Kaplan University Writing Center

Transcription

The Sentence
A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought. This resource covers the essential
sentence grammar and sentence types that writers use to communicate effectively.
Table of Contents
Sentence Basics
Sentence Structure
Word order
Subjects and predicates
Sentence Types
Simple Sentences
 Independent clauses
Compound
 Conjunctions (FANBOYS)
 Semicolons
Complex
 Dependent Clauses
Compound-Complex
Sentence Combining
Relative Clauses (that, which, who…)
Absolute Phrases
Appositive Phrases
Sentence Basics
A sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with an exclamation point, question mark, or period.
The punctuation along with any question or command words indicate the kind of sentence it is.
Table 1. Four Kinds of Sentences
Kind
Function
Examples
Declarative
Makes a statement
The United States is located in North America.
Interrogative
Asks a question
What time is it? “What” is a question word.
Exclamatory
Expresses strong emotion
I hope you have a wonderful day!
Imperative
Gives direction or an order
Tell them to open the door. “Tell” is a command word.
Sentence Structure
Writing effective sentences begins by using accurate word order. The
importance of word order can be seen in this example: sky blue the is. To
be logical, the words must be reordered to the sky is blue. In English word
order, the subject (sky) comes before the verb (is). Additionally, the word
the (an article) comes before a word like sky (a noun) but never before a
word like is (a verb). Refer to the Word Order1 tutorial in the KU Writing
Center for more details and examples of word order in English.
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Word Order in Sentences with podcast: http://bit.ly/XMavui
Kaplan University Writing Center Resource Library • Sentences V2_C. Rios • September 2014 • Page 1
© 2014 Kaplan University Writing Center, All Rights Reserved. Photography © Clipart.com
Subjects and Predicates
Sentences have two parts: a subject and a predicate. The subject is usually the topic of the sentence,
and the predicate typically comments on what the subject is doing or describes the subject’s state of
being. Try to divide the following sentences into their subjects and predicates:
1) Diana left.
2) The local library is closed on Sundays.
3) The television in the kitchen doesn’t have cable.
Table 2. Division of Subject and Predicate
Subject
Predicate
1) Diana
2) The local library
3) The television in the kitchen
left.
is closed on Sundays.
doesn’t have cable.
Subjects can be nouns, pronouns, noun phrases, gerunds, or infinitives2.
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Table 3. Types of Sentence Subjects
Noun
Pronoun
Noun Phrase
Infinitive3
Gerund
Mary introduced her boyfriend.
They won the game.
The giant steel workboat left port at noon.
To wait seemed like a waste of time.
Winning felt great!
To test if you have identified the subject, replace it with a pronoun (I, you, he, she, it, we, they):
Table 4. Pronoun Substitution to Identify the Subject
Subject Pronoun
She
It
It
It
Predicate
introduced her boyfriend.
left port at noon.
seemed like a waste of time.
felt great!
Once you have determined the subject, the remainder of the sentence is the predicate. Please note that
imperatives have an unstated/unwritten subject. Examples:
1) Smile!
2) Please take out the garbage.
In these sentences, the subject is understood as “you” (the audience/reader):
3) (You) smile!
4) (You) please take out the garbage.
Back to Table of Contents
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Gerunds and infinitives are explained in the KUWC Verbs resource: http://bit.ly/1cNsnc5
Subjects can be one word (Shawn) or a phrase with different kinds of words (the fiddler playing an Irish
folk song for his son). What they always contain, however, is a pronoun4 (she, it, understood you) or a
noun (violin, cats, peace). A noun is a person, place, thing, or idea. Read through the following:
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1) Ball broke window.
2) Friend sofa is blue.
3) Neighborhood house have lawn.
Rewrite the sentences so they make sense:
1)
2)
3)
Table 5. Possible Revisions to Make the Sentences Grammatical
1) The ball broke a window. A ball broke the window. His ball broke my window.
2) My friend’s sofa is purple. A friend’s sofa is purple.
3) Our neighborhood’s houses have lawns.
The revisions show that to be grammatical, nouns can be made
 plural to show there is more than one, usually by adding –s;
 possessive to show ownership, usually by adding -‘s; and
 more specific by adding determiners such as “the,” “a/an,” “my,” “his,” “that,” and “our” that
determine which noun you are talking about (his house vs. my house). Refer to the KUWC
Articles5 resource for more details about using determiners.
Writing errors involving nouns usually occur when the noun is missing the plural -s, possessive -‘s, a
determiner, or is incorrectly capitalized. Refer to the Nouns6, Plurals7, Possessives8, and Capitalization9
tutorials to help you identify these issues, as well as for ways to edit and avoid noun errors.
Predicates can also be one word (played) or a phrase (had been planning his vacation). What they
always contain, however, is a verb. A previous activity split sentences into subjects and predicates. In
the following sentences, the predicate verb is in bold:
Table 6. Predicates Must Have a Conjugated Verb
Subject
Predicate
1) Diana
2) The local library
3) The television in the kitchen
4
Pronouns: http://bit.ly/1rvdnZC
Articles: http://bit.ly/1lZ6N9c
6
Nouns: http://bit.ly/1mJhvxA
7
Plurals: http://bit.ly/1tMRl13
8
Possessives: http://bit.ly/1p5W3m4
9
Capitalization: http://bit.ly/1undUuu
left.
is open on Sundays.
doesn’t have cable.
5
Read through the following sentences:
1) Ruby walk her dog yesterday.
2) My son play video games right now.
3) His family go to the beach tomorrow.
4) I not want to go to the party, but I make an appearance.
5) Maggie stay home, or she go out with friends.
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Now, rewrite the sentences so they make sense:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Table 7. Possible Revisions to Make the Sentences Grammatical
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Ruby walked her dog yesterday.
My son is playing video games right now.
His family will go to the beach tomorrow.
I do not want to go to the party, but I should make an appearance.
Maggie could stay home, or she could go out with friends.
The revisions show that to be grammatical, verbs can express
 a past action by adding –ed;
 an action in progress by adding a form of “to be” (is, am, are, was, were, had been…) before the
verb and -ing to the end of it;
 a future action by adding “will” before it;
 obligation by adding “should” or possibility by adding “could” before it; and
 a particular meaning by having a preposition attached (“go out”). This is called a “phrasal verb.”
For more details and examples of verb forms, tenses, helping verbs such as “is” and “should,” and
phrasal verbs, please refer to the KUWC resource on Verbs10.
Sentence Types
There are four basic types of sentences: simple, compound, complex, and compound complex. Writers
use simple sentences to state single points. The other sentence types allow writers to show
relationships between two or more ideas, presenting them as equal with a compound sentence or
emphasizing one point over another with a complex sentence. Varying sentence types also helps you
develop cohesive paragraphs and a sophisticated writing style.
10
Verbs: http://bit.ly/1cNsnc5
Simple Sentences
A “simple” sentence has one subject and one predicate and is the core of every other sentence type;
however, we call a “simple sentence” an “independent clause” when it is part of another sentence type.
Independent Clauses
Every sentence, to be complete, must have at least one independent clause. A clause is independent
when it has a subject and predicate that together expresses a complete thought.
Examples:
 The candidate gave a speech. The *object, “a speech,” completes the thought.
 Alternative health care is popular. The *subject complement, “popular,” completes the thought.
 Children should not watch violence on television. The object, “violence,” completes the thought.
 Bears hibernate. The subject and verb alone express a complete thought in this simple sentence.
*Refer to Transitive and Intransitive Verbs on the KUWC Verbs resource to learn which verb types
require an object or complement to complete the thought.
A simple sentence is made of one “independent clause”: Subject + predicate.
Table 8. Subject + Predicate = A Simple Sentence
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Subject
Mary
Laura and Brett
Gus
Predicate
told a story to her friends.
came home for the holidays.
works and studies in New York.
Compound Sentences
A compound sentence builds on the simple sentence to express two or more complete ideas. It is made
with at least two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction.
Table 9. Subject + Predicate, + Conjunction (conj.) + Subject + Predicate = A Compound Sentence
Subject
Mary
Laura and Brett
Gus
Predicate
told a story to her friends,
came home for the holidays,
works and studies in New York,
Conj.
and
so
but
Subject
the conclusion
our household
his family
Predicate
was hilarious.
was very busy.
lives in New Jersey.
Additional independent clauses can be added to a compound sentence with additional conjunctions.
Table 9a. Three Independent Clauses Joined with Conjunctions
Peter did not study, so he received a low grade on the exam, yet he still may pass the class.
Coordinating Conjunctions. There are seven coordinating conjunctions: for, and, nor, but, or, yet,
and so. To remember them, use the acronym, FANBOYS, made from the first letter of each conjunction.
A coordinating conjunction that joins clauses together must have a comma before it.
Table 10. Examples of a Comma + Coordinating Conjunction Joining Independent Clauses
I love Florida
,
Marcus was very late
,
Tim does not like playing football ,
Cessie studied hard
,
You can pick me up at the airport ,
Mary loved the wedding dress
,
George got up early
,
for
it is always warm there.
and he missed seeing Amanda.
nor
does he like watching it.
but
she did not get a good grade on the exam.
or
I can take a taxi.
yet
she did not buy it.
so
he had plenty of time in the morning.
*Position the comma directly after the last word of the first clause, and then click the space key before
writing the conjunction: Independent clause, and independent clause.
Semicolons. Another way to connect independent clauses is with a semicolon11 (;).
Table 11. Independent Clauses Joined with a Semicolon
I saw Ottmar Libert in concert ; the music was fantastic.
The bus ran late today
; the new driver was unfamiliar with the route.
*Position the semicolon directly after the last word of the first clause; the next clause follows and does
not begin with a capital letter since the semicolon combines the clauses into one compound sentence.
Commonly, the clause following the semicolon will begin with a conjunctive adverb to show the
relationship between the joined clauses. A comma goes after the conjunctive adverb.
Table 11a. Independent Clauses joined with a Semicolon and Conjunctive Adverb
I wrote my friend a letter
; however, I still need to buy a stamp to send it.
Anna did not take piano lessons ; instead,
she surprised us by taking violin.
Table 12. Common Conjunctive Adverbs
Common Conjunctive Adverbs
accordingly
additionally
also
besides
consequently
finally
furthermore
elsewhere
equally
hence
in addition
in comparison
in contrast
indeed
instead
likewise
meanwhile
moreover
namely
nevertheless
now
otherwise
rather
similarly
still
subsequently
then
thereafter
therefore
thus
11
Jump to Sentence Combining
Semicolons: http://bit.ly/1bkgzIP
Complex Sentences
The Complex Sentence has one independent (main) clause and one dependent (subordinate) clause.
A dependent clause has a subject and verb, but it does NOT express a complete idea. Compare the
difference:
1. I like to study math. (Subject + predicate = complete idea)
2. Because I am good with numbers. (Subordinate conjunction + subject + predicate =
incomplete idea.)
1. I like to study math because I am good with numbers.
2. Because I am good with numbers, I like to study math.
Complex Sentences have two basic structures as the above two examples show.
1. Independent clause + dependent clause.
When an independent clause begins the sentence, a comma typically does not come before the
subordinate clause; however, the subordinator, “although,” is an exception.
Table 13. Complex Sentences with an Independent Clause before the Dependent Clause
Independent
Subject Predicate
Dependent
Subordinator
Subject
Predicate
Jill
received a good grade
because
she
studied hard.
Ryan
played basketball
when
he
was in high school.
until
they
fall asleep.
masks
were not required.
Puppies play nonstop
Mimi
wore a mask to swim practice, although
2. Dependent clause + independent clause.
When the dependent clause begins the sentence, a comma comes before the independent clause.
Table 14. Complex Sentences with a Dependent Clause before the Independent Clause
Dependent
Subordinator
Subject
Predicate,
Independent
Subject
Predicate
Because
Jill
studied hard,
she
received a good grade.
Unless
it
rains,
the concert
will begin at dusk.
Wherever
he
goes,
his puppy
follows.
Even if
the hardcover edition
costs more,
I
will still to buy the book.
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Dependent clauses depend on independent clauses to complete their ideas. Examples:
A subordinate conjunction (subordinator) connects the independent and dependent clauses in complex
sentences. To determine if a clause is dependent, identify the subject and verb. Does a subordinate
conjunction come before them? If so, the clause is dependent and must be attached to an independent
clause to complete the thought and avoid a fragment12.
Table 15. Common Subordinate Conjunctions Before a Dependent (Subordinate) Clause
Common Subordinate Conjunctions
Subordinate Conjunctions
Function
Examples of Complex Sentences
after, as, before, once, until,
while, when, whenever
To indicate time
As Mary cooked, Mario cleaned his
car.
where, wherever
To indicate place
John went to school where he
worked.
as if, even if, if, than, unless,
whether
To indicate condition
I will go to the beach unless it rains.
although, even though, rather
than, though, whereas
To indicate contrast
Although it rained, they enjoyed
their walk.
as, because, in order that,
provided that, since, so that,
that, why
To indicate cause and
effect
He was late because his car broke
down.
Subordinate Clause or Prepositional Phrase?
Sometimes, the same words used as “subordinators” are “prepositions.” The difference is that a
subordinator is the first word of a clause that has a subject and verb. Prepositional phrases provide
details about a subject or verb and are typically made of a preposition plus a noun phrase or “object” of
the preposition.
Examples
“Before” as a subordinator: I ate dinner before I went to bed. (I = subject, went = verb)
“Before” as a preposition: Part A needs to be installed before part B. (“part B” = noun phrase)
For more information and examples of prepositions and prepositional phrases, please refer to the KUWC
resource on prepositions13.
Compound-Complex Sentences
The Compound-Complex Sentence combines two or more independent clauses and one or more
dependent clauses to form one sentence.
12
13
Fragments: http://bit.ly/18oFKu3
Prepositions: http://bit.ly/1xPkXBf
The following examples illustrate compound-complex sentences. The independent clauses forming the
compound structures are in bold, and the dependent clauses forming the complex structures are in
italics. The connecting words (conjunctions and subordinators) are in regular font.
1) Jordan went to the Writing Center, and a tutor helped her revise her thesis
statement before her paper was due.
2) Although Amanda is majoring in engineering, she likes history very much, so she
reads history books in her free time.
3) Lawrence forgot to lock the door when he left the house, but he left early enough
that he could return home and lock it without being late for work.
4) Cessie took longer than expected to finish her proposal, and this upset her because
she did not have time to consult with a tutor about her conclusion before it was due.
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Sentence Combining
The four sentence types illustrate ways multiple clauses can form a single sentence. In fact, combining
sentences is an approach to editing. The objective is to make your meanings clear, your wording concise,
and your sentences cohesive (where one idea clearly connects to the next). Use the following template
as a guide for combining sentences. Each line represents one independent clause (a simple sentence).
Table 16. Sentence Combining Template
A) _________________________________; _________________________________.
B) ______________________, coordinating conjunction_______________________.
(for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)
C) ________________________; conjunctive adverb, ________________________
(also, anyway, besides, certainly, finally, furthermore, however, incidentally,
indeed, instead, likewise, meanwhile, moreover, namely, nevertheless,
next, now, otherwise, similarly, still, then, therefore, thus, undoubtedly)
D) Subordinating conjunction _____________________, _____________________.
OR _____________________ subordinating conjunction _____________________.
(after, although, as, as if, because, before, even though, if, in order that,
once, since, so that, than, that, though, unless, until, when, where, while)
Table 17. Sample Sentences Using the Sentence Combining Template
A) Marta played an Irish folk song during the recital; her performance was flawless!
B) The audience gave Marta a standing ovation, so she played an encore song on her violin.
C) I didn’t recognize the tune she played; however, I enjoyed it very much.
D) Because her encore performance was superb, I wish it had been longer.
Or I wish her encore performance had been longer because it was superb.
Relative Clauses (That, Which, Who, Whom, and Whose)
Another way to combine sentences is with relative clauses (also called adjective clauses), which are a
type of dependent clause that has a subject and verb but cannot stand alone as a simple sentence. A
relative clause begins with a relative pronoun such as “that,” “which,” or “who” and is embedded in
the middle of another clause to identify or provide more information about a noun—a person or thing.
Table 18. Relative Pronouns and Relative Clauses
Relative
Pronouns
Examples of Combining Sentences with Relative Clauses
That
Two sentences: A stray cat has been sleeping on our porch. It has fluffy gray fur.
Combined: A stray cat that has fluffy gray fur has been sleeping on our porch.
Two sentences: My neighbor’s house is for sale. It has a swimming pool in the back yard.
Combined: My neighbor’s house, which has a swimming pool in the back yard, is for sale.
Two sentences: At the park, a boy ran back and forth in front of us. He was flying a kite.
Combined: At the park, a boy who was flying a kite ran back and forth in front of us.
Two sentences: My Aunt Sally turns 90 this year. Our whole family adores her.
Combined: My Aunt Sally, whom our whole family adores, turns 90 this year.
Two sentences: I bought a book for my husband. His birthday is tomorrow.
Combined: I bought a book for my husband whose birthday is tomorrow.
Which
Who
Whom
Whose
Absolute Phrases
Absolute Phrases
Another sentence-combining strategy is to turn one sentence into an absolute phrase and attach it to
another. An absolute phrase has a subject but only a partial verb; it is missing the auxiliary “be” verb (is,
are, was, were), so it cannot stand alone as a simple sentence. Most absolute phrases begin with a
possessive pronoun (my, your, his, her, its, our, their); however, sometimes this possessive pronoun is
only implied. The following sentences, written by published authors, illustrate the use of absolute
phrases. In the third one, the personal pronoun is implied.
Table 19. Examples of Absolute Phrases in Published Literature
The boy watched, his eyes bulging in the dark. (Edmund Ware, “An Underground Episode”)
Noiselessly Lenny appeared in the open doorway and stood there looking in, his big shoulders nearly
filling the opening. (John Steinbeck, Of Mice and Men)
The good dogs came stiffly out of their little house, [their] hackles up and deep growls in their throats.
(John Steinbeck, The Red Pony)
His hands raw, he reached a flat place at the top. (Richard Connell, “The Most Dangerous Game”)
Sentence Combing Activity: Absolute Phrases
Now, you try it. How can you combine the following sentences by using an absolute phrase? Try it
yourself before you look at the possible answers.
1. Ann’s face was very red. She could not hear what they were saying.
2. He was wearing a straw hat. He stood outside the closed door of the farmhouse a
long time.
Possible Answers for Sentence Combining Activity: Absolute Phrases
1. Her face very red, Ann could not hear what they were saying.
2. He stood outside the closed door of the farmhouse a long time, his straw hat on his
head.
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Appositive Phrases
You can also combine sentences by turning one into an appositive phrase, which is formed with an
appositive noun plus any modifiers (words that describe). An appositive noun is one that renames
another noun. The following sentences, written by published authors, illustrate the use of appositive
phrases.
Table 20. Examples of Appositive Phrases in Published Literature
Poppa, a good quiet man, spent the last hours before our parting moving aimlessly about the yard,
keeping to himself and avoiding me. (Gordon Parks, “My Mother’s Dream for Me”)
There was a sizable number of well-read inmates, especially the popular debaters. (Malcolm X, The
Autobiography of Malcolm X)
One of eleven brothers and sisters, Harriet was a moody, willful child. (Langston Hughes, “Road to
Freedom”)
Sentence Combing Activity: Appositive Phrases
Now, you try it. How can you combine the following sentences by using an appositive phrase? Try it
yourself before you look at the possible answers.
1. The old woman had difficulty climbing out of the high-sided bathtub. The old woman
was a cook with white hair and thin bones.
2. He was halfway to his horse. He heard the sound of Indian war whoops in the
distance.
Possible Answers for Sentence Combining Activity: Appositive Phrases
1. The cook, an old woman with white hair and thin bones, had difficulty climbing
out of the high-sided bathtub.
2. Halfway to his horse he heard the sound, Indian war whoops in the distance.
© Clipart.com

Kaplan University Writing Center

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