too big flower heads and due to this they
were not attacked.
Carduus acanthoides L. grows on mesophilous soil. It is often found
in ruderal phytocenoses and on degradated pastures. Typical habitats of
C.acanthoides are subject to antropogenous influence (burning, mowing,
stepping, etc.), and due to this C.acanthoides population density was
high on the grounds radically changed by humans and where competitors
were eliminated. C.acanthoides breeds mostly by wind spread seed. Its
flowering period is long lasting starting late May and early June and
terminating with the first frost (October or early November).
Numerous authors investigated the phytophagous insects attacking
the plants from the genus Carduus L. and they proved that a large
number of insect species fed on these plants (Baloch et al., 1971; Harris,
1984; Zwolfer, 1965a; Zwocfer, 1967; Zwolfer, 1973; Talo{i et al., 1989).
Based on literature data Batra et al. (1981) registered 340 insect species
on different plants of this genus of which 71 were oligophagous species.
On C.acanthoides 64 species were registered. The mentioned authors
are of the opinion that insects are an important regulator of
C.acanthoides population density and that they are an important factor
maintaining the weed plant at low level for a long time in Europe. Apart
from North America (Harris and Zwolfer, 1971), Argentine (Enrique et al.
1983) and New Zealand (Jessed, 1980) they spread over a large surface
with high population density after having been introduced. In South
Ontario and Quebec (Canada), C.acanthoides formed dense cover on
106
B. Manojlovi} et al.: Attack and Frequency of Phytophagous Insects from the Family
Tephritidae (Diptera) in the Flower Heads of Carduus Acanthoides L. (Asteraceae, Tubuliglorae)
some surfaces with the number of about 90.000 plants per ha (Mulligan
and Frankton, 1954).
The species of phytophagous insects from the family Tephrididae
growing in the flower heads of the ruderal plant C.acanthoides were
presented in this paper.
The investigation was carried out from 1988-1991 on three locations
(Stobi in Central Macedonia, Sur~in and Valjevo in Serbia) where
C.acanthoides grows spontaneously. Habitats differ substantially regarding
the ecological conditions (edaphic factors, insolation, stability of
ecosystems) and they influence different characteristics of the plant
population (dimensions of plants and flower heads, density of structure,
phenology). The number of this weed plant on the investigated habitats
was not high. C.acanthoides formed dense structure only in some places
and other vegetation was distributed sporadically. Every year, in late fall
(autumn) C.acanthoides plants were counted in the mentioned localities,
and flower head diameter was measured several times during the
vegetation period.
The flower heads of C.acanthoides were collected several times
starting mid-spring, during the summer and fall. The first collecting was
late May near the town of Stobi in Macedonia and the first collecting in
investigated locations in Serbia was mid-June, immediately after fading.
Next collectings of flower heads were carried out at ten-day intervalls.
The last collecting was late October. Only faded flower heads were
collected. All potential predators on external surface of the flower heads,
including ants, spiders, ect., were immediately removed. 100 flower heads
per collecting were put into carton with dense net from which the
eclosion of insects was observed. The insects which flew out were
determined and counted. After the eclosion all flower heads were put into
wire cages in insectarium to overwinter. In the spring, after flying out of
the insects, the flower heads were dissected in order to prove the
number of the attacked flower heads and eventually, died insects in
them. The data were computed statistically (average value and mean
deviation) and presented in tables.
RESULTS
The results of the study on the ruderal plant Carduus acanthoides
L. population density in the investigated localities (Table 1) showed that
the smallest numbers of the plants were in the locality of Stobi and in
107
1988 it was 0.63/m2 on the average with the flower head of 1.4 ± 0.4cm;
in 1989, 0.74 plants/m2 with flower head diameter of 1.6 ± 0.6cm; in
1990, 0.81/m2 and 1.8 ± 0.3cm and in 1991 0.64 plants/m2 with flower
head diameter of 1.6 ± 0.8cm. In 1988 there were 0.97/m2 of plants with
lower head diameter of 2.1 ± 0.5cm in the vicinity of Sur~in. In the
following years, the values were as follows: in 1989 0.88/m2 and 1.9 ±
0.6cm; in 1990 0.79/m2 and 1.6 ± 0.8cm, and in 1991 0.63/m2 and 1.3 ±
0.9cm. In 1988, 1.36 plants/m2 were registered near Valjevo with flower
heads of 2.3 ± 0.4cm, in 1989 1.20/m2 with 2.0 ± 0.5 cm; in 1990
1.06/m2 and 1.8 ± 0.7cm and in 1991 0.83/m2 and 1.5 ± 0.7cm. It is
obvious that the weed populations near Sur~in and Valjevo have
successively been changing each year in an attempt to establish the
stability of the ecosystem after the effect of destabilizing factors (most
often antropogenous). In the weed population mentioned constant plant
structure decrease was registered and plants became more stunted with
smaller flower head. Biocenosis with C.acanthoides population is on its
way of gradual stabilization resulting in the withdrawal of this weed
species and the formation of more complex phytocenosis. In the habitat
near the town of Stobi, C.acanthoides population was stable with small
variations.
In 1988, 36.3% of C.acanthoides flower heads were attacked in this
habitat by 3.7 insects (from four orders and several families) on the
average. In 1989, 42.7% of the damaged flower heads were registered
and there were 3.7 insects in them on the average. These values were
50.3% and 3.8 in 1990. In the last year of the investigation there were
40.3% of the attacked flower heads with 3.3 insects on the average in
this locality. In 1988, 27.0% of the attacked flower heads with 2.7
insects near Sur~in were registered. In the following years these values
were as follows: 22.7% and 2.5 in 1989; 18.7% and 2.4 in 1990, and
15.3% with 2.4 insects in 1991. In 1988 19.3% of the attacked plants
with 2.5 insects on the average per flower head were registered on the
experimental plot near Valjevo. In 1989 16.3% with 2.4; in 1990 13.3%
and 2.3 and in 1991 12.3% of damaged flower heads with the average
number of 2.2 insects in one flower head (Table 1) were found.
The cited results which refer to the investigated habitats near
Sur~in and Valjevo point that phytophagous insects are an important
factor of successive decrease of the dominant role of this weed species.
Lower population density of these insects in the second, third and fourth
year is in positive correlation with the population density of plant
sustainer.
108
Table 1. Population density and attack of phytophagous insects in the
flower heads of Carduus acanthoides L in the period 1988-1991
Locality
Stobi
Sur~in
Valjevo
Year
1988
1989
1990
1991
1988
1989
1990
1991
1988
1989
1990
1991
Number
of
plants
per m2
0.63
0.74
0.81
0.64
0.97
0.88
0.79
0.63
1.36
1.20
1.06
0.83
Flower
heads
diametar
(cm)
± SD
1.4
1.6
1.8
1.6
2.1
1.9
1.6
1.3
2.3
2.0
1.8
1.5
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
0.4
0.6
0.3
0.8
0.5
0.6
0.8
0.9
0.4
0.5
0.7
0.7
Number of
attacked
flower
heads
No.
109
128
151
121
81
68
56
46
58
49
40
37
P.c.
36.3
42.7
50.3
40.3
27.0
22.7
18.7
15.3
19.3
16.3
13.3
12.3
Total
no.of
insects
Average
insects
per
flower
head
402
468
568
410
218
171
133
111
146
116
94
82
3.7
3.7
3.8
3.3
2.7
2.5
2.4
2.4
2.5
2.4
2.3
2.2
Numerous insect species were registered in the flower heads of
C.acanthoides: Larinus sturnus (Schall.), Larinus jaceae (F.), Rhinocyllus
concus (Froel.), the species from the genus Lixus (Coleoptera:
Curculionidae), then Urophora solstitialis (L.), Urophora stylata (Fab.),
Terellis serratulae (L.), Tephritis heiseri (Fr.) (Diptera: Tephritidae),
Homoeosoma nebulellum (Hb.) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), Eublemma
purpurina (D.S.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), Isocolus jaceae (Sch.)
(Hymenoptera: Cynipidae) etc.
The data presented in Table 2 show that the species from the
family Tephritidae in the locality of Stobi were more numerous in relation
to the species belonging to the above mentioned families and in the total
number of all insects they accounted for 55.2% in 1988; 58.1% in 1989;
54.2% in 1990, and 54.1% in 1991. They were lower in number in the
habitat near Sur~in and in 1988 they accounted for 44.5%; in 1989
43.3%; in 1990 43.6% and in 1991 41.4%. The smallest numbers of
insect species from the family Tephritidae were registered in the locality
near Valjevo in relation to the other two localities and in 1988 the share
of the insect species from this family of Diptera in the total number of all
109
the insects registered accounted for 36.3%, in 1989 37.9%; in 1990
33.0% and in 1991 32.9%.
Table 2. Number of all insect species from the family Tephritidae in the
flower heads of Carduus acanthoides L.
Total
Total
P.C.
Locality Year no. of
no. of
Total no. acording per
imagous
dead
of insects
all insects
insects
species
Stobi
1988
182
40
222
55.2
1989
226
46
272
58.1
1990
246
62
308
54.2
1991
186
36
222
54.1
Sur~in
1988
83
14
97
44.5
1989
66
8
74
43.3
1990
52
6
58
43.6
1991
44
2
46
41.4
Valjevo 1988
49
4
53
36.3
1989
42
4
44
37.9
1990
29
2
31
33.0
1991
25
2
27
32.9
The data in Table 3 show that on the experimental plot near
Stobi, U.solstitialis was the most numerous species from the family
Tephritidae in the flower heads of C.acanthoides accounting for 61.6% in
1988; 54.9% in 1989; 47.2% in 1990, and 59.1% in 1991. U.stylata was
lower in number and in 1988 it accounted for 38.5%; in 1989 43.4%; in
1990 50.4% and in 1991 40.9%. Of all the registered species from this
family of Diptera the share of T.serratulae accounted for the lowest
number and in 1988 and 1990 it was not registered; in 1989 it
accounted for 1.7% only and in 1991 2.4%.
According to the results presented (Table 3), U.solstitialis occurred
rarely in the flower heads of C.acanthoides in the region of Sur~in and it
was registered only in 1988 (9.6%) and 1990 (7.7% in relation to the
total number of insects from the family Tephritidae). U.stylata was the
most numerous species from the family Tephritidae in this region and in
1988 it accounted for 45.8%; in 1989 54.5%; in 1990 30.8% and in 1991
68.2%. T.serratulae in relation to U.stylata was lower in number in this
locality. In 1988 it accounted for 41.0%, in 1989 39.4%; in 1990 61.5%
and in 1991 27.3%.
On the experimental plot near Valjevo the share of U.solstitialis in
the flower heads of C.acanthoides accounted for 20.4% in 1988 and
110
14.3% in 1989. It was not registered in 1990 and 1991. The share of
U.stylata accounted for 32.6%; in 1989 33.3%; in 1990 34.5% and in
1991 32.0%. T.serratulae was the most numerous species from the
family Tephritidae in this region and in 1988 it accounted for 44.9%, in
1989 38.1%, in 1990 55.2% and in 1991 56.0% in the total number of
the insects from the mentioned family (Table 3).
Table 3. Insect species from the family Tephritidae in the flower heads
of Carduus acanthoides L.
Locality Year Urophora Urophora
Terellia
Tephritis
solstitialis
stylata
serratulae
heiseri
No. Pc. No. Pc. No. Pc. No. Pc.
Stobi
1988 112 61.6 70 38.5
1989 124 54.9 98 43.4
4
1.7
1990 116 47.2 124 50.4
6
2.4
1991 110 59.1 76 40.9
Sur~in
1988 8
9.6
38 45.8 34 41.0
3
3.6
1989
36 54.5 26 39.4
4
6.7
1990 4
7.7
16 30.8 32 61.5
1991
30 68.2 12 27.3
2
4.5
Valjevo 1988 10 20.4 16 32.6 22 44.9
1
2.1
1989 6
14.3 14 33.3 16 38.1
6
14.3
1990
10 34.5 16 55.2
3
10.3
1991
8
32.0 14 56.0
3
12.0
T.heiseri was not registered in the flower heads of C.acanthoides
in the region of Stobi while it was very rare in the region of Sur~in (in
1988 it accounted for 3.6%; in 1989 6.7% and in 1991 4.5% in relation
to the other species from this family of Diptera and it was not registered
in 1990. T.heiseri occurred constatnly in the flower heads of
C.acanthoides in the region of Valjevo and in relation to the total number
of the insects from the family Tephritidae its share accounted for: 2.1%
in 1988; 14.3% in 1989; 10.3% in 1990 and 12.0% in 1991 (Table 3).
DISCUSSION
Phytophagous Artropodes and phytopathogenous microorganisms are
the most significant regulators of population density of weed species
(Maw,1976; Goeden,1983). Insects, the most numerous class of animals
are of special importance and most of them are herbivorous consuming
111
about 15% of living material on the average (Harper, 1977). This is one
of the reasons why the plants from the genus Carduus (C.acanthoisdes
and C.nutans L.) are not important harmful plants in Yugoslavia because
among other factors regulating its population density a significant place
belongs to insects. Five-year investigations carried out form 1985-1989
proved that 94 insect species from 7 orders and 34 families were
registered on the mentioned ruderal plants. Dermaptera 1 species,
Homoptera 5, Heteroptera 8, Coleoptera 46, Hymenoptera 11,
Lepidoptera 14 and Diptera 9 species (Talo{i et al.,1989; Manojlovi} and
Cvetkovi},1993). Some other insect species considerably reduce their
population. One of them is Cheilosya corydon (Harris)(Diptera: Syrphidae)
developing in shoots, stem, and root neck of these weed plants
(Manojlovi},1990; Manojlovi} et al.,1995; Manojlovi},1997). According to
the results obtained, although leaf-eaters species are the most numerous,
(43,6% of the total of registered insects) they are less important than
those which grow in the flower heads (destroying internal organs of
flower heads, preventing seed formation or growing in the seed) (Talo{i
and Sekuli},1986).
The species from the family Tephritidae are very important agents in
reducing numerous weed species in Yugoslavia. Manojlovi} (1991)
registered four species from this family of Diptera in the flower heads of
Centaurea solstitialis L. (Asteraceae) (Urophora sirunaseva Hg., Urophora
quadrifasciata Mg., Chaetorallia hexachaeta Hg. and Acanthiophilus
helisnthi Rossi) and that the number of the damaged flower heads in
1988 was 39% with 0.73 insects in one flower head on the average.
Mostly, the species from the family Tephritidae which grow in flower
heads of numerous weed plants are oligophagous species (monophagous
insects are in lower number). According to the literature data,
U.solistitialis larvae grow in the flower heads of Carduus nutans.
C.acanthoides, C.pycnocephalus, C.cripus, C.defloratus, C.edelbergii,
C.personatus, Carthamus sp., Caring sp., Centaurea sp. (Zwolfer,1965a),
Cirsium vulgare and C.helenioides (White and Korneyev, 1988).
U.solstitialis larvae transformed stamens into a complex of galls. Zwolfer
(1973) registered a peak of two galls in the flower heads of C.nutans in
Switzerland.
U.stylata larvae are endophytous in the flower heads of
C.acanthoides, C.nutans, C.edelbergii, Cnicus sp., Cirsium sp., Sencio sp.
(Mellini,1952) and Galactites sp. (Neuenschwarder,1983). It grows in
Europe most often in the flower heads of Cirsium sp. (Goeden,1974) and
in Pakistan in the flower heads of Carduus edelbergii, Cnicus sp.,
Cirsium sp. (Seguy,1934). Successful oviposition of U.stylata was
obtained on Centaurea sp. C.nutans in Switzerland under laboratory
conditions and periodicalon C.acantoides, Arctium sp., Onopordum sp.
112
and on artificially inoculated Centaurea sp. (Baloch et al.,1971) than on
Carduus edelbergii and Cnicus sp. (Goeden,1974).
It was proved that U.stylata larvae in the flower heads of Cirdium
vulgare (Savi) Ten., formed galls with more small chambers (Harris and
Wilkinson,1984). The first instar larvae of U.stylata grew in egg. The
larvae emerged from the egg in the second development stage (Redfern,
1968). It was successfully introduced into North America (Harris and
Wilkinson,1984; Peschken,1079; Piper,1985) and into the Repubic of
South Africa (Julien,1987) for the biological control of Cirsium vulgare
(Savi) Ten.
According to the investigations Baloch and Khan (1972) T.serratulae
larvae were registered in the flower heads of Carduus nutans,
C.defloratus, C.crassifolius, C.acanthoides, C.tenuiflorus, C.edelbergii,
cirsium sp., Onopordum sp., Galactites sp;, Centaurea sp., Cnicus sp.
Both field and laboratory studies proved that successful oviposition and
growth of T. serratulae larvae were only on the plants of Carduus
edelbergii and Cnicus sp. The oviposition also occurred on Cynara sp.,
Conza sp., Centaurea sp., Cousinisa sp., Acrolinum sp., gerbera,
Gailardia sp., and on Calendula sp., however the larvae did not feed on
these plants (Baloch et al.,1971).
Penju et al. (1986) registered the species Tephritis dilacerata, T.
crepidis, T.heiseri and T.hemdeliava growing in the flower heads of
C.acanthoides in Romania between 1977-1984.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the results obtained the following can be concluded:
- During 1988 - 1991 the weed populations of C.acanthoides
declined constantly in the localities near Sur~in and Valjevo and the
plants became more stunted with smaller flower heads. C.acanthoides
population retained stable with insignificant variations only in the habitat
near the town of Stobi.
- The smallest numbers of Carduus acanthoides plants with
small flower heads were in the locality of Stobi in Macedonia. At the
same time the greatest numbers of the attacked flower heads and the
greatest numbers of insects in them were registered in this location.
- Population density of this ruderal plant in the locality of Stobi
varied from 0.63/m2 on the average with the flower head of 1.4 ± 0.4cm
and 36.3% of flower heads with the number of 3.7 insects on the
average in 1988 up to 0.81/m2 and the flower head diameter of 1.8 ±
113
0.3cm were attacked of which 50.3% were damaged with 3.8 insects on
the average in 1990.
- The greatest numbers of this weed plant but also the smallest
numbers of damaged flower heads with low population density of insects
were in the locality near the town of Valjevo. In 1988 1.36 plants/m2
were registered with the flower diameter of 2.3 ± 0.4cm of which 19.3%
of flower heads were attacked with 2.5 insects on the average.
- Flower heads of the ruderal plant C.acanthoides were attacked
by numerous insects among which also by the species from the family
Tephritidae (Diptera): Urophora solstitialis (L.), Urophora stylata (Fab.),
Terellia serratulae (L.) and Tephritis heiseri (Fr.).
- The species from the family Tephritidae were more numerous in
the locality of Stobi in relation to the species belonging to other families
and in different years accounting for 55.2% in 1988; 58.1% in 1989;
54.2% in 1990; and 54.1% in 1991 in relation to the total number of
other insects.
- The species from the family Tephritidae were lower in number
in the locality of Sur~in and they accounted for 44.5% in 1988; 43.3% in
1989; 43.6% in 1990 and 41.4% in 1991 in relation to the total number
of other insects.
- The smallest number of the insects from the family Tephritidae
were in the locality near Valjevo in relation to the other two localities,
and in 1988 the species of insects from this family of Diptera occurred
with 36.3% in 1989; 37.9% in 1989; 33.0% in 1990; and 32.9% in 1991
in the total number of all registered insects.
- The numbers of all the species from the family Tephritidae were
the highest in the locality of Stobi (especially numerous was the species
U.solstitialis, with 61.6% in 1988; 54.9% in 1989; 47.2% in 1990, and
59.1% in 1991).
- The numbers of all insect species from the family Tephritidae in
the locality of Valjevo in relation to the other two localities was the
lowest (T.serratulae was the most frequent species) and in 1988 it
accounted for 41.0%; in 1989 39.4%; in 1990 61.5% and in 1990
27.30%).
- U.stylata was the most numerous species from the family
Tephritidae in the region of Sur~in and in 1988 it accounted for 45.8%;
in 1989 54.5%, in 1990 30.8% and in 1991 68.2% in relation to the
total number of this family of Diptera.
- T.heiseri was not registered in the flower heads of
C.acanthoides in the locality of Stobi, whereas in the region of Su~in it
occurred rarely (accounting for 3.6% in 1988; 6.7% in 1989 and 4.5% in
1991 in relation to the other species from this family Diptera. It was not
registered in 1990).
114
- T.heiseri constantly occurred in the flower heads of
C.acanthoides in the region of Valjevo but in relation to the total number
of the insects from the family Tephritidae it was in low number
accounting for 2.1% in 1988, 14.3% in 1989, 10.3% in 1990 and 12.0%
in 1991.
REFERENCES
Baloch,G.M., Khan,A.G., Mushtaque,M.: Biological control of
Carduus spp. I. Insects associated with these in West Pakistan.
Commonw. Inst. Biol.Control, Tech. Bull.14, 51-58, 1971.
Baloch,G.M., and Khan,A.G.: Biological control of Carduus spp. II.
Phenology, Biology and Host specificity of Terellia serratulae L. (Dipt.:
Trypetidae). Commonwealth Inst.Biol.Control Tech. Bull.16, 11-22, 1972.
Battra,S.W., Coulson,J.R., Dunn,P.H., Boldt,P.E.: Insects and fungi
assiciated with Carduus thistles (Compositae). Technic. Bull. USDA. 1616.
100 pp, 1981.
Enrique,A.E., Cordo,H.A., Crouzel,S. de.,Gimenez, Tranzi,N.R.:
Importacion de Rhinocyllus conicus Froelich y Trichosirocalus horridus
Panzer para el control biologico de los "Cardos" en la Argentina.
Malezas. Revista de la Asociacion Argentina parael Control de Malezas
(ASAM),11, 232-241, 1983.
Goeden,R.D.: Comparative survey of the phytophagous insect
faunas of Italian thistle, Carduus pycnocephalus, in southern California
and southern Europe relative to biological weed control. Environmental
Entomol. 3, 464-474, 1974.
Goeden,R.D.: Critique and revision of Harris's scroling system for
selection of insect agents in biological control of weeds. Protection
Ecology, 5, 287-301, 1983.
Harper,J.: Population Biology of Plants. Academic Press, New
York, 892, 1977.
Harris,P., Zwolfer,H.: Carduusa canthoides L., welted thistle, and
C. nutans L., nodding thistle. In Biological Control Programmes Against
Insects and Weeds in Canada, 1959-1968. Commonwealth Inst.Biol.
Control Tech.Commun. 4. pp. 76-79, 1971.
Harris,P.: Carduus nutans L., nodding thistle and C.acanthoides
L., plumeless thistle (Compositae). In. Kelleher, J.S.; Hulme, M.A. (Eds):
Biological Control Programmes Against Insects and Weeds in Canada
1969-1980. London Commonw.Agric.Bureaux, pp. 159-169, 1984.
Harris,P., & Wilkinson,A.T.: Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Ten., bull.
thistle (Compositae). In: Kellecher, J.S. & Hulme, M.A. (Eds).: Biological
Control Programmes against insects and weeds in Canada 1969-1980.
London Commonw. Agric. Bureaux, pp. 147-154, 1984.
115
Jessep,C.T.: Progress Report on Biological Control of Nodding
Thistle (Carduus nutans) in New Zeland. Proc.V. Int. Symp. Biol. Contr.
Weeds: 635-637, 1980.
Julien,M.: Biological Control of Weeds. A World Cataloque of
Agents and their target weeds. CSIRO Div. Ent. Indooroopilly, Austral.:
pp. 144, 1987.
Manojlovi},B.: Prilog poznavanju Cheilosia corydon (Harris)
(Diptera: Syrphidae) na korovskoj biljci Carduus acanthoides L.
(Asteraceae Dum.). Za{tita bilja, 41, 349-357, 1990.
Manojlovi},B.: Phytophagous insect species of the family
Tephritidae (Diptera) registered in the Centaurea solstitialis L.
(Asteraceae) flower heads.- Za{titta bilja 42, 127-136, 1991.
Manojlovi},B.: Intenzitet napada i razvi}e larvi Cheilosia corydon
(Harris) na ruderalnoj biljci Carduus nutans L. Acta Herbologica, 6, 31-39,
1997.
Manojlovi},B., Cvetkovi},M.: Dosada{nja prou~avanja fitofagnih
insekata za biolo{ko suzbijanje Carduus acanthoides L. (Asteraceae,
Asteroideae). Za{tita bilja, 44, 251-261, 1993.
Manojlovi},B., Siv~ev,I., Zabel,A., Kosti},M.: Trajanje embrionalnog
razvi}a Cheilosia corydon (Harris) (Diptera: Syrphidae) u laboratorijskim
uslovima. Za{tita bilja, 46, 63-68, 1995.
Maw,N.G.: An annotated List of Insects associated with Canada
thistle (Cirsium arvense) in Canada. Cand. Ent.109, 235-254, 1976.
Mellini,E.: Insetti del Carduus nutans L. III. Euribia solstitialis L.
Bologna Ent. Bol. 19, 97-119, 1952.
Mulligan,G.A.; Frankton,C.: The plumeless thistles (Carduus sp.) in
Canada. Canadian Field Naturalist, 68, 31-36, 1954.
Neuenschwander,P.: Observations on the biology of two species
of fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) and their competition with a moth larva.
Israel Jornal of Entomology, 18, 95-97, 1983.
Peschken,D.P.: Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop. Canada thistle
(Compositae). In Biological Control Programmes Against Insects and
Weeds in Canada. 1959-1968. Commonw. Inst. Biol. Control Tech.
Commun.4, pp. 79-83, 1971.
Peschken,D.P.: Biological control of weeds in Canada with the aid
of insects and nematodes. Zeitschriftfur Angewandte Entomologie, 88, 116, 1979.
Piper,G.L.: Biological control of weeds in Washington. Starus
Report. Proceedings of the Inter. Symp. on Biological Control of Weeds,
817-826, 1985.
Redfern,M.: The natural history od spear thistle-heads. - Field
Studies, 2, 669-717, 1968.
116
Seguy,E.: Dipteres (Brachyceres) faune de France.V.28, 744 pp,
1934.
Talo{i,B., Sekuli},R.: Prilog prou~avanju entomofaune na
korovskim biljkama iz roda Carduus (Asteraceae) u nekim lokalitetima u
Vojvodini. XVI skup entomologa Jugoslavije, Vr{ac, st.13, 1986.
Talo{i,B., Sekuli},R., Kere{i,T., Manojlovi},B., Igrc,J., Maceljski,M.,
@lof,V.: Investigations of entomofauna on Carduus genus (Asteraceae)
plants in Yugoslavia. Plant Protection 40, 393-408, 1989.
White,M.I. and Korneyev,A.V.: A revision of the western Palearctic
species of Urophora Robineau-Disvoidy (Diptera: Tephritidae). Systematic
Entomology, 14, 327-374, 1988.
Zwolfer,H.: Preliminary list of phytophagous insects attacking wild
Cynareae (Compositae) species in Europe. Commonw. Inst. Biol. Control,
Tech. Bull.6, 81-154, 1965a.
Zwolfer,H.: Observations on the distribution and ecology of Altica
carduorum Guer. (Col.: Chrysomelidae). Commonw.Inst.Biol.Control,Tech.
Bull.5: 129-141, 1965b.
Zwolfer,H.: Competition and coexistence in phytophagous insects
attacking the heads of Carduus nutans L. Proceedings of the Second
Internacional Symposium an Biological Control of Weeds.- C.A.B., 74-81,
1973.
Zwolfer,H., Frick,K.E., Andres,L.A.: Astudy of the host plant
relationship of European members of the genus Larinus (Col.:
Curculionidae). Tech. Bull. CIBC 1971,14, 97-141, 1971.
117
118
USE OF PARASITIOIDS IN CONTROLLING Trialeurodes
vaporariorum Westwood IN GLASSHOUSE TOMATO
PRODUCTION
Pantelija Peri}1, Nenad Dimi}1, Slobodan Krnjaji}2,
Marina Vuk{a2 and Marina Cvetkovi}3
1
Institute for plant protection and environment, Belgrade, Yugoslavia
2
Agricultural research institute “Serbia”, Belgrade, Yugoslavia
3
Federal institute of plant and animal genetic resources, Belgrade,
Yugoslavia
ABSTRACT
Bioecological characteristics and ability of parasitoids of three
autochthonous species of Encarsia: Encarsia formosa Gahan, Encarsia
tricolor Foerster and Encarsia partenopea Masi were studied.
The lowest temperature threshold of development was obtained in
E.tricolor (8.60C) compared with E.partenopea and E.formosa (9.7 and
10.50C). The shortest development was proved in E.formosa at 270C.
E.partenopea developed most slowly at all the temperatures investigated.
Parasitoid fecundity of increased with the increase of temperature.
The biggest numbers of deposited eggs were registered in E.formosa 199 eggs at 270C.
The data on the way of application of Encarsia spp. and the
control of T.vaporariorum in the commercial glasshouse using two
methods of introduction were obtained. In the classical method E.formosa
(90.0%) and E.tricolor (80.3%) were most efficient. Maximal parasitism of
96.3% using the second method, was registered in E.formosa. E.tircolor
and E.partenopea were less efficient (80.4 and 71.1%). More abundant
secretion of honey dew and occurrence of sooty mould were registered
in single tomato plants only when E.partenopea was used.
Key words: biological control, whitefly, Encarsia spp., introduction
119
INTRODUCTION
T.vaporariorum is an important pest in glasshouse tomato
production. The control of whitefly by insecticides caused the occurrence
of resistance and high poisoning of fruits. Due to this biological control
imposed itself as one of the important alternatives.
So far biological control of T.vaporariorum by E.formosa has been
confirmed as a very successful method in numerous crops in many
countries (Lenteren et al., 1980).
The first information on parasitoids in Yugosalvia and on their
characteristics and use in the biological control of whitefly was presented
by Peri} (1990 and 1991). E.formosa was then used experimentally in
glasshouse production more or less successfully. The other species of
parasitoids have not been investigated for that purpose so far.
The most important species of the collected parasitoids belong to
the genus Encarsia: Encarsia formosa Gahan, Encarsia tricolor Foerster
and Encarsia partenopea Masi.
In this paper bioecological characteristics of the collected
autochthonous species and their parasitoid characteristics were
compared. The investigated effects on different temperatures on
development and fecundity of parasitoids and hosts were studied. The
data on the way of use of Encarsia spp. and the control of
T.vaporariorum in the commercial glasshouse at Vreoci. The use of
parasitoids was estimated according to the classical method and the
method of introduction after the occurrence of the pest.
The parasitoids were collected in the following localities:
1. E.formosa - collected in Lazarevac from the weed flora near
the glasshouse (host: T.vaporariorum Westwood).
2. E.tricolor - collected in Vr{ac from cabbage (host: Aleyrodes
proletella Linne).
3. E.partenopea - collected in Belgrade from the weed flora near
the glasshouse (host: Aleyrode lonicerae Walker).
The effect of temperature on the development period, fecundity
and longevity of Encarsia spp. was investigated at three constant
120
P. Peri} et al.: Use of Parasitioids in Controlling Trialeurodes Vaporariorum Westwood
in Glasshouse Tomato Production
temperatures (18, 22 and 270C) and one variable (of 180C by day and
70C at night-in further text D18/N7). T.vaporariorum females oviposited
during 16 hours. The development of eggs was monitored up to fourth
instar larvae. Then Encarsia spp. females were introduced to oviposit
during the day. Total oviposition, development of larvae, ratio of males
and females when flying out, as well as their longevity were registered.
In the period from January 1st - June 15th, 1993 the investigation
on the use of Encarsia spp. on tomato in practice was carried out in the
commercial glasshouse "ZZ Lajkovac" at Vreoci. During the winter the
temperature in glasshouses ranged from 15-230C, and during the summer
from 23-300C with the extremes of above 350C. Relative humidity ranged
from 50-70%.
Tomato plants, cv. Carmelo were transplanted to their permanent
place in early January 1993 with an average density of 30.000 plants per
1 ha. The experimental plot was 126 m2 large with 378 plants. The
vegetation period of tomato was from January 1st - June 15th.
T.vaporariorum and Encarsia spp. were released in the adult phase on
every third plant in the row.
Two methods were used described by the investigators of the
Glasshouse Crops Research Institute in Littlehampton (England) and the
Glasshouse Crops Research and Experiment Station in Naaldwijk (The
Netherlands) (Scopes and Biggerstaff, 1971; Parr and Scopes, 1973; Parr
et al., 1976; Gould et al., 1975; Woets, 1973, 1976; Koppert, 1978) in
order to prove the degree of Encarsia spp. parasitism. These are:
classical method ("pest-in-first method") and method of introduction after
the occurrece of whitefly ("dribble method").
In classical establishing of T.vaporariorum and Encarsia spp.,
population on January 15, two females and two males of T.vaporariorum,
and on January 29, four females of Encarsia spp. per plant were
introduced. Second introduction of Encarsia spp. (two female per plant)
was carried out 21 days later, due to extremely long oviposition which
was almost twice longer in hosts. Parasitism was controlled twice a
month.
For setting up the experiment according to the method of
Encarsia spp. introduction after the occurrence of T.vaporariorum, tips of
50 plants were checked for the occurrence of whitefly adults. For that
purpose yellow boards were also used. T.vaporariorum adults were
proved on February 23 in the experimental plots and the first introduction
of two Encarsia spp. females was on March 9. The following three
introductions of two females of parasitoids were distributed on each host
121
in 14-day intervals.
Experiments inder laboratory conditions
The temperature threshold for complete whitefly development was
9.1 C. The lowest temperature threshold of parasitoid development was
estimated at 8.60C in E.tircolor in relation to 9.7 and 10.50C in
E.partenopea and E.formosa.
The data of other authors on the development thresholds of these
parasitoids are scarce. The development thresholds of different stages of
T.vaporariorum ranged from 8.5 to 11.50C, and in E.formosa at 130C
(Madueke, 1979). The data on the development thresholds of E.tircolor
and E.partenopea were not registered by other authors.
The longest development of T.vaporariorum (48.1 days) realized
at lower temperature (D18/N70C) was 13.9% longer than at 180C. Among
the parasitoides E.formosa had the shortest development at 270C, and
E.tricolor at D18/N7, 18 and 220C. E.partenopea had the slowest
development at all the temperature investigated (Fig. 1).
0
days
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
18/7
E. formosa
18
E. tricolor
22
E. partenopea
27
T0C
T. vaporariorum
Fig. 1. The developmental parameters at different temeratures
T.vaporariorum had the highest fecundity of 147 eggs at 180C,
122
which drastically decreased to 88.5 eggs with the increase of
temperature. However, the fecundity of parasitoids increased with the
increase of temperature. The highest fecundity of 199 eggs at 270C (Fig.
2) was registered in E.formosa.
No eggs/female
250
200
150
100
50
0
18/7
E. formosa
18
E. tricolor
22
E. partenopea
T 0C
27
T. vaporariorum
Fig. 2. Mean potential fecundity at different temperatures
Longevity and fecundity in T.vaporariorum and E.formosa were
studied by several authors. The data are different and they ranged from
2.9 to 442 eggs for oviposition period of 2.5 to 36.8 days in E.formosa.
E.tricolor oviposted the maximum of 85.4 to 123 eggs (Artigues, 1992;
Williams, 1995).
Glasshouse experiments
a) Classical method
The first introduction of hosts into the glasshouse (2 females and
2 males per plant) was realized on January 15th. One month after the
first introduction of E.formosa adults, the parasitism of T.vaporariorum
nymphs was registered for the first time. The ratio of parasitized and
unparasitized nymphs was 0.71, and 41.5% of parasitism. At the end of
the second month the percentage of parasitism increased to 73.4%, and
123
it reached its maximum of 90.0% by mid-May. E.tricolor reached its peak
of parasitism of 80.3% by mid-April, and E.partenopea late March
(71.8%) (Fig.3).
Many experiments with E.formosa for the control of
T.vaporariorum were registered in literature. They differed mostly in the
number of introduction of parasitoids which ranged from individual
introducing two weeks after host introducing (Parr, 1968; Gould et al.,
1975; Parr et al., 1976) from two to three introductions at the interval of
about two weeks (Woets, 1973; Parr et al., 1976; Stenseth, 1976;
Ekbom, 1977).
Gould et al. (1975) cited that they obtained more then the
expected results in the experiments of biological control of
T.vaporariorum with the classical method. An 80-100% parasitism was
obtained on introducing the host and parasitoid at a rate of 1:2 and 1:6.
Three introductions of E.formosa in the total ratio of
host/parasitoid of 1:2.5, released 2 and 5 weeks after the first
introduction of the parasitoid were most efficient in decreasing
T.vaporariorum during the five month period (Madueke, 1979).
E. partenopea
E. tricolor
E. formosa
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Effic. %
Fig. 3. Efficacy of Encarsia spp. on tomato (classic method)
b) Introduction after the occurrence of T.vaporariorum
The occurrence of T.vaporariorum aduls was registered (from 0.38
to 0.84 per plant) in the second half of February. The first introduction of
Encarsia spp. was realised 14 days later. Another three introductions of
124
parasitoids were realised at 14 dys intervals. In early April the parasitism
of T.vaporariorum nymphs was proved for the first time. The initial
efficiency was prominent in E.tricolor (60.9%), lower in E.formosa (51.8%)
and E.partenopea (38.1%). Maximum parasitisam of 96.3% was
registered in E.formosa by mid-May. Lower efficiency (80.4 and 71.1%)
(Fig. 4) was obtained by E.tricolor and E.partenopea. More abundant
secretion of honey dew and the occurrence of sooty moulds were
registered on single tomato plants only in the variant of E.partenopea
application.
E. partenopea
E. tricolor
E. formosa
0
20
40
60
80
100
Effic. (%)
Fig. 4. Efficacy of Encarsia spp. on tomato (method of introduction
after the occurrence of whitefly)
The data on the successful biological control of T.vaporariorum based on
the principles of this introduction are found in the researches conducted
by several authors. Nicoli and Benuzzi (1989) obtained the best results
with six releasing of 4.8 parasitized black nymphs per 1m2 at the
beginning of host infection. Gould et al. (1975) concluded that favourable
results were usually obtained using the method of E.formosa introduction
after the occurrence of the whitefly and that it is more suitable for
vegetable breeders than the previous one. Stenseth and Aase (1983)
proved that for the initial population density of 10-30 T.vaporariorum
adults on 100 cucumber plants three introductions of five parasitoids
each were indispensable.
REFERENCES
125
Artigues,M.; Avilla,J.; Sarasua,M.J. & Albajes,R.: Egg laying and
host stage preference at constant temperatures in Encarsia tricolor
(Hym.: Aphelinidae). Entomophaga 37 (1), 45-54, 1992.
Ekbom,B.S.: Development of a biological control program for
greenhouse whiteflies (T.vaporariorum W.) using its parasite E.formosa G.
in Sweden. Z. ang. Ent. 84, 145-154, 1977.
Gould,H.J.; Parr,W.J.; Woodville,H.C. & Simmonds,S.P.: Biological
Control of glasshouse whitefly (T.vaporariorum) on cucumbers.
Entomophaga 20, 285-292, 1975.
Kopert,J.P.: Ten years of biological control in glasshouses in the
Netherlands. Med.Fac. Landbouww. Rijksuniv. Gent, 43/2, 373-385, 1978.
Lenteren,J.C.; Remakers,P.M.J. & Woets,J.: World situation of
biological control in greenhouses with special attention to factors limiting
application. Med. Fac. Landbouww. Rijksuniv. Gent 45/3: 537-544, 1980.
Madueke, E.N.N.: Biological control of Trialeurodes vaporariorum.
Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. of Cambrige, 1979.
Nicoli,G. & Benuzzi,M.: Lotta biologica contro T. vaporariorum
(Westw.) e T.urticae (Koch.) su melanzana in coltura protetta nel nord
Italia: nuove acquisizioni. Informatore fitopatologico, 7-8, 35-41, 1989.
Parr,W.J.: Biological control of greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes
vaporariorum West.) by the parasite Encarsia formosa Gahan on
tomatoes. Rep. Glasshouse Crops Res. Inst. 1967, 137-141, 1968.
Parr,W.J. & Scopes,N.E.A.: Recent advances in the integrated
control of glasshouse pests. ADAC Quaterly Review, 3, 101-108, 1973.
Parr,W.J.; Gould,H.J.; Jessop,N.H. & Ludlam,F.A.B.: Progress
towards a biological control programme for glasshouse whitefly (T.
vaporariorum) on tomatoes. Ann. appl. Biol. 83, 349-363, 1976.
Peri},P.: Natural enemies of Trialeurodes vaporariorum Westwood in
the Serbia and application of Encarsia formosa Gahan in the control of
pest in glasshouse. M.A. - Thesis, Univ. of Belgrade, 1990.
Peri},P.: Encarsia formosa Gahan in control of Trialeurodes
vaporariorum Westwood. Plant Protection 197: 239-246, 1991.
Scopes,N.E.A. & Biggerstaff,S.M.: The Production, Handling and
Distribution of the Whitefly T.vaporariorum and its Parasite E.formosa for
use in Biological Control Programmes in Glasshouses. Plant Pathology
20, 111-116, 1971.
Stenseth,C.: Some aspects of the practical application of the
parasite Encarsia formosa for control of Trialeurodes vaporariorum.
Bull.OILB/SROP 76, 104-114, 1976.
126
Stenseth,C. & Aase I.: Use of the parasite Encarsia formosa (Hym.:
Aphelinidae) as a part of pest management on cucumbers. Entomophaga
28, 17-26, 1983.
Williams,T.: The biology of Encarsia tricolor: An autoparasitoid of
whitefly. Biological control 5, 209-217, 1995.
Woets,J.: Integrated control in vegetables underglass in the
Netherlands.Bull. OILB/SROP 73/4, 26-31, 1973.
Woets,J.: Progress report on the integrated pest control in
glasshouses in Holland. Bull. OILB/SROP 76/4, 34-38, 1976.
127
128
STEM-MINING FLIES (DIPTERA, AGROMYZIDAE) AS
POTENTIAL WEED BIOCONTROL AGENTS
Radoslava Spasi} and Dragica Smiljani}
ABSTRACT
External stem-mining and stem-boring Agromyzidae (Diptera) on
weeds in Serbia are presented in this paper. Twelve stem-borer and four
stem-miner species were reared from 24 weed species. Their trophic
valence and damaged plant organs were analyzed for the purpose of
suggesting their use in biocontrol programs.
Key words: Agromyzidae, stem-miner, stem-borer, weed,
biocontrol
INTRODUCTION
Agromyzidae are exclusively plant feeders usually known as leafminers. However, the larvae may form external stem-mines, bore
internally in stems of herbaceous plants or in the cambium of trees, feed
on roots or flower-heads or form twig-galls. These flies can be found on
a broad range of cultivated and spontaneous plants. Many serious weeds
throughout the world are attacked by either stem-boring, seed-eating or
leaf-mining species. Very few of them have been used or even
considered as potential control agents of weeds in the world.
Ophiomyia lantanae (Frog.) for example, which has been
introduced to many parts of the world for controlling Lantana sp., has
very limited efficiency. But in controlling Orobanche spp., in the exUSSR, Phytomyza orobanchia Kalt., has been conspicuously successful.
The following species have been investigated as potential agents in
weed biocontrol programs: Melanagromyza cuscutae Her., on Cuscuta
spp.; Ophiomyia strigalis Sp., on Striga sp.; Melanagromyza convolvuli
Sp., and M.albocilia Hd., on Convolvulus arvensis L., and Phytomyza
syngenesiae Hardy on Senecio jacobea L., (Spencer, 1973).
129
The possibilities of using agromyzid flies for the biological control
deserve further research. In that sense, the most interesting are the hostspecific species whose larvae feed in stems or flower-heads and seeds.
In Serbia there have been no thoroughgoing studies and data on the
species with such a mode of feeding to date. Only Phytomyza
orobanchia on Orobanche spp., (Leki}, 1970; Mihajlovi}, 1986), and
Napomyza lateralis Fall., on Matricaria inodora L.(Spasi}, 1994.), have
been studied.
Thus, over the past three years the aim of our study has been to
focus on weed stem-mining, stem-boring and seed-eating species in
order to find out if they could be a useful factor in a weed biocontrol
program.
In this paper only stem-mining and stem-boring agromyzid species
are presented.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Various kinds of weed plants were collected during the period
1996-1998 in the vicinity of Belgrade and throughout Serbia.
Whole plant samples or weed fragments were taken from a wheat
field, meadows and other sites. The larval channels in the stem were
detected by cutting across or splitting lengthwise, but the external stemmines were recognized by the color and larval or pupal presence.
From the collected weed plants agromyzid flies were reared in
the laboratory.
For the correct identification all stages (larva, pupa, imago) and
stem-mines (external mines and internal channels) were used.
Of the 24 weed species 16 species from six genera of the family
Agromyzidae were reared. All species and their host-plants are listed in
Table1.
The most numerous were the internal stem-miners (stem-borers)
(12) and only four Ophiomyia species were found as external stemminers.
External stem-miner species usually lay eggs beneath the
epidermis of the stem where larvae make mines and pupate at their end,
as it was in Ophiomyia thalictricaulis Her., on Thalictrum lucidum
L.(Fig.1.).
130
R. Spasi} and D. Smiljani}: Stem-Mining Flies (Diptera, Agromyzidae) As Potential
Weed Biocontrol Agents
Table 1. Agromyzid species reared from weed in Serbia
Weeds
Agromyzid species
stem - borer
APIACEAE
Angelica sylvestris L.
Pastinaca sativa L.
ASTERACEAE
Achillea millefolium L.
Artemisia vulgaris L.
Centaurea jacea L.
Cirsium arvense Scop.
Crepis setosa Hall.
Matricaria inodora L.
Mycelis muralis L.
Picris hieraciodes L.
BUTOMACEAE
Butomus umbellatus L.
CHENOPODIACEAE
Atriplex tatarica L
Chenopodium album L.
CONVOLVULACEAE
Convolvulus arvensis L.
CUSCUTAEAE
Cuscuta pentagona Engelm.
LAMIACEAE
Galeopsis speciosa Mill.
Stachys alpina L.
RUBIACEAE
Galium mollugo L.
Galium aparine L.
RANUNCULACEAE
Ranunculus acer L.
Ranunculus repens L.
Thalictrum lucidum L.
SCROPHULARIACEAE
Rhinanthus major Ehrh.
URTICAEAE
Urtica dioica L.
stem - miner
Melanagromyza angeliciphaga Sp.
Melanagromyza angeliciphaga Sp.
Melanagromyza oligophaga Sp.
Melanagromyza oligophaga Sp.
Melanagromyza dettmeri Her.
Melanagromyza aeneoventris Fall.
Napomyza lateralis Fall.
Ophiomyia heringi Stary
Metopomyza ornata Meig.
Melanagromyza albocilia Hd.
Melanagromyza cuscutae Her.
Ophiomyia labiatarum Her.
Ophiomyia labiatarum Her.
Ophiomyia galii Her.
Ophiomyia galii Her.
Napomyza evanescens Hd.
Ophiomyia thalictricaulis Her.
Phytomyza rostrata Her.
Melanagromyza aenea Meig.
Internal stem-miners (stem-borers) oviposition takes place directly
in the stem parenchyma or in the leaf from which the larva moves
through the midrib and the petiole into the stem, as it was in
Amauromyza chenopodivora Sp., on Chenopodium album L., and Atriplex
tatarica L.. By boring channels into the pith larvae may destroy the stem
as well as the whole plant, especially if they provide a high population
density. Depending on the species, pupation can take place in the stem
at the end of the larval channel or on the ground.
131
Fig. 1. Ophiomyia thalictricaulis Her. – External stem mines on
Thalictrum lucidum L.
Considering the trophic valence the relationship between stemborer species was 50% : 50% (six monophagous and six olygophagous).
A species Amauromyza chenopodivora Sp., considered to be
monophagous on Chenopodium spp. was for the first time reared from
Atriplex tatarica L. in Europe (Spencer, 1990). From the oviposition site
in the leaf larva feeds toward the midrib and through the petiole borrows
into the stem (Fig.2). Pupation takes place on the ground.
Fig. 2. Amauromyza chenopodivora Sp. – Channels inside the
stem of Atriplex tatarica
132
The Holarctic species Napomyza lateralis Fall., whose larvae
attack stems and flower-heads of numerous species of Asteraceae, was
for the first time reared from Picris hieracioides L., as a stem-borer. The
same fly was found in the flower-heads of Matricaria inodora L. during
the past few years in Serbia (Spasi}, 1994).
Considering the economic importance of weed species and
trophic valence of reared Agromyzid flies we have chosen six internal
stem-miner species (stem-borer) (Table 2) as potential biocontrol agents.
Table 2. Agromyzidae recorded in Serbia that could be potential
biocontrol agents
Species
Amauromyza chenopodivora
Sp.
Melanagromyza aenea Mg.
Melanagromyza aeneoventris
Fall.
Melanagromyza albocilia Hd.
Valence Host-plant in Serbia Host-plant in other countries
O (M) Chenopodium album L. Chenopodium sp. (Europe)
Atriplex tatarica L.
M
Urtica dioica L.
Urtica dioica L. (Europe)
O
Cirsium arvense Scop. Cirsium sp., Carduus sp.
(Europe)
M
Convolvulus arvensis L. Convolvulus arvensis L.
(Europe, Israel, Egypt)
Melanagromyza cuscutae Her.
M
Cuscuta pentagona
Cuscuta europaea (Europe)
Engelm.
Cuscuta reflexa (India, Pakistan)
M
Ranunculus acer L.
Ranunculus spp. (Europe,
Ranunculus repens L. Canada, California)
M - monophagous
O - oligophagous
Melanagromyza albocilia Hd. a host-specific species on
Convolvulus arvensis L. known in many European countries, Egypt and
Israel (Spencer,1973) and from now in Serbia, could be a useful factor in
a weed biocontrol program, as was suggested in other countries. The
larvae feed inside the stem where they pupate (Fig.3).
Fig. 3. Melanagromyza albocilia Hd. – Puparium inside the
Convolvulus arvensis stem
133
A single species known on Cuscuta spp., is Melanagromyza
cuscutae Her. known in Europe, India and Pakistan (Spencer,1973,1990).
Its larvae feed in the stem or seeds and may be a good agent for the
control of this serious weed.
During our investigation the larvae were found only in the stem of
Cuscuta pentagona Engelm. where they pupate (Fig.4).
Fig. 4. Cuscuta pentagona En. Attacked by Melanagromyza
cuscutae Her.
The other species, especially the ones reared from the
economically important weeds (Atriplex tatarica L., Urtica dioica L.,
Ranunculus spp., etc.) and weeds suggested for the biocontrol in Europe
(Chenopodium album L., Cirsium arvense Scop., etc.) need further
thoroughgoing investigation, namely life-history and their natural enemies.
All the reared agromyzid species listed in Table 1 except
Melanagromyza cuscutae Her. and Napomyza lateralis Fall. are new for
the fauna of Serbia.
CONCLUSION
Sixteen species of Agromyzidae (Diptera) were registered on 24
weed plant species in Serbia. The most numerous (12) were internal
stem-miners (stem-borers) but only four Ophiomyia species were external
stem-miners.
Two species, Amauromyza chenopodivora Sp., and Napomyza
lateralis Fall. were for the first time found and reared from the host134
plants unknown in the literature so far. A.chenopodivora was reared from
Atriplex tatarica L. and N.lateralis from Picris hieracioides L..
It is assumed that six species could be taken into consideration
but further research is needed in order to use them in weed biocontrol
programs. These include: Amauromyza chenopodivora Sp., on
Chenopodium album L., and Atriplex tatarica L.; Melanagromyza aenea
Mg., on Urtica dioica L.; Melanagromyza aeneoventris Fall., on Cirsium
arvense Scop.; Melanagromyza albocilia Hd., on Convolvulus arvensis
L.; Melanagromyza cuscutae Her., on Cuscuta pentagona Engelm., and
Napomyza evanescens Hd., on Ranunculus spp.
All the species except Melanagromyza cuscutae Her. and
Napomyza lateralis Fall. are new for the fauna of Serbia.
REFERENCES
Leki},M.: Uloga diptere Phytomyza orobanchia Kalt. (Agromyzidae)
u redukciji populacija parazitskih cvetnica iz roda Orobanche na podru~ju
Vojvodine. Savremena poljoprivreda, broj 7-8, 1970, Novi Sad, 1970.
Mihajlovi}, Lj.: Results of investigation on Orobanche spp.,
entomofauna in Yugoslavia and the possibility of using insects for
biological control. In: Proceedings of a Workshop on Biology and Control
of Orobanche (S.J.ter Borg, ed.). LH/VPO, Wageningen, The Netherlands,
118-126, 1986.
Simova-To{i},D., Petanovi},R., Spasi},R., Petrovi},O., Smiljani},D.:
Entomofauna i akarofauna nekih vrsta korovskih biljaka u Srbiji.
Simpozijum entomologa Srbije ‘ 97., Go~. Zbornik rezimea, 1997.
Spasi}, R.: Prilog poznavanju vrste Napomyza lateralis Fall.
(Diptera, Agromyzidae). Za{tita bilja, vol.45 (1), 207: 61-66., Beograd,
1994.
Spencer,K.A.: Agromyzidae (Diptera) of Economic importance.
Dr.W.Junk, The Hague: 418 pp, 1973.
Spencer,K. A.: The Agromyzidae (Diptera) of Fennoscandia and
Denmark. Fauna Ent. Scand., 5 a & b: 606 pp, 1976.
Spencer,K.A.: Host Specialization in the World Agromyzidae
(Diptera). Series Entomol., vol.45,pp 444. Kluwer Academic Publishers,
Dordrecht, 1990.
135
136
NEW APPROACHES REGARDING INTEGRATED
SUNN PEST (Eurygaster integriceps Put.) MANAGEMENT
Constantin Popov, Alexandru Barbulescu, I.Vonica, Ioan Rosca
Research Institute for Cereals and Industrial Crops - Fundulea, Romania
ABSTRACT
Eurygaster integriceps Put. is the major wheat pest in Romania.
The following elements have been analyzed: the ratio between the
species and their distribution areas in Romania, size and space
distribution of sunn pest populations, study of annual peculiarities of
their life cycle, relationships between pest and oophagous parasites and
establishment of the economic damage thresholds - EDT and the means
for their control. Thus, the share of various elements has been
established, and namely: prevalence of Eurygaster integriceps has been
proved, this covering a damaging area of some 1,000,000 ha of wheat
crops in 24 districts; contribution of oophagous parasites (Telenomus
chloropus and Trissolcus grandis), and the economic damage thresholds,
as calculated differentially in accordance with crop vegetation state and
harvest destination. Forecast and warning are of permanent concern in
the whole country and they are based on a methodology developed by
RICIC and applied across the country by the District Inspectorates for
Plant Protection and Phytosanitary Quarantine.
Key words: sunn pest management, damaging areas, EDT,
forecast and warning, chemical control
INTRODUCTION
Sunn pests, Eurygaster spp. cause severe damage to wheat and
barley across large areas in Europe, Asia and North Africa (Popov,
1975). Sunn pest has gradually gained in importance as the major wheat
pest with the expansion of its range of host plants. In Romania, other
Eurygaster species such as E.austriaca Schr. and E.maura, L. were
described by Montandon (1907) around the turn of the century. From
1938 to 1939 the three main Romanian Eurygaster pest species, E.
137
integriceps, E. austriaca and E.maura, were well described (Radulescu &
Gruita, 1942). At present, sunn pest, particularly E.integriceps, is the
most serious pest of wheat in Romania because of its increased
distribution, high fecundity and the severity of damage it inflicts on smallgrains. While harvest protection is one of the most important crop
protection measure available to wheat producers, annual sprays with
chemical insecticides are currently conducted on about 8oo.ooo ha in
Romania (Popov at al.,1996). Damage is caused by overwintering adults
and the nymphs and young adults of the subsequent generation. If left
unchecked, sunn pest seriously reduces yield and can reduce grain
quality as reflected by lowered germination rates and poor bread-making
quality of infested grain (Barbulescu, 1967; Paulian and Popov, 1980).
A complex integrated pest management programme incorporating
many different techniques has gradually been developed in Romania to
reduce sunn pest populations to an economically acceptable level by
optimising all possible control activities. Among the most important
methodologies are forecasting and warning. This paper presents in an
unitary conception the results of research and activities performed at the
level of the whole damaging area of sunn pests in Romania.
Investigations were conducted over a couple of years. The
following aspects have primarily been examined: dynamics of ratio
between Eurygaster species; size of their populations and fluctuations in
time and space; study of annual peculiarities of their life-cycle;
interspecific relationships between pest and oophagous parasites; setting
up economic thresholds and control means.
The data on the distribution, specific composition and population
levels in diapausing sites, as well as those on parasitation extension
have been obtained by the forecasting and warning network using
methods developed at RICIC-Fundulea (Barbulescu, 1967; Paulian and
Popov,1980; Popov,1975; 1980;1991; Popov et al., 1996; Rosca and
Popov,1996). In this respect, some 575 oak forests covering more
230,000 ha, spreading on all the districts enclosing the entire damaging
area of this pest and some 1,000,000 ha wheat crops, were annually
inspected in order to establish the infestation level and parasitation
degree.
138
C. Popov et al.: New Approaches Regarding Integrated Sunn Pest (Eurygaster
Integriceps Put.) Management
Relationship between species, damaging areas. Currently, the
genus Eurygaster can be registered throughout the country, practically on
all the surfaces cropped with cereals and primarily wheat. However, the
damaging area is confined to the south and east of the country in the
extra-Carpathian zones. As it is shown in Table 1, at present, in these
areas E.integriceps prevails over E.maura and E.austriaca to an
overwhelming extent accounting for more than 95%.
Table 1: Change in Eurygaster Lap. species ratios, during 1907-1997
District P E R I O D :
Z O N E
( no.)
1907
1939
1970
AREAL
41
0/Y/Y
Y/Y/Y 50/26/24
FAVOURABLE
ZONE I
17
0/Y/Y
Y/Y/Y 80/11/9
FAVOURABLE
ZONE II
7
0/Y/Y
0/Y/Y 25/40/37
UNFAVOURABLE
ZONE
17
0/Y/Y
0/Y/Y 0/65/35
Note: E.integriceps / E.maura / E.austriaca; 0 - absent;
Y or number - present or percent .
1997
75/13/12
98/1/1
95/4/3
1/64/35
Table 2: Distributions of areas cropped with wheat and oak forests (ha),
in the damaging areas
Z O N E
Oak
forests
230,200
AREAL
FAVOURAB.
ZONE I
189,600
FAVOURAB.
ZONE II
40,600
Total wheat
Affected wheat
1,363,000-1,945,000
737,000-1,184,000
1,134-1,577,000
685,000-1,084,000
229,000-368,000
52,000-100,000
In 24 districts, wheat is cropped on 1,363,000 - 1,945,000 ha and
the damaging surface is about 737,000 - 1,1184,000 ha (Table 2). These
surfaces can be considered a stable and maximum area for zones in
Dobrogea, Muntenia, Oltenia and Moldova where E.integriceps finds a
139
favourable spot to develop numerous populations, obviously varying from
year to year.
As a rule (Table 3), the overwintering adults can be found in
spring crops at densities of a few individual/sq.m., and more rarely are
densities between 15 and 20 individuals/sq.m. The new generation
(nymphs and young adults) recorded higher densities, usually 15 - 20
specimens/sq.m or during the years having particulary favourable climatic
conditions, 70 - 94 specimens/sq.m as recorded in 1996.
Table 3: Sunn pest population densities in wheat, in the damaging area
Z O N E
Favourable year : 1996
Overwintering nymphs
adults
FAVOURABLE
ZONE I
FAVOURABLE
ZONE II
Normal year : 1997
overwintering nymphs
adults
2 - 22
18 - 94
1 - 13
4 - 32
1-9
8 - 45
1-9
3 - 20
Table 2 shows the damaging areas in Romania over 575 forests
favourable to sunn pest diapausing, totalling 230,200 ha. Based on the
records in autumn ( October 15-30 ) and spring samplings (April 1-15),
the total number from every forest, district and total area can be
estimated, this estimation being the basis for drafting forecast apparition
of sunn pests every year (Table 4).
Table 4: Sunn pest diapausing populations in oak forest (density/sq.m.
and total mill.ex.) in damaging area and level chemical control
in field (ha)
ZONE
AREAL
FAB.
ZONE I
FAB.
ZONE II
140
Favourable year : 1995-1996
Density in forest Chemical control
No/
sq.m
1–50
total
ex.
25.051
adults
nymphs
98.416
765.850
Normal
Density
forest
no/
sq.m
1-10
5 50
24.157
94.731
693.161
1–10
894
3.685
72.689
year : 1997-1998
in
Chemical control
total
ex.
5.769
adults
nimphs
15.546
461.315
1-10
5.167
6.089
424.576
1-3
602
9.457
36.739
Life-cycle - annual peculiarities. The pursuit of life-cycle
evolution in direct relationship with annual ecological peculiarities is of
major interest due to the ability of insects to develop more or less
numerous populations depending on the climatic conditions and
phenology of host-plant and the ability to either pass or not the whole
life-cycle under optimal conditions. The physiological preparation factor
expressed by the fat-body, is particularity important for population
fluctuation being in addition to the climate one of the main factors
affecting pest numerical levels.
Pests - parasites relationship. Parasitation level is important and
of concern for the control technology. Based on our data it can be noted
that generally, the average parasitation fluctuates between 30 and 50 %,
with certain higher values in a few districts. At present, natural parasite
fauna is important in our concept and its protection is achieved mainly by
farming treatments within optimal timing.
Economic damage threshold (EDT) and control measures.
Overwintering adults control is applied only in wheat plots where bugs
density exceeds the EDT, established as follows:
- 7 specimens/sq.m. - in plots with normal plant density and vegetation,
when spring is humid and cool;
- 5 sp./sq.m. - in plots with normal plant density and vegetation, in
spring with high temperatures;
- 3 sp./sq.m. - in plots with reduced plant densities, with poor
overwintering, humid and warm spring;
- 1-2 sp./sq.m. - under unfavourable condition complex to crops; late
emergence in autumn - winter; prolonged winter with persistent snow
layer; late spring with excessively dry weather.
Establishing plots to be treated for larval control: chemical
application is performed only in wheat plots where pest density overpass
the EDT, thus : - 5 nymphs/sq.m. - for plots intended for bread-making; 3 nymphs/sq.m. - for plots designed as seed producers.
Chemical control. Chemical control is the unique practical
method of intervention in order to diminish harvest damage in Romania
(Table 4). The registered insecticides assortment includes both
organophosphorus and synthetic pyretriod compounds. Until now the main
share in sunn pest control has been detained by organophosphourus
compounds based on trichlorfon and dimethoate (100% in 1970-1975;
96% in 1985; 89% in 1993 and only 2% in 1997). After 1985 other
insecticides, mainly pyrethroids have been registered.
141
Sunn pest management
Main undertakings regarding organisation and development of
nation-wide campaign of sunn pests:
No. Action performed
Execution term
Co-ordination
1. Drafting the Programme for controlling sunn pests in the damaging
area in Romania, for the current year
January
MAA-CLPQ ; RICIC
2. Development of Methods to pursuit the life-cycle of sunn pests in
representative areas within the districts included in the damaging
area in Romania.
January
RICIC
3. Estimation of pesticide amount and means of application needed,
depending on the size of forecasted action to be performed.
February
MAA-CLPQ; RICIC
4. Centralised training (of chief inspectors of DIPPPQ) and zonal (of
medium-level personnel at the level of every district) of those which
will participate in the control action of sunn pests in the damaging
area.
March
MAA-CLPQ; DIPPPQ; RICIC
5. Providing necessary insecticides according to estimated areas and fun
ds assigned by subsidies.
March-April
MAA-CLPQ; DIPPPQ
6. Recording biological reserve of sunn pests at the end of overwintering
by spring samplings in diapausing sites in forests.
April,5-th - 20-th.
DIPPPQ
7. Designing the surfaces having to be treated against the overwintering
adults, according to percentage of mortality during diapause of sunn
pest populations.
April, 20-th. - 25-th. MAA - CLPQ; RICIC
8. Checking and providing ground and aerial applying treatments
against the sunn pest.
April MAA- DIPPPQ; Agricultural producers
9. Checking , identification and homologation of airfield for aerplanes and
helicopters participating in the control activities , having in view the
most efficient use of these.
April MAA - DIPPPQ; Specialised units.
10.Recording migration of overwintering adults from forests to crops, in
representative areas of every district, according to the method
established, in view of releasing warnings.
April - May
DIPPPQ
142
11.Recording densities of overwintering adults in wheat crops; designation
of wheat plots where applications against the overwintering adults
depending on vegetation state of plants and pest density is imposed.
May,1st-5-th. DIPPPQ; Agricultural producers
12.Release of bulletins for warning of applying treatments against the
overwintering adults;
Dependent on migratory evolution.
CLPQ; DIPPPQ
13.Performance of treatments against the overwintering adults.
Warned period. DIPPPQ; Agricultural producers
14.Assessment of application efficacy and operative report.
After two days.
MAA - CLPQ; DIPPPQ
15.Observation of life-cycle of the pest in representative zones of every
district, in view warning treatments against nymphs according to the
recommended method.
May - June
16.Estimation of parasitisation level of sunn pest eggs by oophagous
parasitoids, collecting and preservation of biological material in view of
identification of species range.
June
DIPPPQ; RICIC
17.Estimation of surfaces to be treated against the nymphs, depending
on adults fecundity, parasitisation and climate factor evolution.
June
DIPPPQ
18.Release of bulletins of warning for applying treatments against
nymphs.
Dependent on pest evolution MAA-CLPQ; DIPPPQ
19.Finishing-off the nymph control programme by establishing wheat plots
in which, according to crop destination (food or seed) and pest
density (EDT).
June
DIPPPQ
20.Performing treatments against nymphs.
Warned period
DIPPPQ; Agricultural producers
21.Assessment of treatment efficacy and operative report.
After two days.
22.Recording adult populations level of new sunn pests in crops before
harvest: this action represents a prime step of forecast for the next
year.
Prior to harvest
DIPPPQ
23.Harvesting wheat in the damaging area as rapidly as possible, before
the end of complete feeding of adults, as a technological measure
diminishing sunn pest populations.
July
Agricultural producers
24.Evaluation of grain percentage pricked in wheat harvest in the
damaging area.
143
July - August
MAA-CLPQ; DIPPPQ
25.Performing autumn samplings to establish the biological reserve of
sunn pests in diapausing sites.
October
DIPPPQ
26.Presentation of the Rapport regarding the way of achievement of sunn
pests control programme by districts.
December
DIPPPQ
27.Evaluation of sunn pest population affecting wheat crops in the next
year, based on overwintering adults density/m2 and on forest are as
controlled.
December
MAA-CLPQ; RICIC
28.Establishing the Programme for controlling sunn pests in Romania,
based on wheat cropped surfaces in the damaging areas and on
diapausing sunn pest population levels.
January
MAA-CLPQ; RICIC
Note: MAA - Ministry of Agriculture and Alimentation;
RICIC - Research Institute for Cereals and Industrial Crops;
CLPQ - Central Laboratory for Phytosanitary Quarantine;
DIPPPQ - District Inspectorate of Plant Protection and
Phytosanitary Quarantine
CONCLUSIONS
Eurygaster integriceps was determined, by the attack of
overwintering adults, nymphs and new adults, on a large area covering
some 1,000,000 ha wheat crops, in 24 Romanian districts;
Commonly infestation levels exceeded
the EDT, considered of 7
overwintering adults per sq.m., and 3 - 5 nymphs/sq.m., thus requiring
chemical control;
Forecast and warning are of permanent concern in the whole
country and they are based on a methodology developed by RICIC and
applied across the country by the District Inspectorates for Plant
Protection and Phytosanitary Quarantine;
Chemical control is the unique practical method of intervention in
order to diminish harvest damage. In Romania this is supported by the
Government, conforming with the Main Undertakings Regarding
Organisation and Development of Nation-wide Campaign of Sunn Pest
Control in Romania.
144
REFERENCES
Barbulescu,A.: Unele aspecte privind biologia si evolutia
plosnitelor cerealelor, An. ICPP, 169-176, 1967.
Montandon,A.L.: Contributions a la faune entomologique da la
Roumanie, Hemipteres- Heteropteres., Bull.Soc.St., Bucuresti., 1-2, 55-82,
1907.
Paulian,F., Popov,C.,: Sunn pest or cereal bug., Wheat Tech.
Monograph, Basel, 69-74, 1980.
Popov,C.: Consideratii asupra distributiei spatiale la specia
E.integriceps, Pr.Prot.Pl., 3, 1, 1975.
Popov,C.: Activitatea parazitilor oofagi in perioada de ponta a
plosnitelor, An.ICCPT, 46, 347-353,1980.
Popov,C.: Cercetari privind stabilirea rolului unor elemente in
combaterea integrata a
plosnitelor cerealelor., Comb.Integr.BoliDaunatori, 1, 105-113, 1991.
Popov,C., Barbulescu,A., Vonica,I.: Population dynamics and
management of sunn pest in Romania., FAO Plant.Prod.And Prot.
Paper, 138, 47-59. 1996.
Radulescu,E., Gruita,V.: Contributii la studiul plosnitelor
vatamatoare graului in Romania., Bul.Fac.Agric. Cluj, 9, 438-465, 1942.
Rosca,I., Popov,C., Barbulescu,A., Vonica,I., Fabritius,K.: The role
of natural parasitoides in limiting the level of sunn pest populations.,
FAO Plant Prod. And Prot. Paper , 138, 35-45, 1996.
145
146
CONTROL OF Ostrinia nubilalis Hb. BY INHERITED
STERILITY AS PART OF INTEGRATED PEST
MANAGEMENT
Alexandru Barbulescu and Ioan Rosca
Research Institute for Cereals and Industrial Crops – Fundulea,
Fundulea, Romania
ABSTRACT
The investigations presented were undertaken in order to develop
the foundation for the future control of the European corn borer (Ostrinia
nubilalis Hb.) using a pest management system based on sterility
expressed to the greatest extent during the F-1 generation of progeny of
moths irradiated with gamma rays.
A comparison of the results obtained through F-1 inherited sterility
with the pest control using biological agents (Bacillus thuringiensis or
Trichogramma spp.) showed that inherited F-1 sterility could be a
component of an integrated control system. On a small area encircled by
forest it was possible to reduce the pest population by 90% during the 4
years.
Key words: Ostrinia nubilalis, inherited sterility, integrated
management
INTRODUCTION
In Romania the European corn borer is considered the principal
maize pest after tassel emergence being spread throughout all the
cropping zones in the country. Damages caused by the pest can reach
sometimes up to 40% (Paulian et al., 1961). Multiannual data indicated
averages of 44% plants attacked, 1.1 larvae/plant 23,180 larvae/hectare
and 550 kg/ha (7.5%) loss (Paulian et al., 1976). In recent years,
particular attention has been paid since 1988 to investigations on male
sterilisation by radiation (Bãrbulescu and Rosca, 1993; Rosca and
Bãrbulescu, 1989, 1990, 1993).
The potential of inherited sterility in pest control was
demonstrated by Knipling (1970) using a mathematical model. Numerous
studies have been done on Lepidopterous pest, inherited sterility of this
147
group being reviewed extensively by LaChance in 1985.
Rosca and Bãrbulescu (1989) demonstrated the effects of
substerilising doses of radiation and inherited sterility on ECB
reproduction. Reduced fecundity and egg hatch, together with increased
incidence of larval and adult mortality were observed. A 150 Gy dose of
irradiation induced deleterious effects that were inherited through F-1
generation. The results and analysis of this study indicated that the use
of substerilising doses of radiation and inherited sterility had a much
greater potential as selective management strategy for O.nubilalis than
the conventional 100% sterilising dosage.
Sterility degree of the irradiated male progenies was determined
under both laboratory and field conditions. F-1 males (TM), representing
the progenies of males treated with 150 Gy and normal males (NM)
were crossed under laboratory conditions with normal females (NF) in
1990, according to the following scheme:
TM :0,1,1,2,4,5,7. NM:1,0,1,1,1,1,1. NF:1,1,1,1,1, 1,1.
The percentage of viable eggs for each entry was determined
after moths were reared in jars, as described by Bãrbulescu (1978) for
individual rearing techniques. Ten replications for each crossing
combination were used.
Two types of progenies, NM/NF (control) and TM/NF were
obtained under field conditions in 3x2x3 m cages using two replications
with 25 or 100 moth pairs/cage/25 plants during 1990-1996. Egg hatch
percentage was recorded.
The surviving ability of larvae resulted from crossing F-1 sterility
inherited males with normal females compared with the control (NM/NF)
was estimated under field conditions in 1993-1996. Plants of the maize
inbred line Wf 9, known as susceptible to ECB were inoculated with ten
eggs masses/plant in the whorl stage. The percentage of egg hatch,
level of damage/plant and number of larvae/stem were recorded as
estimators of surviving ability.
In another experiment, the pest control efficiency by releasing
males with inherited sterility was compared with some other different
components of an integrated control system such as microbial pesticides
entomophagous insects and synthetic pheromones in a small growing
area surrounded by forests( 1-2 ha). In 1993-1994 ECB males were
mass captured using 16 sticky traps/ha (25/25 m). The lure cis (Z) was
changed weekly and the total number of males captured was 231 and
325 in 1993 and 1994 respectively. Mating disruption (male disorientation)
148
A. Barbulescu and I. Rosca: Control of Ostrinia Nubilalis Hb. by Inherited Sterility as
Part of Integrated Pest Management
was made by 100 cis (Z) lure/ha which were changed weekly during the
first moth flight (15 June-30 July). Microbial pesticides based on Bacillus
thuringiensis were applied 4 times at doses of 0.5 kg/ha. Trichogramma
spp. was released at the rate of 200,000 ex/ha.
Trials using released F-1 sterile males for pest control were
conducted in the same small area surrounded by forest during 19931996 and in different areas in 1997 in order to find other possibilities for
the implementation of the IPM system.
The objective of a series of other experiments was to assess the
impact of F-1 sterility on the ability of ECB larvae to overwinter. In the
autumn of 1993-1997, 100 larvae of ECB were collected using four
replications from the field in which males with inherited sterility (TM) and
control (NM) were released. They were maintained under laboratory
conditions during the overwintering period and the surviving larvae were
recorded in March of the next year. The testicles of fifth instar larva
stage with an adequate number of meiotic cells were removed and
smeared in acetic-lactic-orceine for cytological examination. Only those
cells in which at least 31 pairs of metaphase chromosomes could be
counted were considered.
Evaluation of prolificacy and competitiveness of males with
F-1 sterility. Our results showed that the percentage of observed egg
hatch produced by the females (NF) crossed with irradiated males (TM)
was significant compared with that registered for normal females crossed
with normal males (NF/NM) considered as control in both 1990 laboratory
experiment and 1990-1996 cage field experiments (Table 1 and 2). Thus,
the percentage of eggs hatched in the control was 95.4 in the 1990
laboratory test and between 99.5-42.5 in field cages, while the
percentage recorded for crosses NF/TM varied accordingly to the cross
ratios from 31.5 to 62.2 under laboratory conditions and between 20.349.1 in field cages.
Laboratory mating competitiveness of F-1 males with inherited
sterility was relatively high, from 0.94% at a cross ratio of 1:1:1 to 0.73%
at a cross ratio of 7:1:1. Cross ratio of 4:1:1, considered as optimum
concerning the weight of irradiated males produced a good
competitiveness of 0.90, very close to full competitiveness (1.00).
F-1 sterility as part of integrated of ECB control system.
Trials were conducted using pheromone for pest control (Table 3) in
order to find a possibility for an IPM system introduced in small areas
surrounded by forest. ECB males were mass captured using 16 sticky
149
Table 1. Mating competitiveness of F-1 males with inherited sterility
under laboratory conditions(1990)
CROSS RATIO
EGG HATCH (%)
COMPETITIVENESS
INDEX*
TM
NM
NF
Observed
Expected
0
1
1
2
4
5
7
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
95.4
32.6
60.2
49.2
40.3
33.1
31.5
64.0
53.0
45.16
43.28
42.87
0.94
0.93
0.89
0.76
0.73
* = The competitiveness value and expected egg hatch rate were
computed as described by Fried,1971. A competitiveness value (CV) of
1.0 indicates full competitiveness and 0.75-1.0 good competitiveness.
Table 2. Mating competitiveness of F-1 males with inherited sterility in
field cages
YEAR
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
150
CROSS RATIO
TM
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
NM
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
OBSERVED EGG
HATCH (%)
NF
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
42.5
20.3
99.5
28.7
88.9
49.1
90.5
40.8
90.5
45.2
60.2
35.5
85.5
47.7
traps/ha (25/25m). The lure CIS (Z) was changed weekly and the total
number of males captured was 231 in 1993, 325 in 1994 and 147 in
1995. In 1993, 1995 an increasing pest population was registered and a
slight decrease was noted in 1994. Mating disruption (male disorientation)
was made by 100 CIS (Z) lure/ha which were changed weekly during
the first moth flight (15 June - 30 July). The control of the ECB by mass
trapping of males or even by male disorientation has failed in small corn
field surrounded by forest. The control of the pest was uncertain in some
years. Pest population was registered to rise in some years. Although
there was a decrease of the pest population under field conditions in
1993 and 1994 and a slight increase in 1995 the price and uncertain
results have unabled our further investigations.
Judging from the results presented in Table 3 it seems that using
inherited sterility of the ECB could be a component of an integrated
control system only in connection with releasing Trichogramma spp. and
microbial pesticides because using pheromones in mass trapping or in
male disorientation had no effect under experimental conditions.
Table 3. Effect of different possible components of an integrated system
of the ECB
Attacked stems No.larvae/
Population
Component
(%)
attacked plant
reduction %
Mass capture
of males
Control
Male disorientation
Control
DiPel (ES)
DiPel (WP)
Control
Trichogramma spp.
Control
Releasing of males
with F-1 inherited
Control
1993
1994
1993
1994
1993
1994
28.0
21.0
22.5
26.0
5.0
6.0
26.0
6.0
26.5
28.0
31.5
46.5
42.0
19.5
16.5
30.5
26.0
36.5
1.12
1.14
0.8
1.23
0.83
0.6
1.54
0.72
1.38
3.1
3.01
2.9
3.4
1.3
1.0
2.9
2.0
2.3
+31.0
-43.7
-89.6
-91.0
-88.2
-
-8.5
+0.3
-65.5
-81.3
-38.1
-
14.0
22.0
13.2
21.5
0.85
1.38
0.8
1.51
-60.8
-
-67.3
-
The use of pheromones in mass trapping or male disorientation
had no effect under our experimental conditions, resulting in a higher
percentage of attacked stalks, and a larger number of larvae/attacked
plant in 1993 compared with the control. A 31% pest population increase
151
was observed in 1993 only while a slight reducing of pest population
(8.5%) was recorded in 1994. The 43.7% pest population reduction in
1993 provoked by the disorientation of male moths was not confirmed by
the data obtained in 1994 when an 0.3% increase was registered. Under
the climatic conditions of Fundulea a number of four Trichogramma
releasing 200,000 parasites/ha each were required to reduce the ECB
population by 88.2% in 1993 and by 38.1% in 1994. This quantity is
larger than that generally recommended for other areas of Romania or
other countries (two releasings of 100,000 or even 50,000 parasites/ha
each).
Best results were obtained using both variants of microbial
insecticides based on the suspension of Bacillus thurengiensis.
Table 4. Effect of released ECB males with F-1 inherited sterility on an
isolated small corn field
Variant
Males with
F-1 inherited
Year
1993*
(3480 males)
1994*
(3039 males)
1995*
(4105 males)
1996*
(4803 males)
1997**
(3575 males)
Control
1993*
(3610 males)
1994*
(2580 males)
1995*
(3778 males)
1996*
(4025 males)
1997**
(2976 males)
* same corn field
** different corn field
152
Attacke No.larvae/
d stalks attacked
(%)
plant
14.0
0.85
Population
reduction
(%)
60.8
13.2
0.8
67.5
60.67
1.46
49.4
2.25
0.8
95.3
2.5
0.5
60.4
22.0
1.38
-
21.5
1.51
-
80.67
2.17
-
18.25
2.1
-
3.25
0.75
-
Emulsifiable insecticide (ES) determined the percentage decrease of
attacked stalks from 26.0 to 5.0 in 1993 and from 30.5 to 19.5 in 1994,
the decrease of the number of larvae/attacked plant from 1.54 to 0.83 in
1993 and from 2.9 to 1.3 in 1994 and a pest population decline by
89.6% in 1993 and 65.5% in 1994. Wettable powder (WP) variant of the
insecticide decreased the percentage of attacked stalks from 26.0 to 6.0
in 1993 and from 30.5 to 16.5 in 1994, the number of larvae/attacked
plant from 1.54 to 0.6 in 1993 and from 2.9 to 1.0 in 1994 and the pest
population by 91.0% in 1993 and 81.3% in 1994.
Annual release of 3480, 3039, 4105, 3575 of F1 males with
inherited sterility and 3610, 2580, 3778, 4025 of normal males in the
control in the 1993-1997 period (Table 4) resulted in pest population
decrease as follows:
- the stalks attacked (two-year results) amounted to 22.0% in the
control and to 14.0% in the variant with F1 males in 1993, and to
21.5% and 13.2% in 1994, respectively.
- the number of larvae per attacked plants (five-year results) decreased
to 95.3% in 1996.
Carpenter et al. (1985) studied the field survival of F-1 larvae of
Spodoptera frugiperda developed from partially sterile parents and pointed
out that field survival and competitiveness of larvae originating from
irradiated parents were important features when studying inherited sterility
because most radiation-induced deleterious effects were manifested in the
F-1 generation. In our researches on the ECB survival rates and
damaging capacity in the field (susceptible maize inbred Wf 9) were
higher for larvae from normal parents than those produced by males with
F-1 inherited sterility (Table 5). Thus, in the variant with F-1 sterility the
number of larvae/plant decreased by 24.49% in 1993 (from 19.5% in the
control to 14.46%) and by 40.11% in 1994 (from 18.7% in the control to
11.2%). Although the damaging capacity of larvae given as the length of
gallery/plant, decreased by 16.1% in 1993 (from 79.5 cm in the control to
55.7 cm) and by 11.63% in 1994 (from 62.75 cm in the control to 55.45
cm), the length of gallery/survival larva increased from 4.2 cm in the
control to 4.62 cm in 1993 and from 2.02 cm in the control to 4.95 cm
in 1994 (perhaps due to the lower competition between larvae in the
variant with F-1 sterility).
Other aspects of the competitiveness such as mating and
diapause ability are also important in the ECB.
The results presented in Table 6 show that the percentage of
survival larvae decreased in the field in which inherited-sterile male
moths were released. The occurrence of a significant percentage of
larvae with spermatocites with abnormal chromosomes was noted, as
compared to normal control larvae.
153
Table 5. Surviving rate and damaging capacity of larvae from crossing
males with F-1 sterility with normal females
Type of
Year
progeny
F-1 M x NF 1993
1994
1995
1996
NM x NF
1993
1994
1995
1996
No.
larvae/plant
14.46
11.2
7.2
4.7
19.5
18.7
12.7
7.2
Damage/plant
(cm)
55.7
55.45
24.48
22.09
79.5
62.75
91.44
36.72
Damage/larva
(cm)
4.61
4.95
3.4
4.7
4.2
2.02
7.2
5.1
Table 6. Survival of overwintering larvae and chromosomal aberrations of
larvae from the field where males with F-1 inherited sterility
were released
Survival larvae
Spermatocites with
Year
Field treatment
(%)
abnormal chromosomes
(%)
1993 3480 F-1* males
60.5
12.0
1994 3039 F-1 males
56.2
16.7
1995 4105 F-1 males
53.2
24.7
1996 4803 F-1 males
27.5
31.2
1997 3575 F-1 males
62.2
7.7
1993 3610 N** males
69.2
0.0
1994
2580 N males
79.7
0.0
1995
3778 N males
78.5
0.0
1996
4025 N males
45.5
0.0
1997
2976 N males
69.7
0.0
* Progeny from irradiated 150 Gy males crossed with normal females
** Normal
154
CONCLUSIONS
Laboratory tests indicated that males with F-1 inherited sterility
were competitive compared with the control males.
The F-1 progeny of males irradiated with 150 Gy released into
field cages displayed a significant pest population decline.
F-1 sterility had a real potential to reduce the population of the
ECB, was compatible with other control strategy and could be a
component of an integrated control system along with microbial
pesticides, entomophagous insects (Trichogramma ssp.) and genetic
resistance.
Inherited sterility could be the major component of an integrated
control system and the results are in accordance with the data obtained
in the previous researches. During the 4-year trial in a small area
encircled by forest it was possible to reduce the pest population by 90%.
REFERENCES
Barbulescu,A.: Insect rearing on artificial diets, Probl.Prot.Plant., 6,
4: 375-399, 1978.
Barbulescu,A., Rosca,I.: Possibilities of using radiation induced F1 sterility for control of European corn borer in Romania, in: Proc. final
research co-ordination meeting on radiation induced F-1 sterility in
Lepidoptera for area-wide control, Arizona 9-13 September 1991, I.A.E.A.,
101-115, 1993.
Carpenter,J.E.,
Young,J.R.,
Sparks,A.N.:
Fall
armyworm
(Lepidoptera: J. Nnoctuidae): field survival of F-1 larvae from partially
sterile parents. Fla.Entomol., 68: 290-295, 1985.
Knipling,E.F.: Suppression of pest Lepidoptera by releasing
partially sterile males: A theoretical appraisal, Bioscience, 20: 465, 1970.
LaChance,L.E.: Genetic methods for the control of Lepidopteran
species: status and potential, Rep.ARS-28, US Department of Agriculture,
Washington, DC 29, 1985.
Paulian,F., Barbulescu,A., Mustea,D., Belu,V., Peiu,M.: A
contribution to the knowledge of the biology and control of maize borer
(Pyraussta nubilalis Hb.), R.P.R., An. I.C.C.A., Ser.B, 29: 397 420, 1961.
Paulian,F., Mustea,D., Brudea,V., Banita,E., Enica,D., Peteanu,ST.,
Petcu,L., Sapunaru,T., Sandru,I.: The evolution of European corn borer (
Ostrinia nubilalis Hb.) and damaging potential recorded between 19711975, Romania, Probl.Prot.Plant., 6 1: 23-48, 1976.
Rosca,I., Barbulescu,A.: Gamma radiation sterilization of Ostrinia
nubilalis Hb. an important pest of maize crops in Romania,
155
Rev.Roum.Biol., Serie Biol.Anim., 34, 2: 107-111, 1989.
Rosca,I., Barbulescu,A.: Sterility inheritance in the irradiated
European corn corer, Ostrinia nubilalis Hb., Rev.Roum.Biol., Serie
Biol.Anim., 35, 1: 27-30, 1990.
Rosca,I., Barbulescu,A.: Evaluation of the potential control of the
European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis Hb.) in the field by radiation
induced F-1 sterility, In: Proc. of an International Symposium on
Management of Insect Pest: Nuclear and Related Molecular and Genetic
Techniques, Vienna, 19-23 October 1992, I.A.E.A.,: 379-394, 1993.
156
EVOLUTION OF MAIZE LEAF WEEVIL (Tanymecus
dilaticollis Gyll.) IN VARIOUS CROPS DEPENDING ON THE
PRECEDING CROP
Ion Voinescu and Alexandru Barbulescu
Research Institute for Cereals and Industrial Crops – Fundulea,
Fundulea, Romania
ABSTRACT
Tanymecus dilaticollis Gyll. presents the major pest in many
maize cropping areas. Continuous cropping of maize contributes to insect
reproduction. Its control is difficult and expensive. Thoroughgoing
research focused on the population evolution of this pest in various crops
depending on the preceding crop is needed.
It was found that moistly maize favoured insect reproduction
providing optimum larval development and the preferred food to
overwintering adults.
Adults showed some preference for soybean, wheat and barley,
and other cropped plants in the experiment, except for peas. Various
weeds provided to some extent only the evolution of this pest. Peas
repelled the insect causing adult migration to adjecent plots in search of
food.
After the emergence of overwintering adults on the soil surface a
definite movement of these is recorded in search of food. As a result
there is a danger of heavy infestations followed by significant damages
on small plots cropped with maize in the first year, adjecent continuous
maize cropping plots or aside crops cultivated with other plants having
had maize as the preceding crop.
Key words: Tanymecus dilaticollis, crop rotation, pest movement
INTRODUCTION
Tanymecus dilaticollis Gyll. is a polyphagous pest. Its adults feed
on 75 plant species (Camprag, 1969), while Paulian (1972) recorded it
on 34 plant species from both spontaneous and cropped flora. Although
157
considered polyphagous the insect showed preference for maize providing
optimum larval development, being also most preferred by adults
(Paulian, 1973).
It has been recognized that T. dilaticollis is a very dangerous
pest by its attack induced even before seedling emergence, able to
cause frequently heavy harvest losses, thus compromising not only maize
crops but sunflower and sugarbeet crops as well. Paulian (1972)
estimated 34% maize grain loss in the case of infestation with 25-30
individuals per square meter. The pest is mainly distributed in South,
South-East and East zones of the country whereas in the North and
Central parts it had no economic importance.
Particular economic importance of this pest stimulated numerous
researchers to focus on its biology and ecology under specific conditions
prevailing in this country, such as those by Paulian (1972, 1973),
Muresan et al. (1973), thus contributing to the understanding and
developing of a suitable system of prevention and control (Bãrbulescu et
al., 1989, 1993).
The current trend existing mainly among the small farmers to
involve in continuous maize cropping, thus enhancing pest reproduction
has made the control of this insect difficult and expensive. Further
research on the evolution of maize weevil populations in various crops
depending on the preceding crops is needed.
Trials have been conducted at the Research Institute for Cereals
and Industrial Plants-Fundulea, the Experimental Field of Laboratory for
Plant Protection during 1994-1997.
Two crop rotations were studied, the former with 6 ha plots
including wheat, barley, peas and soybeans and the latter with 2 ha plots
sown with maize, wheat, barley, oats + chickpea mixture, peas, beans
and lucerne (Figure 1).
During the active period of adults on the soil surface, occurring
usually from the second half of March to the second half of June, adult
density has been frequently evaluated. On every plot 3-4 controls have
been performed each with 10 representative samplings per plot, using a
1 x 1 m frame, the number of individuals caught on the soil surface
being recorded. Being a thermophilous insect samples have been
effected in daily hours when temperature of the upper soil layer
exceeded 20oC, while adults emerged on the soil surface in search of
food.
158
I. Voinescu and A. Barbulescu: Evolution of Maize Leaf Weevil (Tanymecus dilaticollis
Gyll.) in Various Crops Depending on The Preceding Crop
The data obtained have been presented separately for the
controls.
Figures recorded on every plot represent the total of adults
occurring on each 10 m2 plot.
Figure 1. Plots layout in the experimental filed and crop rotation applied
The cold and rainy spring of 1997 caused considerable delay of
maize planting starting early May. Due to this the activity of T.dilaticollis
overwintering adults has been unfavourably effected leading to a marked
early physiological exhaust so that maize seedling occurred mid-May
although temperatures were favourable (frequently above 25°C). Mass
mortality of adults was recorded. Consequently the attack level was very
low. Therefore, only the data obtained during 1994-1996 are further
presented.
The data obtained in crop rotation including maize showed that
controls effected just after the onset of overwintering adults on the soil
surface (23 March 1995; 8 April 1996) adult density reached the highest
values in plots 3, 4, 5, 7 in 1995, and 4, 5, 8, 9 in 1996, cropped in the
previous years with maize, whereas on the remaining plots their
occurrence was slight. Having in view that T. dilaticollis adults emerged
to the soil surface from the overwintering shelters located at 60-80 cm
depth, on mid-March in 1995 and beginning April in 1996 and their
movement was very shortlasting in the period to follow the conclusion
which tends to emerge is that the adult population recorded at this
159
control overwintered on their plots and did not migrate from adjecent
plots.
The data of the control performed later following the appearance
of adults on the soil surface (15.04.1994) showed that due to earlier
maize emergence on plots 5 and 7 and without maize as the preceding
crop, the migration of the weevil population in search of food, particularly
from plots 2, 3 and 4 cropped with maize in the previous year, thus
showed the highest densities of overwintering adults.
The controls conducted until the disappearance of the
overwintering adults revealed in all the years a high density persistence
on plots cropped in the 3rd year (plot 3 in 1994, plot 4 in 1995 and plot
5 in 1996) and the second successive year with maize (plot 4 in 1994,
plot 5 in 1995 and plot 9 in 1996). Likewise, due to the migration from
adjecent plots, a concentration of the adult population on plots cropped
with maize in the first year (plots 5 and 7 in 1994, plots 8 and 9 in 1995
and plots 6 and 7 in 1996) having had other preceding crops than maize
was noted.
On these plots, although maize followed other preceding crops,
high adult densities have been noted at a similar level or even higher
than on continuous maize cropping plots. It results that unlike continuous
maize cropping plots where adult population originated from the same
plots and was maintained at a high level on the same plots, in the case
of maize plots in the first year, cropped after other preceding crops, high
adult densities resulted from the shifting of adults from adjecent plots in
search of food.
Except for maize, providing optimum larval development and
mostly preferred as food by T. dilaticollis adults, other cropped plants
(except for peas) or a range of weeds (particularly common thistle) from
these crops enabled the survival at a reduced pest population level. Pea
being a repellent plant, determined adult migration to adjecent plots in
search of food.
In crop rotation without maize the pest evoluted in very low
densities. This
pointed to the occurrence of some more or less
favourable conditions for optimum larval development and to suitable
nutrition of adults. Nevertheless, in soybean plots, somewhat higher
densities have been recorded compared with other crops.
160
Figure 2. Infestation degree with Tanymecus dilaticollis adults in 1994;
Number of adults: /10m2. Control date: 15.04. and 16.05.
Figure 3. Infestation degree with Tanymecus dilaticollis adults in 1995
161
Figure 4. Infestation degree with Tanymecus dilaticollis adults in 1996
CONCLUSIONS
Maize favoured the most T.dilaticollis reproduction ensuring
optimum larval development and perfect food for overwintering adults;
T.dilaticollis adults exhibited certain preferance for soybean, wheat
and barley;
Other cropped plants and various weeds provide to some extent
only the evolution of this pest;
Peas repelled the insect causing adult migration to adjecent plots
in search of food;
After the onset of overwintering adults on the soil surface an
obvious movement of these is recorded in search of food;
As a result of adult movement in search of food there is a
danger that on small plots cropped with maize in the first year, adjecent
plots with continuous maize cropping practices or aside crops cultivated
with other plants, having had maize as the preceding crop high
infestations may be encountered leading to considerable damage.
162
REFERENCES
Barbulescu,Al., Voinescu,I., Gheorghe,M., Mateias,M., Bratu,R.,
Bucurean,E., Sapunaru,T.: Tratamentul chimic al semintei, componenta a
luptei integrate impotriva unor daunatori ai culturilor de cimp. An. ICCPT,
57, 367-376, 1989.
Barbulescu,Al., Popov,C., Voinescu,I., Rugina,M., Mateias,M.,
Guran,M., Bratu R.,: Combaterea bolilor si daunatorilor unor culturi de
camp. Ed. Tech. Agric., 43-47, 1993.
âmprag D.: Kukuruzna pipa. Zadru`na knjiga, Beograd, p.88,
1969.
Muresan,T., Sipos,Gh., Paulian,Fl., Moga,I.: Cultura porumbului.
Ed. Ceres, Bucuresti, 359-408, 1973.
Paulian,Fl.: Gargarita frunzelor de porumb (Tanymecus dilaticollis
Gyll.) si posibilitati de combatere. Red. Rev. Agric. Bucuresti, p.57, 1972.
Paulian,Fl.: Contributii la cunoasterea dezvoltarii, ecologiei si
combaterii speciei Tanymecus dilaticollis Gyll.. Rezumat teza de doctorat.
I.A.N.B. Bucuresti, 30, 1973.
163
164
EFFECTS OF FERTILIZER RATES ON BOTH GRAIN YIELD
AND THE DEGREE OF PLANT LODGING CAUSED BY
Diabroticia virgifera virgifera Le Conte IN 1997 AND 1998
Franja Ba~a and Miladin Veskovi}
Maize Research Institute, Zemun Polje, Belgrade - Zemun, Yugoslavia
ABSTRACT
A long-term maize continuos cropping trial with 54 variants such
as six rates of mineral fertilizers; three rates of manure (every third year)
and three combinations of crop residues utilisation was set up in 1972.
Plant lodging due to root injuries caused by western corn root worm
(WCR) Diabroticia virgifera virgifera LeConte was monitored in 1997 and
1998.
WCR larvae fed on the root system caused plant lodging that
ranged, on the average from 6.3% in the variant FM2CR1MF1 with 20 t
manure ha-1 with crop residues removal and without the application of
mineral fertilizers, to 54.5% in the variant FM3CR1MF5 with the application
of 60 t manure ha-1 crop residues removal and the highest rate of NPK.
Although these results are only the two-year average, the variant
FM1CR1MF4 without the application of manure with crop residues removal
and with 332 kg NPK + 46 kg N ha-1 (fertilizer Urea) is a common and
acceptable one. The lowest average values, 13.4% and 16.2% of lodged
plants, according to the balance of the organic matter were detected in
the variants FM1CR3(MF1-6) without the application of manure and without
crop residues removal and in FM2CR3(MF1-6) with the application of a
common rate of manure and without crop residues removal, respectively.
A common rate of manure (20 t ha-1) was the best variant from the
aspect of the manure application. On the average, lodging amounted to
20.6% in relation to 31.3% (a higher manure rate) and 19.2% (without
manure). Ploughing down of complete crop residues was the best variant
from the aspect of crop residue utilisation.
The choice of 20 t of manure ha-1, the optimum rate of mineral
fertilises and crop residue ploughing down seems to be the most
promising choice for the optimum combination, which will result in the
economically most profitable grain yield with the lowest risk of plant
lodging and yield decrease.
165
Key words: Western corn root worm (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera
LeConte), plant lodging, maize, monoculture, yield, farmyard manure, crop
residues, NPK mineral fertilisations
INTRODUCTION
Continuous maize cropping without plant lodging and yield losses
became impossible when WCR was introduced in both Yugoslavia and
the European Corn Belt. Plant lodging can amount to over 75%, while
the biological loss of yield can range from a few percent to disastrous
losses. Plant lodging depends on the following major factors: plant
damage rate caused by this pest larvae and the amount of precipitation
distribution during June and July, as well as the availability of mineral
nutrients. Biological yield loss was effected by the degree of lodged
plants, root system regeneration rate and the amount and distribution of
precipitation during July and August. The higher intensity of lodging and
entangledness of lodged plants, the greater yield loss caused by corn
picker or combine harvesting.
The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of NPK
fertilizer rates and organic matter balance in the chernozem soil type on
grain yield and plant lodging of the maize hybrid ZPSC704 with a
damaged root system caused by WCR larvae in Zemun Polje during
1997-1998.
The long-term maize continuos cropping trial with different
fertilizing systems was set up in 1972. It was a complex trial (Table 1)
with 54 variants and six rates of mineral fertilizers, three rates of manure
(applied every third year) and three combinations of crop residues.
Evaluation of plant lodging, due to root injuries caused by WCR
(Diabroticia virgifera virgifera) was done on both the complete trial and a
replication not treated with soil insecticides in 1997 and 1998,
respectively. Weather conditions (Table 2) were particularly favourable in
1997. In 1998 a favourable distribution of precipitation was during the
period April – June. July and August were dry.
Since the WCR occurrence in Yugoslavia (1992) the amount and
distribution of precipitation during the maize growing season approached
corresponding values of the US Corn Belt in 1997. Therefore, the year of
1997 is thought to be one of the most favourable for maize growth for
the past 50 years. April was more humid (83.4 mm) than the long-term
mean 1961-1990 (49.5), hence the final seedbed preparation was not
followed by significant egg mortality. Conditions for maize germination,
166
F. Ba~a et al.: Effects of Fertilizer Rates on Both Grain Yield and The Degree of Plant
Lodging Caused by Diabroticia virgifera virgifera Le Conte in 1997 and 1998
emergence and higher grain yield formation were optimum. May and
June were slightly drier than the long-term mean, and probably due to it,
the rate of root system damage was higher while its regeneration was
slower. It could be an explanation for greater plant lodging in that year
than in 1998. July and August precipitation (86.9 and 106.9), higher than
the long-term mean, provided sufficient regeneration of the root system of
both lodged plants and those with damaged roots and the achievement
of high grain yields.
Table 1. Trial variants
Variant
FM1(2)
FM2
(1)
3)
MF 1
CR 1,2,3
CR 1,2,3
MF 2
CR 1,2,3 CR 1,2,3
MF 3
CR 1,2,3 CR 1,2,3
MF 4
CR 1,2,3 CR 1,2,3
MF 5
CR 1,2,3 CR 1,2,3
MF 6
CR 1,2,3 CR 1,2,3
FM3
CR 1,2,3
CR 1,2,3
CR 1,2,3
CR 1,2,3
CR 1,2,3
CR 1,2,3
N
0
135
270
135
270
0
P 2O 5
0
123
246
123
246
0
K 2O
0
74
148
74
148
0
UREA
0
0
0
46
46
46
(1)
MF (1–6) = Mineral Fertilizer Rates
FM = Farmyard manure (FM1 – without farmyard manure, FM2 – 20t
farmyard manure ha-1, FM3 - 60 t farmyard manure ha-1, every third
year)
(3)
CR = Crop Residues (CR1 - complete removal of crop residues, CR2 –
removal of 1/2 of crop residues, CR3 – without removal of crop
residues)
(2)
Table 2. Precipitation during the maize growing season in Zemun Polje
(1994 - 1998)
Year
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
19611990
IV
V
54.6
65.1
44.6
83.4
16.1
49.5
43.0
91.8
74.3
38.3
46.5
58.7
Month
VI
VII
176.8
98.1
72.3
44.9
52.5
77.5
22.9
48.6
29.0
86.9
27.5
60.6
VIII
IX
47.2
60.9
75.3
106.9
17.5
50.8
18.8
74.6
98.7
11.4
74.5
45.1
Sum of
precipitation
Growing
Year
season
363.3
558.4
439.1
677.5
394.2
731.1
371.8
643.3
234.6
466.2
342.2
589.9
Precipitation during 1998 was lower during the active period of
the growing season (April - May) while the amounts of rainfall in
167
September were above the long-term average. Higher egg mortality
during the seedbed preparation in 1998 compared with 1997 could be
the result of very low amounts of precipitation in April (16.1 mm).
Germination and emergence of maize crop was quite normal due to
sufficient winter soil-water reserve while precipitation in May (46.5 mm)
provided the formation of medium grain yield potential. May and June
were more humid than the same months of the previous year. Root
damage caused by a lower number of larvae with slightly more
favourable humidity was probably lesser. Although the percentage of
lodged plants was lower, a partially damaged root system (approximately
50%) could not have been regenerated to a sufficient extent prior to the
dry spell in July and August. Therefore, adverse effects of both root
damages caused by WCR larvae and drought led to a lower grain yield
potential than expected.
Tables 3 and 4 present the results of average yields prior to the
occurrence of WCR and now when the pest attained the economic level
of population. Taking the economic aspect into consideration one has to
conclude that parity between NPK fertilizers, as a principal input into
maize production, and maize price is unfavourable. Therefore, variants
with greater rates of mineral fertilizers, MF3 and MF5 (2 x 9) are not
recommendable. The average yields in these variants were not higher
than the yields obtained in the variants MF2 and MF4 with the two-fold
lower rates of NPK fertilizers. The long-term average grain yield prior to
the occurrence of WCR (Veskovi}, 1988) amounted to 7.483 and 8.469 t
ha-1 in the variants without mineral fertilizers and with 46 kg N ha-1,
respectively. In all the other NPK variants, the achieved yield, amounted,
on the average, to 9.504 t ha-1, i.e. higher by 1-2 tons.
Table 3. Maize grain yield and yield index over NPK fertilizer rates and
periods
Year
'72-'86
'72-'86
'94-'96
'94-'96
'97-'98
'97-'98
168
Mineral fertilizer rates t ha-1
Criterion
Mean
Yield index
Mean
Yield index
Mean
Yield index
MF1
7.483
100.0
6.709
100.0
4.831
100.0
MF2
9.541
127.5
7.515
112.0
6.309
130.6
MF3
9.452
126.3
7.776
115.9
6.538
135.3
MF4
9.588
128.1
7.442
110.9
6.633
137.3
MF5
9.434
126.1
7.564
112.7
6.352
131.5
MF6
8.469
112.6
6.653
99.2
5.577
115.4
X
8.994
7.276
6.038
In the years following pest occurrence (Table 3) the yields
obtained were somewhat different. The yield level decreased and
amounted to 7.276 t ha-1 in the period with slight plant lodging (19941996) and was lower by 1.718 t ha-1 than the long-term average (19721986). The average yield amounted to 6.038 t ha-1 (the decrease of
2.956 t ha-1) in the period of mass plant lodging (1997-1998). Yield
variability increased over factors, especially over mineral fertilisers and
farmyard manure and certain trial variants.
Table 4. Maize grain yield and yield index over amount of farmyard
manure and crop residues for periods
Farmyard
manure
FM
FM1
FM2
FM3
Mean
FM
FM1
FM2
FM3
Mean
FM
FM1
FM2
FM3
Mean
CR1
CR2
Crop residues
CR3
CR1 CR2
'72-'86 Yield t ha-1
8.423 8.569 8.980
8.901 9.191 9.239
8.973 9.296 9.376
8.766 9.019 9.198
'94-'96 Yield t ha-1
CR1
CR2
CR3
6.592 6.749 7.534
7.030 7.172 7.442
7.460 7.700 7.806
7.027 7.207 7.594
'97+'98 Yield t ha-1
CR1
CR2
CR3
5.435 5.260 6.010
5.930 6.145 6.295
6.205 6.490 6.585
5.857 5.965 6.297
Average
CR3
Yield index
100.0 101.7 106.6
105.7 109.1 109.7
106.5 110.4 111.3
100.0 103.7 104.9
Yield index
CR1
CR2
CR3
100.0 102.4 114.3
106.6 108.8 112.9
113.2 116.8 118.4
100.0 102.6 108.1
Yield index
CR1
CR2
CR3
100.0 96.8 110.6
109.1 113.1 115.8
114.2 119.4 121.2
100.0 101.8 107.5
Yield Index
8.657 100.0
9.110 105.2
9.215 106.4
8.994
Average
6.958 100.0
7.215 103.7
7.655 110.0
7.276
Average
5.565
6.125
6.425
6.038
100.0
110.1
115.4
The comparison among long-term average yields 1972-1986 prior
to the occurrence of WCR and the one obtained in the period 1994-1996
and 1997-1998 after the occurrence of WCR (Tables 3 and 4) shows the
increase in yield variability. The average grain yield index according to
a) Mineral fertilizer rates amounted to 128.1 in the first period, while it
amounted to 115.9 and 137.3 in the second (1994-1996) and the third
(1997-1998) period respectively.
Farmyard manure, in FM3 increased from 106.4 in the first to
110.0 and 115.4 in the second and third period respectively.
169
The coefficient of variation amounted to 2.31%, 13.22% and 43.89% in
the periods 1972-1986, 1997 and in 1998, respectively.
Table 5. Plant lodging caused by Diabrotica v. virgifera larvae in Zemun
Polje (1997 – 1998)
Farmyard
manure
Crop
Residues
CR1
FM1
CR2
CR3
CR1
FM2
CR2
CR3
CR1
FM3
CR2
CR3
Mean
Farmyard
Crop
manure
Residues
CR1
FM1
CR2
CR3
CR1
FM2
CR2
CR3
CR1
FM3
CR2
CR3
Mean
Farmyard
Crop
manure
Residues
CR1
CR2
CR3
CR1
CR2
CR3
CR1
CR2
CR3
FM1
FM2
FM3
Mean
MF1
13.6
28.8
26.6
8.8
31.5
39.4
18.3
24.1
24.5
24.0
MF1
0.4
2.0
0.8
3.8
0.1
3.3
9.9
38.3
14.4
8.1
MF1
7.0
15.4
13.7
6.3
15.8
21.4
14.1
31.2
19.4
16.0
1997 Percentage of lodged plants
Average
MF2
MF3
MF4
MF5
MF6
36.0
30.4
43.5 41.0 40.5
34.2
35.1
42.0
40.7 32.6 38.8
36.3
20.0
20.5
26.1 29.0 11.2
22.2
24.6
22.8
35.2 39.5 26.6
26.2
44.5
38.4
40.2 48.6 33.8
39.5
29.1
33.7
21.9 16.0 33.8
29.0
22.8
21.6
37.7 35.8 31.8
28.0
24.3
30.1
33.7 33.5 28.1
29.0
24.0
23.4
16.5 24.5 25.7
23.1
28.9
29.2
32.8 33.4 30.1
29.7
MF2
MF3
MF4
MF5
MF6
Average
5.2
7.2
8.8
26.0 12.4
10.0
13.0
10.5
3.7
14.3
2.1
7.6
3.3
4.0
5.2
2.9
11.5
4.6
24.2
35.4
17.1
3.3
1.6
14.2
8.1
10.5
16.3 23.8 10.1
11.5
2.5
7.3
1.7
5.4
0.4
3.4
34.3
36.6
49.8 73.2 61.4
44.2
35.5
52.3
42.1 39.9 42.4
41.8
22.5
32.8
20.7 31.9
6.5
21.5
16.5
21.8
18.4 24.5 16.5
17.6
‘97+’98/2 Percentage of lodged plants Average
MF2
MF3
MF4
MF5
MF6
20.6
18.8
26.2 31.1 26.4
21.7
24.0
26.3
22.2 23.4 20.4
22.0
11.6
12.2
15.6 15.9 11.3
13.4
24.4
29.1
26.2 21.4 14.1
20.3
26.3
24.0
28.2 36.2 21.9
25.4
15.8
20.5
11.8 10.7 17.1
16.2
28.6
29.1
43.8 54.5 46.6
36.1
29.9
41.2
37.9 36.7 35.2
35.4
23.3
28.1
18.6 28.2 16.1
22.3
22.7
25.5
25.6 29.0 23.2
23.7
Plant lodging: The WCR occurrence and riching of the economic
level of its population caused plant lodging in the trial with continuous
170
maize cropping (Table 5) that ranged from 6.3%, in the variant
FM2CR1MF1, without the application of mineral fertilizers, with crop
residues removal and with the application of 20 t manure ha-1 to 54.5%
in the variant FM3CR1MF5, with the application of 60 t manure ha-1, crop
residues removal and the highest rate of the NPK.
Table 6. Plant lodging caused by Diabrotica v.virgifera larvae depending
on the amount of farmyard manure and crop residues in
Zemun Polje (1997 – 1998)
Farmyard
Average
manure
CR1
CR2
CR3
FM1
34.2
36.3
22.2
30.9
FM2
26.2
39.5
29.0
31.6
FM3
Mean
Farmyard
manure
FM1
FM2
FM3
Mean
Farmyard
manure
FM1
FM2
FM3
Mean
28.0
29.0
23.1
29.5
34.9
24.8
CR1
CR2
CR3
10.0
7.6
4.6
14.2
11.5
3.4
44.2
41.8
21.5
22.8
20.3
9.8
‘97+’98/2 Percentage of lodged plants
CR1
CR2
CR3
22.1
22.0
13.4
20.2
25.5
16.2
36.1
35.4
22.3
26.1
27.6
17.3
26.7
29.7
Average
7.4
9.7
35.8
17.6
Average
19.2
20.6
31.3
23.7
The obtained results indicate that the increase of mineral and
organic fertilizer rates led to the increase of the percentage of survived
larvae causing greater damages to the root system and severe plant
lodging. The achieved results are in accordance with the results obtained
by both the American (Riedell, 1994; Spike and Tollefson, 1988) and the
Yugoslav authors (Ba~a et al., 1998). Lodging below 10% was detected
in two out of 54 variants, below 15% in eight variants and below 20% in
10 variants. Although these results are only the two-year average, the
variant FM1CR1MF4 without the application of farmyard manure with crop
residues removal and with application 135 of N + 46 kg N ha-1 as UREA,
123 kg P2O5 ha-1 and 74 kg K2O ha-1 (Table 1), was the most favourable
one. The lowest average values of lodged plants (Table 6) for all the
171
rates of mineral fertilizers, 13.4% and 16.2%, were detected in the
variants FM1CR3, without the application of manure and without removal
of crop residues, and in FM2CR3, with the application of a common rate
of manure and without the removal of crop residues, respectively. A
common rate of manure (20 t ha-1) was the best variant from the
standpoint of manure application. On the average, lodging amounted to
20.6% in relation to 31.3% (a higher rate of manure) and 19.2%
(without manure).
Table 7. Plant lodging caused by Diabrotica v.virgifera larvae depending
on the amounts of farmyard manure and fertilizer rates in
Zemun Polje (1997 – 1998)
Farmyard
manure
FM1
FM2
FM3
Mean
Farmyard
manure
FM1
FM2
FM3
Mean
Farmyard
manure
FM1
FM2
FM3
Mean
MF2
MF3
MF4
MF5
MF6
30.4
31.0
36.8
34.2
30.2
32.7
31.6
32.4
34.7
31.4
23.7
25.0
29.3
31.3
28.6
28.9
29.2
32.8
33.4
30.1
MF1
MF2
MF3
MF4
MF5
MF6
1.1
7.2
7.2
5.9
14.4
8.7
2.4
11.6
17.7
11.7
10.8
4.0
20.9
30.8
40.6
37.5
48.3
36.8
8.1
16.5
21.8
18.4
24.5
16.5
MF1
MF2
MF3
MF4
MF5
MF6
12.0
18.7
19.1
21.3
23.5
19.4
14.5
22.3
24.5
22.0
22.8
17.7
21.6
27.3
32.8
33.4
40.1
32.5
16.0
22.7
25.5
25.6
29.0
23.2
MF1
23.0
26.6
22.3
24.0
Average
30.9
31.6
26.7
29.7
Average
7.4
9.7
35.8
17.6
Average
19.2
20.6
31.3
23.7
The results on grain yield and percentage of lodged plants were
processed by the three factorial analyse of variance for the randomized
complete block design. Significant and highly significant differences were
obtained among all three factors for yield (Ba~a and Veskovi}
unpublished data), while the only significant difference for plant lodging
was obtained for crop residue utilization.
172
Table 8. Plant lodging caused by Diabrotica v. virgifera larvae depending
on crop residues and fertilizer rates in Zemun Polje (1997-1998)
Stover
CR1
CR2
CR3
Mean
Stover
CR1
CR2
CR3
Mean
Stover
CR1
CR2
CR3
Mean
MF1
MF2
MF3
MF4
MF5
MF6
13.6
27.8
24.9
38.8
38.8
33.0
28.1
34.6
36.8
38.2
38.2
33.6
30.2
24.4
25.9
21.5
23.2
23.6
24.0
28.9
29.2
32.8
33.4
30.1
MF1
MF2
MF3
MF4
MF5
MF6
4.7
21.2
26.4
25.2
34.2
25.1
13.5
18.9
24.4
20.7
26.0
18.2
6.2
9.4
14.7
9.2
13.4
6.1
8.1
16.5
21.8
18.4
24.5
16.5
MF1
MF2
MF3
MF4
MF5
MF6
9.4
24.6
25.7
32.1
35.7
29.0
20.8
26.9
30.5
29.4
32.4
25.6
18.2
16.9
20.3
15.3
18.3
14.9
16.0
22.7
25.5
25.6
28.9
23.2
Average
29.5
34.9
24.8
29.7
Average
22.8
20.3
9.8
17.6
Average
26.1
27.6
17.3
23.6
The correlation coefficients (Table 9) calculated between the
percentage of lodged plants and grain yield for farmyard manure, crop
residues and mineral fertilizers were generally high. According to
Snedecor (1959) (cit. Hadìvukovi}, 1973), correlation coefficients (C), in
the case of mineral fertilizers, were statistically significant: 0.842* in 1997,
0.755* in 1998 and 0.876** on the average for these two years.
Table 9. Correlation coefficient (C) between plant lodging and yield,
according to the investigated factors in the growing season
1997 - 1998 and the average
Year
Investigated factors
Farmyard manure
Stover
Mineral Fertilizers
1997
-0.693
-0.446
0.842*
1998
0.707
-0.093
0.755*
1997+1998/2
0.841
-0.910
0.876**
The choice of the optimum rate of mineral and organic fertilizers
and crop residue ploughing down can result in choosing the optimum
combination which will result in the economically most profitable grain
yield with the lowest risk of plant lodging.
The variants FM1CR3MF(2,4,6) and FM2CR3MF(2,4,6), FM3CR3MF(4,6)
(Table 6, 7, 8) were very favourable ones. Each of the mineral and
173
organic fertilizer rates analyzed were combined with the variant of crop
residue ploughing down.
Organic matter balance, as well as better soil aeration increased
by crop residue ploughing down. Under such conditions, egg and larvae
mortality is probably greater, and/or soil conditions are less favourable for
oviposition.
Based on the two-year results it is difficult to assert which of the
54 variants, i.e. 27 is the most favourable one. Due to economic
reasons the following variants could be recommended: FM2CR3MF2, with
332 kg NPK ha-1, FM2CR3MF4 with 332 kg NPK + 46 kg N ha-1 and
FM2CR3MF6 with 46 kg N ha-1. The results on the percentage of lodged
plants and grain yields varied and significantly differ over the
investigational years. Further research is expected in the future in order
to provide more information on this complex issue.
REFERENCES
Ba~a,F., Videnovi},@., Erski,P: Uticaj razli~itih doza azota na
stepen {tetnosti larava Diabrotica virgifera virgifera
u 1997. godini. U
knjizi: Pojava, {tetnost i suzbijanje kukuruzne zlatice (Diabrotica virgifera
virgifera LeConte), Urednik Du{an âmprag, Dru{tvo za za{titu bilja
Srbije, Beograd 1998., 135 str.
Hadìvukovi},S.: Statisti~ki metodi s primenom u poljoprivredi i
biolo{kim istraìvanjima. Radni~ki Univerzitet Radivoj ]irpanov, Novi Sad
Riedell,W.E.: Soil fertility to ameliorate plant stress from root
feeding insects. Proc. 24th Nort Cent. Extension-Indust. Soil Fert. conf.,
St. Louis, 101-106, 1988.
Spike,B.P.,Tollefson,J.J.:Western WCR (Coleoptera:Chrysomelidae)
larvae survival and damage potential to corn subjested to nitrogen and
plant density treatments. J. Econ. Entomol., Vol. 81 (5), 1450-1455, 1988.
Veskovi},M.: Bilans organske materije u zemlji{tu i prinos
kukuruza na ~ernozemu Zemun Polja pri razli~itim sistemima |ubrenja.
Univerzitet u Beogradu, Poljoprivredni fakultet, Doktorska disertacija, str.
209, 1988
174
SOME FACTORS DETERMINING THE EFFICIENCY OF
COCCINELLID LARVAE AS BIOLOGICAL AGENTS
Ragheb Thalji
Faculty of Agriculture, Institute for Environmental and
Plant Protection, Novi Sad, Yugoslavia
ABSTRACT
In 1997 and 1998 field and semi-field experiments were
conducted in sunflower field to determine the egg hatching and feeding
behavior of two ladybirds larvae Coccinella septempunctata L. and
Propylea quatourdecimpunctata L. Egg hatching and postembrional
development of both species were monitored on the plants infested by
the aphid Brachycaudus helichrysi Kalt.
In both seasons at the density level 160 and 250 aphids/ plant
observations showed a low survival rate of coccinellid offspring , i.e. 25.2
and 32.2% respectively. The results obtained illustrate a high level of
cannibalism in coccinellid eggs and larvae (up to 66.0%).
Key words: Coccinellid larvae, cannibalism, competition, survival
rate
INTRODUCTION
Egg-laying behavior in insects may be classified from functional
or phylogenetic standpoints; but much variability exists among species,
within species, among populations and even among individuals.
Sometimes it is difficult to distinguish exceptional from typical behavior.
Ladybirds, mostly lay eggs in clusters. However, some species
lay their eggs singly. In our case the seven-spot ladybird, C. 7-punctata
lays eggs in batches from 5-20 eggs or more, while the 14-spot ladybird
P. 14-punctata usually lays single eggs or in small batches, 3-5 eggs.
The choice of the oviposition site by a coccinellid female (in
terms of microclimate and prey availability) presents the first precondition
and the synchronization between predator development and prey
occurrence the second for a successful production of predator offspring.
Since the oviposition site selection plays an important role and
175
determines the further existence of larvae, prey density determines the
size of batches and the total number of laid eggs by a single female.
Priority for female coccinellids after mating to locate and oviposit close to
suitable aphid colonies. Since they finished their task, eggs and
postembrional development depend on many fateful biotic and abiotic
factors.
Competition, hunger and cannibalism are the most important
ones. All factors mentioned above and others were a subject to several
studies carried by many authors (Banks,1956; Blackman,1967; Hodek,
1973; Frazer and Gill, 1981; Honek, 1983, and others).
The survival rate of larvae C.septempunctata and P.
quatuordecimpunctata was monitored in field and semi–field experiments
in sunflower field where the crop was infested by the aphid
Brachycaudus helichrysi.
In 1997 and 1998 at the beginning of the infestation – last
decade of May or first decade of June, a group of 80 infested plants
were selected at the edge of the field where plants have usually been
heavily infested by aphids.
Two sets of two cages each were used in both seasons. The
walls and roof of the cage (2 x 1 x 1 m) were covered with screen to
prevent the influx of other predators inside the cage. Every cage
separately was placed on a row of 10 plants. Before the plants were
caged they were carefully inspected and all the predators detected were
removed.
When the aphid density reached 140 aphids/ plant in 1997 and
230 aphids/ plant in 1998, egg batches, that just had been laid on
leaves were cut out and replaced within aphid colonies. The experiments
were started with an average of 8 – 12 eggs per plant of both species
of ladybirds. Two or three days later at the hatching time of eggs, the
aphid densities reached 160/plant and 250/plant respectivelly. Egg
hatching, feeding behavior and counting of the larvae and other
observations were made every day until the emergence of new adults.
During the investigations aphid density was generally the most
important determinant of coccinellid density on sunflower crops. However,
other factors such as competition, hunger and cannibalism play the major
176
R. Thalji: Some Factors Determining the Efficiency of Coccinellid Larvae as Biological
Agents
role in the overall survival rate of coccinellid larvae. This paper discusses
only the role and importance of these determinants.
Egg cannibalism has been widely reported in ladybirds and
studies of many authors have shown that it is very important in the field
(Banks, 1956; Frazer et al., 1981).
After the eggs had been laid by the coccinellid female, their
existence depends on the predation action by the first – instar larvae. It
is observed, in the field, that eggs laid by a single female on the same
day and in the same batch can vary widely on the date of hatching. Our
observations show that after hatching from the eggs, the larvae stay on
the eggs shells for a period of 18 hours or up to one day, and often eat
unfertilized, nonviable eggs. Even the larger coccinellid larvae will eat
eggs if starving, especially if they wander for a long time. The results
obtained in both seasons show a slightly lower survival rate of eggs on
uncaged plants than on caged ones (Table 1).
Table 1. Survival rate of coccinellid offsprings on sunflower crops
infested with B.helichrysi Kal
Year
Species
Aphid
Density
Number of
Survival rate of
(%)
Emerged
Adult
Pupae
(%)
Eggs
L1
L2
L3
L4
Coccinella CP
Batche Eggs
s
150
20
172
98,5
68,8
69,8
71,6
100,0
92,5
28,5
7-punctata UP
150
20
180
86,7
64,8
70,3
71,8
100,0
91,2
25,6
Propylea CP
150
42
170
83,0
63,1
65,2
71,0
100,0
95,8
26,5
14-punctata UP
150
45
168
81,4
60,8
61,0
85,0
100,0
97,7
25,2
Coccinella CP
260
20
212
92,0
66,8
75,0
88,9
93,2
89,5
32,2
7-punctata UP
260
20
220
89,6
65,5
76,0
87,6
93,5
98,6
31,8
1998 Propylea CP
260
52
202
85,7
69,4
70,0
82,2
87,0
95,0
28,2
260
58
218
82,6
64,5
67,3
84,6
95,5
96,2
28,0
1997
14-punctata UP
CP= Caged plants, UP= Uncaged plants, L1-4= Larva - instar
177
Survival rate of first – instar larvae of ladybirds depends on the
searching behavior, catching ability and the availability of suitable prey
size. First – instar larvae have poor searching power and they catch only
the smallest aphids. Therefore, non-uniform distributions of first instar
aphids in the field would reduce the average predation rate which finally
influence the overall survival rate. The nature of infestation by the aphid
B.helichrysi is very specific. Since aphids congregate inbetween the
youngest leaves of plants, colonies are always protected. Some of the
ladybird first-instar larvae have no chance to encounter the first-instar of
the prey. These larvae, usually, wander on the leaves and in most cases
drop down on the undergrowth where they quickly get lost and never
meet the aphid again. Starvation in this manner and cannibalism by the
older larvae may approach 40% (Table 1).
After moulting in the second instar larvae become stronger and
more mobile but still unable to subdue older aphids. On the other hand,
Propylea 14-punctata larvae walk much faster than larvae of Coccinella
7-punctata and usually miss the first aphid they contact. The slower
moving C.7-punctata larvae are more successful with their first aphid.
Under these circumstances second-instar survival rate of P.14-punctata
was 5–10% lower than in C.7-punctata. At this period (mid-June) an
influx of predators in the field (Syrphidae, Chrysopidae and adult
Coccinelidae) was recorded. Since larvae of all these predators could
not avoid feeding on the prey, inter-specific competitions must takes
place immediately.
The situation in caged plants was affected by prey density in both
seasons while the intra-specific competition between larvae had slight
effect on the survival rate. Third and fourth – instar survival rate of both
species was in positive correlation with searching behavior. Moreover,
larvae of 14-spoted ladybird actively disperse on plants and therefore
must contact many more species of potential prey than do the larvae of
7-spotted ladybird.
All the fourth– instar larvae were successfully pupated in both
experiments. In 1998. some of species on uncaged plants were
parasitized by the encyrtid Homalotylus flaminius, while on caged plants
they were killed or destroyed by unknown reasons. We suppose that
they were attacked by sibling larvae during moulting or just before
starvation. The same results were observed in pupae where 1.4-10.5%
failed to emerge to adults.
The results show that only in two cases on uncaged plants pupae
of C.7-punctata were parasitized by the phorid Phalacrotophora fasciata
while the remaining ones were damaged. We also suppose that pupae
had been damaged by the starved fourth-instar larvae during pupating
when they were still soft.
178
R. Thalji: Some Factors Determining the Efficiency of Coccinellid Larvae as Biological
Agents
Fig 1. Field model of coccinellid survival rate on sunflower crops
The overall survival rate from egg to adult was estimated by
comparing the examined numbers of eggs with the number of emerged
adults. Survival rate of coccinellid offspring and the biological potential of
the female are illustrated in a field model shown in Fig. 1. Compared
with the high oviposition potential of the females, a low survival rate of
ladybirds offspring was recorded.
179
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the results obtained the following can be summarized:
- As the first-instar ladybird larvae pose a considerable threat to
egg survival it is nevertheless highly likely that beetles also encounter
their own eggs!
- The inability of hungry larvae to recognize sibling larvae is
closely related to food availability.
- Since there is frequently food shortage, predators that feed on
the same foods cannot avoid any chance of competition for food within a
species.
- Inter- and intra–specific competitions within individuals induce
hunger, wandering and a high level of cannibalism.
- In most cases it appears that coccinellids larvae on their own
are unable to control pest infestation efficiently and need to be helped in
various ways by the overall biological complex in integrated control
practices.
REFERENCES
Banks,C.J.: An ecological study of Coccinelidae (Col.) associated
with Aphis fabae Scop. On Vicia fabae. Bull.Ent.Res. 46, 561–587, 1956.
Banks,C.J.: The Distributions of Coccinellid egg Batches and
Larvae in Relation to Numbers of Aphis fabae Scop. on Vicia fabae.
Bull.Ent.Res. 47, 47-56, 1956.
Blackman,R.L.: Selection of aphid prey by Adalia bipunctata
L.and Coccinella 7-punctata L. Ann. appl. Biol. 59, 331-338, 1967.
Frazer,B.D., Gill,B.: Hunger, movement,and predation of
Coccinella californica on pea aphids In the laboratory and in the field.
Can. Ent. 113: 1025-1033, 1981.
Frazer,B.D., Gilbert,N., Nealis,V., Raworth,D.A.: Control of aphid
density by a complex of predators. Can.Ent. 113:1035-1041,1981.
Frazer,B.D., Gilbert,N., Ives,P,M., Raworth,D.A.: Predation of
aphids by coccinellid larvae. Can.Ent. 113: 1043-1046, 1981.
Frazer,B.D., Gilbert,N., Ives,P.M.: Predator reproduction and the
overall predator - prey Relationship. Can.Ent. 113:1015-1024, 1981.
Hodek,I.: Biology of Coccinellidae. Academia, Praque, 260, 1973.
Honek,A.: Factors affecting the distributions of larvae of aphic
predators (Col.Coccinellidae and Dipt. Syrphidae) in cereal stands.
Z.ang.Ent. 95, 336-345, 1983.
180
ERIOPHYOID MITES AS POTENTIAL BIOCONTROL AGENTS
OF MEADOW WEEDS
Radmila Petanovi}1, Dragica Smiljani}1, Biljana Magud2
1
2
Faculty of Agriculture Belgrade-Zemun, Yugoslavia
Institute for Plant Protection and Environment, Belgrade, Yugoslavia
ABSTRACT
Eriophyoid mites are considered to be primary candidates among
phytophagous mites for the biological control of weeds because of their
ability to supress plant growth and reproduction.
Surveys of meadow weeds were carried out during the past few
growing seasons in Yugoslavia. Altogether 58 species of eriophyoid mites
were found on 51 species of meadow weeds. Several of the mite
species inflicted considerable damage to the host plants and these
species deserve further research. Nine species of eriophyoids have for
the first time been registered in the country. One species of the genus
Shevtchenkella is suspected to be new for science.
Key words: meadow weeds, biological control, eriophyoid mites
INTRODUCTION
Currently major efforts are focused worldwide on controlling
weeds by means of cultural and biological methods. In modern agroecology complete eradication of weeds is not recommendable. Biological
weed control agents should rather be considered as stress factors than
weed killers and the biological weed control as the integral part of a
well-designed strategy and not as a cure by itself (Miller-Scharer and
Frantzen, 1996).
A complete weed elimination by a herbivore is undesirable. Weed
reproduction decline its lower competiton ability with respect to mitigate
its economic importance is often sufficient (Boczek et al.,1996).
181
Over the past two decades scientists have been focusing on
seeking mites associated with weeds as potential biocontrol agents.
Among phytophagus mites, eriophyoid mites are considered to be
primary candidates for the biological control of weeds because of their
ability to suppress plant growth and reproduction.
Positive aspects of eriophyoid mites include a high degree of
host specificity, wind dispersability, site preference, selectivity as to food,
causing a slow decline in plant vigour. Large numbers can be used
easily in conjuction with other control agents, e.g. microbial or beneficial
insects and will not be competitive with these agents (Cromry, 1979).
According to Rosenthal (1996) Eriophyoidea are ideal biological
control agents againtst plant pests and they have been seriously
considered for the biological control of weeds since the 1970s. Almost all
important weed species in Europe are infested by one or more species
of eriophyoid mites. Aspects of the biology and host relationship of a
number of species of eriophyoid mites and full listing of main weeds and
their associated eriophyoid mites in Poland and Yugoslavia were studied
and presented by Boczek and Petanovi} (1996). A few species of
eriophyoid mites have successfully been used for weed control and
several other species have been recommended for classical and/or
augmentative biological control.
One of the important steps in finding and studying organisms for
use in the biological control of weeds are field surveys of natural
enemies and correct identification.
The objective of the study was to identify the species of
eriophyoid mites attacking meadow weeds in Yugoslavia. The data are of
major inportance for future researches in order to determine biological
potentials.
Surveys of meadow weeds were carried out during the past few
growing seasons.
All plant organs were monitored. The plant organs were inspected
with a stereoscope for the presence, density and distribution of mites.
Special attention was focused on the host plant relationship.
The associated eriophyoid mites were collected, mounted in
Heinze or Keifer media and identified using a phase-contrast microscope
at the magnification x 1250 (Boczek et al., 1989).
182
R. Petanovi} et al.: Eriophyoid Mites as Potential Biocontrol Agents of Meadow Weeds
Altogether 58 species of eriophyoid mites were found on 51
species of meadow weeds in Serbia and Montenegro.
The list of meadow weeds, their associated eriophyoid mites and
the type of damage they inflict to the host is given in Table 1.
Table 1. List of meadow weeds and associated eriophyoids in
Yugoslavia
Damage abbreviations: B-bud; D-deformation; Dc-discoloration;
E-erineum; F-flower; G-gall; I-inquilin; L-leaf; R-rusting; Rlrolling; St-stem;V-vargant; Vt-virus transmission
Weed species
Eriophyoid species
1. Achillea millefolium L.
Aceria kiefferi (Nal.)
Epitrimerus achilleae Roiv.
2. Arthemisia campestris Aceria artemisiae (Can.)
L.
3. Artemisia vulgaris L.
Aceria marginemvolvens (Corti)
Aceria subtilis (Nal.)
Aceria artemisiae (Can.)
4. Bromus sterilis L.
Abacarus hystrix (Nal.)
Aceria tenuis (Nal.)
Aculodes dubius (Nal.)
5. Carex acutiformis Ehrh.
6. Chamaespartium
sagitalis (L.) P. Gibbs
7. Coronilla varia L.
8. Dactilis glomerata L.
9. Dorycnium germanicum
(Greml.) Rony.
10.Danaa cornubiensis
(Torn.) Burn.
11.Epilobium obscurum
Schreb.
12.Eupatorium cannabirum
L.
13.Galega officinalis L.
Epitrimerus carexis Pet.
Vasates acraspis (Nal.)
Vasates coronillae (Can.&
Mass.)
Aceria tenuis (Nal.)
Anthocoptes depressus Farkas
Type of
damage
FD
L St R
L G
L Rl
FD
L G
V LDc Vt
V L Rl
Vt
V
V
F D E B
D
LD
V L Rl Vt
V
Shevtchenkella sp.
Epitrimerus chamaeneri Liro
V R L Rl
Aceria eupatorii Roiv.
Anthocoptes eupatorii Roiv.
Aceria medicaginis (K.)
L Rl
VR
L Rl
183
14.Galium mollugo L.
15.Galium rubrioides L. .
16.Galium vernum Scop.
17.Galium verum L.
18.Geranium sanguineum
L.
19.Holcus lanatus L.
20.Hypericum perforatum
L.
21.Inula britanica L.
22.Lembotropis nigricans
(L.) Gris.
23.Linum austriacum L.
24.Lycopus exaltatus L.
25.Lychimachia
nummularia
L.
26.Lythrum salicaria L.
27.Medicago lupulina L.
28.Medicago sativa L.
29.Mentha aquatica L.
30.Mentha longifolia (L.)
Huds
31.Origanum vulgare L.
32.Plantago lanceolata L.
33.Plantago major L.
34.Polygala comosa Schk.
35.Prunella vulgaris L.
36.Rumex obtusifolius L.
37.Salvia nemorosa L.
38.Salvia pratensis L.
184
Aceria galiobia (Can.)
Epitrimerus umbonis B.
Vasates anthobius (Nal.)
Aceria galiobia (Can.)
Tegoprionus dentatus (Nal.)
Epitrimerus geranii Liro
FG
L Rl
L Dc
FD, LRl
LRl
L Rl
FG
FD, LRl
V
L Dc
Aculodes mckenziei (K.)
Vasates hygrophylus Roiv.
V
V
Epitrimerus inulae Farkas
Vasates centaureae (Farkas)
Aceria cupulariae (Cotte)
Vasates acraspis (Nal.)
Aceria cytisi (Can.)
Aceria lini Pet.
Epitrimerus jaceae Liro
Aceria laticincta (Nal.)
V
V
V
FD, E, BD
B D L Rl
L Rl
Aceria jovanovici Pet.
Epitrimerus lythri Pet.
Aceria plicator (Nal.)
Aceria medicaginis (K.)
Rhyncaphytoptus ficifoliae K.
Aceria megacera (Can.&Mass.)
Aceria megacera (Can.&Mass.)
Aceria mentharia (Can.)
Epitrimerus jaceae (Liro)
Vasates clinopodii (Liro)
Epitrimerus coactus (Nal.)
Epitrimerus coactus (Nal.)
Aceria brevirostra (Nal.)
Vasates chinopodii (Liro)
Epitrimerus rumicis Farkas
Aceria salviae (Nal.)
L Rl
L Rl
LD
LD
V
L St E
L St E
LD, FD, G
LR
Dc, E
LR
LR
BFD
LD, E
LR
G, E
G, E
BD, LD
39.Salvia verticillata L.
Phyllocoptes obtusus Nal.
G, E
I
40.Sanguisorba minor
Sceri
41.Sanguisorba officinalis
L.
42. Satureia montana L.
43.Scutellaria hastifolia L.
Aceria sanguisorbae (Can.)
Phyllocoptes balasi Farkas
Phyllocoptes balasi Farkas
L E
V
V
Aceria thomasi (Nal.)
Vasates scutellariae
(Can.&Mass.)
Aceria solida (Nal.)
LFD
L, St D
Aceria tuberculata (Nal.)
Epitrimeerus tanaceti B.&Davis
Epitrimerus taraxaci Liro
Shevtchenkella erigerivagrans
(Davis)
Vasates rigidus (Nal.)
Anthocoptes octocinctus (Nal.)
Vasates teucrii (Nal.)
Vasates thymi (Nal.)
Vasates eximius (Liro)
L Rl
V
V, R
Vasates eximius (Liro)
Vasates retiolatus (Nal.)
V, R
LD
44.Stachys officinalis (L.)
Trev.
45.Tanacetum vulgare L.
46.Taraxacum officinalis
Web.
47.Teucrium chamaedrys
L.
48.Thymus balcanus Borb.
49.Trifolium ochroleucum
Huds
50.Trifolium pratense L.
51.Vicia cracca L.
L St E
V
L Rl, D
E
E
L St D
V, R
Several of the mites species inflict considerable damage to the
host plants and these species deserve more research. Nine species of
eriophyoids have for the first time been registered in this country. The
list of these species is given in Table 2.
Table 2. The list of eriophyoid mites registered for the first time in the
FR Yugoslavia
Eriophyoid species
Aceria brevirostra (Nal.)
Aceria laticincta (Nal.)
Aceria cupulariae (Cotte)
Anthocoptes depressus Farkas
Epitrimerus umbonis Boczek
Tegoprionus dentatus (NAl.)
Weed species
Polygala comosa Schk.
Lysimachia nummularia L.
Inula britanica L.
Dorycnium germanicum (Greml.) Rony
Galium rubioides L.
Galium verum L.
185
Vasates retiolatus (Nal.)
Vicia cracca L.
Vasates scutellariae (Can,&Mass.) Scutellaria hastifolia L.
Vasates thymi (Nal.)
Thymus balcanus Borb.
The species Shevtchenkella sp. have been registered on Danaa
cornubiensis (Torn.) Burn. and suspected to be new for science.
The biology and host relationship aspects of a certain number of
species of eriophyoid mites are summarised below.
Artemisia vulgaris L. and A.campestris L. were commonly infested
by two species: Aceria artemisiae (Can.) and A.marginemvolvens (Corti).
A.marginemvolvens caused leaf rolling of the host plant. A.artemisiae
causing leaf galls seemed to be a favourable candidate for the biological
control of Artemisia spp. The biology of A.artemisiae was studied in
Poland by Boczek and Macieiczyk (1995).
Epilobium obscurum Scherb. is commonly infested in Northern
Europe (Finland, Sweden and Poland) by Epitrimerus chamaeneri Liro
causing rusting and leaf rolling. Recently this mite has been also
registered in Yugoslavia.
Five eriophyoid mites were reported on Galium spp. and 3 of
them were potential biological control agents, namely Cecidophyes galii
(Karp.), Aceria galiobia (Can.) and Vasates anthobius (Nal.). C.galii
caused erineum and leaf curling of the host plant, A.galiobia caused
flower galls and V.anthobius caused deformation of flower buds and leaf
rolling.
Mentha aquatica L. and M. longifolia (L.) Huds. were commonly
infested by Aceria mentharia (Can.) and A.megacera (Can. & Mass.)
causing erineum and deformation of plant organs.
Salvia verticillata L., S.nemorosa L. and S.pratensis L. were
commonly attacked by Aceria salviae (Nal.) causing erineum and leaf
galls.
Lysimachia nummularia L. was commonly infested by Aceria
laticincta (Nal.) causing bud and leaf deformation.
In Yugoslavia Lythrum salicaria L. is the host of two recently
described species, i. e. Aceria jovanovici Pet. and Epitrimerus lythri Pet.
provoking stunt plant growth. Further research is needed in order to
determine their biocontrol potential in the North America.
Vasates clinopodi (Liro), V. retiolatus (Nal.), V. scutellaria (Can. et
Mass.) and V.thymi (Nal.) caused leaf rusting, sterility, shoot and leaf
deformation of Prunella vulgaris L., Vicia cracca L., Scutellaria hastifolia
L. and Thymus balcanus Borb. respectively.
Finally, some eriophyoid mites are unfavourable potential weed
biocontrol agents inspite of their adverse effect on the host plant. These
species like Aceria tenuis (Nal.), Abacarus hystrix (Nal.), Aculodes dubius
186
(Nal.), A.mckenziei K. and Aceria medicaginis (K.) are less host specific
and may injure crops especially wheat, corn and alfalfa.
CONCLUSION
Altogether 58 species of eriophyoid mites were found on 51
species of meadow weeds in Serbia and Montenegro.
Several of the mite species inflicted considerable damage to the
host plants and these species deserve further research.
Nine species of eriophyoid mites have for the first time been
registered in the country.
One species of the genus Shevtchenkella is suspected to be new
for science.
REFERENCES
Boczek,J., Macieiczyk,K.: Bionomy of Aceria artemisiae (Acari:
Eriophyoidae) as potential agent to control Artemisia vulgaris (Polish with
English summary). Proc. XXXI session of the Institute of Plant Protection.
Poznan, 78-81, 1995.
Boczek,J., Petanovi},R.: Eriophyid mites as agents for the
biological control of weeds. Proc. IX Internat. Symp. on Biol. Control of
Weeds, 127-131. In: Moran, and J.H. Hofmann (eds.), Stellenbosch,
South Africa. University of Cape Town, 1996.
Boczek,J., Petanovi},R., Mihajlovi},Lj. : Present Progress in
Biological Control of Weeds. X Yugoslav Plant Protection Symp. Budva
Abstracts, 13, 1996.
Boczek,J., Shevtchenko, V.G., Davis,R.: Generic Key to World
Fauna of Eriophyid Mites (Acarida: Eriophyoidea). Warsaw Agricultural
University Press, 1989.
Cromroy, L.H.: Eriophyoidea in Biological Control of Weeds.
Recent Advances in Acarology I. Acad. Press. Inc. 473-475, 1979.
Muller-Scharer,H., Frantez,J.: An Emerging Research Protocol for
Biological Weed Control in Crops: the Case of Common Graundsel,
Senecio vulgaris. IX Internat. Symp. on Biol. Control of Weeds. South
Africa, Programme and abstracts, pp. 82, 1996.
Rosenthal,S.S.: Biological Control of Weeds. Aceria, Epitrimerus
and Aculus species and Biological Control of Weeds. In: Lindquist, E.E.,
M. W. Sabelis and J. Bruin (eds.): Eriophyoid Mites-their Biology, Natural
Enemies and Control. Elsevier Science, 729-739, 1996.
187
188
189
190
K.Ju.Samojlov: Primenenie biopreparatov v tehnologijakh proizvodstva zernovykh kul'tur
191
192
K.Ju.Samojlov: Primenenie biopreparatov v tehnologijakh proizvodstva zernovykh kul'tur
193
194
EFFECT OF DROUGHT, HIGH TEMPERATURES AND
MINERAL NUTRITION ON THE OCCURRENCE OF
CHARCOAL ROOT ROT OF SUGAR BEET (Macrophomina
phaseolina Tassi Goidanich)
Vera Stoj{in1, Adam Mari}1 and Branko Marinkovi}2
1
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Agriculture, Institut for Environmental
and Plant Protection, Novi Sad, Yugoslavia
2
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Agriculture, Institute of Field and
Vegetable Crops, Novi Sad, Yugoslavia
ABSTRACT
A small-plot field trial was conducted during the 8-year period
applying different nutrition in order to study the occurrence and causes of
root rot of sugar beet. Twenty combinations of nitrogen, phosphorous and
potassium were applied using standard sugar beet growing practices.
Precipitation, temperature and soil moisture were monitored during the
sugar beet vegetation period. Diseased plants were counted at harvest.
Different fungi (mainly M.phaseolina and Fusarium spp.) were
isolated from the diseased tissue in artificial media. The obtained results
of the investigation showed the regular occurrence of root rot of sugar
beet every year. The prevalant causer of root rot was M.phaseolina. The
highest infestation and the greatest damage of charcoal rot was found in
the year with long periods of drought and high temperatures during the
summer. The disease was less prominent in the year with optimal
quantity and favourable distribution of rainfall and moderate temperatures
during the summer period. Mineral nutrition had substantial influence on
sugar beet charcoal root rot occurrence, especially under the interaction
of both drought and high temperatures. The highest infestation was on
plots with phosphorous and potassium, in combinations of these
elements and on non-fertilised fields. Increasing nitrogen tended to
decrease significantly the occurrence of the disease. The greatest losses
from charcoal rot was found in 1992 when in addition to severe
droughts, average monthly temperatures during July and August were by
1.4 – 5.00C higher compared with the several years average. Therefore
195
the objective of the study was to analyze the factors effecting the
occurrence of charcoal root rot of sugar beet.
Key words: sugar beet, root rot, Macrophomina phaseolina,
mineral nutrition, drought, high temperatures
INTRODUCTION
The cause of sugar beet root rot are various parasites (mainly
fungi) and some non-parasite factors. They occur in many countries of
the world causing significant losses in some years. The data on the
ethiology, damage and their control were summerized in a special
publication by Mari} (1974) in which charcoal root rot (M.phaseolina) and
Fusarium root rot were particularlly emphasized. Charcoal root rot of
sugar beet was for the first time discovered in dry and warm regions of
California, with 5-30% of diseased plants, whereas its occurrence in cool
and wet regions of the USA had never been registered (Tomkins, 1938).
This disease is noted in many regions of the former USSR causing great
damage to sugar beet in some years (Doncova,1955; Solunskaja,1959).
Charcoal root rot and Fusarium root rot of sugar beet were
recorded on great areas under sugar beet in some regions of Vojvodina
and central Serbia during 1967 and 1968 (Mari} et al., 1970). Charcoal
rot caused significant damage during very dry and hot summer of 1967
especially in continuous cropping systems with frequent growing of the
sugar beet in the same field, as well as under poor soil cultivation and
application of small quantities of mineral nutrition. High infestations were
also observed on a greater number of localities in Vojvodina, Slavonia,
Baranja and the arid areas of central Serbia during 1971 (Mari},1974;
Stoj{in,1993).
The authors have studied the intensity of sugar beet root rot
occurrence and cause during a 9-year period (1990-1997) in a small-plot
field trial at the Research Institute of Field and Vegetable Crops in
Rimski Sancevi. Twenty variants of NPK nutrition were studied in the trial
using four replications in a basic trial plot of 200 m2 in size during the
past 30 years. Each year the plot analyzed was nourished with the same
quantity and proportion of mineral fertilizers. Winter wheat, sugar beet,
maize and sunflower were sown in crop rotation. The beet variety used
was Novita. Standard beet cultivation practices were employed under the
conditions of Vojvodina with the application of the following fertilize
196
V. Stoj{in at al.: Effect of Drought, High Temperatures and Mineral Nutrition on the
Occurrence of Charcoal Root Rot of Sugar Beet (Macrophomina phaseolina Tassi Goidanich)
variants: 1. – unfertilized – control, 2.N2, 3.P2, 4.K2, 5.N2P2, 6.N2K2,
7.P2K2, 8.NPK, 9.N1P2K1, 10.N1P2K2, 11.N2P1K1, 12.N2P2K1, 13.N2P2K2,
14.N2P3K1, 15.N2P3K3, 16.N3P1K1, 17.N3P2K1, 18.N3P2K2, 19.N3P3K2,
20.N3P3K3 (N – nitrogen , P – phosphorus, K – potassium, number 1
marks 50kg/ha, number 2 100kg/ha and number 3 in subscript 150kg/ha
of pure nutrition.
Rainfall and mean daily temperatures were monitored during the
vegetation period. The deficiency of readily available water in soil for
sugar beet was also determined (Dragovi} et al., 1991). The number of
infected plants on the sample of 50 roots per treatment was determined
after beet harvesting. Phytopathological isolations were done on
characteristic samples on PDA medium. Harvesting of sugar beet was
followed by its yield measurement.
RESULTS
Sugar beet charcoal root rot was registered in the small-plot field
trial during all the trial years to a higher or smaller extent. The hightest
infestation was recorded in 1992 (22.3% average) and the lowest in 1997
(0.6%).The data on rainfall, readily available water, average temperatures
of July and Avgust and the occurence of charcoal root rot of sugar beet
are shown in Figure 1, Table 1 and Table 2.
In 1990 the ecological conditions for sugar beet development
were favourable during the first part of the vegetation period, but
unfavorable over the second phase of the vegetation period. By mid-July
and in August the deficiency of readily available water was > 100mm,
while temperatures approached the several year average. Of the species
isolated M.phaseolina was noted to predominate. Ocassionally, the fungi
of Fusarium spp., Phoma spp. and Mucor spp. were obtained.
Due to rich precipitation and their favourable distribution during
the whole vegetation period in 1991, sugar beet was suplied with
sufficient readily avaliable water. Soil moisture reached the lower level of
optimal moisture by mid-July. Precipitation in the third decade of July
and during August filled the reserves and in August plants were supplied
with sufficient water till the end of the vegetation period. At the same
time, air temperatures during the summer period were mainly at the level
of the several-year average. The disease was more severe in relation to
the previous year (4.3% mean) mostly in the control variant (18%). The
most frequently isolated species was again M.phaseolina, and
occassionally: Fusarium spp., Rhizoctonia solani, and Phoma betae.
With sufficiant quantities and an even distribution of the
precipitation the initial sugar beet development in 1992 was highly
197
favourable. In the second part of the vegetation period there was a long
lasting drought with extremly high temperatures in July and August.
Readily available water deficiency in July and August was 121,
i.e. 185mm. However, during the summer period temperatures were
significantly over the several-year average (1.40C in July, 5.80C in
August). Soil moisture at the end of the vegetation period was below
withering point influencing substantially the health status, yield and
quality of the root. At the beginning of August substantial withering and
dying off of plants was registered especially towards the end of the
month (19.1%). The fungus M.phaseolina
predominted in the
isolates.The other isolated fungi were: Fusarium spp., Alternaria spp.,
Mucor spp. At the end of the vegetation, the most frequent occurence of
root rot was found in treatments with phosphorous (50.2%), phosphorous
+ potassium variant (46.1%) and only potassium (38%).
Table 1. Average monthly temperatures (0C) during July and August in
relation to the several years period
Year
Year
July
August
July
August
1990
1992
1994
1996
19481993
21.4
22.2
23.5
20.7
0.0
+ 1.4
+ 2.1
- 0.7
21.4
21.6
25.9
23.0
21.7
+
+
+
+
0.7
5.0
2.1
0.8
1991
1993
1995
1997
21.8
21.5
23.3
20.0
+ 0.4
+ 0.1
+ 1.9
- 1.4
20.0
22.0
20.3
20.2
- 0.9
+ 1.1
- 0.6
- 0.7
20.9
Table 2. Occurence of sugar beet root rot (min., max. and mean values
- %) in trials with different quantities of NPK nutrition during
eight year period
Year
Minimum
Maximum
Mean
1990
0.0
4.6
1.7
1991
0.0
18.0
4.3
1992
4.2
46.1
22.3
1993
0.0
7.1
1.6
1994
0.0
13.9
3.5
1995
10.2
25.1
17.2
1996
0.7
10.8
3.5
1997
0.0
5.0
0.6
198
In 1993 the deficiency of the readily available water was
prominent in July and August and amounted to 100mm. Mean monthly
temperatures were at the level of the several-year average. Root rot was
of small intensity.
Extremly high temperatures during July and August (higher by
0
2.1 C than the several-year average) and the deficiency of precipitation
by more than 100 mm in 1994 represented the main cause of more
frequent occurence of M.phaseolina. In treatments with the single
application of phosphorous and potassium 20 - 30% of root rot was
recorded.
Table 3. Average number of diseased plants caused by Macrophomina
phaseolina compared with other causes of root rot under
different nutrition of sugar beet in 1992
No
Variant of
nutrition
Macrophomia
phaseolina
Other root rot
causers
Total
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Control
N2
P2
K2
N2P2
N2K2
P 2K 2
N1P1K1
N1P2K1
N1P2K2
N2P1K1
N2P2K1
N2P2K2
N2P3K2
N2P3K3
N3P1K1
N3P2K1
N3P2K2
N3P3K2
N3P3K3
Mean
27.5
15.3
44.2
35.5
1.3
6.6
39.9
16.4
11.3
19.7
3.4
21.3
8.4
5.1
16.6
12.2
1.7
1.5
2.0
13.4
15.2
1.3
0.7
6.0
2.5
2.9
14.1
6.2
10.9
8,8
11,9
10.0
4.1
4.7
9.4
11.5
7.8
4.1
6.0
2.1
5.9
6.5
28.9
16.0
50.2
38.0
4.2
20.7
46.1
27.3
20.1
31.6
13.4
25.4
13.1
14.5
28.1
20.0
5.8
7.5
4.2
29.3
22.2
LSD
5 %
12.360
6.059
199
Smaller deficiency of readily available water, warm weather during
July (+ 1.90C) and cooler in August (-0,60C) with intensive occurrence of
root rot characterized 1995 (17.2%). The most important cause of the
disease were the fungi of the genus Fusarium. No significant differences
in the intensity of disease occurrence between treatments of mineral
fertilizers were found.
The first part of the vegetation period in 1996 was abundant with
precipitation, higher temperatures compared with the several-year
average. Small deficiency of readily available water was recorded, while
average monthly temperatures were slightly lower, less in July and higher
in August. Average root rot of 3.5% was found, mostly in the control
(10.8%). In this year bacterial wet root rot (Erwinia carotovora)
predominated while fungi from Fusarium species were isolated in smaller
percentage.
In 1997 sugar beet was grown under favourable conditions of soil
moisture and in moderate temperatures during July and August, with less
intensive occurrence of root rot of sugar beet.
DISCUSSION
Based on the data obtained one can estaablish that root rot of
sugar beet occurred in all the investigated years with the greatest
intensity in 1992 and the smallest in 1997. The predominant parasite of
root rot was M.phaseolina in most years, especially in 1992 characterized
by distinct drought and far higher temperatures than the several year
average during July and August. It is obvious that more intensive
infestation of charcoal rot were found only interaction of distinct drought
and high temperatures during summer. This coincides with the data of
some Russian and American authors as well as with earlier
investigations of Mari} et al.(1970). Drought during summer with
moderate temperatures influences the lower infestation of root rot with
combined infestation of M.phaseolina and Fusarium spp. Fusarium root
rot occurred intensively and was the prevailing one only in 1995 under
conditions of smaller deficiency of readily available water, warmer
weather during July (+1.90C) and cooler in August (-0.60C). The weakest
root rot of sugar beet was recorded in 1997 when sugar beet was
optimally supplied with soil moisture and temperatures were moderate
during summer on several year average level.
The application of mineral fertilizers had greatly influenced the
occurrence of charcoal root rot which was especially obvious from the
results obtained during 1992 (Table 3). The most intensive infestations
were observed in treatments with single application of phosphorous and
200
201
potassium and the combination of these fertilizers (35; 44 and 40% of
diseased plants). An intensive occurence of charcoal rot was also
registered on non-fertilized plots. In the treatments performed only by
nitrogen and in most combinations of nitrogen, phosphorous and
potassium significantly smaller number of diseased plants was found.
More intensive occurrence of the disease in single repetitions and some
similar treatments of trials can be explained by soil heterogenity.
The data point to the fact that sugar beet nutrition ballances,
especially with the increased nitrogen quantities contribute to significant
decrease of charcoal root rot occurrence. In the available literature we
failed to find data on the influence of individual nutritive elements on the
intensity of sugar beet charcoal root rot occurrence.
The data on root yield (Table 4) showed that in 1992 sugar beet
totally died off in treatments with the application of single phosphorous
and in its combination with potassium. On the plot treated with single
potassium the smallest yield was obtained in comparison with other
nutritive combinations. Based on the given data it can be noted that in
1992 sugar beet root yield decreased two-fold in average compared with
1997. This shows that in most treatments drought had significantly
influenced sugar beet root yield than the occurrence of charcoal root rot.
For example, some nutritive combinations (17,18,19) had slight disease
occurrence in 1992, yet root yields were two-fold smaller than the some
treatments in conditions favorable for sugar beet development (1997).
Similary, treatmens with unilateral phosphorous and potassium fertilizers,
as well as control plots, had significantly smaller yields compared with
the combinations of all the three fertilizers.
CONCLUSION
Based on the 8-year investigations on the effect of drought, high
temperature and mineral nutrition on the charcoal root of sugar beet
occurrence (M.phaseolina) the following conclusions may be drawn:
- Root rot of sugar beet occurred in all the investigated years to
a higher or lower extent. The prevailing cause of this disease was
M.phaseolina. From the diseased root, the fungi of Fusarium species
were also frequently isolated.
- The greatest damages of charcoal rot were found in the year
with long periods of drought and high temperatures during July and
August.
- The intensity of the occurence of this disease was significantly
smaller in years with distinct moisture deficiency in the given period and
the moderate temperatures being about several year average. The lowest
202
infestations were recorded under the conditions of optimal supply of soil
with moisture and at moderate temperatures during summer.
- Mineral nutrition substantially effected charcoal root rot
occurrence, especially under the conditions of drought and high
temperatures during summer. The greatest number of diseased plants
was found in treatments with unilateral application of phosphorous and
potassium, their combinations and on non – fertilized plot. The disease
significantly decreased in nitrogen variants.
- In phosphorous and potassium treatments partial or complete
dying off of crops under drought conditions and at high temperatures was
recorded. Root yield in variants with less intensive disease was also twofold lower compared with the favourable soil moisture conditions pointing
to distinct adverse effects of drought under favourable conditions of sugar
beet nutrition.
REFERENCES
Doncova,R.G.: Suhoj sklerocioz saharnoj svekli po nabludenijam
Ramonskoj opitno - selekcionoj stanciji. Voprosi agrotehniki i selekciji
saharnoj svekli, Selhozgiiz, 1955.
Dragovi},S et al.: Determining Irrigation Schedule by the Analysis
of Soil Water Balance, Zbornik radova, Vol.19, A Periodical of Scientific
Research on Field and Vegetable Crops, pp 83-96, Novi Sad, 1991.
Mari},A., Rudi},E., Avdalovi},T.: The problem of plant wilt and
root rot of sugar beet in some regions of Yugoslavia, Savremena
poljoprivreda, XVIII, 241-252, Novi Sad, 1970.
Mari},A.: Sugar Beet Diseases, Faculty of Agriculture, pp 93-95,
Novi Sad, 1974.
Solunskaja,I.N. et al.: Bolezni kornei saharnoj svekli v period
vegetaciji. Sveklovodstvo, 1959.
Stoj{in,V.: The effect of mineral nutrition on the occurence of
sugar beet diseases.Master degree, University of Novi Sad, Faculty of
Agriculture, 1993.
Tompkins,C.M.: Charcool Rot of Sugar Beets. Hilgardia, Vol.12,
No 1, University of California, Berkeley, 1938.
203
204
MAIZE INFESTATION WITH Datura stramonium (L.) AND
Xanthium spp. (L.) IN RELATION TO CROP MANAGEMENT
1
Milena Stanojevi}1, Lidija Stefanovi}1, Borivoje [inàr2
Maize Research Institute, Zemun Polje, Belgrade-Zemun, Yugoslavia
2
ABSTRACT
The effects of cropping practices (herbicides and crop densities)
on the distribution of Datura stramonium (DATST) and Xanthium spp.
(XAN spp.) in the total maize weed infestation were investigated in the
present study. The effects of three planting densities under the conditions
with and without herbicide application on maize infestation with the
species studied were observed. The number of plants per species, of
each species individually were evaluated per square meter in each
experimental variant. The results obtained point out that maize weeds
can successfully be controlled with the application of chemicals and other
growing practices (planting densities). It is necessary to apply different
growing and cultivation practices in order to achieve a successful control
of the more resistant species (Xanthium spp.).
Key words: Maize, DATST, XAN spp., weed control, herbicides,
crop density
INTRODUCTION
A long-term application of herbicides in addition to modern
growing practices resulted in significant changes in the weed association
of various crops (Froud-Williams et al., 1982). The composition of maize
crop weed associations was significantly modified in our country as well
([inàr et al.,1998). An obvious spread of annual broad-leaf species
less susceptible to herbicides applied in maize is one of the changes.
Datura stramonium and the species of the genus Xanthium (X.strumarium
and X.italiicum) being the principal representatives of this group
predominate in the total weed infestation. These annual ruderal species
205
were not registered as being a weed infestation problem but recently
they have been found in row crops. The species Datura stramonium was
sporadically found in maize crops in Zemun Polje at the end of the
1970s while the species of the genus Xanthium were not detected at all
(Mirìnski - Stefanovi}, 1978). Such changes occurred in a relatively short
period of time due to maize production in a continuous cropping,
application of similar herbicides, reduction of cropping practices, etc.
Currently these species are known to predominate but are also resistant
to new herbicide groups applied in maize ([inàr et al., 1996).
Considering the rapid development of these species they have become
great maize competitors and are gaining importance worldwide. The
competition of this weeds with diferent crops has been studied in the
case of soyabean (Kirkpatrick et al.1983) whereas studies on maize are
of recent date (Cavero, 1998).
Considering the above mentioned problems in the control of these
and other weed species in the world and our country the effect of
combined application of different measures within the Integrated Weed
Management System is gaining in importance (Tollenaar et al.,1994;
Swanton and Murphy, 1996 ).
In the present study the effects of cropping practices (herbicides
and crop densities) on Datura stramonium and Xanthium spp. in the total
weed infestation were investigated.
The trials were set up on a slightly calcareous chernozem in a
two-factorial block design with four replications in the experimental field of
the Maize Research Institute in Zemun Polje in 1995 and 1996. The trial
variants were as follows: three densities (D1- 40.816 plants ha-1, D269.686 plants ha-1, D3- 98.522 plants ha-1) and two treatments (herbicide
combination of atrazine + metalochlor - Atrazin 500 + Dual 720 EC applied preemergence in the amount of 1.0 + 2.88 l ha-1 of active
ingradient and the control variant (without herbicides). The degree of
weed infestation was evaluated during the summer time (July) when a
characteristic maize plant stand had already been formed. Actively
growing weeds were detected in all the variants. The number of plants
per species, of each species individually were evaluated per square
meter. The effects of cropping practices (herbicides and crop densities)
on Datura stramonium (DATST) and Xanthium spp. (XAN spp) in the
total weed infestation were analyzed. The coefficients of efficiency were
calculated in relation to the control. The results were presented as a twoyear mean.
206
M. Stanojevi} et al.: Maize Infestation with Datura stramonium (L.) and Xanthium spp.
(L.) in Relation to Crop Management
RESULTS
Table 1. The number of weeds and their distribution in the control on
the treated variant of maize at Zemun Polje (2-year mean)
Life
form Weed species
G
Sorghum halepense (L.)
Pers.
T
Amaranthus retroflexus L.
T
Datura stramonium L.
T
Chenopodium album L.
T
Chenopodium hybridum L.
T
Xanthium spp. L.
G
Convolvulus arvensis L.
H
Convolvulus sepium (L.)R.Br.
T
Abutilon theophrasti Medik.
T
Heliotropium europaeum L.
T
Hibiscus trionum L.
T
Solanum nigrum L.
T
Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.
T
Bilderdykia convolvulus
(L.)Dum.
G
Cynodon dactylon (L.)Pers.
G
Sonchus arvensis L.
H
Rubus caesius L.
T
Stachys annua L.
T
Setaria glauca (L.) Beauv.
T
Setaria viridis (L.) Beauv.
T
Amaranthus albus L.
Total no. of plant species
Total plant individuals + SD
Control
Treatment
No./m2 % of
No./m2 % of
distribution
distribution
67,78 51,84
42,12 77,06
16,05
15,55
5,42
5,19
4,16
3,58
2,50
2,08
2,08
1,64
1,36
1,02
0,72
12,27
11,89
4,14
3,97
3,18
2,74
1,91
1,59
1,59
1,25
1,04
0,78
0,55
1,28
1,58
0,39
0,64
2,64
2,0
1,28
0,77
0,86
0,28
0,16
2,34
2,89
0,71
1,17
4,83
3,65
2,34
1,41
1,57
0,51
0,29
0,72
0,33
0,22
0,16
0,11
0,05
0,03
21
130,75
+ 4,6
0,55
0,25
0,17
0,12
0,08
0,04
0,02
100
100
0,14
0,47
0,05
15
54,66
+ 9,1
0,26
0,86
0,09
71.43
100
The results presented in Table 1 show that the maize weed
association in Zemun Polje consists of 21 species. This number was
reduced to 15 or by 28.6% following herbicide application. The total
number of weed plants per species was reduced by 54.66% in the
treated variant. This indicates that many species survived herbicide
application. The distribution of the analyzed species in the total weed
infestation varied as well. The share of the species Datura stramonium
in the total weed infestation ranged from 15.55 plants/m2 (11.89% in the
207
control) to 1.58 plants/m2 (2.89% in the treated variant). Therefore,
herbicide application provoked a 90% reduction of the species. In
addition, the species Datura stramonium was more favourably effected
than Xanthium spp. following the application of a mixture of herbicides.
The distribution of these species amounted to 4.16 plants/m2 (3.18%) in
the control variant and 2.64 plants/m2 (4.83%) in the treated variant
which was higher than the control. This fact points to the resistance of
the species to the herbicides applied as well as to the problems arising
from the control of the species by applying herbicides only ([inàr,
1996).
The effects of maize crop planting density on the distribution of
the species analyzed are presented in Table 2 and Figure 1.
Table 2. Effects of crop management practices (planting density and
herbicide application) on the distribution of Datura stramonium
and Xanthium spp. (2-year mean)
Control
Total no. of weeds (No/m2)
Datura stramonium (No/m2)
Xanthium spp. (No/m2)
Treatment
Total no. of weeds (No/m2)
Datura stramonium (No/m2)
Xanthium spp. (No/m2)
Maize plant
D1
211.50
8.67
1.83
70.84
1.75
3.42
density
D2
185.34
12.08
2.50
D3
132.67
6.83
1.67
59.58
2.08
2.50
53.17
0.92
1.83
The results presented show that the number of plants of all the
species (total number of weeds) decreased with crop planting increase.
This regularity was observed in both the control (211.50 - 132.67
plants/m2) and the treated variant (70.84 - 53.17 plants/m2). However, the
analysis of the effects of the cropping practices applied on the species
studied showed differences between species and treatments. The highest
number of plants in both species in the control variant was detected in
the planting density D2 (12.08 i 2.50 plants/m2). The higher the planting
density the lower the number of species. The effects of planting density
varied depending on herbicide treatments. The most prominent Datura
stramonium infestation was on D2 (2.08 plants/m2). A favourable regularity
in distribution decrease depending on planting density was observed in
the species Xanthium spp. (3.42 – 1.83 plants/m2).
208
M. Stanojevi} et al.: Maize Infestation with Datura stramonium (L.) and Xanthium spp.
(L.) in Relation to Crop Management
7
%
CONTROL
TREATMENT
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
D1
D2
D3
D1
DATST
D2
D3
XANspp.
Figure 1. Distribution of Datura stramonium and Xanthium spp.
depending on crop management practices (% of total weed
number)
100
80
60
40
20
0
D1
D2
DATST
D3
XANspp
Figure 2. Coefficient of efficacy of applied herbicides in relation to the
number of Datura stramonium and Xanthium spp.plants
Based on the results presented in Figure 2 it was shown that the
efficiency of the herbicides applied in combination to planting density with
regard to the species Datura stramonium was favourable and tended to
increase with planting density increase (87.6 - 95.7). The efficiency was
significantly lower in the case of the species Xanthium spp. However, it
tended to increase with planting density increase ( 0 - 35.6).
209
The results point that the combined application of chemicals and
other growing practices (crop density) was more efficient in maize weed
control. It is necessary to apply different growing and cultivation practices
in order to achieve a successful control of the more resistant species
(Xanthium spp.).
REFERENCE
Cavero,J., Zaragoza,C., Suso,M.L., Pardo,A.: Competiton of Maize
and Datura stramonium in an Irrigated field. 6th EWRS Mediteranean
Symposium 1998, Montpellier, 93-94, 1998.
Froud-Williams,R.J., Chancellor,R.J., Drennan,D.S.H.: Potential
changes in weed flora associated with reduced-cultivation systems for
cereal production in temperature regions. Weed Res., 21, 99-109, 1982.
Kirkpatrick,B.L., Wax,I.M., Stoller,E.W.: Competition of Jimsonweed
with Soybean. Agronomy Journal, 75, 833-836, 1983.
Mirìnski-Stefanovi},L.: A Contribution to the Study of the Weed
flora in Maize. Fragmenta herbologica Jugoslavica, IV, 83-87, 1978.
Swanton,C..J., Murphy,S.D.: Weed Science Beyond Weeds: The
Role of Integrated Weed Management (IWM) in Agroecosystem Health.,
44, 437-443, 1996.
Tollener,M.,Aguilera,A..A.,Weise,S.E.,:Integrated Pest Management.
Agronomy Journal, 86, 591-595, 1994.
[inàr,B., Stankovi},R., Stefanovi},L., Stanojevi},M.: Efficacy of
the Application of Sulfonylurea Derivaties in Reduced Maize Weed
Society. Pesticides, 11, 253-259, 1996.
[inàr,B., Stefanovi},L., Stanojevi},M.: Changes in Weed Flora
and Maize Vegetation After Several Years of Herbicide Use. Pesticides,
13, 119-130, 1998.
[inàr,B., Te{i},M.: The Possibility of Choosing Appropriate
Herbicides Based on the Presence of Specific Weed Problems in Maize.
Pesticides, 10: 285-292, 1993.
210
POTENTIALS OF Hadrotrichum sorghi IN THE
BIOCONTROL OF JOHNSONGRASS IN VIEW OF
CULTIVATED SORGHUM SUSCEPTIBILITY
Kloko~ar-[mit Zlata1, Jano{ Berenji2, Du{anka In|i}1,
H.Pastor3
1
Faculty of Agriculture, Novi Sad
2
Institute of Field and Vegetable Crops, Novi Sad;
3
Agrokombinat, Subotica
SUMMARY
Johnsongrass became lately the most pestiferous weed in our
region due to the lack of regular control measures. Because herbicide
use is restricted to specific situations such as timely application,
susceptibility of corn lines, possible sulfonilurea herbicides and soil
organophophorous insecticides interaction, alternative measures are
needed.
A search for a convenient biocontrol pathogen was initiated in
order to improve alternative measures. The leaf pathogen Hadrotrichum
sorghi has a narrow host range and in spite of its long history of
occurrence on Johnsongrass (since 1914) and on broom and grain
sorghum in Italy (1951) the occurrence of an epidemic disease of
cultivated sorghum has not been recorded in our country until now. Of
the 15 cultivars the most susceptible were those having a short
vegetation period: Reform, Tisza, Sz-185 and Sz-1023. American Deer
418 was the least and Jantar, Tan-Sava, Neoplanta-plus, Neoplanta and
Panonija moderately susceptible. Of the 131 sorghum genotypes
observed, only 5.3% were highly susceptible, 2.3% were non-infected and
35.1% with low intensity infection. It was speculated that resistance can
be improved after two cycles of selection.
Key words: Biological control, Hadrotrichum sorghi, sorghum,
Johnsongrass.
211
INTRODUCTION
Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers.) has become a very
widespread and important weed in the NE part of Yugoslavia because of
the lack of regular control measures. Timely application, susceptibility of
some corn genotypes to herbicides used in Johnsongrass control,
possible sulfonilurea herbicides and soil organophosphorous insecticides
interaction, etc. have made the chemical control measures against the
weed even more difficult. Therefore the search for Johnsongrass
pathogen promising biocontrol agent is permanent in Yugoslavia and
worldwide.
In search for suitable pathogens, the results of the investigation
on the flora of Serbia by Ranojevi} (1914) attracted our attention to
Hadrotrichum sorghi (Passer.) Ferrar and Massa, described to induce eye
spot on Johnsongrass leaves. In spite the fact that it has been observed
as a pathogen of Johnsongrass in Serbia as early as 1914, no further
evidence of epidemic level of cultivated sorghum disease has been
registered in Yugoslavia.
The pathogenity and intensive appearance of H.sorghi on grain
sorghum and broomcorn was observed in Italy in 1951 by Lovisolo
(1958). It has been registered for the first time as a disease agent on
cultivated sorghum only 80 years after the occurrence of this pathogen
on Johnsongrass in Italy.
In Yugoslavia, H.sorghi is still considered a pathogen of no
economic importance to cultivated sorghums, Sorghum bicolor (L.)
Moench including broomcorn, grain sorghum, silage sorghum and
sudangrass. These cultivated sorghums, the broomcorn being the most
important one, are produced in Yugoslavia only in specific geographical
regions and at limited scale. Therefore, it seemed unlikely, that the
biocontrol agent Johnsongrass by H.sorghi as a would seriously effect
the cultivated sorghums.
The natural appearance of H.sorghi (Passer.) Ferrar and Massa
on Johnsongrass (S.halepense (L.) Pers.) plants occurring on infested
fields of maize, sorghum and wheat, as well as on non cropped lands
was observed. The period of appearance and severity of disease and its
effect on weed development were registered.
The host range testing being an unavoidable step in the development of
the biocontrol candidate was performed on broomcorn (Sorghum bicolor
(L.) Moench) genotypes grown on the experimental fields of the Institute
212
Z. Kloko~ar-[mit et al.: Potentials of Hadrotrichum sorghi in the Biocontrol of
Johnsongrass in View of Cultivated Sorghum Susceptibility
of Field and Vegetable Crops in Ba~ki Petrovac under natural infection
conditions. This study included 15 commercial broomcorn cultivars of
Yugoslav, Hungarian and American origin along with a collection of 131
genotypes of broomcorn representing the world collection of this
cultivated plant.
The intensity of leaf symptoms was assessed by a scale of 0-5
(0= none, 5= more than 75% leaf area covered with spot) based on leaf
coverage with spots.
Disease intensity was calculated using the equation of TownsendHeuberger upon the frequency of each category.
The data were statistically computed using ANOVA and Student
tests.
Based on the results of our study, H.sorghi has widely been
present on Johnsongrass plants probably for a long period of time. On
the other hand, the disease appearance on broomcorn, grain sorghum
and proso millet during the period between 1986 and 1998 indicated a
periodical appearance only, without significant economic losses on
broomcorn (Kloko~ar-[mit,1986). The appearance of H.sorghi appeared to
be climate dependent and variable in intensity.
The symptoms produced by natural infection with H. sorghi on
broomcorn and on Johnsongrass regularly appeared in May or June. The
most severe attack on Johnsongrass could be registered in August but in
September as well. Most frequently, round specks with black centre,
fungal fructification zone, appeared on leaves. They coalesced with age
on lower leaves which dried out as a result of stronger attack. The
infection retarded the general development of the weed and the
development of the inflorescence. By lighter attack, the leaf surface was
insignificantly spotted and the inflorescence normally formed. The
symptoms observed on leaves of Johnsongrass and on broomcorn
differed in appearance by the colour of halo zone of spots.
Of the 15 commercial broomcorn cultivars tested (Fig. 1.), the
most susceptible appeared to be the early cultivars, i.e. Reform, Tisa,
Sz-185 and Sz-1023. The medium late cultivars, i.e. Jantar, Tan Sava,
Neoplanta plus, Neoplanta and Panonija were moderately susceptible.
The latest maturing cultivar of American origin, Deer 418, genetically
different from the above mentioned Yugoslav and Hungarian cultivars was
assessed as the least susceptible. This cultivar is characterised not only
by the tan reaction and resistance to Colletotrichum graminicola, but also
by its tolerance to H. sorghi. All the other commercial broomcorn
213
cultivars tested reacted with medium disease intensity. The general
conclusion is that except for the most susceptible early cultivars, all the
other cultivars showing medium sensitivity can be considered acceptable
from the agronomic standpoint as far as their suffering from infection by
H. sorghi is concerned. In other words, susceptibility of broomcorn to H.
sorghi as a pathogen of Johnsongrass did not result in high economic
loss with regard to the commercial broomcorn cultivars tested.
LSD
9.6
15. Deer 418
26.2
14. Jantar
29.4
13. Tan Sava
30.8
12. Neoplanta plus
31.8
11. Neoplanta
32.2
cultivars
10. Panonija
35.8
9. Sava
38
8. Backa
38
7. Sz. szlovak
40.8
6. Jumak
43.4
5. Sz. Torpe
43.8
4. Sz. 1023
46.2
3. Sz 185
51
2. Tisa
58
1. Reform
59.2
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
% disease significance levels intensity
Fig. 1. Sensitivity of sorghum cultivars to Hadrotrichum sorghi
Of the 131 genotypes of the broomcorn world collection observed
only 5.3% were considered highly susceptible, 2,3% were non-infected,
and 35,1% with low intensity infection with H.sorghi (Fig.2). The
frequency distribution of the genotypes based on their reaction to H.
sorghi fits the normal distribution curve.
The host range of H. sorghi could be regarded as undesirable
property from the standpoint of its use as a Johnsongrass biocontrol
agent. However, it is a common phenomenon that species within a
certain plant genus share common pathogens. At the same time, many
examples in biocontrol are known when the pathogen limits the attack
to one or few grass species or species within one grass genus. In the
case of Sorghum sp., nearly all the pathogens known to attack cultivated
214
% of genotypes
sorghums, i.e. broomcorn belonging to the species S.bicolor are found on
Johnsongrass (S.halepense) as well. For example, of the 18 pathogens
deposited in the National fungus collection of US derived from cultivated
sorghums only two have not been isolated from Johnsongrass.
28.24
30
16.7918.32
20
10.68
10
14.5
3.81 5.34
2.29
0
disease intensity
Series1
Series5
Series2
Series6
Series3
Series7
Series4
Series8
Fig.2. Distribution of sorghum genotypes upon sensitivity to Hadrotrichum
sorghi in B. Petrovac collection, n=131
Some sorghum root and stalk pathogens like Sclerotium bataticola
are poliphagous. Other, including Sphacelotheca reliana are rather host
specific but with resistance determined by one dominant gene which
could be easily overcome by the appearance of new virulent race of the
pathogen (Edmunds and Zummo, 1975).
The pathogen can vary greatly in virulence as the host can in
resistance. In breeding for resistance one should know the genetic base
of inheritance to resistance.
The pattern of inheritance of resistance to Sclerospora sorghi
(Kulk) Weston & Uppal (downy mildew), Colletotrichum graminicola
(Cesati) Wilson (anthracnose), Spacelotheca reiliana (Kuhr) Clinton (head
smut), Puccinia purpurea Cooke (rust), Ramulispora sorghi (Ellia &
Everhart) (sooty stripe), Exserohilum turcicum (Leo & Sing.) (leaf blight)
is regulated by dominant genes. These pathogens occur on S.bicolor (L.)
Moench and on S.halepense (L.) Pers. with the exception of Exserohilum
turcicum (Leo & Sing.) (leaf blight) which was found on S.bicolor (L.)
Moench only.
Intermediate to dominant pattern of inheritance was found in
resistance to Fusarium semitectum, F.moniliforme and Curvularia lunata
inducing grain mould on both Sorghum species.
215
Recessive pattern was found for Cercospora sorghi Ellis &
Everhart (grey leaf spot), occurring on both hosts, and Macrophomina
phaseolina (Tassi) Gold (charcoal rot), Periconia circinata (Mangin) Sacc.
(Periconia root rot), Acremonium sp. (Acremonium wilt), occurring on
S.bicolor (L.) Moench only.
Resistance to some diseases occurring on both Sorghum species
like Pseudomonas andropogoni (E.F. Smith) Stopp (bacterial leaf stripe)
was regulated by recessive, and Gleocercospora sorghi Bain a. Edgerton
(zonate leaf spot) by intermediate to recessive genes.
The success of biological measures for weeds applied alone or
integrated with chemical or other alternative measures are well
documented and illustrated (Winder,1988; Scheepens and Van Zoon,
1982).
Johnsongrass is characterised by high seed propagation ability as
well as by rhizomes. An ideal pathogen for the biological control of this
plant would be the one which destroys both the inflorescence and the
rhizomes. So far no such pathogen has been found for Sorghum sp. Of
the many isolates deposited by the National Fungus Collection in
Beltsville, USA, all but two derived from both, S.bicolor and S.halepense
(L.) species. Bipolaris halepense was developed as bioagent for
Johnsongrass (Chiang et al,1989, Winder and Van Dyke,1990) with the
advantages of not being an obligate pathogen and for its easy production
of inoculum. In the genus Hadrotrichum some species are saprophytes
and facultative parasites, like H.arundinaceum. Other species, as H.sorghi
for example were regarded as obligate parasites or at least very difficult
to handle (Lovisolo, 1958).
Having in mind the fact that H.sorghi can be a potential agent for
biocontrol of Johnsongrass it is important to consider the other side of
the problem, i.e. the resistant-susceptible relation of cultivated sorghums,
first of all the broomcorn, towards H.sorghi. Breeding of broomcorn for
resistance to H.sorghi is recommended in order to solve this problem.
The data on the inheritance pattern of broomcorn vs. H.sorghi would be
of great importance in order to successfully accomplish such a task.
Based on the results of this paper crossing between sensitive broomcorn
genotypes (i.e. IS 3126, MFRS-2288, Plains 1, MFRS-3550, MFRS-3109
and MFRS-3333, MFRS-3338) with resistant broomcorn genotypes (Dex x
Arcols 100-3, Ex-Tan 2-1, IS 28) should be completed in order to
determine the pattern of inheritance of the reaction of broomcorn to
H.sorghi. According to Gumaniuc and Varga (1989) from Romania the
resistance in cultivated sorghum, including broomcorn to H.sorghi, is a
realistic task which could be achieved by resistance breeding.
216
CONCLUSION
Hadrotrichum sorghi seems to be the least poliphagous and low
risk pathogen compared with other Johnsongrass leaf pathogens for the
biological control of this weed. Narrow hosts range of the pathogen and
moderate susceptibility of the majority of the cultivated commercial
broomcorn cultivars and genotypes from the broomcorn world collection
tested suggested the possible use of this pathogen as a biocontrol agent
for Johnsongrass.
Some of the commercial broomcorn cultivars produced in
Yugoslavia are moderately sensitive to H.sorghi. At the same time
resistant genotypes were determined from the broomcorn world collection
which could be used in improving the level of resistance of cultivated
broomcorn cultivars in resistance breeding.
REFERENCE
Cniang,M.Y.Van Dyke, C.G.,Chilton M.W.S.: Four foliar pathogenic
fungi for controlling seedling of Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense):
Weed Sci.: 37:802–809, 1989.
Edmunds,L.K.,Zummo,N.: Sorghum diseases,Ed USDA. Washington, 1975.
Gumaniuc,L., Varga,P.: Personal communication,1989.
Kloko~ar-[mit,Z.: Biolo{ka suzbijanju korova u akvati~nim
stani{tima, Fazni izve{taj po projektu JFP 642, SAD–Yu, 1986.
Lovisolo,O.: Osservazioni sull Hadrotrichum sorghi, agente di una
nuova malattia dei sorghi coltivati, Bollettino sella Stazione di Patologia
Vegetale, XVI, 3,: 155–182, 1958.
Ranojevi},N.: Tre}i prilog gljivi~noj flori Srbije, Annales Mycologici,
XII: 415–416, 1914.
Scheepens,P.C., Van Zoon,J.C.J.: Microbial herbicides, in
Microbial and Viral Pathogens, Ed.E.Kurtsaki: 623–641, Marcel and.
Dekker Inc., 1982
Winder,R.S., Van Dyke,C.G.: The pathogeneity, virulence and
biocontrol potential of two Bipolaris species on Johnsongrass (Sorghum
halepense), Weed Sci., 38:89–94, 1990.
Winder,R.C.: Field testing of Bipolaris sorghicola as a
mycoherbicide for Johnsongrass (S.halepense), VII Intern. Sympos. on
Biological Control of Weeds, Roma, 1988.
217
218
EFFECT OF NONPESTICIDE PRODUCTS
ON INSECTS IN STORAGE
Du{anka In|i}, Radmila Alma{i, Zlata Kloko~ar-[mit,
Slavica Jovanovi} and Maja Vajovi}
Faculty of Agriculture, Institut for Plant Protection “Dr Pavle Vukasovic”,
Novi Sad, Yugoslavia
SUMMARY
Sitophilus granarius was used as the test insect to assess the
protection effect of nonpesticide products Diatomaceous earth, carrier
Wessalon and the product Insecto in stored maize grain. The
experiments on naturally dried maize grain were conducted under
laboratory conditions. The mortality was assessed daily during 14 day
period. The mortality was estimated upon number of dead plus paralyzed
insects. The mortality – dose response were expressed as lc-p lines. The
achieved results indicated linear correlation between inert dusts rates and
percent of mortality and between mortality and exposition period. The lc-p
lines indicated existence of differences in response dependent on
product.
Key words: inert dusts, stored grain, Sitophilus granarius
INTRODUCTION
The use of nonpesticides or natural products in protection of
stored grain (wheat, sunflower, soybean, legumes, different seed goods
and bird seed) is increasing lately, as they offer the number of
advantages in insect and mite population reduction. These products are
regarded to be of low toxicity to mammals and posses convenient
physical properties. Being chemically inert, they do not interact with other
compounds present and do not form toxic residues (Koruni}, 1994).
The discovery and use of pesticides increased the agricultural
production and extended the storability of food products. Their frequent
application created the problem of toxic residues in food, environment
contamination, appearance of resistant strains and number of other
219
undesirable consequences. The mentioned problems and, apparently,
limited number of new synthesized products for use in storage, induced
come back to old conventional methods – the application of inert dusts in
stored grains.
The data on effects of inert dusts on insect pests in storage were
presented by number of authors (Maceljski and Koruni},1971; Le
Patourel,1984; Shawir,1988; Cooper,1990; Koruni},1993; 1994; Hamel,
1997; In|i} et al.,1997). However, the nonpesticide products are not
included in integral protection of stored grain practiced in Yugoslavia, in
spite of benefit they could brought as e.g. avoiding the selection pressure
of organic insecticides and reducing the creation of resistant insect
populations.
The aim of this investigation was to detect mortality increase as
response to the increase in rate of inert dusts, as well as to determine
lc-p lines – indicators of possible different product action or sensitivity of
population tested.
The experiments were conducted in laboratory with S. granarius
as a test insect. The experimental strain was reared under laboratory
conditions (at constants temperatures: 27 ±1oC, relative humidity 40-70%)
for long period of time and preserved from contact with insecticides.
The naturally dried maize grain were used. The method for
insecticide LC50 determination ([ovljanski and [mit, 1976). The
experiments were set in four repetitions, 20 adult insects of the same
age (30 days) per each one. For comparison the nontreated grain
sample was used. The inert dusts: Diatomaceous earth, Insecto and
Wessalon were used at concentrations: 0.35, 0.2, 0.1, 0.05, 0.01 and
0.005 %, (or at the rates (kg/t): 3.5, 2, 1, 0.5, 0.1 and 0.05). The
mortality was assessed after 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 14 days of
exposition by registration of dead plus paralyzed insects, converted to
relative values and presented in figures (1–4). Lc-p lines were estimated
using probit analysis (Finney, 1964).
The increase in mortality responded to the increases in rate of
Diatomaceous earth from 100, 1000 to 3500 g/t (Fig. 1). No differences
were found in mortality obtained by rates of 100 and 1000 g/t up to the
6th day of exposition. After 6 days the mortality in experimental batch
220
D. In|i} et al.: Effect of Nonpesticide Products on Insects in Storage
with 1000 g/t approached the level of one achieved with 3500 g/t.
Already 24 h after application of 3500 g/t the 30% mortality was
observed. The mortality was steadily increasing up to the 14th day to the
level of 93.75%.
Effects of Insecto (Fig. 2.) at rates 100 and 1000 g/t were low up
to 6th day of exposition. The increase in mortality after 14 days of
exposition in comparison to the one after 6 days, is hardly visible. At the
rate 3500 g/t the increase in mortality occurred after 3 days of
exposition, and reached 80% after 14 days.
The mortality achieved by use of Wessalon correlated to the rates
applied, with distinct initial effect already after 24 h. After 7 days of
exposition to the rates of 100, 1000 and 3500 g/t the obtained mortality
were 62,5%, 73,75 and 88,75 %, respectively. The slight increase in
mortality from 7th to 14th day of exposition were registered (Fig. 3).
The effects on grain weevil obtained by use of inert dusts were
positively correlated to the rates applied on a whole. The rate of 3500
g/t, although exceeding the rates used by Korunic (1994) and Hamel
(1997) was included with the aim to obtain wide range of concentration
and enable estimation of lc-p lines. However the mentioned authors in
their experiments used lower concentrations, but proposed the use of
increased concentrations. We suggest that the highest concentration
ought to be determined respecting all necessary conditions of grain
storage. The qualitative control should not deteriorate the grain flowability
Observing the lc-p lines (Fig. 4) it could be concluded that the highest
homogeneity in response of grain weevil population was registered to
Diatomaceous earth, followed by response to Wessalon. The least
homogenous was the response of population to product Insecto.
221
Figure 1. Mortality of S. granarius treated with Diatomaceous earth
Figure 2. Mortality of S.granarius treated with Insecto
222
D. In|i} et al.: Effect of Nonpesticide Products on Insects in Storage
Figure 3. Mortality of S.granarius treated with Wessalon
Figure 4. Lc-p lines of nonpesticid products (S.granarius)
223
REFERENCES:
Cooper, W. C.: The Nature And Safe Handling Of Diatomaceus
Earth. International Diatomite Producers Association, San Francisco,
Canada. 1–6, 1990.
Finney, D.J.: Probit-analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 3rd edition, 1971.
Hamel, D.: U~inkovitost Protect-it (dijatomejska zemlja) na
skladi{ne {tetnike na p{enici–primena zapra{ivanjem. Zbornik, ZUPP,
1997. Malinska, 89–95, 1997.
In|i}, D., Alma{i, R., Alma{i, [.: Dejstvuvanje na Dijatomejskata
zemlje, Insecto i Wessalon na Sitophilus granarius L (Coleoptera:
Curculionidae). Godi{en zbornik za za{tita na rastenijata na Makedonija,
Skopje, 75–82, 1998.
Koruni}, Z.: Za{tita uskladi{tenih poljoprivrednih proizvoda inertnim
pra{ivima. Zbornik ZUPP 1993. Stubi~ke Toplice, 83–93, 1993.
Koruni}, Z.: Dijatomejska zemlja prirodni insekticid. Zbornik ZUPP
Novi Vinodolski, 136–148, 1994.
Le Patourel, G.N.J. and Singh, J.: Toxicity of amorphous silicas
and silica-pyrethroid mixtures to Tribolium castaneum (Herbst)
(Coleoptera:Tenebrionide). J. Stored Prod. Res., 4, 183–191, 1984.
Maceljski, M. i Koruni}, Z.: Rezultati ispitivanja primjene inertnih
supstancija protiv {tetnih insekata u skladi{tima. Za{tita bilja, 115–116,
Beograd, 377–389, 1971.
Shawir, M., Le Patourel, G.N.J. and Moustafa F.I.: Amorphous
silica as an additive to dust formulations of insecticides for stored grain
pest control. J. Stored Prod Res., 3, 123–131, 1988.
[ovljanski, R. i Kloko~ar-[mit, Z.: Praktikum iz fitofarmacije.
Poljoprivredni fakultet, Novi Sad, 1976.
224
INDEX OF AUTHORS
Alma{i R.
219
Aponyi-Garamvölgyi I. 67
Ba~a F.
75,165
Barbulescu A.
137,147,157
Berenji J.
211
Biber K.
67
Brudea V.
85
Bucurean E.
85
Cagán L.
75
Cvetkovi} M.
119
âmprag D.
7
Dimi} N.
119
Graora D.
95
Halmágyi T.
67
In|i} D.
211,219
Jerini} D.
95
Jovanovi} S.
219
Kere{i T.
7
Kloko~ar-[mit Z.
211,219
Krnjaji} S.
119
Kosti} M.
105
Lessovoi M.P.
23
Magud B.
181
Malinski E.
53
Manojlovi} B.
105
Mari} A.
195
Marinkovi} B.
195
Muresan F.
85
Nawrot J.
53
Pastor H.
211
Peri} P.
119
Petanovi} R.
95,181
Petrovi} O.
95
Popov C.
85,137
Pradzynska A.
53
Princzinger G.
Pruszyñski S.
Radin @.
Rátai-Vida R.
Rosca I.
Samersov V.
Samojlov K.Ju.
Sekuli} R.
Simova-To{i} D.
Smetnik A.I.
Smiljani} D.
Spasi} R.
Stankovi} S.
Stanojevi} M.
Stefanovi} L.
Stoj{in V.
Szafranek J.
[inàr B.
[trbac P.
Tancik J.
Thalji R.
Trepashko L.
Tron N.M.
Trotus E.
Udrea A.
Vajovi} M.
Veskovi} M.
Voicu M.
Voinescu I.
Vonica I.
Vuk{a M.
Zabel A.
Zakharenko V.A.
Winiecki Z.
67
37
75
67
85,137,147
29
189
7
95
95
129,181
95,129
105
205
205
195
53
205
7
75
175
29
23
85
85
219
165
85
157
137
119
105
113
53
225

integrated protection of field crops

Transcription

Similar documents

cffrc - The University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus

Bird-X Yard Gard Electronic Pest Chaser Sales Bulletin

Environmental Pest Management Newsletter

Challenges and opportunities for a generic market for GM crops in

termiglass - Stroud Homes

Declared animal pests Declared animal pests

SmartCap Mini Brochure - BASF Pest Control Solutions

Class IX

Are Engineered Foods Evil? - AP Environmental Science