The SES No18 Dec 2008

REVIEWS
Exercise Physiology in Special Populations (2008)
Editor: Buckley, J. Publisher: Churchill Livingstone ISBN: 978-0-443-10343-8
I was excited to be given the opportunity to review this book, purely because of the passion I have in the field of
exercise therapy/science in special populations. As most of you know, each and every person is unique, not only in
genetics and personalities, but also in things like abilities, conditions, injuries, even symptoms and, of course, how these
elements can merge and produce a whole new situation.
Nothing is clear-cut, and it is up to the exercise science professional (no matter which area you fall in to) to access and
provide the most suitable assistance and environment for each and every person, but more specifically a person that falls
into the category of special populations.
This book represents a very comprehensive explanation of the exercise physiology behind obesity, diabetes, cardiac
disease and dysfunction, lung disease and dysfunction, arthritis and lower back pain, ageing and older people, bone
health, the exercising female, neurological and neuromuscular disorders, and spinal cord injuries. Each chapter reviews
each of these headings in great physiological detail and discusses the importance of physical activity and correct exercise
prescription/application. It also includes examples of specific fitness components that can be addressed, to aid a person in
bettering/maintaining their health status.
The editors have provided an excellent resource of high academic quality, suitable as an advanced learning resource for postgraduates as well as for
researchers. What is refreshing to see is that this book is full of up-to-date research text and is complemented by informative focus boxes, examples,
tables, graphs, diagrams and quite a comprehensive reference list with additional reading resources. After carefully reflecting on Exercise Physiology in
Special Populations, I can honestly say it is an asset to have on one’s shelf and have as a part of a professional practice.
10
10
Gillian James, owner of G.J. Sport Science CC. Practice – South Africa
The Sports Coach as Educator: Re-conceptualising Sports Coaching (2006)
Editor: Jones, R. L. Publisher: Routledge ISBN: 978-0-415-36760-8
Sports coaches have moved from being a “more capable other” to become scientists, capable of directing the activities
of other scientists and working in a wide-range of disciplines. They need to know a substantial amount about each
subject and of ways to communicate results intelligently to the athlete.
Current sports coaching courses focus on subjects ranging from performance science and applied sports science to
sports coaching, as the relationship between coach and athlete. This book focuses on this relationship, particularly on
the role of the coach as an educator, to the exclusion of these other areas. The book is targeted at Level 3 or masters
students possessing basic coaching skills and a readiness to develop them. Within its 185 pages, it is illustrated with 8
diagrams but comes without any accompanying resources.
The editor has drawn together 16 doctoral authors from across the Commonwealth and the U.S. in order to achieve
his declared aim to “expand current conceptualisations of the coaching role and, subsequently coach education”. This
involves taking coaching back to its roots in teaching and then using the principles of teaching practice to return it to
modern times. He does this by dividing the book into three parts. Part 1 “makes the case for a re-conceptualisation of
coaching as an educational endeavour.” Part 2 deals with “this proposed change in terms of the coach’s role.” Part 3 “examines it in relation to
coach education.”
The book is, essentially, a compilation of educational theories, but loses nothing for that. It is an interesting, thought-provoking book which will
cause many advanced coaches to re-examine and reflect on their role and relationship with their athletes. Coaches need a range of skills in order
to deal with every athlete and every situation and this book will add to them. I have adopted this book for my masters degree in sports coaching
science because it provides a unique resource to widen students’ perspectives on coaching as a branch of teaching.
8
Geoffrey K. Platt, Kingston University
‘‘
10
Workshop Review
What did delegates think of the recent BASES Workshop?
Introduction to Counselling Skills for Sport Psychologists
(in association with the Talented Athlete Scholarship Scheme - TASS)
Presenter: Dr Brian Hemmings and Dr Jonathan Katz
attendees the opportunity to practice and develop skills vital
Exploring the use of factual and emotional Listening skills, the workshop gave
in sport and exercise psychology I felt the basic theoretical
novice
a
As
capacity.
g
when working with athletes, particularly in a mentorin
by a more practical overview of how counselling skills can
knowledge gave a good grounding to the role play workshops, complemented
be used and developed.
experiences and information. The points learnt during this
There was plenty of opportunity to raise questions, discuss issues and share
or our own scholarship scheme, and have raised my
TASS
via
athletes
workshop will be extremely useful when mentoring student
to help athletes discuss their concerns. I would recommend
awareness of different listening skills and will encourage me to probe deeper
nding of basic counselling skills.
this workshop to those working with athletes wishing to gain a good understa
DELEGATES’
SUE’S RATING:
Sue Briggs, University of Birmingham
(a mark out of 10)
www.bases.org.uk
Issue 18
8
average rating
8.5
l Dec 2008 l The Sport and Exercise Scientist l 25
STUDENT CONFERENCE
From Harrow to Hull
Ric Lovell describes how the experience of his own student conference presentation will
help him in his role as organiser of this year’s BASES Annual Student Conference
Conference Theme
The ‘20:20 Vision’ theme of the Conference encompasses the future of sport and exercise
science in research and applied practice. Much of the content will aim to introduce delegates to
new technologies and practical techniques within the Sport and Exercise Science domain.
To provide a world-class programme some of the Keynote sessions will be delivered via videoconferencing. In addition, all sessions will also be recorded so that delegates can download
presentations from parallel sessions so you won't miss anything and can replay your favourite
presentations whenever you like! Key-note Speakers include: Professor David Bishop, Dr Joanna Scurr, Professor Remco
Polman, Dr Doug Casa, Professor Robert Robergs and Dr Rod Harter.
It seems a long time ago now when I
attended the Student Conference at
Harrow School in 2002, but even now, I
have vivid memories. Not all of them
directly involve the Conference. For
instance, this was the first time I’d ever
been to London and, as a naïve 21-yearold, I remember being horrified by the
underground map when I arrived at
King’s Cross, and then fighting the
masses to get on to the train at 7A.M..
I’m not sure if my fears and anxiety about
presenting at the conference were the
reasons why everything else seemed to
be difficult that day, or vice versa.
I was a 3rd-year undergraduate student
at the University of Teesside, and
although a couple of my fellow
“Teessiders” also presented, their
biomechanics session was on the first
day and they had already left. Due to the
typical student financial constraints, I
could only afford to go for the second
day so I didn’t know anyone and I’ve
never been the best networker! I can
remember being in the reception area,
having just registered and with no
courage to speak to anyone so I just
read the abstract book over and over
again to look busy.
The physiology oral presentations were in
the morning and mine was scheduled in
the middle of the session, just before a
short break. I’d prepared my
presentation well in advance, had a lot of
feedback from my tutors and mentors,
and also had the opportunity to practise
a couple of times in front of a few
course-mates so, theoretically, I was all
26
set. The consensus from the feedback
was to trust my knowledge of the area
and keep the number of slides to a
minimum, just showing very brief key
points to talk around and some figures of
my data. This worked well in practice on
the train, but not so well in one of the
grand rooms at Harrow School!
In truth, I was very nervous about
presenting in front of other peers and
staff of other institutions, and the content
seemed to dissipate from my head
quicker than the perspiration. The result
was that my 12-minute presentation was
over in less than six! There were two
questions from the floor, the first from a
fellow student who asked about my
exercise protocol, which I managed to
answer with at least a little academic
merit. The chair of the session then
asked how I’d calculated one of my
descriptive variables. I answered in the
knowledge that he’d found a flaw in my
interpretation and explained why this
variable had not been adjusted.
Unfortunately, the chair remarked that
this was a fundamental error (it wasn’t...
but then I would say that!), and before I
had chance to explain why, the session
was closed with a quip about how the
break was now longer due to my rather
brief presentation.
There was another distinct memory from
that day. Directly after the break, I
returned to the session and sat at the
back of the room, hoping no-one would
recognise me. The next presenter was
clearly a talented postgraduate student,
but it wasn’t his presentation that
l Issue 18 l Dec 2008 l The Sport and Exercise Scientist
became etched into my memory; it was
two academics, obviously supporting
their respective students, who were
sitting together in front of me. As the
postgraduate student was introducing his
talk, one of the academics leaned over to
the other and said: “Leave this one
alone, would you? He’s one of mine.” It
hadn’t occurred to me that the Student
Conference might be competitive among
the students, let alone among staff!
The reason I have shared my
experiences with you is not to indulge in
self-pity or to apportion blame, but to
empathise with students’ anxieties. To my
mind the Student Conference is exactly
that – for students. We should recognise
that, for the majority of delegates, the
Student Conference is their first
experience of an academic networking
event, and whilst the Conference should
seek to maintain high academic
standards, this can be achieved in a
supportive and developmental context.
The academic delegates have a
responsibility to support their students
and provide positive and constructive
feedback to all of the other student
delegates. It will be the chair’s
responsibility to facilitate this process,
but we are appealing to all delegates to
encourage our philosophy.
I should say at this point that my
experiences should not be taken in a
negative context towards the host
institution. The facilities were excellent
and the standard of student
presentations was high. I’m sure the
poster presentations and exhibition fair
were also interesting, but I was too shy to
speak to anyone to get the most out of
them. Perhaps other students have the
same anxieties and this is another
potential barrier that may inhibit the
student experience of the Conference.
The organising committee at the
University of Hull have been thinking of
ways to break down this barrier. For
example, we are considering a short
“networking workshop” at the very start
of the Conference to give the student
delegates some tips and boost their
confidence. We are also hoping that by
joining the University of Hull BASES
Student Conference group on Facebook,
students will have the opportunity to
communicate with other delegates in
advance and become more familiar and
informed on the Conference
experience. www.bases.org.uk
STUDENT CONFERENCE
Get Involved!
We want student delegates to get
involved in the planning and running of
the Conference and there are a number
of ways for you to do this. We have set
up a short survey to get your opinions,
which can be accessed directly from a
link on the BASES website
(www.bases.org.uk/studentconf.asp)
where you can find much more
information about the Conference. We
want your thoughts on topics from what
speakers you’d like to see to what you
want to do in the social programme!
There is also the University of Hull
BASES Student Conference group on
Facebook for both the staff and student
delegates to connect and share ideas
and opinions prior to the event. Finally,
we are also exploring ways in which we
can involve the students more in their
Conference and are looking for students
interested in co-chairing scientific
sessions.
We also understand that the Conference
fee can be a barrier to potential
delegates so the price for full delegates
is just £90. This includes:
• 1 night’s bed and breakfast (extra
night available for just £25)
• 2-day delegates’ pack
• all lunches and refreshments
• 3-course conference banquet with
after-dinner speaker.
Dr Ric Lovell
Ric is a lecturer in sport and
environmental physiology at the
University of Hull. Ric is the
conference organiser for this
year’s event and would welcome
any questions, thoughts or
comments about the programme
([email protected]). S
SPORTS ACTION ICON
n
Athletes in competitio
www.bases.org.uk
Key Note Address: Stress and Coping in Sport
Prof Remco Polman provides an insight into his keynote presentation
which will focus on answering these two important questions:
What stressors do athletes experience and what is the most
effective way to deal with these stressors?
How best to help athletes to manage stress and how these
strategies are related to the stress coping process?
Participation in competitive sport has the
potential to be a stressful experience. While
it is obvious that major competitions may
augment this, athletes need the ability to
handle stressors and challenges to achieve
peak performance levels that will get them
to such events in the first place. Sport
psychology can play an important role in
reducing stress and increasing the ability of
the athlete to cope.
Although research has provided information
on the kind of performance and nonperformance stressors experienced by
athletes, it appears that a small number of
stressors recur or time. In addition, stressor
type differs between competition and
training and between sports (e.g., golf vs.
rugby). Fluctuations in the number of
stressors reported over time have also
been reported; more stressors are reported
during more important times of the season.
For an athlete to maintain performance
levels they must deploy a variety of coping
strategies to manage the stressors they
encounter.
Dealing with stress is one of the most
frequent interventions undertaken by sport
psychologists and the framework provided
by Lazarus and Folkman (1984) is
particular useful when working with
athletes. Coping with stress, in this view,
is a dynamic and recursive process in
which primary and secondary appraisals
are essential. If an individual appraises a
situation as harmful/loss, a threat,
challenge or benefit than secondary
appraisal will occur. This is the process of
analysing available coping options in
relation to the specific situation focussing
on minimizing harm and maximizing gains
or favourable outcomes. The athlete can
then use a number of coping strategies
which have been categorised within three
broad dimensions: Problem focussed (e.g.,
goal-setting or problem solving), emotion
focussed (deep breathing, regulate
emotional distress), avoidance coping
(behavioural or cognitive disengagement).
Personality has been considered a
contextual factor that can influence each
aspect of the stress-coping process. That
is, personality may affect coping
selection in a direct way, by restricting or
assisting the use of specific coping
strategies or in an indirect way by
influencing the type and intensity of the
stressors experienced or coping
effectiveness. In sport, research
Issue 18
regarding mental toughness has been
burgeoning in recent years. The
psychological qualities associated with
mental toughness are appealing to both
coaches and sport psychologists. Indeed,
researchers have claimed that mental
toughness is an important if not the most
important psychological characteristic in
achieving excellence in sport. In our
research we investigated the association
between coping, coping effectiveness and
mental toughness as defined by Clough et
al. (2002) (4C’s). This research found that
more mentally tough athletes reported to
use more problem-focused and less
emotion or avoidance coping strategies. In
addition, the problem focused coping
strategies were reported to be more
effective. Similar relationships were found
for the concept of optimism and
pessimism. The latter is important
because there is evidence that optimism
can be trained.
The sport psychologist can manage the
stress experienced by the athlete in a
number of ways. This could include
managing the environment (avoiding
stressful situations, social engineering),
building resourcefulness (increase mental
toughness; improve optimism), stressor
appraisal (individual athlete’s biased way
of thinking; optimism; attributional style),
and coping training (learning
psychological skills like visualisation,
breathing, progressive muscular
relaxation, goal-setting etc). In addition,
athletes could be taught to increase there
coping self-efficacy beliefs. Interventions
to manage stress should be considered as
life skills and is not limited to the domain
of sport performance. References
Clough, P. Earle, K. & D. Sewell, D. (2000). Mental
toughness: The concept and its measurement. In: I. Cockerill,
Solutions in sport psychology, Thomson, London, pp. 32-45.
Lazarus, R. S. & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress appraisal
and coping. New York: Springer.
Prof Remco Polman
Remco is Director, Centre
for Applied Sport &
Exercise Sciences,
University of Central
Lancashire. l Dec 2008 l The Sport and Exercise Scientist l 27
C H R I S T M A S F E AT U R E
Jolly, Fat and Fit: Are Santa Claus and his Good Wife Role Models
for the HAHA (Happy, Active? Healthy, Active lifestyle) Paradigm?
In light of adult obesity trends and as we approach Christmas, people’s focus drifts towards drink and diet.
Many will overeat before Christmas and establish a good diet and exercise programme as a New Year’s
resolution. Dr Sean Carroll, Erika Borkoles, and ProfRemco Polman take up the story of a parody
regarding weighty issues in the Santa Claus household…
S
anta’s apparent weight gain has
been chronicled from earlier
depictions of the thinner 4th
century Bishop of Myra, St Nicholas,
to his more recent depiction “with a
waistline so ample it required a belt
and suspenders” (Charles and Taylor,
1992). Indeed, scholars from a variety
of disciplines have written extensively
on the historic origins and evolving
body habitus of Santa Claus.
Reports in the popular media have raised the
question whether Santa’s jolly HOHO
(Happy, Overweight Happy, Obese)
persona could be at risk. Some researchers
have also concluded that Santa's “jolly, fat”
stereotype is most likely a myth. Citing
universal acceptance of Santa Claus’s North
Pole (Canada) residence, Craig et al. (2006)
undertook a weighty prospective study
among representative Canadian adults and
provided some insight as to why Santa
remains jolly despite his expanding girth.
Importantly, their findings showed that a
“healthy weight” pattern while remaining
“sedentary”
were associated with higher odds of a low
“Jolly Quotient” (JQ) than remaining or
becoming obese (more overweight) but
staying physically active in leisure time.
However, the validity of their JQ measure
(standardised mental health subscale of the
SF-36 Health Survey) has been debated
(McLachlan, 2006).
Santa’s homeland remains contentious, with
some reports locating him (as “Joulupukki”)
in the remote Korvatunturi mountains,
Finnish Lapland
(www.santaclausvillage.info/eng/main.htm).
News of Santa’s HAHA (Happy, Active ?
Healthy, Active lifestyle) might be important
given recent evidence that lower midlife
cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk is
associated with better life satisfaction and
happiness among elderly Finnish men.
Joulupukki has a wife, Joulumuori (Old Lady
Christmas), but she remains obscure in this
tradition. We have uncovered some
additional clues from literary folklore that
support the thesis that a HAHA factor could
balance the HOHO attributes in the Claus
household.
Alternative versions of the Santa mythos
often include Mrs Goody (“Goodwife”)
Claus, created in poetry by Katherine Lee
Bates (1889), in which Goody Claus has
often been portrayed as being fairly heavyset, in keeping with spousal similarities in
adiposity.
Within a randomised controlled trial (RCT),
we previously examined the effects of a
community-based non-dieting lifestyle
intervention among obese females (Carroll
et al., 2006). This trial (conceivably a
Supervised Low Exercise Intensity and Good
Healthy-eating [SLEIGH] intervention) was
designed in the framework of the selfdetermination theory. In festive mood, we
now look back to consider whether this
might explain why Goody Santa remains
jolly, despite her obesity. The study protocol
involved 3 months’ post-Christmas nondieting lifestyle intervention followed by 9
months’ maintenance. Participants were
randomised to intervention or a delayed
start waiting list control group for 3 months.
(With a vivid imagination, we randomised
from huge books containing precise records
of naughty or nice participants). The control
group were scheduled to commence the
SLEIGH ride phase after 3 months. The
SLEIGH intervention incorporated
elements of both lifestyle activity and a
Graduated Intensity Fitness Training
(GIFT) programme. Details of the lifestyle
programme have been published
previously (Carroll et al., 2006). This
HAHA treatment paradigm,
above all others, emphasises
the “jolliness factor”
together with other
lifestyle and cardiometabolic indicators
of wellness.
Briefly, results
showed body
weight (visualise
using an electronic
jingle bell digital
scale) decreased
modestly during the
SLEIGH ride. Maximal
.
respiratory data (V02 peak
oxygen consumption, ml.kg1.min-1) showed that SLEIGH
was also effective in inducing
significant Enhanced Lung Function
(ELF) fitness characteristics in the hardworking participants who completed the
testing programme (Figure 1a).
28
l Issue 18 l Dec 2008 l The Sport and Exercise Scientist
www.bases.org.uk
C H R I S T M A S F E AT U R E
Selected SLEIGH intervention results: 1a: Line graphs for the 3-month ELF fitness characteristics.
1b: 12-month data for total score of the GWB schedule, for the initial SLEIGH Intervention group () and the Delayed Start Control group ( ).
For our purposes, JQ was derived from
consideration of the global and relevant
subscales of Dupuy’s (1984) Psychological
General Well-Being (GWB) Schedule and
Messer and Harter’s (1984) Adult SelfPerception Profile (SPP). Subscales
considered from the GWB schedule
included “cheerful vs. depressed mood” and
“satisfying and interesting life”. The SPP
derived measures were “sociability”, “sense
of humour”, “provider” and “global selfworth”.
The SLEIGH group showed significant
improvements from baseline to the end of
the RCT phase for overall GWB (Figure 1b).
GWB subscales “cheerful mood” and
“satisfying life” showed a similar change for
the better (data not shown). Significant
increases in the SPP “global self-worth” scale
were evident compared with controls. All
participants improved significantly on the
GWB total and its subscales “cheerful mood”
and “satisfying life” after 12 months’
intervention.
“Recent evidence indicates that
adequate levels of either
occupational or leisure time
physical activity, or both, can
protect against premature CVD
CVD in overweight and obese
Finnish men and women.”
Our study results (Carroll et al., 2006) may
help explain why a physically active
Goodwife Claus, albeit still obese, was likely
to remain jolly. Despite the fact that there
were no significant changes in weight status,
over a year following a non-dieting SLEIGH
intervention, a significantly improved JQ was
observed. Consistent with prospective
findings (Craig et al., 2006), we have shown
corresponding improvements in the
“cheerful” vs. “depressive mood” and
“satisfying and interesting life” as features of
an improved jolly persona. Furthermore,
among all participants followed until the
following Christmas, growing cheerfulness
was accompanied by increased “sociability”
and “global self-worth”, arguably more
www.bases.org.uk
enduring traits (data not shown). Taken
together, these findings suggest a substantial
longer-term improvement in the JQ.
Higher ELF fitness (Figure 1a) has been
associated with a better cardiovascular risk
factor profile, regardless of the level of
abdominal obesity. Indeed, recent evidence
indicates that adequate levels of either
occupational or leisure time physical activity,
or both, can protect against premature CVD
in overweight and obese Finnish men and
women. Occupational physical activity
appears to be the foundation for jolly
Goodwife Santa. By contrast, how Santa
remains active around the North Pole
requires further elucidation. Investigations
may be in progress by the Centre for Arctic
Medicine at the University of Oulu
(http://arctichealth.oulu.fi/suomi/esittely_engs
ummary.html). As suggested by Craig et al.
(2006), Santa’s vigorous reindeer-supported
leisure time activity (strict fitness regime like
other racing drivers) may hold the key to his
life satisfaction. Moreover, varied
psychosocial aspects of pet ownership may
contribute to Santa’s perceived well-being.
Interestingly, the human-companion animal
bond and the social support of pets evidently
contributed to the effectiveness of the
combined People and Pets Exercising
Together (PPET) programme.
The current study provides additional
support for a non-dieting HAHA approach to
weight management. However, typical of
many other SLEIGH and weight-loss
interventions, this study has inherent
limitations, in Christmas stocking terms, “a
tear, I fancy. Holes in stocking, heel and toe?”
(also extracted from the “Goody Santa”
poem). Accordingly, our findings should be
viewed in light of study limitations imposed
by a different REINDEER effect, namely that
of the “REporting of INcomplete Data on
pEER” review (Ware, 2003). Given that
fitness and life satisfaction serve as general
health risk indicators in healthy Finnish adults,
a HAHA approach can improve ELF fitness
characteristics and JQ independent of weight
loss. Unfortunately, our SLEIGH ride
intervention was unable to improve
Issue 18
participants’ self-perceived “humour” or
“provider role” (data not presented). This
may cause some disappointment on Santa
and Goody’s symbolic gift-giving trip. Future
SLEIGH intervention studies may require
additional cognitive-behavioural therapy
provided by the Rovaniemi elves!
Our RCT findings support the HAHA theory
that Goody Santa is likely to be jolly because
she is physically active. We concur with Craig
et al. (2006) that “the carousing Christmas
corollary for us and our coronaries is to ask
Santa to bring us all the special GIFT of an
active lifestyle”. References
Bates, K.L. (1889). Goody Santa Claus on a Sleigh Ride.
Boston: D. Lothrop Co.
Carroll, S., Borkoles, E. & Polman, R. (2007).
Short-term effects of a non-dieting lifestyle intervention
programme on weight, cardio-metabolic risk and psychological
well-being in obese pre-menopausal females with the metabolic
syndrome. Applied Physiology Nutrition Metabolism, 32, 125–142.
Charles, B.F. & Taylor, J.R. (1992). Dream of Santa:
Haddon Sundblom's Advertising Painting for Christmas,
1931–1964. New York: Random House.
Craig, C.L. et al. (2006). Holiday waistline. Jolly, fit and
fat: Should we be singing the “Santa Too Fat Blues”? Canadian
Medical Association Journal, 175,1563–1566.
McLachlan, C.S. (2006). A “Jolly Fat” psychological
dimension by examining depression? Canadian Medical Association
Journal, Electronic letter published: 22 December 2006).
Ware, J.H. (2003). Interpreting incomplete data in studies
of diet and weight loss. New England Journal of Medicine, 348,
2136–2137.
Biographies
Dr Sean Carroll
Sean is a Reader, Carnegie Research Institute, Leeds
Metropolitan University wrote the manuscript on
Christmas holiday last year. Ms Erika Borkoles
Erika is a Senior Lecturer, Carnegie Faculty of Sport &
Education, designed and delivered the post-Christmas
SLEIGH intervention (in the framework of the Santa-Self
Determination Theory). Professor Remco Polman
Remco is Director, Centre for Applied Sport & Exercise
Sciences, University of Central Lancashire, and performs
statistical analyses on his electronic Christmas present,
typically on Christmas day. l Dec 2008 l The Sport and Exercise Scientist l 29
CONFERENCE REPORT
Using Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Technology to Provide
Insights into Respiratory Control During Exercise
Prof Andy Jones, a fellow of BASES, reports on work supported by a BASES International Travel Grant
that was presented at the European College of Sport Science (ECSS) Congress in Estoril, Portugal
At the University of Exeter, we have access to a
“state-of-the-art” 1.5 Tesla superconducting
magnet, which is jointly “owned” by the Schools
of Medicine, Psychology, Physics, and Sport and
Health Sciences (Figure 1). The scanner provides
outstanding opportunities for novel research in
sport and exercise physiology including, for
example, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or
magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) to
determine acute and chronic changes in skeletal
or cardiac muscle in response to exercise,
training, injury, or disease.
We have recently conducted a number of studies
using 31phosphorus MRS (31P-MRS) to provide
insight into the control of oxidative metabolism
during exercise (e.g., Jones et al., 2007; 2008a;
2008b; 2008c). This technique enables the
concentrations of ATP, ADP, Pi, PCr, and H+ (i.e.,
pH) to be estimated non-invasively, in real time,
and with high temporal resolution (typically every
6 seconds). For obvious reasons, this is a major
advance over conventional techniques such as
muscle biopsies.
My research interests over the last 15 years or so
have surrounded the control of, and limitations
.
to, oxygen uptake (V02 ), and the implications of
these constraints for exercise performance. One
.
focus has been the “kinetics” with which V02
rises towards the expected “steady-state” value
for the imposed work rate. It has been shown
.
previously that the rate at which V02 rises
following the onset of constant-work-rate
exercise is rather similar to the rate at which
muscle [PCr] falls (Rossiter et al., 2002). This
data suggests that the control of mitochondrial
respiration is linked, at least in part, to a
metabolic signal arising from the breakdown of
ATP at the cross bridges and ion pumps.
One popular theory of respiratory control is
expounded in the “electrical analog model”
introduced by Ron Meyer in 1988. In this model,
.
the rate at which muscle [PCr] falls (and V02
rises) is described as a function of the
mitochondrial “resistance” and the metabolic
“capacitance”. A greater mitochondrial volume,
brought about, for example, by a period of
endurance training, would be predicted to result
.
in faster [PCr] and V02 kinetics. On the other
hand, an increase in metabolic capacitance
30
The purpose of our study was to address
muscle total creatine content)
fundamental mechanisms of respiratory control in
would be predicted to result in
skeletal muscle during exercise, and the practical
.
slower [PCr] and V02 kinetics.
applications of the work are therefore limited.
This latter prediction has yet to
However, if, as seems likely, dietary creatine
be directly tested, at least in
supplementation does indeed result in a small
.
human participants.
but significant slowing of muscle V02 kinetics,
then this might result in the incurrence of a
In a recent study, presented at
slightly greater 02 deficit. Although a greater 02
the ECSS Congress in July, we
deficit
would normally be associated with
used 31P-MRS to examine the
impaired exercise performance, this would be
influence of dietary creatine
offset by the increased non-oxidative energy
supplementation on muscle
available through the increased muscle [PCr]
[PCr] kinetics. Creatine loading
brought about by creatine loading. Indeed, in
has previously been shown to
non-weight-bearing activities, creatine loading
result in an increase in muscle total creatine
should enhance performance potential because
content and, thus, this intervention provides a
muscle [PCr] would remain higher throughout
sound means by which one of the predictions of
exercise performed at a given absolute work rate
the electrical analogue model can be tested.
(and throughout subsequent recovery). We asked our participants to complete bouts of
moderate-intensity and high-intensity
100
knee-extension exercise while situated
80
Tau = 47s
inside the bore of the magnet. The
participants lay in the prone position and
60
Tau = 38s
were strapped to the bed of the scanner
40
with the coil situated underneath the right
20
quadriceps muscle. A non-magnetic
CREATINE
CONTROL
weight was then lifted and lowered over a
0
-60
0
60
120
180
240
300
360
measured distance at a rate of 40
T ime (s )
repetitions per minute, permitting the
work rate to be calculated. The moderate- Figure 2: Muscle [PCr] kinetics during heavy exercise before and
after a period of dietary creatine supplementation.
and high-intensity exercise bouts were
performed both before and after a 7-day period in
References
which the participants supplemented their diet
Jones, A.M. et al. (2007). Influence of endurance training
with 20g of creatine monohydrate per day.
on muscle [PCr] kinetics during high-intensity exercise. American
Journal of Physiology: Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative
The ratio of PCr to ATP was significantly
Physiology, 293, R392–R401.
increased (by around 8%) following creatine
Jones, A.M. et al. (2007). Muscle metabolic responses to
supplementation, indicating that the intervention
exercise above and below the critical power assessed using 31P-MRS.
was successful in increasing muscle [PCr]. For
American
Journal of Physiology: Regulatory, Integrative and
moderate-intensity exercise, the time constant
Comparative Physiology, 294, R585–R593.
describing the rate at which [PCr] fell following
Jones, A.M. et al. (2007). Influence of prior exercise on
the onset of exercise was (mean ± SD) 16 ± 9
muscle [phosphocreatine] and deoxygenation kinetics during highs before and 24 ± 9 s after creatine
intensity exercise in humans. Experimental Physiology, 93, 468–478.
supplementation; that is, the [PCr] kinetics, as
Jones, A.M., Wilkerson, D.P. & Fulford, J. (2008).
hypothesised, were significantly slower following
Muscle [phosphocreatine] dynamics following the onset of exercise: the
creatine loading. Similarly, for high-intensity
influence of baseline work rate. Journal of Physiology, 586, 889–898.
exercise, the [PCr] kinetics were significantly
Meyer, R.A. (1988). A linear model of muscle respiration
slower following creatine supplementation (51 ±
explains monoexponential phosphocreatine changes. American
17 vs. 62 ± 34 s; see Figure 2).
Journal of Physiology, 254, C548–53.
This study has shown, for the first time in
Rossiter, H.B. et al. (2002). Dynamic asymmetry of
phosphocreatine concentration and O2 uptake between the on-and
humans, that increasing muscle total creatine
off-transients of moderate- and high-intensity exercise in humans.
content through Cr-loading resulted in slower
.
Journal of Physiology, 541, 991–1002. muscle [PCr] (and presumably V02 ) kinetics
across the transition from rest to exercise. This
data was consistent with our hypothesis and
support Meyer’s electrical analogue model of
Andrew is a fellow of BASES
respiratory control. The data indicates that the
and professor of applied
muscle metabolic capacitance is an important
physiology in the School of
mediator of the “inertia” to oxidative metabolism
Sport and Health Sciences at
that is evident in the transition from rest to
the University of Exeter. He
exercise, with PCr hydrolysis temporally buffering
holds BASES High
Performance Sport
the stimuli (such as ADP concentration or the
Accreditation. phosphorylation potential) to the rate of
mitochondrial respiration.
l Issue 18 l Dec 2008 l The Sport and Exercise Scientist
[P C r]
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MRI scanner (analogous to an increase in
Andrew Jones
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