Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape
Transcription
Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape
Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Nitra 2014 –1– Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Tirážna strana –2– Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering MANIFESTATIONS CAUSED BY SALT AEROSOL ON SHOOTS AND BUDS OF STREET SIDE LIMES Jacek BOROWSKI*, Małgorzata Pstrągowska, Tatiana Swoczyna Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW, Poland The aim of this work is to examine whether salt aerosol and the distance of tree planting have an impact on the development of shoots and buds of lime trees planted beside main communications arteries in Warsaw. Examined trees grew at different distances from the edge of the roadway (3 m, 10 m, 30 m). The level of the salinity was examined with the conductometry method, and the development of trees was measured by direct observation. Examinations showed that road salt in the form of saline spray, as well as the distance of planting from communications arteries have an impact on the normal development of trees and the amount of salt ions accumulated by them. Keywords: Salt spray, deformation of tree crowns, salinity of shoots, salinity of buds, Tilia sp. Introduction In recent years, there has been observed considerable increase the degradation of urban trees, in particular those planted close to roads. One of the main reasons for this is the increase in the amount of salt used in the chemical de-icing of streets. The early days of combating snow and ice chemically, in the winter of 1969/1970, 68.6 tons of mixture made up of 95% NaCl and 5% of CaCl2 were used. By 1970 damage to the city‘s trees was already noticeable. Instructions were then prepared to specify how chemicals should be applied. Road salt it still being used, in spite of the fact that it destabilises the balance of the soil, and is clearly a cause of the death of trees (Czerwiński, 1978). The intention of the regulations issued by the Polish Minister of the Environment from 2005 was that various substances could be used on the city‘s roads and squares, including chemicals, but in practice salt is used almost exclusively. The use of salt can cause damage in various ways. A common phenomenon is the necrosis of the edges of leaves, evident as early as August. A second symptom is a delay in the growth of young shoots, followed by them quickly dying back and falling off (Bach and Pawłowska, 2007). It has also been observed that at the end of August there were considerably fewer leaves remaining compared to those evident in spring. A large proportion of leaves showed damage and fell, some of which were replaced by young leaves which showed peripheral damage through necrosis. The deformations were also evident in the crowns of trees, in particular their central parts. In some up to *Correspodence: 80–90% dying shoots were observed. Similar results were observed by researchers analyzing the health of limes at the Avenue of Our Lady in Częstochowa (Bach et al., 2007). These phenomena were without doubt as a result of an overdose of salt, not only in the soil (Ruge, 1978). Salinity seems to be one of the most serious causes of dieback and death in Polish street trees. Much research, among others Dmuchowski and Badurek (2004), indicated that the application of Sodium Chloride affects the chemical make up of leaves, however that the reaction of plants can be variable (Breś, 2008). Marosz and Nowak (2008) stated that limes are particularly sensitive. Zimmerman and Jull (2006) claimed that the buds of limes are the most vulnerable to saline spray of three species tested. Salt acts not only through the roots. The salt distributed on the road or as saline solution, as a result of traffic, becomes spray and settles on the shoots and buds of trees. Pracz (1990), Cunningham et al. (2007) and Borowski and Pstrągowska (2010) wrote about this negative influence on the growth of trees. The snowy and long winter of 2009/2010 meant that the streets of Warsaw were treated with salt many more times than in previous years. c. 72 million złoty (over 17 million euro) was spent, twice what was spent in 2006/2007. It was after that winter of 2009/2010 that we conducted our research. The aim of this research was to show the scope and influence of salt in the form of spray on the development of two species of lime growing along main communication arteries of Warsaw. Jacek Borowski, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW, Department of Environmental Protection, ul. Nowoursynowska 159, 02-776 Warszawa, Poland, e-mail: [email protected] Jacek Borowski, Małgorzata Pstrągowska, Tatiana Swoczyna: Manifestations caused by salt aerosol on shoots and buds of street side limes, pp. 3–6 –3– Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Material and methods Choice of trees Figure 1 Salinity on the surface of buds of lime trees at different distances from the street, and in the forest Source: http://botany.cz/cs/cornus-mas/s Figure 2 Salinity on the surface of shoots of lime trees at different distances from the street, and in the forest Source: http://botany.cz/cs/cornus-mas/s Figure 3 Tilia cordata and T. platyphyllos were chosen as the limes to be the subject of salt spray research along Władysław Sikorski and Żwirki and Wigury avenues as well as Jan III Sobieski street. These chosen arteries belong to amongst the busiest streets: 3116–3487 vehicles / hour, 1477–3791 vehicles / hour, 1133–1648 vehicles during evening rush hour (according to the Planning Office for the Development of Warsaw). By way of verification trees were assessed in the Kabaty Forest reserve in southern Warsaw, this is the largest forest reserve in the Mazowia Voivodship. On all of these streets the distance between the roadway and the nearest row of trees was less than 3 m. On two of these streets material was used from trees growing 10 and 30 metres from the road. Shoots and buds were taken from both the road side of the tree and from the side farthest away from the road (that nearest the pavement). The samples were taken in spring at the time of bud break. The measurement of the level of salinity on the surface of buds and shoots 6 grams of buds were added to 40 ml of distilled water and mixed for 60 seconds, the shoots were submerged Salinity on the surface of buds (left) and shoots in the crowns (right) of lime trees from the street and pavement Source: http://botany.cz/cs/cornus-mas/s Jacek Borowski, Małgorzata Pstrągowska, Tatiana Swoczyna: Manifestations caused by salt aerosol on shoots and buds of street side limes, pp. 3–6 –4– Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering in distilled water so that they displaced 20 cm3 of water. After 60 minutes the EC of the mixture was measured. All of the trees were observed, anomalies were noted regarding their appearance and growth. Data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) procedures (STATISTICA v. 10). Mean separations were performed by pairwise Fisher-test comparisons at p <0.05. Results and discussion The average level of salinity on the surface of the lime buds was varied depending on the distance from the roadway. The salinity of the surface of the buds clearly reduced in relation to the distance from the street, and the difference (over 20 times) was statistically relevant between trees growing close to the street and the remainder (Fig. 1). The same represents the difference in salinity on the shoots surface, several times greater (Fig. 2). Regarding trees growing nearest the street, there was considerably greater salinity on buds and shoots on the roadside, than those on the opposite side, nearer the pavement (Fig. 3, table 1 and 2). Previously recorded drying and dying of shoots and later appeared leaves and shoots from sleeping buds. New shoots were unnaturally extended and were bunched on the periphery of the crowns of trees. Many Table 1 leaves appearing in spring, quickly began to turn yellow, and then died and fell. New leaves grew in their place in bunches. The form of street limes differs considerably from those growing in the Kabaty Forest. Their crowns were irregular, frequently deformed on one side (Fig. 4). The density of the crowns was greater due to the presence of the previous year‘s and older shoots. The form of lime trees clearly differed in summer, depending on its location. Those limes growing by the street had leaves closer together and facing different directions (Fig. 5). In urban planting, the most vulnerable to environmental factors are trees, and most often native tree species (Borowski, 2008). This is confirmed by our observations and research. In spring on the trees that we researched, salt crystals were clearly visible – the remains of winter street de-icing. Dead and dry branches, leaves and buds were clearly visible. This is confirmed by observations by Bach et al. (2007) and Borowski and Pstrągowska (2010). It was observed that there were many examples of deformed crowns on the street side, which clearly confirm that salt not only penetrates through soil, but also through saline spray, which was shown by Cunningham et al. (2007). Spray is blown about by air movements due to the traffic. This phenomenon Salinity on the surface of buds of lime trees at different distances from the street, from both sides of trees (from the street and pavement), and in the forest Distance from the street in m Side of trees Salinity in µS/cm Stat. error -Stat. error. +Stat. error N Homogeneous groups 3 from pavement 349,625 76,2635 273,361 425,889 24 b 3 from street 1194,917 76,2635 1118,653 1271,180 24 c 10 from pavement 34,867 96,4666 -61,600 131,333 15 a 10 from street 45,733 96,4666 -50,733 142,200 15 a 30 from pavement 26,933 96,4666 -69,533 123,400 15 a 30 from street 34,600 96,4666 -61,867 131,067 15 a 51,089 124,5378 -73,449 175,627 9 a Kabaty Forest Source: http://botany.cz/cs/cornus-mas/s Table 2 Salinity on the surface of shoots of lime trees at different distances from the street, from both sides of trees (from the street and pavement), and in the forest Distance from the street in m Side of trees Salinity in µS/cm Stat. error -Stat. error. +Stat. error N Homogeneous groups 3 from pavement 186,6250 7,55038 179,0746 194,1754 24 b 3 from street 264,1250 7,55038 256,5746 271,6754 24 c 10 from pavement 41,6667 9,55057 32,1161 51,2172 15 a 10 from street 45,8000 9,55057 36,2494 55,3506 15 a 30 from pavement 39,7333 9,55057 30,1828 49,2839 15 a 30 from street 46,2667 9,55057 36,7161 55,8172 15 a 20,9222 12,32973 8,5925 33,2519 9 a Kabaty Forest Source: http://botany.cz/cs/cornus-mas/s Jacek Borowski, Małgorzata Pstrągowska, Tatiana Swoczyna: Manifestations caused by salt aerosol on shoots and buds of street side limes, pp. 3–6 –5– Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Figure 4, 5, 6 Growth anomalies causing deformaties in the crowns of street limes (left). Leaves that have developed late, and dead shoots of street limes, is a typical symptom of salt damage (centre). In spring due to the solution that was present on buds and shoots of street trees, the salinity is extremely high (right) Photo: J. Borowski is considerably reduced as the distance from the street increases. Shoots and buds with salt deposits do not develop as they should and frequently die. Buds die during bud break, when young leaves make contact with dense NaCl solution (Fig. 6). The opinion of Zimmerman and Jull (2006) that buds are at their most vulnerable in March is confirmed. A similar phenomenon relates to fragile young shoots, which are covered with very thin and vulnerable bark. In this way we can confirm why there are so many dead buds and shoots in street trees, particularly after harsh and snowy winters. Conclusion yy The close proximity of main roads has a considerable impact on those parts of trees above the ground, which causes a changing in number of shoots in their crowns. yy The dying and deformation of buds and shoots of street limes is directly a consequence of saline spray. yy The high density of salt deposits causes the equilibrium of water in buds and leaves to be disturbed, leading to their death. yy After many years the effects of saline spray, mean that the crowns of street limes differ considerably from those growing in more natural environments. yy One should not plant species which are susceptible to saline spray (limes in particular) closer than 10m from the street. yy The amount of salt used should be limited in the de-icing of streets; otherwise we will loose a significant number of street trees. Acknowledgement The authors would like to than Anna Pawłowska and Martyna Stępień, SGGW students for their help. References BACH, A. – FRAZIK-ADAMCZYK, M. – PAWŁOWSKA, B. – PNIAK, M. 2007. Wpływ warunków miejskich na zdrowotność lip (Tillia x europaea) ‘Pillidia‘ w Alei Najświętszej Marii Panny w Częstochowie. Rocz. AR Pozn. In Ogrodnictwo, vol. 383, 2007, no. 41, p. 11–16. BACH, A. – PAWŁOWSKA, B. 2007. Wpływ zanieczyszczenia środowiska na stan roślinności drzewiastej w Krakowie. Międzynarodowy kongres polskich architektów krajobrazu “Sztuka ochrony i kształtowania środowiska”. Kraków, 2007, p. 114. BOROWSKI, J. – LATOCHA, P. 2006. Dobór drzew i krzewów do warunków przyulicznych Warszawy i miast centralnej Polski. In: Rocznik Dendrologiczny, 2006, no. 54, p. 83–93. BOROWSKI, J. 2008. Wzrost rodzimych gatunków drzew przy ulicach Warszawy. Warszawa : Wyd. SGGW, 2008. BOROWSKI, J. – PSTRĄGOWSKA, M. 2010. Effect of street conditions, including saline aerosol, on growth of the Small-leaved limes. In: Rocznik Polskiego Towarzystwa Dendrologicznego, vol. 58, 2010, p. 15–24. BREŚ, W. 2008. Czynniki antropopresji powodujące zamieranie drzew w krajobrazie miejskim. In: Nauka Przyroda Technologie, vol. 2, 2008, no. 4, p. 31. CUNNINGHAM, M. A. – SNUDER, E. – YONKIN, D. – ROSS, M. – ELSEN, T. 2007. Accumulation of deicing salts in soils in an urban environment. In: Urban Ecosyst. 2007. DOI 10.1007/s11252-0070031-x. [23.09.2010]. CZERWIŃSKI, Z. 1978. Wpływ chemicznej technologii odśnieżania ulic na gleby i roślinność. W: Rozprawy Naukowe, Warszawa : Wyd. SGGW-AR,Warszawa, 1978, p. 104. MAROSZ, A. – NOWAK, J. 2008. Effect of salinity stress on growth and macroelements uptake of four tree species. In: Dendrobiology, vol. 59, 2008, p. 23–29. PRACZ, J. 1990. Reakcje drzew i krzewów na zasolenie chlorkiem sodu. Warszawa : Wyd. SGGW, 1990. RUGE, U. 1978. Physiologische Schäden durch Umweltfaktoren. W. F. H. Meyer red. Bäume in der Stadt. E. Ulmer Stuttgart, 1978, p. 121–126. ZIMMERMAN, E. M. – JULL, L. G. 2006. Sodium Chloride Injury on Buds of Acer platanoides, Tilia cordata and Viburnum lantana. In: Arboriculture & Urban Forestry, vol. 32, 2006, no. 2, p. 45– 53. Jacek Borowski, Małgorzata Pstrągowska, Tatiana Swoczyna: Manifestations caused by salt aerosol on shoots and buds of street side limes, pp. 3–6 –6– Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering STOMATAL RESPONSES OF DROUGHT AND HEAT STRESSED LINDEN (TILIA SP.) LEAVES Márk STEINER*, Endre György TÓTH, Ágota JUHÁSZ, Magdolna Sütöriné DIÓSZEGI, Károly HROTKÓ Corvinus University of Budapest, Hungary Leaf gas exchange was investigated on six linden cultivars from Tilia cordata Mill., T. platyphyllos Scop., T. tomentosa Moench and T. americana L. After the morning peak rapid stomatal closure was detected on leaves of T. cordata ’Savaria’, ’Greenspire’ and T. platyphyllos ’Favorit’. The stomatal conductance on leaves of T. tomentosa ’Szeleste’ after the midday drop was significant higher, while highest was on T. americana ’Redmond’ leaves during the whole day. According to the effect of leaf surface temperature on stomatal conductance three groups of the examined linden cultivars were appointed. Corresponding to their drought and heat adaptability the performance of leaves of T. tomentosa cultivars showed intermediate level of transpiration. The large cultivar differences in the performance of leaf gas exchange should be considered at evaluation of drought stress adaptability and environmental benefits (CO2 fixation, O2 and vapor release) of Tilia cultivars. Keywords: CO2 assimilation, environmental benefits, transpiration, urban forestry, water use Introduction Linden species (Tilia sp.) are important in urban forestry of Central Europe (Radoglou et al. 2008) and are widespread planted in form of different cultivars. The following species are commonly planted for urban forestry in Hungary: T. cordata Mill. and T. platyphyllos Scop. (native to Europe forming climax forest); T. tomentosa Moench, (native to Southern Europe and Asia); T. americana L. (cultivars were introduced recently). Despite of their importance, there is little and inconsistent knowledge on the drought tolerance and leaf gas exchange performance of linden cultivars under urban conditions. Most of the authors agree on wider adaptability of T. cordata Mill. (Hölscher, 2004; Hölscher et al., 2005; Radoglou et al., 2008), while data of Köcher et al. (2009) indicate moderate drought sensitivity. Results of Fini et al. (2009) indicate that T. tomentosa and T. cordata are more drought tolerant during establishment than T. platyphyllos. Similarly inconsistent data are available on drought tolerance of T. americana (Abrams et al., 1998; Klos et al., 2009; Gustafson and Sturtevant, 2012; Gilman and Watson, 2012). Water stress results in stomatal closure and reduced transpiration rates, decrease in the water potential of plant tissues, and diminish the photosynthesis. Stomatal control of leaf transpiration is considered as short term dynamic adaptation to water stress; the reduced transpiration contributes to avoiding decrease of leaf water potential (Sperry, 2000; Bréda et al., 2006). The above leaf gas exchange characteristics influence the *Correspodence: drought adaptability and some major environmental benefits (CO2 fixation, O2 and vapor release) of urban trees. Since there are little and inconsistent data on drought adaptability of linden cultivars we aimed in this work to evaluate the leaf gas exchange, stomatal performance of leaves on different linden taxa under drought stress conditions in order to gain information on the diurnal course of stomatal conductance. Materials and methods Site conditions The investigations were carried out in Soroksár Station of Experimental Farm of Corvinus University of Budapest. Soroksár station (47° 38’ LN; 19° 14’ LE, 103 m above the sea level) is located in Central Hungary, South-East of Budapest. The yearly average temperature is 11.3 °C, and the total sunshine is 2079 hours. Average annual rainfall is about 550 mm falling mainly in May and June. The soil type is light sandy, lime content is around 2.5 %, soil organic matter is low (0.8–0.9 %), pH is 7.7. An automatic weather system was installed close to the investigated trees (~300 m) to measure meteorological variables at 10 minutes interval, recorded by Campbell CR 100 data loggers. Temperature and relative humidity were observed by Vaisala HMP35 in the research station (Fig. 1). 2011 was extremely droughty year in Hungary. The month August is characterized by increasing air temperature and decreasing air humidity. Further on the low amount of rain measured on the investigated Márk Steiner, Corvinus University of Budapest, Faculty of Horticultural Science, Department of Floriculture and Dendrology, Hungary, Budapest, 1118. Villányi út 29–43, phone +36-1-4826271, e-mail: [email protected] Márk Steiner et al.: Stomatal responses of drought and heat stressed linden (Tilia sp.) leaves, pp. 7–10 –7– Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering on T. americana cultivars, except for the late afternoon hours (16:00–20:00). In the next group of Tilia cordata cultivars there are significant differences within the group in the early hours; between 12:00 – 14:00 all the T. cordata cultivars showed similarly mesic leaf temperature. The highest leaf temperature was measured in each time interval on T. tomentosa cultivars, while T. platyphyllos ’Favorit’ showed leaf temperature between T. cordata and T. tomentosa cultivars. The daily course of stomatal conductance (gs) showed a performance typical to drought stressed plants (Fig. 3). The daily maximum was achieved between 8:30 to 9:30, followed by rapid decrease to very low level, but with considerably large cultivar differences. In the early morning (6:30 to 7:30) low stomatal Figure 1 Global radiation, air temperature and vapor pressure deficit (VPD) on the days of conductance was measured on leaves of T. platyphyllos investigations in 2011 ’Favorit’ and on both T. cordata cultivars, compared to the control (T. tomentosa ’Szeleste’). In the daily maximum area (total 2.2 mm precipitation in the whole month of period from 8:30 to 9:30 the stomatal conductance August 2011) increased the drought. of T. cordata ’Savaria’ was significant lower, while T. americana ’Redmond’ was higher than that of control. In Plant material and methods of leaf gas exchange the following sections of the day until 19:30 the stomatal measurements conductance of T. americana ’Redmond’ leaves remained Six linden cultivars propagated by budding, were involved in the trial: Tilia americana ’Redmond‘, Tilia cordata ’Greenspire‘, T. c. ’Savaria‘, Tilia platyphyllos ’Favorit‘, T. tomentosa ’Szeleste‘ and T. t. ’Zentai Ezüst‘. The investigated linden trees were planted in first week of December 2009, with a trunk circumference 120–140 mm. The parameters of leaf gas exchange were investigated by using portable infrared gas analyzer (LCi, ADC BioScientific Ltd). Healthy and well developed trees were chosen to take the measurements; four trees from each cultivars. We measured the leaf gas exchange on four leaves from each tree, possibly with similar PAR exposition, according to the points of the compass, on each side of trees. The measurements were taken in Performance of leaf temperature on linden 2011 august 25 and 26, with very similar meteorological Figure 2 cultivars characteristics (Fig. 1). The measurements started at 6:30 AM and finished at 7:30 PM. Measurements of one series (four leaves on one tree of the six cultivars) took one hour and were repeated in two hour intervals from 6:30 AM to 7:30 PM. Data were analyzed with SPSS 2.0, Repeated measures ANOVA and One-way ANOVA were used. Data of species and cultivars were compared to T. tomentosa ’Szeleste‘, which is one of the most widespread planted registered cultivar in Hungary. Results and discussion The temperature of measured leaves on different linden cultivars showed in each time intervals significant differences (Fig. 2). There are distinct groups of cultivars, where the leaf temperature showed more or less similar performance. The lowest leaf temperature was measured Figure 3 Daily course of stomatal conductance of linden leaves in mol m-2 s-1 Márk Steiner et al.: Stomatal responses of drought and heat stressed linden (Tilia sp.) leaves, pp. 7–10 –8– Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering (A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F) Figure 4 Regression analysis (n = 56) of the six Tilia cultivars stomatal conductance (gs) by leaf temperature (A – T. a. ’Redmond’, B – T. c. ’Greenspire’, C – T. c. ’Savaria’, D – T. p. ’Favorit, E – T. t. ’Szeleste’, F – T. t. ’Zentai Ezüst’) higher than that of control during the whole day. On the other hand, T. cordata ’Savaria’ and T. platyphyllos ’Favorit’ showed significant lower stomatal conductance in the afternoon period from 14:30 to 19:30 (Fig. 3). By the end of the day, as the global radiation reduced to minimum, similar differences remained between cultivars. The six examined linden cultivars may be divided into three different groups under the relationship between leaf surface temperature and stomatal conductance (Fig. 4). The leaf surface temperature of T. americana ‘Redmond’ did not climb over 41 °C, and nor the stomatal conductance declined beneath 0.05 mol m-2 s-1. At same time, the temperature of measured leaves on T. cordata ’Greenspire’, T. c. ’Savaria’ and T. platyphyllos ’Favorit was higher, while their stomatal conductance was close to zero. The third group is constituted by T. tomentosa ‘Szeleste’ and T. t. ‘Zentai Ezüst’. Their leaf temperature was the highest (45 °C), however their stomatal conductance remained relative high (0.03 mol m-2 s-1). The leaves showed a diurnal course of stomatal conductance typical to water stressed plants: the daily maximum was around 8:30, than decreased to the minimum. The leaves of T. cordata ’Greenspire’, ’Savaria’ and T. platyphyllos ’Favorit’ showed low level of stomatal conductance during the whole day. This strategy as a short term dynamic adaptation to water stress may efficiently contribute to the water saving (Sperry et al. 2002; Yordanov et al. 2003; Bréda et al., 2006). The largest conductance was measured during the whole day on T. americana ’Redmond’, which is in correspondence with its low leaf temperature (Fig. 2 and Fig. 3). Both T. tomentosa cultivars produced a second minor peak in the afternoon. The above observation suggests considerable cultivar differences in adaptability to water stress conditions. Cultivars of T. cordata and T. platyphyllos showed an efficient short term dynamic adaptation to water stress by stomatal control (Sperry, 2000; Bréda et al., 2006), while cultivars of T. tomentosa and T. americana could maintain the transpiration of leaves on a relative higher level and produce a second peak after the midday drop. The high stomatal conductance and transpiration of T. americana ’Redmond’ leaves support the Gilman Márk Steiner et al.: Stomatal responses of drought and heat stressed linden (Tilia sp.) leaves, pp. 7–10 –9– Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering and Watson’s (2012) statement on drought tolerance of this cultivar. Maintaining the steady water status of T. americana ’Redmond’ leaves requires double amount of water supply. Strong correlation was found between leaf temperature and stomatal conductance (Fig. 4). Although the leaf transpiration alone is not an appropriate indicator of drought tolerance of linden cultivars, the differences between cultivars in leaf gas exchange characteristics suggest need on further investigations. The performance of T. tomentosa and T. americana indicate that in the soil-plant-air complex of these species there might be a more efficient mechanism in water uptake or larger water reservation and supply capacity, which allows maintaining the higher level of transpiration. The above leaf gas exchange characteristics strongly influence the drought adaptability, ornamental value and the environmental benefits (CO2 fixation, O2 and vapor release) of the investigated Tilia cultivars under stress conditions. Acknowledgment Our research was supported by TÁMOP-4-2.1.B-09/1/ KMR-2010-0005 project and by Hungarian Scientific Research Funds OTKA 109361. References ABRAMS, M. D. – RUFFNER, C. M. – MORGAN, T. A. 1998. Tree ring responses to drought across species and contrasting sites in the ridge and valley of Central Pennnsylvania. In: Forest Sci.. vol., 44, 1998, no. 4, p. 550–558. BRÉDA, N. – HUC, R. – GRANIER, A. – DREYER, E. 2006. Temperate forest trees and stands under severe drought: a review of ecophysiological responses, adaptation processes and longterm consequences Ann. In. For. Sci., 2006, no. 63, p. 625–644. GILMAN, E. F. – WATSON, D. G. 2012. Tilia americana ‘Redmond’: ‘Redmond’ American Linden. University of Florida, IFAS Extension ENH 793. 2012. GUSTAFSON, E. J. – STURTEVANT, B. R. 2012. Modeling Forest Mortality Caused by Drought Stress: Implications for Climate Change. In: Ecosystems, 2012. DOI: 10.1007/ s10021-012-9596-1 KLOS, R. J. – WANG, G. G. – BAUERLE, W. L. – RIECK, J. R. 2009. Drought impact on forest growth and mortality in the southeast USA: an analysis using Forest Health and Monitoring data. In. Ecological Applications, 2009, no. 19, p. 699–708. KÖCHER, P. – GEBAUER, T. – HORNA, V. – LEUSCHNER, C. 2009. Leaf water status and stem xylem flux in relation to soil drought in five temperate broad-leaved tree species with contrasting water use strategies. In. Ann. For. Sci., 2009. 66.101. DOI: 10.1051/forest/2008076. RADOGLOU, K. – DOBROWOLSKA, D. – SPYROGLOU, G. – NICOLESCU, V. N. 2008. A review on the ecology and silviculture of limes (Tilia cordata Mill., Tilia platyphyllos Scop. and Tilia tomentosa Moench.) in Europe, 2008. 29 pp. http://www.valbro. uni-freiburg.de/ SPERRY, J. S. 2000. Hydraulic constraints on plant gas exchange. In: Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 2000, no. 2831, p. 1–11. SPERRY, J. S. – HACKE, U. G. – OREN, R. – COMSTOCK, J. P. 2002. Water deficits and hydraulic limits to leaf water supply. In: Plant, Cell and Environment, 2002, no. 25, p. 251–263. YORDANOV, I. – VELIKOVA, V. – TSONEV, T. 2003. Plant responses to drought and stress tolerance. In: Bulg. J. Plant Physiol., 2003, Special Issue, p. 187–206 Márk Steiner et al.: Stomatal responses of drought and heat stressed linden (Tilia sp.) leaves, pp. 7–10 – 10 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS IN HIPPOPHAË RHAMNOIDES LEAVES COLLECTED FROM HEAVY METALS CONTAMINATED SITES Ewa MUSZYŃSKA*, Katarzyna KAŁUŻNY, Ewa HANUS-FAJERSKA University of Agriculture in Krakow, Poland We examined total phenols, phenylopropanoids, flavonols and anthocyjanins content in leaves of sea buckthorn (Hippophaë rhamnoides L., Elaeagnaceae) growing in different heavy metals contaminated areas. Leave samples were collected in spring, and in autumn from female specimens. In the spring the concentration of total phenolic compounds in samples collected from specimens growing in the city center was on the control level (material from unpolluted area). The analogous concentration in samples taken in autumn was different in particular contaminated sites, and amounted from 240 to 300 mg 100 g-1 f. w. Regardless of the season and site anthocyanins content reached 5 mg 100 g-1 f.w. In the course of time the content of phenolic compounds increased in leaves of plants growing on the waste heaps, especially concentration of phenylopropanoids and flavonols. Keywords: contamination, heavy metals, phenols, sea buckthorn, urban areas Introduction In different urban areas, plants are exposed to direct influence of various stress factors that have a negative impact on living organisms and lead to numerous metabolic dysfunctions. In these sites to the most harmful and dangerous is included increasing concentration of heavy metals ions, mainly lead and cadmium, generated during the combustion of gasoline, oil and diesel oil as well as the abrasion of tires and road surfaces and other activities (Akbar et al., 2006; Gupta et al., 2010; Lu et al., 2010). In the course of numerous experiments it has been shown that elevated level of heavy metals is toxic for living organisms (Peltarta et al., 2001; Banddh and Singh, 2011; Evangelon et al., 2012). In plants heavy metals affect physiological processes such as transpiration, photosynthesis, electron transport, and cell division which lead to inhibition of growth and development (Qufei and Fashui, 2009; Nagajyoti et al., 2010; Pourrut et al., 2012). Another, well-documented effect is uncontrolled production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) causing oxidative stress (Karuppanapandian et al., 2011; Biesiada and Tomczak 2012). Excessive amounts of ROS result in lipid peroxidation, the enzymes and other proteins inactivation and DNA damage (Karuppanapandian et al., 2011; Sharma et al., 2012). To prevent the negative effects of high ROS content, intracellular plant defense mechanisms are activated among which synthesis of phenolic compounds should be mentioned. They are known for their antioxidant properties, and ability to *Correspodence: free radicals’ scavenging (Michalak, 2006). Thus phenols counteract the effects of stress induced by balast metal ions. In addition, they may also take part in the accumulation of such ions by their coordination binding (Lavid et al., 2001a, b). For above mentioned reasons there were scheduled analyses of phenolic compounds concentration in Hippophaë rhamnoides leaves exposed to heavy metals from different sources. Material and methods Representative leave samples of sea buckthorn (Hippophaë rhamnoides L., Elaeagnaceae) were collected in spring, and in autumn 2013 from female specimens growing in polluted areas: (1) Grzegórzecka Street in Krakow, Poland (described as GS) where the average traffic per hour is high (about 1000 cars), (2) waste heap (described as WH) obtained after zinc and lead ore flotation in Bukowno near Olkusz (southern Poland). As a control, reference samples were taken from plants (described as CTR) growing outside contaminated areas. In plant material the concentration of phenolic compounds were analysed according to the Fukumoto and Mazza (2000) protocol, based on the method of UV-Vis spectrophotometry. Samples were homogenized in methanol. The content of total phenols, phenylopropanoids, flavonols and anthocyjanins were calculated by measuring the absorbance at 280, 320, 360 and 520 nm respectively. To identify the different classes of phenolic compounds, the following standards were used: chlorogenic acid (total phenols), coffee acid Ewa Muszyńska, University of Agriculture in Krakow, Institute of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, Unit of Botany and Plant Physiology, Al. 29 Listopada 54, 31-425 Krakow, Poland, e-mail: emuszynska@ogr. ur.krakow.pl Ewa Muszyńska, Katarzyna Kałużny, Ewa Hanus-Fajerska: Phenolic compounds in Hippophaë rhamnoides leaves collected from heavy metals ..., pp. 11–14 – 11 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering been more than three times lower in comparison to the control. In the case of flavonols, quite similar relationship was observed (Fig. 3). Their highest content (about 59 mg 100 g-1 f.w.) was determined in the spring in samples from Grzegórzecka street and from those from control Hippophaë rhamnoides plants. In autumn, flavonols concentration in waste heaps’ leaves was not statistically Results and discussion different from the control ones (45 mg 100 g-1 f.w.). In the present experiment the concentration of phenolic Regardless of the season, anthocyanins concentration compounds, as the low molecular weight antioxidants in tested material was similar (Fig. 4). In the course of protecting plants cells from negative impact of ROS, time, the phenolic compounds content in the leaves was evaluated. It was found that in samples collected of examined plants decreased, with the exception in spring from specimens growing close to main of leaves from plants growing on the waste heap. In Krakow road (GS) the total phenols concentration was these material quite the contrary interdependence was three times higher in comparison to waste heap taken ascertained. The concentration of total phenols as well samples (Fig.1), whereas in respect to the analogous as phenylopropanoids and flavonols increased in the concentration concerning samples taken in autumn, the autumn. difference between the contaminated sites was proved Possibilities of plants existence in the specific to be statistically insignificant, and amounted to almost environment, and their ability to grow and develop there 240 and 300 mg 100 g-1 f.w. respectively. Considering depends on the level of resistance to local stress factors. phenylopropanoids, their concentration in samples On areas degraded as a result of industrial activity or collected at the beginning of the year from Grzegórzecka areas located close to main roads and highways plants street (GS) was similar to concentration ascertained in are exposed to different level of large variety of toxic leaves taken from plants growing outside the polluted substances. Heavy metals are ranked to the most areas (CTR, Fig. 2), and lower during the autumn. In dangerous. They frequently cause the imbalance of both periods the concentration of phenylopropanoids redox processes which lead to excessive generation, in leave samples collected from waste heap (WH), has and further accumulation of free radicals in particular (phenylpropanoids), quercetin (flavonols) and cyanidin (anthocyanins). One-ways analysis of variance (ANOVA) test was used separately for spring and autumn data. Statistical significance of the results and means were evaluated according to the Tukey’s test at α = 0.05. 600.0 [WARTOŚĆ] c [WARTOŚĆ] b 500.0 [WARTOŚĆ] c 400.0 300.0 200.0 [WARTOŚĆ] b [WARTOŚĆ] b 50.0 [WARTOŚĆ] b [WARTOŚĆ] a [WARTOŚĆ] a 20.0 10.0 0.0 0.0 GS WH spring WH spring autumn CTR autumn Flavonols in mg 100 g-1 f.w.. [WARTOŚĆ] b 6.0 [WARTOŚĆ] a [WARTOŚĆ] a [WARTOŚĆ] a [WARTOŚĆ] a GS WH 5.0 [WARTOŚĆ] b [WARTOŚĆ] ab [WARTOŚĆ] b [WARTOŚĆ] a [WARTOŚĆ] a 4.0 3.0 [WARTOŚĆ] a [WARTOŚĆ] a 2.0 1.0 0.0 GS WH spring CTR autumn Phenylopropanoids in mg 100 g-1 f.w. Figure 1–4 GS CTR Total phenols in mg 100 g-1 f.w. 90.0 80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0 0.0 [WARTOŚĆ] b 30.0 [WARTOŚĆ] a 100.0 60.0 40.0 [WARTOŚĆ] b [WARTOŚĆ] a 70.0 spring CTR autumn Anthocyanins in mg 100 g-1 f.w. Phenolic compounds content in Hippophaë rhamnoides leaves collected in two periods (spring and autumn) from plants growing on Grzegórzecka street in Krakow (GS), waste heaps in Olkusz (WH) and polluted site (CTR) Ewa Muszyńska, Katarzyna Kałużny, Ewa Hanus-Fajerska: Phenolic compounds in Hippophaë rhamnoides leaves collected from heavy metals ..., pp. 11–14 – 12 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering reactive oxygen species (ROS) (Groppa and Benavides, 2008; Biesiada and Tomczak, 2012). Plant damage occurs when the amount of ROS production is higher than the capacity of antioxidant processes or detoxification mechanisms (Michalak, 2006). In presented work the content of phenols was evaluated, because they both carry out ROS in their inactive derivatives and inhibit their formation and thus counteracting the effects of heavy metals stress. The obtained results have shown that the concentration of phenolic compounds was different in examined objects. In the spring, variation of phenols concentration in Hippophaë rhamnoides leaves collected from plants growing down the main road in Krakow and control site was low. Futhermore, in the autumn, differences between phenylopropanoids and flavonols content in leaves from waste heaps plants and control ones were insignificant. Similar results have been obtained using Adhatoda vasica, Cassia fistula and Withania somnifera plants grown in two contrasting environmental conditions – copper mining site and unpolluted site (Maharia et al., 2012). In this material total phenolic content and total flavonoid content in specimens from mining site and from control site did not reveal significant differences. Opposite results regarding the increased biosynthesis of phenolic compounds have been noted by Smeets et al. (2005) in Phaseolus vulgaris treated with Cd ions and by PawlakSprada et al. (2011) in Lupinus albus under the influence of Cd and Pb ions. Phenolic compounds were also the first line of defense against Cu stress in experiment with red cabbage and radish (Sakihama et al., 2002; Posmyk et al., 2009). Moreover, accumulations of this antioxidants were observed not only in shoots but also in roots of maize (Shemet and Fedenko, 2005) and scot pine (Schützendübel et al., 2001) under Cd treatment. Also in halophytic plant called Aeluropus littoralis, the protective function of these compounds against heavy metals (Cd, Pb, Ag, Co) stress was demonstrated (Rastgoo and Alemzadeh, 2011). The increasing levels of toxic metals resulted in a general increase in levels of total phenolic contents also in the cells of other taxon, such as Phaeodactylum tricornutum diatom and Amanita caesarea, Clitocybe geotropa and Leucoagaricus pudicus fungi (Sarikurkcu et al., 2010; Rico et al., 2013). In examined sea buckthorn leaves collected from plants growing in industrial areas, the content of phenolic compounds increased in the course of the season and it decreased in leaves taken from other sites. Probably, it was the result of successive stress factors changes with the time. On the open spaces of waste heaps, plant species are subjected not only to heavy metals ions but also to drought, strong winds and high radiation which could influence on higher flavonoids and phenylopropanoids concentration in comparison to plants growing in the city (Przedpełska and Wierzbicka, 2007; Rakov and Chibrik, 2009; Fini et al., 2011; Agati et al., 2012). Another complexion on the matter is put by the fact that some studies have also shown that the concentration of phenols strongly depends on the type of tissue and of respective organs, the development stage, the metabolic activity of analyzed material (Michalak, 2006; Augustynowicz et al., 2011; Agati et al., 2012). Therefore, to clearly determine the role of antioxidant compounds in Hippophaë rhamnoides response to stress caused by heavy metals further detailed study should be conducted. On the other hand fruits of Hippophaë rhamnoides are known for their medical properties mainly due to the high level of phenolic substances (Gao et al., 2000), so probably not only fruits but also leaves can be relatively rich in antioxidant compounds. For this reason, reported experiment high concentration of total phenolic compounds, phenylopropanoids and flavonols were observed in the control, and their concentration decreased in autumn. Similarly, decreased content of phenolics with increased maturity of sea buckthorn fruits was noticed by Gao et al. (2000). Conclusion On terrains degraded by industrial activities as well as close to main roads and highways, plants are frequently exposed to elevated concentration of heavy metals and to other stress factors that affect negatively their metabolism. Therefore monitoring of the physiological status should be the key factor during the selection of proper material to be grown in contaminated areas. Acknowledgement. Support of experimental work by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of Republic of Poland (DS 3500/ WO/2013) is gratefully acknowledged. References AKBAR, K. F. – HALE, W. – HEADLEY, A. – ATHAR, M. 2006. Heavy metal contamination of roadside Soils of Northern England. In Soil and Water Resources, vol. 1, 2006, no. 4, pp. 158–163. AGATI, G. – AZZARELLO, E. – POLLASTRI, S. – TATTINI, M. 2012. Flavonoids as antioxidants in plants: Location and functional significance. In Plant Science, vol. 196, 2012, pp. 67–76. AUGUSTYNOWICZ, J. – KOŁTON, A. – BARAN, A. – ŚWIDERSKI, A. 2011. Bioremediacja metali w kontekście stanu fizjologicznego roślin. In Ochrona Środowiska i Zasobów Naturalnych, vol. 49, 2011, pp. 61–70. BIESIADA, A. – TOMCZAK, A. 2012. Biotic and abiotic factors affecting the content of the chosen antioxidant compounds in vegetables. In Vegetable Crops Research Bulletin, vol. 76, 2012, pp. 55–78. BORGHI, M. – TOGNETTI, R. – MONTEFORTI, G. – SEBASTIANI, L. 2008. Response of two paplar species (Populus alba and Populus × canadensis) to high copper concentrations. In Environmental and Experimental Botany, vol. 62, 2008, pp. 290–299. EVANGELON, M. W. H. – DERAM, A. – GOGOS, A. – STUDER, B. –SCHULIN, R. 2012. Assessment of suitability of tree species Ewa Muszyńska, Katarzyna Kałużny, Ewa Hanus-Fajerska: Phenolic compounds in Hippophaë rhamnoides leaves collected from heavy metals ..., pp. 11–14 – 13 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering for the production of biomass on trace element contaminated soils. In Journal of Hazardous Materia ls, vol. 209/210, 2012, pp. 233–239. FINI, A. – BRUNETTI, C. – DI FERDINANDO, M. – FERRINI, F. – TATTINI, M. 2011. Stress-induced flavonoid biosynthesis and the antioxidant machinery of plants. In Plant Signaling and Behavior, vol. 6, 2011. no. 5, pp. 709–711. FUKUMOTO, L. R. – MAZZA, G. 2000. Assesing antioxidant and prooxidant activities of phenolic compounds. In Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, vol. 48, 2000, pp. 3597–3604. GAO, X. – OHLANDER, M. – JEPPSSON, N. – BJÖRK, L. – TRAJKOVSKI, V. 2000. Changes in antioxidant effects and their relationship to phytonutrients in fruits of sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.) during Maturation. In Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, vol. 48, 2000, pp. 1485–1490. GROPPA, M. D. – BENAVIDES, M. 2008. Polyamines and abiotic stress: Recent advances. In Amino Acids, vol. 34, 2008, pp. 35–42. GUPTA, S. – SATPATI, S. – NAYEK, S. – GARAI, D. 2010. Effect of wastewater irrigation on vegetables in relation to bioaccumulation of heavy metals and biochemical changes. In Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, vol. 165, 2010, pp.169–177. KARUPPANAPANDIAN, T. – MOON, J. C. – KIM, C. – MANOHARAN, K. – KIM, W. 2011. Reactive oxygen species in plants: their generation, signal transduction, and scavenging mechanisms. In Australian Journal of Crop Science, vol. 5/6, 2011, pp. 709–725. LAVID, N. – SCHWARTZ, A. – LEWINSON, E. – TEL-OR, E. 2001a. Phenols and phenol oxidases are involved in cadmium accumulation in the water plants Nymphoides peltata (Menyanthaceae) and Nymphaeae (Nymphaeaceae). In Planta, vol. 214, 2001, pp. 189–195. LAVID, N. – SCHWARTZ, A. – YARDEN, O. – TEL-OR, E. 2001b. The involvement of phenols and peroxidase activities in heavy metals accumulation by epidermal glands of the waterlily (Nymphaeaceae). In Planta, vol. 212, 2001, pp. 323–331. LU, X. – WANG, L. – LI, L. Y. – LEI, K. – HUANG, L. – KANG, D. 2010. Multivariate statistical analysis of heavy metals in street dust of Baoji, NW China. In Journal of Hazardous Materials, vol. 173, 2010, pp. 744–749. MAHARIA, R. S. – DUTTA, R. K. – ACHARYA, R. – REDDY, A. V. R. 2012. Correlation between heavy metal contents and antioxidant activities in medicinal plants grown in copper mining areas. In Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry, vol. 294, 2012, pp. 395–400. MICHALAK, A. 2006. Phenolic compounds and their antioxidant activity in plants growing under heavy metal stress. In Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, vol. 15, 2006, no. 4, pp. 523–530. NAGAJYOTI, P. C. – LEE, K. D. – SREEKANTH, T. V. M. 2010. Heavy metals, occurrence and toxicity for plants: a review. In Environmental Chemistry Letters, vol. 8, 2010, pp. 199–216. PAWLAK-SPRADA, S. – STOBIECKI, M. – DECKERT, J. 2011. Activation of phenylpropanoid pathway in legume plants exposed to heavy metals. Part II. Profiling of isoflavonoids and their glycoconjugates induced in roots of lupine (Lupinus luteus) seedlings treated with cadmium and lead. In Acta Biochimica Polonica, vol. 58, 2011, no. 2, pp. 217–233. PELTARTA, J. R. – GAVDEA-TORRESALEY, J. L. – TIEMTANN, K. J. – GOMEZ, E. – ARTEGA, S. – RASCON, E. – PAVRONS, J. G. 2001. Uptake and effect of five heavy metals on seed germination and plants growth in alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.). In Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, vol. 66, 2001, pp. 727–734. POSMYK, M. M. – KONTEK, R. – JANAS, K. M. 2009. Antioxidant enzymes activity and phenolic compounds content in red cabbage seedlings exposed to copper stress. In Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, vol. 72, 2009, pp. 596–602. POURRUT, B. – SHAHID, M. – DUMAT, C. – WINTERTON, P. – PINELLI, E. 2011. Lead Uptake, Toxicity, and Detoxification in Plants. In Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, vol. 213, 2011, pp. 113–136. PRZEDPEŁSKA, E. – WIERZBICKA, M. 2007. Arabidopsis arenosa (Brassicaceae) from lead – zinc waste heap in southern Poland – a plant with high tolerance to heavy metals. In Plant and Soil, vol. 299, 2007, pp. 43 – 53. RAKOV, E. A. – CHIBRIK, T. S. 2009. On the problem of flora formation in industrially disturbed land areas. In Russian Journal of Ecology, vol. 40, 2009, no. 6, pp. 448–451. RASTGOO, L. – ALEMZADEH, A. 2011. Biochemical responses of Gouan (Aeluropus littoralis) to heavy metals stress. In Australian Journal of Crop Science, vol. 5, 2011, no. 4, pp. 375–383. RICO, M. – LOPEZ, A. – SANTANA-CASIANO, J. M. – GONZÁLEZ, A. G. – GONZÁLEZ-DÁVILA, M. 2013. Variability of the phenolic profile in the diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum growing under copper and iron stress. In Limnology and Oceanography, vol. 58, 2013, no. 1, pp. 144–152. SAKIHAMA, Y. – COHEN, M. F. – GRACE, S. C. – YAMASAKI, H. 2002. Plant phenolic antioxidant and pro-oxidant activities: phenolics-induced oxidative damage mediated by metals in plants. In Toxicology, vol. 177, 2002, pp. 67–80. SARIKURKCU, C. – TEPE, B. – SEMIZ, D. K. – SOLAK, M. H. 2010. Evaluation of metal concentration and antioxidant activity of three edible mushrooms from Mugla, Turkey. In Food and Chemical Toxicology, vol. 48, 2010, pp. 1230–1233. SCHÜTZENDÜBEL, A. – SCHWANZ, P. – TEICHMANN, T. – GROSS, K. – LANGELFELD-HEYSER, L. – GODBOLD, D. L. – Polle, A. 2001. Cd-induced changes in antioxidative systems, hydrogen peroxide content, and differentiation in Scots pine roots. In Plant Physiology, vol. 127, 2001, pp. 887–898. SHARMA, P. – JHA, A. B. – DUBEY, R. S. – PESSARAKLI, M. 2012. Reactive Oxygen Species, oxidative damage, and antioxidative defense mechanism in plants under stressful conditions. In Journal of Botany, vol. 2012, 2012, pp. 1–26. SHEMET, S. A. – FEDENKO, V. S. 2005. Accumulation of phenolic compounds in maize seedlings under toxic Cd influence. In Physiol Biochem Cultiv Plants, vol. 37, 2005, pp. 505–512. SMEETS, K. – CUYPERS, A. – LAMBRECHTS, A. – SEMANE, B. – HOET, P. – VAN LAERE, A. – VANGRONSVELD, J. 2005. Induction of oxidative stress and antioxidative mechanisms in Phaseolus vulgaris after Cd appicetion. In Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, vol. 43, 2005, pp. 437–444. QUFEI, L. – FASHUI, H. 2009. Effects of Pb2+ on the Structure and Function of Photosystem II of Spirodela polyrrhiza. In Biological Trace Elements Research, vol. 129, 2009, no. 1, pp. 251–260. Ewa Muszyńska, Katarzyna Kałużny, Ewa Hanus-Fajerska: Phenolic compounds in Hippophaë rhamnoides leaves collected from heavy metals ..., pp. 11–14 – 14 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering GROWTH AND PHYSIOLOGICAL PERFORMANCE OF YOUNG URBAN TREES OF EIGHT TAXA IN WARSAW Tatiana SWOCZYNA*, Jacek BOROWSKI, Stefan PIETKIEWICZ, Hazem M. KALAJI Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW, Poland Unfavourable urban environmental conditions prove to be detrimental for street trees. Many species used in urban plantations are not able to cope with environmental stresses. The aim of the study was to evaluate the usefulness of 8 tree species/cultivars for urban street plantings. The assessment of tree growth was done based on trunk girth and crown volume increment measurements. Physiological performance of trees was evaluated using chlorophyll a fluorescence technique. Three of 8 taxa, Gleditsia triacanthos, Platanus × hispanica ‘Acerifolia’ and Pyrus calleryana ‘Chanticleer’, revealed sufficient tolerance to urban and street-side environments. On the contrary, Acer campestre, Tilia cordata ‘Greenspire’, Tilia × europaea ‘Pallida’, Quercus rubra and Ginkgo biloba trees did not stand those conditions and thus, should not be planted in extremely harmful street-side environments. Keywords: chlorophyll fluorescence, urban plantings, street trees, species selection Introduction The short lifespan of urban trees impedes maintenance of urban forest resources and results in worsening of urban microclimate and usually, in European cities only few species predominate (Pauleit et al., 2002). Many of used species, especially the indigenous ones, are susceptible to harsh urban environmental conditions (Borowski, 2008; Borowski and Pstrągowska, 2010). Therefore, the proper tree species selection for urban plantings is needed to be studied, including introduced species, focussing on climate adaptation properties and environmental stress tolerance (Sæbø et al., 2003; Borowski and Latocha, 2006). In preceding years several species and cultivars, which were never or seldom used before as street trees, were planted in Warsaw. However, their tolerance to urban environments in climatic conditions of Warsaw was assessed mostly on the basis of literature review. The proper tree species should be able to continue tree growth and crown development despite abiotic stress factors like water deficit, soil compaction, road-side salinity etc. Therefore the evaluation of growth parameters in situ is an important constituent to determinate species value for urban plantings (Borowski, 2008). Environmental factors should not disturb physiological stability of planted trees, which leads to gradual weakening of the specimens (Kalaji and Pietkiewicz, 1993). Photosynthesis mechanisms are generally susceptible to numerous stress factors (Kalaji et al., 2012), additionally they are responsible for production of carbohydrates, which are necessary as an energy source for next-year growth as *Correspodence: well as for any recovery processess. Thus the evaluation of photosynthetic apparatus efficiency is an important indicator of tree physiological state (Kalaji et al., 2012). The maximum quantum yield of photosystem II (FV/ FM) is a commonly used parameter for the evaluation of photosynthetic apparatus state. Bach et al. (2007) noticed that in lime trees slightly and strongly affected by soil salinity in a city avenue FV/FM values were below 0.78 and 0.68, respectively, while in control trees exceeded 0.80. Measurements of FV/FM values under stress allowed Percival et al. (2006) to distinguish drought-tolerant and drought-susceptible species and cultivars of Fraxinus. In young containerised trees of drought-tolerant species FV/ FM values did not diminish despite 2-week cessation of watering, whilst in young trees of drought-susceptible species/cultivars FV/FM values decreased up to 60% of the initial value of 0.77–0.8. This investigation was conducted in cooperation with the Environment Protection Department of the Capital City of Warsaw. The aim of the study was to examine growth and physiological performance of young newly planted trees of 8 selected tree species and cultivars in order to evaluate their usefulness in urban plantings. Materials and methods Young trees of 8 species and cultivars, Acer campestre L., Ginkgo biloba L., Gleditsia triacanthos L., Platanus × hispanica Mill. ex Münchh. ‘Acerifolia’, Pyrus calleryana Decne ‘Chanticleer’, Tilia cordata Mill. ‘Greenspire’, Tilia × europaea L. ‘Pallida’ and Quercus rubra L., planted during Tatiana Swoczyna, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW, Department of Environmental Protection, ul. Nowoursynowska 159, 02-776 Warszawa, Poland, e-mail: [email protected] Tatiana Swoczyna et al.: Growth and physiological performance of young urban trees of eight taxa in Warsaw, pp. 15–19 – 15 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering 2003–2005 in Warsaw along streets (except 15 trees of A. campestre planted in autumn 2006), were selected for the experiment. Trees were divided into two groups: trees in close proximity to a road (1–3.5 m) (B-trees) and away from a road (minimum 8 m) (A-trees). A-trees were planted in wide lawns, B-trees grew in lawn strips along streets or in planting pits with an area of 2 to 4 m2, surrounded by pavement surface. All the trees were planted by contractors of the Metropolitan Authority of Parks, Greenery and Cleaning, Warsaw (ZOM) according to ZOM’s procedures. The climatic data were obtained from Department of Meteorology and Climatology WULS-SGGW, Warsaw, Poland. Soil samples at 0–20 cm depth from tree surroundings were taken for electrical conductivity measurement using a CX-551 multifunction meter (ELMETRON Sp.j., Zabrze, Poland) in order to determine soil salinity. Soil compaction was examined using a portable Eijkelkamp penetrometer (Eijkelkamp Agrisearch Equipment, Giesbeek, The Netherlands). Tree trunk circumference at 1.3 m above the soil surface was measured at the end of winter in 2006, 2007 and 2008. A photographic method described by Borowski et al. (2005) was used to obtain tree crown volume increment in each year. Measurements of chlorophyll a fluorescence were performed on 5 trees selected randomly in one A-site and one B-site for each species. Three (on 16–19th June 2008) or six mature leaves (on 5–6th August and 4–5th September) were selected in each tree crown. A Handy PEA chlorophyll fluorimeter (Hansatech Instruments Ltd., King’s Lynn, Norfolk, UK) was used for maximum quantum yield of photosystem II (FV/FM) measurement. Student’s two-sample t-test was performed to compare roadside trees and reference trees within each Figure 1 species using STATISTICA 8.0 software (StatSoft, Inc., Tulsa, OK, USA). Results and disscussion The winter preceding 2006 was very cold with the minimum -27 °C on the 24th of January and the winter 2006/2007 was mild. The late spring and the beginning of summer in 2006 were very dry (Fig. 1). However, in May precipitation slightly exceeded evapotranspiration and was sufficiently abundant in August 2006. The precipitation in 2007 reached 124% of twenty-year mean precipitation (1981–2000). In most locations penetration resistance in soils surrounding newly planted trees was 2–3.5 MPa. However, in some sites it exceeded 4 MPa (G. triacanthos and Q. rubra A-trees), 5 MPa (T. cordata both A- and B-trees and T. × europaea A-trees), 6 MPa (G. triacanthos and Q. rubra B-trees) or 7 MPa (in G. biloba B-trees). Soil salinity measured conductometrically in July 2008 in B-sites was 1.0–2.0 mS cm-1 except A. campestre (0.79 mS cm-1). In A-sites EC did not exceed 0.8 mS cm-1. In 2006 16.2% of total 444 young trees died. Many trees suffered and partially lost their branches due to drying. Died branches were lopped in July. Although the trees developed new shoots, in some species tree crowns diminished on average 14–80%. In 2007 most of the stressed trees recovered their crown volumes, except T. × europaea and A. campestre B-trees (Fig. 2). T. × europaea B-trees were not able to continue their growth. Comparing the trunk circumference increment in every species between A- and B-trees the examination showed higher increment in both Tilia species in A-trees. The proximity to roads did not restrict the trunk circumference increment in A. campestre, Q. rubra, G. triacanthos and P. calleryana (Table 1). Gaussen-Walther climatic diagram of 2006, 2007 and 2008 Source: Data from Department of Meteorology and Climatology WULS-SGGW Tatiana Swoczyna et al.: Growth and physiological performance of young urban trees of eight taxa in Warsaw, pp. 15–19 – 16 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Table 1 Comparison of trunk circumference increment in % between trees planted away from roads (A) and in close proximity to roads (B). Significantly higher means (at p <0.05) are highlighted in bold Species Year Tilia cordata ‘Greenspire’ Tilia × europaea ‘Pallida’ Acer campestre Quercus rubra Gleditsia triacanthos Pyrus calleryana ‘Chanticleer’ Platanus × hispanica ‘Acerifolia’ Ginkgo biloba Figure 2 A B p N Mean SE Mean SE A B 2006 4.43 0.30 1.64 0.19 0.000 30 26 2007 4.85 0.37 1.95 0.18 0.000 29 26 2006 4.45 0.36 0.93 0.14 0.000 30 12 2007 2.97 0.28 2.14 0.20 0.019 30 32 2006 – – – – – – – 2007 3.22 0.21 5.36 0.86 0.024 15 24 2006 0.63 0.15 5.37 1.22 0.001 25 23 2007 0.78 0.19 6.02 1.43 0.001 25 23 2006 4.86 0.45 8.81 1.09 0.002 23 21 2007 6.32 0.63 10.42 1.15 0.004 23 21 2006 4.64 0.45 7.36 0.94 0.018 16 13 2007 3.88 0.65 12.24 1.42 0.000 16 13 2006 17.53 2.52 8.34 2.45 0.035 23 10 2007 19.03 1.64 18.27 1.17 0.724 23 18 2006 1.05 0.18 1.48 0.29 0.210 29 42 2007 1.96 0.36 6.18 1.29 0.003 29 42 Crown volume increment in 2006 and 2007; means and SE. A-trees planted away from, B-trees planted in close proximity to roads In most species the performance of photosynthetic apparatus, expressed by FV/FM ratio, was not different between A- and B-trees (Fig. 3). Only in G. biloba the FV/FM ratio in B-trees revealed the poor performance during the whole growing season. In T. cordata marked decrease in FV/FM occurred in the end of the growing season. Road-side trees of A. campestre revealed good condition of PSII until September, while in A-trees the PSII condition weakened. The highest values of FV/FM were noted in G. triacanthos, P. × hispanica and P. calleryana inspite of the location. Newly planted trees in cities are subjected to numerous stress factors. Although basic maintenance is carried out, i.e. the trees are watered and pruned, there are some environmental factors which seem to be out of city arborists’ control. Soil compaction of the street surroundings is the consequence of road building technology. It occures both in old streets and in new ones, however its magnitude is not the same in different sites, it depends also on local soil properties (Alberty, 1984). The values of 3–4 MPa are considered Tatiana Swoczyna et al.: Growth and physiological performance of young urban trees of eight taxa in Warsaw, pp. 15–19 – 17 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Figure 3 Maximum quantum yield of PSII (FV/FM) in trees planted away (A) and in close proximity to roads (B) in 2008; means and SE to be detrimental for root growth, although some species are able to continue it at the values exceeding 3–4 MPa (Sinnet et al., 2008). We expected that the close proximity to roads would affect tree growth and physiological performance due to higher soil salinity. The EC values measured in July were not much higher than in the sites of the greater distance to a road. However, Cekstere et al. (2008) noted that before spring precipitation mean concentrations of Na+ and Cl- ions in road-side soils were twice or threefold higher than in July and contrary, leaf concentrations of Na+ and Cl- ions increased in the months following the spring development of leaves. It might be the reason of poor physiological performance in roadside trees in T. cordata and G. biloba. The climatic conditions seem to be the most important factor affecting the young trees. The precipitation in May 2006 was not very high and in June and July was extremaly low. This resulted in shrivelling of young leaves and branches. Trees obtaining insufficient watering partially lost their crowns. According to Bühler et al. (2006) road-side trees need about 640 L of water apart from precipitation. In our research the applied amount of watering, i.e. 20 L per week in dry period (maximum 10 weeks) supported only approximately 200 L of additional water supply during the growing season. Treder (2000) noted that in newly established orchards the proper irrigation determined growth and yielding in the following years due to successful root development, crucial for future nutrition of the whole organism. In our examination the period of effective root forming in the trees planted in 2005 was too short to develop sufficient root system. Trees planted in former years continued their growth. The climatic conditions in 2007 were more favorable to the young trees and trees of some species recovered. Only T. × europaea and A. campestre road-side trees were not able to continue the growth. Presumably the drought stress in the previous year preceded the threshold of their tolerance. The poor growth of trunk volume in both Tilia road-side trees in both 2006 and 2007 indicates that these species can hardly cope in road-side environments (Borowski and Pstrągowska, 2010). FV/FM parameter is considered to be the universal physiological parameter for every photosynthetising material with the optimal values of around 0.83 (Maxwell and Johnson, 2000; Kalaji et al., 2012). Our examination revealed the clear division into the “best performers” and the “week performers”. Three introduced species G. triacanthos, P. × hispanica and P. calleryana reached FV/FM values approximate to optimum regardless of the location and date. The high values of soil compaction did not disturb physiological performance in G. triacanthos. Likewise, in T. cordata and T. × europaea trees planted away from a road the higher FV/ FM values indicate that the both Tilia species are able to adjust their physiological performance to unfavourable soil compaction provided that the trees obtain sufficient watering. The road-side locations are subjected to increased soil salinity which diminishes access to the soil water and results in harmful ions accumulation (Cekstere et al. 2008). The latest leads to leaf structure injuries and disturbances Tatiana Swoczyna et al.: Growth and physiological performance of young urban trees of eight taxa in Warsaw, pp. 15–19 – 18 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering of photosynthetic performance (Kalaji and Pietkiewicz, 1993; Percival et al., 2003). The worst values in G. biloba were probably the result of synergic influence of soil salinity, water scarcity and extremal soil compaction. The soil compaction was presumably the reason of either poor growth and worse physiological performance of Q. rubra trees. Conclusions On the basis of the results the folllowing conclusions can be made: 1. In harsh urban environments tree species differ both in growth intensity and physiological vitality. 2. Close proximity to roads leads to diminishing of both Tilia species growth. 3.Road-side conditions and high soil compaction may affect negatively the physiological performance of Ginkgo biloba. 4. Acer campestre is able to adapt to severe environmental conditions, keeping photosynthetic apparatus in good condition, however in extremely harsh environments the development of tree crown may be restricted. 5. Close proximity to a road does not limit the growth of Gleditsia triacanthos, Platanus × hispanica ‘Acerifolia’ and Pyrus calleryana ‘Chanticleer’ and Quercus rubra, however high soil compaction in conjunction with summer drought may influence negatively the photosynthetic apparatus efficiency in Quercus rubra. 6.For newly planted trees water availability has the crucial meaning, other stresses like soil compaction or soil salinity also play a significant role. 7. Taking into consideration the three factors influencing young trees, the species/cultivars Gleditsia triacanthos, Platanus × hispanica ‘Acerifolia’ and Pyrus calleryana ‘Chanticleer’ are sufficiently tolerant to be cultivated in urban environments. Acer campestre, Tilia cordata ‘Greenspire’, Tilia × europaea ‘Pallida’, Quercus rubra and Ginkgo biloba trees should not be planted in extremely harmful conditions. Acknowledgements The research was supported by the Environment Protection Department of the Capital City of Warsaw (Biuro Ochrony Środowiska Miasta Stołecznego Warszawy) and the Metropolitan Authority of Parks, Greenery and Cleaning, Warsaw (Zarząd Oczyszczania Miasta, Warszawa). References ALBERTY, C. A. – PELLET, H. M. – TAYLOR, D. H. 1984. Characterization of soil compaction at construction sites and woody plant response. In: Journal of Environmental Horticulture, vol. 2, 1984, no. 2, p. 48–53. ISSN 0738-2898. BACH, A. – FRAZIK-ADAMCZYK, M. – PAWŁOWSKA, B. – PNIAK, M. 2007. Wpływ warunków miejskich na zdrowotność lip (Tilia × europaea) ‘Pallida’ w Alei Najświętszej Marii Panny w Częstochowie (The effect of urban conditions on health status of common lime (Tilia × europaea ‘Pallida’) at the Virgin Mary Avenue in Częstochowa) [in Polish]. Roczniki Akademii Rolniczej w Poznaniu, In: Ogrodnictwo, vol. 383, no. 41, p. 11–16. ISSN 0137-1738. BOROWSKI, J. 2008. Wzrost rodzimych gatunków drzew przy ulicach Warszawy. Warszawa : Wydawnictwo SGGW, 2008. 160 pp. ISBN 978-83-7583-053-8. BOROWSKI, J. – LATOCHA, P. 2006. Dobór drzew i krzewów do warunków przyulicznych Warszawy i miast centralnej Polski. In. Rocznik Dendrologiczny, 2006, no. 54, p. 83–94. ISSN 0860-2646. BOROWSKI, J. – PSTRĄGOWSKA, M. 2010. Effect of street conditions, including saline aerosol, on growth of the Smallleaved limes. In: Rocznik Dendrologiczny, 2010, no. 58, p. 15–24. ISSN 0860-2646. BOROWSKI, J. – PSTRĄGOWSKA, M. – SIKORSKI, P. – ORZECHOWSKI, J. – MĄKOWSKI, J. 2005. Wyniki badań nad fotograficzna metodą pomiaru przyrostów drzew z zastosowaniem komputerowego programu DENDRO. In: Rocznik Dendrologiczny, 2005, no. 53, p. 65–88. ISSN 0860-2646. BÜHLER, O. – NIELSEN, C. N. – KRISTOFFERSEN, P. 2006. Growth and phenology of established Tilia cordata street trees in response to different irrigation regimes. In: Arboriculture & Urban Forestry, vol. 32, 2006, no. 1, p. 3–9. ISSN 1935-5297. CEKSTERE, G. – NIKODEMU, O. – OSVALDE, A. 2008. Toxic impact of the de-icing material to street greenery in Riga, Latvia. In: Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, vol. 7, 2008, no. 3, p. 207– 217. ISSN 1618-8667. KALAJI, M. H. – GOLTSEV, V. – BOSA, K. – ALLAKVERDIEV, S. I. – STRASSER, R. J. – GOVINDJEE. 2012. Experimental in vivo measurements of light emission in plants: a perspective dedicated to David Walker. In: Photosynthesis Research, 2012, no. 114, p. 69–96. Online. ISSN 1573-5079. KALAJI, M. H. – PIETKIEWICZ, S. 1993. Salinity effects on plant growth and other physiological processes. In: Acta Physiologiae Plantarum, vol. 15, 1993, no. 2, p. 89–124. Online. ISSN 1861-1664. MAXWELL, K. – JOHNSON, G. N. 2000. Chlorophyll fluorescence – a practical guide. In: Journal of Experimental Botany, 2000, no. 51, p. 659–668. Online. ISSN 1460-2431. PAULEIT, S. – JONES, N. – GARCIA-MARTIN, G. – GARCIAVALDECANTOS, J. L. – RIVIÈRE, L. M. – VIDAL-BEAUDET, L. – BODSON, M. – RANDRUP, T. B. 2002. Tree establishment practice in towns and cities – Results from a European survey. In: Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 2002, no. 1, p. 83–96. ISSN 1618-8667. PERCIVAL, G. C. – FRASER, G. A. – OXENHAM, G. 2003. Foliar salt tolerance of Acer genotypes using chlorophyll fluorescence. In: Journal of Arboriculture, vol. 29, 2003, no. 2, p. 61–65. ISSN 0278-5226. PERCIVAL, G. C. – KEARY, I. P. – AL-HABSI, S. 2006. An assessment of the drought tolerance of Fraxinus genotypes for urban landscape plantings. In: Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 2006, no. 5, p. 17–27. ISSN 1618-8667. SÆBØ, A. – BENEDIKZ, T. – RANDRUP, T. B. 2003. Selection of trees for urban forestry in the Nordic countries. In: Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 2003, no. 2, p. 101–114. ISSN 1618-8667. SINNETT, D. – MORGAN, G. – WILLIAMS, M. – HUTCHINGS, T. R. 2008. Soil penetration resistance and tree root development. In: Soil Use and Management, 2008, no. 24, p. 273–280. Online. ISSN 1475-2743. TREDER, W. 2004. Nawadniajmy młode sady. In: Hasło Ogrodnicze, 2004, no. 7. ISSN 0137-6705. Tatiana Swoczyna et al.: Growth and physiological performance of young urban trees of eight taxa in Warsaw, pp. 15–19 – 19 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering SOME PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES IN AUTUMN LEAVES OF PARTHENOCISSUS INSERTA GROWING IN URBAN CONDITIONS Renata WOJCIECHOWSKA*, Katarzyna SKOWRONEK, Anna KOŁTON, Monika CZAJA University of Agriculture in Krakow, Poland Discoloration of leaves during autumn is the result of changes in the metabolism of trees and shrubs of temperate climate before winter. Leaves of Parthenocissus inserta growing in different habitats in Cracow were investigated in five terms from July to October. Selected physiological changes: anthocyanin content, chlorophyll content, the state of the cytoplasmic membrane were analyzed in every term of investigation. All of the analysis had two combinations depending on the leaf position in the crown. In the conditions similar to natural coloration of leaves were faster than along the busy thoroughfare where anthocyanin synthesis proceeded very slowly. Directly sunlit leaves were characterized by lower content of assimilation pigments as compared to the shaded leaves. Keywords: senescence, chlorophyll breakdown, anthocyanins, electrolyte leakage Introduction Autumnal leaf color change is a decorative feature, but the intensity of colors in this period is not always the same. Physiological processes that determine the colors of autumn leaves are affected by many factors, including weather conditions (Feild et al., 2001; Archetti et al., 2009). Red color of the leaves is caused by anthocyanins, which synthesis is stimulated by night temperature falls (up to a few degrees above zero) followed by sunny weather. During autumn low temperature accelerates the chlorophyll breakdown, revealing the yellow-orange carotenoids. An important factor in the selection of species is a similar color change regardless of the weather fluctuations. One of these species is Parthenocissus inserta – Thicket Creeper – fast growing, expansive rambler, climbing by tendrils, with green young shoots, reaching up to 20 m in height (Seneta and Dolatowski, 2008). In addition to the strong spring-summer shoot growth, and quick cover of different areas, the main decorative advantage of P. inserta is intense red leaf color in the autumn. It is successfully planted in urban areas, enduring the pollution of soil and air and water shortages (Borowski, 1996). The compact construction of the city center, including transport routes are the warmest areas of Cracow, while the coldest – water reservoirs surface, large forests and parks, including “Las Borkowski” area (Matuszko, 2007). The aim of the study was to examine selected physiological changes (pigment content, the state of the cytoplasmic membrane), occurring especially in *Correspodence: the autumn leaves of Parthenocissu sinserta, growing in three different positions in Cracow. The aim was also to determine how the tested parameters are affected by the location of the plant leaves in the crown. Material and methods The object of the study was Parthenocissus inserta (Vitaceae). Plants growing in three habitats differ in the environmental conditions were used into research. The first position (BOREK) is located nearby the average busy traffic street along the little forest “Las Borkowski”. The second research location (OLSZA) is located in the district of housing estate “Olsza”. Third object of the research (OPOLSKA) is located along one of the most intensively busy road in Cracow, Opolska street, growing 0.5–1 m from the road lane on acoustic screen on the south side. The study was conducted in 2009 in 5 dates: July 2nd (first term of research), followed by August 3rd (midsummer), September 7th (end of summer), September 28th (beginning of autumn discoloration) and October 16th (end of discoloration and leaf fall). Leaves were collected from the south direction, located in the outer part of the plant crown, directly exposed to environmental factors (SUN) and in the inner part of the crown – leaves constantly shaded (SHADE). In each period, from each combination 15–20 pieces of representative leaves (healthy, fully developed, neither the youngest nor oldest) were harvested. The content of assimilation pigments (Wellburn, 1994) and anthocyanins (Hackett and Murray, 1991) were analyzed spectrophotometrically with extraction in acetone and Renata Wojciechowska, University of Agriculture in Krakow, Faculty of Horticulture, Al. 29 Listopada 54, 31-425 Krakow, Poland, e-mail: [email protected] Renata Wojciechowska et al.: Some physiological changes in autumn leaves of Parthenocissus inserta growing in urban conditions, pp. 20–23 – 20 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering buffer, respectively. Dry matter and electrolyte leakage were also determined. Statistical analysis was performed with Statistica 8, using the LSD Fisher test at significance level α = 0.05. Results and discussion Leaves of climber growing along the Opolska street were less discolored in compare to other investigated places in the end of September and in October. Visual observations were confirmed by analysis of anthocyanin content (Table 1). Autumn leaves of P. inserta showed intense anthocyanin synthesis. The first red leaves were observed in the location BOREK. In October, there was found a large increase of these pigments in all of the investigated positions, the largest in the OLSZA. The minimum content of anthocyanins occurred in autumn leaves growing along OPOLSKA acoustic screens (Table 1). In this location, the differences in the level of the October anthocyanins in leaves located outside and inside the crown of climber were small. The greatest amount of assimilation pigments was found in the leaves of P. inserta growing in the OLSZA location, while the least content of chlorophyll pigments demonstrated the climber in the OPOLSKA (Table 2). It is worth noting that the lowest degree of damage to the cytoplasmic membrane characterized P. inserta growing Table 1 in the BOREK area. Furthermore, the leaves of the plants in this area showed the highest content of dry matter. The leaves growing in a shady conditions (Table 3) showed a significantly (more than twice) higher content of chlorophyll pigments (chl a, chl b and total chl) compared to the leaves growing in direct sunlight. In the case of carotenoids there was no significant difference between the sunlit and shaded leaves. However, electrolyte leakage from leaves grown in full sun was about 58% higher than in shaded leaves. The content of chlorophyll a and b, calculated per gram of fresh weight is generally greater in the leaves growing under lower radiation intensity (Boardmann, 1997; Goncales et al., 2001). This relation is confirmed by the results of this work. Shaded leaves contain more chlorophyll a and b than those growing in full sunlight. According to Lichtenthaler et al. (2013) sun leaves present higher values of the chl a:b ratio and lower values for the total chlorophylls to total carotenoids ratio as compared to shade leaves. These relations are confirmed by the results of presented study. According to Hall and Rao (1999) chloroplasts of leaves growing in a strong sunlight environment contain a higher amount of carotenoids, because of their protective role in relation to chlorophyll pigments. The results presented in this study did not confirm this phenomenon, there was no Anthocyanin content in the P. inserta leaves in different terms presented in mg of cyanidine in 100g of fresh weight Location Leaves position July August September begining September end October middle sun 0* 1.0 2.1 42.9 103.1 shade 0 0 2.7 17.6 30.2 sun 0 0 0.5 0 134.1 shade 0 0 1.3 0 56.0 sun 0 0 0.2 0.9 6.4 shade 0 0 0 0 7.2 BOREK OLSZA OPOLSKA *not detected Table 2 The influence of the P. inserta growth position on selected physiological parameters (data were averaged for all five terms of investigation) Parameter/Location BOREK OLSZA OPOLSKA Chlorophyll a in mg 100 g-1 f.w. 0.61 a* 0.79 c 0.51 a Chlorophyll b in mg 100 g-1 f.w. 0.25 b 0.31 c 0.22 a Chl a + b in mg 100 g-1 f.w. 0.86 b 1.1 c 0.73 a chl a : b ratio 2.32 a 2.34 a 2.50 b Carotenoids in mg 100 g-1 f.w. 0.17 b 0.22 c 0.16 a Carotenoids to chlorophyll ratio 0.23 a 0.24 a 0.28 a Electrolyteleakage in % 33.1 a 49.7 b 45.3 b Dryweight in % 22.5 b 21.1 ab 19.3 a * means marked with the same letters did not differ with α = 0.05 Renata Wojciechowska et al.: Some physiological changes in autumn leaves of Parthenocissus inserta growing in urban conditions, pp. 20–23 – 21 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Table 3 Influence of the leaves position in the crown on selected physiological parameters regardless of the position of growth and terms of analysis (data were averaged for all five terms of investigation, for all locations) Parameter/Leaves position Insolated leaves (sun) Shaded leaves (shade) Chlorophyll a in mg 100 g-1 f.w. 0.61 a 0.66 b Chlorophyll b in mg 100 g f.w. 0.23 a 0.29 b Chl a + b in mg 100 g f.w. 0.85 a 0.95 b -1 -1 chl a : b ratio 2.6 b 2.2 a Carotenoids in mg 100 g-1 f.w. 0.18 a 0.19 a Chl sum to carotenoids ratio 4.72 a 5.00 b Electrolyte leakage in % 57.6 b 27.8 a Dry weight in % 22.5 b 19.5 a significant differences in the level of carotenoids in sun and shade leaves. Autumnal increase in anthocyanin content is associated with their protective function against photooxidation of chlorophyll in conditions of lowering temperatures and high solar radiation, as reported by Gould et al. (2000) and Archetti (2009). In the OLSZA location, anthocyanins were detected only in October, when the sunlit leaves reveal the largest number of those pigments in compare with other objects. Along the OPOLSKA thoroughfare P. inserta leaves coloration was very weak and sparse. No typical phase of autumn discoloration in the Parthenocissus leaves was also reported for the Warsaw agglomeration by Borowski and Lachota (2006). Previous researches indicated that the growth of anthocyanin content in leaves during autumn is influenced by a chill in the range of 5 °C (Wojciechowska et. al., 2008). Such temperature decrease in presented research occurred in the second decade of October (Fig.1). Figure 1 In result intense synthesis of anthocyanins in positions BOREK and OLSZA was observed. At both locations the wind and temperature reduction are stronger than in a sheltered place, such as OPOLSKA. Therefore, the effects of autumn coloration in these growth conditions were the least effective. Regardless of the growth location, leaves growing in direct sunlight demonstrated a greater degree of damage to the cytoplasmic membrane measured by electrolyte leakage than in shaded leaves. Leaves exposed to direct light are more susceptible to oxidative stress, which generates the formation of free radicals. Free radicals cause damage to the fatty acids in the cytoplasmic membranes leading to their gradual degradation, which results in uncontrolled release of ions (Starck et al., 1995). The slightest damage to the cytoplasmic membrane was observed in the leaves of P. inserta growing in conditions most similar to the natural ones (BOREK). Sunlit leaves have a higher dry matter content than the shaded (Boardmann, 1977), as a result of adaptation to the structure and function of stress conditions. This relation is also confirmed by the results obtained in the experiment. In addition, the leaves of ramblers growing in the position of forest BOREK demonstrated significantly higher dry matter content than those in the OPOLSKA area. These observations may indirectly indicate an unfavorable effect of the urban conditions on the photosynthetic productivity in plants. The results obtained in Cracow confirm that if the purpose of P. inserta planting is to highlight its decorative coloration in the autumn, the location should be chosen carefully (with a cooler microclimate), which will help to create the right conditions for the anthocyanins synthesis. Conclusions yy Discoloration of P. inserta autumn leaves was not simultaneous for different sites and differs in the duration Renata Wojciechowska et al.: Some physiological changes in autumn leaves of Parthenocissus inserta growing in urban conditions, pp. 20–23 – 22 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering yy In the conditions similar to natural (BOREK) coloration of leaves were faster than along the busy thoroughfare (OPOLSKA) where anthocyanin synthesis proceeded very slowly even in October yy The leaves of P. inserta growing in the OPOLSKA area had significantly lower concentration of assimilation pigments, percentage of dry matter and also a greater degree of cytoplasmic membrane damage than the leaves of plants growing in conditions similar to the natural ones yy Sunlit leaves were characterized by a greater chlorophyll a to b ratio, lower content of assimilation pigments (per unit mass), increased anthocyanin concentration, dry matter content and greater damage to the cytoplasmic membranes as compared to the shaded leaves. References ARCHETTI, M. 2009. Unraveling the evolution of autumn colors: an interdisciplinary approach. In Trends in Ecology and Evolution, vol. 24, 2009, pp. 166–173. BOARDMANN, N. K. 1977. Comparative photosynthesis of sun and shade plants. In Annual Review of Plant Physiology, vol. 28, 1977, pp. 355–377. BOROWSKI, J. – LACHOTA, P. 2006. Dobór drzew i krzewów do warunków przyulicznych Warszawy i miast centralnej Polski. In Rocznik Dendrologiczny, vol. 54, 2006, pp. 83–93. FIELD, T. – LEE, D. – HOLBROOK, M. 2001. Why leaves turn red in autumn. The role of anthocyanins in senescing leaves of redosier dogwood. In Plant Physiology, vol. 127, 2001, pp. 566–574. GONCALES, J. F. – MORENCO, R. A. – VIEIRA, G. 2001. Concentration of photosynthetic pigments chlorophyll fluoresces of Mahogany and Tonka bean under two lights environments. In Revista Brasiliera de Fisiologia Vegetal, vol 13, 2001, no. 2, pp. 149–157. GOULD, K. S. – MARKHAM, K. R. – SMITH, R. H. – GORIS, J. J. 2000. Functional role of anthocyanins in leaves of Quintinia serrata. A. Cunn. In Journal of Experimental Botany, vol. 51, 2000, no. 347, pp. 1107–1115. HALL, D. O. – RAO, K. K. 1999. Fotosynteza. Warszaw : Wydawnictwo Naukowo-Techniczne, 1999. LICHTENTHALER, H. – BABANI, F. – NAVRATIL, M. – BUSCHMANN, C. 2013. Chlorophyll fluorescence kinetics, photosynthetic activity and pigment composition of blue-shade leaves as compared to sun and shade leaves of different trees. In Photosynthesis Research, vol. 117, 2013, pp. 355–366. MATUSZKO, D. 2007. Klimat Krakowa w XX wieku. Kraków : IGiGP UJ. 2007. MURRAY, J. – HACKETT, W. 1991. Dihydroflavonol reductase activity in relation to differential anthocyanin accumulation in juvenile and mature phase Hedera helix L. In Plant Physiology, vol. 97, 1991, pp. 343–351. SENETA, W. – DOLATOWSKI, J. 2008. Dendrologia. Warszawa PWN. 2008. STARCK, Z. – CHOŁUJ, D. – NIEMYSKA, B. 1995. Fizjologiczne reakcje roślin na niekorzystne czynniki środowiska. Warszawa : SGGW, 1995. WELLBURN, A. R. 1994. The spectral determination of chlorophylls a and b, as well as total carotenoids, using various solvents with spectrophotometers of different resolution. In Journal of Plant Physiology, vol. 144, 1994, pp. 307–313. WOJCIECHOWSKA, R. – KOBYŁKO, T. – HOSTYŃSKA, A. 2008. Some physiological changes in Waldsteinia trifolia (Roch.) leaves in different month of the year. In Acta Agrobotanica, vol. 61, 2008, no. 2, pp. 85–91. Renata Wojciechowska et al.: Some physiological changes in autumn leaves of Parthenocissus inserta growing in urban conditions, pp. 20–23 – 23 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering INVESTIGATIONS ON ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS OF URBAN TREES AT CORVINUS UNIVERSITY OF BUDAPEST Károly HROTKÓ*1, Márk STEINER1, Mihály FORRAI1, György Endre TÓTH1, Máté VÉRTESY1, Ádám LEELŐSSY2, Levente KARDOS1, Magdolna Diószegi SÜTÖRINÉ1, Lajos MAGYAR1, Róbert MÉSZÁROS2 Corvinus University of Budapest (CUB), Hungary 2 Eötvös Loránd University (ELU), Hungary 1 Urban trees play important role in diminishing of air pollution, but the interactions between atmospheric contamination and trees may involve both positive and negative effects. Evaluation the environmental benefits of urban trees in a complex model require in situ measurements, but such measurements and data are almost completely missing. The characterization of interactions in this system will provide a conducing framework for predicting microclimatic factors and useful data of urban drafting and planning urban tree plantations. This is planned in the joint research project of Corvinus University of Budapest and Eötvös Lorand University. Based on our preliminary results we can conclude that the planned research promise collection of missing data and in the model simulation we can elaborate a complex model of interactions in the “plant – air pollution – urban site“ multiple system. Keywords: air pollution, LAI, photosynthetic activity, stomatal conductance, transpiration Introduction Performance of Leaf Area Index (LAI) during the year It is commonly accepted that urban trees play important role in diminishing of air pollution, but the interactions between atmospheric contamination and trees may involve both positive and negative effects. The atmospheric pollution under urban conditions causes serious human health disorders; however, related effects like discomfort and smog alerts both in winter and summer can cause complications in urban life. The evaluation of elements in a complex model requires in situ measurements on interaction, but such measurements and data are almost completely missing. The characterization of interactions in this system will provide a conducing framework for predicting microclimatic factors and useful data of urban drafting and planning urban tree plantations. Micrometeorological, plant physiological and atmospheric contamination measurements as well as detailed deposition, local scale dispersion and chemical models are intended to describe the status, the spatial and temporal variability, and the connections of the vegetation-atmosphere complex system in urban environment. Considering the complexity of the theme, researchers of the two universities (ELU and CUB) decided to cooperate in this topic; the research is supported by National Scientific Research Funds (OTKA). Our paper gives an overview on the preliminary results and plans of cooperative research. In our temperate climate conditions, the most urban trees and shrubs produce deciduous leaves. The influence of the leaf mass is effective only in limited period regularly from April to November. The changes in the leaf mass and leaf characteristics depend on species, cultivar, and vary by age and location. There is little information in the literature on the performance of leaf growth and distribution within the canopy of trees and shrubs of different ages. Radó (2001) refers to 3.4 to 9.6 LAI in closed forest stands, depending on age, but his data show the *Correspodence: Figure 1 Performance of LAI on 30 years old Acer platanoides ’Faassens Black’ and ’Globosum’ during the year (x axis: day of the year) Károly Hrotkó, Corvinus University of Budapest (CUB), Department of Floriculture and Dendrology, Hungary, e-mail: [email protected] Károly Hrotkó et al.: Investigations on environmental benefits of urban trees at Corvinus University of Budapest, pp. 24–27 – 24 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Investigation of microclimatological characteristics in typical urban areas We plan measuring meteorological variables (air temperature, VPD, wind speed) at different height both above artificial surface such as asphalt, concrete, pathway or streets and above vegetation in downtown and suburb or outskirt conditions. Leaf temperature is the outcome of the energy balance at leaf level, which depends on leaf mass, size, shape, angle, reflectance properties, and on physical (incoming radiation, air temperature, wind speed) and biological (transpiration controlled by stomatal conductance) phenomena. From a human perspective, foliage temperature of urban trees is of particular interest due to their cooling effect on urban climate (Pauleit, 2003). According to Leuzinger et al. (2009) tree crown temperatures ranged from 24 °C (Aesculus hippocastanum trees located in a park) to 29 °C in Acer platanoides trees, located in a street. Leaf gas exchange characteristics of urban tree species and cultivars Knowledge about the CO2 fixation and water vapour emission of trees and shrubs has to be confirmed with onsite instrumental examinations to get actual information. There are little reliable data about LAI values and photosynthetic activity of such trees and shrubs which are exposed to various stress factors (air pollution, drought, human impacts) in different environmental conditions (Radó, 2001). Urban climate, of course, creates different environmental conditions. Table 1 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Photosynthetic rate (μmol m-2 s-1) LAImax only, so do not give information about dynamics of LAI performance within the year. Our preliminary results (Gyeviki et al., 2012; Steiner et al., 2012) show considerable changes in the dynamics of the LAI performance during the year (Fig 1). In the frame of this project, we plane to specify the dynamics of LAI performance and other plant parameters in urban environment. 13,03 a 9,48 ab10,25 a 4,91 c Figure 2 3,82 c 4,35 c 5,70 bc 4,37 c Photosynthetic rate in μmol m-2 s-1 with the mean values of the measured plants Several studies emphasized the importance of environmental conditions for leaf gas exchange. Endres et al. (2009) found that light environment influence the CO2 fixation. Fini et al. (2010) studied the effect of light environment to leaf gas exchange and found that response to shade is species-specific. Several studies on woody species have found increased photosynthetic activity in elevated CO2 in controlled circumstances (Ceulemans and Mousseau, 1994; Curtis, 1996; Heath and Kerstiens, 1997). By our preliminary investigations there are considerable differences found in net photosynthetic rate and transpiration rate in leaves of different species and genera (Fig. 2). As a consequence these plants provide different capacity of environmental benefits. We showed that transpiration rate was strongly influenced by leaf temperature, PAR, and stomatal conductance. Since these parameters are variable during the day and the vegetation period, an accurate comparison of genera, species or cultivars would be needed. Electric conductivity and concentration of some pollutants measured in soaking water of woody plant leaves in Budapest collected from Buda Arboretum (suburb) and traffic charged downtown streets (2013) Species/location Acer/Budai Arborétum Acer/Krisztina krt Tilia/Budai Arborétum Tilia/ Karolina út Distilled water EC in uS cm-1 Salt total in mg dm-3 c (NO3-) in mg dm-3 c (NH4+) in mg dm-3 c (Cl-) in mg dm-3 c (SO42-) in mg dm-3 average 67.10 33.20 9.00 0.11 34.32 9.62 deviation 3.34 1.37 1.00 0.00 4.10 0.64 average 150.40 75.83 8.33 0.18 53.25 6.56 deviation 4.88 3.00 0.58 0.06 3.55 0.47 average 32.73 16.47 6.00 0.28 28.40 3.12 deviation 9.12 4.55 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.27 average 49.37 24.77 4.67 0.46 41.42 4.60 deviation 13.14 6.71 3.79 0.34 2.05 0.39 average 11.21 7.59 1.00 1.01 19.05 0.00 Károly Hrotkó et al.: Investigations on environmental benefits of urban trees at Corvinus University of Budapest, pp. 24–27 – 25 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering 9 6 500 13,01 11,17 4,84 8,40 400 7,77 6,09 300 8,53 200 3 100 0 0 Time (h) Diurnal course of average photosynthetic rate in August 2011 15 500 12 400 Photosynthetic rate (µmol m-2 s-1) 12 Concenration of air CO2 (vpm) Photosynthetic rate (µmol m-2 s-1) 15 Figure 3 C Diurnal course of average photosynthetic rate in August 2011 9 6 3 1,19 0 4,85 3,86 Andrássy Street 300 3,09 3,42 Time (h) 200 1,64 100 2,82 0 Concenration of air CO2 (vpm) A Ménesi Street Diurnal course of average photosythetic rate and atmospheric CO2 concentration on Fraxinus excelsior ’Westhof’s Glorie’ on Andrássy (A) and Ménesi Street (C) in August of 2011 The photosynthetic activity of leaves under different site conditions Several publications are known about the photosynthetic activity of temperate zone trees, which are planted in urban conditions too, but none of them reports on measurements in situ urban conditions. Authors has reported on large differences between species, canopy and leaf position and environmental conditions. Our preliminary studies (Fig. 3) confirmed the large differences (Forrai et al., 2012a). Urban climate obviously creates different environmental conditions, which can modify the leaf gas exchange. Our preliminary investigation for leaves of Fraxinus excelsior ‘Westhofs Glory’ in downtown conditions showed higher photosynthetic rate compared to suburb (Forrai et al., 2012b). The net CO2 assimilation of leaves during the light period of the day showed similar course to PAR exposition and stomatal conductance (Fig. 3). Leaves of trees in the downtown location received higher PAR, and showed higher stomatal conductance, and similar course in CO2 assimiltion compared to suburb conditions. As the LAI changes during the year, the dynamics of photosynthetic capacity show certain seasonal variability. To describe these temporal changes, we plan investigation during the whole vegetation period. Further measurements should focus on capacity differences of species and cultivars (some of the urban trees are grafted urban tolerant cultivars) and on site conditions of different locations (park, suburb streets, severe polluted downtown conditions). Monitoring the deposition on the leaf surface caused by urban pollution The atmospheric pollution under urban conditions impacts the human health however, related effects like discomfort and smog alerts both in winter and summer can cause complications in urban life. The major source of urban air pollution is the traffic by emitting CO2, CO, Cl-, NOx and dust, soot particles causing several environmental damages on vegetation, buildings and human health. Trees are very efficient in trapping atmospheric particles, which is especially important for urban areas. Plant leaves have been used as indicators and/or monitors of trace metal pollution. Large differences in polluting deposition are found between location and tree species. Pollutant ion deposits are larger on leaves of trees in downtown conditions, but the differences between species are considerable too: ion deposits are larger on Acer platanoides ’Globosum’ leaves than on Tilia tomentosa, except for (NH4+). Summarizing our preliminary results we can conclude that the planned research promise collection of missing data and in the model simulation (Mészáros et al., 2009, 2010) we can elaborate a complex model of interactions in the “plant – air pollution – urban site“ multiple system. The characterization of interactions in this system will provide a conducing framework for predicting microclimatic factors and useful data of urban drafting and planning urban tree plantations. The results of this project would also be very useful for the further development and refinement of environmental models. Acknowledgment Our research was supported by TÁMOP-4-2.1.B-09/1/ KMR-2010-0005 project and by Hungarian Scientific Research Funds OTKA 109361. References CEULEMANS, R. – MOUSSEAU, M. 1994. Effects of elevated atmospheric CO2 on woody plants. In: New Phytologist, 1994, no. 127, p. 425-446. CURTIS, P. S. 1996. A meta-analysis of leaf gas exchange and nitrogen in trees grown under elevated carbon dioxid. In: Plant, Cell and Environment, 1996, no. 19, p. 127–137. ENDRES, L. – CAMARA, C. A. – FERREIRA, V. M. – SILVA, J. V. 2009. Morphological and photosynthetic alterations in theYellow-ipe, Károly Hrotkó et al.: Investigations on environmental benefits of urban trees at Corvinus University of Budapest, pp. 24–27 – 26 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Tabebuia chrysotricha (Mart. Ex DC.) Standl., under nursery shading and gas exchange after being transferred to full sunlight. In: Agroforest Syst., 2009, no. 78, p. 2887–298. FINI, A. – FERRINI, F. – FRANGI, P. – PIATTI, R. – AMOROSO, G. 2010. Effects of shading on growth, leaf gas exchange and chlorophyll fluorescence of three container grown shrubs. In: Acta Hort. (ISHS), 2010, no. 885, p.109–117. FORRAI, M. – DIÓSZEGI, S. M. – LADÁNYI, M. – HONFI, P. – HROTKÓ, K. 2012a. Studies on estimation of leaf gas exchange of ornamental woody plant species. In: Applied Ecology and Environmental Research, vol. 10, 2012, no. 2, p. 195–206. http:// www.ecology.uni-corvinus.hu FORRAI, M. – SÜTÖRINÉ, D. M. – JUHÁSZ, Á. – HROTKÓ, K. 2012b. A kőris (Fraxinus excelsior ’Westhof‘s Glorie‘) leveleinek gázcseréje különböző alkalmazási környezetben. Fenntartható fejlődés, Élhető régió, Élhető települési táj 3. tanulmánykötet. BCE kiadványa, 2012, p. 261–271. ISBN 978-963-503-504-5 GYEVIKI, M. – STEINER, M. – JUHÁSZ, Á. – SZABÓ, V. – HROTKÓ, K. 2012. Intenzív cseresznyeültetvény, mint mesterséges ökoszisztéma és biológiailag aktív felület értékelése CO2 megkötés és vízhasznosulás szempontjából. Fenntartható fejlődés, Élhető régió, Élhető települési táj 1. tanulmánykötet. BCE kiadványa, 2012, p. 45–65. ISBN 978-963-503-506-2. HEATH, J. – KERSTIENS, G. 1997. Effects of elevated CO2 on leaf gas exchange in beech and oak at two levels of nutrient supply: consequences for sensitvity to drought in beech. In: Platn, Cell and Environment, 1997, no. 20, p. 57–67. LEUZINGER, S. – VOGT, R. – KÖRNER, C. 2009. Trees surface temperature in an urban environment. In: Agric. Forest Meteorol., 2009. AGMET-4144. MÉSZÁROS, R. – ZSÉLY, I. GY. – SZINYEI, D. – VINCZE, CS. – LAGZI, I. 2009. Sensitivity analysis of an ozone deposition model. In: Atmospheric Environment, 2009, no. 43, p. 663–672. MOLNÁR, F. Jr. – SZAKÁLY, T. – MÉSZÁROS, R. – LAGZI, I. 2010. Air pollution modelling using a Graphics Processing Unit with CUDA. In: Computer Physics Communications. 2010. DOI:10.1016/j.cpc.2009.09.008 PAULEIT, S. 2003. Urban street tree plantings: indentifying the key requirements. In: Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers-Municipal Engineer, 2003, no. 156, pp. 43–50. RADÓ, D. 2001. A növényzet szerepe a környezetvédelemben. In: Budapest kiadó, 2001, p. 9–20. STEINER, M. – GYEVIKI, M. – JUHÁSZ, Á. – HROTKÓ, K. 2012. Intenzív cseresznyeültetvény gázcseréjének alakulása 2011ben. TÁMOP műhelytanulmány (kézirat). Budapesti : Corvinus Egyetem, 2012. URBAN ALLEY TREES IN BUDAPEST Vilmos SZALLER2, Veronika SZABÓ1, Magdolna Sütöriné Diószegi1*, Lajos MAGYAR1, Károly HROTKÓ1 Corvinus University of Budapest (CUB), Hungary 2 FŐKERT Nonprofit ZRT, Budapest, Hungary 1 Integration and landscaping of Budapest started after the union of Buda, Óbuda and Pest in year 1873. In this time more than 50 % of planted trees were Robinia pseudo-acacia, following by Acer platanoides and Aesculus hippocastanum with number of 6000–7000, and species of Fraxinus excelsior, Ailanthus glandulosa, Celtis orientalis, Ulmus effuse and Acer negundo with number of 1000–2000. In World War I and II, lot of trees were cut. The remained parks needed the fast-growing species such as poplar (Populus), ash-leaved maple (Acer negundo) or silver maple (Acer saccharinum). The aims in this investigation were to monitoring the planting materials, supporting of alleys, healthy states of trees as summarizing survival rate under urban conditions. The effects of urban environments conspire to the old trees damage, the average age of trees in alley calculated about 29.1 year in Budapest. The life cycle of a tree is short. In present-day the alleys in Budapest contain 39 species with more than 100 cultivars. The ideal trees bear shade, drought, poor soil, continuously pruning of roots and shoots, the injuring, the air pollination, the salting and the dog urine. These strong requirements decreased the planting number of sycamores (Platanus) and horse-chestnuts (Aesculus). It is recommended to keep trees assessing, to maintain them and change the salting materials under wintertime. The heavy environmental conditions determine the applicable tree species in cities. Keywords: Introduction A committee for public parks in Budapest was established by Palatine (Governor prince) József supported by King Ferenc I. Its aim was to develop the green surfaces in city, *Correspodence: to plant new alleys (Budapest Lexicon, 1973). The most of main public parks had got shape in this time (City Park, Margaret Island). The landscaping had started firstly on the Danube bank of Pest and Buda and city part of Pest (Radó, 1981). The injury of flooding in 1837 took in the Magdolna Sütöriné Diószegi, Corvinus University of Budapest, Faculty of Horticultural Sciences, Department of Floriculture and Dendrology, H-1118 Budapest, Villányi str. 29-43, Hungary, e-mail: [email protected] Vilmos Szaller et al.: Urban Alley Trees in Budapest, pp. 27–30 – 27 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering banks of Danube and all of Margaret Island. After flooding this committee and Hungarian nobility were lavish in the fast regenerating of concerned area. In this time, landscaping of bigger area in downtown started. The Palatine József was died in 1847, and then the works of his committee decreased. The great comeback was the era after the of Austro-Hungarian compromise in 1867 when Franz Josef was crowned to Hungarian King. City Gardening, what is working since this year, was established by Emil Fuchs. Integration and landscaping of Budapest started after the union of Buda, Óbuda and Pest in year 1873. The development of public transport improved the area of public parks – mainly in suburb. Landscaping of Buda also started in this time (most of alleys in Buda were setting). Landscaping bounding to Millennium Celebration was significant. More than 50 % of planted trees were Robinia pseudo-acacia, following by Acer platanoides and Aesculus hippocastanum with number of 6000–7000, and species of Fraxinus excelsior, Ailanthus glandulosa, Celtis orientalis, Ulmus effuse and Acer negundo with number of 1000–2000 (Statistical Yearbook, 1898). The most of present-day public parks were evolved or shaped in this era. 12000 root crow n stem 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0 healthy piece Figure 1 restricted strongly restricted visible injuries strong rotting deficient, died The health status of root, crown and stem of trees managing by FŐKERT (Capital Gardening) (Budapest, 2009) 1400 spring autumn 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 19 98 Figure 2 19 99 20 00 20 01 20 02 20 03 20 04 20 05 20 06 20 07 20 08 20 09 20 10 Tree plantings from 1998 to 2008 20 11 20 12 20 13 In World War I, lot of trees in downtown were cut because of lack of coal to heating – for example from the 1883 established alley in Andrássy Avenue only one sycamore tree (Platanus) survived it because of armed guards. The developments of landscaping were improved by Károly Räde in late 1920s (Radó, 1985). In his era lots of streets and alleys were planted with trees. Reports of that time noted 502 alleys with detailed list of tree species (Räde, 1929). Károly Räde was followed by Dezső Morbitzer, who finished the landscaping of Gellért Hill, formed gardens of Tabán and Városmajor (Kiácz, 1968). Reports of late 1930s showed 212 tree-planted walks in Budapest with more than 160 000 planted trees. In that time the planted tree species were the same as the species at landscaping of Millennium Celebration (Statistical Yearbook, 1898), however from the middle of 1920s the following tree species were planted: Acer campestre, genus of Sorbus, Fraxinus and Tilia, which species are native in Hungary (Morbitzer, 1937). In World War II, the trees were hard injured under siege of capitol city. The reconstruction of areas was carried out with building-rubble covered or mixed with soil in most times (Kiácz 1968). The reconstruction works of landscape were finished in late 1940s (Radó 1993). After reconstruction the structure of city was rebuilt hard, building of council blocks in the outskirts of city started. The maintenance of these areas was attended to capitol of Budapest from the middle of 1950s to the end of 1980s. Blocks of flats, shops and covered surfaces took the places from old houses with garden and public parks. The remained parks needed the fast-growing species such as poplar (Populus), ash-leaved maple (Acer negundo) or silver maple (Acer saccharinum). Professional replanting of overage trees started from the middle of 1960s. Besides the most planted trees in 1930s Vilmos Szaller et al.: Urban Alley Trees in Budapest, pp. 27–30 – 28 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering investigation of vitality. Each aspect has got five rating grade from one to five. Number one means unhealthy or died part of trees, number five means healthy part of trees with good condition. Results and discussion Tree planting Figure 3 Distribution of trunk diameter of alley trees (Budapest, 2009) (Morbitzer, 1937), silver linden (Tilia tomentosa) and mountain ash (genus Sorbus) were planted (Schmidt, 2006). Nowadays the growing number of inhabitants in Budapest, the technological improvements and more and more cars increase the environmental pollutions in cities. However from 1980s the financial funds of landscaping was decreasing, the tendency in present-day is again increasing. The financial fund of city landscaping is near by two thousands millions, however this amount is only 1% of total cost of Budapest in 2013 (financial regulation in 2013). The aims in this investigation were to monitoring the planting materials, supporting of alleys, health status of trees as summarizing survival rate under urban conditions. Material and methods Data were collected by Vilmos Szaller (FŐKERT Nonprofit Zrt., Nonprofit Gardening Company of Budapest) and evaluated in cooperation with Department of Floriculture and Dendrology of Corvinus University of Budapest. All of trees in Budapest, about 12 000 trees, were subject of evaluation. Assessments were based on EU-methods (Radó, 1999). There are five monitoring aspects, what are noted by letters (A, B, C, D, E). The semantic contents are the follows: A: roots, growing space, B: state of trunk, C: state of crown, D: the degree of maintenance, E: 4500 4000 3500 Figure 4 Platanus genus Celtis occidentalis Populus genus Gleditsia triacanthos Fraxinus genus Acer genus Sophora japonica 0 Tilia genus 500 Aesculus genus 1000 others 1500 ornamental pears 2000 Robinia pseudoacacia 2500 Koelreuteria paniculata 3000 Composition of species among trees managed by FŐKERT (Capital Gardening) (Budapest, 2009) In 1920s there were more requirements of tree planting considering the direction and the width of streets, the size of buildings, the influence of covered areas, the pipes and cables of public services in the air and in the ground and the planting with trees of the bounded lines in public transport such as trams and suburban railways. Ninety years ago, the fire prevention and view of bee-keeping also belonged to requirements of tree planting (Csérer, 1928). The difficulties of tree planting in city are much the same. The 70% of alley trees in Budapest do not meet the requirements of Csérer (1928). In the last century the original ground remained under the trees, however nowadays there is not any healthy, unbroken ground to planting. This is the reason why the soil change is necessary before planting. The changing of transport, the spreading of great transportations and cables of the mass media are decreasing the possible fields of planting. These effects conspire to the old trees damage, the average age of trees in alley calculated about 29.1 year in Budapest (Developmental Concept of Landscaping, 2009). It could mean just as well that the renewal timing of alley trees is optimal; the injured trees are changed continuously. Unfortunately, it is not right. The health status of the most of the young trees runs down so fast, that they do not reach the older age (Figure 1). This run-down of trees is caused by the endurance of environmental pollination. The trunk diameter categories of these trees show the same picture (Figure Vilmos Szaller et al.: Urban Alley Trees in Budapest, pp. 27–30 – 29 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering 3). The high rate of young trees means that the life cycle of a tree is short. The number of tree planting is varying yearly (Figure 2). It is typical that we can see larger tree plantings in a 4-years-period. Species of trees Csérer (1913) noted 14 species later (1928) 23 species in details from alleys in Budapest. Räde (1928) mentioned 15 species. Csérer (1928) recommended to planting more tree species in city because the trees have got different environmental requirements. In present-day the alleys in Budapest contain 39 species with more than 100 cultivars. The 80 % of all the trees in Budapest are common species (Figure 4). The ideal alley trees need to suit more and more requirements. The ideal trees bear shade, drought all of the grounds (poor soil too), continuously pruning of roots and shoots, the injuring, the air pollination, the salting and the dog urine. Their wounds are healing fast and well and they are not susceptible to rot. They do not cause allergy and do not litter wit their flowers, leaves and fruits. These strong requirements decreased the planting number of sycamores (Platanus) and horse-chestnuts (Aesculus) (Statistical Yearbook 1898 compared to Report of Capital Gardening, 2010). Managing of alleys It involves pruning, irradiance, nutrient supply, tilling and protection. The pruning has got more reasons (make visible traffic sign or camera, cleaning way for cars and buses, for open wire line, injuring under buildings or alleviating of injury). The optimal irrigation under vegetation time is essential (Schmidt, 2006; Szaller, 2010). Not only the space of crown, but the space of root is also limited in cities. It is caused by different pipes and tubes of public services and their repairing with turning of ground. The injuries by human are also a huge problem in public places (Figure 1). It is recommended to keep trees assessing, to maintain them and change the salting materials under wintertime. Conclusions yy The heavy environmental conditions determine the applicable tree species in cities. yy Although professional attendance, the healthy state of urban trees is run-down. yy The planting time strongly depends on election periods and politics. Acknowledgements Authors acknowledge the support by National Research Funds OTKA K 109361. References BUDAPEST KIEMELT Zöldterületek Közterületi Faállomány Megújításának Fejlesztési Koncepciója. 2009. FŐKERT Nonprofit Zrt. 2009. http://fokert.hu/dokumentumok/kozerdeku/2010_ kozhasznusagi_jelentes.pdf p. 43. http://fokert.hu/ dokumentumok/kozerdeku/EMAS_nyil.pdf p. 115. BUDAPEST LEXIKON, 1973. Akadémiai Kiadó. pp.1335. BUDAPEST FŐVÁROS Önkormányzat Közgyűlésének 21/2013. (III. 20) számú önkormányzati rendelete Budapest Főváros Önkormányzata. 2013. évi összevont költségvetéséről. BUDAPEST SZÉKESFŐVÁROS Statisztikai évkönyve 1895 és 1896. II. évf. 1898. Budapest Székes Főváros Statisztikai Hivatala. Budapest. Grill Károly Kir. Udvari Könyvkereskedése. pp. 196. CSÉRER, G. 1913. Az útak és terek fásítása. Kolozsvár. Ajtai K. Albert Könyvnyomdája, 1913. p.8–25 CSÉRER, G. 1928. A város és a falu fásítása. Budapest. M. Kir. Belügyminisztérium Kísérleti Nyomdája, 1928. p.6–30 KIÁCZ, G. 1968. A Fővárosi Kertészet száz éve. In: Mezőgazdasági kiadó, 1968. p.44 MORBITZER, D. 1937. Városi szemle: Közlemények a városi közigazgatás és statisztika köréből. 23. évf. 1. sz. Budapest. Budapest Székesfőváros Házinyomdája, 1937. p. 103–120 RADÓ, D. 1981. Fák a betonrengetegben. Budapest. Mezőgazdasági kiadó, 1981. p. 250 RADÓ, D. 1985. Budapesti parkok és terek. Magyar Nemzeti Galéria. Budapest, 1985. p. 138 RADÓ, D. 1993. 125 éves a Főváros kertészete (részletek). In: Országépítő, a Kós Károly Egyesülés folyóirata. 93/3. sz. Budakeszi : S-PRINT KFT, 1993. p.33. RADÓ, D. 1999. ’Bel-és külterületi fasorok EU-módszer szerinti értékelése’ (Assessment of alley in downtown and the outskirts based on EU-method). In. Enclosure of a periodical, called Lélegzet, 1999, no. 7–8, p. 12. RÄDE, K. 1929. Budapest Székesfőváros Kertészetéhez tartozó Park-Sétány és Kertek Tervei. Fasorok Kimutatása. Kimutatás a székesfővárosi kertészet fasorairól. Budapest : Székesfőváros Házinyomdája, 1929. SCHMIDT, G. 2006. Budapesti fák élete és halála. In: Budapest Folyóirat, vol. 61, 2006, no. 8, p. 2–6. SZALLER, V. 2010. Az épített környezetben élő fák állapotleromlásának biotikus és abiotikus okai. Szakdolgozat, 2010. pp. 106. Vilmos Szaller et al.: Urban Alley Trees in Budapest, pp. 27–30 – 30 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering CYPRESS BORER (LAMPRODILA FESTIVA), A NEW URBAN PEST IN HUNGARY Gabor SCHMIDT, Magdolna Sütöriné DIÓSZEGI*, Veronika SZABÓ, Károly HROTKÓ Corvinus University of Budapest (CUB), Hungary The most popular evergreens in parks and home gardens, Thuja occindentalis, T. plicata, Platycladus orientalis (syn. Thuja orientalis), are stressed by dry and hot summers of last seasons. Then these weak, vulnerable trees were injured by secondary pests. During investigations in June 2013 and January 2014 at the Central Conifer Collection of Corvinus University Budapest, the highest injuries of the cypress borer (Lamprodila festiva) were detected on Thuja occidentalis cultivars ‘Asplenifolia’, ‘Bodmeri’, ‘Recurva Nana’, ‘Rheingold’, ‘Smaragd’, Platycladus orientalis ‘Juniperoides’, while the other cultivars, especially the columnar T. o. ‘Henezia’ and ‘Fastigiata’, the yellow-leaved T. o. ‘Yellow Ribbon’ and ‘Sunkist’, the globular cultivars, and practically all the T. plicata and the remaining Platycladus orientalis cultivars proved to be saved (yet) by the borer. (Total number of inspected Thuja and Platycladus cultivars was 108). From the genus Chamaecyparis (altogether 69 cultivars) only some juvenile forms, wile from the genus Juniperus (altogether 218 cultivars) Juniperus scopolorum ’Skyrocket’ were injured. Keywords: Lamprodila festiva, sensitivity, Thuja, Platycladus, cypress beetle Introduction Thuja cultivars are the most popular evergreen ornamental trees in Hungary. Among these trees Thuja occidentalis (eastern arborvitae, white cedar), what has got plenty of colour and size to wide usage. Thuja plicata (giant arborvitae) and Thuja orientalis (oriental arborvitae, the current latin name is Platycladus orientalis) are frequently planted, too (Tóth, 2012; Schmidt and Tóth, 2006). Thuja trees, planted out to parks and gardens, are stressed by dry and hot summers lately. The summer heat waves stressed these trees so much that plants run dry even under irrigated conditions because of shallow roots. As the balance between foliage and root mass is lost, some trees ran dry, but majority of them are underdeveloped and showed drought stress symptoms. These weak plants are injured by secondary pests, such as cypress beetle (Lamprodila festiva) from Mediterranean, what occurred the biggest injuries currently (Bodor, 2012; Németh, 2012; Maráczi, 2013). The species of jewel beetles are numbered 119 in Hungary (Németh, 2013a, 2013b). In 1999, cypress beetle was firstly found in Landscape Protector Area of Old Juniper Woodland, Barcs (Muskovits, 2001), shortly it was protected. Two years ago, cypress beetle was detected en masse in region of Budapest, elsewhere trees killed by cypress beetle were found – especially where lots of arborvitae was planted. The life cycle of cypress beetle takes one year. The identification of injury (drying starting from top of plants, the green colour of shoots fading, and then light brown from inside to outside, in the end run dry fully) is *Correspodence: complicated and needs some skill. The oval emergence holes and the adult beetles can be observed and define exactly May and June of next year after the starting of injuring. Our preliminary observation suggests that infection of cypress beetle is different on each species of Thuja. This suggests that some of them are less vulnerable against cypress beetles. The aim of our investigations was monitoring Thuja and Platycladus (earlier belongs to genus Thuja) cultivars on the susceptibility to cypress beetle (Lamprodila festiva). Less vulnerable species could be recommended for propagators and customers based on this investigation. Materials and Methods This trial was carried out in Experimental and Research Farm of Corvinus University of Budapest, Faculty of Horticultural Science. The farm is located in Central Hungary on light sandy soil with pH of 7.8, the yearly average temperature is 11.3 °C, the hours of sunlight are 2079 and annual precipitation is 550 mm. Central Coniferous Collection is located on 2 hectares. The collection amounts 584 conifers, from them there are 108 Thuja and Platycladus species and cultivars. Each taxa has got 5–5 stools in two replicates with optimal spacing to growth representatively. Monitoring had done in June 2013 and it was continued with more details from late January to early February 2014. In the first stage in June 2013, the cypress beetle was identified on these trees in Central Coniferous Collection. In the second stage from late January to early Magdolna Sütöriné Diószegi, Corvinus University of Budapest, Faculty of Horticultural Sciences, Department of Floriculture and Dendrology, H-1118 Budapest, Villányi str. 29–43, Hungary, e-mail: [email protected] Gabor Schmidt et al.: Cypress borer (Lamprodila festiva), a new urban pest in hungary, pp. 31–33 – 31 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering February 2014, the injury of cypress beetle in percent was assessed on each and every species of Thuja. As a secondary investigation, the monitoring covered other evergreens with scale-like foliage, such as Chamaecyparis and Juniperus, and some taxa were evaluated by the symptoms of cypress beetle injuries. Results and discussion The results of valued injuries on investigated trees are found in Table 1. There were 17 injured taxa from the rich collection of Thuja and Platylcadus with 108 taxa. The most injured trees were all the cultivars of Thuja occidentalis, especially ‘Smaragd’, ‘Spiralis’, ‘Semperaurea’, ‘Asplenifolia’, ‘Barabits Gold’ and ‘Bodmeri’. The above mentioned cultivars of Thuja occidentalis (‘Smaragd’, ‘Spiralis’, ‘Semperauera’, ‘Asplenifolia’, ‘Barabits Gold’ and ‘Bodmeri’) are very susceptible against cypress beetle injuring. All of these cultivars – except ‘Barabits Gold’ – are selections from West-Europe with humid climate. We concluded that they are more vulnerable under Hungarian continental, semiarid climate and under shaded conditions. The changing climate (more and more warmer) forecasts that the area of cypress beetle will be spreading (Moraal, 2010). The injury was minimal on all the cultivars of Thuja plicata (Table 1). Only on ‘Juniperoides’ cultivar, belongs to Platycladus orientalis (earlier Thuja orientalis) was found injury in 40%, whereas all the others from species of Platycladus orientalis were particularly free from cypress beetle. However, on these trees was occurring Kabatina thujae, where the shoots covered each others. Generally we can conclude that species and cultivars with closed branching and crowded crown (especially Table 1 low, compact globular and oval shapes) kept full healthy, whereas the trees with horizontal, loose branching and juvenile forms were more or less injured. Chamaecyparis lawsoniana ‘Silvania’ and ‘Stewartii’ cultivars from the genus Chamaecyparis were injured in 40% respectively in 10%. From Chamaecyparis pisifera cultivars the following were particularly deadly injured: ‘Boulevard’, ‘Plumosa Aurea’ and ‘Squarossa Lombarts’. From the 33 cultivars of Juniperus communis only ‘Bakony’ and ‘Hibernica’ showed some symptoms of injury where the trees were shaded. However, the identification of injuries was complicated because of similar symptoms (emergence hole with frass) of cypress beetle and Phloeosinus thujae (arborvitae bark beetle) (Seybold et al., 2008). The cultivar Juniperus scopulorum ‘Skyrocket’ only was injured in 100%. Actually, there are differences of tolerance or resistance against environmental conditions and cypress beetle injuring between genus Thuja and Platycladus. The vulnerability of cultivars against cypress beetle is definitely different. It can be caused by the branching of crown and by the physiological processes in plants. Where the evaporating surface was less exposed through the compact canopy, the trees could survive with more chances the summer heat waves and drought stress. Prevention will be the first to protect coniferous evergreen: keeping plants healthy can minimize injury from secondary pests (Buss and Foltz, 2009). Hayes et al. (2008) mentioned that secondary metabolites are changed in a weaken trees, what change is liked by borers. The juvenile forms from genus Chamaecyparis are very sensitive to drought and evaporate more as it is well-known, that’s why they are susceptible to injuring Degree of injury of cypress beetle (Lamprodila festiva) in Central Coniferous Collection, Soroksár, Budapest, Hungary, 2013–2014 Latin name Degree of injury in % Chamaecyparis lawsoniana ’Silvania’ 40 Latin name Degree of injury in % Thuja occidentalis ‘Gold Fassel’ 10 Chamaecyparis lawsoniana ’Stewartii’ 10 Thuja occidentalis ‘Hoersholmiensis’ 80 Chamaecyparis pisifera ’Boulevard’ 100 Thuja occidentalis ‘Malonyana’ 5 Chamaecyparis pisifera ’Plumosa Aurea’ 100 Thuja occidentalis ‘Recurva Nana’ 90 Chamaecyparis pisifera ’Squarossa Lombarts’ 100 Thuja occidentalis ‘Rheingold’ 40 Juniperus communis ’Bakony’ 50 Thuja occidentalis ‘Semperaurea’ 40 Juniperus communis ’Hibernica’ 50 Thuja occidentalis ‘Smaragd’ 70 Thuja occidentalis ‘Stelina’ 15 Thuja occidentalis ‘Szőlősi klón’ 5 Thuja occidentalis ‘Yellow Ribbon’ 30 Juniperus scopulorum ’Skyrocket’ 100 Platycladus orientalis ‘Juniperoides’ 40 Thuja occidentalis ‘Barabits Gold’ 100 Thuja occidentalis ‘Bodmeri’ 40 Thuja plicata ‘Gelderland’ 5 Thuja occidentalis ‘Columna’ 5 Thuja plicata ‘Gold Perle’ 10 Thuja occidentalis ‘Europe Gold’ 10 Note: Names with bold letters show the highest degree of injury Gabor Schmidt et al.: Cypress borer (Lamprodila festiva), a new urban pest in hungary, pp. 29–31 – 32 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering of cypress beetle. The injury of Juniperus scopulorum ‘Skyrocket’ cultivar was caused by its popularity in country, so the cypress beetle could specialize on this cultivar. Only two cultivars were injured by cypress beetle from Juniperus communis cultivars in our investigation. However these injuries appeared in shaded site, while cypress beetles like sunshine and warm (Németh, 2012). The question is still to be answered: this beetles like sunshine, but the injuries appear in shaded sites. This topic requires more interest and further studies. Conclusions 1. Actually, there are differences of resistance or tolerance against environmental conditions and cypress beetle injuring between genus Thuja and Platycladus. 2. In all the taxa we found some cultivars what show less vulnerability. We can recommend the following cultivars. Thuja occidentalis ‘Henezia’ and ‘Fastigiata’ for columnar shape, Thuja occidentalis ‘Yellow Ribbon’ and ‘Sunkist’ together with Thuja plicata and Platycladus orientalis cultivars with yellowish foliage. 3. The cypress beetle likes the stressed, weaken plants, that’s why it is important to plant coniferous evergreen under optimal conditions. 4. Juniperus communis cultivars are less susceptible against cypress beetle. Acknowledgements This work was supporting by Magnolia Agárd Kert-Park Kft. We would like to render thanks for Prof. Dr. Gábor Schmidt who was our excellent colleague, leader, teacher, and an outstanding horticultural specialist. We will be treasuring him in our mind. References BODOR, J. 2012. A tuják kártevői – Kertészet és Szőlészet. In: Pests of genus Thuja, 2012, no. 34, p. 24–26. BUSS, E. A. – FOLTZ, J. L. 2009. Insect borers of Trees and Shrubs. University of Florida. IFAS Extension, 2009, p. 7. http://edis.ifas. ufl.edu/mg007. HAYES, J. L. – JOHNSON, P. L. – EGLITIS, A. – SCOTT, D. W. – SPIEGEL, L. – SCHMITT, C. L. – SMITH, S. E. 2008. Response of bark and woodboring beetles to host volatiles and wounding on western juniper. In: Western Journal of Applied Forestry, 2008, no. 23, p. 206–215. MARÁCZI, L. 2013. Díszfák, díszcserjék védelme – Nyugatdunántúli Díszfaiskolások Egyesülete Szombathely. Protect of ornamental trees and shrubs. 2013, pp. 626. MORAAL, L. G. 2010. Infestitations of the cypress bark beetles Phloeosinus rudis, P. bicolor and P. thujae in The Netherlands (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae). In: Entomologishe Berichten, vol. 70, 2010, no. 4, p. 140–145. MUSKOVITS, J. 2001. Somogy megye díszbogarai (Coleoptera: Buprestidae). In: Ábrahám L. (szerk.): Somogy fauna katalógusa – Natura Somogyiensis. In: Jewel beetles in county Somogy, 2001, no. 3, p. 169–178. NÉMETH, T. 2012. Védett bogárból tujakártevő – National Geographic Online. http://www.ng.hu/Termeszet/2012/08/ vedett_bogarbol_tujakartevo (Hozzáférés: 2013.VI.11.) A protected beetle turns into pest on Thuja, 2012. NÉMETH, T. 2013a. A főváros repülő ékkövei – Élet és Tudomány. In: Flying jewels in capital town, vol. 68, 2013, no. 15, p. 454–456. NÉMETH, T. 2013b. A boróka-tarkadíszbogár (Lamprodila festiva) megjelenése és kártétele Budapesten – Növényvédelem, Appearance and injury of cypress beetle Lamprodila festiva in Budapest, vol. 49, 2013, no. 8, p. 367–369. SCHMIDT, G. – TÓTH, I. 2006. Kertészeti Dendrológia. In: Mezőgazda Kiadó, Horticultural Dendrology, 2006, no. pp. 404. SEYBOLD, S. J. – PAINE, T. D. – DREISTADT, S. H. 2008. Bark beetles. Integrated Pest Management for Home Gardeners and Landscape Professionals. California : University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources, 2008, pp. 7. TÓTH, I. 2012. Lomblevelű díszfák, díszcserjék kézikönyve – Tarkavirág Kereskedelmi és Szolgáltató Kft. Dunaharaszti. In: Manual of deciduous ornamental trees and shrubs, 2012, pp. 789. Gabor Schmidt et al.: Cypress borer (Lamprodila festiva), a new urban pest in hungary, pp. 29–31 – 33 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS OF AILANTHUS ALTISSIMA (MILL.) SWINGLE AT DIFFERENT URBAN AREAS Ewa ZARAŚ-JANUSZKIEWICZ*, Barbara ŻARSKA, Beata FORNAL-PIENIAK, Edyta ROSŁON-SZERYŃSKA Warsaw University of Life Sciences (SGGW), Poland Urban space, due to its specific habitat conditions, is the space where the trees have difficult to grow. Therefore, a new species of trees are planted in cities. These species must cope with difficult urban conditions. Unfortunately, it oftenhappens that these new tree species well feeling in the city, begin to grow uncontrollably. These plant speces start to behave as invasive plants, they exclude other plant species from urban spaces, substantially affect the rate of biodiversity loss. There is also the possibility of passing such invasive plants from the cities to natural spaces (eg. Acer negundo and Robinia pseudoacacia). Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle is such a new and potentially dangerous species. Ailanthus alitissima may also appear in unusual places for its ecological optimum in the example of Warsaw. Ailanthus is a species of thermophilous and therefore urban conditions (heat island effect) favor the development of trees and increase its population size. Nevertheless, for several years occurence of Ailathus outside the Warsaw city are recorded. An example of such a position are urban forests at the northern border city. Observations were carried out since 2000. Such a location of the species may be indicative of adaptation to climatic conditions and the possibility of transition to natural stands. The main research tool are phenological observations of Ailanthus altissima at different urban areas. They allow us to conclude that plants growing in the central parts of the city have longer vegetation and stronger growth comparing to other urban areas observed. However, in locations situated on the outskirts of the city and urban forests trees plants often remain in the form of shrubs. Keywords: Ailanthus altissima, invasive species, tree of heaven, phenology, urban conditions Introduction Invasive plants and animals are in the modern world very important issue. Invasive species were considered second, after the destruction of habitats, the direct reason for the reduction of biodiversity. It is believed that invasive alien species could cost the global economy up to 5 % of global GDP (Pimental et al., 1999). Statistically, 10 species introduced to cultivation of one “escapes” to grow one “escapes”. For 10 “fugitives” one bears fruit and reproduce. On 10 fruiting (naturalized) one is invasive. Invasive alien species are plants, animals, pathogens and other organisms that are not native to the ecosystem and may cause damage to the environment or the economy or adversely affect human health. In particular, invasive alien species have negative effects on biodiversity, including the reduction or elimination of populations of native species through competition, food, predation or transmission of pathogens and interfering with the functioning of ecosystems. Invasive alien species imported or spread outside their natural habitats, impact on native biodiversity nearly all ecosystems of the earth and are one of the biggest threats to this diversity. From the seventeenth century, invasive alien species have contributed inter alia to the extinction of almost 40 % of animal species and many species of plants. *Correspodence: The problem of invasive alien species is constantly growing, mainly due to the expansion of global trade, transport and tourism, which may facilitate the introduction and spread of alien species in the environment. If for a given species new environment is sufficiently similar to the native, this species can survive and reproduce. Without encountering natural enemies or other restrictions species can become invasive: increase the area of its occurrence and displace native species. The damage increase further as a result of climate change, pollution, habitat loss and transforms environment by man. Species can “travel” different ways using different “natural” media. Alien species get into the environment through deliberate or accidental release into the environment of animals and plants grown at home or in home gardens. The most important sources of threat of biological diversity of introducted species are the plants, that after introduction into the wild nature reveal an ability to become established and spontaneous mastery and transformation of plant communities. The introduction of trees and shrubs is particular importance in this respect, because they can lead to long-term transformation of floristic composition and structure of forest and scrub phytocoenoses, especially if they are held for a long time, repeatedly and over large areas. A number of Ewa Zaraś-Januszkiewicz, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (SGGW), Faculty of Horticulture, Biotechnology and Landscape Architecture, Department of Environmental Protection, Poland, e-mail: [email protected] Ewa Zaraś-Januszkiewicz et al.: Phenological observations of Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle at different urban areas, pp. 34–38 – 34 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering species used in forestry and agriculture were introduced deliberately by man in order to increase productivity and competitiveness in the market (eg Quercus rubra) or has been planted as ornamental plants in gardens and parks (eg Acer negundo). Often, these species just got out of control they expand and even spread in invasive manner. An example of such tree species is Ailanthus altissima. Material and method Ailanthus altissima, commonly known as tree of heaven, ailanthus, or in Standard Chinese as chouchun (Chinese: 臭椿; pinyin: chòuchūn; it means “foul smelling tree”), is a deciduous tree in the Simaroubaceae family. It is native to both northeast and central China and Taiwan. The tree grows rapidly and is capable of reaching heights of 15 metres in 25 years. However, the species is also short lived and rarely lives more than 50 years. In China, the tree of heaven has a long and rich history. It was mentioned in the oldest extant Chinese dictionary and listed in countless Chinese medical texts for its purported ability to cure ailments ranging from mental illness to baldness (Hu, 1979). The roots, leaves and bark are still used today in traditional Chinese medicine, primarily as an astringent. In addition to its use as an ornamental plant, the tree of heaven is also used for its wood, medicinal properties, and as a host plant to feed silkworms of the moth Samia cynthia, which produces silk that is stronger and cheaper than mulberry silk, although with inferior gloss and texture. It is also unable to take dye (Duke, 1983). This type of silk is known under various names: “pongee”, “eri silk” and “Shantung silk”. Its production is particularly well known in the Yantai region of that province (Gill, 2004). The pale yellow, close-grained and satiny wood of Ailanthus altissima has been used in cabinet work. It is flexible and well suited to the manufacture of kitchen steamers, which are important in Chinese cuisine for cooking mantou, pastries and rice. It is also considered a good source of firewood across much of its range as it moderately hard and heavy, yet readily available. The wood is also used to make charcoal for culinary purposes (Barclay, 2013). Because the trees exhibit rapid growth for the first few years, the trunk has uneven texture between the inner and outer wood, which can cause the wood to twist or crack during drying. Although the live tree tends to have very flexible wood, the wood is quite hard once properly dried (Keeler, 1900). In Europe, the plant first appeared in 1751. In Poland 1808 in the Cracow Botanical Garden (Seneta, 1991), and the status of this specie is domesticated anthropophyte. It is typically a thermophilic species, because in many Polish cities is more and more areas. Ailanthus alitissima may also appear in unusual places for its ecological optimum in the example of Warsaw. Nevertheless, from several years locations of Ailathus outside the city are recorded. An example of such a position are urban forests in the northern border city. The aim of this paper is to demonstrate the presence of Ailanthus altissima in Warsaw at three different urban zones: centrum, districts located peripherally and suburban areas. Further aim of the study is to demonstrate the strength grade adaptations to environmental conditions (mainly thermal) expressed as phenoloical phases duration at Ailanthus altissima at different urban zones. The work was made observations regarding the presence of Ailanthus altissima in Warsaw. Spot on the city reported the presence of the specimen in the lane NS and EW-striking in the central part of the city. Belts had a width of about 2 km. Belts stretched from the border of the suburb area in the north of the city to the suburban area to the south of Warsaw. Similarly, on the east-west direction. The main research tool are phenological observations. Phenological observations were carried out on mature individuals. Observations took place in 2005–2011. They were a group of individuals in to the town center (highly urbanized zone), are outside the city center and suburban area. The description of the main phenophases are as follow: V – the growing phase (V1 – swelling and cracking buds; V2 – leaf stage; V3 – Phase fall leaves). Fl – flowering phase. Fr – fruiting phase (from fruit set to maturity). The recorded duration of the given phases at each of the three locations were averaged and plotted. Results and discussion Occurrence of Ailanthus alitissima in Warsaw They allow us to conclude that plants growing in the central parts of the city have longer vegetation period and stronger growth. However, in locations situated on the outskirts of the city and urban forests growing period is shorter, and plants often remain in the form of shrubs. As a result of the observation noted that Ailanthus altissima definitely prefers locations associated with the onset of the heat island phenomenon. Locations are primarily the central part of the city, with a high degree of urbanization. Very often, the trees appear in the cracks between sidewalks and buildings, the hardened surfaces (eg concrete slab). They form dense thickets through intensive sprawling root system. In the central part of Warsaw, covered by the observations we reported 97 groups or individual trees. Most positions formed a group in which one can distinguish some plants planted intentionally (eg, parks, squares and green street-adjacent) and a group of spontaneously proliferating plants. These spontaneously occurring specimens are developed in vegetative (root suckers) or generative (seeds) way. Away from the city center Ailanthus altissima frequency of occurence decreases. There has been following number of grupus or individual trees of Ailanthus altissima in parts: S – 14 (including 4 positions Ewa Zaraś-Januszkiewicz et al.: Phenological observations of Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle at different urban areas, pp. 34–38 – 35 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering in the outer part of the city), N – 12 (including 2 positions in the outer part of the city), W – 17, E – 9. However, the most interesting is the presence of Ailanthus altissima in suburban zone, including forests within urban forests, such as the Mlociny Park north of Warsaw. As explained by phenological observations, the averaged results are presented in the form of charts, Ailanthus shows a certain, limited ability to adapt to growth in terms of less conducive thermal conditions. Comparing the average duration of each phenological phases can be seen that the specimens growing in central parts of the city have increased the length of the vegetative and generative phases in relation to the other location. In case V2 phase difference between the copies of rising in the center of the city and suburban areas is up to 20 days. Similarly, the phase Fr – fruits in the center were formed earlier and ripened earlier than in the suburban area. These observations show that the environmental conditions in the central parts of the city assisting the processes synanthropisation and confirm the thermal preferences of the species. However, do not preclude the adaptation of the species to a less comfortable thermal conditions. In the case of specimens growing in the outer parts of the city can be observed that the plants do not create the form of trees. Probably stronger Figure 1 Figure 2 Ailanthus in central part of Warsaw [Lok. 1] – the duration of each phonological phases (number of days with the standard deviation) Ailanthus in peripheral districts [Lok. 2] – the duration of each phonological phases (number of days with the standard deviation) frosts, especially those from the early autumn period and spring, which take place in Polish climatic conditions, effectively limit the growth of plants. As a result, the plants are retained on the stage of the shrubs. It should be emphasized that the adverse thermal conditions for this species does not eliminate it, and do not constitute an obstacle to the self-renewal plants and independent distribution in terms natural or seminatural. The Ailanthus propagules are seeds, but the tree forms many root suckers, through which plants form dense clusters. With the length of each phenological phases can draw a very important conclusion. Copies of growing in the center of the city start to vegetate earlier (this is a difference of up to about 7 to 10 days). Similarly, the end of the growing season – specimens growing in the suburban area of vegetation end about 14 earlier compared to specimens growing in the city center. Currently on Polish territory is cultivated more than 2500 species (warieties no included) of trees and shrubs, what represents the number of about 10-fold higher than the number of native woody species. Relatively few of them so far revealed an ability to become established, Figure 3 Ailanthus in suburban zone [Lok. 3] – the duration of each phonological phases (number of days with the standard deviation) Figure 4 Comparison of the duration of the all phenological phases at all locations Ewa Zaraś-Januszkiewicz et al.: Phenological observations of Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle at different urban areas, pp. 34–38 – 36 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Figure 5 Self-seeding Ailanthu altissimas at the street curb on the car parking in central part of Warsaw Figure 6 Photo: Zaraś-Januszkiewicz, 2011 but can not be ruled out that others in the future demonstrate such a property, because in the case of the above mentioned group of plants it can develop after several decades after the introduction. From the point of view of the diversity of local or regional alien species is always a real or potential threat to indigenous species: introduces new interactions in ecosystems, habitats is often acts reductively on native species, where it is often difficult to know in advance the degree of aggressiveness and ability to penetrate alien species into natural or semi-natural ecological systems (Olaczek, 2000). Such a phenomenon has been observed in the case of Ailanthus altissima. Ailanthus altissima is extremely competitive: producing up to 350 000 seeds per year, a very fast growing, drowning out other plants growing near, and even special producing toxins that prevent their development. Its root system is so strong that it can cause destruction of the foundations and sewers. The process of synantropisation is especially intensive in urban areas. Due to the specific habitat conditions they are somewheat, difficult to accept by native vegetation, but acceptable to the species of foreign origin, recruiters from areas of similar habitat conditions for urbanareas, particularly in terms of heat. Interest in the flora of urban areas has been shown for almost 200 years (Jackowiak, 1998; Pyšek, 1989; Sudnik-Wójcikowska, 1998a). The species composition of urban vegetation and its function in the urban ecosystem as well as the role of man are significant because these factors affect ecological conditions and changes in urban areas. In Warsaw tree-of-heaven, like in Wrocław, grew in a variety of habitats. The greatest number of its locations were found in quarters with high-rise and high-density residential areas, it means in central part of city, where the highes occurrence was recorded. Downtown areas, they often grew in places associated with streets green areas, because Ailanthus tolerates soil salinity conditions. Tree of heaven grew also in industrial Thickes of Ailanthus altissima root suckers Photo: Zaraś-Januszkiewicz, 2011 quarters, Ailanthus are especially often found in the vicinity of parks, which have been deliberately planted. The vegetation of the city keeps undergoing transformation over time as a result of the changing ecological conditions. The hemeroby structure of habitats where tree-ofheaven grows in Warsaw, Poznań or Wrocław agrees with data from Berlin, where the tree was also usually found in the same habitats (Kowarik and Böcker, 1984). The center of a big city is warmer than the surrounding areas. There occurs the so – called urban thermal island. Its formation is controlled by a variety of factors, like the warming effect of buildings resulting from heat absorption during the day and its emission in the evening, additional heat emission sources generated by industry, and most importantly, the heating of houses. A consequence of the thermal island existence is the appearance of thermophilic plant species, i.e., with higher temperature requirements, and locally even an expansion of some of them. Those species include treeof-heaven, traveller’s-joy (Czekalski and Kidawska, 2003) and buddleia (Kownas, 1958). The distribution of treeof-heaven in Warsaw, like in Wrocław in 1998–2001, was concentrated in areas where air temperature was higher. Presumably the heat factor had a decisive influence on such a distribution, because tree-of-heaven has been shown to be a typical thermal indicator associated the warmest areas of Central European cities and highly industrialised regions, e.g., in Duisburg, Berlin, Leipzig, Halle and Zurich, as well as on the French coast of the Mediterranean and the Ruhr Basin in Germany (Kowarik, 1983a, 1983b; Kowarik and Böcker, 1984; Kunick, 1984; Landolt, 1991a, 1991b; Sudnik-Wójcikowska and Moraczewski, 1993; Sudnik-Wójcikowska, 1998a). In Poland data on distribution tree-of-heaven in urban areas were presented by Pacyniak (1976) and SudnikWójcikowska (1998b) for Warsaw and Łódź. However, in the last decade there apperance the Ailanthus outside the urban heat island. This may indicate Ewa Zaraś-Januszkiewicz et al.: Phenological observations of Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle at different urban areas, pp. 34–38 – 37 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering either climate change, expressing a growing balance of thermal and systematic warming of the climate, as well as the adaptation of the species to less favorable thermal conditions. This phenomenon is extremely unfavorable, because the species is characterized by a large expansiveness, begins to appear in semi-natural and natural forest complexes. The Wrocław population of the tree-of-heaven, the largest in Poland, is probably associated with its introduction to Berlin in 1797 (Kowarik and Böcker, 1984). The tendency of population will increase Ailanthus can also be seen in other Polish cities, but the population from Wrocław of tree-of-heaven is excellent subject for studies on the biology, ecology and possible applications of treeof-heaven in urban areas. In Poland, it is recommended for planting along broad avenues and streets, and in squares and parks of western, central and southern Poland (Bugała et al., 1984). Its soil requirements are modest; it can grow in dry, low fertility, and trans-formed antropogenic soils with a high admixture of rubble. It often sows itself and regenerates in places where other plants are unable to grow. It displays an excellent ability to adapt, also to the difficult urban and industrial conditions continually changing under the human impact. Sukopp (1972) and Sudnik-Wójcikowska (1998a, 1998b) classified tree of heaven as a thermophilic species, i.e., growing the warmest areas in many Central European cities. Conclusion 1.The central part of the city, with the associated heat island, represent the most advantageous place for selfgrowth plant, sow and create thickets by root suckers. This process each year is increasing and the trend is noticeable expansion of the population of Ailanthus. 2. The duration of the growing season of Ailanthus in the central part of the city comes to about 180 days. In the case of suburban areas, this period is reduced to about 150 days. References BARCLAY, E 2013. The Great Charcoal Debate: Briquettes Or Lumps? NPR. Retrieved 25 May 2013, from http:// w w w.npr.org/blogs/thesalt/2013/05/24/186434261/ the-great-charcoal-debate-briquettes-vs-lumps BUGAŁA, W. – CHYLARECKI, H. – BOJARCZUK, T. 1984. Dobór drzew i krzewów do obsadzania ulic i placów w miastach z uwzgldnieniem kryteriów rejonizacji. In Arboretum Kórnickie, vol. 29, 1984, pp. 35–62. CZEKALSKI, M. – KIDAWSKA, G. 2003. Występowanie powojnika pnącego (Clematis vitalba L.) we Wrocławiu (Dolny Śląsk). In Rocznik Dendrologiczny, vol. 51, 2003, pp. 131–142. DUKE, J. A. 1983. Ailanthus altissima. Handbook of Energy Crops. Purdue University Center for New Crops & Plant Products, 1983. GILL, B. 2004. Ailanthus. WoodSampler. Woodworker’s Website Association. Retrieved 2010-02-07 http://www.woodworking. org/WC/Woods/004.html HU, S. 1979. Ailanthus altissima. In Arnoldia, vol. 39, 1979, no. 2, pp. 29–50. JACKOWIAK, B. 1998. The hemeroby concept in the evaluation of human influence on the urban flora of Viena. In Phytocoenosis, vol. 10 (N.S.), 1998, pp. 79–93. KEELER, H. L. 1900. Simaroubàceae – Ailanthus family. Our Native Trees and How to Identify Them. In New York: Charles Scriber’s Sons. pp. 36–40. Retrieved 2010-02-07, from http:// books.google.ca/books?id=93Zw4qMOsaUC&pg=PA36 KOWARIK, I. – BÖCKER, R. 1984. Zur Verbreitung, Vergeschartung und Einbürgerung des Götterbau- mes (Ailanthus altissima [Mill.] Swingle) in Mietteleuropa. In Tuexenia, vol. 4, 1984, pp. 9–29. KOWARIK, I. 1983a. Flora und Vegetation von Kinderspielplätzen in Berlin (West) – ein Beitrag zur Analyse städtischer Grünflächentypen. In Verh. Berl. Bot., vol. 2, 1983, pp. 3–49. KOWARIK, I. 1983b. Zur Einbürgerung und zum pflanzengeographischen Verhalten des Götter- baumes (Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle) im französischen Mittelmeergebiet (Bas – Languedoc). In Phytocoenologia, vol. 11, 1983, no. 3, pp. 389–405. KOWNAS, S. 1958. Zarośla Buddleja variabilis na gruzowiskach Szczecina. In Rocznik Dendrologiczny, vol. 12, 1958, pp. 461–464. KUNICK, W. 1984. Verbreitungskarten von Wildpflanzen als Bestandteil der Stadtbiotopkartierung dargestellt am Beispiel Köln. In Verhandlungen der Gesellschaft für Ökologie, vol. 12, 1984, pp. 269–275. LANDOLT, E. 1991a. Die Entstehung einer mitteleuropäischen Stadtflora am Beispiel der Stadt Zürich. In Ann. Bot., vol. 49, 1991, pp. 109–147. LANDOLT, E. 1991b. Distribution patterns of flowering plants in the city of Zürich. Modern ecology: basic and applied aspects. In Elsevier Publ., 1991, pp. 807–822. OLACZEK, R. 2000. Różnorodność biologiczna a problem introdukcji obcych gatunków. In: T. Bojarczuk, W Bugała (red.), Bioróżnorodność a synantropizacja zbiorowisk lesnych, Materiały Zjazdu Sekcji Dendrologicznej Polskiego Towarzystwa Botanicznego – referaty, doniesienia, postery, Wirty, 2000, pp. 7–13. PACYNIAK, C. 1976. Rodzaj Ailanthus Desf. w Polsce i jego znaczenie dla zadrzewie miejskich. In Rocznik Dendrologiczny, vol. 29, 1976, pp. 113–120. PIMENTAL, D. – LACH, L. – ZUNIGA, R. – MORRISON, D. 1999. Environmental and economic costs associated with nonindigenous species in United States. Retrieved January 1999 from http://www.news.cornell.edu/releases/Jan99/specoes_ costs.html PYŠEK, P. 1989. On the richness of Central European urban flora. In Preslia, vol. 61, 1989, pp. 329–334. SENETA, W. 1991. Drzewa i krzewy liciaste (A–B). Warszawa : Wyd. Nauk. PWN, 1991. SUDNIK-WÓJCIKOWSKA, B. – MORACZEWSKI, I. R. 1993. Floristic evaluation of anthropopressure zones in Warsaw. In Feddes Repertorium, vol. 104, 1993, pp. 81–92. SUDNIK-WÓJCIKOWSKA, B. 1998a. Czasowe i przestrzenne aspekty procesu synatropizacji flory na przykładzie wybranych miast Europy rodkowej. Warszawa : Wyd. UW, 1998. SUDNIK-WÓJCIKOWSKA, B. 1998b. The effect of temperature on the spatial diversity of urban flora. In Pthytocoenosis, vol. 10 (N.S.), 1998, pp. 97–105. SUKOPP, H. 1972. Wandel von Flora und Vegetation in Mitteleuropa unter dem Einflu des Menshen. In Ber. Landwirsch., vol. 50, 1972, pp. 112–130. Ewa Zaraś-Januszkiewicz et al.: Phenological observations of Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle at different urban areas, pp. 34–38 – 38 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering EVALUATION OF PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES OF PLANTS CORNUS MAS L. TO WATER DEFICIT Helena LICHTNEROVÁ*, Viera ŠAJBIDOROVÁ, Daniela BARTOŠOVÁ KRAJČOVIČOVÁ Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Slovakia The pot experiment with the selected plants of Cornus mas L. was carried out in 2013. The aim of the experiment was to assess the impact of water scarcity in the substrate on the physiological condition of the monitored plants. Following physiological characteristics: the leaf stomatal conductance and chlorophyll fluorescence were tested. We have seen the value of Fv/Fm in the range of 0.75–0.85, which represent the optimum values of Fv/Fm. Values of ΦPSII and the values of Rfd decreased due the impact of water deficit. By measuring leaf stomatal conductance (gs), we reported a decrease in the values of the variant with lower levels of saturation of the substrate. We can deduce that the photosynthetic activity of the plants Cornus mas L. was affected by lower levels of saturation of the substrate. Keywords: Cornus mas L., leaf stomatal conductance, chlorophyll fluorescence Introduction Modern concepts in landscape planning are focused on the usage of native species plants from nature in the urban areas and landscape. Under natural conditions plants are exposed to environmental stressors with mutual interaction. Water regime of plants is a key factor affecting their survival and expansion in terms of progressive drought. The study of drought-tolerant species of herbs and plants is a means for their effective use in landscape planning. Cornus mas L. is one of the spectacular native species of plants used in landscape planning, due to its early flowering period and its tolerance to drought and heat. It can resist to the habitat with sandy-loam soil rather than permanent waterlogged. It is widespread in southern and south-western Europe, extends into central Germany, the Czech Republic and Slovakia, Ukraine, Crimea and the Caucasus. It occurs on hillsides and in light forests on the limestone from lowlands to uplands (http:// botany.cz/cs/cornus-mas/). The aim of the experiment is to evaluate the impact of water scarcity in the substrate on the selected physiological characteristics – the leaf stomatal conductance and chlorophyll fluorescence. These characteristics are indicators of the plant´s physiological state. Material and metods The selected plants Cornus mas L. come from generative propagation. One-year old seedlings were grown in containers. A part of the plants were exposed to 30% of the substrate saturation (variant with reduced water content in the substrate, stress variant) and another part *Correspodence: of the plants were further hydrated as control variant in 60% of the substrate saturation. The plants were cultivated into the substrate Klasmann TS3 standard clay +20 kg m-3, pH 5.5–6 + fertilizer 1 kg m-3 under the foiled cover. A different irrigation regime was set from August to September 2013. Within a pot experiment we monitored physiological responses of plants in relation to water scarcity. We chose the non-destructive methods of monitoring the impact of the lack of water in the soil to plants, specific measurement of leaf stomatal conductance and modulated chlorophyll fluorescence. During the period of the differentiated water regime, we conducted two analyses to determine the selected parameters. The first analysis was conducted on the August 12th 2013, the next on the September 26th 2013 after 41 days. 20 pieces of plants reporting taxon were chosen, 10 pieces of plants of variant control (60 % of saturation of the substrate), 10 pieces of plants of variant with lower levels of substrate saturation. When measuring modulated chlorophyll fluorescence a the fluorometer Hansatech FMS 1 was used with lasting 1 second light pulses of red light with an intensity of 895 μmol m-2 s-1 with 30 minutes of the necessary adaptation of samples to the dark. The intensity of actinic light was 34 μmol m-2 s-1 and the saturation light pulse was 10 000 μmol m-2 s-1. Dark-adapted leaf is most commonly used to characterize the photosynthetic apparatus of measured leaf and plants (Procházka et al., 1998). From the measured values were evaluated the following parameters: Fv/Fm – the maximum quantum efficiency of PSII, ΦPSII – the effective quantum yield of PSII and Rfd – the chlorophyll fluorescence decrease ratio Helena Lichtnerova, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering, Department of Planting Design and Maintenance, Slovakia, e-mail. Helena.Lichtnerova@ uniag.sk Helena Lichtnerová, Viera Šajbidorová, Daniela Bartošová Krajčovičová: Evaluation of physiological responses of plants Cornus mas L. to water deficit, pp. 39–42 – 39 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering (decrease from the maximum fluorescence (Fm) to the steady-state fluorescence (Fs). When measuring the leaf stomatal conductance (gs) were used Delta T leaf porometer AP4. Measurement of loss of water vapor through the stomata of leaves took place before midday (best conditions for measurement were between 8:00–10:00 am). The leaf stomatal conductance was determined in mm s-1, together with the recording the current time, light intensity in μmol m-2 s-1 and the current temperature in °C. The statistic importance of relations between the amount of irrigation (30% and 60% of substrate saturation) and the selected parameters – Fv/Fm, ΦPSII, Rfd and leaf stomatal conductance (gs) were observed by way of a statistic programme STAT GRAPHIC Centurion XV, a analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the Fisher LSD homogenity test on the level of importance α 0,05. Results and discussion In the year 2013 we evaluated then impact of water scarcity in the soil on the values of chlorophyll fluorescence and leaf stomatal conductance of the woody plant Cornus mas L. We have found that water deficit set at 30 % saturation of the substrate had a significant effect on the chlorophyll fluorescence parameters, as well as the values of the leaf stomatal conductance. The maximum quantum efficiency of PSII (Fv/Fm) represents the maximum photochemical capacity of PSII (Tomeková, 2010), the authors Björkman and Demming (1987) and Váňová et al. (2006) considered it as a screening indicator of plant responses to stress. The values fall below 0.75 due to impact of environmental stress, the optimum range of values is from 0.75–0.85. During the reported period, although reporting a significant difference between the variants, but their average values ranged from 0.75–0.85, which represent the optimal values of the maximum photochemical capacity of PSII (Table 1). We evaluate the plants of the selected taxon were able to tolerate the water regime at 30 % saturation of the substrate. Also Šajbidorová (2013) studied the nonsensitivity of Fv/Fm at reduced water content in the soil in Cornus stolonifera Michx. ´KELSEYI‘ and Spiraea japonica L. ’LITTLE PRINCESS‘, as well as Flagella et al. (1998) for Table 1 Variant The results of analysis of variance (LSD test) of statistically significant differences of mean values of Fv/Fm Count Mean Homogeneous Groups 1 10 0.761 X 3 10 0.769 2 10 4 10 Triticum aestivum L. and Secale cereale L., Munné-Bosch et al. (1999) for Rosmarinus officinalis L., Nar et al. (2009) for Ctenanthe setosa (Roscoe) Eichl. and Brestič and Živčák (2013) in Triticum aestivum L. The effective quantum yield of PSII (ΦPSII) is a real yield of active PSII reaction centers in the processing of absorbed light energy (Schreiber, 2004). It is known that the impact of environmental stress causes decrease of values ΦPSII. The difference between variants with a different irrigation regimes was significant throughout the period. Values of ΦPSII were significantly lower for the variant with lower levels of saturation of the substrate (Table 2). Gallo et al. (2007) found a decrease of ΦPSII under water deficit in Quercus pubescens Willd., as well as PegueroPina et al. (2008) in Quercus coccifera L. Weak response of ΦPSII to drought presents Šajbidorová (2013) on Cornus stolonifera Michx. ´KELSEYI‘ and Spiraea japonica L. ’LITTLE PRINCESS‘, Gallo and Feller (2007) in Fagus sylvatica L. and Munné-Bosch et al. (1999) for Rosmarinus officinalis L. The chlorophyll fluorescence decrease ratio (Rfd) is considered as the vitality index of photosynthetic apparatus (Lichtenhaler et al., 1997; Lichtenhaler, 2000). It is the ratio between the value of the maximum fluorescence (Fm) and the value of the steady-state fluorescence (Fs). Rfd = Fd/Fs, where Fd = Fm - Fs (Hlízová, 2008). The effect of different stress conditions increases the steady-state fluorescence (Fs), thereby decreasing the value of Fd, as well as the value of the Rfd (Procházka et al., 1998). Decline in the values of Rfd watching in response to various suboptimal conditions. Higher values reflect Table 2 Variant The results of analysis of variance (LSD test) of statistically significant differences of mean values of ΦPSII Count Mean Homogeneous Groups 3 10 0.065 X 1 10 0.066 X 2 10 0.113 X 4 10 0.126 X 1, 3 variant stress; 2, 4 control variant, the p-value <0.05 Table 3 Variant The results of analysis of variance (LSD test) of statistically significant differences of mean values of Rfd Count Mean Homogeneous Groups 3 10 0.884 X XX 1 10 0.890 X 0.794 XX 2 10 1.254 X 0.805 X 4 10 1.417 X 1, 3 variant stress, 2, 4 control variant, the p-value <0.05 1, 3 variant stress, 2, 4 control variant, the p-value <0.05 Helena Lichtnerová, Viera Šajbidorová, Daniela Bartošová Krajčovičová: Evaluation of physiological responses of plants Cornus mas L. to water deficit, pp. 39–42 – 40 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering higher photosynthetic activity (Lichtenhaler et al., 2005) and signal adaptive capacity of plants. By Pukacki and Modrzyňski (1998) plants under optimal conditions reach values of Rfd ≥2.3, when exposed to abiotic factors, values are falling. Lichtenhaler and Rinderle (1988) state that the values of Rfd ≥3 presents a high speed and efficiency of photosynthesis. In our experiment, the plants in the control treatment did not reach values of Rfd ≥2.3 as the authors say by woody plants under optimal conditions (Pukacki and Modrzyňski, 1998; Lichtenhaler and Rinderle, 1988), but the mean values of the variant with lower saturation of the substrate at Cornus mas L. were significantly lower than the mean values of the control variation throughout the period (Table 3). We can deduce that the photosynthetic activity of plants Cornus mas L. was affected by lower levels of saturation of the substrate. Leaf stomatal conductance (gs) is a physiological parameter, which we can assess the management of the plant with water. A decrease in photosynthesis as a result of mild to moderate water stress, is primarily due to stomata closure. The lower values of stomatal conductance show the adaptation of plants to extreme conditions under which the plant limits the exchange of gases (Živčák, 2006). The response of stomata is one of the most important mechanisms for the protection of plants against water deficit (Tardieu and Davis, 1993 in Živčák, 2006). Živčák (2006) observed the varietes of Triticum aestivum L. that have been stressed by a lack of water. During progressive dehydration of plants he reported decreased water vapour permeability values of leaves. When assessing stomatal conductance of Cornus mas L. we also confirmed the statistical significance supporting differences of 95% between the variants. Mean values of stomatal conductance were lower in the variant with lower levels of saturation of the substrate after 45 days of duration of water deficit (Table 4). Table 4 The results of analysis of variance (LSD test) of statistically significant differences of mean values of gs Variant Count Mean Homogeneous Groups 3 10 0.522 X 1 10 0.529 X 2 10 0.656 X 10 1.405 X 4 1, 3 variant stress; 2, 4 control variant, the p-value <0.05 Conclusion In 2013 the pot experiment with the selected plants Cornus mas L. was carried out to evaluate the impact of water scarcity in the substrate on the physiological condition of plants and subsequently determine their level of tolerance to drought in urban areas as well as in landscape. Based on the applied experimental methods, we came to the following conclusions: 1.Dehydration of plants limiting irrigation to 30 % of full water capacity does not affect the values of the maximum quantum efficiency of PSII (Fv/Fm). It is known that decrease of Fv/Fm is observed only at lethal levels of water deficit. 2. Values of ΦPSII and values of Rfd were significantly lower for the variant with lower saturation of the substrate than the control treatment that can be concluded that plants were affected due to water deficit in soil. 3.Measurement of the leaf stomatal conductance can be concluded that dehydration of plants by limiting the irrigation to 30 % of the full water capacity leads to a reduction in the stomatal conductivity of leaves, indicating adaptation of the plants to extreme conditions. Based on the one-year results, we can deduce that the photosynthetic activity of plants Cornus mas L. was affected by lower levels of saturation of the substrate. To confirm these conclusions another experiments are required. Acknowledgement VEGA 1/0246/13 “Strategies of the water utilization by xerophytic woody plants and perennials in urban conditions and landscape” from Slovak Grant Agency for Science. This work was co-funded by European Community under project no 26220220180: Building Research Centre “AgroBioTech”. References BJÖRKMAN, O. – DEMMING, B. 1987. Photon yield of O2 evolution and chlorophyll fluorescence characteristics at 77 K among vascular plants of diverse origins. In Planta. vol. 170, no. 4. pp. 489–504. FLAGELLA, Z. – CAMPANILE, R. G. – STOPPELLI, M. C. 1998. Drought tolerance of photosynthetic electron transport under CO2 – enriched and normal air in cereal species. In Physiologia Plantarum, vol. 104, no. 4, pp. 753–759. GALLÉ, A. – FELLER, U. 2007. Changes of photosynthetic traits in beech saplings (Fagus sylvatica) under severe drought stress and during recovery. In Physiologia Plantarum, vol. 131, pp. 412–421. GALLÉ, A. – HALDIMANN, P. – FELLER, U. 2007. Photosynthetic performance and water realtions in young pubescent oak (Quercus pubescens) trees during drought stress and recovery. In New Phytologist., vol. 174, no. 4, pp. 799–810. HLÍZOVÁ, E. 2008. Využití fluorescence chlorofylu ke sledovíní fyziologického stavu vegetace : bakalárska práca. Praha : Přírodovědecká fakulta Univerzity Karlovy v Praze, 2008. 34 p. LICHTENTHALER, H. K. 1997. Fluorescence imaging as a diagnostic tool for plant stress. In Trends in plant science, vol. Helena Lichtnerová, Viera Šajbidorová, Daniela Bartošová Krajčovičová: Evaluation of physiological responses of plants Cornus mas L. to water deficit, pp. 39–42 – 41 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering 2, no. 8, pp. 316–320. LICHTENTHALER, H. K. 2000. Detection of photosynthetic activity and water stress by imaging the red chlorophyll fluorescence. In Plant Physiology and Biochemistry. vol. 38, no. 11, pp. 889–895. LICHTENTHLALER, H. K. – BUSCHMANN, C. – KNAPP, M. 2005. How to correctly determine the different chlorophyll fluorescence parameters and the chlorophyll fluorescence decrease ratio R-Fd of leaves with the PAM fluorometer. In Photosynthetica, no. 43, pp. 379–393. LICHTENTHALER, H. K. – RINDERLE, U. 1988. Chlorophyll fluorescence signatures as vitality indicators in forest decline research. In Applications of chlorophyll fluorescence. Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 143–149. MUNNÉ-BOSCH, S. – SCHWARZ, K. – ALEGRE, L. 1999. Enhanced formation of α-tocopherol and highly oxidized abietane dipertenes in water-stressed Rosemary plants. In Plant Physiology, vol. 121, pp. 1047–1052. NAR, H. – SAGLAM, A. – TERZI, R. 2009. Leaf rolling and photosystem II efficiency in Ctenanthe setosa exposed to drought stress. In Photosynthetica, vol. 47, no. 3, pp. 429–436. PEGUERO-PINA, J. J. – MORALES, F. – FLEXAS, J. – GILPELEGRÍN, E. – MOYA, I. 2008. Photochemistry, remotely sensed physiological reflectance index and de-epoxidation state of the xanthophyll cycle in Quercus coccifera under intense drought. In Oecologia, no. 156, pp. 1–11. PROCHÁZKA, S., MACHÁČKOVÁ, J., KREHULE, J., ŠEBÁNEK, J. 1998. Fyziologie rostlin. 1. vyd. Praha : Academia Praha, 1998, 484 p. ISBN 80-200-0589-2. PUKACKI, P. M. – MODRZYŃSKI, J. 1988. The influence of ultraviolet-B radiaton on the growth, pigment production and chlorophyll fluorescence of Norway spruce seedlings. In Acta Physiologiae Plantarum, vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 245–250. SCHREIBER, U. 2004. Pulse-Amplitude-Modulation (PAM) fluorometry and saturation pulse method: An overview. In Advances in Photosynthesis and Respiration. vol. 19. pp. 279–319. ŠAJBIDOROVÁ, V. 2013 Adaptácie Cornus stolonifera Michx. “KELSEYI” a Spiraea japonica L.´LITTLE PRINCESS´ na zmenené podmienky prostredia: dissertation. Nitra : SPU, 2013. 95 p. TARDIEU, F., DAVIES, W. J. 1993. Integration of hydraulic and chemical signalling in the control of stomatal conductanse and water status of droughted plants. In Plant, Cell and Environment, 19. pp. 75–84. TOMEKOVÁ, B. 2010. Fenológia a fluorescencia chlorofylu jaseňa mannového rastúceho v Arboréte Borová hora. : thesis. Zvolen : Technická univerzita vo Zvolene, 2010. p. 97. VÁŇOVÁ, L. – KUMMEROVÁ, M. 2006. Use of chlorophyll fluorescence for indication of stress in lower and higher plants. In Vliv abiotických a biotických stresorů na vlastnosti rostlin 2006 : sborník příspěvků. Česká zemědelská univerzita v Praze, issue. 1. ISBN 80-213-1484-2. S. 300. ŽIVČÁK, M. 2006. Využitie diverzity fyziologických reakcií pre skríning genotypov pšenice tolerantných na sucho. Report of dissertation. Nitra, SPU, 2006. 24 p. ŽIVČÁK, M., BRESTIČ, M, OLŠOVSKÁ K. 2008. Assessment of physiological parameters useful in screening for tolerance to soil drought in winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) genotypes. In Cereal Research Communications. vol. 36. Suppl. pp. 1943–1946. ŽIVČÁK, M., REPKOVÁ, J., OLŠOVSKÁ K., BRESTIČ, M. 2009. Osmotic adjustment in winter wheat varietes and its importance as a mechanism of drought tolerance. In Cereal Research Communications. vol. 37. Suppl. pp. 569–572. DOI 10.1556/ CRC.37.2009. Suppl. 4. http://botany.cz/cs/cornus-mas/ http://www.delta-t.co.uk/product-display.asp?id=AP4%20 Product&div=Plant%20Science Helena Lichtnerová, Viera Šajbidorová, Daniela Bartošová Krajčovičová: Evaluation of physiological responses of plants Cornus mas L. to water deficit, pp. 39–42 – 42 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering ADAPTATION OF SPIRAEA JAPONICA L. ´LITTLE PRINCESS´ TO WATER DEFICIENCY IN SOIL Viera ŠAJBIDOROVÁ*, Daniela BARTOŠOVÁ KRAJČOVIČOVÁ, Helena LICHTNEROVÁ Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Slovakia Water deficiency in soil is one of the most considerable limitating factors for successful plant cultivation. An intentional selection of species of woody plants and herbs resistant to the environment with changed conditions requires experimental verification of their adaptation mechanisms. In a selected woody plant of the species Spiraea japonica L. ´LITTLE PRINCESS´ we have observed its adaptation mechanisms which play a crucial role in case of water deficiency in soil. By way of particular laboratory methods we have evaluated the changes in water regime and their impact on the content of assimilation pigments, on the content of dry mass in the above-ground part of plants and also on the relative water content in the leaves. We evaluated a decrease in the weight of dry mass in the above-ground part of plants due to reduced irrigation. Water regime has not excerced any considerable influence on relative water content in the leaves. With reference to water deficit, we have detected an increase in the total content of chlorophylls and carotenoids. Through experimental methods, we have confirmed that the selected taxon of woody plant is capable of adaptation to water deficiency in soil. Keywords: Spiraea japonica L. ´LITTLE PRINCESS´, water deficit, adaptation mechanisms Introduction The impacts of climate change now represent one of the most significant environmental, social and economic problems. The consequences of increasing temperatures, changes in the amount and frequency of rainfall affect different sectors of economy. Drought represents one of the most limiting factors for a plant. Plants are able to adapt to water deficiency in soil due to their adaptation mechanisms. More recently, emphasis is placed mainly on a targeted selection of the appropriate species of trees and herbs in the environment with less favorable conditions. The aim of our experiment is by way laboratory methods to verify the adjustment capacity of the selected species of Spiraea japonica L. ´LITTLE PRINCESS´ to a lack of water in the soil. We focused on changes in the content of chlorophylls and carotenoids, relative water content (RWC) in the leaves and dry matter content of the aboveground parts of plants, which are the crucial indicators of the adaptive capacity of plants in conditions of reduced presence of water in soil. Material and metods The investigated plant material of Spiraea japonica L. ´LITTLE PRINCESS´ was acquired from a nursery (through vegetative reproduction). The specimen are approximately five to six years old. After the winter, the plants were replanted into the substrate Klasmann TS3 standard + clay 20 kg m-3; pH 5.5–6 + fertilizer 1 kg m-3 and acclimatised under the foiled cover in standard conditions. After rooting, we set a different irrigation regime based upon the content of water in the *Correspodence: substrate, which had been determined by a gravimetric method. A half of the plants were irrigated by 60% water capacity (a control variant) and a half by 40% water capacity (a variant with a lower level of substrate saturation; in the pictures referred to as a stress variant). A different irrigation regime was set through the whole vegetation period from June to September 2012. The specimen of an investigated cultivar were growing under a plastic cover. During the reporting period, we made three analyses to determine the selected parameters. The initial analysis was performed on 6 June 2012, another one after 36 days (12 July 2012) and the last one after 69 days (14 August 2012) post the initial analysis. Within the experiment, there were 25 samples of reference taxon to be divided into tree analyses. Five samples were included in the initial analysis, ten samples (a 5 samples control variant, a 5 samples variant with lower levels of saturation of the substrate) were used in the first analysis performed 36 days after the initial analysis and ten samples (a 5 samples control variant, a 5 samples variant with lower substrate saturation) in the second analysis performed 69 days after the initial analysis. Determination of chlorophylls and carotenoids was carried out using the methoad Šesták and Čatský (1966). From the randomly selected leaves from all the parts of the plant, we have cut off the butts, which were subsequently homogenized in an 80 percent acetone solution. Chlorophyll absorbance values were measured with a spectrophotometer SPEKTROVANT VEGA 400. The content of chlorophylls and carotenoids were calculated according Hojčuš et al. (1975) in units of mg m-2. Relative Viera Sajbidorová, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering, Department of Planting Design and Maintenance, Slovakia, e-mail. Viera.Sajbidorova@ uniag.sk Viera Šajbidorová, Daniela Bartošová Krajčovičová, Helena Lichtnerová: Adaptation of Spiraea japonica L. ´Little PRINCESS´ to water deficiency in soil, pp. 43–45 – 43 – car xc (mg.m-2) 450,0 400,0 350,0 300,0 250,0 200,0 150,0 100,0 50,0 0,0 90,0 80,0 70,0 60,0 50,0 40,0 30,0 20,0 10,0 0,0 car xc (mg.m-2) variant control car xc (mg.m-2) variant stress 0 0 0 0 0 36 36 36 36 36 69 69 69 69 69 69 69 36 69 36 0 chl a+b (mg.m-2) variant control chl a+b (mg.m-2) variant stress 0 0 chl a+b (mg.m-2) Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Day Day Figure 1 Changes in total chlorophyll content in the Spiraea japonica L.´LITTLE PRINCESS´ at 0, 36 and 69 days of the duration of a differentiated water regime water content of leaves (RWC) was determined according to the method of Mata and Lamattina (2001). The leaves were weighed (FW), then saturated with distilled water for three hours and after saturation were weighed (SW) and dried in an oven at 80 °C for 48 hours. We found out the weight of leaves in a dry state (DW). The obtained data were fit to the formula for calculating the relative water content. Equation for the calculation of the relative water content RWC (%) = 100 × FW - DW/SW - DW, where FW is the fresh weight of leaves, DW is the dry weight of leaves and SW is the weight of leaves after saturation. The dry matter content in the aboveground part of the plants was determined gravimetrically. The aboveground part of the plants after the analysis was dried in an oven at 105 °C to constant weight. For statistical evaluation, we used the dry weight of samples in grams. The statistical significance of relations between the amount of irrigation (40% and 60% of substrate saturation) and the selected parameters – the content of chlorophylls and carotenoids, the content of dry mass in the aboveground part of plants and also relative water content in the leaves was observed by way of a statistical programme STAT GRAPHIC Centurion XV, a analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the Fisher LSD homogenity test on the level of importance α 0.05. Results and discussion During the reported period, we found a significant increase in chlorophyll and carotenoids content by plants from the variant with lower substrate saturation of 40% after 69 days of duration of differentiated water Table 1 Figure 2 Changes in carotenoids content in the Spiraea japonica L.´LITTLE PRINCESS´ at 0, 36 and 69 days of the duration of a differentiated water regime regime (Fig. 1, 2). Although as stated by Ashraf (2003) and Lei et al. (2006), water stress results mostly in the decrease in chlorophyll content, as determined by the results of Pukacki and Kamiňska-Rožek (2005) in Picea abies (L.) Karst., Lei et al. (2006) in Populus przewalskii Maximowicz and Gallé and Feller (2007) in Fagus sylvatica L. Authors Raček et al. (2009), Bakay (2010), PegueroPina et al. (2008) and Gallé et al. (2007) found also the high level of assimilation pigments in the selected tree species under water deficit. The changes in chlorophyll content are considered a sign of adaptability of plants to extreme conditions (Maslova et al. 1993), which has been confirmed by the findings. Relative water content in leaves (RWC) was not a significant indicator of a lack of water in soil of Spiraea japonica L. ´LITTLE PRINCESS´. The average values of RWC of plants of variant with lower levels of saturation of the substrate after 69 days of the duration of the water deficit reached 92.44 % (Coefficient of variation 1.99 % minimum = 90.40 %, maximum = 94.90%). The control variant was recorded at RWC level of 92.10% (Coefficient of variation 0.98 %, minimum = 90.81%, maximum = 93.12 %). Our findings confirm that the decrease of RWC, but also the decrease in chlorophyll content is lower, respectively absent in a species resistant to a lack of water in the soil substrate (Keyvan, 2010). We examined the impact of reduced water content in soil on dry matter content in the aboveground part of the plants. Water is one of the limiting factors of the formation of dry mass in plants. Reduction in dry matter accumulation is due to a significant slowdown in the process of growth Summary statistics for the dry matter content of aboveground parts of plants in the Spiraea japonica L. ´LITTLE PRINCESS´; the results of analysis of variance – LSD test at 95% strength level of significance Variant Count Average P-value Standard Coeff. of Min deviation variation The dry matter content of aboveground parts in g after 36 days C 5 7.32 S 5 3.46 The dry matter content of aboveground parts in g after 69 days C 5 10.59 S 5 7.546 0.0015* 0.0632 Max Range 9.63 3.15 1.31 17.95% 6.48 1.29 37.20% 1.39 4.86 3.47 1.39 13.08% 8.63 12.11 3.48 2.84 37.60% 4.10 11.36 7.26 * statistically significant difference, C – control variant, S – stress variant Viera Šajbidorová, Daniela Bartošová Krajčovičová, Helena Lichtnerová: Adaptation of Spiraea japonica L. ´Little PRINCESS´ to water deficiency in soil, pp. 43–45 – 44 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering and photosynthesis during water stress (Kostrej et al., 2000). After 36 days of the duration of differentiated irrigation regime we observed a significant reduction in dry matter content in the aboveground part of plants of the variant with lower levels of saturation of the substrate (Tab. 1). After 69 days of the duration of a differentiated irrigation regime we reported a reduction in the dry matter content, which was statistically insignificant. The impact of drought on the amount of dry matter content accumulated in the aboveground part and also at the level of the roots was studied by Tsialtas (2001), Willekens (1995), Steinberg et al. (1990) on several species of woody plants. Conclusion In 2012 we investigated on Spiraea japonica L. ´LITTLE PRINCESS´ the effect of reduced water presence in soil at 40% of substrate saturation on content of assimilation pigments, of dry matter content in the aboveground parts of plants and also the relative water content in leaves. In case of a variant with lower levels of saturation of the substrate, we have seen an increase in the total content of chlorophylls and carotenoids for the duration of a differentiated water regime. The dry matter content in the aboveground parts of plants declined in course of the period. There was no significant impact of water deficit set at 40% of substrate saturation to reduce the relative water content in the leaves (RWC). We assume that notably the increase in chlorophylle and caroteinoid content while currently reducing the weight of dry mass and maintaing relatively higher water content in the leaves can be considered as adaptive manifestation of the plants in conditions of available water deficit in soil. Acknowledgment The research was supported by reseach grant projects VEGA 1/0426/09 “Plant adaptability and vitality as criteria of their utilization in urban environment“ and VEGA 1/0246/13 “Strategies of the water utilization by xerophytic woody plants and perennials in urban conditions and landscape“ from Slovak Grant Agency for Science. References GALLÉ, A. – FELLER, U. 2007. Changes of photosynthetic traits in beech saplings (Fagus sylvatica) under severe drought stress and during recovery. In Physiologia Plantarum, vol. 131, 2007, pp. 412–421. PEGUERO-PINA, J. J. – MORALES, F. – FLEXAS, J. – GILPELEGRÍN, E. – MOYA, I. 2008. Photochemistry, remotely sensed physiological reflectance index and de-epoxidation state of the xanthophyll cycle in Quercus coccifera under intense drought. In Oecologia, vol. 156, 2008, pp. 1–11. ASHRAF, M. 2003. Relationships between leaf gas exchange characteristics and growth of differently adapted populations of Blue panicgrass (Panicum antidotale Retz.) under salinity or waterlogging. In Plant science, vol. 165, 2003, no. 1, pp. 69–75. BAKAY, L. 2010. Rast, vývin a vitalita jarabiny oskorušovej (Sorbus domestica L.) vo vzťahu k jej využitiu v urbanizovanom prostredí : dissertation. Nitra : SPU, 2010. 119 p. GALLÉ, A. – FELLER, U. 2007. Changes of photosynthetic traits in beech saplings (Fagus sylvatica) under severe drought stress and during recovery. In Physiologia Plantarum, vol. 131, 2007, pp. 412–421. GALLÉ, A. – HALDIMANN, P. – FELLER, U. 2007. Photosynthetic performance and water realtions in young pubescent oak (Quercus pubescens) trees during drought stress and recovery. In New Phytologist., vol. 174, 2007, no. 4, pp. 799–810. HOJČUŠ, R. – KUBOVÁ, A. – KOSTREJ, A. et al. 1975. Návody na cvičenia z fyiológie rastlín. 1 vydanie. Nitra : VŠP, Bratislava : Príroda, 1975. 200 s. KEYVAN, S. 2010. The effects of drought stress on yield, relative water content, proline, soluble carbohydrates and chlorophyll of bread wheat cultivars. In Journal of Animal & Plant Sciences, vol. 8, 2010, no. 3, p. 1051–1060. KOSTREJ, A. – BRESTIČ, M. – DANKO, J. – JUREKOVÁ, Z. – OLŠOVSKÁ, K. 2000. Funkčné parametre produkčného procesu obilnín v meniacich sa podmienkach prostredia. 1. vyd. Nitra : Agroinštitút, 2000, s. 110. ISBN 81-9974-41. LEI, Y. – YIN, CH. – LI, CH. 2006. Differences in some morphological, physiological, and biochemical responses to drought stress in two contrasting populations of Populus przewalskii. In Physiologia plantarum, vol. 127, 2006, no. 2, pp. 182–191. MASLOVA, T.G. – POPOVA, I. A. 1993. Adaptive properties of the plant pigment systems. In Photosynthetica, vol. 29, 1993, pp. 195–203. MATA, C. G. – LAMATTINA, L. 2001. Nitric oxid induces stomatal closure and enhances the adaptive plant responses against drought stress. In Plant Physiology, vol. 126, 2001, pp. 1196–1204. PEGUERO-PINA, J. J. – MORALES, F. – FLEXAS, J. – GILPELEGRÍN, E. – MOYA, I. 2008. Photochemistry, remotely sensed physiological reflectance index and de-epoxidation state of the xanthophyll cycle in Quercus coccifera under intense drought. In Oecologia, vol. 156, 2008, pp. 1–11. PUKACKI, P. M. – KAMIŃSKA-ROŻEK, E. 2005. Effect of drought stress on chlorophyll a fluorescence and electrical admittance of shoots in Norway spruce seedlings. In Trees, vol. 19, 2005, no. 5, pp. 539–544. RAČEK, M. – LICHTNEROVÁ, H. – DRAGÚŇOVÁ, M. 2009. Vplyv diferencovaného vodného režimu na ukazovatele adaptability Acer davidii ssp. grosseri Pax de Jong. In Acta horticulturae at regiotecturae, roč. 12, 2009, mimoriadne číslo, s. 37–38. STEINBERG, S. L. – MILLER, J. C. – MCFARLAND, M. J. 1990. Dry matter partitioning and vegetative growth of young peach trees under water stress. In Australian journal of plant physiology, vol. 17, 1990, no. 1, pp. 23–26. ŠAJBIDOROVÁ, V. 2013 Adaptácie Cornus stolonifera Michx. “KELSEYI“ a Spiraea japonica L. “LITTLE PRINCESS“ na zmenené podmienky prostredia: dissertation. Nitra : SPU, 2013, 95 p. ŠAJBIDOROVÁ, V. 2013. Zmeny v obsahu asimilačných farbív drevín Cornus stolonifera Michx. KELSEYI a Spiraea japonica L. LITTLE PRINCESS vplyvom nedostatku vody v pôde. [CD]. Nitra : SPU, 2013, pp. 42–45. ISBN 978-80-552-1033-9. ŠESTÁK, J. – ČATSKÝ, J. 1966. Metody studia fotosyntetické produkce rostlin. Praha : Academia, 1966. 396 s. TSIALTAS, J. T. – HANDLEY, L. L. – KASSIOUMI, M. T. – VERESOGLOU, D. S. – GAGIANAS, A. A. 2001. Interspecific variation in potential water‐use efficiency and its relation to plant species abundance in a water‐limited grassland. In Functional ecology, vol. 15, 2001, no. 5, pp. 605–614. WILLEKENS, H. – INZE, D. – VAN MONTAGU, M. –. VAN CAMP, W. 1995. Catalase in plants. In Molecular breeding, vol. 1, 1995, no. 3, pp. 207–228. Viera Šajbidorová, Daniela Bartošová Krajčovičová, Helena Lichtnerová: Adaptation of Spiraea japonica L. ´Little PRINCESS´ to water deficiency in soil, pp. 43–45 – 45 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering ADAPTABILITY OF PYRUS PYRASTER AND SORBUS DOMESTICA TO DROUGHT AS PREREQUISITE OF THEIR UTILIZATION IN URBAN ENVIRONMENT Viera PAGANOVÁ*, Zuzana JUREKOVÁ, Helena LICHTNEROVÁ Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Slovakia The aim of study was identification and assessment of the adaptive responses of roots and shoots of two tree species Pyrus pyraster and Sorbus domestica to water scarcity in the juvenile stage of their growth. One-year old seedlings were placed in the plant boxes filled with fertilized peat substrate and maintained (for 170 days) in a differentiated water regime with two variants of the substrate saturation at 40% and 60% of the full water capacity. For each taxon were analysed 10 plants in both variants of the water regime. Following characteristics were examined: dry weight of above-ground organs (leaves + shoots) DWS, dry weight of roots DWR, dry weight of whole plant DWP, total water content of above-ground organs TWCS, the total water content in the root system TWCR, specific leaf area SLA (the ratio of leaf area to dry mass) and shoot to root ratio (S : R). According to the obtained results adaptability of the studied tree species to water scarcity is different. Pyrus pyraster in both variants of water regime maintained balanced values for all parameters of dry matter, distributed them evenly to aboveground organs and roots. Under drought created smaller and thicker leaves and significantly invested more resources to root growth (S : R = 0.42). Sorbus domestica has fast growth – created almost three times higher amount of dry matter compared with pear, but lower potential for adaptability to water scarcity. In reaction to water scarcity significantly reduced the total dry matter and dry matter of roots (S : R = 0.71). In drought created thinner leaves. Keywords: adaptability, drought, dry mass, urban conditions, water regime Introduction Just little research is devoted to relationship between tree roots and aboveground organs, especially in the urban environment (Johnson and Thornley, 1987; Coder, 1998; Tworkoski and Scorza, 2001; Day et al., 2010). Nevertheless, the characteristics of the roots and aboveground organs can be important criteria within selection of the species, or clones intended for urban environment as well as for management of their nutrition, irrigation, and planting density. Beside this, relationships between plant organs indicate and describe plant adaptations to stand conditions, especially humidity conditions in the soil (Lyr and Hoffman, 1967). According the obtained knowledge in this field, the root growth probably reflects the need to increase the absorptive surface of the plant, which is particularly active during absence of water (Kuhns et al., 1985). But the ratio of roots and aboveground organs changes also during the year, depending on seasonal changes which respond to climate in the place of origin of particular species. In terms of function, the size and function of aboveground organs is comparable with the size and function of the root system. According to Richards and Rowe (1977) there is a functional balance between them. The *Correspodence: role of shoots is utilize and convert carbon in the process of photosynthesis and on the plant structural substances and a part of them transport to the root. The role of the root is to utilize these substances for their own growth, as well as to capture water and minerals from the soil and transport them to the shoots Giovannini et al. (1994), and Tworkoski Scorza (2001) studied distribution of dry matter within differentiated organs of the peaches. There was confirmed that dry matter distribution is correlated with root morphology. The basic model of these relationships is changed under unfavourable environmental factors (soil compaction, changes of the physical and chemical properties of soil, soil contamination, and impact of organic pollutants, pesticides, urea and drought). The paper is devoted to identification and assessment of the adaptive responses of roots and shoots of two woody plants (Pyrus pyraster and Sorbus domestica) to water deficit in the juvenile stage of their growth. Material and methods Pyrus pyraster and Sorbus domestica are considered to be a light-demanding tree species. They naturally appear also on xerophytic habitats with negative water balance during the growing season. Therefore we suppose tha both taxa have adaptability to drought and resistance Viera Paganová, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering, Department of Planting Design and Maintenance, Slovakia, e-mail. Viera.Paganova@ uniag.sk Viera Paganová, Zuzana Jureková, Helena Lichtnerová: Adaptability of Pyrus pyraster and Sorbus domestica to drought as prerequisite of their ..., pp. 46–50 – 46 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering to the limited amount of available Figure 1 Average values of dry weight per plant (DWP) and dry weight of roots (DWR) in particular variants of water regime water in the substrate. These qualities are crucial for plant establishment and successful growth in extreme conditions of urbanized area. In the juvenile stage of growth the response to water scarcity of both taxa was verified under experimental conditions. Plant material comes from the original stands in Slovakia (Table 1), which represent typical habitats of the analysed taxa (Pyrus pyraster and Sorbus domestica). Seeds are extracted from the fruits immediately after harvest. After cleaning seeds were stored for short time and treated by cold stratification at temperatures of -5 °C to +5 °C. Then germinated in plastic seed trays filled with sowing substrate based on peat. In the phenological growth stage “expanded cotyledons“ Šenšel and Paganová (2010) seedlings were placed in the plant boxes filled with fertilized peat substrate (white sphagnum, pH 5.5–6.5, fertilizer 1.0 kg m-3). The construction of metal Table 1 root boxes with special pull-out front wall enabled careful extraction of the whole plants for analysis and detailed study of the root system and its structures (Fig. 1). The plant boxes were placed under a polyethylene cover with 60% shading and maintained in a differentiated water regime with two variants of the substrate saturation at 40% and 60% of the full water capacity. Variant“Stress“ was supplied with water at 40% of full substrate saturation and variant “Control“ at 60% of full substrate saturation. The model of differentiated water regime was maintained for 170 days (from April to the end of September 2013). At the end of the experimental period, all plants were removed from the root boxes. In both variants of the water regime for each taxon were analysed 10 plants. Several characteristics were examined: dry weight of above-ground organs (leaves + shoots) DWS, dry weight of roots DWR, dry weight of whole plant DWP. There were also measured total water content of above-ground organs TWCS, the total water content in the root system TWCR, specific leaf area SLA (the ratio of leaf area to dry mass) and leaf dry weight ratio of aboveground and underground organs (S : R). A statistical assessment of the data was conducted using software Statgraphics Centurion XV (StatPoint Technologies, USA, XV (license number: 7805000000722). The impact of drought, as well as significance of the interspecific differences of the studied parameters was evaluated by analysis o variance ANOVA. Results and discussion The aim of study was quantification of the dry matter created by young plants during the growing season, as well as studies of their ability retain water in shoots and root system. Reliability of the found differences between taxa (Pyrus pyraster / Sorbus domestica) and variants with different levels of the substrate saturation (Control / Stress) were evaluated by multifactor analysis of variance. There was assessed impact of drought on growth and dry matter content in aboveground and underground organs of analysed woody plants. Quantitative data for all studies parameters have a normal distribution (Shapiro Wilk‘s test at significance level α = 0.001) and meet the assumption of homogeneity (Leven’s test at significance level α = 0.05). Based on the results of analysis of variance it was possible to reject the hypothesis of equality of mean values for the parameters of dry matter content in plant organs Climate-geographic description of the original stands of analysed woody plants /3/ Pyrus pyraster L. Burgsd. Sorbus domestica L. Location Altitude in m Exposure TI. in ºC TVII in ºC Precipitation in mm Type Subtype Slatinka 350 SE -2 18 700 W W7 Kosihovce 250 S-SE -2 19 600 W W4 TI. – average temperature in January, TVII. – average temperature in July, Precipitation – annual sum of precipitation, W – warm climate Viera Paganová, Zuzana Jureková, Helena Lichtnerová: Adaptability of Pyrus pyraster and Sorbus domestica to drought as prerequisite of their ..., pp. 46–50 – 47 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering (Table 2). Significant differences between wild pear (Pyrus pyraster) and service tree (Sorbus domestica) were identified for dry weight of whole plant ANOVA (F (1.35) = 9.77, p = 0.0036), dry weight of roots ANOVA (F (1.37) = 7.38, p = 0.0009), dry weight of above-ground organs (F (1.35) = 16.50, p = 0.0003), as well as for the parameter distribution of dry matter into shoots and roots S : R (F (1.35 ) = 7.41, p = 0.0100). The hypothesis of equality of mean values was rejected for the majority of evaluated parameters in different variants of water regime (Control / Stress). The null hypothesis was accepted only for parameter S : R (Table 2). The results of quantitative analysis of the accumulation of dry matter are documented by multiple range test. There was applied the Bonferroni test (Table 3), because of unequal number of observations (18, 20). The seedlings of Sorbus domestica compared to Pyrus pyraster created nearly double amount of dry matter per plant (3.48 g), and have higher weight of dry matter in roots (2.28 g) compared to the dry matter of aboveground organs (1.20 g). The production of dry matter has been significantly influenced by the regulated water regime. In the variant “stress“ plants created just half of the dry weight per plant (1.75 g) compared with the control (3.61 g). Interesting is detailed analysis of dry matter in both species at different levels of the substrate saturation (Fig. 1). The reduction of watering in the juvenile stage of growth has not been negatively expressed with parameters of dry matter of Pyrus pyraster, as in the variant “Stress“ pear has created 1.91 g of total dry matter per plant and in the “Control“ just 1.85 g. Under the influence of drought pear invested more to growth Table 2 of the root system, that is documented by higher mean value of the dry weight of roots DWR = 1:35 g versus control (1.19 g). Sorbus domestica in “Control“ created significantly (three times) higher amount of dry matter per plant (DWP = 5.61g) compared to Pyrus pyraster (DWP = 1.85g). However, Sorbus domestica responded to drought by significant reduction of the total dry matter (DWP = 1.85g) and dry matter of root system. In the juvenile stage of growth significant differences were found between analysed species. Service tree produced more dry matter than pear in the control variant, but the lack of water significantly reduced production of dry matter in aboveground organs and roots of this taxon. Wild pear in both variants of water regime maintained balanced content of all parameters of dry matter. Distribution of dry matter to aboveground and underground organs within regulated water regime was evaluated by one-way analysis of variance separately for each taxon. Pear in the variant “Stress“ significantly (p = 0.0078) more invested to growth of root system (S : R = 0.42). The distribution of dry matter to aboveground organs and roots of service tree was significantly (p = 0.0157) more balanced, in the variant “Stress“ (S : R = 0.71) compared to “Control“ (S : R = 0.51). The ability of plants to survive drought also depends on their ability maintain water in above variants with different level of water regime the null hypothesis of equality of mean values of water content in aboveground and underground organs was rejected. In variant “Stress“ seedlings had significantly higher water content in the root system (TWCR = 54.71%) and in the aboveground organs (TWCS = 55.06%) compared to the “Control“. Multifactor analysis of variance for parameters of dry matter production and distribution for one-year old seedlings of Pyrus pyraster and Sorbus domestica in the differentiated water regime at 40% and 60% of substrate saturation Parameter DWP Source of variation Taxon Substrate saturation DWR DWS S:R F-value p-value F-value p-value F-value p-value F-value p-value 9.77 0.0036** 7.38 0.0102* 16.50 0.0003** 7.41 0.0100* 13.22 0.0009 ** 11.63 0.0016** 16.11 0.0003** 0.36 0.5499 n.s. DWP – dry weight of whole plant, DWR – dry weight of roots, DWS – dry weight of above ground organs, S : R – shoot to root ratio Table 3 Average values of the analysed parameters and 95% Bonferroni test for studied taxa (Pyrus pyraster/Sorbus domestica) and for two variants of the substrate saturation (Control/Stress). DWP in g DWR in g DWS in g TWCS in % Pyrus pyraster L. Burgsd. 1.88 A 1.27 A 0.61 A 53.59 A 52.34 A 20.53 A 0,48 A Sorbus domestica L. 3.48 B 2.28 B 1.20 B 54.55 A 53.92 A 22.44 B 0,62 B Control 3.61 B 2.41 B 1.20 B 53.08 A 51.54 A 21.52 A 0,53 A Stress 1.75 A 1.14 A 0.61 A 55.06 B 54.71 B 21.45 A 0,57 A Parameter TWCR in % SLA in m2 kg-1 Source of variation S:R Values with the same letter are not significantly different Viera Paganová, Zuzana Jureková, Helena Lichtnerová: Adaptability of Pyrus pyraster and Sorbus domestica to drought as prerequisite of their ..., pp. 46–50 – 48 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Table 4 Multifactor analysis of variance for parameters of water content and specific leaf area of the one-year old seedlings of Pyrus pyraster and Sorbus domestica in the differentiated water regime at 40% and 60% of water saturation of substrate Parameter TWCR Source of variation Taxon Substrate saturation TWCS SLA F-value p-value F-value p-value F-value p-value 1.11 0.2986 n.s. 1.87 0.1807 n.s. 5.00 0.0318* 4.45 0.0421* 7.90 0.0080* 0.01 0.9397 n.s. TWCR – total water content in roots, TWCS – total water content of shoots, SLA – specific root area Differences in the water content of the organs of analysed tree species at different levels of water regime were tested by one-way analysis of variance. The null hypothesis was accepted for wild pear, because different saturation levels of the substrate did not affect significantly the water content of above-ground organs (TWCS), neither in the root system (TWCR) (Fig. 2). The mean values in both variants “Control“ and “Stress“ are very similar for this taxon and the differences in the obtained data are not statistically significant. In the variant “Stress“ service tree had significantly higher water content in the roots (TWCR = 58%) and in above-ground organs (TWCS = 54%) compared to the “Control“. Results of analysis of variance for this woody plant allow reject the hypothesis of equality of mean values of the water content in plant organs under 60 the influence of different saturation levels. The water scarcity has been manifested in decrease production of dry matter of service tree. However, in the variant “Stress“ service tree maintained significantly higher water content in the aboveground and underground organs compared with pear. The interspecific differences were found even for parameter specific leaf area (SLA), whose values are generally reduced under water scarcity. Analysed tree species have different values of the mentioned parameter. The average value of specific leaf area (SLA) for pear was 20.53 m2 kg-1 and for service tree SLA = 22.44 m2 kg-1. Pear has smaller leaf area and thicker leaves compared with service tree. Results of the multifactor analysis of variance did not confirm the significant impact of the water supply on values of SLA. 58 58 56 56 54 % 53 52 53 52 54 53 50 50 48 46 TWCR Pyrus ‐ Control Figure 2 Pyrus ‐ Stress TWCS Sorbus ‐ Control Sorbus ‐ Stress Average values of total water content in roots (TWCR) and total water content in shoots (TWCS) for Pyrus pyraster and Sorbus domestica in particular variants of water regime A detailed analysis of the drought impact on the values of SLA documented for wild pear decline of the mean value (19.21 m2 kg-1) compared to control (21.85 m2 kg-1). Because production of dry matter and its accumulation in the aboveground organs were not negatively influenced by water scarcity, under drought pear created smaller but thicker leaves. In variant “Stress“ the mean value of SLA of service tree was significantly higher (23.69 m2 kg-1) than in “Control“ (20.87 m2 kg-1). In drought service tree created larger and thinner leaves. Conclusions The results of experimental research confirmed that adaptability of the studied tree species to water scarcity is different. It is expressed by differences in the production and distribution of dry matter to the plant organs, what in the juvenile stage of growth changes their growth, shoot to root ratio and shoot architecture. In the juvenile stage of growth Pyrus pyraster has potential for adaptation to water scarcity, what is reflected in the following parameters: a)In both variants of water regime maintained balanced values for all parameters of dry matter. Created volume of dry matter distributed evenly to aboveground organs and roots. b)In conditions of water scarcity significantly invests more resources to root growth (S : R = 00 : 42). c)Had significantly lower values of the specific leaf area than service tree, under drought created thicker leaves. Viera Paganová, Zuzana Jureková, Helena Lichtnerová: Adaptability of Pyrus pyraster and Sorbus domestica to drought as prerequisite of their ..., pp. 46–50 – 49 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering In the juvenile stage Sorbus domestica has fast growth but low potential for adaptability to water scarcity, which resulted in the following parameters: a) in conditions of the sufficient water-supply created almost three times higher amount of dry matter compared with pear. The dry matter preferentially distributed to roots to the detriment of aboveground organs (S : R = 0.51). b) In reaction to water scarcity significantly reduced the total dry matter and dry matter of roots. (S : R = 0.71). c) Service tree had significantly higher values of specific leaf area (SLA) than pear, under drought created thinner leaves. Both tree species are adaptive to water scarcity and can be used for plantings in urban conditions even as street trees. Sorbus domestica is rather “fast-growing” specimen, that can significantly reduce production of dry mass in drought. Pyrus pyraster did not display any significant changes of dry matter production. Acknowledgement The research is supported by grant project VEGA 1/0246/13 entitled “Water-use strategies of the xerophytic woody plants and perennials in urban conditions” and was co-funded by European Community under project no 26220220180: Building Research Centre “AgroBioTech“. References CODER, K. D. 1998. Growth Control Systems in Trees. University of Georgia Cooperative Extension Service Forest Resources publication FOR 98-4, 1998, pp. 10. DAY, S. D. – WISEMAN, P. E. – DICKINSON, S. B. – HARRIS, J. R. 2010. Tree root Ecology in the urban Environment and Implications for a Sustainable Rhizosphere. In: Arboriculture & Urban Forestry, vol. 36, 2010, no. 5, p. 193–205. GIOVANNINI, D. – GLENN, D. M. – SCORZA, R. – WELKER, W. V. 1994. Dry matter distribution of three peach growt types. In: Hort Science, 1994, no. 29, p. 1481–1483. JOHNSON, J. R. – THORNLEY, J. H. M. 1987. A model of shoot : root partitioning with optimal growth. In: Annals of Botany, 1987, no. 60, p. 133–142. KUHNS, M. R. – GARETT, H. E. – TESKEY, R. O. – HINKLEY, T. M. 1985. Root growth of black walnut trees related to soil temperature, soil water potential, and leaf water potential. In: Forest Science, vol. 31, 1985, no. 3, p. 617–629. LYR, H. – HOFFMANN, G. 1967. Growth rates and growth periodicity of tree roots. In. International review of Forestry Research, 1967, pp. 181–236. RICHARDS, D. – ROWE, R. N. 1977. Root-Shoot Interactions in Peach: The Function of the Root. In: Ann. Bot., vol. 41, 1977, no. 6, pp. 1211–1216. ŠENŠEL, R. – PAGANOVÁ, V. 2010. Identification key of the wild pear (Pyrus pyraster L. Burgsd.) – phenological stages and potential for application in research and practice. In: Acta horticulturae et regiotecturae, vol. 13, 2010, spec. issue, p. 21– 23. ISSN 1335-2563. TWORKOSKI, T. – SCORZA, R. 2001. Root and Shoot characteristics of Peach Trees with different Growth Habits. In: J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci., vol. 126, 2001, no. 6, p. 785–790. Viera Paganová, Zuzana Jureková, Helena Lichtnerová: Adaptability of Pyrus pyraster and Sorbus domestica to drought as prerequisite of their ..., pp. 46–50 – 50 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering STOMATAL RESPONSE TO WATER STRESS IN HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS Dagmar HILLOVÁ*, Magdaléna TAKÁCSOVÁ, Helena LICHTNEROVÁ Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Slovakia The stomatal conductance, total leaf area, specific leaf area (SLA), relative water content (RWC), leaf dry matter content, total chlorophyll (Chl), total carotenoid content were measured during drought treatment on Brunnera macrophylla and Stachys macrantha. Drought treated plants showed great tolerance to levels of drought, avoiding desiccation by decreasing stomatal conductance (B. macrophylla by 66.4%, and S. macrantha by 76,4%). SLA of Brunnera macrophylla significantly decreased by 14.7%, the leaf area significantly decreased by 54.4% (Brunnera macrophylla) and by 72.3 (Stachys macrantha). Drought stress decreased total chlorophyll content by 18.2% (Brunnera macrophylla) and by 20.6% (Stachys macrantha). The carotene content was found to increase with drought treatment of Brunnera macrophylla (by 22.1%. The better adaptive mechanisms on drought stress show B. macrophylla. S. macrantha is less drought resistant plant. Keywords: herbaceous perennials, stomatal conductance, water stress, drought, SLA, chlorophyll, carotenoid, RWC Introduction Herbaceous perennials planting have been popularly used in urban places, particularly in low water use landscaping because of their dynamic nature, low maintenance – cost saving and aesthetic appeal. To develop and maintain sustainable low water use landscape, we need to understand drought tolerance and drought responses of many ornamental plants, especially herbaceous perennials. During drought stress plants typically minimize water loss. Some methods of water conservation include decreases in stomatal conductance, differential growth of roots, shoots, and leaves, and changes in carbohydrate partitioning. Reduced stomatal conductance may lead to reduced photosynthesis (Prevete, Fernandez and Miller, 2000). Characterizing herbaceous perennials water deficit stress response mechanisms can inform selection of drought-tolerant herbaceous perennial species appropriate for urban landscape. Herbaceous perennials that avoid drought trough wilting, dormancy or dieback are less acceptable than species that tolerate drought by maintaining intact foliage (Zollinger et al., 2006). Some drought tolerance responses are better suited to urban landscapes. Deep-rooted, drought-avoiding species that become stressed and lose visual quality in shallow urban soils would be less suitable than species that withstand drought through stomatal closure and dehydration tolerance (Kjelgren, Wang and Joyce, 2009). Stomatal response to water stress was assessed for example for few ornamental herbaceous perennials: Echinacea purpurea, Gaillardia aristata, Lavandula *Correspodence: angustifolia, Leucanthemum × superbum ‘Alaska’, Penstemon barbatus var. praecox nanus rondo, and Penstemon × mexicali ‘Red Rocks’ (Zollinger et al., 2006), Echinacea purpurea, Rudbeckia fulgida var. Sullivantii., Monarda didyma and Helianthus angustifolius (Chapman and Auge, 1994), Boltonia asteroides `Snowbank‘, Eupatorium rugosum and Rudbeckia triloba (Prevete, Fernandez and Miller, 2000). We sought to investigate drought responses of Stachys macrantha (C. Koch) Jalas and Brunnera macrophylla (Adams) IM Johnston., which are popular species of ornamental perennials grown commercially in nurseries. Material and methods Experimental design The study was conducted at the Experimental Station of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Faculty in Nitra, over a 2-year period (2011–2012). The two experiments were arranged as a split plot complete block design, with species and variant of experiment subplot. Each main plot consisted 1.5 l containers arranged in 3 rows with 15 replications. The first experiment (two rows) was based on retaining stable drought level of soil water content: 30% and 60% soil water content. We retained stable drought level by adequate watering 3 times per week, without rainfall affect, because experiment was located in sheltered conditions (Clingfilm tunnel). The weight of the substrate determination at different soil water content at the beginning of the experiment was the key to watering amount. Each pot was regularly weight out before watering and adequate water content was replenished to the required level (30% and 60% soil water content). Dagmar Hillová, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering, Department of Planting Design and Maintenance, ul. Tulipánová 7, 949 01 Nitra, Slovakia, phone: 00421-37-641 54 34, e-mail. [email protected] Dagmar Hillová, Magdaléna Takácsová, Helena Lichtnerová: Stomatal response to water stress in herbaceous perennials, pp. 51–55 – 51 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering The second experiment (third row) was unirrigated, moisture in the soil drying up progressively from saturated soil condition to 30% soil water content. Plant material Stachys macrantha (C. Koch) Jalas and Brunnera macrophylla (Adams) IM Johnston. were planted in 1.5 l pots. Individual pots were filled with trade peat-clay medium Klassman TS-3. The weight of each planted pots and dry soil was determined for possibilities of calculation desired soil moisture content of trial pots. All plants were allowed to establish being kept well watered by saturating the growing media during the first month. Drought treatments Treatments of 30% and 60% soil water content (gravimetric measured as grams of water per gram of oven-dried soil) in trial pots were applied for two weeks in June 2011 and 2012. Necessary irrigation water was supplied to each trial pots according to foreordination, different in individual pots. Data collection Stomatal conductance, as an index of plant stress and indicator of photosynthetic activity, was measured with an AP4 Leaf Porometer. Measurements were taken on two fully expanded leaves of one plant with 10 replications per treatment between 7.00 and 15.00 hours. Plants were harvested in mid-September. Leaves and stems were separated. All leaves per plant were detached to determine their relative water content (RWC). After cuttings, the petiole was immediately immersed in distilled water inside of a glass tube, which was immediately sealed. The tubes were then taken to the laboratory where the increased weight of the tubes was used to determine leaf fresh weight (FW). After 4 h, the leaves were weighed to obtain the turgid weight (TW). The dry weight (DW) was then measured after oven drying at 80 ºC for 48 h, and RWC was calculated as: RWC = 100(FW - DW)/TW - DW Table 1 Leaf area was measured for green leaf tissue using the scanner, and then calculated by free software ImageJ. Specific leaf area (SLA) was calculated as the plant leaf area divided by the dry mass of leaves. Photosynthetic pigments like Leaf chlorophylls and carotenoids were extracted destructive method from fresh leaves with 85% acetone and estimated spectrophotometrically as describe by Šesták and Čadský (1966). Statistical analysis Statistical analyses of experimental data were performed using Statgraphics Plus 4.0® (Statistical Grafics Corp., Herndon, Va. U.S.A.). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to estimate statistically significant differences between their averaged values at a confidence level of 95% (P-value <0.05). A multiple range test of least significant difference test (LSD tests) was used to analyze the existence of homogenous samples. Results and discussion The present study was aimed at better understanding the physiological and morphological response of this species to drought stress, so that to their recommendation to low water use landscaping. Brunnera macrophylla showed great tolerance to levels of drought, avoiding desiccation by decreasing stomatal conductance as water became limiting (Zollinger et al., 2006). Compared to control plants of (60% soil water content) stomatal conductance was reduced by 67.7% and 65.1% (table 1) during two observation years. We got the same results with Stachys macrantha, when stomatal conductance was reduced by 48% and 76.4% (only one year significantly) (table 1). Stomatal conductance linearly decreased during the drying cycle in Brunnera macrophylla (table 2, Figure 1) and Stachys macrantha (table 3, Figure 2). Stomatal conductance of Brunnera macrophylla fell most rapidly. Traditionally, leaf water potential has been considered to be the primary parameter controlling stomatal behavior during drought, but others have indicated that stomatal closure was better correlated with leaf turgor potential, Stomatal conductance (gs) in mm s-1 across species and drought treatments Species Observation year 2011 B. macrophylla 2012 2011 S. macrantha 2012 Drought treatment (% soil water content) Stomatal conductance in mm s-1 30 1.48 a 60 4.58 b 30 1.42 a 60 4.06 b 30 2.62 a 60 5.0 a 30 1.37 a 60 5.8 b Values are ± standard error. Different letter indicate significant differences in stomatal conductance (P ≤0.05) between drought treatments for each species Dagmar Hillová, Magdaléna Takácsová, Helena Lichtnerová: Stomatal response to water stress in herbaceous perennials, pp. 51–55 – 52 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Stomatal conductance of Brunnera macrophylla with progressive soil drying Stomatal conductance mm.s-1 20 y = 0,1296x - 4,3011 R2 = 0,3477 15 10 5 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 % soil water content Figure 1 Simple correlation among % soil water content and stomatal conductance of Brunnera macrophylla Stomatal conductance mm.s-1 Stomatal conductance of Stachys macrantha with progressive soil drying 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 y = 0,0636x - 1,2117 R2 = 0,1736 0 Figure 2 10 20 30 40 50 % soil water content 80 90 environmental conditions (Maroco, Pereira and Chaves, 2000). It could by hypothesized that all investigated species with low SLA have more photosynthetic machinery per unit leaf area and hence potential for greater assimilation under drought stress because thicker leaves usually have a greater photosynthetic capacity compared with thinner leaves (Painawadee et al., 2009). Investigated plants show poorly, mainly non significant decreased SLA (Brunnera macrophylla by 5% and 14.7%*, and Stachys macrantha by 2.2%, and non significant increased by 0.3% in 2012). The consistency of SLA makes this parameter useful for use as a selection criterion in drought resistance plants for low water use landscaping. The leaf area was most affected at the drought stress for all species. Differences between the control (60% Simple correlation among % soil water content and stomatal conductance of Brunnera macrophylla % soil water content Brunnera macrophylla % soil water content Stomatal conductance in mm s-1 1 Stomatal conductance in mm s -1 Table 3 70 Simple correlation among % soil water content and stomatal conductance of Stachys macrantha recent investigations suggest that stomatal closure is directly linked to soil drying (Chapman and Auge, 1994). All species were poorly morphological response to the drought stress. We observed significant differences between drought treatment (table 4) on Brunnera macrophylla and Stachys macrantha only in leaf morphology (leaf area and leaf dry matter content). Specific leaf area (SLA), an indicator of leaf thickness, has often been observed to be reduced under drought conditions (Marcelis, Heuvelink and Goudriaan, 1998). Low SLA is preferable as it indicates higher drought resistance (Painawadee et al., 2009). A decrease in SLA may also occur in response to drought in herbaceous leaves as a result on an increased investment in structural tissues, allowing increased resistance to unfavorable Table 1 60 0.589635275 1 Simple correlation among % soil water content and stomatal conductance of Stachys macrantha % soil water content Stachys macrantha % soil water content Stomatal conductance in mm s-1 1 Stomatal conductance in mm s -1 0,416649038 1 Dagmar Hillová, Magdaléna Takácsová, Helena Lichtnerová: Stomatal response to water stress in herbaceous perennials, pp. 51–55 – 53 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering soil water content) and drought stressed plants were significantly detected for Brunnera macrophylla and Stachys macrantha. Drought stress decreased leaf area by 55.8 %* and 52.9%* (Brunnera macrophylla) and by 67.2%* and 77.4%* (Stachys macrantha) compared to the control (table 2). Reduce leaf area is part of adaptive mechanism on drought stress (Liu and Stutzel, 2004). Stomatal acclimation would by more ornamentally desirable, than the plants acclimate by reducing total transpiration via drastically eliminating leaf area (Zollinger et al., 2006), especially for ornamental plantings. Our conclusion based on this consideration is that Brunnera maccrophylla can withstand better moderate water losses without aesthetic deprivation than Stachys macrantha. Table 4 Drought stress increase leaf dry matter and sugar content (Schut And Ketelaars, 2003). All drought treated plants in our study had higher dry weights of leaves than controls, in case Stachys macrantha and Brunnera macrophylla significantly. Leaf dry matter content significantly increased by 18.5% and 16.7% (Brunnera macrophylla) and by 12% (Stachys macrantha). Relative water content (RWC) compares the water content of a leaf with the maximum water content at full turgor. RWC, as a stress indices allow consideration the quantity of water in the plants (Ceccato et al., 2001), reflected the metabolic activity in tissues and used as a most meaningful index for dehydration tolerance (Anjum et al., 2011). RWC of leaves is higher in the Leaf areas, Specific leaf area, Relative Water content (RWC), Leaf dry matter content across species and drought treatments Observation year Species Drought treatment (% soil water content) Leaf area in cm2 plant-1 SLA in cm2 g-1 RWC in % Leaf dry matter content in g input 377 ±156 b 336 ±38 b 87 ± 4 b 17 ± 2 a 30 186 ± 84 a 228 ±19 a 70 ± 9 a 27 ± 6 c 60 421 ± 123 b 240 ± 45a 72 ± 11 a 22 ± 4 b input 555 ± 158 b 303 ± 38 c 85 ± 3 b 19 ± 1,2 a 30 378 ± 66 a 221 ± 22 a 81 ± 3 a 24 ± 0,9 c 60 803 ± 45 c 259 ± 14 b 79 ± 3 a 20 ± 0,6 b input 352 ± 144 b 291 ± 20 a 80 ± 5 a 21 ± 1 a 30 94 ± 36 a 268 ± 37 a 78 ± 10 a 24 ± 4 b 60 287 ± 73 b 274 ± 22 a 77 ± 4 a 22 ± 1 ab input 389 ± 112 b 291 ± 38 b 84 ± 3 a 19 ± 2 a 30 129 ± 46 a 241 ± 26 a 74 ± 7 a 25 ± 2 c 60 572 ± 138 c 233 ± 22 a 73 ± 23 a 22 ± 1 b 2011 B. macrophylla 2012 2011 S. macrantha 2012 Values are ± standard error. Different letter indicate significant differences in leaf area, specific leaf area (SLA), relative water content (RWC), Leaf dry matter content, (P ≤0.05) between drought treatments for each species Table 5 Total chlorophyll and total carotenoid across species and drought treatments Species Observation year 2011 B. macrophylla 2012 2011 S. macrantha 2012 Drought treatment (% soil water content) Total Chl in mg m-2 leaf area Total carotenoid in mg m-2 leaf area input 431 ± 41 c 95 ± 9 c 30 260 ± 35 a 77 ± 15 b 60 318 ± 67 b 60 ± 8 a input 508 ± 40 b 111 ± 8 b 30 408 ± 49 a 99 ± 9 a 60 452 ± 70 a 102 ± 15 ab input 336 ± 64 a 81 ± 15 a 30 288 ± 71 a 70 ± 14 a 60 327 ± 38 a 72 ± 8 a input 413 ± 33 b 91 ± 6 c 30 285 ± 59 a 65 ± 12 a 60 359 ± 85 b 81 ± 12 b Values are ± standard error. Different letter indicate significant differences in totalchlorophyll and total carotenoid content (P ≤0.05) between drought treatments for each species Dagmar Hillová, Magdaléna Takácsová, Helena Lichtnerová: Stomatal response to water stress in herbaceous perennials, pp. 51–55 – 54 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering initial stages of leaf development and declines as the dry matter accumulates and leaf matures. RWC related to water uptake by the roots as well as water loss by transpiration (Anjum et al., 2011). Drying soil led to continuous decrease in RWC of leaf, but decreasing rate varied with different species. There was no significant difference in leaf RWC for Brunnera macrophylla and Stachys macrantha. The drought-tolerant plants, with higher RWC displayed superior water maintenance and hydraulic conductance abilities to drought-sensitive one (Gong et al., 2010). The result show, that Brunnera macrophylla and Stachys macrantha can withstand moderate water losses, because RWC remained the same in drought treatment. The finally study aim was investigation of physiological response on drought treatment by evaluation the levels of chlorophylls and carotenoids (Table 5). Chlorophyll and carotenoid absorb radiant energy, which is used for photosynthesis. In many observed cases chlorophyll content declines under stress conditions (Nazarli, Faraji and Zardashti, 2011). Chlorophyll loss is a negative consequence of stress, on the other hand, it has also been considered as an adaptive feature in plants grown under extreme climatic conditions. Chlorophyll loss may also contribute to the survival of severely stressed plants by reducing the amount of photons absorbed by leaves, which leads to an enhanced photoprotective and antioxidant capacity of leaves per amount photons absorbed (Munné-Bosch and Alegre, 2000). The significant differences in leaf chlorophyll (Chl) contents were detected between drought stressed and control plants (Table 5). Drought stress decreased total chlorophyll content by 18.2%* and 9.7% (Brunnera macrophylla) and by 11.9% and 20.6%* (Stachys macrantha). Carotenoids show multifarious roles in drought tolerance including light harvesting and protection from oxidative damage caused by drought. Thus, increased contents specifically of carotenoids are important for stress tolerance (Painawadee et al., 2009). The carotene content was found to increase (table 5) with drought treatment of Brunnera macrophylla (by 22.1%*) but contrariwise results was found with drought treatment of Stachys macrantha, when carotene content was decrease (by 19.8%*). Acknowledgments This work was supported by the Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport of the Slovak Republic VEGA 1/0246/13 References ŠESTÁK, Z. – ČADSKÝ, J. 1966. Základní metody studia a stanovení chlorofylu. In: Metody studia fotosyntetické produkce rostlin, metodické príručky experimentální botaniky. Sv. 2, Praha : Academie, 1966, p. 335–366. HILLOVÁ, D. – LICHTNEROVÁ, H. – DRAGÚŇOVÁ, M. 2011. Drought tolerance of open woodland edge herbaceous perennials = Tolerancija na sušu zeľjastich višegodišňich biľaka sa rubnich delova otvorenich šumskich područja. In Environmental protection of urban and suburban settlements. Novi Sad: Ecological movement of Novi Sad, 2011, s. 425–432. ISBN 978-86-83177-44-8. CHAPMAN, D.S. – AUGE, R. M. 1994. Physiological mechanisms of drought resistance in four native ornamental perennials. In: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 119.2, 1994, p. 299–306. PREVETE, K. J. – FERNANDEZ, R. T. – MILLER, W. B. 2000. Drought response of three ornamental herbaceous perennials. In: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 125.3, 2000, p. 310–317. MARCELIS, L. F. M. – HEUVELINK, E. – GOUDRIAAN, J. 1998. Modelling biomass production and yield of horticultural crops: a review. In: Sco. Hort., 1998, no. 74, p. 83–111. LIU, F. – STUTZEL, H. 2004. Biomass partitioning, specific leaf area, and water use efficiency of vegetable amaranth (Amaranthus spp.) in response to drought stress. In: Scientia Horticulturae, 2004, no. 102, p. 15–27. ZOLLINGER, N. – KJELGREN, R. – CERNY-KOENING, T. – KOPP, K. – KENING, R. 2006. Drought responses of six ornamental herbaceous perennials. In: Scientia Horticulturae, 2006, no. 109, p. 267–274. CECCATO, P. – FLASSE, S. – TARANTOLA, S. – JACQUEMOUND, S. – GRÉROIRE, J. M. 2001. Detectin vegetation leaf water content using reflectance in the optical domain. In: Remote Sesing of Environment, 2001, no. 77, p. 22–33. GONG, DS. – XIONG, YC. – MA, BL. – WANG, TM. – GE, JP. – QIN, XL. – LI, PF. – KONG, HY. – LI, ZZ. – LI, FM. 2010. Early activation of plasma membrane H+ – APTase and its relation to drought adaptation in two contrasting oat (Avena sativa L.) genotypes. In: Environmental and Experimetal Botany, 2010, no. 69, p. 1–8. MAROCO, JP. – PEREIRA, JS. – CHAVES, MM. 2000. Growth, photosynthesis and water-use efficiency of two C4 Sahelian grasses subjected to water deficits. In: Journal of Arid Environments, 2000, no. 45, p. 119–137. ANJUM, SA. – XIE, XY. – WANG, LCH. – SALEEM, NF. – MAN, CH. – LEI, W. 2011. Morphological, physiological and biochemical responses of plants to drought stress. In: African Journal of Agricultural Research, vol. 6, 2011, no. 9, p. 2026–2032. MUNNÉ-BOSCH, S. – ALEGRE, L. 2000. Changes in carotenoids, tocopherols and diterpens during dought and recovery, and the biological significance of chlorphlyll loss in Rosmarinus officinalis plants. In: Planta, 2000, no. 210, p. 925–931. NAZARLI, H. – FARAJI, F. – ZARDASHTI, MR. 2011. Effect of drouht stress and polymer on osmotic adjustment and photosynthetic pigments of sunflower. In: Cercetari Agronomice in Moldova, vol. 1, 2011, no. 145, p. 35–41. PAINAWADEE, M. – JOGLOY, S. – KESMALA, T. – AKKASAENG, C. – PATANOTHAI, A. 2009. Identifiation of Traits Related to Drought Resistance in Peanut. In: Asian Journal of Plant Science, 2009, p. 1–9. ISSN 1682-3974. KJELGREN, R. – WANG, L. – JOYCE, D. 2009. Water deficit stress responses of three native Australian ornamental herbaceous wildflower species for water-wise landscapes. In: HortScience 44.5. 2009, p. 1358–1365. SCHUT, A. G. T. – KETELAARS, J. J. M. H. 2003. Early detection of drought stress in grass swards with imaging spectroscopy. In: NJAS-Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences 51.3, 2003, p. 319–337. Dagmar Hillová, Magdaléna Takácsová, Helena Lichtnerová: Stomatal response to water stress in herbaceous perennials, pp. 51–55 – 55 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering SELECTED PROBLEMS OF AILANTHUS ALTISSIMA (MILL.) SWINGLE PRESENCE IN URBAN SPACES: THE CASE OF THE CITY CENTRE OF KRAKÓW Izabela KRZEPTOWSKA-MOSZKOWICZ*, Łukasz MOSZKOWICZ Instytut Architektury Krajobrazu, Kraków, Poland The objective of the study was to record features of the oldest and largest specimens of tree of heaven in the centre of Krakow and to determine the factors affecting their condition, reproduction, condition, and aesthetical values, as well as the importance of this tree species in an urban space. The methodology of research included inventorying the individual trees and studying their surroundings, as well as performing correlation and regression analyses of selected variables. The analyses and observations made provided the basis for our conclusions. The evaluation of selected parameters of locations permits the conclusion that the studied factors affect tree of heaven specimens only to a limited extent. Their condition is also associated with direct actions by humans e.g. nursing measures, as well as with purely climatic factors. The presence of very large specimens with a circumference of the trunk exceeding 200 cm were found, which may testify to the beneficial effect of the urban climate on the extended longevity of individual trees of this species. At the same time, their condition deteriorates with age. Keywords: Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle, Krakow, urban trees, invasive species Introduction Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle is an endemic tree species occurring in China and northern Vietnam. It was brought to Europe around THE mid-18th century, by a French monk, Pierre Nicolas d’Incarville. The species was initially introduced into France and England (Kowarik et al., 2007). The first records concerning the introduction of the tree of heaven in Poland date back to 1808, when it was planted in the Botanical Garden in Krakow. Soon after that it was introduced into more localities. In the second half of the 19th century, the species was offered in the catalogues of tree nurseries, and its popularity is confirmed by the fact that it appeared in these offers for many years without interruption (Seneta, 1991). In one of the well-known books on gardening it stated that Ailanthus altissima in Poland often succumbs to frost, but sprouts easily from its roots, which implies that it has more been often seen as a shrub than as a tree form. At that time, the decorative value of the plant was emphasised, above all for its large feathery leaves (Jankowski, 1888). Freezing shoots during winter had an additional effect of enlarging the leaves which gave the plant a more exotic appearance. In order to achieve this effect it was even recommended that the plants be cut at ground level every year (Seneta, 1991). In the 20th century it was found that the species has low environmental requirements and great resistance to air pollution, therefore making it highly suitable as an urban tree, particularly in industrial regions, although in Poland it was not used in great numbers. According *Correspodence: to Pacyniak (1976) who reports the locations of this species, it was planted in a scattered manner almost across the whole country, except for in the eastern and northeastern regions. The mature trees were also valued for their decorative flowers and fruits. However, less recommended were individuals with male flowers because of their unpleasant castor oil smell (Seneta, 1991). Towards the end of 20th century interest in this tree species in Poland waned owing to an increase in publicised information concerning the invasive nature of the species, its uncontrolled spread, and its emergence in the forests of a number of European countries (Eliáš, 2011; Kowarik et al., 2007). The data on the occurrence of Ailanthus altissima in Polish towns and the issues associated with its migration and settlement, are sparse. A small amount of data are available for Warsaw (Sudnik-Wójcikowska, 1998), and Wrocław (Bąbelewski et al., 2005). Detailed data on the location of these tree plants in Krakow, although only within the narrow city centre, was provided by Bogdanowski (1997). The objective of the study was to record the features of the oldest and largest specimens within the centre of Krakow and to determine the factors affecting their condition, aesthetical values, as well as the importance of trees of heaven within the urban space. Study area The study was conducted in the oldest part of the city of Krakow i.e. its narrow centre limited by the second ring road. The area selected is historically the earliest within Izabela Krzeptowska-Moszkowicz, Instytut Architektury Krajobrazu, ul. Warszawska 24, 31-155 Kraków, el.: (+48-12) 6282469, phone/fax: (+48-12) 6282061, e-mail: [email protected] Izabela Krzeptowska-Moszkowicz, Łukasz Moszkowicz: Selected problems of Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle presence in urban spaces: the case ..., pp. 56–62 – 56 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering the city, which has started to expand its boundaries intensively since 1910. The second half of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century coincides with the period of greatest interest in this species in Poland. The area is characterised by dense, compact, and medium-height buildings, with the presence of parks, fragments of urban greenery, and numerous gardens within the perimeters of buildings and yards. Certainly, it was not possible to find all localities of the studied species, meaning that the data has to be augmented by more detailed work directed to this particular objective. The elevation of the study area ranges between 206 to 212 m a. s. l. From the viewpoint of a geological structure it is situated within the so-called ice marginal valley of the Vistula river (Tyczyńska, 1967b), on an accumulation terrace which emerged in the Pleistocene or Holcene, divided by the edge of numerous river terraces, which are covered by Miocene sediments (Tyczyńska, 1967a). Krakow is situated on the border between the moderately warm vertical climatic zone of the Carpathians, in the basin-type of climatic variety (Hess, 1969). Autumns have higher temperatures than springs. The vegetation period with above-zero temperatures lasts 222 days per year. The frost-free period lasts 155 days. In terms of mean monthly temperatures, the lowest (-3.1 °C) is that of January, whereas the highest (18.5 °C) – of June. The minimum temperature recorded is -33.1 °C, and the maximum is 37.4°C. In a year, there is an average number of 22 days with freezing cold (below -10 °C) with 37 days recording below-zero temperatures, whereas there are 38 hot days (temperatures above 25 °C). Thermal inversions can occur in more than hundred days in a given year. Such days cause increased concentrations of air pollutants especially in places at lower elevations, including some in the study area. Presently, in line with the global tendencies, the increase in mean temperatures has been also observed in Krakow. Additionally, the increasing urbanisation results in higher amplitudes of temperatures, both in winter and summer (Obrębska-Starklowa et al., 1994; Trepińska, 1997). The mean precipitation in Krakow is 665 mm. The highest levels occur in June, and the lowest – in January and February. Snow cover occurred on an average of 66 days per year. The frequent thaws are typical of the climate of Krakow which result in periods without snow cover in winter (Hess, 1967). Soils of the study area are derived in great measure from fertile alluvial-type soils with various levels of transformation (Komarnicki, 1967). A significant portion of the urban area is occupied by buildings. There is a significant degree of heavy metal contamination and salinity in soils which is not a rare phenomenon in urban areas (Bach and Pawłowska, 2007). Methods Larger specimens with a circumference of 1 m or greater were inventoried. Younger trees, and sometimes numerous root sprouts of various age were omitted but their presence was recorded. This choice of the sample aimed at the analysis of selected factors affecting adult individuals of the species. Locations of individual trees were noted, and such features as: height, width of crown, trunk circumference, and height of trunk to the crown, were recorded. Also determined were the condition of the trunk and crown, amount of deadwood, visible symptoms of diseases, damage, and the size of cuts made. The occurrence of seedlings and root sprouts, as well as of fruits were recorded. In order to determine the reproductiveness and condition of trees, the two following variables were created on the basis of data obtained: yy the variable describing reproductiveness was given according to the following scale: 0 – lack of fruits and root sprouts; 1 – root sprouts and fruits present or in small numbers; 2 – numerous sprouts and fruits present; 3 – highly numerous fruits or sprouts; yy the variable describing the condition of trees was given according to the following scale: 1 – cracks present in trunk, depletion of part of the crown, trunks partly rotten; 2 – significant amount of deadwood, evident fungal diseases or significant depletion in the crown; 3 – deadwood present, depletion associated with nursing measures; 4 – very good condition. Additionally, the features of the surroundings were determined such as: functional characteristics of space, surrounding of the tree from each direction, light conditions (pertaining to the crown) based on the scale given by Zarzycki (1998), and light exposure – as the direction from where the light directly reaches the tree. The granulometric composition and compactness of the surface layer of soil were also determined. Apart from these, the presence of herbs occurring below the tree or immediately near it, or the degree of development of herbal vegetation and its species richness, were recorded, where present. The following variables for the analysis showing a significant degree of diversity were developed: yy presence of herbs or development of herbal layer acc. to the following scale: 0 – lack of herbs or only traces – trampled, compact soil, or surfaced; 1 – thinned out green, small groups of plants of herbal layer; 2 – compact green, ground cover plants, significant coverage of substrate by plants of herbal layer; 3 – abundant herbal layer with numerous species of native herbs; yy covering of the locality (degree of sheltering): 0 – open area; 1 – open, with wall of a building on one side, or near half of the side sheltered by trees; 2 – surrounded by a tree stand, or partly open but with a building wall Izabela Krzeptowska-Moszkowicz, Łukasz Moszkowicz: Selected problems of Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle presence in urban spaces: the case ..., pp. 56–62 – 57 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering sheltering it on at least one side; 3 – sheltered by a tree stand, and additionally by a building and walls; 4 – closed with buildings of various heights from all sides; yy availability of sunlight: 0 – individuals shaded from all sides by buildings, direct sunlight not reaching them for certain parts of the year; 1 – individuals shaded Trunk circumference in m Width of crown in m Height of trunk to the crown in m Presence of herbs or development of herbal layer (acc. to scale in text) Availability of sunlight (acc. to scale in text) Covering of the locality (degree of sheltering) (acc. to scale in text) 1 50.07171 19.94107 17 2.07 12.5 3.5 0 4 3 2 50.07140 19.94152 15 1.26 12 1.8 0 4 2 3 50.06466 19.93902 23 3.4 17 7 2 4 4 4 50.06163 19.94347 13 1.05 10 3 2 3 2 5 50.05884 19.94014 19 2.86 19 5 2 3 2 6 50.05448 19.93883 14 1.77 16.5 1.8 2 1 3 7 50.06382 19.95474 17 2.33 16 6.5 2 0 2 8 50.06290 19.95089 12 1.56 13.5 2 1 1 1 9 50.06235 19.95040 14 1.43 13.5 1 1 2 3 10 50.06211 19.95775 18 1.86 13 7.5 3 1 2 11 50.06293 19.95838 14 1,14 10.5 7.5 1 3 2 12 50.06324 19.95785 18 1.15 16.4 7.5 1 1 1 13 50.06991 19.94186 21 1.53 11.9 6 3 3 2 14 50.06991 19.94186 22 1.63 9.4 4,5 3 3 2 15 50.07000 19.94197 19 1.03 8.6 7 3 3 2 16 50.07005 19.94192 16 1.24 9.4 4 2 3 3 17 50.07005 19.94200 11 1.08 8 5 1 4 3 18 50.06996 19.94224 13.5 1.35 20.3 2.5 2 1 3 19 50.06994 19.94245 14 0.97 11 2.5 1 3 3 20 50.06998 19.94262 21 1.53 11.2 5.5 3 4 2 21 50.06998 19.94266 21 1.06 6.8 4 3 4 1 22 50.07001 19.94255 21 1.63 13 4.5 3 4 1 23 50.07011 19.94243 15.5 2.07 12.5 5 1 2 2 24 50.06978 19.94085 15 2.1 13 3 0 3 2 25 50.07018 19.94126 13 1.5 10 5 3 3 2 26 50.07022 19.94126 13 1.5 8 5 3 2 2 27 50.06444 19.92457 14 1 11 6 1 2 3 28 50.06444 19.92457 16 0.98 14 4 1 2 3 29 50.06506 19.92517 16.5 1.9 13 7 0 3 4 Lp. Height in m Parameters of inventoried individuals of tree of heaven, and the selected factors of tree surroundings Position GPS in º Table 1 from the south, or surrounded by a dense tree stand much higher than they are; 2 – individuals shaded from the south but on one side, except the north, open or surrounded by a well-spaced tree stand; 3 – individuals only partly shaded from the south, with good exposure to east or west; 4 – individuals directly exposed to Izabela Krzeptowska-Moszkowicz, Łukasz Moszkowicz: Selected problems of Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle presence in urban spaces: the case ..., pp. 56–62 – 58 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering sunlight from the south and additionally from the east or west. Statistical analyses were performed in order to determine the relationships between the parameters of individual trees and the factors affecting these parameters. For the variables describing the features of trees such as: height, circumference of trunk, width of crown, condition and reproductiveness, as well as for the variables describing the parameters of the surroundings, the Pearson coefficients of correlation were calculated. For the correlation coefficients, the degrees of statistical significance (alpha) were determined. In order to find the relationships between the parameters of individuals and the selected factors of the immediate surroundings, the analysis of linear regression was performed. Because of the selection of samples, some variables showed a high degree of skewness. The variables were logarithmically transformed which resulted in a satisfactory symmetrisation of variables for the regression analysis. The statistical significance (alpha) was checked and provided for partial coefficients of regression. The statistical significance of the R2 coefficient was also tested. A number of factors which are very similar in the studied locations were omitted, such as: presence of green plants or development of herb layer, sheltering of the location, and availability of sunlight were included as descriptive variables. Results and discussion During the inventory made in the study area, 29 trees were found which had trunks with circumferences equal Table 2 or higher than ca. 100 cm. The most important inventory data are compiled in Table 1. The correlations obtained among the studied individuals show obvious relationships, such as a positive correlation between the circumference of trunk and the height of an individual (Table 2). They additionally show that the height of an individual correlates with its higher reproductiveness and better condition. The damaged trees most often had a part of the crown destroyed as well as poorer viability, which resulted in a decreased number of sprouts as well as fruits. This was also confirmed by a positive correlation between condition and reproductiveness. The circumference of the trunk shows a strong correlation with the width of the crown, which can be explained by the superior development shown by older individuals. The independent variables were derived from the parameters of tree surroundings which showed a significant level of diversity. They were chosen in a way that prevented correlations appearing among them. The statistically significant exception was the relationship between shielding the location with the development of a herbal layer and the presence of herbs, where the coefficient of correlation amounted to -0.35401 for the level of significance alpha of 0.02. Perhaps such a situation supported the occurrence of better conditions for vegetation e.g. higher humidity or lower level of soil drying by the wind. On the basis of the results of regression analysis it can be stated that in the studied sites, the location of individual trees of heaven had only a limited effect on their parameters. The factors defined in the analysis Correlation coefficients of dependent variables Height of trees Height of trees Trunk circumference Trunk circumference Width of crown Reproductiveness x 0.40046** x – 0.54546*** x Reproductiveness 0.16438* – – x Condition of trees 0.29767* – – 0.25676** Width of crown Condition of trees x *: 0.5 > P > 0.05 ; **: 0.05 ≥ P > 0.001 ; ***: P ≤ 0.001 Table 3 Partial coefficients of linear regression. Covering of the locality (degree of sheltering) Availability of sunlight Presence of herbs or development of herbal layer R2 Height of trees 0.05265* -0.00765+ 0.07746* 0.27 Trunk circumference 0.0762+ Width of crown 0.0586+ 0.04 -0.1105** -0.0491+ 0.31 Reproductiveness 0.5646** 0.15 Condition of trees 0.2484** 0.13 +: 0.1 > P > 0.05 ; *: 0.05 ≥ P > 0.01 ; **: 0.01≥ P >0.001 Izabela Krzeptowska-Moszkowicz, Łukasz Moszkowicz: Selected problems of Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle presence in urban spaces: the case ..., pp. 56–62 – 59 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering explain a small percentage of variability i.e. 15–31%, and – in the case of trunk circumference or condition of the tree i.e. 4–13% regression equitation produce a statistically significant low value. The beneficial effects can be provided by conditions advantageous for the vegetation of plants, less disturbed by humans, where herbs also develop better. These conditions are advantageous to reproductiveness, and they affect the condition of an individual tree and also – to a very little extent – its growth. In the studied locations, there is minor effect resulting from access to light which can slow down growth, whereas shielded locations can support greater heights of individuals. The remaining factors affecting the conditions on the studied locations were not diversified enough to be subjected to analysis. During the study, several larger, older specimens were found in the area of the city centre. The majority of them were in a poor condition. It was noted that the condition of trees deteriorates with age and injuries appear. Some individual trees were severely trimmed, often had the main boughs cut out, or had trunks that were cracked and internally rotten. Because the species was planted in large numbers at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, the reason for their present condition can be their short longevity in the climatic conditions prevailing in Krakow. Severe winters occurring once in a while can cause older specimens to die out or incur major injuries. Perhaps, as a result of the tendency towards climate warming (Obrębska-Starklowa et al., 1994; Obrębska-Starklowa and Trepińska, 1992; Sukopp and Wurzel, 2003) more favourable climatic conditions will emerge for the development of this species in Poland. At present, a high percentage of thermophilic plant species can be observed in town centres (Gutte, 1972; SudnikWojcikowska, 1998). The specimens recorded in the inventory occur at shielded sites or these exposed to sunlight. In most cases these individuals are shielded by walls on at least one side, or by other trees. The individuals growing in places which are not shielded may be more often exposed to the effects of various adverse factors, including low temperatures, and it is probable that injuries occur then which can also lead to the death of trees. One example could be the park in Kórnik near Poznań where four of the largest specimens were froze to death in the 1928/1929 winter (Seneta, 1991). In Krakow, the oldest and most impressive tree of heaven is located in the very centre of the Old Town on St. John street. It is one of the largest specimens in Poland and was placed under protection as a natural monument under the Nature Conservation Act of 2004 (Ustawa..., 2004). The tree is shielded on all sides and additionally it is well-exposed on the south side, particularly the crown of it. It was found to be in a very good condition. The surrounding of the yard by a wall of tenement houses and high solid fences engenders higher temperatures on the site, resulting from a heating up of the walls and reducing the possibility of heat loss. Ailanthus altissima is classified as a thermophilic species, growing in the warmest locations of European cities (Kunick, 1982; Kowarik, 1984; Kowarik, 1992; Kowarik and Böcker, 1984; Modranský and Benčať, 2003; Sukopp and Wurzel, 2003; Sudnik-Wójcikowska, 1998). It is also confirmed by the data from Wrocław where a concentrations of locations of this species was reported in an area of densely arranged buildings characterised by the highest temperatures (Bąbelewski et al., 2005). Pacyniak (1976) reports, that the sprouts from the last growth increment can be frozen during severe winters. In our studies, the occurrence of deadwood in the tree crowns was found in a number of individuals (90%) and pertained to both young increments and entire branches. This has an obvious deteriorating effect on the decorative value of the trees. It also worsened their value particularly as a component of urban areas because of the possible danger of dry branches falling down (Senata and Dolatowski, 2011). In the climatic conditions prevailing in Krakow, this state of affairs forces the tree keepers to carry out permanent annual nursing measures involving the removal of any dead branches. The emergence of root sprouts around most of the trees (77%) was found, even when the sprouts were systematically destroyed. The trees in poor condition grow fewer sprouts. However, because the new trees are not recorded proportionally to the number of sprouts, one can infer that the mortality of young individuals is very high, which can be associated with their intolerance to light deficit e.g. under the canopy of trees (Knapp and Canham, 2000; Kowarik, 2007; Pennington et al., 2010), as well as with the susceptibility to frost among young individuals (Kowarik et al., 2007; Seneta, 1991). It was found that frequent removal of descendant individuals from around the parental tree, means that the possibility of uncontrolled spread of the species is much reduced. The area of the Botanic Garden of the Jagiellonian University is an example. Annual nursing measures are carried out there around the trees every year.1 Only few new small individuals growing from the roots were found there. On the contrary, in the cases where leaving the surroundings without any intervention this results in the emergence of a high number of descendant plants of various ages. A similar phenomenon was observed around the oldest specimen where the nursing measures were not carried out for 1 The authors wish to thank Mr. Krzysztof Kapała, employee of the Botanic Garden, for information. Izabela Krzeptowska-Moszkowicz, Łukasz Moszkowicz: Selected problems of Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle presence in urban spaces: the case ..., pp. 56–62 – 60 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering several years in a row. The rapid growth of the young tree of heaven individuals may facilitate the winning of the competition for access to light with other seedlings (Knapp and Canham, 2000; Kowarik et al., 2007; Radtke et al., 2013). It was also found that the tree of heaven releases allelopathic compounds (Csiszár, 2009; Heisey, 1996; Kowarik et al., 2007) which can again result in eliminating plants susceptible to them, and augment the prospect of spreading the species. Immediately under the specimens of tree of heaven in the Jalu Kurek Park an abundant spring herbal layer occurred, whereas in the Botanic Garden of the Jagiellonian University, under one of the specimens, various summer herbs were growing. In these places no allelopathy phenomenon was observed. The evaluation of selected parameters of locations warrants a statement that the studied parameters have only a limited effect on the trees of heaven individuals. Their condition is directly associated with human action e.g nursing measures, and also by typical climatic factors. Recently, there has been no purposeful introduction of this species into Krakow’s urban space. Because of the small number of older specimens of this species within the city centre, it seems justified to protect these trees and to keep them in good condition, through nursing them and monitoring their surroundings in order to curb uncontrolled dissemination of the species. Conclusions This study can be summarised as follows: yy the analyses performed indicate that good availability of sunlight can slow down growth. The sheltered locations can favour taller individuals. The specimens found in the inventory exercise always occurred in zones somewhat sheltered to a certain degree; yy a correlation was found which indicated that the viability and reproductiveness of individuals and their condition are better in individuals surrounded by herb vegetation, and in those that are taller; yy in the climatic conditions prevailing in Krakow, injuries to crowns were found in many individuals, probably associated with the great susceptibility of this species to low temperatures which adversely affecting their decorative value and necessitates the frequent application of nursing measures; yy in the studied sample, a considerable proportion of individuals had in their surroundings, higher or lower number of young individuals. These were mostly ramets derived from the roots growing immediately beneath the soil surface. It was observed that nursing measures can significantly reduce their numbers; yy the presence in the city centre of very large specimens with a trunk circumference exceeding 200 cm, can also testify to the beneficial effect of the urban climate on the longevity of individuals of this species. At the same time, the condition of trees deteriorates with age, and injuries appear, although this was not found in the oldest specimen. References BĄBELEWSKI, P. – CZEKALSKI, M. 2005. Distribution of Tree-OfHeaven, Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle, in Wrocław, Lower Silesia, Poland. In: Acta Scientarum Polonorum, Hortorum Cultus, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 45–57. BACH, A. – PAWŁOWSKA, B. 2007. Wpływ zanieczyszczenia środowiska na stan roślinności drzewiastej w Krakowie. In: Czasopismo Techniczne – Architektura, vol. 10, no. 5-A, pp. 114–116. BOGDANOWSKI, J. (Ed.). 1997. Parki i ogrody Krakowa w obrębie Plant z Plantami i Wawelem. Warszawa : Ośrodek Ochrony Zabytkowego Krajobrazu. 576 pp. ISBN 83-85548-51-3. CSISZÁR, Á. 2009. Allelopathic Effects of Invasive Woody Plant Species in Hungary. In: Acta Silvatica et Lignaria Hungarica, vol. 5, 2009, pp. 9–17. USTAWA O OCHRONIE PRZYRODY. Dziennik Ustaw. 2004, no. 92, p. 880. ELIÁŠ, P. 2011. Introdukcia nepôvodných druhov ako prvý krok k invázii drevín. In Zbornik referátov z vedeckej konferencie: “Dendrologické dni v Arboréte Mlyňany SAV 2011”, Vieska nad Žitavou: Arborétum Mlyňany SAV, pp. 29–41. ISBN 978-80-970849-8-1. GUTTE, P. 1972. Ruderalpflanzengesellschaften West- und Mittelsachsens. In: Feddes Repertorium, vol. 83, 1972, pp. 11–122. HEISEY, R. M. 1996. Identification of an allelopathic compound from Ailanthus altissima and characterization of its herbicidal activity. In: Journal of Botany, vol. 83, 1996, pp. 192–200. HESS, M. 1969. Klimat podregionu miasta Krakowa. In: Folia Geographica Series Geographica-Physica, vol. 3, 1969, pp. 5–63. HESS, M. 1967. Klimat terytorium miasta Krakowa. The climate of Cracow. In: Folia Geographica. Series Geographica-Physica, vol. 1, 1967, pp. 35–98. JANKOWSKI, E. 1888. Ogród przy dworze wiejskim, nakładem autora. Warszawa : Druk J. Sikorskiego, 458 pp. KNAPP, L. B. – CANHAM, C. D. 2000. Invasion of an old-growth forest in New York by Ailanthus altissima: sapling growth and recruitment in canopy gaps. In: Journal of Torrey Botanical Society, vol. 127, 2000, pp. 307–315. KOMORNICKI, T. 1967. Gleby terytorium miasta Krakowa. The soils of Cracow. In: Folia Geographica. Series GeographicaPhysica, vol. 1, 1967, pp. 141–148. KOWARIK, I. 1984. Platanus hybrida Brot. und andere adventive Gehölze auf städtischen Standorten in Berlin (West). In: Göttinger Floristische Rundbriefe, vol. 18, 1984, pp. 7–17. KOWARIK, I. 1992. Einführung und Ausbreitung nichteinheimischer Gehölzarten in Berlin und Brandenburg and ihre Folgen für Flora and Vegetation. In: Verhandlungen des Botanischen Vereins der Berlin Brandenburg, vol. 3, 1992, pp. 1–180. KOWARIK, I. – SÄUMEL, I. 2007. Biological flora of Central Europe: Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle. In: Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics, vol. 8, 2007, pp. 207–237. Izabela Krzeptowska-Moszkowicz, Łukasz Moszkowicz: Selected problems of Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle presence in urban spaces: the case ..., pp. 56–62 – 61 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering KOWARIK, I. – BÖCKER, R. 1984. Zur Verbreitung, Vergesellschaftung und Einbürgerung des Götterbaums (Ailanthus altissima [Mill.] Swingle in Mitteleuropa). In: Tuexenia, vol. 4, 1984, pp. 9–29. KUNICK, W. 1982. Comparison of the flora of some cities of the Central European lowlands. In Bornkamm, R. – Lee, J.A. – Seaward, M. R. D. Urban Ecology. Oxford : Blackwell Scientific, pp. 13–22. ISBN 0-6320-0943-8. MODRANSKÝ, J. – BENČAŤ, T. 2003. Invázne dreviny centrálnej časti mesta Zvolen a ich šírenie. In Bernadovičová, S. (ed.): Dreviny vo verejnej zeleni. Zbornik z konferencie s medzinárodnou úĉasťou, Košice : UPJŠ, pp. 74–81. ISBN 80-967238-6-3. OBRĘBSKA-STARKLOWA, B. – TREPIŃSKA, J. 1992. Zmiana klimatu globalna czy lokalna (w dwustulecie stacji meteorologicznej Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego w Krakowie). In Materiały 41 Zjazdu Geografów Polskich w Krakowie, 1992, pp. 17–35. OBRĘBSKA-STARKLOWA, B. – TREPIŃSKA, J. – OLECKI, Z. 1994. The diagnosis of climate change in Cracow against a background of circulation and local conditions. In: Geographia Polonica, vol. 63, 1994, pp. 51–62. PACYNIAK, C. 1976. Rodzaj Ailanthus Desf. w Polsce i jego znaczenie dla zadrzewień miejskich. In: Rocznik Dendrologiczny, vol. 29, 1976, pp. 113–120. PENNINGTON, D. N. – HANSEL, J. R. – GORCHOV, D. L. 2005. Urbanization and riparian forest woody communities: Diversity, composition, and structure within a metropolitan landscape. In: Biological Conservation, vol. 143, 2005, pp. 182–194. RADTKE, A. – AMBRASSA, S. – ZERBEA, S. TONONA, G. – FONTANAC, V. – AMMER, C. 2013. Traditional coppice forest management drives the invasion of Ailanthus altissima and Robinia pseudoacacia into deciduous forests. In: Forest Ecology and Management, vol. 291, 2013, pp. 308–317. SENETA, W. 1991. Drzewa i krzewy liściaste (A-B). Warszawa : Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. 1991, 331 pp. ISBN 83-01-10135-0. SENETA, W. – DOLATOWSKI, J. 2011. Dendrologia. Warszawa : Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, 2011, 544 pp. ISBN 978-83-01-15369-4 SUDNIK-WOJCIKOWSKA, B. 1998. The effect of temperature on the spatial diversity of urban flora. In: Phytocoenosis Supplementum Cartographiae Geobotanicae, vol. 10, 1998, no. 9. SUKOPP, H. – WURZEL, A. 2003. The Effects of Climate Change on the Vegetation of Central European Cities. In: Urban Habitats, vol. 1, 2003, no. 1, pp. 66–86. TREPIŃSKA, J. (Ed.). 1997. Wahania klimatu w Krakowie (1792–1995), Kraków : Instytut Geografii UJ, 1997, 204 pp. ISBN 83-904441-6-X. TYCZYŃSKA, M. 1967a. Rzeźba i budowa geologiczna terytorium miasta Krakowa. Relief and geological structure of the Site of Cracow. In: Folia Geographica. Series GeographicaPhysica, vol. 1, 1967, pp. 9–34. TYCZYŃSKA, M. 1967b. Jednostki fizyczno-geograficzne terytorium miasta Krakowa. Phisical-Geografical Units on the Site of Cracow. In: Folia Geographica. Series GeographicaPhysica, vol. 1, 1967, pp. 165–171. ZARZYCKI, K. – TRZCIŃSKA-TACIK, H. – RÓŻAŃSKI, W. – SZELĄG, Z. – WOŁEK, J. – KORZENIAK, U. 2002. Ecological indicator values of vascular plants of Poland. Ekologiczne liczby wskaźnikowe roślin naczyniowych Polski. Kraków : W. Szafer Institute of Botany, Polish Academy of Sciences, 2002, 183 pp. ISBN 83-85444-95-5. Izabela Krzeptowska-Moszkowicz, Łukasz Moszkowicz: Selected problems of Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle presence in urban spaces: the case ..., pp. 56–62 – 62 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering EVALUATION OF THE SUGAR AND STARCH CONTENT IN THE LEAVES OF SOME MEDITERRANEAN WOODY SHRUBS GROWING IN DIFFERENT CONDITIONS Maryam I. S. ALKURDI*, Jan SUPUKA Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Slovakia The study was carried out in 2011–2013 in Botanical garden of Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Slovak Republic. three species of Mediterranean evergreen shrubs Pittosporum tobira L, Trachycarpos fortunei (HOOK) H.WENDL and Laurus nobilis L. were planted in two types of plantings, plants planted in the ground and plants planted in pots which is removed during the winter time (10.11–25.03) in side the greenhouse average temperature was 8 °C during the winter time. The sample of young, one year leaves had been taken in end of January when temperature was (-3 °C) at 9 am. The study showed that starch and total sugar affected by planting type, planting in greenhouse led to increase starch and total sugar significantly comparing with planting outside during the winter time. The best result was obtained in Laurus nobilis which Showed supremacy in the entire studied characteristic, lowest value of starch and total sugar were found in Trachycarpos fortunei. Keywords: Mediterranean woody shrubs, growing condition, sugar, starch Introduction Many plant species introduced by humans to areas outside their natural ranges. Mediterranean woody plants are very popular in central Europe countries in landscape and garden architecture as the composition element, also for oil, tea and as medical plants. Hot, dry summers and mild to cool, wet winters are the characters of the Mediterranean climate, the identification of common morphological, life history and reproductive traits found among different plant species assemblages living under similar environmental conditions, have often been interpreted as a consequence of adaptive processes (Verdu et al., 2003). The climatic factors include rainfall and water, light, temperature, relative humidity, air, and wind. They are a biotic components, including topography and soil, of the environmental factors that influence plant growth and development. In general, plants survive within a temperature range of 0 °C to 50 °C. Enzyme activity and the rate of most chemical reactions generally increase with rise in temperature. Up to a certain point, there is doubling of enzymatic reaction with every 10 °C temperature increase. Temperature effects at different levels of organization, biochemical, physiological, morphological, and agronomic and systems – are considered, the changes in the enzyme activities were followed during fall, winter, and spring in relation to the changes in starch content and frost hardiness. Starch levels were negatively correlated with hardiness whereas most soluble sugars were positively correlated in grapevines (Jones et al., 1999). *Correspodence: Low temperature lead to increase of the raffinose family oligosaccharides (RFO) proportion in total carbohydrate in Olea europaea (Rejškova et al., 2007). Nowadays we have much information about Mediterranean woody plants. Main aim of this study is to determine the effect of low temperature on sugar and starch contents of selected Mediterranean ever green shrubs grow under Slovak republic climate condition. Material and methods The study was carried out in 2011–2013 year at Botanical garden of Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Slovak Republic. Three species of Mediterranean evergreen shrubs were planted in two kinds of planting, plant planted in the ground and plant planted in pots which is removed during the winter time inside the greenhouse average temperature was 8 °C, as shown in the (Table 1). Air temperature and rainfall were received from dates of metrological station of Botanical garden during study period as shown in (Table 2). The sample of young (one year) leaves was taken in 5. 3. 2013 at 9.00 am and the average temperature was -3 °C. Total sugar was determined according to Somogyi (in Michlik et al., 1978 and Frederick, 1989). In this procedure the 1 ml samples were combined either with 10 mg substrate and 1 ml citrate buffer (0.1 M, pH 5.0) or with 1 ml substrate solubilized in 0.1 M citrate buffer (pH 5.0) at 1% (w/v) in 50 ml Folin tubes. A control for each sample was prepared with substrate and buffer. Tubes were incubated at 40 °C for 24 h. After incubation, 2 ml of copper reagent, Maryam I. S. Alkurdi, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering, Department of Garden and Landscape Architecture, Tulipanova 7, 949 76 Nitra, Slovak Republic, e-mail: [email protected] Maryam I. S. Alkurdi, Jan Supuka: Evaluation of the sugar and starch content in the leaves of some Mediterranean woody shrubs growing ..., pp. 63–66 – 63 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering consisting of 4 parts KNa tartarate: Na2CO3 : Na2SO4 : NaHCO3 (1 : 2 : 12 : 1.3) and 1 part Cu-SO4 · 5H2O : Na2SO4 (1 : 9), was added to each tube. Both copper reagents must be prepared by boiling to completely dissolve the components; they can then be stored at room temperature. They were mixed together just prior to use. After 1 ml of sample was added to the appropriate control tubes, all tubes were boiled for 10 min in a water bath. The tubes were then cooled completely, 2 ml of arsenomolybdate reagent (25 g ammonium molybdate in 450 ml H2O + 21 ml H2SO4 + 3 g Na2HASO4 · 7H2O dissolved in 25 ml H2O) was added to each tube, and the tubes were shaken thoroughly before adjusting the final volume to 25 ml with water. Individual samples were filtered through filter paper, and colorimetric measurements were determined by transmitted light at 500 nm in a spectrophotometer. The results of sugar and starch content in leaves are expressed in% of dry weight (d. w). The starch content was determined according to the polarimetric method of Ewers (Michalik et al, 1978). A portion of 5 g of a homogenised sample is weighed in a 100 ml Kohlrausch volumetric flask and its content is mixed with 25 ml of 1.124% HCl solution. After addition of another 25 ml of 1.124% HCl solution, the suspension is heated on a boiling water bath for 15 min (after 3 min the content of a volumetric flask is mixed to avoid coagulation). Once the hydrolysis is finished, 20 ml of 1.124% HCl solution is added. After fast cooling (using a stream of flowing water), clarification using 5 mL of Carrez I (30% ZnSO4 solution ) and 5 ml of Carrez II (15% K4[Fe(CN)6] solution ) solutions is performed. Finally, a volumetric flask is filled up by distilled water, its content is properly mixed, and filtrated using a filtration funnel. The obtained filtrate is then transferred to a polarisation tube (2 dm) and measured using a polarimeter. The extent of polarisation is related to the concentration of the optically active molecules in solution by the Eq. 1 α = [α] tλ ⋅ ⋅ c . Where a is the measured angle of rotation, [α]tλ is the optical activity (which is a constant for each type of molecule), is the path length and c is the concentration. The overal angle of rotation depend on the temperature and awvelength of light used and olso these parameters are usually standarddised (e.g. 20 °C and 589.3 nm (the D-line for sodium). The obtained value is firstly corrected for a laboratory temperature (t) drift using Eq.2 acrrected = ameaured S - 0.0144(t - 20) S followed by multiplying by a factor of 0.3462. The amount of starch [ ] [] () (X) in the sample is calculated using Eq.3 X = 1 0 4 .α . [α] tλ ..m Where a is calculated value of optical rotation, [α ]tλ is the optical activity (specific rotation) depending on the discharge lamp and wavelength of light used and variety Table1. The studied species list their ages and origin Family Pittosporaceae Species Origin Age of plants Pittosporum tobira L Japan 6 Palmaceae Trachycarpos fortunei (HOOK) H. WENDL China 6 Lauraceae Laurus nobilis L. Mediterranean 6 Table 2 Average temperature in °C and Sum of rainfalls in mm (Nitra, 2011–2012–2013) Average temperature in °C Sum of rainfalls in mm Month 2011 2012 2013 Month 2011 2012 2013 January -0.90 1.36 -0.8 January 25 61.1 71.2 February -0.60 -2.49 1.5 February 6 23.5 75.6 March 5.90 7.41 3.1 March 27 2.8 113.9 April 12.70 11.23 12.1 April 13 36.1 20.4 May 15.80 17.29 15.6 May 48 19.6 77.8 June 19.80 20.86 19.3 June 91 70.1 46.7 July 19.70 22.77 22.8 July 122 61.4 2.1 August 20.90 21.47 21.9 August 152 7.3 73.9 September 17.70 17.02 14.7 September 92 32.7 60.0 October 9.90 10.46 12.1 October 37 76.1 30.5 November 3.00 7.45 6.8 November 1 34.6 71.3 December 2.20 -0.91 2.3 December 42 44.4 11.0 Year Average Temperature 10.51 11.16 11.0 Year sum of Rainfalls 656 469.7 654.4 Maryam I. S. Alkurdi, Jan Supuka: Evaluation of the sugar and starch content in the leaves of some Mediterranean woody shrubs growing ..., pp. 63–66 – 64 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Laurus nobilis and Pittosporum tobira in total sugar content see Table 4. Planting in pots led to increase each of starch and sugar content in plants and value was (6.70% in dry weight total sugar and (4.18% in dry weight) starch content (Figure 1 and 3). Laurus nobilis showed significant deference in starch and sugar content comparing with other species see Figure 2 and 4. Planting in pots led to increase each of starch and sugar content in 4,5 4 3,5 3 2,5 2 1,5 1 0,5 Planting in pots Figure 1 Planting in the ground Starch % in dry weight of starch, is the path lenght (2 dm), and m is the sample weight (5 g). For a mercury discharge lamp and a wavelength (λ) of 546.1 nm, the [α]tλ values are 214.7, 216.3, 213.3, 213.1, 218.5, 217.0 and 215.5 for wheat, rye, barly, oat, rice, maize and unknown cereal starch, respectivly. (Not: the correction for moisture is not account in the equation). Samples randomly picked out from all parts of the plants. The starch and total sugar were measured. An experiment was laid out as Randomized Complete Design (RCD) in three replications, the data were analyzed with the general linear model procedures in Statistical Analysis System (SAS), and Duncan test at level 0.05 was used for the means separation. 0 Starch content in the leaves affected by planting type Results and discussion Table 3 4 3,5 3 2,5 2 1,5 1 0,5 Starch % in dry weight The data in (Table 3) showed that the highest sugar content was found in Pittosporum tobira which were planted in pots (12.92 % in dry weight) and the lowest was in Trachycarpos fortunei which were planted in the ground (0.40 % in dry weight). The highest starch content was found in Laurus nobilis which were planted in pots (5.12 % in dry weight) and the lowest starch content was in Trachycarpos fortunei (0.8 % in dry weight) there are no significant difference between 0 Laurus nobilis Figure 2 Trachycarpos fortunei Pittosporum tobira Starch content in the leaves affected by species Planting type affected on total sugar in different ever green species Factor species Total sugar % in dry weight Factor planting types Pittosporum tobira L Trachycarpos fortunei (HOOK) H. WENDL Laurus nobilis L Mean planting planting in the ground 2.26de 0.40e 9.83b 4.16b planting in pots 12.92a 2.99d 7.86c 6.70a 7.59a 1.69c 8.85a 5.43 Mean species *Means not followed by the same letters are significant at 5% level of probability Table 4 Planting type affected on starch in different ever green species Starch % in dry weight Factor planting types Mean species planting in the ground planting in pots Factor species Mean planting Pittosporum tobira L Trachycarpos fortunei (HOOK) H. WENDL Laurus nobilis L 2.41cd 0.8e 2.76c 2.79b 4.5ab 1.65de 5.12a 4.18a 3.46bc 1.25d 3.94a 3.49 *Means not followed by the same letters are significant at 5% level of probability Maryam I. S. Alkurdi, Jan Supuka: Evaluation of the sugar and starch content in the leaves of some Mediterranean woody shrubs growing ..., pp. 63–66 – 65 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Acknowledgement 6 5 4 3 2 1 Planting in pots Figure 3 Planting in the ground 0 Total sugar % in dry weight 7 Total sugar content in the leaves affected by planting type 6 5 4 3 2 1 Planting in pots Figure 4 Planting in the ground 0 Total sugar % in dry weight 7 Total sugar content in the leaves affected by species plants. Low temperature is one of the important a biotic stress that affected survival, growth, reproduction and geographic distribution of plants. Temperature factor influence all plant growth processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration, breaking of seed dormancy, seed germination, protein synthesis, and translocation. This is agree with (Pressman et al, 1989) Long term low temperature treatment led to a sharp decrease in the sugar content in Asparagus. Probably low temperatures can affect plants in several ways, temperatures near the minimum for plant growth will reduce the plant‘s rate of metabolism and growth. If the temperature, and therefore the metabolism, remain low for an extended period. A strikingly linear relationship between starch breakdown and temperature is observed in Populus canadensis (Sauter, 1988). The highest value of starch and total sugar found in Laurus nobilis, while the lowest value of starch and total sugar found in Trachycarpos fortunei. Plants are composed of a variety of compounds, besides water, certain plant organs have high concentrations of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids that can vary in different organs in the plant and between species. Paganová (2003) obtained that there has been found new information about distribution of Sorbus domestica in growth abilities. Conclusion Through this study we found that starch and total sugar affected by planting type, planting in greenhouse led to increase, starch and total sugar significantly comparing with planting out side during the winter time, Laurus nobilis showed the highest value of starch and total sugar content. But the lowest value of was in Trachycarpos fortunei comparing with other species. Paper was elaborated thanks financial supporting by grant project KEGA No.003SPU-4/2014 of Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport of the Slovak Republic, and project COST TD1106-UAE. References FREDERICK, G. – CAROL, A. – TERRY, L. 1989. Adaptation of the Nelson- Somogyi Reducing- Sugar Assay to a Microassay Using Microtiter Plates. In: Analytical Biochemistry, 1989, no. 182, p. 197–199. JONES, K. S. - PAROSCHY, J. – MCKERSIE, B. – BOWLEY, S. R. 1999. Carbohydrate Composition and Freezing Tolerance of Canes and Buds in Vitis vinifera. In: Journal of plant physiology, vol. 155, 1999, no. 1, p. 101–106. MÍCHALÍK, I. – TÓTH, J. – BÍZÍK, J. – MAXIANOVÁ, A. – LOŽEK, O. 1978. Chemické a rádioizotopické rozbory biologického materiálu a pôdy. Nitra : VŠP, 1978, p. 89–95. PAGANOVÁ, V. 2003. Výskyt a uplatnenie jarabiny oskorušovej (Sorbus domestica L.) na Slovensku. s. 151–156. ISBN 80-8069297-1. Dostupné na internete: <http:// www.slpk.sk/eldo/tradicne_netradicne_ druhy_rastlin/paganova.pdf>. PELIKÁN, M. – SUKOVÁ, M. 1998. Hodnocení a využití rostlinných produktu (Návody do cvičení). České Budějovice : JU, 1998, 118 s. ISBN 80-7040-279-2. PRESSMAN, E. – SCHAFFER, A. – COMPTON, D. – ZAMSKI, E. 1989. The Effect of Low Temperature and Drought on the Carbohydrate Content of Asparagus. In: Journal Plant Physiology, 1989, no. 134, p. 209–213. REJŠKOVA, A. – PATKOVÁ, L. – STODÚLKOVA, E. – LIPAVSKÁ, H. 2007. The effect of a biotic stress on carbohydrate status of olive shoots (Olea europaea) under in vitro conditions. In: Journal of plant Physiology, 2007, no. 164, p. 174–184. SAUTER, J. 1988. Temperature-induced Changes in Starch and Sugars in the Stem of Populus × canadensis «robusta». In: Journal of plant physiology, vol. 132, 1988, no. 5, p. 608–612. VERDU, M. – DAVLA, P. – GARCIA-FAYOS, P. – FLORES-HERNANDEZ, N. – VALIENTEBANUET, A. 2003. Convergent’ traits of Mediterranean woody plants belong to pre-Mediterranean lineages. In: Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2003, no. 78, p. 415–427. Maryam I. S. Alkurdi, Jan Supuka: Evaluation of the sugar and starch content in the leaves of some Mediterranean woody shrubs growing ..., pp. 63–66 – 66 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering FRUITMAP AND FALLING FRUIT – TOOLS FOR MAPPING URBAN FRUIT TREES IN THE CITY OF NITRA Ladislav BAKAY Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Slovakia Fruiting tree species are not planted often in urban areas. Planners often avoid the selection of fruit trees, but local initiatives and inhabitants started activities, which prefer urban fruit trees and activities such as open source urban fruit maps makes us rethink the role of fruiting trees in urban conditions. In total we found 7 open source fruit tree maps with useful databases. We excluded Google fruit trees maps, because they were regionally limited to a small area and some of them were merged into bigger e-platforms such as Fallingfruit. The most important open source fruit map from the view of data utilization in policy making and governance is Fallingfruit, with more than 230 data sources. Keywords: urban fruit, open source maps, urban tree Introduction When choosing urban tree species, landscape architects, planners and decision makers try avoiding species such as with highly allergenic pollen, fruiting (especially trees with large or odorous fruits), poisonous or invasive ones. The current planting design concepts are therefore aimed at natural plant communities with a high potential adaptability to extremes in the environment (Paganová and Jureková, 2012; Sudzina and Rovná, 2014). As Kollár et al. (2009) and Pejchal (1991) mention, correct tree species selection into urban environment has a significant impact on the health and vitality of urban trees what is reflected in management. In the last decade questions about food security, urban horticulture, resilient urban communities arise also terms as urban horticulture, guerilla grafting, urban orchard, urban edible forest, “edible” roof gardens (Lipovská, 2013; Ettinger, 2012; Takáčová and Klimantová, 2011; Mezey, 2005) and activities such as open source urban fruit maps makes us rethink the role of fruiting trees in urban conditions. There are even small cities like Table 1 Modrý Kameň in Slovakia, which build up their urban image by growing fruit trees (sweet chestnut) inside the city (Pástor, 2013). A new approach towards urban fruit trees must therefore be found. The aim of this paper is to analyze the occurrence of open source fruit maps as tools of their mapping. Framework and methodology We searched open source fruit tree maps with the Google search tool. We used the keywords – “urban, fruit, tree, map, urban orchard”. The found open source urban fruit tree maps were analyzed from aspects of users. Results and discussion In total we found 6 open source fruit tree maps: 1.City Fruit is a Seattle (USA) based initiative of an NGO, which is active since 2008 and promotes the cultivation of urban fruit in order to nourish people, build community, protect the climate, grow healthy fruit, provide assistance in harvesting and preserving fruit, promote the sharing of extra fruit and work to protect Fruit harvest costs from the annual report of Cityfruit Harvested Sites/ Years Lbs of Fruit Cost to Harvest & Sell Fuit sales Income Net cost after sales Cost per lb of Donated Fruit Notes 2009 – 10,213 $8,512.00 – $8.512.00 $0.83 Dept. of Neighborhoods Grant 2010 122 10,121 $14,000.00 $750.00 $13.250.00 $1.31 Dept. of Neighborhoods Grant 2011 104 6,635 $5,680.00 $1.400.00 $4.280.00 $0.65 – 2012 190 18,414 $13,583.00 $2.230.00 $11.353.00 $0.62 DON Grant to add 3rd neighborhoods 2013 151 10,017 $9,831.00 $3.588.00 $6.243.00 $0.62 Extremely low yield year Total 567+ 55,400 $51,606.00 $7.968.00 $43.638.00 $0.79 – Source: http://cityfruit.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/2013-City-Fruit-Annual-Report.pdf *Correspodence: Ladislav Bakay, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Department of Planting Design and Maintenance, Tulipánová 7, Nitra, 949 01, Slovakia, e-mail: [email protected] Ladislav Bakay: Fruitmap and Falling fruit – tools for mapping urban fruit trees in the city of Nitra, pp. 67–69 – 67 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering urban fruit trees. City Fruit works neighborhood by neighborhood to harvest extra fruit and distribute it to food banks, meals programs, senior centers, schools and others who can use it (www.cityfruit.org). This initiative has a strong financial background described by Ettinger (2012) (Tab. 1). 2. Fruit city is an UK initiative and its aim is to search for fruit production surplus in urban areas. It is an open source fruit tree map (Fig. 1). Volunteers can add basic information about fruit trees. The database is growing quickly and the website provides also additional information from tree determination to recipes (www.fruitcity.co.uk). 3.Fallingfruit is the most comprehensive open source fruit map with a large dataset. Nowadays 230 Google fruit tree map datasets are imported from different localities on a global scale. The database contains Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 1 Fruit city map – detail from London Source: www.fruitcity.co.uk Falling fruit Source: www.fallingfruit.org except of the localization information about varieties, Fruitmap Source: www.fruitmap.at Ladislav Bakay: Fruitmap and Falling fruit – tools for mapping urban fruit trees in the city of Nitra, pp. 67–69 – 68 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering harvest time, property information (public, semiprivate, private, but branches lean over the fence etc.) The information in this database is the most reliable from the found open source maps (Fig. 2). 4.Fruitmap.at is a platform created by TU Graz and mainly focuses its activity in this region. The aim of this open source fruit map is to create an inventory of fruit trees growing in the city which can be harvested. The database gives the user additional info about the property and land ownership, where the trees can be found. 5.Fruitmap.sk is a very basic open source map created as a graphic design project in Slovakia. The data are simple and the map is poor on information, but has a global coverage. 6. Neighborhood Fruit is a smartphone application, which provides an easy tool for the application users to share the position and quality of urban fruit. The users can add trees, but also search in the terrain (Fig. 4). 7. Obststadt is an initiative in the city of Wiener Neustadt, which closely cooperates with the Austrian fruitmap. at; the webpage is interlinked and similar to fruitmap. at. The negative aspect of the database is its reduced geographical area (within Wiener Neustadt) (Fig. 5). Conclusion In total we found 7 open source fruit tree maps with useful databases. We excluded Google fruit trees maps, because they were regionaly limited to a small area and some of them were merged into bigger e-platforms such as Fallingfruit. The most important opoen source fruit map from the view of data utilization in policy making and governance is Fallingfruit, with more than 230 data sources. Open source fruit tree maps should be considered as a good and cheap opportunity for local authorities to implement data gained in these databases. Acknowledgements The article was written with the help of KEGA 012SPU4/2013 Lifelong learning program for arborists in Slovakia. References Figure 4 Neighborhood Fruit smartphone application Figure 5 Obststadt Source: www.neighborhoodfruit.com Source: www.obststadt.at ETTINGER, J. 2012. Seattle Building Massive Edible Forest Filled with Free Food. Available from: http://www.organicauthority. com/blog/organic/seattle-building-massive-edible-forestfilled-with-free-food [Accessed 12th August 20013] JOHNSON, N. 2014. Urban farms won’t feed us, but they just might teach us, Grist, 29/4/2014, Available from: http://grist.org/ food/urban-farms-wont-feed-us-but-they-just-might-teach-us/ KOLLÁR, J. – HRUBÍK, P. – TKÁČOVÁ, S. 2009. Monitoring of harmful insect species in urban conditions in selected model areas of Slovakia. In: Plant Protection Science 45.3, 2009, p. 119–124 LIPOVSKÁ, B. 2013. The fruit of garden tourism may fall over the wall: Small private gardens and tourism. In: Tourism Management Perspectives, 2013, no. 6, p. 114–121. MEZEY, J. 2005. Ovocie z vlastnej záhrady. 1. vyd. Bratislava : Computer Press, 2005. ISBN 80-251-0433-8 PAGANOVÁ, V. – JUREKOVÁ, Z. 2012. Woody Plants in Landscape Planning and Landscape Design. Landscape Planning, Dr. Murat Ozyavuz (Ed.) PÁSTOR, M. 2013. Dendrologicko-ekologická analýza aktuálneho stavu pestovania gaštana jedlého (Castanea sativa Mill.) v oblasti Modrého Kameňa: diplomová práca. Zvolen: Technická univerzita, 2013, 89 s. SUDZINA, M. – ROVNÁ, K. 2014. Poradca pre správcov zelene v mestách a obciach – mesiac marec. In: Komunálna technika, roč. 8, 2014, č. 2. ISSN 1337-9011. TAKÁČOVÁ, A. – KLIMANTOVÁ, I. 2011. Aplikovaný dizajn v záhradnej a parkovej tvorbe v mestskom prostredí. 1. vyd. Nitra : SPU, 2011. ISBN 978-80-552-0638-7. TÓTH, A. 2014. Cost Action Urban Agriculture Europe: Urban Agriculture and Resilient Urban Food System in Christchurch, New Zealand, Short Scientific Report on the ReciprocalShort Term Scientific Mission, Christchurch, New Zealand 20/01-16/02/2014 Available from: http://www. urbanagricultureeurope.la.rwthaachen.de/files/cost_uae_ rstsm_short_scientific_report_attila_toth_s.pdf Ladislav Bakay: Fruitmap and Falling fruit – tools for mapping urban fruit trees in the city of Nitra, pp. 67–69 – 69 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering ALIEN PEST SPECIES ON WOODY PLANTS IN URBAN CONDITIONS OF SLOVAKIA Ján KOLLÁR Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Slovakia In 2006–2014 research on the phytophagous insects of ornamental woody plants (trees and shrubs) was carried out in various urban areas, which are located in west part of the Slovak Republic. During research was found on ornamental woody plants 437 species and 5 varieties of animal pests. From that number the alien species accounted 59 species. During years 2006–2014 were recorded 16 new alien pest species for Slovakia. The highest number of alien species in Slovakia comes from Asia area (23 species). Many species expand to Slovakia also from North America (18 species) and Mediterranean (15 species). The least number of alien species comes from Africa. Two recorded alien species have unknown origin. From the all recorded alien pest species the orders Hemiptera (25 species) and Lepidoptera (15 species) accounted the highest number. Many invasive and introduced pest species better adapted to temperature amplitude in Slovakia and they find optimal conditions to reproduction. Keywords: alien pest, woody plants, Slovakia, climate change Introduction The changes in global and also in urban climate and increased levels of primary and secondary pollutants components in air create a new environment conditions for growth and development of woody plants in forests, landscape and Urban areas. These factors create new possibilities for using of woody plants from warmer conditions. In present a lot of introduced woody plants are in use. It is a result of successful woody plants introduction and acclimatization (Supuka, 2007; Sidorová et al., 2013). The attention of scientific and professional public in the past decade was especially attracted by invasive and alien organisms, because they represent significant factors of ecosystem degradation and threaten the plant production (Glavendekić and Mihajlović, 2007). Invasions of alien organism species continue. This effect is connected with increased frequency of goods transaction (truck) (increased trade and economy production of SR) and with climate changes raiding (Zúbrik, Kunca and Vakula, 2007). Biological invasions by alien species are presently recognised as the second cause of loss in biological diversity, following the destruction of habitats, and have also large economical consequences (Vitousek et al., 1996, 1997; Perings et al., 2000; Pimentel et al., 2000). This movement has precipitated a substantial increase in biological invasions by allowing organisms to pass the natural barriers that limit their dispersal (Liebhold et al., 1995; Levine and D’Antonio, 2003). In Europe region apprehensions from random introduction of non-indigenous plants and biotic pests *Correspodence: species increases. Because of native enemies absence and changed ecological conditions accidentally introduced pest species may begin behave quite abruptly in a new environment (Hrubík, 2002). Some of these pest species also cross on native woody plants and in cooperation with other unfavourable environment factors they may cause mortification of whole forest woody plants vesture. However majority of non-indigenous pests is fixed only to city environment. In an urban environment, which is characterized by specific unfavourable conditions, the negative influence of insect pests raises. Research has found out that the individual factors actuating in city greenery objects have a different signification for specific species and for whole terrestrial vertebrate families, mainly in dependence on their migration and adaptation abilities. In industrial cities with high pollution environment degree we can observe that multitude of insects with secret manner of life (mining and gall-forming species, midges, scales) increases, and contrariwise, the multitude of predators and parasitic species which are more sensitive on these conditions decreases (Hrubík, 1988). The most informations about insect invasions come from North America or Australasia. In other regions (e.g. Europe, South America, Asia, Africa), the ecological impact of invasive insects has been much less studied, partly because insect invasions have been less critical for the environment in these regions than in North America, Australasia and most oceanic islands (Kenis and Pere, 2007). In 1994, Mattson et al. (1994) estimated that there Ján Kollár, Slovak University of Horticulture in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering, Department of Green’s biotechnics, Tulipánová 7, 949 01 Nitra, Slovak Republic, phone: + 421 376 415 434, e-mail: [email protected] Ján Kollár: Alien pest species on woody plants in urban conditions of Slovakia, pp. 70–73 – 70 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering were more than 368 alien phytophagous species in wooded areas of America north of Mexico. In contrast, insect invasions in forests are much less documented in Europe (Roques, 2007). In care of city and forest greenery it is important to dedicate higher attention to protection, justification and to timely damage causes discovery. Premise of successful protection to harmful factors are correct diagnosis, knowledge and harmful factor classification according to symptoms which we detected on damaged woody plant. Another justification premise is control and prognosis on its basis (Zúbrik, Novotný et al., 2004). Materials and methods In 2006–2014 research on the phytophagous insects of ornamental woody plants (trees and shrubs) was carried out in interest areas in Nitra, Topoľčany, Komárno, Partizánske, Prievidza, Piešťany, Trnava, Bratislava, Mlyňany arboretum SAS. All these cities are located in the western part of the Slovak Republic. They are components of the Danubian lowland region and they are characterized by semi-arid and humid climate. The average annual total precipitation is about 600 mm. The average annual temperature is in the range of 8–11 °C. The research aim was the analysis of the phytophagous entomofauna composition on autochthonous and allochthonous woody plants. Especially the alien species were evaluated. We realised the monitoring of woody plant damage in the examined localities 2–3 times per growing season. Table 1 In the field we took the samples of damaged parts, and adults or larvae for further determination. For the purposes of determination publications by Skuhravý and Skuhravá (1998), Csóka (1997, 2003), Blackman and Eastop (1994), Schnaider (1976), Laštůvka and Laštůvka (1997), Péricart (1998) were used. Results and discussion During research we found on ornamental woody plants 437 species and 5 varieties of animal pests. From that number the alien species accounted 59 species. During years 2006–2014 were recorded 16 new alien pest species for Slovakia (Table 1). After pest species quantification according to their origin, the highest number of alien species in Slovakia comes from Asia area (23 species). Many species expand to Slovakia also from North America (18 species) and Mediterranean (15 species). The least number of alien species comes from Africa. Two recorded alien species have unknown origin (Figure 1). In the last years alien species spread to Slovakia area mainly from asian and mediterranean region. From the all recorded alien pest species the orders Hemiptera (25 species) and Lepidoptera (15 species) accounted the highest number (Figure 2). Many invasive and introduced pest species better adapted to temperature amplitude in Slovakia and they find optimal conditions to reproduction. On pest species occurence influenced mainly species composition of woody plants and ecological conditions as well as. List of new alien pest species for Slovak Republic Order Species Origin Host plant Year of first record in Slovakia Hemiptera Pseudaulacaspis pentagona (Targioni – Tozzetti, 1887) Asia Catalpa sp. 2007 Hemiptera Pulvinaria hydrangeae Steinweden, 1946 Asia Tilia sp., Hydrangea sp. 2011 Hemiptera Myzocallis walshii (Monell, 1879) North America Quercus sp. 2007 Hemiptera Cinara curvipes (Patch, 1912) North America Abies sp. 2007 Hemiptera Leptoglossus occidentalis Heidemann, 1910 North America Pinus sp. 2005-2006 Diptera Obolodiplosis robiniae (Haldemann, 1847) North America Robinia sp. 2005-2006 Elaeagnus sp. 2006 Diptera Amauromyza elaeagni (Rohdendorf-Holmanová, 1959) Mediterranean Diptera Agromyza demeijerei Hendel, 1920 Mediterranean Laburnum sp. 2006 Hymenoptera Eurytoma amygdali Enderlein 1907 Asia Amygdalus sp. 2009 Hymenoptera Nematus tibialis Newman 1837 North America Robinia sp. 2007 Prostigmata Aceria pyracanthi (Canestrini, 1890) Mediterranean Pyracantha sp. 2006 Coleoptera Bruchidius siliquastri (A.Delobel, 2007) Asia Cercis sp. 2006 Coleoptera Megabruchidius tonkineus (Pic, 1904) Asia Gleditsia sp. 2011 Coleoptera Acanthoscelides pallidipennis (Motschulsky 1873) Asia Amorpha sp. 2012 Coleoptera Scobicia chevrieri (Villa & Villa 1835) Mediterranean Quercus sp.? 2014 Lepidoptera Cydalima perspectalis (Walker, 1859) Asia Buxus sp. 2012 Ján Kollár: Alien pest species on woody plants in urban conditions of Slovakia, pp. 70–73 – 71 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Origin Asia 37,3 North America 30,5 Mediterranean 27,1 Africa 1,7 Unknown 3,4 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Number of species [%] Figure 1 Percentage of alien pest species according to origin Order Hymenoptera 5 Coleoptera 8,5 Diptera 8,5 Acknowledgement 42,4 Hemiptera Lepidoptera 25,4 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Number of species [%] Figure 2 Supported by the KEGA project: Program of the lifelong learning for arborists in Slovakia, No. 012SPU4/2013, and project APVV-0421-07. References 10,2 Acarina indigenous pest on that aforesaid woody palnts species. The important role in plant protection in Europe have pest species, which do not occur in Slovakia, but they were found in adjacent states. They are species as a asian longhorned beetle Anoplophora glabripennis Motsch., planthopper Metcalfa pruinosa (Say), which occurence in Slovakia is possible, because it was found in Cech Republic in 2001 (Lauterer and Malenovsky, 2002). The Urban environment is suitable mainly for many aphids species, because they like drier and warmer conditions. It caused more intensive gradations of some species. This fact mentioned also the authors Zúbrik, Kunca, Vakula et al. (2008). Percentage of alien pest species according to orders In the last years we meet with alien or introduced pests, which occurence raise with trade increase of introduced woody plants in Slovakia and in the world. These species faund in slovak area suitable conditions for its developments. From results is visible, that the introduced woody plants are more damaged, which may be caused by natural predators absence. In the future we can await also alien pest tension increase, because of climate warming. During research were recorded 59 alien pest species. The asian species create the most number from total. That fact found also french scientists (Roques, 2007). In the last years occur mainly mediterranean and asian species, what prove 4 new mediterranean pest and 7 asian species in Slovakia. Although many of them are not harmfull for plants, but they are potential risk. Roques et al. (2009) also mentioned, that the new discovered mediterranean species in northern and western areas of Europe are very significant. In the past and also in present were woody plants introduced from Asia and America, therefore the most number of pests has origin in these areas. However, many alien pest started they harmfull activity in longer time period. Hrubík (1988) mentioned, that in the past were any pests species on asian and american woody plants, or they occur very sporadically (Cercis canadensis L., Cotoneaster dammeri Schneid., Elaeagnus angustifolia L., Robinia pseudoacacia L., R. hispida L., Tilia americana L., ...). In present we acounted some alien and BLACKMAN, R. L. – EASTOP, V. F. 1994. Aphids on the world’s tree as An Identificational and Informational Guide. Wallingford, Oxon : CAB International VIII, 1994, 1024 pp. ISBN 0 85198 877 6. CSÓKA, G. 1997. Gubacsok. Budapest : Agroinform kiadó, 1997, 160 p. ISBN 963-502-638-2 CSÓKA, G. 2003. Levélaknák és levélaknázók. Budapest : Agroinform kiadó, 2003, 192 p. ISBN 963-502-785-0 GLAVENDEKIĆ, M. – MIHAJLOVIĆ, L. 2007. Citrus flatid planthopper Metcalfa pruinosa (SAY) (Hemiptera: Flatidae) and locust gall midge Obolodiplosis robiniae (Haldeman) (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) new invasive alien species in Serbia. In: Alien arthropods in South East Europe – crossroad of three continents. Sofia : University of Forestry, 2007, p. 5–9 HRUBÍK, P. 1988. Živočíšni škodcovia mestskej zelene. Bratislava : VEDA, 1988, 196 p. HRUBÍK, P. et al. (2002). Pestovanie a ochrana cudzokrajných drevín na Slovensku. Zvolen : Ústav ekológie lesa SAV, 2002. 200 p. ISBN 80-967238-5-5 KENIS, M. – PERE, Ch. (2007). Ecological impact of invasive insects in forest ecosystems. In: Alien invasive species and Ján Kollár: Alien pest species on woody plants in urban conditions of Slovakia, pp. 70–73 – 72 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering international trade. Warsaw : Forest Research Institute, 2007, pp. 118–122 ISBN 978-83-87647-64-3 LAŠTŮVKA, A. – LAŠTŮVKA, Z. 1997. Nepticulidae mitteleuropas. Ein illustrierter Begleiter (Lepidoptera). Brno : Konvoj, 1997, 230 p. ISBN 80-85615-61-4 LAUTERER, P. – MALENOVSKY, I. 2002. Metcalfa pruinosa (Say, 1830) introduced into the Czech Republic (Hemiptera, Flatidae). In: Beiträge zur Zikadenkunde, 2002, no. 5, pp. 10–13. LEVINE, J. M. – D’ANTONIO, C. M. 2003. Forecasting biological invasions with increasing international trade. In: Conservation Biology, 2003, no. 17, p. 322–326. LIEBHOLD, A. M. – MacDONALD, W. L. – BERGDAHL, D. – MASTRO, V. C. 1995. Invasion by exotic forest pests: A threat to forest ecosystems. In: Forest Sciences Monographs, 1995, no. 30, p. 1–49. MATTSON, W. J. 1997. Exotic insects in North American forests: Ecological systems forever altered. In: Proceedings of the Conference on Exotic Pests of Eastern Forests (ed. K. O. Britton). USDAForest Service and Tennessee Exotic Pest Plant Council, Nashville, Tennessee, 1997, pp. 187–193. PERINGS, C. – WILLIAMSON, M. – DALMOZZONE, S. 2000. The economics of biological invasions. Cheltenham, United Kingdom : Edward Elgar, 2000, pp. 1–249. PÉRICART, J. 1998. Hémiptères Lygaeidae euroméditerranéens. Faune de France 84A. Paris, France : Fédération Francaise des Sociétés de Sciences Naturelles, 1998, 468 p. PIMENTEL, D. – LACH, L. – ZUNIGA, R. – MORRISON, D. 2000. Enviromental and economic costs of nonindigenous species in the United States. In: BioScience, vol. 50, 2000, no. 1, pp. 53–65. ROQUES, A. 2007. Old and new pathways for invasion of exotic forest insects in Europe. In: Alien invasive species and international trade. Warsaw : Forest Research Institute, 2007, pp. 80–88. ISBN 978-83-87647-64-3 ROQUES, A. et al. 2009. Alien Terrestrial Invertebrates of Europe. In: Handbook of Alien Species in Europe. Netherlands : Springer, 2009, pp. 63–79. ISBN 978-1-4020-8280-1 SCHNAIDER, Z. 1976. Atlas uszkodzeń drzew i krzewów powodowanych przez owady i pajęczaky. Warszawa : Państwowe wydawnictwo naukowe, 1976, 320 p. SIDOROVÁ, M. – GABERLE, M. – DAVIDOVÁ, M. – HANZLÍK, K. – ROUBALOVÁ, L. – PROKŮPEK, T. – HÁJEK, T. – NÁVRAT, P. – BAKAY. L. 2013. O strom více. 1. vyd. Praha 1 : reSITE, 2013, 23 p. ISBN 978-80-260-4348-5 SKUHRAVÝ, V. – SKUHRAVÁ, M. 1998. Bejlomorky lesních stromů a keřů. Písek : Matice lesnická, 1998, 174 p. SUPUKA, J. 2007. Dreviny v mestskom prostredí z hľadiska zmien enviromentálnych podmienok a globálnej klímy. In: Aklimatizácia a introdukcia drevín v podmienkach globálneho otepľovania. Arborétum Mlyňany SAV : Arborétum Mlyňany SAV, 2007, 224 p. ISBN 978-80-969760-1-0 VITOUSEK, P. M. – D’ANTONIO, C. M. – LOOPE, L. L. – WESTBROOKS, R. 1996. Biological invasions as global environment change. In: American Scientist, vol. 84, 1996, no. 5, pp. 468–478. VITOUSEK, P. M. – D’ANTONIO, C. M. – LOOPE, L. L. – REJMANEK, M. – WESTBROOKS, R. 1997. Introduced species: a significant component of human-caused global change. New Zealand, In: Journal of Ecology, vol. 21, 1997, no. 1, pp. 1–16. ZÚBRIK, M. – KUNCA, A. – VAKULA, J. 2007. Invázne a nepôvodné druhy hmyzu a húb na Slovensku a ochrana európskeho priestoru zabezpečovaná “EPPO“. In: Aktuálne problémy v ochrane lesa. Zvolen : NLC, 2007, pp. 83–88. ISBN 978-80-8093-0141 ZÚBRIK, M. – KUNCA, A. – VAKULA, J. et al. 2008. Prognóza vývoja škodlivých činiteľov s ohľadom na globálnu klimatickú zmenu a predpoklad ich dopadu na zdravotný stav lesov. In: Aktuálne problémy v ochrane lesa. Zvolen : NLC, 2008, pp. 103– 115. ISBN 978-80-8093-040-0. ZÚBRIK, M. – NOVOTNÝ, J. et al. 2004. Kalendár ochrany lesa. Bratislava : Polnochem, 2004, 94 p. ISBN 80-969093-3-9 Ján Kollár: Alien pest species on woody plants in urban conditions of Slovakia, pp. 70–73 – 73 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering EXAMINATION OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DIFFERENT DENDROMETRIC QUANTITIES OF HOSTS AND MISTLETOE BUSH NUMBER Tivadar BALTAZÁR1*, Ildikó VARGA2, Gergő Gábor NAGY3, Miloš PEJCHAL1 Mendel University in Brno, Czech Republic 2 University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland 3 Corvinus University of Budapest, Budapest, Hungaryia 1 The monitoring of presence of European mistletoe (Viscum album) was carried out between the years 2011 to 2013 in winter period in castle park in Lednice. The most common host taxa belong to genera Acer, Tilia, Crataegus, Juglans and Robinia. For statistical evaluation of collected data we used linear and exponential regression models. Our results confirmed that the mistletoe bush number was higher with increased tree height, diameter at breast height, crown volume and crown projection. In some cases (e.g. Tilia cordata or Tilia platyphyllos) the regression analysis showed higher relationship (ca. 25– 35 %) between the mistletoe number per tree and diameter at breast height and crown volume. There is big difference among the hosts within similar dendrometric quantities, consequently, some host taxa are more sensitive for infection. The strongest relationship was observed in case of Juglans nigra (max. 45 %), which probably will be the most endangered host in the whole park. Keywords: Viscum album, host woody species, mistletoe infection, regression analysis Introduction European or White berry mistletoe (Viscum album L.) from the family Viscaceae (Santalaceae sensu lato; Nickrent et al., 2010) is a globular evergreen, perennial, epiphytic and hemiparasitic shrub with persistent haustoria in the host (Zuber, 2004). It is able to infect 452 (mostly deciduous) woody species, subspecies, varieties and hybrids belonging to 96 genera of 44 families. Spontaneous infections of the hardwood mistletoe in Europe were reported on 384 taxa, including 190 alien, introduced trees and shrubs (Barney et al., 1998). The distribution of Viscum album is quite uneven in Europe but it is one of the most common branch parasites in the Old World. Its vertical and horizontal distribution depends primarily on temperature which is needed for its optimal growth (Dobbertin et al., 2005 Zuber, 2004). Within this area its distribution depends primarily on the hosts, birds and man (Wangerin, 1937). Other factors (e.g. individual differences among host trees) are less obvious, but also may play an important role in explaining local abundance and distribution of mistletoe plants (Kartoolinejad et al., 2007). Our previous studies (Baltazár et al., 2013a) confirmed that the likelihood of infection increases with the age of trees or lowering vitality of tree. In case of Parrotia persica (DC.) C. A. Mey., the infection intensity has positive significant relationship with diameter at breast height (DBH), distance to conspecificity and locating in the stand edge, *Correspodence: but no correlation was found between tree height and infection intensity. In other cases (Baltazár et al., 2013b) it was proved that the infected trees are bigger and have a greater crown volume than uninfected trees. There is also different intensity of infection in each host (Baltazár et al., 2013a; Kartoolinejad et al., 2007). The main aim of this study was to find relationship between some dendrometric quantities and number of mistletoe bushes on tree and to confirm the hypothesis that number of mistletoe bushes will be higher with increased e.g. tree height or crown volume. Materials and methods The research locality Lednice is situated in southern Moravia at an altitude of 165 m above the sea level and its average annual temperature is about 9 °C and approximately 500–650 mm of rainfall per year. The field investigation was focused on the spread of European mistletoe (Viscum album L.) in the castle park and it was usually carried out in winter periods (from December to March) of the years 2011 to 2013. All trees were individually evaluated and the pre-eminently following data were recorded: yy Identification of individuals, which included: serial section number, serial department number, serial number of the element in a department, element type, taxon (for this purpose we used the nomenclature according to Erhardt et al., 2008). Tivadar Baltazár, Mendel University in Brno, Faculty of Horticulture, Department of Planting Design and Maintenance, Valtická 337, 691 44 Lednice, Czech Republic Tivadar Baltazár et al.: Examination of the relationship between different dendrometric quantities of hosts and mistletoe bush number, pp. 74–77 – 74 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering yy Basic dendrometric quantities: tree height, crown width, diameter at breast height (DBH). Measured in practice by common methods (Machovec, 1982). yy Crown projection: was calculated as the area of ellipse: A = π × a × b, the possible damage of crown was deducted (percentage estimate). yy Crown volume: was calculated as the volume of ellipsoid: V = 4/3 × (π × a × b × c), the possible damage of crown was deducted (percentage estimate). yy Exact number of mistletoe bushes. The data analysis was carried out only with these infected host taxa which occurred in the park most frequently. For characterization of the relationship between the dendrometric quantities and the mistletoe bush number, linear and exponential regression analysis was performed, where mistletoe number was used as the dependent variable and dendrometric quantities Table 1 as the explanatory variables. The best-fitting curve was obtained by the method of ordinary least squares (OLS). Coefficient of determination (R2) was used for measurement of how close the data are to the fitted regression line. The data processing and evaluating was carried out in Microsoft Office Excel 2010 and statistical analyses were performed using the statistical program R version 3.0.2. (R Core Team 2013), for editing R scripts the Tinn-R code editor was used (Faria, 2013). Results Due to our results we can conclude that there is no or small relationship between the selected dendrometric quantities and mistletoe bush number. However, the mistletoe bush number is higher with increased e.g. tree height, DBH etc., as predicted. The average percentage value of this correlation was between 10 and 20. Relationship between the mistletoe bush number and dendrometric quantities with different host taxa Type of relationship Tree height (x) and mistletoe number (y) Diameter at breast height (x) and mistletoe number (y) Crown projection (x) and mistletoe number (y) Taxon Linear regression model R2 Exponential regression model R2 Acer campestre y = -3.23 + 1.52x 0.07 y = 2.28e0.09x 0.08 Acer platanoides y = -20.14 + 3.05x 0.17 y = 1.51e 0.12x 0.14 Acer pseudoplatanus y = 5.64 + 1.61x 0.05 y = 5.50e 0.06x 0.04 Crataegus monogyna y = -14.46 + 4.29x 0.16 Crataegus pedicellata y = 0.58 + 1.05x Juglans nigra 0.17x y = 2.56e 0.08 0.01 y = 1.87e 0.12x 0.01 y = -20.47 + 4.55x 0.36 y = 5.65e 0.11x 0.33 Robinia pseudacacia y = -2.15 + 0.83x 0.18 y = 1.47e 0.09x 0.20 Tilia cordata y = -23.30 + 4.38x 0.22 Tilia platyphyllos y = -6.20 + 1.97x Acer campestre 1.48x y = 4.40e 0.21 0.08 y = 3.34e 0.06x 0.06 y = 0.19 + 0.44x 0.14 Acer platanoides y = -4.40 + 0.73x Acer pseudoplatanus 0.02x y = 3.21e 0.13 0.19 y = 3.14e 0.03x 0.14 y = 2.45 + 0.72x 0.17 y = 5.75e 0.03x 0.10 Crataegus monogyna y = -13.28 + 1.55x 0.31 Crataegus pedicellata y = -0.97 + 0.72x Juglans nigra 0.07x y = 2.31e 0.19 0.15 y = 1.52e 0.09x 0.15 y = -3.23 + 1.49x 0.44 y = 8.52e 0.04x 0.40 Robinia pseudacacia y = 3.16 + 0.19x 0.21 y = 2.51e 0.02x 0.24 Tilia cordata y = -3.35 + 1.17x 0.30 y = 7.39e0.03x 0.27 Tilia platyphyllos y = -19.86 + 0.94x 0.40 y = 1.96e0.03x 0.36 Acer campestre y = 6.94 + 0.18x 0.13 y = 4.58e0.01x 0.12 Acer platanoides y = -4.40 + 0.73x 0.19 y = 3.14e0.03x 0.14 Acer pseudoplatanus y = 2.45 + 0.72x 0.17 y = 5.75e0.03x 0.10 Crataegus monogyna y = -13.28 + 1.55x 0.42 y = 2.31e0.07x 0.19 Crataegus pedicellata y = -0.97 + 0.72x 0.15 y = 1.52e0.09x 0.15 Juglans nigra y = 24.66 + 0.39x 0.44 y = 19.08e0.008x 0.40 Robinia pseudacacia y = 3.16 + 0.19x 0.21 Tilia cordata y = -3.35 + 1.17x Tilia platyphyllos y = -19.86 + 0.94x y = 2.51e 0.02x 0.24 0.30 y = 7.39e 0.03x 0.27 0.40 y = 1.96e 0.03x Tivadar Baltazár et al.: Examination of the relationship between different dendrometric quantities of hosts and mistletoe bush number, pp. 74–77 – 75 – 0.36 Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Figure 1 Regression plot between different dendrometric quantities and mistletoe bush number in case of Juglans nigra Conversely, there is bigger difference among the hosts, because in some cases (e.g. Juglans nigra) we found stronger correlation (max. 45 %). There is also no big difference between the fitting of linear and exponential regression model. The following table (Tab. 1) represents the equation of linear and exponential regression line with coefficient of determination, where y is the dependent variable (always mistletoe bush number) and x is the explanatory variable (dendrometric quantities). Fig. 1 also shows these relationships in case of Juglans nigra. Discussion and conclusion From our results it is obvious that we observed none or small relationship when we individually analysed the influence of local factors. However, when we analysed these factors together, the multiple regression analysis showed higher (but not very strong) relationship between these dendrometric quantities and mistletoe number. Probably, these or other local factors (e.g. vitality of tree, tree age) together may influence the rate of infection in the park and therefore they cannot be studied separately. There is big difference among hosts with similar dendrometric quantities which proves that hosts react to the infection in different ways and some hosts are more sensitive than others. Similar results were obtained by Baltazár et al. (2013a), in case of Tilia cordata the average number of mistletoe bushes on a tree was five times higher than in case of Acer campestre with similar quantities. The analyses proved the strongest relationship in case of diameter at breast height and tree volume used as an explanatory variable. Juglans nigra will be the most endangered host in the whole park and Tilia cordata and Tilia platyphyllos will be more sensitive to infection than other tree species. Several other studies were obtained in case of other taxa of the family Viscaceae. Aukema and Martínez del Río (2002) on Phoradendron californicum Nutt., Donohue (1995) on Plicosephalus curviflorus (Benth. ex Oliv.), Overton (1994) on Phrygilanthus sonorae (S. Watson) Tivadar Baltazár et al.: Examination of the relationship between different dendrometric quantities of hosts and mistletoe bush number, pp. 74–77 – 76 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Standl. and Reid and Smith (2000) on Amyema preissii (Miq.) Tiegh. found a weak relationship between host size and infection intensity. This pattern appears to be typical for bird-dispersed taxa (Roxburgh and Nicolson 2007), because Nowak and McBride (1992) found more Arceuthobium campylopodum Engelm. on smaller host trees. This plant is not dispersed by birds and has explosively dispersed seeds that are likely to land on smaller trees close to a host tree (Roxburgh and Nicolson, 2007). Overton (1994) suggested that size-prevalence relationship would occur simply because larger trees are older and have had more time to be infected. Roxburgh and Nicolson (2007) claimed that unequivocally separating the effects of tree age and tree size is difficult as they are tightly correlated. However, their result proves that taller trees in the same age are more frequently parasitized. Overton (1994) also affirmed that the mistletoe infection intensity of a tree can be considered as an indicator of the attractiveness of a tree to a disperser. Our results did not answer the question which dendrometric quantities have the most important role to mistletoe distribution in model area. In the near future we are going to study the influence of other factors (e.g. vitality, development stage, exact location of host in park) and difference among hosts for better understanding the mistletoe occurrence and its distribution. Acknowledgement This publication was supported by project No. DF11P01OVV019 – Landscape architecture’s methods and tools for spatial development which meets the thematic priority TP 1.4. of Applied Research and Development of National and Cultural Identity Programme, funded by Ministry of Culture of the Czech Republic. References AUKEMA, J. – MARTÍNEZ del RIO, C. 2002. Where does a fruit eating bird deposit mistletoe seeds? Seed deposition patterns and an experiment. In: Ecology, vol. 83, 2002, no. 12, pp. 3489–3496. BALTAZÁR, T. – PEJCHAL, M. – VARGA, I. 2013. Evaluation of European mistletoe (Viscum album L.) infection in the castle park in Lednice. In: Acta Universitatis Agriculturae et Silviculturae Mendelianae Brunensis, vol. 61, 2013, no. 6, pp. 1565–1574. BALTAZÁR, T. – PEJCHAL, M. – VARGA, I. Charakteristika niektorých hostiteľských drevín imela bieleho v Lednickom zámockom parku: napadnuté stromy sú väčšie? In VOJTÍŠKOVÁ, J. – KAŠŠÁK, P. – PEŇÁZOVÁ, E. (eds.): Sborník příspěvků z konference studentů doktorských programů Zahradnické fakulty, Brno : Mendelova Univerzita v Brně, 2013, pp. 48–52. ISBN 978-80-7375-896-7. BARNEY, C. W. – HAWKSWORTH, F. G. – GEILS, B. W. 1998. Hosts of Viscum album. In: European Journal of Forest Pathology, vol. 28, 1998, no. 3, pp. 187–208. DOBBERTIN, M. – HILKER, N. – REBETEZ, M. – ZIMMERMANN, N. E. – WOHLGEMUTH, T. – RIGLING, A. 2005. The upward shift in altitude of pine mistletoe (Viscum album ssp. austriacum) in Switzerland – the result of climate warming? In Int. J. Biometeorol., vol. 50, 2005, no. 1, pp. 40–47. DONOHUE, K. 1995. The spatial demography of mistletoe parasitism on a Yemeni Acacia. In: Int. J. Plant. Sci., vol. 156, 1995, no. 6, pp. 816–823. ERHARDT, W. et al. 2008. Der große Zander: Enzyklopädie der Pflanzennamen. Stuttgart : Ulmer, 2008, 2103 pp. ISBN 978-3-8001-5406-7. FARIA, J. C. 2013. Resources of Tinn-R GUI/Editor for R Environment. Ilheus, Brasil : UESC, 2013. KARTOOLINEJAD, D. – HOSSEINI, S. M. – MIRNIA, S. K. – AKBARINIA, M. – SHAYANMEHR, F. 2007. The relationship among infection intensity of Viscum album with some ecological parameters of host trees. In: International Journal of Environmental Research, vol. 1, 2007, no. 2, pp. 143–149. MACHOVEC, J. 1982. Sadovnická dendrologie. Praha : SPN, 1982, 246 pp. NICKRENT, D. L. – MALÉCOT, V. – VIDAL-RUSSELL, R. – DER, J. P. 2010. A revised classification of Santales. In: Taxon, vol. 59, 2010, no. 2, pp. 538–558. NOWAK, D. J. – MCBRIDE, R. R. 1992. Differences in Moneterey pine pest populations in urban and natural forests. In: Forest Ecol. Manage, vol. 50, 1992, no. 1–2, pp. 133–144. OVERTON, J. McC. 1994. Dispersal and infection in mistletoe metapopulations. In J. Ecol., vol. 82, 1994, p. 711–723. R CORE TEAM, R. 2013. A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria : R Foundation for Statistical Computing, 2013. http://www.R-project.org/. REID, N. – SMITH, M. S. 2000. Population dynamics of an arid zone mistletoe (Amyema preissii, Loranthaceae) and its host Acacia victoriae (Mimosaceae). In: Aust. J. Bot., vol. 48, 2000, no. 1, pp. 45–58. ROXBURGH, L. – NICOLSON, S. W. 2008. Differential dispersal and survival of an African mistletoe: does host size matter? In: Plant Ecology, vol. 195, 2008, no. 1, p. 21–31. WANGERIN, W. 1937. Loranthaceae. In: KIRCHNER, O. V. – LOEW, E. – SCHROETER, C. (eds.): Lebensgeschichte der Blütenpflanzen Mitteleuropas, Stuttgart : Ulmer, 1937, pp. 953–1146. ZUBER, D. 2007. Biological flora of Central Europe: Viscum album L. In: Flora, vol. 199, 2004, no. 3, pp. 81–203. Tivadar Baltazár et al.: Examination of the relationship between different dendrometric quantities of hosts and mistletoe bush number, pp. 74–77 – 77 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering COMPARISON OF DEVELOPMENT OF CHLOROPHYLL IN THE LEAVES OF GINKGO BILOBA L. USING DESTRUCTIVE AND NON-DESTRUCTIVE ANALYSIS Marcel RAČEK*, Helena LICHTNEROVÁ, Jana ČERNÁ Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Slovakia The research defines the time depended differentiation of chlorophyll in the leaves of Ginkgo biloba L. seedlings using destructive and non-destructive methods. Water regime was induced for plants at the stage of growth of shoots at the beginning of June. Moisture of the substratum was 70% of saturation of the soil, and was regulated three times a week. Water regime was maintained for seven measurements. Sampling for analysis of chlorophyll content in leaves was carried out at three week intervals. First sampling was conducted immediately after the establishment of experiments in midJune. The last collection was conducted in mid-September. By using different methods for measuring the chlorophyll in the leaves was found that changes in chlorophyll content can be identically recorded by destructive as well as non-destructive methods. The advantage of using non-destructive methods is less of subjects needed for the analysis and elimination of errors caused by the individual characteristics of plants. Keywords: chlorophyll content index, leaf, Ginkgo biloba L. seedlings Introduction Materials and methods Ginkgo biloba L. is one of the phylogenetically oldest tree species which comes from Southeast Asia. Its homeland is the in province of Sichuan in China, but also grow in other countries of East Asia and since 1730 is growing in Europe (http://ohioline.osu.edu/sc157/sc157_13.html). It is characterized by slower growth, is relatively resistant to immission load and de-icing salts. It is generally considered one of the most adaptable species in our climate (http://ohioline.osu.edu/sc157/sc157_13.html). For this reason is ginkgo subjected to review its response to various stress factors, particularly the response to water scarcity (Raček et al., 2009a). One of the potential secondary indicators of the reaction on dryness are changes in chlorophyll, which was confirmed in the experiments with seedlings of Pyrus pyraster Burgsd L. and Sorbus domestica L. Paganová (2008) and Paganová (2009), and at the seedlings of Acer davidii ssp. Grosseri Pax de Jong (Raček, 2009b). For herbaceous species were recorded similar results by Jureková et al. (2003) when examining Lycopersicum esculentum Mill. To confirm the changes in chlorophyll content is necessary for defining of the optimal development of chlorophyll content during ontogenesis of leaves and for detection of factors which influence synthesis. For that reason, was the goal of study to define and compare the time depended differentiation of chlorophyll content in the leaves of Ginkgo biloba L. seedlings by using destructive and non-destructive methods. Plant material was produced from seeds from parent plants growing in the park of Topoľčianky. It were oneyear old seedlings grown in plastic one-litter containers in a substrate TS 3 Standard (pH 5.5 to 6.0 + fertilizer 1 kg m-3) enriched by clay fraction (0–25 mm/m clay 20 kg m-3). At the beginning of June in the phenological stage of rapid shoot growth irrigation regime was induced. The level of soil substratum saturation was 70%. Substratum was irrigated three times a week. Irrigation regime was maintained for eighty five days. The sampling was made seven times per growing season. The first collection took place immediately after the induction of irrigation regime. The last sampling took place at the beginning of September after eighty five days of differentiated irrigation regime. Five seedlings were analysed for one analysis. Analysis of chlorophyll content in leaves was carried out according Šesták and Čatský (1966). For each analysis were used all leaves of the plant. Parallel was on the collected leaves measured chlorophyll content by chlorophylmeter Opti Science CMC-200th. Chlorophyll content was expressed by means of the CCI (Chlorophyll Content Index). Results were analyzed for one growing season. *Correspodence: Results and discussion The results obtained by destructive analysis were compared with those obtained by measuring with chlorophyllmeter Opti Science CMC-200th.The comparison Marcel Raček, Slovak University of Agriculture, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering, Department of Planting Design and Maintenance, Tulipánová 7, 949 76 Nitra, Slovakia, phone: +421/37/6415433, e-mail [email protected] Marcel Raček, Helena Lichtnerová, Jana Černá: Comparison of development of chlorophyll in the leaves of Ginkgo biloba L. using destructive ..., pp. 78–79 – 78 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering 25 mg.m -2 20 development of chlorophyll content in the leaves 15 10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 measurement Figure 1 Time depended development of chlorophyll content in the leaves of bilobadevelopment L. in mg m Time Ginkgo depended of chlorophyll content in the leaves of Ginkgo biloba L. in CCL -2 300 250 CCl Acknowledgement The research was supported by grant project VEGA 1/0246/13 Entitled „Water-use strategies of the xerophytic woody plants and perennials in urban conditions“ and was co-Funded by the European Community under project no 26220220180: Building Research Centre “Agro-Bio-Tech” References 350 development of chlorophyll content in the leaves 200 150 100 50 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 measurement Figure 2 results. By using chlorophyllmeter is in comparison with destructive methods possible to moderate measurement errors caused by the individual characteristics of plants. Time depended development of chlorophyll content in the leaves of Ginkgo biloba L. in CCI2 between the corrected curves (Figure 1 and Figure 2) confirmed the identical time differentiation of chlorophyll in the leaves of Ginkgo biloba L. seedlings during late spring and summer. When measured by chlorophyllmeter in comparison with destructive methods had a less pronounced deviation distance expressed by a polynomial curve of the measured values (Figure 1 and Figure 2). Chlorophyll content varied, depending on the course of the vegetation. Chlorophyll content peaked in mid-July. In the coming days and weeks there has been measured a decrease of chlorophyll content. Decrease in chlorophyll content was gradual and even up to the last measurement, which took place in mid-September. By using different methods for measuring the chlorophyll in the leaves was found that changes in chlorophyll content can be recorded relatively identically by both destructive and non-destructive methods. The advantage of using non-destructive methods is less of subjects needed for the analysis and elimination of errors caused by the individual characteristics of plants. Conclusions The results obtained suggest that the chlorophyll content in leaves of one-year seedlings of Ginkgo L. culminates around mid-July. In subsequent weeks was recorded a gradual decline in its content. Measurement also confirmed that the use of destructive methods by Šesták and Čatský (1966) and non-destructive measurements using chlorophyllmeter Opti th Science CMC-200 leads to identical http://ohioline.osu.edu/sc157/sc157_13. html JUREKOVÁ, Z. et al. 2003. Tvorba voľného prolínu v genotypoch rajčiaka jedlého (Lykopersicum esculentum. Mill.) stresovaných vodným stresom. In: Nové poznatky z genetiky a šľachtenia poľnohospodárskych rastlín. Piešťany : VÚRV, 2003. s. 63 – 65 PAGANOVÁ, V. et al. 2008. Vodným stresom indukované fyziologické reakcie semenáčikov hrušky planej (Pyrus pyraster L. Burgsd). In: Biotechnology. Scientific Pedagogical Publishing, 2008. ISBN 80-85645-58-0. PAGANOVÁ, V. et al. 2009. Physiological responses of service tree (Sorbus domestica L.) in conditions of the differentiated water regime. In: Acta horticulturae et Regio Tecturae, 2009, mimoriadne číslo, s. 31–33. ISSN 1335-2563. RAČEK, M. – LICHTNEROVÁ, H. – DRAGÚŇOVÁ, M. 2009a. Reakcie Ginkgo biloba L. na zmeny životných podmienok. In: Dendrologické dni v Arboréte Mlyňany SAV 2009. Nitra : SAV, 2009. s.186–189. ISBN 978-80-970254-4-1. RAČEK, M. – LICHTNEROVÁ, H. – DRAGÚŇOVÁ, M. 2009b. The Influence of Water Regimes on Indicators of Adaptability of the Acer davidii ssp. grosseri Pax de Jong. In: Acta horticulturae et Regio Tecturae, 2009, mimoriadne číslo, s. 37–38. ISSN 1335-2563. ŠESTÁK, J. – ČATSKÝ, J. 1966. Metody studia fotosyntetické produkce rostlin. Praha : Akademia, ČSAV, 1966, 393 s. Marcel Raček, Helena Lichtnerová, Jana Černá: Comparison of development of chlorophyll in the leaves of Ginkgo biloba L. using destructive ..., pp. 78–79 – 79 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering SITE EVALUATION AND TREE SELECTION FOR URBAN ENVIRONMENT Katarína ROVNÁ Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Slovakia Selecting the right tree for a particular place can avoid costly disappointments later. There is no one perfect tree for any situation. Urban trees provide a variety of “ecosystem services” or direct environmental benefits for people. The most successful approach is to select trees to match site conditions and limitations, based upon a thorough site assessment. Diversity is one key to a successful tree planting program. Over-planting of one species in an area can result in monocultures that encourage the build-up of insect populations and diseases that can destroy an entire planting. Keywords: urban trees, site evaluation, tree selection Introduction Close to 56 percent of the Slovak population lives in city areas and depends on the essential ecological, economic, and social benefits provided by urban trees and forests. Street is the first public space of the city. It should provide an opportunity for all and, if properly designed, can become an economic, social and environmental asset of the city (Sidorová a i., 2013). Site evaluation The basic way to begin a site evaluation is to walk around the town to find out which species grow well in landscapes with similar site attributes. It is important to keep in mind that no two sites are exactly alike. Various conditions affect the success of a particular tree species (Bakay, 2007; Bakay and Kollár, 2014; Bassuk et al., 2009; Sandifer and Givoni, 2002). Many authors described site evaluation as the first step in selecting proper trees for a planting site. It is important to consider above-ground and below-ground site attributes. Many times creators use to skip the site evaluation process, which explains why trees planted in urban areas do not so often prosper (Bakay and Kollár, 2014; Bakay and Paganová, 2013; Dirr, 1998). If there is no one perfect tree, it is because there is no one homogeneous urban environment or site. The urban environment is a conglomeration of soils, microclimates and other site conditions. All conditions can change dramatically in the very small space (http://www.galk. de/arbeitskreise/ak_stadtbaeume/webprojekte/sbliste/; Phillips, 2010). A comprehensive site assessment should occur which considers plant requirements such as climate and microclimate considerations (hardiness zone, *Correspodence: light conditions, heat, wind), soil factors (pH, texture, compaction levels, drainage characteristics, yearly salt application), above-ground limitations (wires, proximity to structures), and below-ground limitations (rooting space, utility issues). Only when there is a thorough understanding of the environmental variables at a potential planting site we will be able to make appropriate tree selections (Bakay and Paganová, 2013; Gilman and Sadowski, 2007). It is important to note that some trees are adaptable to a wide range of environmental conditions while others have a narrow range in which they will grow well. Trees in urban areas provide a number of benefits to the public. Besides their aesthetic value, they provide a number of tangible environmental benefits that often go unrecognized (Bassuk et al., 2009; Gilman and Sadowski, 2007; Phillips, 2010). Some of the benefits of urban trees: yy Trees improve the environment: yy reduce pollution (O3, NO2, SO2, CO2), yy improve air quality. yy Aesthetic value. yy Reduce topsoil erosion, improve water quality. yy Save energy. yy Reduction in storm water runoff and required infrastructure. yy Increases in private real estate market values. yy Urban trees are found to be the most important indicator of attractiveness in a community (Bassuk et al., 2009; Dirr, 1998; Gilman and Sadowski, 2007). How it works? Trees and vegetation help cool urban climates through shading and evapotranspiration. Leaves and branches Katarína Rovná, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering, Department of Planting Design and Maintenance, Tulipánová 7, Nitra, Slovakia, e-mail: [email protected] Katarína Rovná: Site evaluation and tree selection for urban environment, pp. 80–83 – 80 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering reduce the amount of solar radiation that reaches the area below the canopy of a tree or plant. The amount of sunlight transmitted through the canopy varies based on plant species (Gilman and Sadowski, 2007; Phillips, 2010). As an example of shading, American experts did multi-month study. They measured maximum surface temperature reductions ranging from 11–25 ºC for walls and roofs at two buildings (Akbari, Kurn and Hanford, 1997). Another study examined the effects of vines on wall temperatures and found reductions of up to 20 ºC (Sandifer and Givoni, 2002). A third study found that tree shading reduces the temperatures inside parked cars by about 25 ºC (Scot, Simpson and McPherson, 1999). Evapotranspiration cools the air by using heat from the air to evaporate water. To reduce the wind speed, trees and other large vegetation can also be use as windbreaks or wind shields. Urban trees and vegetation reduce air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. In addition to saving energy, the use of trees and vegetation as a mitigation strategy Material and methods For site evaluation we should note north arrow, soil factors as pH levels, texture (clayey, sandy, loamy), sunlight levels (full sun, partial sun, shade), visual assessment of trees (species, cultivar, size (height, width)) (Bassuk et al., 2009). Before selecting the tree it must be also evaluated location of overhead wires, underground utilities, buildings and pavement, as well as problem drainage areas. Results Selection of the most frequently used urban trees in the climatic conditions of Slovakia is shown in table 1. Characteristics show species and cultivar name, the width and height of trees, crown brightness, lighting requirements and brief comments. Crown brightness Lighting requirements Acer campestre ‘Elsrijk’ 6–12 (15) 4–6 middle –» –– straight continuous stem, growth in narrow and uniform, dense, compact crown 2 Acer platanoides ‘Cleveland’ 10–15 7–9 low –» –– such as the type, with oval, aged broad ovoid, compact and regular crown 3 Acer platanoides ‘Globosum’ to 6 5–8 low –» –– densely branched, closed ball crown, pay attention to gauge, hard frost, heat and drought tolerant, wind resistant and shade tolerant, suitable for pots and containers 4 Acer platanoides ‘Olmsted’ 10–12 (15) 2–3 low –» –– narrow, columnar; suited for tight spaces in exposed, dry air inside the village 5 Acer platanoides ‘Royal Red’ to 15 (20) 8–10 low –» –– leaves sprouting in red, then purpleblackred constant until the autumn, shiny, very hardy, tolerates heat, wind resistant 6 Acer pseudoplatanus ‘Erectum’ 15–20 (25) 6–8 low –» –– Such as the type, later grows stronger in the width 7 Acer pseudoplatanus ‘Leopoldii’ 12–20 12–20 low –» –– the leaves are sprouting yellowish or pink copper, later green with white or yellowish areas 8 Acer pseudoplatanus ‘Rotterdam’ 22–25 20–25 low –» –– such as the type, but columnar, frusto-conical crown when young, later broadly conical 9 Aesculus × carnea ‘Briotii‘ 10–15 8–12 low –» –– such as the type, but strong colored flower 10 Aesculus hippocastanum ‘Baumannii’ 15–28 15–20 (25) low –– such as the type, but longer and double flowered, no fruiting 11 Carpinus betulus ‘Fastigiata‘ 15–20 4–6 (10) low » –– columnar falling apart to conical and dense crown, at the age 12 Carpinus betulus ‘Frans Fontaine’ 10–15 4–6 low 13 Crataegus laevigata ‘Paul’s Scarlet’ 4–8 4–6 middle Comments Width 1 No. Height Assortment of recommended urban trees in the Slovak climate conditions Scientific name Table 1 can provide air quality and greenhouse gas benefits. Leaves remove various pollutants from the air. Trees and vegetation remove and store carbon. –– as Carpinus betulus ‘Fastigiata’, but columnar in age, crown in the youth does not fully close –– regular, broad-conical, aged more rounded crown with wide spreading lateral branches, straight central shoot Katarína Rovná: Site evaluation and tree selection for urban environment, pp. 80–83 – 81 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Crown brightness Lighting requirements 5–7 5–7 middle 15 Fraxinus excelsior ‘Atlas’ 15–20 10–15 strong –– such as the type, but more compact, narrower crown 16 Fraxinus excelsior ‘Nana’ 3–5 3–5 middle –– such as the type, but small and spherical, with densely branched crown, slow growing, note gauge, suitable for pots and containers 17 Fraxinus excelsior ‘Westhof’s Glorie’ 20–25 (30) 12–15 strong –– such as the type, but very late foliation, therefore hardly late frost, straight, continuous stem 18 Fraxinus ornus ‘Meczek’ 5–7 19 Ginkgo biloba ‘Fastigiata Blagon’ 15–20 4–6 strong –– narrowly conical, dioeciously, note the case of the fruit of the female insect, autumn color 20 Ginkgo biloba ‘Princeton Sentry’ 15–20 4–6 strong –– in youth slow-later, very regular and compact crown, acute upright aspiring, evenly branched branches, narrowly conical, pointed straight trunk 21 Gleditsia triacanthos f. inermis 10–25 8–15 (20) strong 22 Gleditsia triacanthos ‘Skyline’ 10–15 10–15 23 Gleditsia triacanthos ‘Sunburst’ 8–12 24 Malus ‘Evereste’ 25 3–4 middle Comments Width Crataegus × lavallei ‘Carrierei’ Scientific name 14 No. Height Continuation of Table 1 –– broad-conical shape, shoots with strong spines, longadhering, shiny leathery, dark green foliage, suitable for pots and containers –– small, spherical, very frugal, urban climates, pay attention to gauge, beautiful flower –– such as the type, but thorn less variety, in the later thorns can be made in individual cases, sensitive to frost as a young tree strong –– such as the type, but equally compact crown with distinguished branches, thorn less variety, in which can be made in individual cases subsequently thorns, is no fruit from 6–8 strong –– such as the type, but spineless, pale yellow bud, later green, pay attention to gauge 4–6 4–5 middle –– wide-upright crown, overhanging side branches, gauge note the age, small orange-red fruits, low flesh firmness, for tubs and containers suitable Malus ‘Red Sentinel‘ 4–5 3–4 middle –– note slender crown, deep overhanging side branches, gauge, dark red fruits, low flesh firmness, suitable for pots and containers 26 Malus ‘Rudolph’ 5–6 4–5 middle –– upright crown, broad-ovate to roundish, note gauge later, orange yellow fruits; low flesh firmness, tends to superficial cracks in the bark, suitable for pots and containers 27 Populus simonii 28 Prunus avium ‘Plena’ 10–15 29 Prunus sargentii ‘Accolade’ 30 middle –– narrowly conical, wide at the age and round, shortlived, snow breakage due to early bud 8–10 low –– such as the type, but regular pyramidal, dense, compact crown, double flowered, no fruits urban climates 5–8 3–5 middle –– roundish to slightly funnel-shaped crown, pay attention to gauge, attractive flowers and autumn color Prunus serrulata ‘Kanzan’, ‘Hisakura’ 7–12 4–8 middle –– wide funnel-shaped, later spreading crown, making sure gauge, attractive flowers and autumn color, rarely fruiting 31 Prunus subhirtella ‘Autumnalis’ 5–8 3–5 middle –– small tree suitable with striking blooms and fall color, pay attention to gauge, for pots and containers 32 Pyrus calleryana ‘Chanticleer’ 8–12 (15) 4–5 middle –– narrow conical crown, later loosely, broadly pyramidal, leaf fall after heavy frost (snow breakage), isolated fruiting, early senescence 33 Pyrus communis ‘Beech Hill’ 8–12 5–7 middle 12–15 6–8 (10) –– initially straight upright growing, later falling apart, fire risk from fire, some regions pear rust, fruiting Katarína Rovná: Site evaluation and tree selection for urban environment, pp. 80–83 – 82 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Comments Lighting requirements Crown brightness Width Height No. Scientific name The second Table 1 continued 34 Quercus robur ‘Fastigiata’ 15–20 5–7 low –– broadly conical crown, wide spreading, long-adherent, slowly rotting foliage, planting not before December, tolerates flooding, responds to lowering of ground water with tops drought, frost hardy 35 Robinia pseudoacacia ‘Bessoniana’ 20–25 10–12 strong –– aged broad rounded and densely branched crown, usually straight continuous main trunk, and only a few small spines, rarely flowering 36 Robinia pseudoacacia ‘Umbraculifera’ 4–6 4–6 low –– dense, tubby, more broadly oval, note gauge the age, can withstand radical pruning, no flower, suitable for pots and containers 37 Sorbus aria ‘Magnifica’ 8–10 4–7 middle –– such as the type, but smaller and narrower, wider with regularly constructed crown, at the age 38 Tilia cordata ‘Erecta’ 15–18 8–10 low –– such as the type, but slow growing small and regular crown, small leaves, as a young tree 39 Tilia cordata ‘Greenspire’ 18–20 10–12 low –– narrow, regular and dense crown, aged broad, branches ascending, urban climates 40 Tilia cordata ‘Rancho’ 8–10 5–6 low –– such as the type, but with narrow ovate, broadly rounded at the age, regular crown, slow and compact growth 41 Tilia cordata ‘Roelvo’ 12–15 8–12 low –– such as the type, but broadly conical to rounded crown, not so compact growing as ‘Rancho’ 42 Tilia tomentosa ‘Brabant’ 20–30 15–22 low –– broad conical crown dense and regular structure, selection with straight continuous strain Source: http://www.galk.de/arbeitskreise/ak_stadtbaeume/webprojekte/sbliste/; Dirr, 1998 and own research data Conclusion Urban trees are a various and valuable elements of the city’s infrastructure. The benefits of urban trees are often unnoticed. As was mentioned before they provide a number of valuable services for the public. The information in this paper has been collected from many sources. Among them are Dirr’s Hardy Trees and Shrubs by Dirr (1998) and GALK street tree list, query from 9. 21. 2014 workgroup city trees. Acknowledgement This paper is supported from KEGA 012SPU-4/2013 Program of the lifelong learning for arborists in Slovakia. References AKBARI, H. D. – KURN, S. B. – HANFORD, J. 1997. Peak power and cooling energy savings of shade trees. In. Energy and Buildings, vol. 25, 1997. no. 2, pp. 139–148. ISSN 0378-7788. BAKAY, L. 2007. Kritériá výberu drevín do “liečivých záhrad” In: Veda – vzdelávanie – prax : zborník z medzinárodnej vedeckej konferencie, 14.–15. november 2007, Nitra : UKF, 2007, s. 252– 256. ISBN 978-80-8094-205-2. BAKAY, L. – KOLLÁR, J. 2014. A mezei juhar kártevői NyugatSzlovákiában. In: Erdészeti lapok, vol. 149, 2014, no. 6, p. 209. ISSN 1215-0398. BAKAY, L. – PAGANOVÁ, V. 2013. Selection and utilization of non-traditional tree taxa for urban greenery. In: The walking urban forest, European forum on urban forestry, 2013, p. 118. BASSUK, N. – CURTIS, F. D. – MARRANCA, BZ. – NEAL, B. 2009. Recommended urban trees: Site assesment and tree selection for stress tolerance. Urban Horticulture Institute : Cornell University, 2009, 128 p. DIRR, A. M. 1998. Dirr’s Hardy Trees and Shrubs. Oregon : Timber press, 1998, 493 p. GILMAN, F. E. – SADOWSKI, P. L. 2007. Choosing suitable trees for urban and suburban sites: site evaluation and species selection. University of Florida : IFAS Extension. In: http://hort.ifas.ufl.edu/ woody/documents/EP310.pdf http://www.galk.de/arbeittskreise/ak_stadtbaeume/webpro jekte/sbliste/ PHILLIPS, D. 2010. Assessment of Ecosystem Services Provided by Urban Trees: Public Lands within the Urban Growth Boundary of Corvallis, Oregon (Technical report). In: http:// www.itreetools.org/resources/reports/Corvallis_Urban_Tree_ Assessment_Tech_Report.pdf SANDIFER, S. – GIVONI, B. 2002. Thermal Effects of Vines on Wall Temperatures – Comparing Laboratory and Field Collected Data. In SOLAR 2002, Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the American Solar Energy Society. Reno, NV, 2002. SIDOROVÁ, M. a i. 2013. Ulice – o strom více. 1. vyd. Praha : reSITE, 2013, s. 23. ISBN 978-80-260-4348-5. SCOTT, K. – SIMPSON, J. R. – McPHERSON, E. G. 1999. Effects of Tree Cover on Parking Lot Microclimate and Vehicle Emissions. In: Journal of Arboriculture, vol. 25, 1999, no. 3, pp. 129–142. Katarína Rovná: Site evaluation and tree selection for urban environment, pp. 80–83 – 83 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering ASSESSMENT OF POSSIBILITIES OF THE USE OF STRUCTURAL SOILS WITH ADDITION OF MUNICIPAL WASTE FOR PLANTING TREES AND SHRUBS Edward MELLER*, Ryszard MALINOWSKI, Adam SAMMEL, Marcin KUBUS, Andrzej ŁYSKO West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, Poland In municipal agglomerations is necessary create profitable the conditions for the growth of trees. In order to improve the conditions of the growth of trees, more and more frequently new technologies of arboriculture are used the stone-soil mixtures called structural soils. While preparing structural soils it is important to ensure, besides physical parameters, their adequate chemical composition. In the paper the use of poor in organic matter structural soils and compost of municipal waste was proposed for composing substrate for planting trees and shrubs. On basis of conducted analyses was affirmed, that the completion of structural soils is proposed with composts of municipal waste in an amount up to 5% of the weight was the most optimum. Such a share of composts guarantees an approximate to the required for this type of substrates share of the organic material. What is more, the applied composts enrich the structural soils with macro- and microelements accessible for the plants. Keywords: Introduction In municipal agglomerations, due to the tight built-up soil surface decreasing the inflow of precipitation water, the underground infrastructure limiting the surface of roots development, and the chemical contamination of environment, the conditions for the growth of trees are unfavourable (Łukaszkiewicz, 2008; Malinowska, 2012). In order to improve the conditions of the growth of trees, more and more frequently new technologies of arboriculture are used e.g. aeration and irrigation systems, elements of anti-compressive modules filled with the solum, and the stone-soil mixtures called structural soils. These systems ensure first of all the space for the development of the trees root system, and good water, air and chemical conditions in the soil (Bassuk and Trowbridge, 2004; Garczarczyk, 2008; Grabosky et al., 2005). While preparing structural soils it is important to ensure, besides physical parameters, their adequate chemical composition. To achieve adequate physicalchemical properties of the substrates it is purposeful to use the compost of waste which is very popular with consumers (Lewandowska, 1998). The aim of this paper was to show proportions of the chosen components for creating the substrate for planting trees and shrubs in urban agglomerations and degraded areas. Method In the paper the use of poor in organic matter structural soils and compost of municipal waste produced *Correspodence: in Gorzów Wlkp and Kołobrzeg was proposed for composing substrate for planting trees and shrubs. It was proposed to create substrate on the basis of the essential element – the structural soils with addition of compost in the following amounts: 1, 5, 10, 20 and 30% of the weight. An initial analysis of potential physical-chemical properties of such substrate was carried out basing on the fundamental features of the components. Results and discussion The paper shows the results of studies concerning the assessment of possibilities of the use of the structural soils with addition of the compost of municipal waste for planting trees and shrubs in urban agglomerations and degraded areas. In the study two structural soils by Tegra (Hydralit ZN and ZU) with addition of compost in the amounts of 1, 5, 10, 20 and 30% of the weight were proposed. The Hydralit ZN mixture is the mixed material that consists of 72% of gravel and 28% of earth of light loamy sands character. The soil skeleton is made up mainly of broken brick fragments, quartz and glaze resembling gravel (according to the producer it is lava), the task of which is stabilization of the structural soils (limitation of excessive compaction and regulation of water and air relations). The Hydralit ZU mixture consists of the soil skeleton (gravel) – 81% and fine earth of light loamy sand character which constitutes the remaining percentage of the structural soils. Moreover, this mixture contains the addition of a root activator, Radolix. Both mixtures are Edward Meller, West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, Department of Soil Science, Grassland and Environmental Chemistry, Słowackiego st. 17, 71-434 Szczecin, Poland, e-mail: edward. [email protected] Edward Meller et al.: Assesment of possibilities of the use of structural soils with addition of municipal waste for planting trees and shrubs, pp. 84–87 – 84 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Table 1 Essential physical-chemical parameters of components for creating substrates (structural soil and composts made from municipal waste in Gorzów Wlkp. and in Kołobrzeg) Component Organic substance pH KCl C org N total % g kg C:N P -1 K Mg Ca Na g kg -1 Compost from Kołobrzeg 39.54 7.44 212.6 16.69 12.7 2.99 3.82 2.88 39.71 3.17 Compost from Gorzów Wlkp. 39.47 7.63 203.6 9.51 21.4 2.34 6.33 27.1 3.34 4.15 Hydralit ZN 4.53 7.51 30.2 1.81 16.7 0.48 3.76 1.52 10.78 1.66 Hydralit ZU 2.02 7.74 12.6 0.72 17.5 0.31 3.18 1.44 12.51 1.06 Table 2 The content of heavy metals in components for creating substrates (structural soil and composts made from municipal waste in Gorzów Wlkp. and in Kołobrzeg) Fe Component Mn Zn Cu Pb Ni Co Cd mg kg -1 Compost from Kołobrzeg 7 623 194 567 134.7 93.7 28.79 3.89 1.92 Compost from Gorzów Wlkp. 11 420 407 1364 254.2 163.1* 57.32 6.08 3.14 Hydralit ZN 9 080 153 69 21.2 26.4 17.53 5.64 0.76 9 730 157 46 40.3 20.0 12.81 4.51 0.65 Mg Ca Na Hydralit ZU * exceeded standards in Regulation of the Minister of Agriculture and Rural Development (2008) Table 3 Component Essential physical-chemical parameters of the proposed substrates Organic substance pHKCl C org N total P % K g kg -1 The share of composts – 1% of the weight ZN + K 4.88 7.51 32.02 1.96 0.51 3.76 1.53 11.07 1.68 ZU + K 2.40 7.74 14.60 0.88 0.34 3.19 1.45 12.78 1.08 ZN + G 4.88 7.51 31.93 1.89 0.50 3.79 1.78 10.71 1.68 ZU + G 2.39 7.74 14.51 0.81 0.33 3.21 1.70 12.42 1.09 The share of composts – 5% of the weight ZN + K 6.28 7.51 39.32 2.55 0.61 3.76 1.59 12.23 1.74 ZU + K 3.90 7.73 22.60 1.52 0.44 3.21 1.51 13.87 1.17 ZN + G 6.28 7.52 38.87 2.20 0.57 3.89 2.80 10.41 1.78 ZU + G 3.89 7.73 22.15 1.16 0.41 3.34 2.72 12.05 1.21 ZN + K 8.03 7.50 48.44 3.30 0.73 3.77 1.66 13.67 1.81 ZU + K 5.77 7.71 32.60 2.32 0.58 3.24 1.58 15.23 1.27 The share of composts – 10% of the weight ZN + G 8.02 7.52 47.54 2.58 0.67 4.02 4.08 10.04 1.91 ZU + G 5.77 7.73 31.70 1.60 0.51 3.50 4.01 11.59 1.37 The share of composts – 20% of the weight ZN + K 11.53 7.50 66.68 4.79 98 3.77 1.79 16.57 1.96 ZU + K 9.52 7.68 52.60 3.91 0.85 3.31 1.73 17.95 1.48 ZN + G 11.52 7.53 64.88 3.35 0.85 4.27 6.64 9.29 2.16 ZU + G 9.51 7.72 50.80 2.48 0.72 3.81 6.57 10.68 1.68 1.93 19.46 2.11 The share of composts – 30% of the weight ZN + K 15.03 7.49 84.92 6.27 1.23 3.78 ZU + K 13.28 7.65 72.60 5.51 1.11 3.37 1.87 20.67 1.69 ZN + G 15.01 7.55 82.22 4.12 1.04 4.53 9.19 8.55 2.41 13.26 7.71 69.90 3.36 0.92 4.13 9.14 9.76 1.99 ZU + G ZN – Hydralit ZN; ZU Hydralit ZU; K – compost from Kołobrzeg G – compost from Gorzów Wlk Edward Meller et al.: Assesment of possibilities of the use of structural soils with addition of municipal waste for planting trees and shrubs, pp. 84–87 – 85 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering characterized by a very small amount of organic matter, alkaline reaction, very high or high content of available by plants forms of magnesium and potassium, and an medium or low content of phosphorus (Kubus et al., 2009; Malinowski et al., 2012). The characteristic feature of the composts made from municipal waste of Gorzów Wlkp. is their structure of earthy and brown colour (Meller et al., 2007a, b). Their dominating component (56.7% of the mass) is fine earth (∅ <1.0 mm). The remaining components are weakly processed organic particles (∅ >1.0 mm – 36.0 % of the weight) and ballast (mainly plastic and glass – 7.3% of the weight). The content of organic substance in these composts is very high (from 31.2 to 50.1%), and is approximate to values ascertained in similar composts (Meller et al., 2006). The content of some analyzed heavy metals in the studied composts exceeds allowable values Table 4 Component shown in Regulation of the Minister of Agriculture and Rural Development of 19 October 2008 (particularly those for cadmium, lead and nickel). Composts made from municipal waste in the composting plant in Kołobrzeg contain on average 48.8 % of fine earth (∅ <1.0 mm), weakly processed organic particles (∅ >1.0 mm – 7.4 % of the weight) and ballast (mainly glass and plastic – 43.8% of the weight). The content of organic substance in these composts (on average 39.5%) is approximate to its amounts in the composts made from municipal waste in the ZUO (Waste Utilization Plant) in Gorzów Wlkp. The amounts of macroelements in both proposed for use composts remain at a similar level. Composts made from municipal waste in the composting plant in Kołobrzeg do not exceed the content of heavy metals (Cd, Pb and Ni) determined in Regulations of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural The content of heavy metals in the proposed substrates Fe Mn Zn Cu Pb mg kg Ni Co Cd -1 The share of composts – 1% of the weight ZN + K 9 065 153 74 22.3 27.1 17.64 5.62 0.77 ZU + K 9 709 157 52 41.2 20.7 12.97 4.50 0.66 ZN + G 9 103 156 82 23.5 27.8 17.93 5.64 0.78 ZU + G 9 747 160 59 42.4 21.4 13.26 4.53 0.67 The share of composts – 5% of the weight ZN + K 9 007 155 94 26.9 29.8 18.09 5.55 0.82 ZU + K 9 625 159 72 45.0 23.7 13.61 4.48 0.71 ZN + G 9 197 166 134 32.9 33.2 19.52 5.66 0.88 ZU + G 9 815 170 112 51.0 27.2 15.04 4.59 0.77 The share of composts – 10% of the weight ZN + K 8 934 157 119 32.6 33.1 18.66 5.47 0.88 ZU + K 9 519 161 98 49.7 27.4 14.41 4.45 0.78 ZN + G 9 314 178 199 44.5 40.1 21.51 5.68 1.00 ZU + G 9 899 182 178 61.7 34.3 17.26 4.67 0.90 The share of composts – 20% of the weight ZN + K 8 789 161 169 43.9 39.9 19.78 5.29 0.99 ZU + K 9 309 164 150 59.2 34.7 16.01 4.39 0.90 ZN + G 9 548 204 328* 67.8 53.7 25.49 5.73 1.24 ZU + G 10 068 207 310* 83.1 48.6 21.71 4.82 1.15 20.91 5.12 1.11 The share of composts – 30% of the weight ZN + K 8 643 165 218 55.3 46.6 ZU + K 9 098 168 203 68.6 42.1 17.60 4.32 1.03 ZN + G 9 782 229 458* 91.1 67.4 29.47 5.77 1.47 ZU + G 10 237 232 442* 104.5 62.9 26.16 4.98 1.40 ZN – Hydralit ZN; ZU Hydralit ZU; K – compost from Kołobrzeg G – compost from Gorzów Wlk * exceeded standards in Regulation of the Minister of the Environment (2002) k Edward Meller et al.: Assesment of possibilities of the use of structural soils with addition of municipal waste for planting trees and shrubs, pp. 84–87 – 86 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Development of 18 June 2008 concerning some rules of the act on fertilizers and fertilizing. The addition of composts made from municipal waste resulted in an increase in the organic matter in substrates produced in this way (Table 3). Both components show alkaline reaction, thus different proportions of the used components do not affect significantly their reaction. An increasing percent share of the composts causes a proportional growth in the content of macro-elements. The proposed structural soils of Hydralit of the ZN and ZU type with 20% and 30% addition of composts made in Gorzów Wlkp. contain a norm exceeding amount of zinc (Regulation of the Minister of the Environment of 9 September 2002 on standards for soil quality and land quality standards). The remaining mixtures of Hydralit and composts do not exceed the allowable values defined in the regulation. The above described results show that the most optimal addition to both the structural soils of Hydralit ZN and ZU is a 5% share of composts of municipal waste. The presented theoretical assumptions should be verified in experiments. Conclusion For composing substrates for planting trees and shrubs in urban agglomerations on the basis of the carried out analysis, the completion of structural soils is proposed with composts of municipal waste produced in Gorzówie Wlkp. and in Kołobrzeg in an amount up to 5% of the weight. Such a share of composts guarantees an approximate to the required for this type of substrates share of the organic material. What is more, the applied composts enrich the structural soils with macro- and microelements accessible for the plants, and at the proposed rate the safe amounts of heavy metals in the substrate will not be exceeded. References BASSUK, N. – TROWBRIDGE, P. 2004. Trees in urban landscape: site assessment, design and installation. New Jersey : John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, 2004. GARCZARCZYK, M. 2008. The application of stone-soil mixture to planting street trees. Contemporary and historic greenery of towns and villages. From promenade to motorway – communication with nature. In: A. Greinert, M. E. Drozdek, Sulechów-Kalsk : ZKTZ IZiIR PWSZ, 2008, p. 232–238. GRABOSKY, J. – BASSUK, N. – TROWBRIDGE, P. 2005. Using CU-Structural Soil in the Urban Environment. Ithaca : Cornell University, 2005. KUBUS, M. – WOJCIESZCZUK, T. – MALINOWSKI, R. – MELLER, E. 2009. The assessment of the Tegra Hydralit stone-soil mixture applied to planting trees in urban areas. Degraded and reclaimed areas – possibilities of their development. In: S. Stankowski, K. Pacewicz. Szczeciński Oddział PTIE, Sobczyk : Wyd. P. P. H. Zapol Dmochowski, 2009, p. 101–110. LEWANDOWSKA, K. 1998. Composting – valuable material or burdensome side product? In: Przegląd komunalny, 1998, no. 12, p.105–107. ŁUKASZKIEWICZ, J. 2008. The influence of the conditions of urban environment on the increase and development of trees. Urban greenery, natural richness of a town, Street greenery. In: E. Oleksiejuk i A. Jankowskiej, Toruń 9–11 Października, 2008, p. 117–128. MALINOWSKA, K. 2012. Influence of urban factors on selected physiological parameters of some trees in Szczecin. Szczecin : West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, 2012, p. 120. MALINOWSKI, R. – KUBUS, M. – MELLER, E. – WOJCIESZCZUK, M. 2012. Physical parameters of stone-soil mixtures recommended for planting trees and shrubs in urban agglomerations and in degraded areas. Folia Pomeranae Universitatis Technologiae Stetinensis. In: Agricultura, Alimentaria, Piscaria et Zootechnica, vol. 295, 2012, no. 22, p. 29–34. MELLER, E. – NIEDŹWIECKI, E. – WOJCIESZCZUK, T. – MALINOWSKI, R. – STANKOWSKI, S. 2006. Charactristiics of composts produced in in the Plant of Recycling and Storing Municipal Waste. Municipal utilities management, Monograph. Red. Kazimierz Szymański, 2006, p. 101–109. MELLER, E. – SAMMEL, A. – SUCHENIA, M. 2007a. Morphological composition and fertilizing properties of composts made from organic fraction of municipal waste in the Waste Utilization Plant in Gorzów Wielkopolski. In: Zesz. Nauk. Uniw. Zielonogórs., Inż. Śr., vol. 13, 2007, no. 133, p. 311–318. MELLER, E. – NIEDŹWIECKI, E. – SUCHENIA, M. 2007b. The content of heavy metals in composts made from organic fraction of municipal waste in the Waste Utilization Plant in Gorzów Wielkopolski. In: Zesz. Nauk. Uniw. Zielonogórs., Inż. Śr., vol. 13, 2007, no. 133, p. 319–325. REGULATION of the Minister of the Environment of 9 September 2002 on standards for soil quality and land quality standards (Dz. U. nr 165, poz. 1359), 2002. REGULATION of the Minister of Agriculture and Rural Development of 18 June 2008 concerning some rules of the act on fertilizers and fertilizing (Dz. U. nr 119, poz. 765), 2008. Edward Meller et al.: Assesment of possibilities of the use of structural soils with addition of municipal waste for planting trees and shrubs, pp. 84–87 – 87 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE VISUAL METHOD OF HAZARD TREE ASSESSMENT (WID METHOD) IN THE MANAGEMENT OF URBAN TREES Edyta ROSŁON-SZERYŃSKA*, Piotr SIKORSKI, Ewa ZARAŚ-JANUSZKIEWICZ Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Warsaw, Poland This article aims at assessing the effectiveness of the WID method, developed in 2006 by Rosłon-Szeryńska, in the monitoring of urban trees. Although, the method has found its application in experts research, its development continues with verification of the established criteria. The performance aspects of the method verified so far are: the time consumed for an assessment and the repeatability of the results in varying seasons. A survey was conducted on 125 trees, growing by the Rozbrat street in Warsaw. The sample underwent two evaluations with the interval of 6 months (January, July). The attained data was put through a comparative analysis, investigating differences in the intensity of the analyzed tree characteristics, the hazard tree risk score and the time required for an assessment in winter and summer. On the basis of the results, effectiveness and repeatability of the WID method were determined. High consistency marked the score of the likelihood of breakage in the base of the trunk (96%) and in the fork (83%). Significant differences were observed in the evaluation of the likelihood of breakage in the crown (Chi2 = 0.001). The risk of an accident caused by hazard tree score was consistent throughout both surveys (from 49% for windthrows to almost 100% for breakage in the base of the trunk). Discrepancies in the results were caused by the lack or existence of foliage, the seasonal appearance of tree fungus and insects, and the snow cover in the root zone. The research was compared with the results of an inspection by the trees administrator, which declared three times more trees to be removed than the WID method would allow. Keywords: hazard tree, visual method, tree risk, tree assessment, urban trees Introduction Regular tree condition and hazard assessments are essential in preventing threats caused by tree failure and breakages. Tree risk assessment is a broad area of expertise which combines many disciplines. There is a large body of scientific literature about biomechanics, impact of the wind, soils, wood decay, and other topics that relate to tree risk assessment. Several internal defect detection technologies have been adapted for arboriculture and used to evaluate the risk of tree failure, for example: yy a static load test (pull test) (Wessolly and Erb, 1998), yy a single-path stress wave equipment (Fakopp Microsecond Timer), yy an acoustic tomography (Picus Sonic Tomograph), yy a resistance microdrill (IML Resistograph) and other. There are major gaps in research which are directly applicable to professional practice. There is no single piece of equipment which could provide a complete assessment. Commonly, in routine assessments of urban tree the visual methods are applied. The first methods of urban tree assessments were developed in the 70’s in Germany and the USA (Paine, 1973). The time consumed for a single tree assessment with visual method can vary greatly *Correspodence: (5 to 60 minutes) and depends on the specific method (Rosłon-Szeryńska, 2006). The methods so far developed can be placed in a threefold classification: 1. The methods of assessment of the tree stability, based on the laws of biomechanics (Mattheck and Breloer, 1994; Wessolly and Erb, 1998 and others). 2. The methods based on qualitative assessment of the exterior symptoms and structural defects which lead to tree failure (Siewniak and Kusche, 1996 and others). 3. The methods of risk assessment, including safety of people and property protection, popular in the USA (Robbins, 1986; Ellisson, 2005 and others). Though many methods have been developed, and some, like the VTA- method (Visual Tree Assessment), have gained international renown, it is still believed that there is not one ideal method which would consider all the possible occurrences of tree damage. The visual method of hazard tree assessment ‘WID’ by Rosłon-Szerynska (2006), was developed in Poland on the basis of a critical analysis of the European and American research between 1951 and 2005, as well as a close study of 261 cases of windfalls and windthrows in Masovia. Likewise the American methods, the WID method focuses on risk assessment. In the development of the method elements of the fault tree analysis (FTA) and event tree analysis (ETA) were used, which aim at Edyta Rosłon-Szeryńska, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Department of Landscape Architecture, ul. Nowoursynowska 159, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland, e-mail: edyta_roslon_szerynska(at)sggw.pl Edyta Rosłon-Szeryńska, Piotr Sikorski, Ewa Zaraś-Januszkiewicz: The effectiveness of the visual method of hazard tree assessment..., pp. 88–92 – 88 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering identifying specific relations between the causes and a combination of events which can result in creating a hazard situation and contribute to the damaging process itself. Due to the complex nature of the source of hazard, an additional logical modeling technique was established based on the compiled cases of tree damage and the concurrent symptoms/structural defects, tree shapes, as well as the characteristics of the habitat which contribute to windfalls and windthrows (RosłonSzeryńska, 2009, 2012). Up till 2014, the WID method has been used to evaluate over 1500 trees growing in the urban areas. The disadvantage of the method is the lack of time-efficiency in its application, therefore it is planned to develop programs which will support the summary of the data. The aim of this article is to assess the effectiveness of WID method in routine control of urban trees. Material and methods A number of performance aspects of the WID method was verified: the time consumed for an assessment and the results’ repeatability in varying seasons. A survey was carried out on 125 trees, among which 69% were of the Fraxinus pennsylvanica kind, 28% of the Fraxinus excelsior, and 3% of Carpinus betulus ‘Fastigiata’ growing by the Rozbrat street in Warsaw. This sample underwent two evaluations with the interval of 6 months. The first survey was performed in the dormant season, between 8th and 11th January, with the air temperature varying between -13 and 0 ° C. The second survey was performed in the period of tree vegetation (8th–11th July, 15–26 °C). In both assessments a questionnaire was used which comprised the evaluation of the following areas: tree silhouette, canopy, base of the trunk, the trunk, the branch structure of the crown, and the crown. With the application of a qualitative scale it was aimed to measure the intensity of defect symptoms, and the intensity of characteristics of the tree and of its vicinity. The scale was prepared in accordance with the criterion of the likelihood of tree failure (F) and applied to each of the five potential hazard events: windthrow (FW), breakage in the base of the trunk (FB), breaking of the trunk (FT), breakage in the fork (FF), breakage in the crown (FC). The assessment of each separate event was based on 5–6 individual criteria concerned with the tree silhouette (height, slenderness, crown’s force resistance, crown’s asymmetry, lean), characteristics of the species, the habitat, damages and structural defects (decay, cracks, open cavities, v-shaped forks and other). The final score of risk of an accident caused by a hazard tree (R) was based on four parameters: the likelihood of tree failure (F), the likelihood of consequences of an event (C), the exposure to threat (E), and the possibility of avoiding the consequences of the event (A). The risk of an accident (RF) assessment scale was standardized from scope of 1–100 pt to 0–10 pt. To finalize the evaluation, the results of WID assessment were compared with the an inspection carried out by the trees administrator (Department of Sanitation). The previous inspections of trees by Rozbrat street were conducted with the use of a subjective method of expert assessment similar to the one developed by Siewniak and Kusche (1996). Results and discussion In the surveyed sample defects were most often found in the tree trunk (bark tears, dead wood, cavities, discoloration and other symptoms of wood decay) and the crown (traces of cuts in the thick branches with symptoms of decay and cavities). The intensity of those defects seemed to vary with the seasons. In the first survey (winter) the trunk was assessed to have 3% less damage than in the second one. Moreover, almost 50% less trees showed medium intensity defects (covering 25–50% of the trunk). In the second survey (summer) almost 11% of the trees were affected by conks, whereas in the winter there were only few traces of the fungus presence. During the second survey it was possible to carry out a detailed examination of decay symptoms, such as sap runs, discoloration, presence of ants and the wood dust which indicated presence of other insects. The variation in the results was also noted in the case of crown’s force resistance. In the summer the percent of trees with a high crown shape parameter was considerably higher than in winter. There were also visible differences in the quantities of deadwood in the canopy. The summer survey presented actual amounts of deadwood spread, whereas the numbers in the winter survey were being over or understated, in fact, there were cases of providing different results for the same tree. An example can be provided by the tree nr 40, which initially was considered dead, but in the summer survey the deadwood appeared to spread only on 50–75% of the canopy. Tree groups with small and large quantities of deadwood presented most noticeable differences. The results of winter survey indicated that only 3% of trees have deadwood spreading on >50% crown’s surface, whereas the results of the summer survey showed that as much as 13% of the trees belongs in that group. The surveys also investigated the root system, which was evaluated through the analysis of the soil under the tree cover. Also in this case the rough winter weather conditions (snow) had a negative influence on the precision of the survey. The damage to the roots and cavities in the base of the trunk (often filled with snow and ice) seemed much more extensive than it was in reality. The snow cover, however, had its advantage in allowing for an accurate mapping of the district heating distribution lines, which was not possible in the summer survey. The parameters which were the most consistent Edyta Rosłon-Szeryńska, Piotr Sikorski, Ewa Zaraś-Januszkiewicz: The effectiveness of the visual method of hazard tree assessment..., pp. 88–92 – 89 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Figure 1 Tree assessment score distribution for RFC parameter – the risk of an accident in correlation to breakage in the crown FC [Chi2 = 0.001] throughout two surveys were: slenderness and height, which are easy to measure. Subsequently, the distribution structure of the data from both surveys was analyzed and compared using the parameters of the likelihood of tree failure (F) in correlation to five potential hazard events (breakage in the crown (FC); breakage in the fork (FF); windthrow (FW), breakage in the base of the trunk (FB), breaking of the trunk (FT)). Moreover, an assessment was made of potential risk of an accident caused by the damage to each of the five investigated areas (RF). The scores for F and RF parameters in correlation to breakage in the crown (FC) seem to vary, especially in the case of the former. In the investigated sample the trees with low and medium score of 0–3 pt are predominant. The structure of the sample in correspondence to the above mentioned factors has an asymmetrical rightward skewed distribution. Out of all trees 60% were classified as a group with medium risk of an accident, and 40% were assessed to have a low chance of breakage in the crown (0–1 pt). There were few instances of trees with score >5 pt, but not yet presenting extremely high levels of breakage risk (FC) which would allow for their removal. The risk of an accident (RF) is lower than the likelihood of an FC event. The assessment of RF in winter indicated that almost 82% of trees pose low or medium risk, whereas Figure 2 Tree assessment score distribution for FC parameter – the likelihood of breakage in the crown [Chi2 = 0.710] in the summer, only 52% were classified in those groups. The value of Chi2 for likelihood of crown breakage (FC) is 0.710, which means that the score distribution for winter and summer surveys overlaps in 71% (fig. 1). Whereas the score of the risk of accident (RFC) is inconsistent (Chi2 = 0.001), as a result of varying data for trees with full foliage and lack of foliage (fig. 2). The score for F and RF parameters in correlation to breakage in the fork (FF) also vary slightly. The first survey, covering the assessment of F parameter, indicated the predominance of trees with low and medium risk of an accident (1–4 pt). A couple percent of trees received >5 pt. Comparing the FF and RFF scores in varying seasons shows no statistically significant differences. The value of Chi2 for RFF is 0.798, and for FF – 0.828, which means that the data distribution of both surveys is close to identical, overlaps in 80% (fig. 3 and 4). The scores for F and RF parameters in correlation to windthrows (FW) show a right skewed distribution. The population of trees is predominated by low and medium risk groups. Result of the first survey show an 1.7 pt average risk of an accident caused by windthrow, whereas the average RF score of the second survey is at 1.34 pt. All of the analyzed criteria of tree assessment achieved higher scores in winter, indicating more hazard than in the summer. The comparative analysis of the data Figure 3 Tree assessment score distribution for RFF parameter – the risk of an accident in correlation to breakage in the fork [Chi2 = 0.798] Figure 4 Tree assessment score distribution for FF parameter – the likelihood of breakage in the fork [Chi2 = 0828] Edyta Rosłon-Szeryńska, Piotr Sikorski, Ewa Zaraś-Januszkiewicz: The effectiveness of the visual method of hazard tree assessment..., pp. 88–92 – 90 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Figure 5 Tree assessment score distribution for RFW parameter – the risk of an accident in correlation to windthrows [Chi2 = 0.493] distribution for both seasons shows 50% consistency. The value of Chi2 for FW is 0.496, and for RFW – 0.493 (fig. 5 and 6). The score for the F and RF parameters in correlation to breakage in base of the trunk (FB) remains close for both surveys. In the investigated sample there is a predominance of stable trees with very low risk of breakage (0–1 pt). Out of the whole sample 6% showed high risk of breakage, and 3% was extremely likely to fail (7.30–10 pt), and as such could be removed if the minimizing risk measures were unsuccessful. Comparing Figure 6 Tree assessment score distribution for FW parameter – the likelihood of windthrow occurrence [Chi2 = 0.496] the score distribution for winter and summer surveys shows a consistency of 95–99%. The value of Chi2 for FB is 0.959, and for RFB – 0.996 (fig. 7 and 8). The score for the F and RF parameters in correlation to breaking of the trunk (FT) shows a slight discrepancy between the first and second survey. This is caused by the difference in severity of accident consequences, which corresponds to the weight of the part of the tree that can potentially cause the accident. Trees classified in the high and significant risk group make up 17% of the whole sample. Within that group 2% is of high risk and 1% of Figure 7 Tree assessment score distribution for RFB parameter – the risk of an accident in correlation to breakage in the base of the trunk [Chi2 = 0.996] Figure 8 Figure 9 Tree assessment score distribution for RFT parameter – the risk of an accident in correlation to breakage in the trunk [Chi2 = 0.585] Figure 10 Tree assessment score distribution for FT parameter – the likelihood of breakage in the trunk [Chi2 = 0.559] Edyta Rosłon-Szeryńska, Piotr Sikorski, Ewa Zaraś-Januszkiewicz: The effectiveness of the visual method of hazard tree assessment..., pp. 88–92 – 91 – Tree assessment score distribution for FB parameter – the likelihood of breakage in the base of the trunk [Chi2 = 0.959] Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering extremely high risk, thus their removal can be allowed if other measures of safety improvement fail. Comparing the score distribution of winter and summer seasons shows a consistency of 56–59%. The value of Chi2 for FT is 0.559, and for RFT – 0585 (fig. 9 and 10). Finally, the time and results of the surveys were compared with an inspection carried out by the trees administrator. Inspectors of the Department of Sanitation merely assessed the trees with severe damages, and as a result of their evaluation 31 trees were declared to be removed. The avarage time spend on a single tree assessment was about 3 minutes. With the WID method it was assessed that removal of 8 out of the 31 trees could be avoided should other threat minimizing methods be used. The average time spend on a single tree assessment was about 10 minutes, to which the time spend on analyzing the data should be added. Conclusion Despite the minor differences in the data of winter and summer surveyes, the Chi-square test based on the score distribution proved high repeatability of the results: 49–100% for the R parameter (risk of an accident) and 50–96% for the F parameter (the likelihood of tree failure). The likelihood of breakage in the crown was the only exeption from the above (Chi2 = 0.001). High consitency of the results was observed especially in correlation to breakage at the base of the trunk (95–100%) and breakage in the fork (80–83%). The tree characteristics consistent for both surveys were: slenderness and height of the tree, which are easy to assess. The over or understated results of the winter survey resulted from the presence of snow cover which interfered with accurate assessment of the tree trunks and the soil under the canopy. The snow cover had the advange of allowing a precise mapping of the district heating distribution lines. The summer survey enabled a more precise observation and analysis of wood decay symptoms, such as sap runs, discoloration, presence of ants and the wood dust which indicates the presence of other insects. The differences in results of the surveys were also apparent in the assessment of the quantity of deadwood and crown’s force resistance, which are easily misjudged in the winter due to lack of foliage. Worth mentioning is the lower score for risk of accidents caused by hazard trees (RF) in comparison to the the likelihood of tree failure (F), which is a result of WID specific parameter – the possibility of minimizing risk of an accident (specific to WID method). This encourages the assessor to evaluate all possible measures of safety improvement and increases the chances of avoiding of the unnecessary removal. The WID method by Rosłon-Szeryńska is extremely precise (more in the summer). It focuses on a particular event which is of the highest risk and hazard to safety of people and property. The method stands out among other developed so far as it allows to spot the risk sooner and subsequently save a larger number of trees. The inspections carried out with other methods, so far assessed three times more trees to be removed than the WID method would allow. The disadvantage of the method is the lack of time-efficiency in its application (due to comprehensive data processing), which is hoped to be improved with the help of computer programs. References ELLISON, M. J. 2005. Quantified tree risk assessment used in the management of amenity trees. In: Journal of Arboriculture, vol. 31, 2005, no. 2, p. 57–65 MATTHECK, C. – BRELOER, H. 1994. The body language of trees, a handbook for failure analysis. London : Her Majesty’s Stationary Office. 240 p. ISBN 0-11-752867-0. PAINE, L. 1971. Accident hazard: Evaluation and control decisions on forested recreation sites. 1971, US For. Serv. Res. Pap. Pacif. Sthwest. For. Range Exp. Sta. No. PSW-68, 1971, pp. 11. ROBBINS, K. 1986. How to recognize and reduce tree hazards in recreation sites. USFS, Northeast Area, 1986, pp. 28. NA-FR-31 ROSŁON-SZERYŃSKA E. 2006. Opracowanie metody oceny zagrożenia powodowanego przez drzewa o osłabionej statyce. Maszynopis, Warszawie : Biblioteka SGGW, 2006, p. 267. ROSŁON-SZERYŃSKA, E. 2009. Using logic diagrams to determine a method for evaluation of probability of tree fall or break. In: Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, 2009, no. 30, p. 173–181. ROSŁON-SZERYŃSKA, E. 2012. Ocena zagrożenia bezpieczeństwa ludzi i mienia powodowanego przez drzewa o osłabionej statyce. Uprawa i Ochrona Drzew nr 27, Kluczbork : Międzynarodowe Towarzystwo Uprawy i Ochrony Drzew, 2012, p. 90 SIEWNIAK, M. – KUSCHE, D. 1996. Baumpflege heute. Berlin, Hannover : Platzer Verlag, 1996, 320 pp. WESSOLLY, L. – ERB M. 1998. Handbuch der Baumstatik und Baumkontrolle. Berlin : Platzer Verlag, 1998, pp. 270. ISBN 3876170931. Edyta Rosłon-Szeryńska, Piotr Sikorski, Ewa Zaraś-Januszkiewicz: The effectiveness of the visual method of hazard tree assessment..., pp. 88–92 – 92 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering GROWTH AND PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON HUNGARIAN ND FOREIGN LINDEN VARIETIES Endre Gy. TÓTH, Máté VÉRTESY, Magdolna Sütöriné DIÓSZEGI, Lajos MAGYAR, Márk STEINER, Károly HROTKÓ* Corvinus University of Budapest, Hungary In Central Hungary at Department of Floriculture and Dendrology, Corvinus University of Budapest Faculty of Horticultural Science in December 2009, using multiple Tilia taxa an alley was planted with the aim of comparison of new cultivars occurring in Hungarian nurseries. The climate is typical of the central Hungarian flatland; yearly average temperature is 11.3 °C, total sunshine is 2079 hours per year, and precipitation is 560 mm per year. The soil type is light sandy, lime content is around 2.5 %, soil organic matter is low (0.8–0.9 %), pH is 7.7–8.1. The Tilia taxa are as follows: Tilia americana ’Redmond‘, Tilia cordata ’Greenspire‘, ’Savaria‘, Tilia platyphyllos ’Favorit‘ Tilia tomentosa ’Szeleste‘, ’Zentai Ezüst‘. Comparative evaluation is planned primarily for their site adaptability and stress-tolerance. For the cultivar evaluation we plan to carry out detailed investigations on phenology (date of sprouting, sprouting dynamics, bloom dynamics, leaves drying, coloration of the leaves at the beginning of autumn, leaf fall) and trunk diameter. We also measured the yearly height growth of the selected cultivars. The aim of the research is the selection of the most tolerant taxa. Keywords: Tilia cultivars, phenology, stress tolerance, tolerance to urban conditions, adaptive strategies Introduction Material and methods The importance of the urban trees is increasing because of their environmental benefits: shade, improved microclimate, dust and other pollutants deposition, CO2 fixation, O2 and vapor release. These benefits can be expected only from well-developed healthy trees, adapted well to site and climate. The global climate change resulted larger extremities in climatic conditions, especially in urban climate. Linden trees are hardy and well adopted to Hungarian climate (Krüssmann, 1986; Retkes and Tóth, 2005; Tóth and Schmidt, 2006; Schmidt, 2008). Tilia taxa are popular in Hungary and are widely planted as urban trees. Moreover, several new cultivars are introduced by nurseries from different origin (Ifju, 2009; Barabits, 2010; Izer, 2010). Thus it is an urging task to evaluate their adaptability to our climate and soil condition as well as testing their urban tolerance. As the aim of these studies, the Department of Floriculture and Dendrology, Corvinus University of Budapest in Soroksár Experimental Farm in early December 2009 using multiple taxa a Tilia alley was planted. After planting we have started detailed measurements on trunk diameter growth and height growth besides phenology, such as date of sprouting, sprouting dynamics, bloom dynamics, leaf drying, coloration of the leaves at the beginning of autumn and leaf fall. This paper presents the first results on phenological observations from early 2011 until 2014. In Central Hungary at the experimental farm of Corvinus University of Budapest Faculty of Horticultural Science in December 2009, using multiple Tilia taxa an alley was planted with the aim of comparison of new cultivars occurred in Hungarian nurseries. The orientation of the alley is N – S, the location is: N 47° 22’, E 19° 09’, elevation above sea level 103 m. The climate is typical of the central Hungarian flatland; yearly average temperature is 11.3 °C, total sunshine is 2079 hours per year, and precipitation is 560 mm per year. The soil type is light sandy, lime content is around 2.5 %, soil organic matter is low (0.8–0.9 %), pH is 7.7–8.1. The trees were planted with 12/14 cm trunk circumference size in autumn 2009. In this research 48 trees were evaluated, 8 from each cultivar. Trunk circumference has been measured each spring from 2010 to 2014. Measurement of height growth was carried out in 2013, early spring and late autumn. Phenological studies (sprouting dynamics, blossom dynamics, growth, fruit formation, leaf fall) in 2011 and 2013 were carried out by rating. The observations were continued on a weekly basis. The day of the main phases were indicated (Day of the Year – DOY) based on the results of the rating. Quantity of fruit formation was rated as 1 = there were maximum one or two fruits on shoots; 2 = there were more than two fruits on each shoots; 3 = two or more fruits were found in each nodes. The data was evaluated using Microsoft Excel software. One-way analysis of *Correspodence: Károly Hrotkó, Corvinus University of Budapest, Faculty of Horticultural Science Department of Floriculture and Dendrology, 1118 Budapest, Villányi út 29-43, phone: +36 1/482-6271, Hungary, e-mail: [email protected] Endre Gy. Tóth et al.: Growth and phenological observations on hungarian ND foreign linden varieties, pp. 93–95 – 93 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering variance (ANOVA) was carried out in SPSS 18 (PASW 18) to see significant differences between the cultivars. Short description of the investigated Tilia taxa, in alphabetical order: yy Tilia americana ’Redmond‘: Conical canopy, dense and compact growth. Young shoots are red. The leaves of T. a. ‘Redmond’ are slightly lighter green than the leaves on T. a. ‘Nova’ (Ifju, 2009–2010, Krüssmann, 1986; Schmidt and Tóth, 2006). yy Tilia cordata ’Greenspire‘: Straight trunk, 15–20 m high tree. Regular cone-shaped crown. Leaves are rounded and 6–10 cm in size, shiny dark green (Izer, 2010–2011; Krüssmann, 1986; Retkes and Tóth, 2005; Tóth and Schmidt, 2006). yy Tilia cordata ’Savaria‘: Hungarian selection. Conical canopy. The tip of young shoots slightly reddish, later turns brownish red. Characterized by many fragrant flowers (Izer, 2010–2011; Retkes and Tóth, 2005; Tóth and Schmidt, 2006). yy Tilia platyphyllos ’Favorit‘: Hungarian selection. 10 to 15 meters high, medium growth vigor, tall slender tree. Autumn leaves are yellowish (Schmidt, 2008). yy Tilia tomentosa ’Szeleste‘: Old Hungarian selection. A vigorous growing variety, narrow oval, then expanded tree canopy, 20–25 m height. Young branches are greenish gray. The leaves are more or less rounded (Izer, 2010–2011; Retkes and Tóth, 2005; Tóth and Schmidt, 2006). yy Tilia tomentosa ’Zentai Ezüst‘: Hungarian selection. In the first years very slender with conical canopy, later columnar shaped variety. Conspicuously silvery leaves, tolerates polluted environment (Young, 2009–2010; Retkes and Tóth, 2005; Schmidt and Tóth, 2006). Results and discussion Figure 1 Trunk growth of linden trees between 2010 and 2014 Figure 2 Height growth of linden cultivars in 2013 Based on the results of the past five years, the largest trunk circumference gain was observed on T. tomentosa cultivars. T. cordata varieties and T. Americana ‘Redmond’ showed only modest growth. The less increase was observed on the T. platyphyllos ’Favorit‘ variety. Fig. 1 shows the total growth of the linden cultivars trunk circumference. Similar results were obtained with height growth (Fig. 2) in 2013. The biggest increase in this case is shown by T. tomentosa varieties. The smallest increase was observed on T. cordata ’Greenspire‘ cultivar. According to Krüssmann (1986) and Tóth and Schmidt (2006) Tilia cordata grows relatively slowly but Tilia cordata ‘Greenspire’ variety grows Table 1 Phenological stages of linden cultivars in 2011, based on the DOY T. a. ‘Redmond’ T. c. ‘Greenspire’ T. c. ‘Savaria’ T. p. ‘Favorit’ T. t. ‘Szeleste’ T. t. ‘Zentai Ezüst’ 105 97 95 95 112 119 111 105 107 148 161 no Flowers 150 168 168 314 307 307 314 314 314 Elongated stage of buds with closed scales 93 100 Fully spread leaf 106 Opening stage of flowers Complete leaf fall Endre Gy. Tóth et al.: Growth and phenological observations on hungarian ND foreign linden varieties, pp. 93–95 – 94 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Table 2 Phenological stages of linden cultivars in 2013, based on the DOY T. a. ‘Redmond’ T. c. ‘Greenspire’ T. c. ‘Savaria’ T. p. ‘Favorit’ T. t. ‘Szeleste’ T. t. ‘Zentai Ezüst’ Elongated stage of buds with closed scales 99 108 110 105 98 105 Fully spread leaf 114 115 119 114 114 115 Opening stage of flowers 154 160 165 146 165 165 Complete leaf fall 304 297 297 304 304 304 modern instruments. The differences between domestic selected varieties and adaptation features are visible on the current results. Domestic environmental conditions differ from the other countries so the species performance can be specific. Although we cannot draw a final conclusion about the past few year’s data, the species which were bred to the domestic conditions, seemingly better adapted to the local site and climatic conditions, therefore their use can be recommended. Figure 4 Fruit formation of linden varieties in 2011 and 2013 fast. This deviation can be an effect of the growing site. The particular phenological stages are showed in Table 1 and 2. Based on two years results of sprouting dynamics strong tendencies cannot be found. Although in both years T. americana ’Redmond‘ and T. tomentosa ’Szeleste‘ varieties sprouted first. The latest budburst was observed on Tilia cordata ’Savaria’ variety. The sprouting process was the fastest in case of Tilia cordata ’Greenspire’. The last stage of the budburst was observed in both year on Tilia americana ’Redmond’ and Tilia platyphyllos ’Favorit’ cultivars firstly. Tilia cordata ’Greenspire’ was sprout a week later and Tilia tomentosa cultivars came afterwards. The blossom of the investigated cultivars reached over 20 days in both years, starting with Tilia americana ‘Redmond’ and T. platyphyllos ‘Favorit’, followed by T. cordata cultivars. Both T. tomentosa cultivars opened flowers as last of all cultivars. Tilia cordata ’Savaria’ was not flourished in the year of 2011. The sequence for flowering of Tilia platyphyllos, Tilia cordata and Tilia tomentosa cultivars is coinciding with details written by Tóth and Schmidt (2006) and Tóth (2012) but according to these sources Tilia americana cultivars are flowering in the same time as Tilia tomentosa. The autumn leaf fall completed for the two Tilia cordata cultivars at the earliest, the other varieties a week later. Fig. 3 shows that in both years Tilia americana ’Redmond’ and Tilia platyphyllos ’Favorit’ cultivars produced the most fruits. Furthermore in 2011 Tilia tomentosa ’Szeleste’ also produced a significant amount. In the other cases the amount of fruits on the trees was significantly less. In the year of 2011 on Tilia cordata ’Favorit’ trees were no fruit formation (No Fruit – NF). The evaluation of linden tree varieties is an important research area, and we plan to continue the research. We intend to repeat the phenological observations with additional evaluation of leaf surface, leaf canopy measurements using Acknowledgement Our research was supported by TÁMOP-4-2.1.B-09/1/KMR-2010-0005 project and by Hungarian Scientific Research Funds OTKA 109361. References BARABITS, E. 2010–2011. Alsótekeresi Faiskola Kft. Faiskolai árjegyzék. Enying. IZER, G. 2010–2011. Prenor Kertészeti és Parképítő Kft. Díszfaiskolai árjegyzék. Szombathely. IFJU, Z. 2009–2010. Tahi Faiskola Kft. Faiskolai árjegyzék. Botanika Kft. Leányfalu. KÁRPÁTI, Z. 1968. Kertészeti növénytan. Budapest : Mezőgazdasági Kiadó, 1968. KRÜSSMANN, G. 1986. Manual of cultivated broad-leaved trees and shrubs. Oregon : Timber Press, 1986. RETKES, J. – TÓTH, I. 2005. Lombos fák, cserjék. Budapest : Botanika Kft, 2005. SCHMIDT, G. 2008. Tanulmány, 3. sz. részfeladat, Magyar Dísznövények Gondnoksága: Specifikus fajták meghatározása és kiválasztása: http:// www.magyardisznoveny.hu/magyar/hirek/ tanulmanyok/25/19/25/25/1/1 SCHMIDT, G. – TÓTH I. 2006. Kertészeti dendrológia. Budapest : Mezőgazda Kiadó, 2006. TÓTH, I. 1969. Díszfák, díszcserjék. Mezőgazdasági Kiadó : Budapest, 1969. TÓTH, I. 2012. Lomblevelű díszfák, díszcserjék. Tarkavirág Kereskedelmi és Szolgátató Kft. Dunaharaszti. Endre Gy. Tóth et al.: Growth and phenological observations on hungarian ND foreign linden varieties, pp. 93–95 – 95 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering METHODOLOGY OF CLIPPED WOODY VEGETATION ELEMENTS ASSESSMENT Michaela SPĚVÁČKOVÁ*, Lukáš ŠTEFL, Miloš PEJCHAL Mendel University in Brno, Czech Republic Clipped woody vegetation elements are an integral part of most historical gardens and parks and they play a significant role in the modern garden and landscape architecture. Given their importance, it is necessary to develop tools for understanding their real state. The aim of this paper is to present the complex methodology of assessment of clipped woody vegetation elements in objects of garden and landscape architecture. This methodology is a tool you can use to determine the current qualitative state and potential of these objects. Subsequent evaluation of observed facts allows you to suggest adequate tree care and regeneration measures. This methodology is fully applicable also when mutually comparing objects or evaluating changes of individual objects over time. Results obtained using this methodology may serve as a basis for the design of adequate tree care and regeneration measures in practice. This methodology may be also used for a deeper understanding of individual factors that are involved in the resulting quality of clipped woody vegetation elements. Keywords: clipped woody plant, assessment methodology, current state, quality, potential Introduction Clipped woody vegetation element (hereinafter referred to as CWVE) is defined as an element of artificial compositional characteristics for a given taxon and site. Its habitus as well as variability are specific because of periodically repeated clipping, pinching or leading of shoots or even removing buds (Pejchal and Šimek, 2012a). Using of CWVEs is an integral part of garden and landscape design in almost all its development stages. CWVEs have become a major compositional element as early as during the Renaissance and Baroque periods and still are an integral part of most historical gardens and parks. They have a significant importance in contemporary creation, too. A significant portion of CWVEs begin to die or are in a poor condition. It is therefore necessary to have a tool that would point to their current qualitative state and potential. One of the last publications in the Czech Republic on assessment of CWVEs is Methodology of woody species assessment for the purposes of historic preservation (Pejchal and Šimek, 2012a), from which I partially proceeded when creating the methodology presented in this paper. Earlier paper (Šonský, 1987) addresses this issue only partially because it mainly focuses on suitability of taxa for clipped hedges. Foreign publication Kendal et al. (2008) deals with the evaluation of selected woody plant taxa used for creation of clipped hedges from different perspectives of the climatic conditions of Australia. Inspiring approaches may be methodologies of assessment of unclipped taxa applicable for clipping in terms of the growth quality, survival quality and *Correspodence: aesthetic quality exposed to various landscape exposure (Le Duc, 2000), in terms of the influence of light to both quantitative and qualitative characteristics (Taheri and Abdinejad, 2011); or studies investigating the effects of different light intensity on the physiological and morphological change (De Jong et al., 2012; Letts et al., 2012). The aim of this paper is to present the current methodology of assessment of CWVEs in objects of garden and landscape architecture. Material and methods Development of this methodology of CWVE assessment carried out in several steps: a)First were identified and studied historical as well as contemporary sources or methodologies of assessment of a given issue. b) By means of adoption, modification and supplementing several sources (Pejchal, 2008; Pejchal and Šimek, 2012b; Burian, 2013) it was worked out this methodology proposal. c) Using this methodology, there has been assessed 2524 pcs of CWVEs with total clipped area of 261 195 m² in 21 important historical objects in the Czech Republic. d)Experiences gained in field evaluation of CWVEs were incorporated into the current form of methodology of clipped woody elements assessment. Results and discussion The methodology of clipped woody elements assessment is a set of several groups of attributes that are necessary Michaela Spěváčková, Mendel University in Brno, Faculty of Horticulture, Department of Planting Design and Maintenance, Valtická 337, 691 44 Lednice, Czech Republic, e-mail: xspevack@node. mendelu.cz Michaela Spěváčková, Lukáš Štefl, Miloš Pejchal: Methodology of clipped woody vegetation elements assessment, pp. 96–99 – 96 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering to determine the current qualitative state of CWVEs and their potential. Overview of attribute groups with their further characterization or division is described in Table 1. Attributes that need to be characterized extensively are described in text below the table. Further characteristics of attributes from Table 1: a)Character yy Point – one individual or CWVE compound of more individuals with common cover whose height is equal to the width or exceeds it. The length is usually equal to the width or is not significantly higher. Table 1 Overview of attribute groups of methodology of CWVE assessment Attribute group Attribute Object Serial number Identification data –– continuous numerical series Type –– part of the text (see b) Taxon –– genus, species, intraspecific unit (in case of multispecies CWVE give all the present taxa and their percentage composition) Height –– total height of CWVE from base to peak; measured in places of the last cut Length –– in case of linear CWVEs, length is measured from the beginning to the end; in case of point and surface CWVEs, length is determined by the distance of two parallel tangents touching the opposite of outermost points of the CWVE; measured in places of the last cut Width –– in case of linear CWVEs, width is measured: (a) in base of CWVE, (b) peak of CWVE; in case of point and surface CWVEs, width is measured at their widest parts perpendicular to the longitudinal axis; measured in places of the last cut Shading Unclipped parts of cover –– the average distance from each individual plant –– part of the text (see c) –– expressed in % of unclipped part of the cover: (a) on the sides, (b) on the upper side Clipped area of cover –– in m² (calculated from mensurational data) Development stage –– categories: (a) newly planted individuals, (b) rooted individuals, (c) stabilized maturing individuals, (d) mature individuals, (e) old individuals; in the sense of PEJCHAL, ŠIMEK (2012b) Horizontal canopy –– part of the text (see d) Vertical canopy Qualitative data –– place of assessment –– part of the text (see a) Planting distance Descriptive data Detailed characterization of attributes Character Mensurational data –– part of the text (see e) Physiological vitality –– categories: (a) optimal, (b) slightly reduced, (c) moderately reduced, (d) strongly reduced, (e) very strongly reduced; in the sense of PEJCHAL, ŠIMEK (2012a) Biomechanical vitality –– categories: (a) optimal, (b) slightly reduced, (c) moderately reduced, (d) strongly reduced, (e) very strongly reduced; in the sense of PEJCHAL, ŠIMEK (2012a) Growing state –– (a) clipping technique, (b) weed infestation, (c) maintaining the desired shape; mentioned specific characteristics evaluated separately on a scale: optimal / satisfactory / unsatisfactory Landscaping value Other data yy Linear – CWVE compound of more individuals, clearly (at least twice) longer than wide and the height is equal to the width or exceeds it. Either without common cover (usually a line of point objects – see below – which do not touch each other) or with common cover (e.g. hedge or wall). yy Surface – CWVE compound of more individuals, at least twice wider than taller; this width to height ratio can be even greater in case of elements whose length is a multiple of the width. Either without common cover (e.g. grid of point objects) or with comon cover (e.g. green architecture). Note –– part of the text (see f ) –– any other additional information on CWVE Michaela Spěváčková, Lukáš Štefl, Miloš Pejchal: Methodology of clipped woody vegetation elements assessment, pp. 96–99 – 97 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering b)Type yy Point – point elements, depicted as basic or compound geometric shapes, figural forms, stylized trees etc. Applied as solitaires (point character) or as part of a lineaer or surface elements without a common cover. yy Surface cover – low CWVE of a surface character whose height does not form an optical barrier. yy Hems, small hedge – CWVE of a linear character to a height of 0.5 m. yy Low hedge – CWVE of a linear character with a height from 0.5 to 1 m. yy Medium-high hedge – CWVE of a linear character with a height from 1 to 3 m. yy High hedge, wall – CWVE of a linear character higher than 3 m. yy Green architecture – CWVEs of a point, linear or surface character that are by the way of their use similar to some (building) elements of architecture and may have a construction, e.g. arches, gates, arbour, “green” chambers, colonnades etc. yy Other objects – cannot be classified into the above. c)Shading – five-pont scale based on the shadow depth and length of the shading of CWVE during the day. When combining the following properties of a shadow among categories, the evaluator will be inclined to the degree that is more characteristic for a shadow. yy Very low – moderate shadow, CWVE is shaded only a few hours of daylight. yy Low – moderate to medium deep shadow, CWVE is influenced by the so called “wandering shadow”. yy Medium – medium deep shadow, CWVE is shaded for one third of the daylight. yy High – medium deep to deep shadow, CWVE is shaded for most of the daylight. yy Very high – deep shadow; CWVE is shaded throughout the daylight. d)Horizontal canopy – closing of upper part of CWVE layer. For technical reasons it is evaluated only for elements to the height of circa 1.5 m. e) Vertical canopy – when evaluating, CWVE is divided into quadrants according to cardinal directions (N, S, E, W), vertical canopy in each quadrant of the cardinal direction is then evaluated separately in three zones – lower third (zone 3), medium third (zone 2) and upper third (zone 1). For evaluation of both canopies applies the following scale: yy Very high – covered at least 95 % of the CWVE surface. yy High – covered at least 90 % of the CWVE surface. yy Medium – covered at least 80 % of the CWVE surface. yy Low – covered at least 60 % of the CWVE surface. yy Very low – covered maximally 60 % of the CWVE surface. f) Landscaping value – total value of CWVE in terms of garden and landscape architecture (current state and potential) resulting from its biological nature and way of growing. It summarizes the information on development stage, cover quality, physiological and biomechanical vitality and growing state. Total value of CWVE is expressed using the following scale: yy Very valuable CWVE – already adult CWVEs, exceptionally CWVEs at the end of the development stage 3 and at the beginning of the development stage 5. Individuals are absolutely healthy and not damaged, full of vitality and long-term perspective, of high quality in terms of growing, with very high both vertical and horizontal canopy. yy Above-average valuable CWVE – CWVE with some imperfections that do not significantly detract from their value, exceptionally CWVEs at the beginning of the development stage 5, fully correspond to both growing and compositional needs, are long term-perspective and their both vertical and horizontal canopy is high or very high. yy Average valuable CWVE – CWVE with assumption of medium to long-term existence, individuals possibly with lower vitality and health condition, usable in terms of growing. Both canopies of CWVEs are at the medium level or one of them may fall into the category of high or very high. yy Below-average valuable CWVE – vitality is significantly reduced due to old age, diseases and pests or damage, the probable existence is just a short-term. CWVE with the low vertical canopy, horizontal canopy is usually medium to very low. yy Very little valuable CWVE – vitality is so reduced due to old age, diseases and pests or damage is so reduced that prerequisites just of short-term existence are missing. To this category fall also the exemplars to be removed immediately for safety or phytopathological reasons (dangerous infectious diseases). Both canopy categories are on the very low degree, horizontal canopy is exceptionally low. The results of the search for methodologies of clipped woody vegetation elements assessment – there were found only three similar sources (Kendal et al., 2008; Pejchal and Šimek, 2012a; Šonský, 1987) – suggest Michaela Spěváčková, Lukáš Štefl, Miloš Pejchal: Methodology of clipped woody vegetation elements assessment, pp. 96–99 – 98 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering that the topic of qualitative state of CWVEs is rare. Presented methodology was inspired by Pejchal and Šimek (2012a) and was modified and supplemented. Afterwards, it had been verified on several hundreds of CWVEs in a number of historical objects. The restuls of these assessment shown suitability of this methodology when investigating the current state of CWVE. Species-conditioned specifics of individual taxa are an important factor that influences the assessment. Function and meaning of specific CWVE in an object, its current state, taxonomic composition and the assumption of its further development must be taken into account when suggesging future care or a way of recovery. This methodology can be useful after editing for assessment of pollarded trees. In common practice can be used simplified version of this methodology. Conclusion The methodology of woody elements assessment is a set of several groups of attributes that are necessary to determine the current qualitative state of CWVE and its potential. Results obtained using this methodology may serve as a basis for the design of adequate tree care and regeneration measures in practice. This methodology may be also used for a deeper understanding of individual factors that are involved in the resulting quality of CWVE. Acknowledgement This publication was supported by project no. DF11P01OVV019 – Landscape architecture’s methods and tools for spatial development which meets the thematic priority TP 1.4. of Applied Research and Development of National and Cultural Identity Programme, funded by Ministry of Culture of the Czech Republic. References BURIAN, S. 2013. Správný řez keřů a živých plotů. In: Zahradnictví, 2013, no. 8. ISSN 1213-7596. DE JONG, S. M. – ADDINK, E. A. – HOOGENBOOM, P. – NIJLAND, W. 2012. The spectral response of Buxus sempervirens to different types of environmental stress – A laboratory experiment. In: ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, vol. 74, 2012, p. 56–65. ISSN 0924-2716. KENDAL, D. – KATHRYN, W. – LEISA, A. 2008. Preference for and performance of some Australian native plants grown as hedges. In: Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 7.2, 2008, p. 93–106. ISSN 1618-8667. LE DUC, A. – PARSONS, L. R. – PAIR, J. C. 2000. Growth, survival, and aesthetic quality of boxwood cultivars as affected by landscape exposure. In: HortScience, vol. 35, 2000, no. 2, pp. 205–208. ISSN 2327-9834. LETTS, M. G. – RODRÍGUEZ-CALCERRADA, J. – ROLO, V. – RAMBAL, S. 2012. Long-term physiological and morphological acclimation by the evergreen shrub Buxus sempervirens L. to understory and canopy gap light intensities. In Trees – Structure and Function, vol. 26, 2012, no. 2, p. 479–491. ISSN 0931-1890. PEJCHAL, M. 2008. Arboristika: pro další vzdělávání v arboristice. 1. vyd. Mělník : Vyšší odborná škola zahradnická a střední zahradnická škola, 2008, 168 s. PEJCHAL, M. – ŠIMEK, P. 2012a. Metodika hodnocení dřevin pro potřeby památkové péče, koncept k připomínkování odbornou veřejností. Lednice : MENDELU, 2012. PEJCHAL, M. – ŠIMEK, P. 2012b. Evaluation of potential of woody species vegetation components in objects of landscape architecture. In: Acta Universitatis Agriculturae et Silviculturae Mendelianae Brunensis, 2012, sv. LX, č. 8, s. 199–204. ISSN 1211-8516. ŠONSKÝ, J. 1987. Výsledky sortimentálního hodnocení dřevin a stanovení racionální technologie tvarovaných živých plotů. In: Acta Pruhoniciana, 1987, no. 53, p. 57–76. TAHERI, A. K. – ABDINEJAD, B. 2011. Evaluation of light effect on quantitative and qualitative characteristics of caspian box tree (Buxus sempervirens) in reserve zone (Dorostkar forest), Iran. In: Journal of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, 2011. ISSN 0976-9919. Michaela Spěváčková, Lukáš Štefl, Miloš Pejchal: Methodology of clipped woody vegetation elements assessment, pp. 96–99 – 99 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering EVALUATION OF VEGETATION AS USEFUL METHOD OF CLASSIFICATION TREES VALUES IN AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPE Beata FORNAL-PIENIAK*, Ewa ZARAŚ-JANUSZKIEWICZ, Barbara ŻARSKA Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Poland Agricultural landscape are still modified by human. Trees are very important elements in agricultural ecological network. The purpose of the study was vegetation evaluation on example of Sokolow Podlaski commune. Sokolow Podlaski area with dominated agriculture area are located on east part of Poland. Methodology included field research, divided study areas into special-landscape units and vegetation evaluation. It was distinguished native, exotic and cultivated tree species with different vegetation values. Keywords: evaluation of vegetation, agricultural landscape, Sokolow Podlaski commune Introduction Diversity of tree species depend on many natural, historical and political influences. Trees are very necessary elements in agricultural landscape (Marsall and Moonen, 2002) and may also be valuable for their possible function as “corridors” and “stepping stones’ to facilitate species dispersal. In many areas on the Word a dramatic decrease in biological diversity of agricultural landscape can be observed as a result of human pressure. Many plant and animal species typical for agricultural landscape are rare and on the verge of extinction (Robinson and Sutherland, 2002). Refuges, especially linear ones, such as hedgerows, play an important role as ecological corridors (Le Cour et al., 2002). The purpose of the study was evaluation of vegetation as useful method of classification trees values in agricultural landscape on example of Sokolow Podlaski commune in Poland. Rural landscape with many fields and meadows are dominated types of land uses in Sokolow Podlaski commune. Classification of tree species values it is very important for shaping Sokołów Podlaski rural landscape which is still influenced by human pressures. Figure 1 Location of study area vegetation. Border of special landscape unities were located along the main roads of Sokolow Podlaski commune. Vegetation evaluation included five main criteria: It was done evaluation of vegetation including five criteria of assessment as number of plant species, origin of trees, type of plantings, tree-covered areas, health of plantings (tab. 1) with bonitation points as: 2 points – minimum value, 4 points – medium value 6 points – high value. Plant species and their origin were grouped according to Matuszkiewicz (2007). Material and methods Results and discussion Sokolow Podlaski commune (137.18 km² area) is located on the east part of Poland. This area belongs to Mazowiecko-Poleski Section according to Matuszkiewicz (1993). Research was done on agricultural landscape without forest, parks and cemeteries areas on Sokolow Podlaski commune during 2011–2012. Field study was included division rural landscape into special landscape unities, characteristic of tree species, distinguished types of Plant species were represented by 4 syntaxonomic classes and companion species. Most of the plants were from Querco-Fagetea community. It was distinguished 14 plant species from Querco-Fagetea like Acer campestre L., Carpinus betulus L., Fraxinus excelsior L., 2 species from Salicetea purpureae, one specie from Epilobietea angustifolii and Vaccinio-Piceetea. Native, exotic and cultivated plants were occurring in the study area (tab. 2). *Correspodence: Beata Fornal-Pieniak, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Horticulture, Biotechnology and Landscape Architecture, Department of Environmental Protection, Nowoursynowska 161, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland, e-mail: [email protected] Beata Fornal-Pieniak, Ewa Zaraś-Januszkiewicz, Barbara Żarska: Evaluation of vegetation as useful method of classification trees values..., pp. 100–103 – 100 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Table 1 Evaluation of vegetation Criteria Bonitation points above 4 tree species 6 Number of tree species 3-4 tree species 4 1-2 tree species 2 Origin of trees (dominated in each specila-landscape units) n – native species 6 c – cultivator species (planted trees) 4 ex – exotic species (introduced artificiall 2 avenues, group of trees, single trees 6 group of trees, single trees 4 only single trees 2 above 25% 6 11–25% 4 5–10% 2 good (mostly without canopy losses, trees hallows, diseases) 6 medium (sometimes with canopy losses, trees hallows, diseases) 4 bad (many canopy losses, trees hallows, diseases) 2 Types of plantings Tree-covered areas (%) Health of plantings Table 2 Tree plant species in agricultural landscape of Sokolow Podlaski commune Latin name Syntaxonomic class Status in Poland* Acer campestre Querco-Fagetea n Acer platanoides Querco-Fagetea n Acer pseudoplatanus Querco-Fagetea n Acer pseudoplatanus Atropurpureum companion specie ex Aesculus hippocastanum companion specie ex Alnus glutinosa Salicetea purpureae n Betula pendula companion specie n Carpinus betulus Querco-Fagetea n Corylus avellana Querco-Fagetea n Euonymus verrucosa Querco-Fagetea n Fagus sylvatica Querco-Fagetea n Fraxinus excelsior Querco-Fagetea n Malus domestica companion specie c Padus avium Querco-Fagetea n Pinus sylvestris Vaccinio-Piceetea n Populus alba Salicetea purpureae n Prunus avium Querco-Fagetea n Prunus domestica companion specie c Prunus mahaleb companion specie ex Quercus robur companion specie n Quercus rubra companion specie ex Robinia pseudoacacia companion specie ex Epilobietea angustifolii n Querco-Fagetea n Querco-Fagetea n Sambucus nigra Tilia cordata Ulmus laevis *n – native species (occurring in central Europe), ex – exotic species (introduced artificially), c – cultivated species (planted trees) Beata Fornal-Pieniak, Ewa Zaraś-Januszkiewicz, Barbara Żarska: Evaluation of vegetation as useful method of classification trees values..., pp. 100–103 – 101 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering areable land forest settelments borders of special landscape units Figure 2 Origin of trees in the study area 1, 2 – number of special landscape units, a – area with high vegetation value, b – area with medium vegetation value, c – area with low vegetation value areable land forest settelments borders of special landscape units Figure 3 Special landscape units and vegetation evaluation 1, 2 – number of special landscape units, a – area with high vegetation value, b – area with medium vegetation value, c – area with low vegetation value Native species like Acer pseudoplatanus, Fraxinus excelsior, Alnus glutinosa dominated in the Sokolow Podlaski commune (72%). Exotic (20%) and cultivated (8%) species were observed less frequently in the study area. Exotic plants were represented by Acer pseudoplatanus ‘Atropurpureum’ L., Aesculus hippocastanum L., Prunus mahaleb L., Malus domestica Borkh. and Prunus domestica L. were typical for cultivated plants in the Sokolow Podlaski commune. Arable land was divided into 13 special-landscape units (Fig. 3). Vegetation evaluation included five main criteria: number of plant species, origin of trees, type of plantings, tree-covered areas, health of plantings. It was distinguished areas with high (25–30 points), medium (19–24 points) and low (<19 points) planting values. Areas with high planting values are located in the south-east part of Sokolow Podlaski commune. Diversity of plant species, dominated of native species, avenues, groups of trees, single trees, tree-covered above 25% of unit and good health of plantings were mostly characteristic of four units with high vegetation values (units: 5, 6, 10, 11). It was occurring also four areas with medium vegetation areas on the central and the south-east part of the commune (units: 2, 9, 12, 13) (Fig. 3). Less group of trees and single trees were characteristic for these units. 5–10% tree-covered areas with mostly single, exotic plant species were occurring in units with low vegetation values (units: 1, 3, 4, 7, 8) (Tab. 3). These areas are located on the west and the south part of Sokolow Podlaski commune. Plants colonization process mostly depended on time, type use of land and history (Peterken and Grame, 1984; Flinn and Vellend, 2005; Honnay et al., 2005). Despite the strong human pressure in agricultural areas native plants dominated (Orłowski and Nowak, 2007). The same results were Beata Fornal-Pieniak, Ewa Zaraś-Januszkiewicz, Barbara Żarska: Evaluation of vegetation as useful method of classification trees values..., pp. 100–103 – 102 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Table 3 Plantings evaluation of Sokolow Podlaski commune Criteria Number of special landscape units 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Number of plant species 4 4 4 2 6 4 4 6 4 6 4 4 4 Orgin of trees [dominated] 2 4 6 2 6 6 2 2 4 6 6 4 4 Types of plantings 4 6 2 4 6 6 4 2 4 6 6 4 4 Tree-covered areas 2 2 2 2 6 6 2 2 4 6 6 4 4 Health of plantings 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 Sum 16 20 18 14 28 26 16 16 20 28 26 20 20 observed on Sokolow Podlaski commune. Group of trees and single trees are the most popular types of planting on arable land. Trees have also aesthetic value in landscape. Moreover old trees are occurring on agricultural landscape. At the time of land use changes in landscape structure observed in many regions of the world (Le Cour et al., 2002; Marshall and Moonen, 2002), old trees are also a highly endangered element of various ecosystems (Jim, 2004; Orlowski and Nowak, 2007). It is very important shaping of ecological corridors in agricultural landscape of communes (Żarska, 2006). Nowadays ancient and old forests do not take a large areas so plantings should be protected (Liro and Szacki, 1993; Shields et al., 2000). Tree plantings as one of the landscape elements have impact for keeping microbes, insects, plants, birds, and animals biodiversity. Ecosystems with greater biodiversity are considered by many to be more resilient to physical disturbances, natural disasters, and invasive species. Diverse ecosystems also provide ecological services that are expensive to replicate, like air and water purification, attracting pollinators, and providing natural material for advances in science and medicine. (http://www.epa.gov/greenacres/conf12_04/ conf_knwldge.html). Conclusion 1. Groups and solitary native plant species from QuercoFagetea class dominated in the Sokolow Podlaski agricultural landscape 2.It was observed good condition of evaluated vegetation inspit of still human pressures. 3.It is necessary to continue research focus on green corridors because these planting should be included in the ecological structure of Sokolow Podlaski commune. References FLINN, K. M. – VELLEND, M. 2005. Recovery of forest plant communities in postagricultural landscapes. In: Front. Ecol. Environ., 2005, no. 3, pp. 243–250. HONNAY, O. – JACQUEMYN, H. – BOSSUYT, B. – HERMY, M. 2005. Forest fragmentation effects on patch occumpancy and population vitability of herbaceous plant species. In: New Phytosociologist, 2005, no. 166, pp. 723–736. JIM, C. Y. 2004. Spatial differentiation and landscape-ecological assessment of heritage trees in urban Guangzhou (China). In: Landsc. Urban Plan., 2004, no. 69, pp. 51–68. Le COUR, D. – BAUDARY, J. – BUREL, F. – THENAIL, C. 2003. Why and how we should study field boundary biodiversity in an agrarian landscape context? In Agric. Ecosyst. Environ., 2003, no. 89, pp. 23–40. LIRO, A. – SZACKI, J. 1993. Korytarz ekologiczny – przykład problematyki. In Człowiek i środowisko, vol. 17, 1993, no. 4, pp. 299–312. MARSHALL, E. J. – MOONEN, A. 2002. Field margins in northen Europe: their functions and interactions with agriculture. In: Agric. Ecosyst. Environ., 2002, no. 89, pp. 5–21. MATUSZKIEWICZ, J. M. 1993. Krajobrazy roślinne i regiony geobotaniczne. In: Prace Georg., 1993, no. 158, pp. 1–107. MATUSZKIEWICZ, W. 2007. Przewodnik do oznaczania zbiorowisk roślinnych Polski. Warszawa : PWN, 2007. ISBN 978-83-01-14439-5. ORŁOWSKI, G. – NOWAK, L. 2007. The importance of marginal habitat for the conservation of old trees in agricultural landscape. In: Landsc. Urban Plan., 2007, no. 79, pp. 77–83. PETERKEN, G. F. – GRAME, M. 1984. Historical affecting of number of distribution of vascular plant species in the woodlands of Central Lincolnshire. In: J. Ecol., 1984, no. 72, pp. 155–182. ROBINSON, R. A. – SUTHERLAND, W. 2002. Post-war changes in arable farming and biodiversity in Great Britan. In: J. Appl. Ecol., 2002, no. 39, pp. 157–176. SHIELDS, D. F. – SIMON, A. J. – STEFFEN, J. L. 2000. Reservoir effects on downstream river channel migration. In: Env. Con., vol. 27, 2000, no. 1, pp. 54–66. ŻARSKA, B. 2006. Modele ekologiczno-przestrzenne i zasady kształtowania krajobrazu gmin wiejskich. Warszawa : Wyd. SGGW, 2006, pp. 186. ISBN 83-7244-729-2. Beata Fornal-Pieniak, Ewa Zaraś-Januszkiewicz, Barbara Żarska: Evaluation of vegetation as useful method of classification trees values..., pp. 100–103 – 103 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering CLASSIFICATION OF URBAN HABITATS OF TOWNS OF THE UDMURT REPUBLIC (RUSSIA) Ekaterina N. ZYANKINA, Olga G. BARANOVA* Udmurt State University, Russia The purpose of this study is to discover the species composition of urban floras through studying and comparing certain partial floras. The object of our research is flora of small towns in Udmurtia. We have developed methodological approaches for analysis of different urban habitats. These approaches are significant for identifying of plants species composition in cities. This study is based on the method of partial floras. The term “partial flora” is understood in the interpretation of Boris A. Yurtsev. This method is widely used in Russia (Yurtsev, 1982). We’ve created the classification of habitats groups based on examination of cartographic material, aerial and satellite photography, primary analysis of the flora habitats. We have distinguished two types, 16 classes and 43 habitats kinds. The Type of natural and semi-natural habitats with little disturbance of vegetation is divided into 7 classes of habitats: meadow, forest, forest-steppe, swamp, water, coastal, naturally bare habitats. The type of anthropogenically – transformed habitats includes 9 classes: communicationly-tape, erosion, slotted, agricultural, water, artificial tree plantation, landfills, landscape gardenings, cemeteries Preliminary lists of kinds of partial flora habitats are made. Both native and alien species of plants are allocated there. Alien flora fraction was divided into groups according to the degree of danger for biodiversity. Typical species were pointed out for all habitats. Keywords: urbanflora, Russian flora, flora of habitats Introduction Urban areas have a large number of places suitable for plants growth and having different environmental conditions. Therefore, they are the hotbed of concentration of alien plants. The activity of these species in certain urban partial floras can be seen when studying floristic structure of different habitats. Partial floras (Yurtsev, 1982) are the sets of species occurring in ecologically similar subdivisions of the landscape, i.e., habitat types (Khitun, 2013). Development of habitat structure classification is one of the stages of partial floras studying. There are several different classifications of urban habitats, based on different criteria: individual characteristics of settlement, allocation of plants depending on the type of urban area, period and features of building system, intensity of anthropogenic impact, phytocenotic features of areas, etc. (Gamulya and Zvyagintseva, 2010; Berezutski and Panin, 2007; Maher and Hamilton, 2012; Pysek, 1995; Mosyakin, 1996). Taking into account peculiarities of flora formation in small towns, similar and different types of habitats, we have tried to classify urban habitats depending on phytocenotic characteristics of flora and on the degree of anthropogenic influence on it. In 2012 we started studying flora of three towns (Votkinsk, Kambarka and Mojga) in Russia (Udmurtia). By the phyto-geographical regionalization of the European part of Russia the studied area is the part of West Siberian-Ural taiga province of Eurasian taiga region (Isachenko and Lavrenko, 1980.). The *Correspodence: purpose of this study is to identify the species composition of urban floras through studying and comparing particular partial floras. Material and Metods Research was conducted in 2012–2013 on the territory of three towns (Votkinsk, Kambarka, Mojga) Udmurtia (Russia). Urban population is relatively small. Votkinsk population is 98 thousand people., Mozhga – 49 thous., Kambarka – 10 thousand people. The material was collected by the method of partial floras and a routing method. Urban areas were studied within their administrative boundaries. Basing on a comprehensive analysis (study of cartographic material, satellite images, primary analysis of flora habitats) we developed a classification of plant habitats groups. In the results you can see the list of all the habitats recorded within the town, including the overall extent of each. Running wild cultivated plant species are not taken into account while compiling floristic lists. Results and discussion The estimation of each species by its origin is required to analyze the results of the study of urban floras. In this basis we have divided entire set of plant species of urban areas into aboriginal and alien parts. Furthermore, the group of alien species was divided by the degree of impact on natural biodiversity. Two groups were Olga G. Baranova, Udmurtia State University, Faculty of Biology and Chemistry, Department of botany and plant ecology, Russia, e-mail: [email protected] Ekaterina N. Zyankina, Olga G. Baranova: Classification of urban habitats of towns of the Udmurt Republic (Russia), pp. 104–106 – 104 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering distinguished: passive alien species that do not pose a serious threat and active alien species which include species transformers and invasive plant species. We have allocated two types of habitats (The Type of natural and semi-natural habitats with little disturbance of vegetation and The type of anthropogenically-transformed habitats) and divided them into 16 classes and 43 kinds. Thus, we have allocated 43 combined partial floras. For each partial flora we have pointed alien species list. Type of natural and semi-natural habitats with little disturbance of vegetation This type includes remains of natural phytocenosis, and areas with a low level of human impact. Species that grow here, form stable plant communities, represented mainly by native species. This type of habitats includes 7 classes of habitats: 1.Meadow habitats class. 4 kinds of habitats were distinguished (riparian, upland, steppe, pasture). Partial flora of meadow habitats is mostly represented by native species. The group of passive alien species in floodplains is weak and represented by such species as Carduus nutans L., Chamomilla suaveolens (Pursh) Rydb., Collomia linearis Nutt., et al. The group of active alien species is represented by species-transformers: Acer negundo L., Aster salignus Willd., Heracleum sosnowskyi Manden, Hordeum jubatum L. etc. 2.Forest habitats class. It consists of three kinds of habitats (coniferous and deciduous forests, parks with natural vegetation). The basic role in the composition of the flora of this class is played by a forest of aboriginal plant species. This class of habitats is characterized by invasive species such as: Acer negundo L., Amelanchier spicata (Lam.) C. Koch, Malus baccata (L.) Borkh. 3.Forest-steppe habitats Class. It includes two kinds of habitats (forest and marginal forest). Partial flora of these areas is characterized by presence of such species as Eremogone saxatilis L., Еryngium planum L., Pulsatilla uralensis (Zämelis) Tzvelev. Alien flora fraction can be presented here by Collomia linearis Nutt., Conyza сanadensis (L.) Cronqist. 4.Marsh habitats Class.2 kinds were distinguished (fens and sphagnum bogs). Partial flora of these areas is represented by a large number of aboriginal species with prevalence of Cyperaceae family plants. The alien flora is not spread here, although on the edge of marshes there can be met Bidens frondosa L., Juncus tenuis Willd., Phalacroloma annuum (L.) Dumort. On the territory of Kambarka there is a sphagnum bog, which is included in the Emerald book of Russian Federation (Baranova, Dedyuhyn and Tyulkyn, 2013). This marsh meets specifications of Annex 1 of the EU (EU Annex I habitat). 5.Coastal habitats class. 2 kinds were distinguished (quagmire and coastal habitats). There are certain conditions that contribute to the resettlement and establishment of most dangerous invasive plant species from the group of transformers: Acer negundo L., Heracleum sosnowskyi Manden., Impatiens glandulifera Royle and others. These species often form homogenous communities along the rivers. 6.Naturally bare habitats class. It includes 1 kind of habitats – naturally bare. This kind of habitats is presented by territories exposed by constant erosion (steep slopes, ravines etc.). Partial flora is poor. Equisetum arvense L., Herniaria glabra L., Scleranthus annuus L. are among aboriginal species found here. Alien fraction is presented by Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronqist, Oenothera rubricaulis Kleb., Puccinellia distans (Jacq.) Parl. 7. Aquatic habitats Class. 2 kinds were distinguished (flow, and poorly flowing water). Partial flora is represented mainly by native species. A group of invasive species is presented by Elodea canadensis Michx. The type of anthropogenically-transformed habitats with intensively transformed vegetation Species growing here, do not form stable communities. Human activity is a determining factor in development of the flora of these habitats. 9 classes of habitats are counted in this type. 1. Communication-tape habitats Class. This class includes ecotopes located along different ways of traffic. We have distinguished 4 kinds of habitats (rail, road, heating mains, trails). Partial flora is represented by a huge variety of alien species. The group of passive alien species is characterized by the presence of Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) Beauv., Lactuca tatarica (L.) C.A. Mey., Echium vulgare L. The group of active alien species is presented by Echinocystis lobata (Michx.) Torr. et Gray., Hordeum jubatum L., Puccinelia distans (L.) Parl. Heating mains are territories with special temperature regime. 2. Erosional habitats class. It includes 4 kinds of habitats (yard, constructional, industrial vacant lots and stadiums). These areas are characterized by constant anthropogenic impacts, leading to disruption of the soil cover. Partial flora of these habitats is poor. Aboriginal fraction is represented mostly by ruderal species. There can be met such passive alien species as Amaranthus retroflexus L., Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) Beauv., Solanum nigrum L. Active alien species here are, Bryonia alba L., Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronqist, Solidago serotinoides A. Love & D. Love. 3.Slit habitats class. 2 kinds were distinguished (wall and curbs). This class includes by gaps in asphalt and concrete surfaces. Partial flora of this habitats is poor and represented by those species which are capable of growing on limited territories with lack of nutrients. Alien fractions of wall and curb habitats differ. In the flora of wall habitats we noticed weed alien species, whereas curbs habitats are often represented by plants Ekaterina N. Zyankina, Olga G. Baranova: Classification of urban habitats of towns of the Udmurt Republic (Russia), pp. 104–106 – 105 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering running wild: Petunia × hybrida, Calendula officinalis L., Alyssum maritimum Lam., Xanthoxalis stricta (L.) Small. 4.Agricultural habitats Class. 4 kinds of habitats were distinguished (gardens, fields, land new fences, gardens). This class determines territories cultivated by a person. Group of passive alien species includes running wild cultivated plants: Anethum graveolens L., Artemisia purshiana Boss., Syringa vulgaris L., and weed speciesAvena fatua L., Chaenorhinum minus (L.) Lange., Fumaria officinalis L. Since these territories are constantly cultivated, invasive species are not common and are represented by such species as Aquilegia vulgaris L., Echinocystis lobata (Michx.) Torr. & A. Gray., Galinsoga parviflora Cav. 5. Aquatic habitats class. 1 kinds – stagnant ponds (manmade ponds, fire ponds, puddles, etc.) is identified. Aboriginal fraction is represented by Lemna minor L. and species of genus Potamogeton. Partial flora of these reservoirs of small towns is not divers, thus alien species are often represented only by one invasive species Elodea canadensis L. 6.Artificial tree plantations Class. 4 kinds of habitats were distinguished (squares, treelines, planting trees in courtyards, shelterbelts along the roads). All these kinds of habitats are characterized by varying degree of anthropogenic pressure. Partial floras of these habitats are often presented by such invasive species as: Amelanchier spicata (Lam.) K. Koch, Acer negundo L., Malus baccata (L.) Borkh. 7.Dumps habitats class. 2 kinds were distinguished (household wastes dumps and industrial waste dumps). Partial flora of these habitats includes a small number of aboriginal species. They often get here from neighboring habitats. Household wastes dumps are often represented by landfills, as well as small piles of garbage in towns. A group of passive alien species is presented in great abundance and includes Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. et Nakai, Datura inoxia Mill., Mirabilis jalapa L. Among invasive species Thladiantha dubia Bunge and Echinocystis lobata (Michx.) Torr. et Gray. should be mentioned. Industrial landfill dumps are industrial sites, as well as heaps of sand and gravel. There is also a large number of representatives of the genus Chenopodium, Corispermum, Salsola,. 8. Landscape gardening Class. Includes 2 kinds habitats (flowerbeds, lawns). In partial flora of these habitats a large proportion of adventitious passive species is presented by running wild ornamental plants: Kоchia scoparia (L.) Schrad., Lobularia maritima (L.) Desv., Tagetes patula L. Together with peat and earth invasive species are imported, among them: Galinsoga parviflora Cav., Heracleum sosnowskyi Manden. 9.Cemetery habitats class. 2 kinds were distinguished (open and forested cemetery). Partial flora of cemeteries is characterized by passive alien species such as Hemerocallis fulva (L.) L., Hylotelephium spectabile (Boreau) H. Ohba, Sempervívum tectorum L. Invasive species are common for edges, or abandoned territories. One can often see here Aster salignus Willd., Oenothera rubricaulis Kleb., Solidago canadensis L. Thus, small towns flora is a complex of partial floras of various habitats, which differ by abundance and structure of aboriginal and alien plants. For deeper uncovering of the species composition of the partial floras and for their comparison the research should be continued. The scheme, that we have developed allows to identify the most complete floristic composition of the urban area by the method of partial floras. The research is fulfilled within the government task of ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation (1. 1. 2404). References BARANOVA, O. G. – DEDEJUHIN, S. V. – TJULKIN, Ju. A. 2011– 2013. Udmurtskaja Respublika. In: Izumrudnaja kniga Rossijskoj Federacii. Territorii osobogo prirodoohrannogo znachenija Evropejskoj Rossii. Predlozhenija po vyjavleniju. Ch. 1. M.: Institut geografii RAN, 2011–2013, pp. 146–163. ISBN 978-5-89658-041-6. BEREZUCKIJ, MA. – PANIN, A. B. 2007. Flora gorodov: struktura i tendencii antropogennoj dinamiki. In: Botanicheskom zhurnale, vol. 92, 2007, no. 10, pp. 1481–1489. ISSN 0006-8136. COUNCIL DIRECTIVE 92/43/EEC. 1992. On the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora. In: Official Journal of the European Communities,vol. 103, 1992, no. 1, p. 25. GAMULYA, YU. G. – ZVYAGINTSEVA, K. A. 2010. The peculiarities of natural anthropogenic vegetation habitats zoning in Kharkiv. In: Journal of V. N. Karazin Kharkiv University, italics Series: biology, vol. 11, 2010, no. 905, pp.43–54. ISSN 0453-8048. ISACHENKO, T. I. – LAVRENKO, E. M. 1980. Botanikogeograficheskoe rajonirovanie. In: Rastitelnosti evropejskoj chasti SSSR, 1980, pp. 10–20. JURCEV, B. A. 1982. Flora kak prirodnaja sistema. In: Bjulletene MOIP, Otdelenie biologija, vol. 87, no. 4, рр. 3–22. KHITUN, O. V. – KOROLEVA, T. M. – CHINENKO, S. V. – PETROVSKY, V. V. – POSPELOVA, E. B. – ZVEREV, A. A. 2013. Application of Russian Arctic local flora database to the issues of Arctic biodiversity conservation. In: Arctic Vegetation Archive (AVA) Workshop. Arctic Vegetation Archive (AVA) Workshop, Krakow, Poland, CAFF Proceedings Report #10. Akureyri, Iceland, April 14–16, 2013. ISBN 978-9935-431-24-0. MAHER, C. – HAMILTON, J. 2012 Report on the Survey and Mapping of Habitats within Athlone Town. Retrieved March 26, from PubMed database http://athlonetidytowns.ie/uploads/2013/01/ Maher-and-Hamilton-2012-Report-on-the-Survey-and-Mappingof-Habitats-within-Athlone-Town_FINAL.pdf MOSJAKIN, S. L. 1996. Teritorialni zakonomirnosti ekspansiї adventivnih roslin v urbanizovanomu seredovischi (na prikladi m. Kiїv). In: Ukrainskom botanicheskom zhurnale, vol. 53, no. 5, pp. 536–544. PYSEK, P. 1995. Approaches to studying spontaneous settlement flora and vegetation in central Europe: A review. In: Urban Ecology as the Basis of Urban Planning, pp. 23–39. Retrieved March 26, from PubMed database http://www.ibot. cas.cz/personal/pysek/pdf/Pysek-Review%20methods%20 urban%20ecology_SPB1995.pdf Ekaterina N. Zyankina, Olga G. Baranova: Classification of urban habitats of towns of the Udmurt Republic (Russia), pp. 104–106 – 106 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering QUALITY INDICATORS OF STATUS AND MAINTENANCE OF URBAN GREENERY Lukáš ŠTEFL Mendel University in Brno, Czech Republic The study deals with the evaluation of quality indicators of vegetation elements forming urban greenery areas. There were detailed evaluation indicators of quality defined for individual vegetation elements and also the indicators of their maintenance care quality. Detailed field survey was done in selected areas of greenery of residential complexes in Ostrava (Czech Republic). There were 2005 pieces of vegetation elements assessed on a total area of 17.71 hectares. The results of the study highlighted the differences in quality of individual elements as well as in the quality of achieved maintenance care. The worst average values of qualitative indicators were determined at the groups of trees. 60.59 % of the evaluated groups of trees were in poor qualitative condition and 50.48 % of the groups of trees showed poor quality of the maintenance care. The results also demonstrated the influence of the quality of maintenance care on the qualitative status of the individual elements. The proposed indicators and results of this study have direct applicability on the management of urban green spaces. Keywords: urban greenery, vegetation elements, qualitative indicators, maintenance care, residential areas Introduction Evaluation indicators are current tool in the area of a residential greenery management, sustainable development and other horticultural and environmental fields. The most important use is found in the monitoring of changes in individual indicators over time and also in the possibility of comparison of the objects, settlements, etc. In the global context, there are in addition to indicators evaluating the spatial structure of residential green spaces (e.g. Zhou and Wang, 2011) also relevant indicators of the state of urban populations of trees (e.g. Cumming et al., 2008). Set of 25 indicators for evaluating the urban population of trees defined Kenney et al. (2011). Indicators included for example the tree health condition, the portion of trees with tree inventory and tree risk assesment. Based on the results of the assessment of individual trees growing in the City of New York (USA) was compiled qualitative indicator condition of trees (collectively revealing the health state and vitality of trees) by Peper et al. (2007). Chen and Jim (2008) assessed quality population of trees in Nanjing (China) by using the indicator condition of trees. Results of both studies showed a high variability of this indicator in different types of urban green areas Other compositional elements of green space, except the trees, were given only marginal or no attention. The assessments made in the Czech Republic (CZ) focused on selected green residential areas of Prague and the Central Bohemian Region were implemented by Sojková and Knotková (2008) and Sojková and Hrubá *Correspodence: (2006). The obtained results highlighted inappropriate sortimental composition of the trees and a high proportion of trees in unsatisfactory quality status. The evaluation of the level of maintenance care in different cities of the Czech Republic was carried out by Šimek (2010). The results of his study indicated different levels of maintenance at different types of vegetation elements and even at different functional types of green areas. The Slovak authors describing possible approaches to the general evaluation of urban greenery were Supuka and Feriancová (2008). The aim of the study is to apply evaluation indicators to know actual state of selected area of urban greenery. Material and methods The model area The field evaluation was done on public green areas of selected residential elements of Ostrava (Czech Republic). Greenery of residential complexes was defined by Šimek (2001) as areas of vegetation within a concentrated residential areas, immediately following built-up areas and intended for the use of residents of housing estates. There were assessed 2005 pieces of vegetation elements (VE) in total, which represented an area of 17.71 hectares. The total length was 4 916 m in the case of linear VE. This field evaluation ran for a period from June till September 2013. Classification of composite elements Individual VE forming the evaluated objects of green areas were passportized and subsequently categorized into Lukáš Štefl, Mendel University in Brno, Faculty of Horticulture, Department of Planting Design and Maintenance, Valtická 337, 69144 Lednice, Czech Republic Lukáš Štefl: Quality indicators of status and maintenance of urban greenery, pp. 107–111 – 107 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Table 1 Qualitative assessment of VE status – rating scale Status of VE Description of the state – vegetation elements (VE) 1 Very good –– Plants forming the VE are fully vital, healthy, having typical or desired habitus, without symptoms of damage –– VE is fully functional in terms of meeting the required functions, perspective and stable 2 Good –– Plants forming VE have minor flaws in comparison to the previous category, but do not significantly reduce the performance of their required functions, perspective and stability 3 Average 4 Poor –– Plants forming VE have due to their age, damage, disease or pests substantially reduced vigor, and/or health status –– Implementation of the required functions, perspective, stability is significantly reduced 5 Very poor –– Plants forming VE have due to their age, damage, diseases or pests, totally reduced vigor, and/or very bad health status. There is no assumption of even a short existence. Elements do not fulfill their function at all, they are completely unstable –– Plants forming VE have moderately reduced vitality, signs of damage and impaired health status –– Meeting the required functions, perspective and stability are only partially reduced Vitality and health status was assessed according to the methodology Pejchal (2008). Detailed description of the evaluated attributes and individual levels see Pejchal (2008) Table 2 Qualitative evaluation of maintenance care – rating scale Quality of Care Description of maintenance care quality 1 Very high 2 High 3 Average 4 Poor 5 Very poor –– No signs of deficiencies in maintenance care –– VE show signs of partial, minor deficiencies in maintenance care –– VE show signs of partial, serious deficiencies in the maintenance care –– VE show signs of significant deficiencies in the maintenance care –– VE show signs of very significant deficiencies in the maintenance care or its complete absence. Evaluation criteria quality of maintenance care were evaluated according to the methodology Šimek (2010) and were related to the five-point rating scale areal VE (groups of trees, groups of shrubs, flower beds, lawn areas), linear VE (alleys, shaped hedges) and point VE (solitary tree, solitary shrub). The solitary tree category was divided into sub-categories: solitary tree – an adult tree (further mentioned as a solitary tree) and solitary tree – new plantings (further mentioned as new plantings). The structure and representation of the VE shows Tab. 3. Qualitative status of elements There was a 5-point scale used for evaluation of the qualitative status of each element (Tab. 1). The areal and linear VE were also evaluated from the perspective of their integrity (failures, blanks). There was also the vertical and horizontal canopy taken into account in the case of shaped hedges. The qualitative state of maintenance care For each VE, the quality of maintenance care was assessed (see Tab. 2). The principals for the evaluation were inspired by the work of Šimek (2010), but it was slightly modified and extended. For each type of VE there were developed detailed evaluation criteria, which reflected the typical characteristics of quality care maintenance. E.g. at the VE consisting of trees, there was evaluated an absence of tree maintenance care (presence of dead branches, presence of hazardous trees, absence of thinning). The shaped hedges were assessed as complying with the Table 3 The structure and amount of tested categories of VE Vegetation element type Pieces Area in m2 Length in m Solitary tree 422 New plantings 52 Solitary shrub 284 Group of trees 105 11 606 Group of shrubs 138 6295 Flower-bed 26 612 Lawn area 730 158 166 Alley 32 1 414 Shaped hedge 216 426 3 502 Overall 2005 177 105 4 916 optimum growing shape. According to above mentioned scale, the flower-beds and lawn areas were evaluated in terms of the degree of weed infestation, maintenance of edges and watering. Statistical evaluation of the impact of quality of maintenance care on quality of VE Pearson‘s chi-square test of independence, at a significance level of 0.05 was used for test of the Lukáš Štefl: Quality indicators of status and maintenance of urban greenery, pp. 107–111 – 108 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Table 4 Representation of quality for each vegetation element type Vegetation element type Solitary tree 1 2 3 4 5 Quality of Quality of Quality of Quality of Quality of Quality of Quality of Quality of Quality of Quality of element care element care element care element care element care 0.47 1.90 13.74 35.55 39.34 34.83 43.60 24.88 2.84 2.84 New plantings 32.69 30.77 28.85 32.69 26.92 15.38 11.54 21.15 0.00 0.00 Solitary shrub 0.35 7.75 34.86 35.21 25.00 32.04 39.44 25.00 0.35 0.00 Group of trees 0.00 0.95 5.71 15.24 33.33 33.33 60.95 50.48 0.00 0.00 Group of shrubs 0.72 1.45 22.46 28.26 35.51 38.41 41.30 31.88 0.00 0.00 Flower-bed 0.00 3.85 73.08 65.38 23.08 30.77 3.85 0.00 0.00 0.00 Lawn area 0.00 0.00 13.97 26.16 70.68 65.47 14.38 8.36 0.96 0.00 Alley 0.00 6.25 15.63 12.50 68.75 59.38 15.63 21.88 0.00 0.00 Shaped hedge 0.00 0.93 12.96 8.80 24.54 28.70 62.50 54.63 0.00 6.94 Average in % 3.80 5.98 24.58 28.87 38.57 37.59 32.58 26.47 0.46 1.09 dependence between the variables. The conditions for using the Chi-square test were not met, the test was repeated using Monte Carlo analysis. To determine the strength of the relationship between the two attributes was used Cramer contingency coefficient V and contingency coefficient. Data were analyzed using the program R, version 3.0.1 (R Core Team, 2013) with the optional package “vcd“ (Meyer et al., 2012). For writing R scripts was used Tinn-R script editor (Faria, 2012). Results and discussion Qualitative indicators of vegetation elements Table 4 shows representation of quality for each vegetation element type. Predominant representation of the quality of VE and the quality of care is highlighted black for each VE. In the overall average, the most represented were the values of category 3, which shows the average quality (38.57 % for the quality of VE and 37.59 % for the quality of care). A high proportion of values represented category 4, indicating poor quality of VE (32.58 %) and poor quality of care (26.47 %) and then the values of category 2, indicating good quality of VE (24.58 %) and a high quality of care (28.87 %). Categories 1 and 5 occured in only a few cases of evaluated sample. Among the best rated VE in terms of quality belonged flower-beds and new plantingss. The quality of lawn areas and alleys was mostly average. The solitary shrubs showed balanced distribution of quality in categories 2 and 4 of qualitative scale. Solitary trees, groups of trees, groups of shrubs and shaped hedges were predominantly evaluated within the qualitative category 4. In terms of quality of care, the top rated VE were flower-beds and new plantings. It should be noted that at the same time, 21.15 % of new plantings belonged to category 4, which refers to the poor quality of care. Relatively uniform distribution of the percentage in categories 2, 3 and 4 was shown in the case of solitary shrubs and solitary strees and groups of shrubs. Groups of trees and shaped hedges predominantly represented the category number 4. Lower quality of trees groups and shrubs groups is due to the absence of thinning. Lower quality is also caused by the low number of maintenance care interventions in groups of trees to trees that have strong competitive growth defects in habitus (V-forked branch, asymmetric unstable crown, etc.). Competitive growth and negative manifestations are not typical for solitary trees so demands on the amount of maintenance care may be lower. These results can be partially compared with the results of other authors. Qualitative status of trees growing in New York (USA) was evaluated by Paper et al. (2007) using the indicator condition of trees. Excellent condition (hereinafter referred to as the quality): 23.9%, good: 66.4%, poor 8.3%, dead 1.4%. Results of the condition indicator of trees quality in study Chen and Jim (2008) assessing in Nanjing (China) is as follows: excellent 15%, good: 50%, fair: 29%, poor: 5%, dying: 1%. In this work (Ostrava) was much higher portion of poor quality trees than in two cited studies. A higher portion of better quality of trees (Chen and Jim, 2008; Paper et al., 2007) may be caused by high quality of maintenance care in selected locations of their occurrence (habitate type). This follows from the conclusions of the cited works. Localization of trees in a recently constructed parts of the city may also have effect in case of study Chen and Jim (2008). In the study by Šimek (2010), the quality of care for VE in the green areas of residential complexes interfaced the average and below average (poor) quality. In this work, the most abundant were VE showing average quality of care (37.59 %) with a balanced overlap to the aboveaverage quality (high quality) and also to below-average quality (poor quality). In the case of groups of trees and shaped hedges outweighed poor quality of care. It can be concluded that the results of these two works are similar. Lukáš Štefl: Quality indicators of status and maintenance of urban greenery, pp. 107–111 – 109 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering The above mentioned statement is also proved by the work of Sojková and Knotková (2008) carried out in a greenery of residential complexes. According to the cited results, 72 % of trees showed average quality and 24 % of trees showed poor quality, 67.5 % of VE consisting of shrubs showed unsatisfactory quality level. Unsatisfactory growing conditions were observed at 47 % of assessed trees and shrubs. When compared with the results of this work, it is evident that in both cases VE consisting of trees and shrubs achieved average and substandard values of the qualitative status and also the quality of care. This identical finding should be an impulse for the management of residential green spaces and the introduction of systematic steps to improve the situation. The reason for the lower percentage of compliance between qualitative categories 2 and 3, and especially between 4 and 5, is the effect of other factors that may affect the qualitative status of VE. Lawn areas were often damaged by trampling, excavations, etc. VE consisting of trees and shrubs were often influenced by inappropriate choice of taxon due to unfavorable habitat conditions. New plantings and groups of shrubs were in several cases damaged by vandalism. Specific VE could thus show significant decrease in their qualitative status, in spite of even high or average quality of care. This situation shows that quality of care is important, but not the only factor that affects the quality of VE. Conclusions The final match between the degree of quality of element and the same level of quality of care is shown in Tab. 5. Combinations marked with the symbol “–” were not present on the evaluated area. The strongest consensus between both assessed attributes was found at the qualitative category no. 1. 95.24% of all VE in the 1st qualitative category had concurrently the care of qualitative category 1. Other categories showed lower, but still high conformity. The biggest differences between the quality level of element and the same quality level of care were found at solitary trees (in categories 2 and 4), new plantings (category 3), lawns (category 2), groups of trees and groups of shrubs (category 4). The study presented evaluation indicators for assessing the quality of VE and related maintenance services. Obtained results demonstrated differences in the quality of maintenance care among individual VE and the quality of each VE. The quality of VE and the quality of maintenance care is different for each VE. The most elements achieved average quality of both indicators. The worst average values of both qualitative indicators were determined for groups of trees. The best quality of both indicators were determined for flower beds and new plantings. The results showed a correlation between quality of maintenance care and quality of VE. Results and principles of this work are fully utilized primarily by the management of urban greenery and they will find application when comparing greenery, and design of an appropriate method of care management. Table 5 References Relationship between quality of element and quality of care Quality of element Correspondence between quality of element and quality of maintenance care in % Quality of maintenance care 1 2 3 4 5 1 95.24 4.76 – – – 2 8.26 63.36 25.90 2.48 – 3 0.43 27.25 63.73 8.58 – 4 – 9.96 30.76 56.61 2.67 5 – 6.25 31.25 6.25 56.25 Effect of quality of maintenance care to the quality status of VP. Based on the results of the Pearson chisquare test of independence is possible to conclude that there is the statistically significant relationship between the quality of VP and quality of maintenance care: χ2 (16, N = 2005) = 2002.12; p <0.001. The result is statistically significant even when using the Monte Carlo method (with 2000 replications) χ2 (NA, N = 2005) = 2002,12; p <0.001. The correlation between two attributes is strong (Cramer contingency coefficient V: 0.50 and contingency coefficient: 0.71). CUMMING, A. B. – TWARDUS, D. B. – NOWAK, D. J. 2008. Urban Forest Health Monitoring: Large-Scale Assessments. In: Arboriculture & Urban Forestry, vol. 34, 2008, no. 6, p. 341–346. FARIA, J. C. 2012. Resources of Tinn-R GUI/Editor for R Environment. Brasil : UESC, Ilheus, 2012. KENNEY, W. A. et al. 2011. Criteria and Indicators for Strategic Urban Forest Planning. In: Arboriculture & Urban Forestry, vol. 37, 2011, no. 3, p. 108–117. MAYER, D. – ZEILEIS, A. – HORNIK, K. 2012. Visualizing Categorical Data. R package version 1. 2012, p. 2–13. CHEN, S.S. – JIM, C. Y. 2008. The Urban Forest of Nanjing City: Key Characteristics and Management Assessment. In: CARREIRO, M., SONG, Y., WU, J. (eds). Ecology, planning, and management of urban forests: international perspectives. New York : Springer, 2008, p. 259–278. ISBN 978-0-387-71424-0. R CORE TEAM. R. 2013. A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna : R Foundation for Statistical Computing, 2013. ISBN 3-900051-07-0. SOJKOVÁ, E. – HRUBÁ, T. 2006. Panelová sídliště v malých městech Středočeského kraje. In: Město – zeleň a bydlení, 2006, s. 29–35. ISBN 80-86950-00-X. SOJKOVÁ, E. – KNOTKOVÁ, I. 2008. Hodnocení zeleně obytných souborů. In: Acta Pruhoniciana, 2008, č. 90, s. 35–42. ISBN 978-80-85116-64-9. Lukáš Štefl: Quality indicators of status and maintenance of urban greenery, pp. 107–111 – 110 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering SUPUKA, J. – FERIANCOVÁ, Ľ. 2008. Koncepčné prístupy v plánovaní vegetačných štruktúr, štandardy a regulatívy. In: SUPUKA, J. – FERIANCOVÁ. Ľ. et al. Vegetačné štruktúry v sídlach: parky a záhrady. Nitra : SPU, 2008, s. 101–142. ISBN 978-80-552-0067-5. ŠIMEK, P. 2001. Městská zeleň. In ŠRYTR, P. Městské inženýrství. 2. vyd. Praha : Academia, 2001. s. 183–225. ISBN 80-200-0440-82. ŠIMEK, P. 2010. Východiska pro posuzování úrovně údržby zeleně v systémech zeleně sídel. In: Acta horticulturae et regiotecturae, roč. 13, 2010, mimoriadne číslo, s. 42–46. ISSN 1336-2563. PEJCHAL, M. 2008. Arboristika I: obecná dendrologie. 1. vyd. Mělník : Vyšší odborná škola zahradnická a střední zahradnická škola, 2008. 170 p. PEPER, P. J. et al. 2007. New York City, New York, Municipal Forest Resource Analysis – Technical Report. New York, Center for Urban Forest Research, USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, 2007, 65 p. ZHOU, X. – WANG, Y. 2011. Spatial-temporal dynamics of urban green space in response to rapid urbanization and greening policies. In: Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 100, 2011, no. 3, p. 268–277. ISSN 0169-2046. TERESTRICAL LASER SCANNING APPLIED TO ANALYSES OF PUBLIC SPACES Dominika TITKOVÁ*, Monika JANČOVIČOVÁ, Lukáš ŠTRBA, Roberta ŠTĚPÁNKOVÁ, Ľuboš MORAVČÍK Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Slovakia This paper introduces a system of terrestrial laser scanning as a part of an analysis of two different types of public spaces, one in the city of Nitra (Župné Námestie) and the other in ruralPodhorany (a square connected to a street), presenting. The system and advantages of the process. The obtained data were processed with Leica Cyclone software. After importing the data, RGB point values of the photographs that had been obtained with an internal camera scanner were assigned to all the scans. Point Cloud data gathered in Podhorany was registered manually, while Župné square in Nitra was scanned from a single stand-point, so no manual processing was necessary. Interactive documents, which offer opportunities to measure the distance, size and RGB values of various components of the places, were created from complex point clouds, with Leica TruView SiteMap being used to create such documents. The advantage of this technology is that it saves time, the application is simple and there is no need for terrain map documentation, measure-tapes, observations and data origination. It offers easy views, section monitoring and exactly shows the visual impact of various elements. Data are saved in memory and the values can be re-measured anytime, if necessary. It is also possible to create views in different perspectives or a precise image of a plan view in a very short time. Scanning technology records the current condition of spaces, though movement cannot be measured. Collected pictures and data show the actual condition, values and changes over time. Keywords: terestrical laser scanning, public spaces, analyses of public spaces Introduction Material and methods A large bibliography that describes the topic of public spaces is available (Aghostin-Sangar, 2007; Gehl and Gemzoel, 2004; Gehl, 2010; Jacobs, 2010; Kristiánová 2011; Madanipour, 2003; Miková, Paulíková and Pauliniová, 2010; Šilhánková, 2008; Tilley, Šilhánková and Navrátilová, 1996). It is necessary to know the condition of a public space when creating it, so an analysis should be done. Data can be divided into exact measurable values (height, distance, traffic and values) and observed values (paths of pedestrians, qualitative values of the buildings, genius loci of the place, safety, quality of greenery...). Terestrical scanning saves the most time, is accurate and the optimal methodology for gathering important information. Scanning took place on 25th March, 2014 between, 12:00 noon and 2:00 pm. A Leica C10 laser scanner was used. Two types of public places were analyzed: one in the rural village of Podhorany – Sokolníky (a public square in front of the village church connected to a street for cars and pedestrians) and the other in the city of Nitra (Župné Square). In order to choose optimal scanning positions, an initial reconnaissance of the selected area has to be done. In Podhorany three scanning positions were selected, while only position was used in the case of Župné Square. Field vision was set to H360° V270° and mediumquality density measurement was performed since this *Correspodence: Dominika Titková, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering, Department of Garden and Landscape Architecture, Tulipánová 7, 949 01 Nitra, Slovakia Dominika Titková et al.: Terestrical laser scanning applied to analyses of public spaces, pp. 111–114 – 111 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Figure 3 Figure 1 Scanning process level of detail is sufficient for the needs of the areas to be analyzed. Photos obtained with the scanner’s internal camera were taken with an automatic exposure setting. No HDS targets were used in the scanning, making the work considerably more efficient. Terrestrial laser scanning is quite well known, working on the principle of detailed non-selective gathering of Figure 2 Point cloud without and with adding of RGB values (Podhorany) spatial data that is based on a spatial-polar method using a non-prism rangefinder. There are several options to process the obtained data (point clouds). In each case of processing, there has to be registration, which means transforming particular point clouds into a single grid system. The obtained data were processed with Leica Cyclone software. After importing the data, RGB point values of the photographs acquired with an internal camera scanner Manual registration of point clouds – common point – church tower Dominika Titková et al.: Terestrical laser scanning applied to analyses of public spaces, pp. 111–114 – 112 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Figure 4 Point cloud without and with adding of RGB values (Župné Square) complex point clouds. These views can also be published online. The available data can be used to analyze public spaces with the option of measuring distances and sizes, or of observing the RGB values of individual objects and views. Such data was created with a Leica TruView SiteMap application. Techniques of gathering data for spatial analyses of public places and data for the architecture and buildings are diverse, where the difference is mainly in the level of detail. Specific constructions requiring high accuracy is demanded for specific constructions and objects. The documents that are acquired are then used by structural engineers, restorers, historians and architects as materials. Analyzing public spaces does not demand such detailed materials. When scanning a public space in a city, a disadvantage is the presence of more disturbing elements (moving people and vehicles, rain) that leads to timeconsuming data filtration. Conclusion Figure 4 Site Map of partial scans (Podhorany, Župné Square) were assigned to each camera scan. Point Cloud data gathered in Podhorany was registered manually. Joining the obtained data requires a determination of the common points in the space. In Podhorany, this was the church tower between the first and second standpoint, while the third standpoint was the corner of a office building. An absolute transformation error of 9 mm was generated. Župné Square in Nitra was scanned from one standpoint, so no manual processing necessary. Results and discussion Documents in the form of an interactive view were created from Terestrical laser scanning was used to gather, analyze, process and evaluate data at two specific public spaces, one in the village of Podhorany village and the other at Župné Square in the city of Nitra. The advantage of this technology is that it saves time, the application is simple and there is no longer any need for terrain map documentation, measuring tapes, observations and data origination. It offers easy views and section monitoring, exactly showing the visual impact of various elements on the space. Date can be obtained anytime when is required. Data are saved in memory and can be re-measured any time when necessary. It is also possible to create views in different perspectives or a precise image of a plan view in a very short time. Only an expert or trained engineer can work with the technology that has been described, so it is necessary Dominika Titková et al.: Terestrical laser scanning applied to analyses of public spaces, pp. 111–114 – 113 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Acknowledgement The contribution was elaborated thanks financial supporting by the grant No. KEGA 001SPU-4/2014 and VEGA 1/0769/12. References Figure 6 Interactive view with the option of distance measurement between particular points (Podhorany) Figure 7 Interactive view with the option of distance measurement between particular points (Župné Square) Figure 8 Heavy traffic at Župné Square to know and understand the process and the principle of data processing. The technology records the current condition of the spaces. Movement cannot be measured AGHOSTIN-SANGAR, V. 2007. Human behaviour in public spaces. Thesis. Sydney. str. 8. [online]. Dostupné na: http://w w w.be.unsw.edu.au/sites/ default/files/upload/pdf/schools_and_ engagement/resources/_notes/5A2_1. pdf GEHL, J. – GEMZOE, L. 2004. Public Spaces, Public Life. Danish Architectural Press. ISBN 978-87-7407-305-5. GEHL, J. 2010. Cities for People. Island Press. ISBN 978-1597265737. JACOBS, A. B. 1995. Great streets. MIT Press, 1995 in Better streets plan. San Francisco. Policies and Guidelines for the pedestrian realm, 2010, p. 7. KRISTIÁNOVÁ, K. 2011. Vegetačné štruktúry vidieckeho sídla ako súčasť genia loci a predmet obnovy vidieka. In: Urbanistické, architektonické a technické aspekty obnovy vidieka X. Obnova duchovného, kultúrneho a ekonomického potenciálu vidieka. Zborník referátov z konferencie s medzinárodnou účasťou. Bratislava : STU, 2011, p. 15–19. ISBN 978-80-227-3536-0. MADANIPOUR, A. 2003. Public and Private Spaces of the city. London, New York : Routlege. Taylor and French Group, 2003 MIKOVÁ, K. – PAULÍKOVÁ, M. – PAULINIOVÁ, Z. 2010. Verejné priestory. Ako tvoriť priestory s príbehom, pre ľudí a s ľuďmi. Nadácia Ekopolis, 2010. ISBN 978-80-89505-00-5. ŠILHÁNKOVÁ, V. 2008. Veřejné prostory našich měst. In: Veřejná správa. 2008. [online]. Dostupné na: <http://aplikace.mvcr.cz/archiv2008/ casopisy/s/2003/0006/pril_3.html>. TILLEY, J. – ŠILHÁNKOVÁ, V. – NAVRÁTILOVÁ, J. 1996. Metodika operativního zlepšení veřejného prostoru. Výpis. 1996. United States Peace Corps, Washington D.C. Útvar hlavního architekta, Magistrát města Brna (ÚHA MMB) Brno, 1996. with this application. The collected pictures and data show the actual condition, values and changes over time. Dominika Titková et al.: Terestrical laser scanning applied to analyses of public spaces, pp. 111–114 – 114 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering USE OF TERRESTRIAL LASER SCANNING IN THE PRECISE DETERMINATION OF GEOMETRICAL FEATURES CHANGES OF GINKGO BILOBA L. Ľuboš MORAVČÍK Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Slovakia This contribution is aimed at utilization of terrestrial laser scanning for geometrical feature extraction of the single tree, whereby the basic geometrical properties like tree height, shape and volume of the stem and crown, orientation and length of primary branches were under examination. Modern computer graphics like point clouds postprocessing and 3d vector graphics was used for precise determination of spatial and geometrical changes of the tree parameters in the period of two years. KEYWORDS Keywords: Introduction High speed 3D-laser scanners measure up to 1 million points/second between the instrument and its surrounding at regular horizontal and vertical angles (Shan and Thoth, 2008), which increased the resolution of the resulting 3D-point clouds dramatically, so this method can be used for measuring of complete tree structure from both terrestrial and mobile equipment. Data acquisition with remote sensing is coming to the front of attention, because technics based on laser and optical sensors like laser scanning and photogrammetry provide spatial and metric data for further extraction and derivation of various information. The objective of this contribution is an extraction of precise geometric data from single tree point model obtained from high resolution ground laser scanning. Following parameters of the tree models were evaluated: (1) Diameter of the trunk at breast height; (2) Height of the tree; (3) Canopy shape and volume; (4) Primary branches layout and length. sections in closed forms like polygons (Wezyk et al., 2007) or circles (This and Spiecker, 2004). The trunk detection in this contribution is based on horizontal cross-sectional slices derivated from the point cloud model of the tree. The tree height can be calculated as the vertical distance between the projected ground point and highest point of the tree. The acquisition of the point model of Ginkgo biloga L. tree was performed by 3D laser scanner Leica C10, whereby the 2 measurements from two opposite sides were taken (Fig. 2). The particular scans were registered Material The terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) was performed on the single Ginkgo biloba L. whereby tree point model acquisition in two different period of time 04/2012 and 03/2014 was done. The scanning was accomplished on 360°/270° degree (horizontal/vertical field of view with a “high“ resolution (0.05 m/0.05 m on 100 m). The data acquisition (scanning/picture taking), registration, point cloud cleaning and multi image applying were done by author. Method of Reconstruction and Modeling Single tree parameter estimations are commonly based on points height above the ground. The crown shape can be described by the set of horizontal and/or vertical *Correspodence: Figure 1 Vector model of the Ginkgo biloba L. tree (crown shape modeling by the set of closed horizontal polygons) Ľuboš Moravčík, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering, Department of Garden and Landscape Architecture, Tulipánová 7, 949 01 Nitra, Slovakia Ľuboš Moravčík: Use of terrestrial laser scanning in the precise determination of geometrical features changes of Ginkgo biloba L., pp. 115–117 – 115 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Figure 2 Southern-side view on the registered point cloud model of the Ginkgo biloba L. in HDS-Cyclone/Register software and the final point cloud was cleaned and cut around the tree. A binary form of point cloud *.PTS was exported from HDS Cyclone software and trough Autodesk RECAP utility prepared for importing into AutoCAD vector editor for final postprocessing. The horizontal sections of the final point cloud were performed at the bottom of the trunk, brest height (+1.30 m above the ground) and at additional elevations in the vertical distance of +1.00 m (Fig. 1). The vector model of the tree trunk was created by the means of lofting function applied on the block of Figure 3 Horizontal slice of the point cloud model of the Ginkgo biloba L. (03/2012) at the +6.30 m height front view (above) and top view (below) Figure 4 Ľuboš Moravčík: Use of terrestrial laser scanning in the precise determination of geometrical features changes of Ginkgo biloba L., pp. 115–117 – 116 – Axonometric view on vector model of Ginkgo biloba L. tree (consisting of stem and primary branches) Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Figure 5 Extraction and modeling of the trunk diameter at the breast height (DBH) Table 1 Evaluation of derivated and calculated geometrical features changes of the Ginkgo biloba Geometrical parameter Value of parameter Increase 2012–2014 investigation of single tree. The measurements of leafless Ginkgo biloba L. tree were taken in time-period of 2 years (03/2012 and 03/2014), whereby the specific geometrical parameters like primary branch lengths, stem diameter and heading, crown volume, etc. were compared. For the graphical postprocessing of point clouds the vector editor AutoCAD 2015 and point cloud software HDS Cyclone were used. Further research will be aimed at automated extracting of geometrical parameters from point model of single tree obtained by terrestrial laser scanning. Acknowledgements This work was co-funded by European Community under project no. 26220220180: Building Research Centre “AgroBioTech”. 03/2012 03/2014 absolute relative 12.97 13.33 0.36 2.78% 226 236 10 4.42% References 0.14405 0.14577 0.00172 1.19% Crown volume in m3 128.18 137.12 8.94 6.97% Total primary branches length (summary in m 127.87 128.79 0.92 0.72% BROLLY, G. B. 2013. Locating and parameter retrieval of individual trees from terrestrial laser scanner data. Ph.D. Dissertation. Sopron : The University of West Hungary, 2013, pp. 101. PFEIFER, N. – WINTERHALDER, D. 2004. Modeling of tree cross sections from terrestrial laser scanning data with free form curves. In: International Archives of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, vol. 36, no. 8/W2, pp. 76–82. SHAN, J. – TOTH, C. (Eds). 2008. Topographic Laser Ranging and Scanning, CRC Press.9 Soudarissanane, In: S., Lindenbergh R, Gorte, B. 2008 Reducing the error in terrestrial laser scanning by Optimizing the measurement set-up, ISPRS Congress, 2008, no. B5, pp. 615. THIES, M. – SPIECKER, H. 2004. Evaluation and future prospects of terestrial laser scanning for standardized forest inventories. In: Thies, M., Koch, B., Spiecker, H., Weinacker, H. (ed), Laser Scanners for Forest and Landscape Assessment. International Archives of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, vol. 36, 2004, no. 8/W2. WEZYK, P. – KOZIOL, K. – GLISTA, M. – PIERZCHALSKI, M. 2007. Terestrial laser scanning versus traditional forest inventory first results from the polish forests. ISPRS Workshop on Laser Scanning 2007 and Silvilaser 2007, Espoo, Finnland, September 12–14, 2007, pp 424– 430. Tree hight in m DBH in mm Stem volume in m 3 12 circles. The CAD-model of the tree crown is represented as a group of horizontal polygons forming the envelopes of the points cloud at corresponding elevations (Fig. 3). The primary branches were generated manually and represented in the form of 3d-polylines connected to trunk model (Fig. 4). Results and discussion The basic feature extracted from the registered point cloud model was the diameter of the trunk at brest height (Fig. 5). Additionally other geometrical parameters like tree height, stem and crown volume and length of primary tdifference between the highest measurement point and the ground height at trunk location. In order to get the ground height, DTM was used. The result is a compared parameters of the reconstructed tree stem, crown and primary branches. The differences in evaluation of specified parameters are shown in Table 1, which contains compared parameters of the investigated tree graphically derivated from high resolution point models. The differences are given in both relative and absolute values. Conclusions This paper presents an approach to extract geometrical parameters (like primary branch lengths, stem and crown volume, etc.) from precise single Ginkgo biloba L. tree model based on the terrestrial laser scanning and graphical postprocessing. On selected tree measurements were taken in time interval of two years (03/2012 and 03/2014). This contribution deals with use of modern information technologies like terrestrial laser scanning and 3d graphical postprocessing in the process of geometrical changes Ľuboš Moravčík: Use of terrestrial laser scanning in the precise determination of geometrical features changes of Ginkgo biloba L., pp. 115–117 – 117 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering CURRENT METHODS OF ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION OF URBAN TREES IN SLOVAKIA Zuzana ĎURÁNOVÁ, Viera PAGANOVÁ Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Slovakia This article provides an overview of the methods for inventory, assessment and economic evaluation of the urban trees in Slovakia, according to the possibility of its application. The objective of this paper is to identify current methods used and determinate the reason why they are used in practice. We analysed what causes the problem in decision-making process of urban trees. Keywords: urban tree inventory, methods of visual assessment, economic value of urban trees Introduction In Slovakia the various methods of inventory, assessment and evaluation of urban trees have been applied for a large range of the purposes including planning, maintaining and monitoring of the trees growing in urban areas. These methods differ from each other not only in the type of input data, but especially in the character of the obtained information describing the current state, functions, benefits, ecosystem services and value of urban trees. According to Raček and Činčurová (2008), the oldest method used in landscape architecture was compiled by Machovec (1987). This method deals with dimensional parameters of the trees – tree height, perimeter of the trunk, diameter of the crown, estimates the age of the tree, and its aesthetic value including actual condition of the tree with respect to signs of senescence and damage. Pejchal (1997, 2005) elaborated method for assessment of the “tree vitality” which takes measure on physiological (damage and reaction to damage) and biomechanical mechanical (resistance to break) part Method for phytopathological assessment of the trees in urban areas has been elaborated by Juhásova and Serbinová (1997). The other authors (Supuka, 1997; Reháčková and Pauditšová, 2006) dealt with methods of the evaluation of vegetation in the urban environment for landscape planning. Kubišta (2011) focused on greenery in historic parks with respect to its compositional value. For effective management of urban trees the reliable information about their actual condition is important. According to Horáček (2012) each design and maintenance of urban trees respecting the law must be based on inventory and visual assessment. Each method for assessment of the urban trees should correspond to the particular objective of the study and use appropriate *Correspodence: parameters that would clearly describe condition and specific value of the tree. This raises the question what method should be selected for what specific purpose to make a correct decision making concerning the urban trees. The objective of this work is to identify the most commonly used methods of inventory, assessment and evaluation of urban trees and determine the objective of its applications in practice in Slovakia. Material and methods 43 documents elaborated by experts and professionals dealing with trees (published on line on web) were used as data source for study of the purposes of inventory, assessment and evaluation of urban trees in Slovakia during the last ten years. The methodology is based on literature review. The obtained information was assorted in the table according to the rate of the application and objectives. Within the analysis of the obtained data we try to understand the different approach of the practitioners and experts working with urban trees and establish the basic principles for choice of the representative method of tree assessment. Results Based on analysis of 43 documents for planning and maintenance of urban trees in Slovakia it is possible to declare that: 1. There are several methods for assessment and evaluation of trees used by professionals in Slovakia. They often represent a combination of the same, or similar parameters combined each other. The most frequently used method is Methodology for determination of “social value of tree”, which is established by Act No. 543/2002 of Collection of Acts Zuzana Ďuránová, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering, Department of Planting Design and Maintenance, Tulipánová 7, 949 76 Nitra, Slovakia, e-mail: [email protected] Zuzana Ďuránová, Viera Paganová: Current methods of assessment and evaluation of urban trees in Slovakia, pp. 118–121 – 118 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering about protection of the nature and landscape (“Act about protection of the nature and landscape”). “The social value of tree” expresses biological, ecological and cultural value of the protected plant species, trees and habitats. This parameter is determined by rarity, endangerment of the species and performance of the non-production functions” (§ 95 of the Act). Edict of NC SR No. 24/2003of listed Act determinates the economic value of urban trees according to species and dimensions of trees. This value depends on “relative age” of tree (it is estimated for longlived or short-lived trees). Methodology for assessment of the social value of tree considers also some indexes. The index of damage and negative impact of tree (on static conditions of buildings, utilities etc.) reduces the monetary value of particular tree. Other indexes, based Table 1 on functional impact of tree in surrounding area, its rarity or cultural and historical value can increase the monetary value of tree. 2. The same method of inventory, assessment or evaluation of urban trees is applied for different purposes in practice. One method is often used with multiple objectives. Table 1 describes the scale of different purposes to which the methods of inventory, visual assessment and evaluation of urban trees are applied in practice. The basic characteristics of a tree (location, taxonomy, dendrometric parameters etc.) are included under each of these methods. Acquired information is suitable for calculation of the ”social value of tree” and standard maintenance cost. But these parameters are usually Aims and purposes for the visual assessment of urban trees that has been done in Slovakia between years 2003–2013 Aims and purposes Applied methodology Machovec (1987) Pejchal (1997, 2005) Juhásová (2009) Dobrucká (2011) Social value of tree Tree inventory Identification of number of trees in the area Identification of species structure Identification of age structure Measurement of dendrometric parameters Assessment of current state of tree Assessment of damage of trees Assessment of vitality (condition) of trees Assessment of biomechanical stability (static) of trees Assessment of future perspective (vigorousness) of trees Assessing the aesthetic (landscaping) value of trees Evaluation of economic value (price or cost) of trees Calculation of the economic value of trees in € Calculation the price of the replacement plantings in € Calculation of the compensation for damaged or felled trees in € Calculation of the maintenance costs Decision making Making decision for tree felling Making materials for development of urban reality Making Environmental Impact Assessment Making Land Use Planning Document (Document of Tree Care) The measured/estimated parameter is presented in grey colour Zuzana Ďuránová, Viera Paganová: Current methods of assessment and evaluation of urban trees in Slovakia, pp. 118–121 – 119 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering used in Slovakia by professionals is the methodology for determination of the “social value of tree” established by “Act about protection of the nature and landscape” and its later regulations (Edict of NC SR No. 24/2003 and No. 158/2014). It includes similar parameters than other methodologies. It can be applied for tree inventory, assessment of tree damage and economic evaluation of urban trees. The exact data from the inventory are used to determinate the monetary value of tree. This value changes according to the other more or less subjective parameters (evaluation of site, function, protection etc.). More detailed description of damage of tree is missing in this methodology. Obtained knowledge will be useful for making further research direction what will be oriented on determination of different types of habitual defects and damages of trees in urban areas. Figure 1 Number of documents with methodology applied for inventory, assessment and evaluation of urban trees in Slovakia between years 2003–2013. Quantification was done from 43 on-line documents elaborated for greenery planning and management obtained using different equipment and various scale of measurement depending on applied methodology. Assessment of the current state of a tree is more complicated. According to Hrubík et al. (2011) each method is specific and has different demand on time, knowledge, experience and skills. The methods based on some parameters (tree damage, vitality, stability etc.) are hardly comparable, what leads to misunderstanding between them and non-uniform interpretation of the results (Horáček, 2012). The obtained information is then rather subjective and assessment that is done according to non-reliable parameter cause problem in decision-making. The economic evaluation of trees is represented by the “Social value of tree” (given in euros). It is provided according to the prevailing Edict of NC SR No. 158/2014 of Collection of Acts. This methodology include the assessment of damage of a tree (hard damage – more than 60% damaged tree, strong damage – tree is damaged in range between 26% and 60%, slight damage – damage of tree is very low between 11% and 25%). But this methodology does not contain more detailed information about how to determine the damage of tree. Conclusion The results showed what methods of inventory, assessment and evaluation of urban trees are currently used in Slovakia and for what purpose they are applied in praxis. The method for inventory, assessment and evaluation of urban trees which is the most frequently Acknowledgements This work is supported by grant KEGA 012SPU-4/2013 Program of the lifelong learning for arborists in Slovakia (2013–2015). References Act No. 543/2002 of Collection of Acts, about protection of nature and landscape. EDICT of NC SR No. 24/2003 of Collection of Acts. EDICT of NC SR No. 158/2014 of Collection of Acts. DOBRUCKÁ, A. 2011. Invertarizácia drevín, krajinno-architektonické úpravy obce Lukáčovce. [online] Dostupné na: <http://www.lukacovce.sk/data/File/ Atelier_Dobrucka/Atelier_DobruckaKrajinnoarchitektonicke_upravy_obce_ Lukacovce-inventarizacia_drevin.pdf> HORÁČEK, P. 2012. Systémový přístup v pohledu na stromy aneb vizuální hodnocení stromů stejne a přesto jinak. In: Strom pro život – život pro strom XI. / Stromy pod lupou – smysl, možné způsoby a praktické využití hodnocení stromů. Praha : SZKT, 2012, pp. 11–14. ISBN 978-80-86950-12-9. HRUBÍK, P. – KOLLÁR, J. – ROVNÁ, K. – TKÁČOVÁ, S. – MŇAHONČÁKOVÁ, E. 2011. Zuzana Ďuránová, Viera Paganová: Current methods of assessment and evaluation of urban trees in Slovakia, pp. 118–121 – 120 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Kvalitatívna inventarizácia, klasifikácia a hodnotenie zdravotného stavu dřevin pre účely záhradno-architektonickej a krajinárskej tvorby. Nitra : SPU, 2011, 99 pp. ISBN 978-80-552-0651-6. JUHÁSOVÁ. G. 2009. Hodnotenie drevín. [online], Dostupné na: <http://www.zahradaweb.cz/informace-z-oboru/verejnazelen/Hodnotenie-drevin__s517x45050.html> JUHÁSOVÁ, G. – SERBÍNOVÁ, K. 1997. Metódy hodnotenia zdravotného stavu drevín v mestskom prostredí. Pestovanie a ochrana rastlín v mestskom prostredí, ošetrenie chránených a pamätných stromov. Nitra : Ústav ekológie lesa SAV, 1997, pp. 40–69. KOLAŘÍK, J. et al. 2003. Péče o dřeviny rostoucí mimo les. I. díl. (Metodika ČSOP č. 5.). 2. dopln. vyd. Vlašim : ČSOP, 2003, 87 pp. ISBN 80-86327-36-1. KOLAŘÍK, J. et al. 2010. Péče o dřeviny rostoucí mimo les. II. díl. (Metodika ČSOP č. 6.). 3. dopln. vyd. Vlašim : ČSOP, 2010, 696 pp. ISBN 978-80-86327-85-3. KRAJČOVIČOVÁ, D. – RAČEK, M. 2008. Vyhodnotenie údržby porastov drevín. In: Acta Environmentalica Universitatis Comenianae, vol. 16, 2008, no. 1, pp. 56–63. ISSN 1335-0285. KUBIŠTA, R. 2011. Obnova historickej zelene. Nitra : SPU, 2011, 116 pp. ISBN 978-80-552-0727-8. MACHOVEC, J. 1982. Sadovnícka dendrologie. Praha : SPN, 1982, 246 pp. MACHOVEC, J. 1987. Hodnocení vzrostlé zeleně v městkých pracích. In: Životné prostredie, vol. 21, 1987, no. 3, pp. 134–139. ÖSTBERG, J. 2013. Trees Inventories in the Urban Environment – Methodological Development and New Applications. Doctoral Thesis. Alnarp : Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 2013, 78 pp. ISBN 978-91-576-7797-6. PEJCHAL, M. 1997. Hodnocení vitality stromu. In: Mestský park. Nitra : SPU, 1997, pp. 9–38. PEJCHAL, M. 2005. Hodnocení vitality dřevin z pohledu záhradní a krajinné tvorby. In: Dreviny vo verejnej zeleni. Zvolen : Ústav ekológie lesa SAV, 2005, pp. 39–46. RAČEK, M. – ČINČUROVÁ, D. 2008. Application differences in methods for evaluating trees in Slovak conditions. In: Journal of Landscape Studies, 2008, pp. 189–192. REHÁČKOVÁ, T. –PAUDITŠOVÁ, E. 2006. Vegetácia v urbánnom prostredí. Bratislava : Cicero s. r. o., 2006, 132 pp. ISBN 80-969614-1-1. SUPUKA, J. 1997. Monitoring drevín v sídlach – metodické možnosti. In: Aktuálne problémy tvorby a ochrany zelene. Nitra : SPU, 1997, pp. 27–30. TREES IN URBAN STRUCTURE OF RURAL RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS – THE CASE OF BRATISLAVA, SLOVAKIA Katarína KRISTIÁNOVÁ*, Katarína GÉCOVÁ, Eva PUTROVÁ Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Slovakia Suburbanisation processes and various aspects of their manifestation belong to the most discussed topics in contemporary urban and landscape planning. One of the characteristic features of suburban residential urban structures is the homogeneity of mono-function private residential parcels and absence of public space and its diversity. These architectural and urban design characteristics predetermine the possibilities of woody plants – trees existence within the urban spatial structure. The paper describes the characteristics of urban structure of suburban residential areas as a factor creating basic spatial preconditions for tree performance and presents the results of the research in the cadastral areas of village settlements near Bratislava. Keywords: urban trees, suburban residential structure, urban greenery Introduction Suburbanization is most often characterized as a process of moving city dwellers to the city suburbs or into the surrounding rural village settlements. The beginnings of this process occurred in Slovakia since the nineties of the 20th century. Apart from the seventies and eighties, when people moved into cities, in the nineties the concentration tendencies began gradually to change and the deconcentration tendencies started to *Correspodence: manifest themselves by moving the city population to the countryside. The villages, where the processes of suburbanization exhibit themselves most sharply, are located in the hinterland of the largest Slovak towns. The process of suburbanization is linked with agglomeration tendencies, too – the nuclear town attracts into its hinterland immigrants from distant regions (Sopirová, 2011). In Slovakia, the processes of suburbanization and agglomeration are most characteristic for the villages in Katarína Kristiánová, Institute of Landscape and Garden Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Slovakia, e-mail: [email protected] Katarína Kristiánová, Katarína Gécová, Eva Putrová: Trees in urban structure of rural residential suburbs – the case of Bratislava, Slovakia, pp. 121–124 – 121 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering the hinterland of the capital Bratislava. Negative aspects of suburbanisation processes, for example conflicts with interests of landscape protection, agricultural land preservation, or changes of the character and identity of the rural landscapes and rural settlements (Štěpánková and Bihuňová, 2013), etc., belong to the most discussed topics in contemporary urban and landscape planning (Štěpánková and Kristiánová, 2012). Suburbanization and agglomeration processes cause rapid growth of the rural village settlements around nuclei towns and cause significant changes of the village settlements urban structure, especially on borders, in the landscape contact areas (Sopirová, 2011). The design of the urban spatial forms of suburban residential housing often does not meet the desires “to get closer to nature” (Vitková and Kollár, 2007). The processes of suburban residential development also significantly affect the character of vegetation structures typical for village settlements, which are traditionally perceived as a factor in a significant way creating genius loci, or identity of „rurality” associated with village settlements. Vegetation, greenery of family private gardens, cemeteries, churches, school campuses, vegetation of historic parks and gardens, landscape greenery of surrounding countryside infiltrating into urban structure, etc., creates an essential part of the traditional heterogeneous multifunctional urban structure of rural settlement (Gécová, 2013). However, the characteristic feature of the new development of suburban residential structures is the homogeneity of mono-functional small-sized private residential parcels and the absence of public space and its diversity (Štěpánková and Kristiánová, 2012). We presume that these characteristics of urban structure influence the characteristics of vegetation structures in rural suburban residential areas. The architectural and urban design characteristics of the rural suburban residential areas predetermine the possibilities of woody plants – trees existence within the urban spatial structure. We presume that the spatial limits of small-sized parcels of suburban residential zones, limited spatial dimensions of streets and absence of diverse public spaces markedly limit the opportunities and possibilities of woody plants – trees existence within the urban spatial structure and the use of woody plants – trees in landscape design. aerial photographs of the area of suburban residential structures have been used. Available urban planning documents and projects of residential zones have been examined, as well as, the research on particular sites has been conducted. The research followed main steps: 1. identification of the contemporary patterns and the spatial potential of trees and tree formations existence within public spaces of suburban residential structure, 2. identification of the contemporary patterns and the spatial potential of trees and tree formations existence within private garden spaces of suburban residential structure. Material and methods 1. The research of contemporary patterns and the spatial potential of trees and tree formations existence within public spaces of suburban residential structure shows, that in public space the possibilities for the use of trees, or their spatial formations, as tree alleys or groups of trees, are limited. In most of the cases, the public space is reduced only for the needs of communication function. Prevailing typological form of public space is street, and The relationships between spatial conditions of public and private spaces and tree existence and performance have been examined in the cadastral areas of suburban residential zones of village settlements near Bratislava, on the development axis towards Senec – Ivánka pri Dunaji, Bernolákovo, Veľký Biel, Chorvátsky Grob, and Slovenský Grob. For the purposes of the research, the Results and discussion The results of the research of the residential suburban structures in the cadastral areas of the villages – Ivánka pri Dunaji, Bernolákovo, Veľký Biel, Chorvátsky Grob, Slovenský Grob Ivánka pri Dunaji, Bernolákovo, Veľký Biel, Chorvátsky Grob and Slovenský Grob prove the characteristic feature of suburban residential quarters – absence of diversity of public spaces and homogeneity of mono-functional small-sized private residential parcels. The urban structure is usually composed in forms of streets and private plots of family houses, and the dimensions of public space of street structure and dimensions of private parcels follow the economic and financial interest of developers towards land use (Fig. 1). Figure 1 Typical urban structure of rural residential suburbs in Chorvátsky Grob – Čierna Voda: homogeneity of mono-functional small-sized private residential parcels and absence of public space and its diversity limit spatial possibilities of tree existence Source: Google Earth Katarína Kristiánová, Katarína Gécová, Eva Putrová: Trees in urban structure of rural residential suburbs – the case of Bratislava, Slovakia, pp. 121–124 – 122 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Figure 2 Typical street of rural residential suburbs in Chorvátsky Grob – Čierna Voda, its parameters allow only traffic access Photograph: Kristiánová, 2014 Figure 3 The spatial conditions of urban structure limit the size of trees. Chorvátsky Grob – Čierna Voda Photograph: Kristiánová, 2014 Figure 4 Density of the low-rise residential structure does not allow the woody plants to exceed the height of the roofs of the family houses. Chorvátsky Grob – Čierna Voda Photograph: Kristiánová, 2014 its parameters, usually 6 m wide corridor, most often allow only traffic access, without the possibility of accompanying greenery, also in respect to restrictions put by technical infrastructure, which uses the street corridor, too. In some cases trees of small dimensions, with limited spatial parameters (height, size of crown), in tree row or tree alley formations are applicable (Figure 2). Specific conditions of public space of suburban environment create only very limited possibilities for the trees and their spatial formations utilization and for the woody plant species and cultivars choice. Lack of typological diversity of public spaces means the lack of public greenery in urban structure. Only few cases in the examined area are found, which bring diversification into public spaces – for example by integration of commercial services – shopping centres, or by use of different concepts of residential housing with common green public spaces, what gives spatial opportunities for existence of sizeable solitaire trees or tree groups performance. In examined area, for example the project Triangel offers an artificial pond as a„central relaxing zone“, fulfilling aesthetic-relaxation function, and in the same time catch-water and hydro-melioration function for the whole residential area. 2. The research of the contemporary patterns and spatial potential of trees and tree formations existence in private garden spaces of suburban residential structure shows that in private space of the private gardens the possibilities for the use of trees are limited, too. Index of built up area of the small-area parcels (ranging from 450 m2 to 650 m2, mostly around 500 m2) is high, from 0.35 to 0.55 in average, again giving only limited spatial conditions for sizeable solitaire trees or tree groups performance. Only small-sized trees or trees kept small by pruning have Katarína Kristiánová, Katarína Gécová, Eva Putrová: Trees in urban structure of rural residential suburbs – the case of Bratislava, Slovakia, pp. 121–124 – 123 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering been found in the private gardens of the examined area. The height of trees does not exceed the height of roofs of the family houses (Figure 3 and 4). The research of residential suburbs in hinterland of Bratislava proved the assumption, that the spatial limits of small-sized parcels of suburban residential zones, limited spatial dimensions of streets and absence of diverse public spaces markedly limit the opportunities and possibilities of woody plants – trees existence within the urban spatial structure and the use of woody plants – trees in landscape design. The urban structure of examined rural suburban residential areas does not give spatial conditions for existence of sizeable solitaire trees or sizeable tree groups performance both in public, as well as private space. Only trees of small dimensions, with limited spatial parameters, or trees of managed size are applicable. Sizeable trees, so typical for traditional heterogeneous multifunctional urban structure of rural settlements – in public spaces around churches, central social spaces or village squares (Bašová, 2004), cannot find their place in suburban residential structures. The research focused on spatial aspects of tree performance within urban structure of rural residential suburbs, but there are other interesting aspects. While for the private family gardens of traditional historical urban structure of village settlements is still typical their production use (Supuka, Feriancová and Tóth, 2013), represented for example by various fruit trees associated with identity of village settlements, the private gardens of residential suburbs fulfil mostly recreation, relaxation and aesthetic functions, what is reflected in assortment of woody plants – introduced, exotic, or evergreen are very popular. Conclusion Vegetation structures represent an important element, able to enhance aesthetic, architectural, cultural and ecological qualities of village settlements. Urban structure creates basic specific preconditions for utilization of trees as spatial elements in urban structure and creates specific requirements for utilization of tree species and their cultivars. The processes of suburban residential development significantly affect the character of vegetation structures typical for village settlements. According to the research results, it appears that creation of multifunctional heterogeneous environment, or application of various residential urban planning schemes, which are able to bring spatial differentiation into both public and private premises of urban structure, in the same time means better spatial conditions for trees existence and performance within urban structure. References SOPIROVÁ, A. 2011. Rezidenčná suburbanizácia a jej odraz vo vidieckych sídlach ležiacich v zázemí mesta Bratislavy. In: Člověk, stavba a územní plánování 5, Praha : ČVUT, 2011, pp. 57–65. ISBN 978-80-01-04753-8. ŠTĚPÁNKOVÁ, R. – KRISTIÁNOVÁ, K. 2012. Verejné priestory v urbanistickej štruktúre vidieckych rezidenčných suburbií Bratislavy. In: Člověk, stavba a územní plánování 6. Praha : ČVUT, 2012, pp. 178–182. ISBN 978-80-01-05025-5. VITKOVÁ, Ľ. – KOLLÁR, M. 2007. Koncepcia obytného prostredia v podmienkach vidieckych sídiel: Nové formy obytných štruktúr pre vidiek. In: Urbanistické, architektonické a technické aspekty obnovy vidieka VI.: Obnova duchovného, kultúrneho a ekonomického potenciálu vidieka. Bratislava : SvF STU, 2007, pp. 167–173. ISBN 978-80-227-2780-8. ŠTĚPÁNKOVÁ, R. – BIHUŇOVÁ, M. 2013. Urbanistickoarchitektonické dôsledky suburbanizácie obce Veľké Zálužie. In: Životné prostredie, vol. 46, 2013, no. 6, pp. 320–323. GÉCOVÁ, K. 2013. Rozvoj vidieckeho sídla verzus verejná zeleň. In: Ekologické štúdie, vol. 4, 2013, no. 2, pp. 15–23. ISSN 1338-2853. SUPUKA, J. – FERIANCOVÁ, Ľ. – TÓTH, A. 2013. Mestské poľnohospodárstvo – tradície a nové cesty rozvoja. In: Životné prostredie, vol. 47, 2013, no. 4, pp. 237–241. ISSN 1338-2853. BAŠOVÁ, S. 2004. Vidiecke námestie: charakter a funkcia reprezentačného spoločenského priestoru. In: Národná osveta, vol. 14, 2004, no. 11, pp. 12–13. ISSN 1335-4515. Katarína Kristiánová, Katarína Gécová, Eva Putrová: Trees in urban structure of rural residential suburbs – the case of Bratislava, Slovakia, pp. 121–124 – 124 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering NOTEWORTHY EXAMPLES OF GREENERY IN THE TOWN WITH A GREAT TOURISTIC POTENTIAL Katarzyna KAŁUŻNY*, Anna ZAJĄC, Ewa HANUS-FAJERSKA, Anna PINDEL University of Agriculture in Krakow, Poland With diminishing greenery areas in European cities there should be paid much attention to the art of sustainable public space creating. As covering buildings with vegetation is lately becoming popular approach, noteworthy examples of such modern greenery are presented on the example of Valencia city, vigorously developing capital of Autonomous Community of Valéncia. The inventory of ornamental plant species is also presented. Keywords: landscape architecture, green walls, modern gardens, public space Introduction The Region of Valencia belongs to seventeen autonomous region of Spain, and Valencia city is intensively developing capital of Autonomous Community of Valéncia, localized in eastern part of the country. The population inside administrative borders of the city is above eight hundred thousand, with population density 8 100 persons per square kilometer, so presently it is third largest Spanish city (Gallego et al., 2011; Goerlich and Cantarino, 2013]. Moreover, it is large urban centre with numerous historically important monuments, beautifully located on the Mediterranean seashore which attracts tourists from all over the world. In addition there are numerous interesting examples of modern architecture. Nowadays buildings are designed and constructed in such a way that the space between each other is very limited. Frequently there is literally neither possibility to admire the landscape nor to secure inhabitants to be taken with nature. Thus complementary green belt, and innovative ideas on its arrangement are necessary to supply all aesthetic, emotional, and intellectual demands of cities inhabitants (CABE Space, 2005; Peckowska, 2007; Wong and Chen, 2010). Newly created buildings are planned with the aim of protect the existing forms of green. The greenery are step by step becoming the integral part of the architectural designs. Therefore the objective of the study was to present some interesting examples of composing greenery within architecture. Valencia, the Spanish town with great touristic potential was chosen because this city can also attracts tourists by interesting implication of ornamental plants in urbanized space. Material and methods The area of investigation was noteworthy examples of Valencia modern greenery. As objects of the study were *Correspodence: chosen the site-specific public buildings, representing the examples of contemporary architecture. During the field-study performed in 2012 the inventory of the ornamental plant species, and the photographic record of analyzed objects were accomplished. The area of investigation was chosen taken into consideration current, rapidly developing approaches, when greenery are closely connected with architecture of the city. It leads to inventing quite new solutions of the use of plant material in urban space. The particular objects were typical of public buildings localized in main roads with heavy traffic. Results and discussion Research building of Valencia University Botanical Garden Valencia University Botanical Garden (Jardí Botànic de la Universitat de Valéncia) founded in 1567 for over two hundred years was mainly used to grow medicinal plants for students and their tutors (www.jardibotanic.org). The location of the Botanic Garden has been changing up to 1802, when it was transferred to Huerto de Tramoyeres near The Torres de Quard, where is currently situated (www.valencia.es). At present time the plant species grown in collection exceed in number three thousand of species originated from all five continents. The main are tropical trees, especially palms, and desert plants collections. In the year 1987 as reconstruction of the buildings was urgently needed people at positions of authority decided to restore the glory of El Botànic. The new building designed by two architects Carlosa Bento and Luisa Gay became modern center of science and a place for study. The most interesting concept of the building was design it in such a way as to keep growing specimen of South Katarzyna Kałużny, University of Agriculture in Krakow, Faculty of Horticulture, Institute of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, Unit of Botany and Plant Physiology, Al. 29 Listopada 54, 31-425 Kraków, Poland, e-mail: [email protected] Katarzyna Kałużny et al.: Noteworthy examples of greenery in the town with a great touristic potential, pp. 125–128 – 125 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Figure 1 Forms of landscape architecture in Valencia. A–C: Botanical Garden (phot. A. Zając); D–F: Estación de Telemando (phot. K. Kałużny); G–H: Estación Depuradora (G – phot. www.abc.es, H – A. Zając); I–J: Ciudad Politécnica de la Innovación (I – phot. www.via-arquitectura.net, J – phot. A. Zając); K–L: Palau de les Arts Reina Sofía (phot. A. Zając) Katarzyna Kałużny et al.: Noteworthy examples of greenery in the town with a great touristic potential, pp. 125–128 – 126 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering American Celtis australis – the tree, used to be located at the entrance to the garden which creates special atmosphere there (Fig. 1 A–B). Roofs over the galleries are planted with vines hanging down in the courtyard in harmony with the rest of the vegetation, which really adorns the entrance to the garden (Fig. 1C). Green walls and roofs of buildings of Central Operativa de Saneamiento del Ciclo Integral del Agua Green roofs have been made in April 2010 on buildings located along Avenida del Mediterráneo and Calle del Doctor Lluch, which belong to the Central Operativa de Saneamiento del Ciclo Integral del Agua (Estación Depuradora, Fig 1. G–H). At the same time green walls have also been accomplished (Estación de Telemando, Fig. 1. D–F). According to the Mayor of Valencia – Rita Barbera, this project has to launch ecofriendly trend that will be continued (www.valencia.es). The city has decided on such a solution not only for aesthetic, but also eco-friendly and economic reasons as green roofs and walls provide isolation from noise and heat. Application of green cover reduces in the summer the temperature on average about 5–8 ºC, while in winter allows to keep the temperature of the outside, increasing the energy efficiency of the building. Moreover, thanks to the large amount of absorbed carbon dioxide can reduced the occurrence of “heat islands” on the heavily urbanized areas (Wong and Chen, 2010; Kowalczyk, 2011), so as many as three walls of the Estacion de Telemano building were covered by plants (Fig. 1. D–F). The plant material was chosen not only for the appropriate climatic zone, but also paying attention to the whole composition. Yellow (e.g. Bulbinella, Santolina) or rouge (Dianthus) flowering species were combined with eye-catchnig green background formed from Pittosporum and Asparagus species and varieties (Fig. 2). As a result, the green walls with high decorative qualities were obtained. Park of Science in the Technical University in Valencia (Ciudad Politécnica de la Innovación) Park of Science at the Technical University in Valencia was designed by Luís Manuel Ferrer Obanos at the same time as a thoughtful, uncluttered layout (www.via-arquitectura. net). The aim of CPI is to combine the science with the business, conducing advanced research and promotion of innovation. Despite dense architecture in the urban area, the place for greenery was found. Numerous, evenly, planted deciduous trees whit white pebbles tightly covering the ground, fit into the climate of modern architecture. The paths arranged between bases made with wooden sleepers in order to make the space more comfortable and friendly (Fig. 1J). The only green element of the CPI space except woody plants, is overgrown with grasses, which emphasize the minimalistic architecture (Fig. 1I). Bulbinella sp. 20% 45% Dianthus sp. Santolina sp. 5% Figure 2 10% 20% Pittospoum sp. Asparagus sp. Genus inventory of the front wall of Estación Depuradora The Palace of Art Queen Sofia (Palau de les Arts Reina Sofía) Palau de les Arts Reina Sofía (Fig. 1K), designed by Santiago Calatrava (www.lesarts.com), is one of the buildings belonging to the Ciudad de las Artes y las Ciencias (City of Arts and Sciences). It is included to mostly visited places in the city of Valencia. Its construction was completed in October 2005 and since then it become the cultural centre of Valencia. It held numerous theatrical performances, banquets and concerts, it is also the Opera and the Orchestra of the Autonomous Community of Valencia. The architecture of the Palace of Arts Reina Sofía attracts with the sight of futuristic shape. On its specially exposed terraces numerous of plant species were placed , including the tall palms, which gave the spectators the substitute of a hanging garden. The aerodynamics shape of the Palau de les Arts Reina Sofía contrasts with the vertical form of cypress trees, which were planted around the building (Fig. 1L). Nowadays greenery becomes an integral part of architecture. Without being able to integrate the buildings with the landscape it is properly impossible to ensure residents with greater contact with nature. Covering of buildings fronts or roofs with plant material may be the solution. As stated by Peck and Callaghan (1999) or Trzaskowska (2010) the use of suitable plant material affects on building by protecting them from sunlight, extensively low temperatures, moreover definitely it helps to improve urban microclimate. According to the “Green Roofs” report the potential for biodiversity conserving in such areas is enormous (Myszak, 2010). The idea of garden creating on building’s roof has been discovered in ancient times, so it is almost as old as architecture (Kowalczyk, 2011; Szczepańska, 2010). Another interesting solution to the management of vertical Katarzyna Kałużny et al.: Noteworthy examples of greenery in the town with a great touristic potential, pp. 125–128 – 127 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering planes in the urban space could be vertical gardens, so called Green Walls designed for the first time in the 20th century by Patrick Blanc. Additionally, vertical surface of the building is usually larger than the roof, therefore green walls affect better on urban microclimate. Conclusion Although the space in the modern minimalistic building complexes is used to its maximum, it is possible to design there some interesting elements of greenery. The already existing projects or individual specimens of plants can be the inspiration to create some interesting architectural solutions. The arrangement of the vertical and horizontal planes with a suitable plant material is a solution which affects positively the urban environment, and at the same time increases the decorative values and aesthetic feelings of the dwellers. Acknowledgement Support of Erasmus Programme in Universitat Politécnica de Valéncia (Spain) and Research Special-purpose Fund of the University of Agriculture in Krakow are gratefully acknowledged. References CABE Space. 2005. Start with the park. Creating sustainable urban green spaces in areas of housing growth and renewal. In: Commission for Architecture & Built Environmen, 2005. ISBN 1-84633-0000-9. GALLEGO, F. J. – BATISTA, F. – ROCHA, C. – MUBAREKA S. 2011. Disaggregating population den city of the European Union with CORINE land cover. In: International Journal of Geographical Information Science, vol. 25, 2011. no. 12, pp. 2051–2069. DOI: 10.1080/13658816.2011.583653. GOERLICH, F. J. – CANTARINO I. 2013. A population density grid for Spain. In: International Journal of Geographical Information Science, vol. 27, 2013, no. 12, pp. 2247–2263. DOI: 10.1080/13658816.2013.799238. KOWALCZYK, A. 2011. Zielone dachy szansą na zrównoważony rozwój terenów zurbanizowanych. In: Zrównoważony Rozwój – Zastosowania, vol. 2, 2011, pp. 66–81. MYSZAK, A. 2010. Architektura, której integralną częścią jest zieleń. In: Budownictwo i Architektura, vol. 6, 2010, pp. 91–104. PECK, S. W. – CALLAGHAN, C. 1999. Greenbacks from green roofs: forging a new industry in Canada. Status report on benefits, barriers and opportunities for green roof and vertical garden technology diffusion. In: Canada Mortgage and Housting Corporation, Peck and Associates, 1999, pp. 9–17. PECKOWSKA, A. 2007. Zielona estetyka. Miasto. In: Czasopismo techniczne, Architektura, vol. 104, 2007, no. 1A, pp. 147–153. SZCZEPAŃSKA, M. 2010. Green roof – an unusual place of rest and recreation. www.studiaperigetica.pl/pub.10_4_2010. TRZASKOWSKA E. 2010. Wykorzystanie roślin w projektowaniu architektonicznym (pnącza, ogrody wertykalne). In: Teka. Kom. Arch. Urb. Stud. Krajobr, OL PAN, 2010, pp. 110–121. WONG, N. H. – CHEN, Y. 2010. The role of urban greenery in highdensity cities. In Ng, E. (Ed.) Designing high-density cities for social & environmental sustainability. London : The Cromwell Press Group, 2010, pp. 227–262. ISBN 978-1-84407-460-0. www.abc.es – Diario ABC www.jardibotanic.org – Jardí Botànic de la Universitat de Valéncia www.lesarts.com – Palau de les Arts Reina Sofía www.valencia.es – Ajuntament de Valencia www.via–arquitectura.net – Via Arquitectura Katarzyna Kałużny et al.: Noteworthy examples of greenery in the town with a great touristic potential, pp. 125–128 – 128 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering PLANTING SUSTAINABILITY? ON THE MANAGEMENT OF HEDGEROWS IN ALPINE BOCAGE LANDSCAPES Peter KURZ Vienna University of Technology, Austria The paper deals with hedgerows as a building material in cultural landscapes, focusing on the role of maintenance and management for their sustaining. Based on investigations carried out in several alpine regions, where hedgerow management has traditionally been an integrated of peasant farming systems, a typology of hedgerows has been elaborated and linked to certain patterns of management. Historical and current economic contexts of peasant farming systems have been considered. The presented “cycle of maintenance and rejuvenation” – founded on the basic techniques of trimming, pollarding and coppicing – subsumes some general and recurring principles of hedgerow management, as practiced by mountain farmers. Taking this scheme as groundwork, ongoing dynamics in alpine bocage landscapes could be identified and linked to the transformations in alpine farming systems. By retracing changes in hedgerow management and their economic backgrounds we may reconsider possible success or failure of current efforts in implementing new hedgerows in alpine landscapes, in order to improve their ecological and aesthetic qualities. It is argued that planting of hedgerows may only contribute to sustainability and diversity of rural landscapes, if they are integrated into the current farm households` practice, their farming systems and the underlying economies of labour. It can be observed that without adequate maintenance and management, planting of hedgerows is not only reduced to decoration, but beyond may even become a serious problem for cultivation of the agricultural land. The paper summarizes some central aspects from research that has been published in more detail in a book project. Keywords: cultural landscape, landscape management, agro-ecosystems, green infrastructure 1. Hedgerows as an outcome of cultivation Hedgerows are constitutive design elements of the rural countryside. They have been acknowledged for their various effects on agricultural ecosystems, as well as for their significance for landscape aesthetics. Baudry et al. (2000) have figured out their importance for biodiversity, microclimate, soil-stabilisation and water regulation in various regions of the world. They have emphasized the multifunctional character of hedgerows, but – beyond that – have pointed out their integrated role within agroecosystems: Hedgerows function as living fences, in order to separate arable- from pastureland, and they provide facilities to produce various kinds of wood, fodder and litter (see also: Kurz and Machatschek, 2001). Rackham (1988), Burel (1996) and many other have reminded us, that bocage landscapes are the outcome of political movements, aiming at the enclosure of open common land, in order to intensify agricultural production, and to optimize natural resource management in the age of pre fossil agro-ecosystems. In alpine regions, bocage landscapes have been established to replace and compensate peasants` various utilization of extensive forests (pasturing, wood, littering...) to provide the support for mining industries (Bauer, 1925; Koller, 1970; *Correspodence: Kurz et al., 2011). On that background, hedgerows have become an integrated part of peasant farming economies. Peasant farmers have been developing techniques and knowledge on their maintenance and management, referring to biological preconditions, economies of labour and the products to be harvested out of the hedgerows (Busch, 1989). All this underlines the fact, that hedgerows are cultural elements of landscape, not naturally stable, but being dependent on recurrent maintenance and management. Peasant farmers have been developing typical management patterns to sustain hedgerows in their morphology and to regenerate their natural productivity. They have found ways of rejuvenating hedges over decades and even centuries (Baudry et al., 2000; Kurz et al., 2011). However, currently we find considerable evidence for dynamics in bocage landscapes, having their reasons in changes in hedgerow management and its abandonment. On the other hand, efforts of nature conservation and landscape planning on conserving established bocage landscapes and promoting the planting of new hedgerows are well known. Debates on the concept of “green infrastructure”, have only recently updated the interest in hedgerows on European level (European Union, 2013). Within the Peter Kurz, Vienna University of Technology, Faculty of Architecture and Planning, Operngasse 11, 1040 Vienna, Austria, e-mail: [email protected]. Peter Kurz: Planting sustainability? On the management of hedgerows in Alpine bocage landscapes, pp. 129–134 – 129 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering “green infrastructure”-approach to landscape, planting of hedges is suggested as a measure to improve urban and rural countryside in terms of multifunctionality and resilience. This paper focuses on the management of hedgerows in alpine landscapes and their changes in time. We provide an outline of the basic principles of hedgerow management, as it has been practiced and perfected by peasant farmers over centuries. We further highlight some economic backgrounds and sketch linkages between various types of management, referring to groves most frequently employed in alpine hedgerow landscapes. Based on that analysis we figure out evidence for ongoing changes in hedgerow management, trying to set them in context to developments in the history of regional agricultural land uses. Concluding, we take our insights as a starting point for discussing the preconditions for sustainability of current efforts in planting hedgerows in agricultural landscapes as an attempt to improve landscape qualities. at a reconstruction of traditional knowledge on hedgerow management in context to the agricultural systems. Results of the investigations were organised in a typology of hedgerows, reflecting different management practices and regarding the diverse characteristics of wood species employed in alpine regions. d) Investigations on landuse history contained evaluation on historical archive data and literature on regional land-use history. 3. Results Chapters 3.1. to 3.3. summarize some of the basic findings from our studies: 3.1. presents a synthesis of management patterns that form the groundwork of maintenance and rejuvenation in alpine bocage landscapes. 3.2. sets these patterns in relation to the most widespread groves in alpine hedgerows and their utilisation, referring to their ecological and biological characteristics. In 3.3. a chronology of hedgerows and their management in the alpine regions is retraced by reconnecting current types of management to evidence in land-use history. 3.1 Hedgerow morphology and management patterns: The cycle of regeneration Fig. 1 gives an outline of the practices of hedgerow management and their effects on morphology and growth shaping alpine hedgerow types. The graphic schema is based on generalized depiction from crosssection perspective. Management is based on the practices of trimming (cutting of leaves and seasonal growths in annual frequency), pollarding (cutting of perennial wooden growths from an aged framework in 2–5 year frequency) and coppicing (utilizing the hedgerow as a linear coppice wood, cutting it down as a whole each 10–15 years). These management types express different economies of labour, providing different products out of the hedgerow (Fig. 1). yy The trimmed types Trimmed types have been established to get dense, narrow hedges that 2. Material and methods The paper is based on an explorative study conducted in several alpine regions (Salzkammergut, Eisenwurzen, Salzachtal, Lungau, Hohe Tauern).Research formed the groundwork for a book project on hedgerows and their management in the alpine area (Kurz et al., 2011). Investigations were carried out on various levels: a) Around 60 hedgerows were analysed in a comparative survey on their morphology, their management and their phytosociological structures, containing graphical mapping and photographic documentation. b) Phytosociological analysis was based on 200 records, adopting the method by Braun-Blanquet, 1964c) Empirical evidence was complemented by interviews with farmers, discussing current management strategies and former utilisations, aiming Figure 1 Management patterns and the cycle of management and regeneration Peter Kurz: Planting sustainability? On the management of hedgerows in Alpine bocage landscapes, pp. 129–134 – 130 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering function as fences, require little space and can be maintained using hand tools. These characteristics particularly were (and in some cases still are) important with smallholder peasant economies, poorly equipped with agricultural land. Products out of trimmed hedges are leaves for additional fodder and litter. These are the most labour-intensive types and nowadays rarely found in the rural countryside. By reducing the labour input, they can without any difficulty be transformed into pollarded types. yy The pollarded types Forming a stable framework with a narrow basis, pollarded types also require little space while forming rather dense hedgerows. By rotational cutting the perennial wooden growths each 2–5 years, not only labour inputs can be regulated, but beyond pole crop and wood for various tools is to be harvested out of the hedgerow. Yield depends on the species cultivated and their wood characteristics. Particular variations of trimmed and pollarded types contain various layed and wattled types, where the living branches get formed, in order to achieve certain qualities of the hedgerow resp. its crops. yy The coppiced types Coppiced types are characterised by their long periods of turnover, going hand in hand with strong dynamics in morphology. Stems are cut down near the ground level, which means that the hedgerow has to be re-shaped totally. Coppicing allows rejuvenating (trimmed or pollarded) hedgerows that have become jagged after long periods of continuous utilisation. After coppicing a new framework for a hedgerow can be built by trimming and pollarding. However, currently the majority of alpine hedgerows are maintained by coppicing, harvesting crop or firewood. yy Labour economies and the effects of abandonment The outer circle of the management schema in Fig. 1 depicts the development paths most frequently to be observed in our survey. These contain transformations into tree-shaped types, emergence of gapped and atrophied forms as a result from mechanical shredding and formation of abandoned types, gradually expanding in their breadth and height (Fig. 2). 3.2 The groves of the hedgerow, their biology and their economy Tab. 1 compiles ecological characteristics, constitutive management practices and important utilizations within peasant economies for the most widespread hedge groves in alpine landscapes. It figures out hazel (Corylus avellana) as the dominant grove in alpine hedgerows of the investigated regions. Hazel combines a wide spectrum of traditional uses with broad ecological amplitude and strong abilities to recover, which causes its competitiveness. Coppicing, the predominant current management practice, additionally fosters expansion of hazel. Other groves, such as hornbeam (Carpinus betulus), or Beech (Fagus sylvatica) which had been promoted as hedgerow groves historically (Koller, 1970), are currently seeing decline due to changes in management. While trimming and pollarding fit well to those species, recurrent coppicing weakens their ability to rejuvenate. It seems remarkable, that most of the peasant hedgerows are built from one single, or just a few species. The idea of the diverse hedgerow has to be seen as a rare exception to the rule. It also may be a question of labour economy to organise management around one or a few groves with similar attributes and qualities. Mixed, diverse hedgerows – on the other hand – can be found as a result from abandoned management, when cultivation factors get replaced by natural competition between grove species. This could be proofed by phytosociological analysis (Kurz and Machatschek, 2001), Tab 1. 3.3 Changing economies Figure 2 Tracing the history of the establishment of hedgerows in alpine regions, we could identify several periods, being connected with the expansion of alpine mining industries. From 1600 to 1800 many new settlers were introduced as labourers, cultivating former common land, while – on the other hand – forestry for mining issues was intensified and peasant usage rights on wood and pasturing was gradually reduced (Bauer, 1925). In these times, hedgerows may have Pollarded Hedgerow Peter Kurz: Planting sustainability? On the management of hedgerows in Alpine bocage landscapes, pp. 129–134 – 131 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Table 1 Characteristics of important groves in alpine bocage landscapes Species Hazel (Corylus avellana) Blackthorn (Prunus spinosa) Site specifics Growth characteristics –– Most widely dispersed –– pioneer plant, species in hedgerows highly recoverable of the alpine regions vegetatively and –– Broad ecological competitive, fast amplitude, prefers growing; produces fertile, but well drained numerous saplings soils after coppicing –– Demand for summery warm, preferentially fertile and alkaline soils Management practice Utilization Coppicing type –– basket weaving and –– (5–15 years) frequently other basketry becomes dominant in –– barrel hoops for extensively maintained transportation in salt and abandoned and iron industries hedgerows –– wood for tools –– firewood –– leaves for fodder and littering –– Intensively branched –– Trimming (2–5 years) shrub, slowly growing, or coppicing type, well developed storing pollarding or frequent capacities in the root coppicing may cause wood rotting of stems and create gaps in the dense body of the hedgerow –– Trimming (2–5 years) and pollarding type; reacts also well to laying –– turning wood –– rake wood –– living fence Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna, C. laevigata) –– Important wood in –– Not too fast growing, hedgerows, but certain root- and stem demands on soils and storing type of wood; intensively branched climate; in the alpine regions restricted to and dense growth character warmer sights with alkaline soils Dogwood (Cornus sanguinea, C. mas) –– Well aerated soils in lower and warmer regions of the alpine area Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) –– Second most widely spread hedgerow wood in alpine regions, historically –– Moderately growing, strongly promoted intensively branched by planting; broad and dense growth. ecological amplitude, but constrained to the lower regions of valleys, up to 700 meters. Beech (Fagus sylvatica) –– Needs well developed, –– Adaptable in its fertile and humid, but growth behaviour well drained soils. to management: develops a dense character when trimmed frequently. –– Trimming (1–3 years) or pollarding type (candelabra shape), rejuvenation through coppicing Field maple (Acer campestre) –– Moderately fertile, –– Moderately growing, stony and loamy well adaptable to sands, but restricted frequent trimming to the lower regions of the alpine area –– Trimming, pollarding –– leaves for fodder and or coppicing type, littering as well as laying or –– living fence wattling types; very mutable Elder (Alnus incana, A. glutinosa) –– Prefers moist and wet soils with high groundwater level. –– Slowly growing shrub with strong abilities of rejuvenation; well developed storing capacities in the root wood –– living fence –– Trimming (1–3 years) or pollarding type (candelabra shape), rejuvenation through coppicing –– fruits –– wood for turning and carpenting –– Trimming (1–3 years) or pollarding type (candelabra shape), rejuvenation through coppicing, frequent coppicing may cause rotting of stems and create gaps –– wood for various utilizations: tools, turning wood, wagon making –– leaves for fodder and littering –– living fence –– Quickly growing; –– Coppicing type, produces numerous rotational cutting saplings after (10–15 years) forms coppicing, from which the foundation for later on only few rejuvenation remain as stems, while the rest gets rotten –– wood for various utilizations: tools, furniture –– leaves for fodder and littering –– living fence –– wood for various utilizations: tools, water buildings –– leaves for fodder and littering –– stabilisation of banks –– draining Peter Kurz: Planting sustainability? On the management of hedgerows in Alpine bocage landscapes, pp. 129–134 – 132 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Continued Table 1 Species Site specifics Black cherry (Prunus padus) Ash (Fraxinus excelsior) Growth characteristics Management practice –– Coppicing type (10–15 years) –– Growth optimum on fertile, deep, moist and wet soils; on floodplains –– Quickly growing and competitive; –– Moisted, deep and fertile, preferably alkaline soiles, from lower up to mountainous areas. –– Quickly growing tree –– Pollarding type, if with strong abilities not pollarded grows of rejuvenation by quickly as a tree pollarding; ability to fix and can displace moving soils on slopes other woods in the hedgerow Utilization –– barrel hoops –– firewood –– draining –– wood for various utilizations: tools, furniture –– leaves for fodder and littering –– stabilisation of banks and slopes Trimming type Pollarding type Coppicing type Medieval colonisation periode Figure 3 2050 2000 1950 1900 1850 Expansion of alpine mining Cultivation of industries former common land Introduction of Introduction of oil artificial fertilizers heatings in rural areas Chronology of hedgerow management served as multifunctional features of pre-fossile peasant farming systems (Kurz et al., 2011). The loss of importance of hedgerows probably started with introduction of artificial fertilizers, beginning in the second half of the 19th century. Improvement of the fodder base for livestock devaluated the harvest of leaves as additional fodder and promoted transformations from trimming to pollarding Figure 4 1800 1750 1700 1650 1600 1550 1500 Abandoned type and coppicing (Koller, 1970). Another considerable break can be identified from the 1950ies, when oil heating successively reached rural households and started the decline of wood as energy source. This assigned – in combination with ongoing mechanisations and technical rationalisations in land-use – the replacement of coppiced hedges by abandoned types (Fig. 3). Reforestation initiated by abandoned hedgerows in the Salzachtal, Austria Peter Kurz: Planting sustainability? On the management of hedgerows in Alpine bocage landscapes, pp. 129–134 – 133 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering 4. Discussion and conclusions Sustainable landscapes by planting hedgerows? Hedgerows are cultivated nature, incorporating practical skills and knowledge on usage, stabilisation and regeneration. Management skills have been accumulated by generations of peasant farmers. Techniques and crafts are rooted in economic demands of sustaining the productivity of hedgerows as an integrated feature of farming systems, of keeping them stable in morphology and habitus. With advanced loss of economic backgrounds, we have to observe transformations in the appearance of hedgerows, influencing the character of whole landscapes as well: In mountain areas former hedgerows frequently have become the initial points for comprehensive processes of reforestation. One may question if these dynamics are appreciated effects in development of alpine cultural landscapes (Fig. 4). In any case, the historical perspective claims critical and differentiated assessment of present initiatives in implementing hedgerows as a form of “green infrastructure” in rural landscapes. To improve multifunctionality, biodiversity and sustainability of the rural countryside, we should at any rate avoid trendy installations that either produce maintenance cost and waste, or contribute to the set-aside of farmland. Framework conditions for sustainability of newly introduced hedgerows shall be scrutinized thoroughly in every single case. Only if plans for the maintenance and a concept for management are already considered in the forefront of planting, a newly installed covey will contribute to sustainability. Beyond technical questions of stabilisation this will also require reasoning on the overall economy of possible generated yields. We agree with Hartke, who already had reminded us in the early 1950ies, that “Hedgerows are not a nostrum for our cultural landscapes. It is not enough to install or copy them to gain quick success, and to disclaim exhausting scientific labour in the run-up” (Hartke, 1951). References BAUDRY, J. – BUNCE, R. G. H. – BUREL, F. 2000. Hedgerows: An international perspective on their origin, function and management. In: Journal of Environmental Management, 2000, no. 60, pp. 7–22. BAUER, O. 1925. Der Kampf um Wald und Weide. Vienna : Veröffentlichungen des Instituts für Geschichtsforschung und Archivwissenschaft. 1925. BRAUN-BLANQUET, J. 1964. Die Pflanzensoziologie. Vienna, New York : G. Springer Verlag, 1964. BUREL, F. 1996. Hedgerows and their role in agricultural landscapes. In: Critical Review in Plant Sciences, 1996, no. 15 pp. 169–190. BUSCH, D. 1989. Hecken und Hecken-Schützen. In: Stadtbaumschule. Notizbuch 38 der Kasseler Schule. AG Freiraum und Vegetation (Eds.), 1989, pp. 290–321. EUROPEAN UNION. 2013. Building a Green Infrastructure for Europe. Publication Office of the European Union. Luxembourg, 2013. HARTKE, W. 1951. Die Heckenlandschaft. Der geographische Charakter eines Landeskulturproblems. In: Erdkunde, vol. 5, 1951, no. 2, pp. 132–152. KOLLER, E. 1970. Die Forstgeschichte des Salzkammergutes. Wien, 1970. KURZ, P. – MACHATSCHEK, M. 2001. Zur Vegetation der Hecken und Heckenbrachen, ihrer Säume und Versaumungen im Land Salzburg. In: Sauteria, 2001, no. 11, pp. 437–504. KURZ, P. – MACHATSCHEK, M. – IGLHAUSER, B. 2011. Hecken. Geschichte und Ökologie, Anlage, Erhaltung und Nutzung. Graz : Leopold Stocker Verlag, 2011. RACKHAM, O. 1988. Trees and woodland in a crowded landscape. In: The Cultural Landscape: Past, Present and Future (H. H. Birks, H. J. B. Birks, P. E. Kaland and D. Moe, eds.), Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1988, pp. 53–77. Peter Kurz: Planting sustainability? On the management of hedgerows in Alpine bocage landscapes, pp. 129–134 – 134 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE CHANGES WITH REGARD TO LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE AND ECOLOGICAL VALUES Jan SUPUKA Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Slovakia Landscape structural changes were studied at Oponice cadastral territory within three time horizons of 1869, 1949 and 2010 years. For assessment were used historical and contemporary maps, aerial photos and supported by field research. Identified changes shows almost balance proportion in forest, arable land and water elements within study horizons. To the category, where landscape element proportions were increased belong built-up areas, roads, gardens and vineyards and non forest woody vegetation. Proportion of grassland has been decreased rapidly from almost 10% to 1% within 1869 and 2010s. Landscape architecture changes and values show in mosaic plot structure, when small size were alternated by large scale ones. The all identified changes are close related to social economy development land use form and management technology intensification. During 60s of last century passed hard process of agricultural collectivisation related to land consolidation and land ownership changes. Many small groves were cute down, wet-lands drainages, and grassland plough-up and new wind breaks established by planting of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) predominantly. Landscape variability and colourfulness were decreased. New technical human works were constructed as three dimension space elements. Culture historical values were suppressed and landscape being enriched by new elements as reflection of standard landscape development. Contribution describes particular landscape changes and values. Keywords: landscape structure, changes, values, assessment Introduction In the recent period, there are several authors who study development changes in the land use. They assess the secondary landscape structure in different time periods. The reason consists in the identification of changes and the trend development in land use forms, cultural and historic value of the landscape, landscape image, ecological stability of the landscape, natural and cultural diversity, biodiversity and the gene-pool value of the landscape. Pucherová (2004) presents the results of landscape structure development and changes by the example of 5 cadastral territories of the Nitra Selfgoverning Region. She compares the period of the 2nd half of the 19th century (1863, 1879 and 1892) with the year 2002. Petrovič (2005) deals with landscape development in a dispersedly settled area by the example of Pohronský Inovec and Tribeč in 1783, 1956 and 2002, Šolcová (2012) assesses the development of a dispersedly settled landscape in the region of Nová Baňa in five time periods (1780, 1844, 1956, 1992 and 2008). By the example of the Nitra city and its contact area, the changes between 1995 and 2004 are assessed and published by Mišovičová (2008). A land cover assessment is elaborated and published by Ivanová (2013) by the example of the hinterland of the Zemplínska Šírava dam in 1956, 1991, 2005 and 2009. *Correspodence: However, human activities are dominantly visible on land use and land cover changes, floristic and phenological composition of the vegetation cover of natural or cultivated character. These changes appear not only in urban areas but also in their contact zones, in the agricultural and forest landscape (Feriancová and Schlampová, 1998; Jančura and Kočík, 2003; Pucherová, 2004; Reháčková and Ružičková, 2004; Supuka et al., 2008). One land use form replaces the other one, usually the more progressive the less progressive one. This process is generally called alternative (Alternative = the possibility to choose between two forms, alternation, substitution). Land reforms, variable ownership relations, farming methods, intensification processes, all of these have had a direct impact on the landscape image development, which can be defined in following landscape-structural expressions: yy land segregation and separation, yy land consolidation, yy change in land shapes and sizes in time and space, yy reduction of covers, lines and solitaries of woody plants and natural biotopes, yy change in the structure of road networks, Jan Supuka, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering, Department of Garden and Landscape Architecture, Tulipánová 7, 949 01, Nitra, Slovakia, e-mail: Jan. [email protected]. Jan Supuka: Landscape structure changes with regard to landscape architecture and ecological values, pp. 135–139 – 135 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering yy change in the scale of the landscape, yy change in the landscape mosaics and colourfulness, yy change (reduction) in visual, aesthetic and perceptual values of the landscape The geo-ecological potential, the form of land use and the transformation level of the original landscape represent basic criteria to classify the cultural landscape (Hrnčiarová, 2004; Supuka et al., 2008). Many elements of the cultural landscape bear the marks of historic continuity. They document forms and methods of land use, ownership relations, technological and knowledge level of utilisation or extraction of natural resources, building of settlements, technical constructions and other human artefacts. Their presentation and physical allocation in the landscape represent historic landscape structures. These can be also an initial criterion for cultural landscape classification (Huba, 2004). All identified and described types of the historic landscape are bounded up with the form and intensity of natural resource utilisation and the economic activity of man in the landscape (Chalupová, 2004; Supuka et al., 2004). In principle, they are linked to the forms of land use and categories of socioeconomic activities of the human society. These underlie the differentiation of geographic and cultural regions in Europe (Agnoletti, et al. 2010; Coeterier, 1996; Dower, 1998) as well as in Slovakia, including diverse types of cultural landscapes like urban, mining, agricultural, viticulture, religious and other landscapes (Drdoš, 1995; Hrnčiarová, 2004; Kozová, Hrnčiarová and Oťaheľ, 2008; Kraková, 2001; Štefunková, 2004; Supuka, Verešová, Šinka, 2011; Verešová, 2011). A specific type of cultural landscape are the so called composed or designed landscapes, landscape parks, historic style parks and gardens, which are richly represented mainly in historic cultural regions but also in Slovakia (Majdecki and Majdecka-Strzezek, 2010). Urban landscape has also been passed over changes during development time, but mostly after industrial revolution and second war world one. The city content involves buildings, built-up areas and green structure. Each of them passed on development and changes. European cities have had similar changing ways and other than American and Asia because other history and style backgrounds. In Europe to the typical historical style buildings and inner urban structure has been added to outskirts new urban structure elements as were housing estate zones, family house, industrial, sport and recreation zones, as well as shopping centres. Cities have become enhanced in size density, and vertical dimension (also), the new urban structure, architecture-style, colour and construction materials are seen nowadays (Antrop, 2004; Pivko and Špaček, 2007). Green structure from tradition historical parks and gardens have been advanced and classified to the new system representing green net and open spaces (Fabos, 2004; Feriancová, 2008). They have been served many positive ecology and environmental functions according to area size, natural origin or cultural level changes and location in city structure. New forms and green components contributes to the urban architecture features, aesthetic and environmental quality (Supuka, 2011; Tóth and Feriancová, 2013). Material and methods Landscape structure in different time periods were assessed by mapping landscape elements showed in the elaborated maps. They represent historical landscape development and continual changes due to different land use form. The second part of landscape changes is focussed to landscape architecture elements and composition feature changes, as well as culture historical landscape elements in antropogenous and natural level. For assessment of defined landscape feature changes was chosen the Oponice cadastral territory located on south boundary of Topoľčany district in Nitra Self-governing Region. For this area the elements of landscape structure and architecture changes were evaluated based on available maps from the year of 1869, 1949 and 2010 and field valuation and description in 2010 as well. More particular methodical approaches are published in science monograph (Supuka et al., 2013). Results and discussions The historical landscape structure of the Oponice cadastral territory was analysed from 2nd military mapping of 1869 year, secondary landscape structure from aerial photo of 1949s and contemporary landscape structure from the orthophoto map of 2010 year. The results are presented according to 11 classification landscape element units (Table 1). Historical layer of 1869s has been documented low level of agricultural technologies and land use mostly on suitable relief conditions. As dominant landscape element is being seen arable land in 54.02% located mostly at lowland and medium slope inclination. Second position takes forests by 29.41% proportion in the south eastern part of studied cadastre. Surveyed forests are represented by oak-hornbeam and beachoak stands predominantly. High proportion takes grassland cover and achieved 9.35%. This landscape element was located at flooded flats close to Nitra river as meadows and at the boundary to the forests. Built-up areas cover mostly Oponice village intravilane by 1.17% only that has been reflected also in small areas of gardens as a part of family houses. From interested landscape elements taking into account as composition Jan Supuka: Landscape structure changes with regard to landscape architecture and ecological values, pp. 135–139 – 136 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Table 1 Historical and current landscape structure in the Oponice cadastral territory Landscape element Area in ha according to years Area in % according to years 1869 1949 2010 Proposal 2010 1869 1949 2010 Proposal 2010 Arable land 665.82 685.60 647.92 642.97 54.02 55.62 52.17 52.15 Grasslands 115.24 80.91 10.51 10.51 9.35 6.56 0.85 0.85 Orchards – – 20.15 20.15 – – 1.63 1.63 Vineyards 0.00 15.66 18.82 18.82 0.00 1.27 1.53 1.53 Non forest woody vegetation 38.94 36.73 64.24 +4.95 69.19 3.16 2.98 5.21 5.57 Forests 362.52 334.94 362.23 362.23 29.41 27.17 29.39 29.39 Water streams and areas 11.25 21.58 13.96 13.96 0.91 1.75 1.13 1.13 Gardens 19.68 26.17 45.23 45.23 1.60 2.12 3.67 3.64 Built-up areas 14.41 22.60 43.50 43.50 1.17 1.83 3.53 3.53 Roads 4.69 8.36 9.49 9.49 0.38 0.68 0.77 0.77 – – 1.45 1.45 – – 0.12 0.12 1232.55 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 Other areas Sum Figure 1 1232.55 1232.55 1232.55 Aeral photo of historical landscape structure of the Oponice cadastral territory from 1949 year. Elaborated by K. Šinkaa Jan Supuka: Landscape structure changes with regard to landscape architecture and ecological values, pp. 135–139 – 137 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering and ecological landscape stability are categories of non-forest woody vegetation covered by 3.16% of agriculture landscape that is considered as low cover proportion. Distribution of landscape element in cadastral area is showed at aerial photo where the space distribution of land-use forms and landscape element structure were assessed by elaborated time layer of map of 1949 years (Figure 1). Aerial photo from 1949s shows interesting two categories of agriculture landscape plots. Western part of cadastral territory cover small size mosaic plots represented small former land property. Eastern part of cadastral territory shows large size plots belongings to feudal lordship of the Aponyi family residing in the manor house in Oponice village. Regarding changes between time horizons 1869 and 1949 according to landscape elements during 80s has been increased proportion of arable land, vineyards, water streams and basins, built-up areas and accompanying family house gardens and road net as well. On the other hand area size had decreased at forest cover grassland and non forest woody vegetation landscape elements. The all identified changes are close related to social economy development land use form and management technology intensification. During 60s of last century passed hard process of agricultural collectivisation related to land consolidation and land ownership changes. Many small groves were cute down, wet-lands drainages, and grassland plough-up and new wind breaks established by planting of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) predominantly. Those processes finally caused rapid decreasing of grassland, small decreasing of arable land and water areas. Significantly increased proportion areas of vineyards, non forest woody vegetation, forests, built up areas and gardens (Figure 1, Table 1). More particular presentation of the landscape structure changes by map documents from 1869, 1949 and 2010 are have published in monograph of Supuka et al. (2013). Regarding culture-historical features of landscape the soft small size plots were substituted by large size plots and many old regional fruit trees were disappeared mostly on plough-up grasslands. Landscape-ecological stability decreased over creation of large size arable land culture blocks. Regarding to landscape architecture changes and values in horizontal layers to mosaic plot structure, land variability and colourfulness has been decreased. Road net straight forward water stream and non forest woody vegetation lines have occurred. New technical human works were constructed as three dimensional elements as are power energy lines and masts, telemetric and transmission towers, chimneys and vertical water globes, 2–3 (or more) story buildings, family and block houses. Building façade and roof colourfulness have got turned to better and more variable. The arranged and designed open spaces, ornamental gardens and parks in village urban structure have became as more frequent features of culture and landscape-architecture values. Landscape changes are being normal visible features of assessed time layers in Oponice cadastral territory in open landscape and built up village structure. Some historical marks were disappeared and a new elements and human works have arisen and spaces are being enriched by them. On the other hand ecological stability has decreased caused by large size arable plots arrangement. Similar landscape changes were identified at many cadastral territory in eastern part of Tribeč hills (Pucherová, 2004) and Čajkov Cadastre and south pant of Štiavnické hills (Verešová, 2011). Intensity and structure of landscape changes in sense of architectonical composition and ecological stability depend on land ownership and economy activities in assessed region (Chalupová, 2004). Conclusion Landscape development changes were assessed at the study cadastral territory of Oponice in upper Nitra sub region. The compared time horizons were 1869, 1949 and 2010 years. Dominant tool for landscape structure assessment were historical and contemporary maps and aerial photos. Changes are seen in agriculture plot structure, proportion of landscape elements, changes in landscape architecture features and social economy development of study territory. Acknowledgement The contribution was elaborated thanks financial supporting by the grant No. KEGA 003SPU-4/2014. References AGNOLETTI, M. (ed.) et al. 2010. Paesaggi rurali storici. RomaBar : Laterza et Figli, 2010, 566 p. ISBN 978-88-420-9617-7. ANTROP, M. 2004. Landscape Change ant the Urbanisation Process in Europe. In: Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 67, 2004, pp. 9–26. ISSN 0169-2046. COETERIER, J. F. 1996. Dominant attributes in the perception and evaluation of the Dutch landscape. In: Landscape and Urban Planning, 1996, no. 34, p. 27–44. ISSN 0169-2046. DOWER, H. J. 1998. Countryside character. The character of England´s natural and man-made landscape. Northampton : Countryside Commission, UK, 1998, 143 p. ISBN 086170-497-5. DRDOŠ, J. 1995. Krajinný obraz a jeho hodnotenie. In: Životné prostredie, vol. 29, 1995, no. 4, p. 202–205. ISSN 0044-4863. FABOS, J. G. 2004. International Green Way Planning: An Introduction. In: Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 68, 2004, pp.143–146. ISSN 0169-2046. FERIANCOVÁ, Ľ. – SCHLAMPOVÁ, T. 1998. Dendrologická a krajinná štruktúra kontaktnej zóny sídla Očová. In: Acta Facultatis Ecologiae, 1998, no. 5, p. 73–83. ISBN 80-228-0788-5. Jan Supuka: Landscape structure changes with regard to landscape architecture and ecological values, pp. 135–139 – 138 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering FERIANCOVÁ, Ľ. 2008. Nové trendy v záhradnej a krajinnej architektúre v kontexte mesta. In: Životné prostredie, vol. 42, 2008, no. 5, pp. 252–255. ISSN 044-4863. HRNČIAROVÁ, T. 2004. Prírodné a kultúrne aspekty krajiny a jej potenciál. In: Životné prostredie, roč. 38, 2004, č. 2, s. 61–65. ISSN 0044-4863. HUBA, M. 2004. Historické štruktúry krajiny v kontexte súčasnej reality. In. Životné prostredie, roč. 38, 2004, č. 2, s. 86–89. ISSN 0044-4863. CHALUPOVÁ, M. 2004. Premena historického prostredia vidieka na príklade hornooravskej obce Podbiel. In: Životné prostredie, roč. 38, 2004, č. 2, s. 90–93. ISSN 0044-4863. IVANOVÁ, M. 2013. Zmeny krajinnej pokrývky zázemia Zemplínskej šíravy v rokoch 1956–2009. Prešov : Prešovská univerzita, 2013, 233 s. ISBN 978-80-555-0728-6. JANČURA, P. – KOČÍK, K. 2003. Perspektívy vývoja krajinnej štruktúry vo vzťahu k poľnohospodárstvu. In: IV. ekologické dni. Zvolen : TU, 2003, s. 42–48. KOZOVÁ, M. – HRNČIAROVÁ, T. – OŤAHEĽ, J. 2008. Príprava metodiky pre klasifikáciu kultúrnej krajiny Slovenska. In: Enviromagazín, roč. 13, 2008, mimoriadne číslo, s. 20–21. ISSN 1335-1877. KRAKOVÁ, A. 2001. Sakrálne objekty v krajinnom obraze stredného Spiša. In: Jančura, P. (ed.): Krajina, človek, kultúra. Banská Bystrica : SAŽP, Slovensko, 2001, s. 41–43. ISBN 80-88850-40-1. MAJDECKI, L. – MAJDECKA-STRZEZEK, A. 2010. Historia ogrodow, Tom 1, 2. Warszawa : PWN SA, 2010, p. 486 and 491. ISBN 978-83-01-15329-8 t. MIŠOVIČOVÁ, R. 2008. Krajinnoekologické predpoklady rozvoja mesta Nitra a jeho kontaktného územia. Edícia Prírodovedec č. 273, Nitra : UKF, 2008, 113 s. ISBN 978-80-8094-212-0. PETROVIČ, F. 2005. Vývoj krajiny v oblasti štálového osídlenia Pohronského Inovca a Tribeča. Bratislava : Ústav krajinnej ekológie SAV, 2005, 209 s. ISBN 80-9692-723-4. PIVKO, H. – ŠPAČEK, R. 2007. Tvorba mesta – ideály, charty, vízie. In: Životné prostredie, vol. 41, 2007, no. 5, pp. 233–239. ISSN 0044-4863. PUCHEROVÁ, Z. 2004. Vývoj využitia krajiny na rozhraní Zobora a Žitavskej pahorkatiny (na príklade vybraných obcí). Edícia Prírodovedec č. 141, Nitra : UKF, 2004, 147 s. ISBN 80-8050-735. REHÁČKOVÁ, T. – RUŽIČKOVÁ, J. 2004. The Analysis of Plant Species Composition of Forest Fragments in Bratislava. In: Folia Oecologica, 2004, no. 31, p. 85–93. ISSN 1336-5266. SUPUKA, J. – FERIANCOVÁ, Ľ. – JANČURA, P. – SCHLAMPOVÁ, T. 2008. Krajinárska tvorba. Nitra : SPU, 2008, 256 s. ISBN 978-80-552-0135-1. SUPUKA, J. 2011. Vegetačné štruktúry sídel v kontexte kontinuálnych premien. In: Životné prostredie, vol. 45, 2011, no. 3, pp. 146–150. ISSN 0044-4863. SUPUKA, J. – VEREŠOVÁ, M. – ŠINKA, K. 2011. Development of vineyards landscape structure with regard to historical and cultural values. In: Ecology, vol. 30, 2011, no. 2, p. 229–238. ISSN 1335-342X. SUPUKA, J. – ŠINKA, K. – PUCHEROVÁ, Z. – VEREŠOVÁ, M. – FERIANCOVÁ, Ľ. – BIHUŇOVÁ, M. – KUCZMAN, G. 2013. Landscape structure and biodiversity of woody plants in the agricultural landscape. In: Folia Universitatis Agriculturae et Silviculturae Mendelianae Brunensis. Monographic series, vol. 6, 2013, no. 9, 187 pp. ISBN 978-80-7375-905-6. ŠOLCOVÁ, L. 2012. Vývoj krajiny s disperzným typom osídlenia v Novobanskej štálovej oblasti. Edícia Prírodovedec č. 531, Nitra : UKF, 2012, 207 s. ISBN 978-80-558-0208-4. ŠTEFUNKOVÁ, D. 2004. Posúdenie vizuálnej kvality krajiny v krajinnej ekológii. Dizertačná práca. Bratislava : ÚKE SAV, 2004, 120 s. TÓTH, A. – FERIANCOVÁ, Ľ. 2013. Green Infrastructure in the Context of Rural Space Restoration and Design. In: Nordic Journal of Architectural Research, vol. 25, 2013, no. 2, pp.187– 212. ISSN 1893-5281. VEREŠOVÁ, M. 2011. Krajinno-architektonické hodnoty vinohradníckych lokalít Západného Slovenska. Dizertačná práca. Nitra : SPU, 2011, 52 s. Jan Supuka: Landscape structure changes with regard to landscape architecture and ecological values, pp. 135–139 – 139 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering REVITALISATION OF THE PARK AT THE SCHOOL IN CERVENY HRADOK Ľubica FERIANCOVÁ Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Slovakia The primary school campus in Cerveny Hradok (CH) was designed and realised according to landscape garden principles on an area of about 2.2 ha by the landscape architect Ivan Tomasko. From the originally planted 1,049 woody plants, there are currently only 350 (documented in the inventory of woody plants). This is a consequence of the absenting maintenance, as well as weather calamity situations in recent years. The proportion of domestic and introduced species is approximately 50 : 50. The domestic species composition is dominated mainly by deciduous species and the introduced are mostly coniferous. The inventory results prove that without the recommended interventions (cutting down 130 trees of bad health conditions) there is no development perspective. The 4 design projects aim at a conversion of the area to a space for sport, leisure, relax and education. Keywords: inventory, landscape architecture, park design, school garden, woody plants Introduction School gardens are an important component of urban areas and an essential part of each educational establishment since the beginning of modern education system in Slovakia. They are important components of the urban green infrastructure (Tóth, 2013) and create not only natural environment for students but if the functions are properly designed, they can be involved in the educational process as well (Supuka, Feriancová a i., 2008). These are the main reasons for revitalisation of these areas and their sufficient and ongoing maintenance to prevent their degradation. The topicality of this issue is proved by the dilapidated state of some of them. Among these may be included also the park at the primary schools and kindergarten in CH. It’s a pity as it was designed and realised by professionals from the Mlynany Arboretum using their plants (1964–1970). The plants from that time are now of mature age, but unfortunately due to lack of maintenance, there are some aged veteran plants with the following features: disintegration of their structure, loss of main branches and an evidence of pathogens. All such plants as well as those that are not in accordance with the compositional aim of the design have been proposed for felling. The main goal of the presented research was to develop a park revitalisation project which meets the requirements of school areas considering their educational, leisure and cultural functions. Material and methods Original planting documents were not available. According to one of the available documents “Inventory list of ornamental trees and shrubs located in the area of the primary school in CH”as at June 30 1970, there were 84 woody *Correspodence: plant species and a total number of 1,049 woody plants. Based on the field survey, the woody plants with health or static problems were identified and mapped (1 : 500). An additional field survey aimed biometric measurements (tree height, the diameter d1.3 m, crown width), the landscape architectural value, state of health, damage category, and treatment proposals. Some trees were determined for felling in terms of negative selection (dead, damaged, unhealthy) (Feriancová, 2013). The inventory was conducted according to the modified assessment methodology by Machovec (1987) and Juhásová (2002). yy Natural conditions There are brown soils with neutral to slightly acidic reaction (pH 6.5 to 7.5). In terms of the original natural vegetation, the area belongs to the Carpathian oak-hornbeam forests but in terms of the present landscape structure, it is part of an intensively used agricultural landscape. yy The current state of the area The school area is situated on the edge of the village at the 3rd-class road from Vráble to Veľké Vozokany. The whole area has a slight height difference – the terrain rises from the southeast to the northwest. The school area is an important part of the village green infrastructure and has the character of a local bio-centre. There is a dense composition of woody plants, which divides the area from the surrounding agricultural landscape. Thus, the area is protected and hidden on three sides by a thick greenbelt. A considerable part of the area is dedicated to playgrounds. Besides the primary school and kindergarten buildings, there is a gyms and warehouse and a bicycle shed. The buildings, paths and other paved areas have been renewed. There is also site furniture for children. Due to the Lubica Feriancova, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering, Department of Garden and Landscape Architecture, Tulipanova 7, 949 76, Nitra, Slovakia, e-mail: [email protected] Ľubica Feriancová: Revitalisation of the park at the school in Cerveny Hradok, pp. 140–142 – 140 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering congested composition of plants, there are no views. Their application is desirable and possible by felling of selected trees. The school building dominates the composition and is located on the main compositional. A negative component of the composition is the alley of thujas leading to the main entrance. The most frequented pedestrian route is the entrance to the school, kindergarten and gym. A partial maintenance is done by the pupils, teachers and janitor. Felling trees is proposed due to safety and hygiene reasons. These are plants with substandard health status and low landscaping value. There are 130 trees proposed for felling from a health perspective and 42–79 trees proposed for felling from a compositional perspective (ranging according to the 4 different design solutions). All studies have proposed to cut down the 22 thujas along the pedestrian entrance to the area (Hrdličková, Kopponová and Mlynarčíková, 2013; Petruchová, Slušný and Surovka, 2013; Slezáková et al., 2013). The predominant species are Acer platanoides, Pinus sylvestris, Picea abies, Pinus nigra, Thuja occidentalis ‘Malonyana’, Populus nigra ‘Italica’ and Quercus robur. The identified diseases and damages indicate that certain species may be problematic for the site (Supuka, 2011). Cameraria ohridella was identified on all Aesculus hippocastanum specimens, scab on Sorbus aucuparia. The results of the inventory prove that without the recommended interventions to plantations, a perspective development is not possible (Kuczman and Feriancová, 2013). Results Within the inventory of woody plants, 350 individuals were documented according to the described methodology, using the method of negative selection. From these, approximately the half was represented by native and the other half by introduced species. The group of native species was dominated by deciduous woody plants and the group of alien species by coniferous woody plants. The inventory resulted into the decision to remove 130 woody plants due to their insufficient health condition. The winning project design outlines (Blašková, Brodanský and Rožko, 2013) yy The representative area in front of the school – the project includes plantings of perennials and grasses and placing benches. The flower plantings include a wooden sculpture in the form of two maple leaves. yy Playgrounds – next to the gym, there is designed a multifunctional playground for volleyball, basketball, football, badminton etc. The football field is located in the same area as at present, but partially offset due to a new running track around the field. yy Path System – the concrete path at the gym is extended to the football field. The terrain elevation towards the field is made accessible through concrete stairs. The current concrete path leading from the kindergarten to the park is replaced in the project by gravel path that continues along the property line and serves as an educational trail with signs of trees and their fruits as well as elements to sit from stumps of the felled trees. Small architecture elements yy A roofed fireplace with sitting in the rear of the property is roofed with a wooden construction of circular floor plan and with wooden seats and tables. yy A platform for various school performances serves also as a playground for children from the kindergarten. Its design includes decking boards made of wood composite. The stage is accompanied by wooden seating in the form of leaf venation. yy Bicycle racks are located to the left of the entrance to the complex, under the trees. yy Fencing: the front fence is in good condition and does not require any adjustment. Other parts of the fence are proposed to be reconstructed. yy Site furniture Wooden chimes welcome children when entering the area; Site furniture for children games behind the kindergarten: there are wooden components to support and develop creative thinking, motor skills and imagination, e.g. compounding words by rotating cubes, counting by turning circles etc., water element and sandpit: along the path towards the fireplace, there is a system of wooden troughs connected to the well and alternatively leading to the sandpit; stylised mushrooms are placed in the back, at the path – these are playful wooden elements with images of dangerous toxic species; The sitting on stumps also serves to support the slope and as little arc “tribunes” to observe games on the playground. An open air classroom is furnished using stumps, furniture and lighting: there are new benches and trash cans to be placed in the representative part in front of the school and also at the multifunctional playground. The lighting allows the use of the site also in the evening. yy Interventions into the woody plant composition The revitalization of the area is determined by pruning the invasive vegetation. Although the peripheral parts provide a good insulating function as they protect the area from external influences, but by thinning in designated areas, a visual link to the adjacent landscape scenery could be achieved. We consider the removal of trees near the main school building as an important intervention aiming at improving the illumination of classes. In the entrance part of the area, the proposed fellings aim at opening the views of the school building. The proposed circular gravel path also requires pruning. This has to be done to achieve the desired illumination of this part of the site. Along the route, there are located entertainment and educational tables depicting trees, Ľubica Feriancová: Revitalisation of the park at the school in Cerveny Hradok, pp. 140–142 – 141 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering their leaves, flowers and fruits with brief descriptions. The path leading to the fireplace is lined by birches, which release a large portion of sunlight; the colour and texture of the bark are interesting elements contrasting with the greenery. The lilacs behind the football field are acceptable – the proposal foresees their regeneration and additional plantings. In front of the school, there are plantings of weigela, which improves the colourfulness and lightness of the space. On condition of proper and regular maintenance, it blooms almost all year. The current composition of woody plants contains some good basic (main) tree species and shrub plantings, which are retained in the design project and supplemented by new plantings. yy Perennial plantings – in front of the school there is a perennial bed. The spring aspect is provided by geophytes. The summer colourfulness is ensured by the perennials. The autumn aspect is provided by late flowering species of Anemone. The winter aspect is created by ornamental grasses. The flower bed is surrounded by low sheared hedges of Buxus sempervirens. There will be new lawns after the fellings creted by new grassing after terrain modifications. yy Terrain improvements – the terrain is modified along the gravel path. This alleviates the existing elevation differences to a smooth slope. The other adjustments are rather small like terrain preparation before placing the elements of small architecture. Discussion and conclusion The fact that the 21st century draws us into the virtual world of computers and the Internet more than we want to admit it – allows us to appeal to the creation of more interesting spaces for children and youth as a desired counterpoint to their sitting in front of the computer screens. Our mission is to attract not only children but also the elderly into the natural environment in which they have the opportunity to learn about trees, shrubs, flowers. All four design projects elaborated in the studio have fulfilled this ambition. In each of these projects, several educational elements appear that also serve for practical learning in a playful way. Pupils can learn about natural systems, to recognise and grow basic plants in gardens. The school garden provides space for sport, culture and leisure in a cultivated environment. Requirements expressed by the client were fulfilled and it was interesting to follow how difficult was the decision making when choosing the project for realisation. The ideas for designing spaces for games of children and youth and for staying of adults are represented in the proposals also by less traditional approaches, which allow developing imagination and skills, the natural curiosity of children and an active leisure of adults visitors (e.g. permaculture plots, complementary plantings of fruit trees, etc.). It is a common attribute of all the four studies that they include various versions of open spaces that are compositionally well designed, healthy and safe with a priority for pupils‘ active stay in the cultural environment of the school. The winning design engaged the school management mainly by its simplicity, clear disposition, open spaces and utilisation of interactive educational elements (Blašková, Brodanský and Rožko, 2013). The other 3 design projects (Hrdličková, Kopponová and Mlynarčíková, 2013; Petruchová, Slušný and Surovka, 2013; Slezáková et al., 2013) were compositionally more complicated and did not consider the linkage between the school area and its surroundings as significantly as the winning design (Blašková, Brodanský and Rožko, 2013). The revitalised park will improve the village green infrastructure and thus has the potential to contribute to a sustainable rural development which agrees with the findings of Tóth (2012). Acknowledgement The paper was elaborated within the research project KEGA No 001SPU-4/2014 References BLAŠKOVÁ, Z. – BRODANSKÝ, M. – ROŽKO, M. 2013. Sadovnícko architektonický návrh areálu ZŠ s MŠ v obci Červený Hrádok. Ateliéry tvorby verejnej zelene ZS 2013/14. Projektová dokumentácia, Nitra : SPU, CD, nepublik. JUHÁSOVÁ, G. 2002. Výsledky hodnotenia zdravotného a kondičného stavu drevín v parku Topoľčianky. In: Folia oecologica, roč. 29, 2002, č. 1–2, s. 207–217. FERIANCOVÁ, Ľ. 2013. Ateliéry verejnej zelene, skladba dokumentácie. Sylabus predmetu. Nitra : SPU, nepublikované. HRDLIČKOVÁ, M. – KOPPONOVÁ, J. – MLYNARČÍKOVÁ, A. 2013 Sadovnícko architektonický návrh areálu ZŠ s MŠ v obci Červený Hrádok. Ateliéry tvorby verejnej zelene ZS 2013/14. Projektová dokumentácia, Nitra : SPU, CD, nepublik. KUCZMAN, G. – FERIANCOVÁ, Ľ. 2013. Zásady tvorby zelene vo vidieckych sídlach. Nitra : SPU, 2013, 186 s. ISBN 978-80-552-1122-0. MACHOVEC, J. 1987. Hodnocení vzrostlé zelene v městkých parcích. In: Životné prostredie, roč. 21, 1987, č. 3, s. 134–139. PETRUCHOVÁ K. – SLUŠNÝ, J. – SUROVKA, M. 2013 Sadovnícko architektonický návrh areálu ZŠ s MŠ v obci Červený Hrádok. Ateliéry tvorby verejnej zelene ZS 2013/14. Projektová dokumentácia, Nitra : SPU, CD, nepublik. SLEZÁKOVÁ, B. – ŠUBOVÁ, V. – MRVOVÁ. N. – TURANOVIČOVÁ, M. 2013 Sadovnícko architektonický návrh areálu ZŠ s MŠ v obci Červený Hrádok. Ateliéry tvorby verejnej zelene ZS 2013/14. Projektová dokumentácia, Nitra : SPU, CD, nepublik. SUPUKA, J. 2011. Vegetation structures of settlements in context to continual changes. In: Životné prostredie, roč. 45, 2011, č. 3, s. 146–150. ISSN 0044-4863. SUPUKA, J. – FERIANCOVÁ, Ľ. a i. 2008. Vegetačné štruktúry v sídlach – parky a záhrady. Nitra : SPU, 2008, 499 s. ISBN 978-80-552-0067-5. TÓTH, A. 2013. Green Infrastructure Planning for Sustainable Rural Development. In: Science for Sustainability. Sopron: University of West Hungary Press, 2013, pp. 392–397. ISBN 978-963-334-103-2. TÓTH, A. 2012. Landschaftsarchitektonische Neugestaltung und Entwicklung ländlicher Räume. München : GRIN Verlag, 2012, 24 p. ISBN 978-3-656-31058-7. Ľubica Feriancová: Revitalisation of the park at the school in Cerveny Hradok, pp. 140–142 – 142 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering CULTURE LANDSCAPE WITHIN RECREATIONAL LANDSCAPE PARK IN CHINA Shoufang LIU1, Lin LI1, Tomasz W. BRALEWSKI2 The Institute of City & Rural Construction and Planning of Liaoning Province, P. R. China 2 Agripolis Sp. z o.o., Poznań, Poland / Plant Seeds Ltd., London, United Kingdom 1 The article introduces culture landscape conception in China. It points out that the culture landscape is a semi-natural landscape which was resulted by the mutual reaction of human livelihood and natural environment. Author summarizes the development of cultural landscape in three periods. They are rural cultural diversity, agricultural related biodiversity, green and efficiency energy, eco-culture, rural eco-settlement is the new ideas of culture landscape conception. Keywords: culture landscape; eco-agriculture; rural culture diversity, recreational area, agricultural-basic landscape Correspodence address?? Introduction Cultural landscapes are produced by and reflect the long-term interactions between humans and nature in indigenous societies (Yuan, 2011). A cultural landscape is an area where the landforms have been created by human culture as well as by nature; human culture has been created by the landscape as well as the people; and each now depends upon and continues to exist because of the other (Buckley et al., 2008). In a paper of “The Cultural Landscape of China – specific Feature and their Causes”, authors pointed that Chinese cultural landscapes are featured by intensity population and small tiny plots and compacted agricultural landscapes, nucleated settlements with little variation type in most part of country, which featured by specific building materials (Muller, 2006). When cultural landscape integrated with agricultural practice and biodiversity, this biodiversity help people inhabitants adapt to environment uncertainty and constraints to sustain their livelihood over generations (Luohui, 2010). In recreational landscape park of china, the culture landscape concept includes the all kinds of peasantry livelihood (living, production and custom). With massive population, it is a high density settlement region in the world, so the agriculture-basic landscape are mainly composed into cultural landscape. Agriculturebasic landscape is belong to high management landscape category that is the balance of interaction between human agriculture activities and natural environments. It embraces rural settlement, surrounding farmer lands and forests. The harmonious exquisite agriculture views are the result of nature and human co-operation. Human act a crucial role among these semi-natural ecosystems, they are the essential manager of these cultural natural landscapes which would be lost without their management. But as the growth of visitation population Figure 1 on resource-based recreational area, more and more dollars were launched on the tourism investment, the exotic economy and culture bring more and more impassive affections to the native inhabitants that include customs, folklores, settlements, livelihood, and native agricultural species. Therefore, how to inherit these agricultural traditional culture, how to conserve these traditional agricultural landscape, how to maintain the balance of these exquisite semi-natural ecological landscape are the significant commission of contemporary landscape planner and manager (fig. 1 and 2). Carefully management cultural landscap in Yiwulv National Park Source: Shoufang Liu *Correspodence: Shoufang Liu, Lin Li, Tomasz W. Bralewski: Culture landscape within recreational landscape park in China, pp. 143–147 – 143 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Material and methods Figure 2 Cultural landscape of pear garden within Yiwulv National Park Source: Shoufang Liu In China, from the reforms and open polices since the early 1980s, the cultural landscape concept are changing continually. Following the rapid growth of economy and the raising demand of natural-based tourism recreation, after reviewing the materials of related document, polices and literatures, using historical research methods, the three stages of cultural landscape changing in recreational are summarized. Those are the blind development period at the beginning of tourism economic developing, consideration and exploration period after the failure of over urbanization in the naturalbased recreational area, green ecocultural landscape period. The blind development period Figure 3 Overcrowding of Jiuzai National Park Figure 4 The Elevator in Zhangjiajie Nation Park compromised the natural beauty, and be criticized by experts Source: Shoufang Liu Source: http://image.baidu Since early 1980s, thanks to the reforms and open policies, China has experienced about 8–9% economic growth per year (Zhang et al., 2004). As the result the rapid economic development gave a further boost to the tourism. Tremendous amounts of tourists rush into variety of natural-based recreational areas. Some favored natural resorts were overcrowded. There are some figures can prove it, that is “average per capita income in China has increased rapidly, from about US$450–500 in 1990 to US$1000 in 2001, with peaks in cities and towns where many families now earn US$10,000 and more. People can therefore afford to travel within China and even abroad, especially during the three long holiday periods, also called the “three golden weeks”. Since 2000, holiday tourism has increased at a tremendous pace, leading to overcrowding. For example, Tibet recorded 686,000 tourists in 2001, 28.6 times more than in 1990. The Wulingyuan (Zhangjiajie) World Natural Heritage Site in northwestern Hunan Province – a typical tourist attraction – recorded 1.3 million tourists in 2002, compared with only 0.23 million in 1998. Generally, Shoufang Liu, Lin Li, Tomasz W. Bralewski: Culture landscape within recreational landscape park in China, pp. 143–147 – 144 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Figure 5 Cultural landscape of grape garden converted for tourist in Xinjiang Source: Shoufang Liu urbanization and strive to figure out the reason that caused over urbanization in the ecologic sensitive areas. Among the many causes of uncontrolled urbanization with the natural-based recreation resorts, five deserved mention: yy Unsuitable local management systems for scenic spots, and profitoriented development. yy Lack of environmental awareness among tourists, authorities and scholars; lack of understanding of the purpose of protected areas. yy The tendency of local governments to seek short-term economic benefits and official achievements. yy Lack of scientific criteria and regulations Consideration and rehabilitation period The unsustainable construction sprawled within Chinese Nation Parks particularly within the World Heritage Site, caused highly attention by scholars and manager both of international and domestic. Many experts began to involve in the research works of over Figure 6 Tourist service facility was a farmer house before the ecological restoration Source: Shoufang Liu Shoufang Liu, Lin Li, Tomasz W. Bralewski: Culture landscape within recreational landscape park in China, pp. 143–147 – 145 – footnote?? the number of domestic tourists in mountain resorts has more than quadrupled in the last 5 years in China” (Zhang et al., 2004) (fig. 3 and 4). The large number of tourism triggered a large demands of every kind of tourism service facilities, specially the demand of accommodation facility that caused the over urbanization of the rural region within natural-based resort. The powerful impetus of tourism economy strongly changed the rural settlement pattern and agricultural construction convert local cultural landscape internationally. Simultaneously, the exotic cultural took erosion to the native cultural landscape tradition which was lost their authenticity gradually; the local rural cultural landscape settlement pattern was replaced by international settlement pattern. In this period, some highlight cases were criticized by the international criticism frequently. Such as the 326 meter high elevator within Wulingyuan National Park impacted the natural beauty seriously, and the problem related over urbanization of Wulingyuan was criticized twice by the officer of UNESCO (Yan, 2002). Under the purpose of profit-orientation development, the overcrowded hotels and other tourism facilities sprawled in the core areas and surrounding areas of Chinese National parks (such as Taishan, Huangshan, Wulingyuan, Jiuzhaigou etc.). These unsustainable developments have not only defaced native cultural landscape but also the main landscape features of the area were beyond recognition. Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering restored the eco-function recovered, but the native cultural landscape feature and the related settlement culture were lost in perpetuity. It is an irreversible process. Both of natural and human management can’t be lost simultaneously for cultural landscape, each of them lost, all of them lost. Green eco-cultural landscape period Figure 7 Cultural landscape settlement converted into tourism facility in Daqinggou National Park Source: Shoufang Liu In order to revise the effect of over urbanization of the ecologic sensitive areas, the Chinese central government has launched a series restoration programs since 1998. There were Natural forest protection (with a strict logging ban), development of protective forest systems, restoration of farmland to forest and grassland, desertification control, wild animal and plant protection and nature reserves, and Figure 8 planting of rapid-growth forests (fig. 5 and 6). As the result the project the hotels within the National Park were moved out, as well as the inside inhabitants that transformed from peasant to tourism industry staff. The lands that was deteriorated at over urbanization process in the pass, now have been taken rehabilitation throng forestation project. Although the ecological environment was Cultural landscape of agricultural farm land and settlement in Zhangjiajie National Park Source: Shoufang Liu After the over urbanization and the following de-urbanization people began to realize the significant consequence of protected biological diversity and cultural diversity to the human life. Many biological species depend on the semi-nature cultural landscape – the management landscape to live without human intervention that would not be survival. Simultaneously, most of the folklore both of the movable and unmovable cultural heritage is found in the rural area and a plenty of them nearly extinct or already disappeared. So to protect the rural cultural landscape environments are not only the preservation of biodiversity but also conservation the cultural diversity (fig. 7 and 8). Since the later 1990s, the scholars from different disciplines have begun to study the images of rural cultural landscape including rural cultural diversity, rural beauty and rural semi-nature biodiversity. An article named “A Preliminary Study on Rural Image and Development of Rural Tourism”, written by Xiong (1999) pointed out “ the rural image is an integrated figure impressed in people minds by the rural cultural landscape views; it is composed of rural landscape natural image and rural cultural image”. Wang (2003) in his book “The Landscape Design of Modern Rural Area” gave the definition of rural image that is “the rural image is a distinctive mental map formed from human belief, feeling and thought under the rural view perceived process.” After doing some research and investigation, Ni Shoufang Liu, Lin Li, Tomasz W. Bralewski: Culture landscape within recreational landscape park in China, pp. 143–147 – 146 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering (2007) figured out that the rural image of people mind mainly came from four aspects-literatures, movies, drawings, and the childhood memories; it could be divided into six characters-farmland landscape, natural environments, structures, human, animal, and road; and five principle could be put forward-scenario, process, identification, convenience, and economy. Results and discussion From the research of three stages of cultural landscape development studying in China, the result can be conducted. The cultural landscape is acting the critical fundamental element of recreational park. As a living cultural soul, it is the essential feature to identify the fundamental cultural characteristics of the recreational natural park. Cultural landscape is a semi-natural environment that managed by human settlement livelihood, but simultaneously it is an irreversible process that both natural and management can’t be lose. Green eco-cultural landscape development methods is a sustainable methodology to develop to recreational park. Although there are many ideas about the cultural landscape, the key point is that the cultural landscape originally derives from rural agricultural landscape conception embracing the features related agricultural production and life; agricultural settlement culture, agricultural production culture, agricultural landscape, natural and semi-natural environment, people and people’s livelihood are the essentials of contemporary cultural landscape concept. Rural cultural diversity, agricultural related biodiversity, green and efficiency energy, eco-agriculture, rural eco-settlement is the new ideas of cultural landscape conception. The experiences and lessons of cultural landscape within Chinese recreational landscape park development is a good example for development of landscape park that powered by busting tourism economy. The green ecocultural landscape development style is a sustainable way for future national park or landscape park development. Especially for the areas that described by Muller (2006) in his paper mentioned where are featured by intensity population and small tiny plots. But the settlements between different green eco-cultural landscape areas show great variation featured by native architecture, folk and ethnic cultural heritage as well as semi-natural and natural biodiversity. References BUCKLEY R. – OLLENBURG C. – ZHONG L. 2008. Cultural landscape in Mongolian tourism. In: Annals of Tourism Research, vol. 35, 2008, no. 1, pp. 47–61. LUOHUI, L. 2010. Biodiversity in the Hani Cultural Landscape. Japan : United Nations University, 2010. MULLER, J. 2006. The Cultural Landscape of China – Specific Feature and Their Causes. Lecture held at Clusius Lecture, Leiden/NL on March 29, 2006. NI, J. 2007. Unscramble the Image of the Rural Landscape. China : Transportation University of Shanghai. Msc. Thesis 5, 2007. WANG, Y. 2003. The Landscape Design of Modern Rural Area. China : Qingdao Publishing House, 2003. XIONG, K. 1999. A Preliminary Study on Rural Image and Development of Rural Tourism. In: Areal Research and Development, vol. 18, 1999, no. 3, pp. 70–73. YUAN, M. 2011. Indigenous ecological knowledge and natural resource management in the cultural landscape of China’s Hani Terraces. Yunnan Normal university. In: Ecological Society of Japan, 2011. DOI 10.1007/s11284-011-0895-3. ZHANG, B. – MO, S. – TAN, YA. 2004. Urbanization and Deurbanization in Mountain Region of China. In: Mountain Research and Development, vol. 24, 2004, no. 3, pp. 206–209. ZHENG, X. 2003. Strengthen World Nature and Cultural Relics Protection and Prevent Then from Immanent Danger. In: Urban Study, vol. 10, 2003, no. 2, pp. 50–54. Shoufang Liu, Lin Li, Tomasz W. Bralewski: Culture landscape within recreational landscape park in China, pp. 143–147 – 147 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Analysis Tools for Green Infrastructure in Urban Areas and Open Land Attila Tóth*, Ľubica Feriancová Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Slovakia The paper introduces green infrastructure in urban areas and open land in the context of contemporary landscape architecture as a field of research and practice. Cultural landscapes are designated as the contemporary domain of landscape architecture, with an emphasis on designed landscapes. Green infrastructure is presented as a component of cultural landscapes and as a strategic tool for enhancing Europe‘s natural capital in accordance with the Europe 2020 strategy. Garden heritage sites are highlighted as specific components of the urban green infrastructure and as the object of the research conducted within the CultTour project. The objective of this paper is to present graphic analysis tools applied to the analysis of structural and compositional changes of the studied landscape garden in Palárikovo. The structural development and compositional changes of this landscape garden are presented by graphic analysis tools – thematic layer maps and schemes. The main results are 1) the analysis of the historical development of the landscape garden and 2) the graphic analysis tools as an innovative tool for assessing garden heritage sites or other components of the green infrastructure in urban areas and open land. Keywords: garden composition, garden heritage, graphic analysis tools, landscape garden Introduction Landscape architecture (LA) is a field of research and practice where diverse aspects and neighbouring disciplines interact – from architecture theory, dendrology, sociology and landscape archaeology; through art, landscape ecology, historical geography and forestry; up to economics, cultural anthropology, regional planning and cultural geography (Bell, Sarlöv Herlin and Stiles, 2012). The contemporary domain of LA consists in cultural landscapes of diverse types and components. A specific type of these is represented by designed landscapes which have been created by man in different natural, historical and socio-economic conditions (Salašová, 2004). The system of all green spaces, areas and their components within natural and cultural landscapes in urban or rural environments is designated as Green Infrastructure (GI). It is a topical issue in contemporary LA and related fields of research and practice. GI is defined as a strategic tool for enhancing Europe‘s natural capital in order to achieve a smart, sustainable and inclusive growth of our continent as stated in the Europe 2020 strategy issued by the European Commission (2013). According to the European Commission, there is a need for developing new analytical approaches within the LA research into the urban GI and its particular elements. Specific components of the urban GI are represented by garden heritage sites like historic gardens and parks (Supuka et al., 2008; Kubišta, 2006; Tóth, 2014). This special type of the urban GI has been the object of the research *Correspodence: conducted within the international scientific project CultTour focusing on garden heritage conservation and sustainable tourism. The research has been conducted on the case study of the landscape garden in Palárikovo (Tóth, 2014). The objective of this paper is to present graphic analysis tools applied to the analysis of structural and compositional changes of the studied landscape garden. Material and methods Location and General Characteristics The object of the research is the landscape garden in the small rural town Palárikovo situated in the south-western region of Slovakia, in the Danube Lowland, 13 km distant from the district town Nové Zámky, in the Nitra Region. The original Hungarian name used till 1948, was TótMegyer. The cadastral area covers 5,129 ha and has a flatland character, at the average altitude of 113 m. The protected historic landscape garden covers an area of 52 ha and is continued by a historic pheasantry established in 1752 with an original area of 1,700 ha extended to 3,000 ha protected since 1976 as a natural monument (Tomaško, 2004; Tóth, 2014). The Classicistic Manor House and the Landscape Garden The former baroque manor house built in the 18th century was rebuilt in 1866, into the present classicistic style according to the plans by Miklós Ybl architect Attila Tóth, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering, Department of Garden and Landscape Architecture, Tulipánová 7, 94976 Nitra, Slovakia, e-mail: [email protected] Attila Tóth, Ľubica Feriancová: Analysis tools for green infrastructure in urban areas and open land, pp. 148–151 – 148 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Figure 1 Development of the landscape garden and its surrounding urban area and open land Figure 2 Changes in the landscape garden‘s compositional structure (19th vs 21st century) Source: Tóth, 2014 Source: Tóth, 2014 (1814–1891). Near the manor house, there is a unique technical construction – a 22 m high wooden water tower (1869). The garden composition emphasises the manor house as a landmark situated on the main compositional axis with a regularly designed cour d‘honneur with a fountain at the front facade which continues in a large elliptical lawn. Another fountain is situated at the garden facade. The wide linear open space consisting Attila Tóth, Ľubica Feriancová: Analysis tools for green infrastructure in urban areas and open land, pp. 148–151 – 149 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering of meadows, starting at the garden facade and continuing along the main axis, provides a characteristic view through the landscape garden framed by trees. There is a small circular lake with an island, in the middle of the composition. The former communication network has been partially preserved. The meadows are being sequentially overgrown by spontaneous woody plant growths. We can still identify former solitaires in the dense growths (Tóth, 2014; Kubišta, 2006; Tomaško, 2004; Vágenknechtová, 1982; Sziklay and Borovszky, 1899). area Methods We have applied graphic analysis tools in order to interpret the main structural changes in the landscape garden composition. An own coloured interpretation of the historic cadastral map from the 2nd half of the 19th century (Archive of the Monuments Board of the SR) enabled a comparison between the original composition and the current state depicted by an orthographic photomap (Eurosense, Geodis Slovakia). To show the development of the garden in the context of the landscape structure, we have produced a coloured interpretation of the 3 military mapping surveys (18th and 19th century) along with the topographic map from the 20th century (Geoportal of the Slovak Environmental Agency). The structural and compositional changes of the landscape garden are emphasised by schematic layer maps analysing the changes in: 1. the area, 2. the path system, 3. the woody vegetation, 4. lawns and meadows. All these graphs and schemes are analytical tools used to evaluate the main changes in the composition. The software used to process the maps and produce thematic graphs and schemes was Adobe Illustrator CS5. path system woody vegetation lawn and meadows Figure 3 Comparison between the current and the historic state of the landscape garden in Palárikovo – Schematic designation of changes / Superimposition of different time layers Source: Tóth, 2014 Attila Tóth, Ľubica Feriancová: Analysis tools for green infrastructure in urban areas and open land, pp. 148–151 – 150 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Results and discussion The 1 military mapping survey records no extensive garden space at the urban area of Palárikovo (then Megyer) in the second half of the 18th century. Therefore, we can assume that there was no extensive baroque garden preceding the landscape garden. The first map evidence of an extensive garden in Palárikovo (then Tót Megyer) is provided by the 2nd military mapping survey (1810–1869) and the historic cadastral map (2nd half of the 19th century). The 2nd military mapping survey already depicts the landscape garden in its very early stage. The military and topographic maps are not detailed enough to analyse the composition of the garden (figure 1). The comparison between the original and the present composition of the landscape garden shows a significant decrease in lawns and at the same time an increase of the woody plant cover (figure 2). The result of the compositional analysis by thematic layer maps shows the changes in the composition with an emphasis on: 1. the area, 2. the path system, 3. the woody vegetation, 4. lawns and meadows (figure 3). Graphic analysis tools used in this paper can be utilised also for assessment of particular components and elements of the GI. For instance Paganová and Jureková (2012) use graphic analysis tools to assess and evaluate selected tree parameters like stem, crown and its architecture, branching and phenotypic characteristics of trees. Our approach stands for a potential contribution to standard assessment methods of woody plants as components of the urban GI as conducted for instance by Raček (2000). Graphic analysis tools were also used for analysing private elements of the urban GI conducted by Lička and Jeschke (2008). They analysed design concepts of urban garden spaces using similar graphic tools, although they focus on the design concept, while we have focused on the structural development and compositional changes. The applied graphic analysis tools are presented as a way of spatial, structural and compositional analysis of garden heritage sites. As discussed above, they have the potential to be applied also in related fields of research or design. st Conclusion The obtained new knowledge consists of two main components: 1. knowledge of the compositional and structural development of a landscape garden by the example of the case study Palárikovo, 2. application and verification of graphic (visual) analysis tools to assess the development and changes of a garden composition. The most important results are the graphic analyses of the landscape garden composition by the example of Palárikovo, since such an approach has not yet been applied to any historic landscape garden in Slovakia. The scientific significance of these tools consists in their applicability to other historic (landscape) gardens and a subsequent comparability of results. Their application to further case studies would facilitate new knowledge creation and transfer in the field of LA, with a particular focus on historic green spaces and garden heritage sites. Acknowledgement The research has been conducted within the international scientific and research project of the EU – CultTour – Garden Heritage Conservation and Tourism and supported by the national research projects of the Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport of the SR KEGA No. 001SPU-4/2014 and VEGA No. 1/0769/12. References Bell, S. – Sarlöv Herlin, I. – Stiles, R. (Eds.). 2012. Exploring the Boundaries of Landscape Architecture. Oxon : Routledge, 2012. 328 p. ISBN 978-0-415-67985-5. European Commission. 2013. Communication from the Commission to the EP, the Council, the EESC and the Committee of the Regions: Green Infrastructure (GI) — Enhancing Europe’s Natural Capital [online]. Brussels: EC, [2013-08-16]. Available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ. do?uri=COM:2013:0249:FIN:EN:PDF. Kubišta, R. 2006. Historické parky a záhrady : Nitriansky kraj. Bratislava : VEDA vydavateľstvo SAV, 2006. 180 s. ISBN 978-80-224-0946-9. Lička, L. – Jeschke, A. L. 2008. Gartenräume gestalten. Stuttgart : Ulmer, Eugen Verlag, 2008. 144 p. ISBN 978-3800151738. Paganová, V. – Jureková, Z. 2012. Woody plants in landscape planning and landscape design. In: Landscape planning. Rjeka, 2012. pp. 199–217. ISBN 978-953-51-0654-8. Raček, M. Hodnotenie drevín v mestskom prostredí. In: Použitie rastlín v záhradnej a krajinnej tvorbe. Nitra : SPU, s. 49–51. Salašová, A. 2004. Budúcnosť komponovanej krajiny. In: Sídlo – park – krajina III: krajinno-architektonická tvorba a vegetačné prvky v sídlach a krajine. Nitra : SPU, 2004. s. 78–82. ISBN 80-8069-467-6. Supuka, J. a i. 2008. Vegetačné štruktúry v sídlach: Parky a záhrady. Nitra : SPU, 2008. 504 s. ISBN 978-80-552-0067-5. Sziklay, J. – Borovszky, S. 1899. Magyarország vármegyéi és városai – Nyitra vármegye. Budapest : Apollo irodalmi társaság szerkesztőség és kiadóhivatal. Tomaško, I. 2004. Historické parky a okrasné záhrady na Slovensku: História, lokalizácia, valorizácia, architektúra a spôsoby obnovy. Bratislava : VEDA, 2004. 160 s. ISBN 80-224-0797-6. Tóth, A. 2014. CultTour Garden Heritage Conservation and Tourism: Landscape Garden in Palárikovo, Slovakia. Vienna / Berlin / Krems: CultTour // BOKU / TU / IMC. 85 p. Vágenknechtová, V. 1982. Palárikovo – Park. Zámer obnovy pamiatky a Program pamiatkovej úpravy. Bratislava : Krajské stredisko štátnej pamiatkovej starostlivosti a ochrany prírody. Attila Tóth, Ľubica Feriancová: Analysis tools for green infrastructure in urban areas and open land, pp. 148–151 – 151 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Analyses of the brownfields use in the Nitra city and its surrounding Mária Bihuňová*, Alexandra Takáčová, Martina Verešová Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Slovakia The main objective of the paper is identification, analysis and outlining options for revitalisation of selected brownfield sites in Nitra and its surroundings. Contribution aims to highlight the potential for development of abandoned sites with emphasis on the regional and local identity and tourism development. Keywords: brownfields, revitalisation, Nitra, industrial sites, agricultural co-operatives Introduction Material and methods Brownfield – according to the dictionary is a piece of industrial or commercial property that is abandoned or underused and often environmentally contaminated, especially considered as a potential site for redevelopment. Other definitions defines brownfields as abandoned, vacant, derelict, idled or underutilized property in the urban area with an active potential for redevelopment, where redevelopment is complicated by environmental contamination or potential presence of a hazardous substance, pollutant or contaminant (Coll. of authors, 2007). Term “brownfield“ was used in the meaning as it is known nowadays on 28th of June 1992, when U.S. Environmental Protection Agency pointed Cuyahoga County (state Ohio, USA) as a first brownfield (Vanheusden, 2007). Kyselová (2010) divides brownfields according to the previous use to the following cathegories: Agricultural and productional sites, Industrial areas, Manufactoral buildings, Army and Military areas, Housing and Comunity Amenities, Tourism, Medical buildings, Hotels and other (e.g. Breweries). Petríková (2011) and Hrubý et al. (2013) add to this categories also Surface mines and Remains after transport and technical infrastructure. In Slovakia industrial, administrative and residential complexes of brownfields have occured as the results of restructuralisation of the state economy and as a change in social – economic sphere after 1989. Brownfields are not in the centre of the interest in Slovakia. They are only marginally solved within the projects – mostly only on the local level. International experiences lead to the integrated approach – best on the state level. Slovak Investment and Trade Development Agency SARIO in cooperation with representatives from the local municipalities have elaborated overview of the brownfields in Slovakia. This database contains of 2355 localities. Nitra Self Governing Region is mainly used for agricultural production and mostly deforested. The main industrial branches are engineering, chemical industry and food processing industry, which is the oldest and most expanded industrial branch covering whole region. Nitra region is on the third place in number of firms among Slovak regions, it is the largest agricultural producer in Slovakia and the second most important producer of energy and provider of trading and business services. Nitra city is a cultural and economic centre of it. Rated proposition of Brownfield: 1. Name and Location: object identification by its position and the current title 2. Category of area basis of reconstructive methods: A – Brownfield after reconstruction and land reclamation with the original architectural characters – objects have a new function after reconstruction, but the architectural form was unchanged; B – Brownfield after reconstruction, whose architectural function was completely changed by demolition; C – Brownfield, after partial land reclamation, it should be used for the recreation; D – Brownfield – industrial facilities without land reclamation, but the site has potential to develop due to its favourable position in relation to the city (Cabernet, 2012). 3. Area of site: we evaluated area measurement of Brownfield based on data from cadastral web portal. For greater clarity, we were subsequently included objects into different size categories. ≤1 ha, 1–5 ha, 5–10 ha (Urbion, 2002). 4. Transport availability of Brownfield – fixed based radius from the centre of Nitra, expressed in km from city centre: a) Centre, b) 0–5 km c) 5–10 4) 10–20. 5. Brownfields define by ownership (the economic potential of redevelopment process). Based this we created following categories: A. Brownfield redeveloped in private sector – self-evolving objects *Correspodence: Mária Bihuňová, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering, Department of Garden and Landscape Architecture, Tulipánová 7, 94976 Nitra, Slovakia, e-mail: [email protected] Mária Bihuňová, Alexandra Takáčová, Martina Verešová: Analyses of the brownfields use in the Nitra city and its surrounding, pp. 152–155 – 152 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering – it has the highest value of next potential use of area; B. Public-private partnership – the objects have semi – potential for development – objects with certain restrictions (by the financial restriction from the public sector); C. The owner is the state – public financing, at least probable redevelopment of the property, the lowest level of funding. 6. Previous use of sites: the following categories identified by numerical code: 1. Industrial, 2. Military, 3. Railway, 4. Transportation, 5. Agricultural, 6. Infectious institutional (hospitals, prisons), 7. rade (shopping centres, administration), 8. Cultural (cultural centres, theatres, cinemas), 9. Recreation (sports grounds, stadiums, parks, open spaces), 10. Non-infection institutional (schools, offices). 7. The current a status of the object – the subjective evaluation of site and architectural state of buildings. A. Good – Brownfield after reclamation (Greenland), site with new function, B. bad – Brownfield undergone redevelopment, large contamination of land; present use – other than the original. C. very bad – emergency conditions of Brownfields. 8. Forms of vegetation – according to normative for green we set following categories: 1. Synanthropic vegetation: (occurring in the vicinity of human settlements and using environmental changes caused by man.) successional communities and invasive plants and herbs. 2. Cultural vegetation – founded, managed and maintained by man. 9. Environmental Load – classifying areas according to the previous usage of Brownfield, affecting the degree of environmental loads. A. high level of potential environmental loads: industrial, military, railway and Figure 1 transport, agricultural, institutional infectious (hospitals, prisons). B. The low level of potential environmental loads: commercial (shopping centres, administration), cultural (cultural centres, theatres, cinemas), recreation (sports grounds, stadiums, parks, open spaces), noninfectious institutional (schools, offices). 10. Potential after Brownfield redevelopment: H – High – excellent accessibility of facilities, distance up to 10 km, become connected to roads and greenways, public transport; M – median – object distance up to 15 km from the city, the availability of a motor vehicle, cycling, L – low – distance of 20 km from the city, the availability of a motor vehicle. Based terrain research we identified 18 objects 9 Brownfields after redevelopment, 8 belonged to Brownfields. Subsequently we evaluated them based our methodology. Results and discussion We have studied altogether 18 sites with brownfields characteristics. During investigation, we evaluated their location, size, accessibility, ownership. We compared the current and former use, potential environmental load, vegetation and their potential for the further development. Table 1 shows the results of the mapped potential Brownfields sites. From the total number of studied objects had the largest representation renovated building with original architecture (A category). Overwhelmingly there were the objects associated with agricultural processed industry: barns, mills, distilleries. Size of the area were up to 1.5 ha. Buildings have been renovated by physical person. Their condition can be described as good. All of these objects represent a high Map of sites dividing based the degree of redevelopment and using Mária Bihuňová, Alexandra Takáčová, Martina Verešová: Analyses of the brownfields use in the Nitra city and its surrounding, pp. 152–155 – 153 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Current state and use Vegetation Environmental load Potential for development of site Previous use Ownership Transport accessibility Area size in ha Evaluation of selected Brownfields areas Locality Name Table 1 A 1 A H A category 1 Báb .≤ 1 3 A 5 2 Čab 1–5 3 A 5 A 1 A H 3 Jelšovce .≤ 1 4 A 1,5 A 1 A H 4 Pohranice .≤ 1 4 A 5 A 1 A H 5 Hosťová 1–5 4 A 5 A 1 A H 6 Branč 1–5 4 A 5 A 1 A H 7 Branč .≤ 1 4 A 5 A 1 A H 8 Nitra 1–5 2 A 1 A 1 A H 9 Nitra 1–5 2 A 1 A 1 A H 1 A 2 A H B category 1 Nitra 1–5 1 A 1 Ivánka 1–5 4 C 1 A 2 A H 2 Ivánka 1–5 4 A 1 A 2 A H 1 Dolné Krškany 1–5 3 A 5 B 2 B H 2 Dolné Krškany 1–5 3 A 5 C 2 B H 3 Horné Krškany 1–5 3 A 5 B–C 2 B H 4 Nitra 1–5 2 B 2 B 2 B H 5 Nitra 1–5 2 B 10 C 2 B H 6 Babindol 1–5 4 A 1 B 2 B M C category D category potential for further development in conjunction with tourism and the appropriate forms of recreation. The second category (B category), when the original architecture was completely changed by demolition of buildings, was only object of the food industry (mill). Original environmental loads have been eliminated by new redevelopment. In this case this area plays an important role in the development and long term economic sustainable in the urban core. This form of rehabilitation is very questionable in terms of preservation of historic architectural city structures. C category included two objects – original mining pits for gravel (river gravel), which are in excellent accessible distance from the city and they are also in direct contact with the surrounding villages. For the comparison, one part of the pit is privately owned (owner built a canter for recreation). The second is owned by the municipality and is used as – catch fishery. The area has strong potential for further development and completion of other structures. The last category is made up of industrial sites without reconstruction (D category). Areas of these sites are larger than one hectare. Ownership is private or mixed – publicprivate partnership. These objects have a convenient location and accessibility within the city, their previous use, which corresponds to the current very poor state facilities detects a high degree of environmental loads. These Brownfields have a high future potential for further development of the area after the removal of all forms of stress and restoration sites (which may be due to the large area of blocked financial barrier). There is an increasing interest of the brownfields using in the urban structures. The “brownfield issue” in Slovakia has several particularities: absence of comprehensive database of brownfields; absence of the National strategy of the brownfield revitalisation; marginal solution of the brownfields, only within the whole project concept; missing of the data regarding the soil contamination and other pollutions; reselection of the areas, which are easily accessible. Many authors of research in this area would agree precisely on the idea that the attractiveness of Brownfield increases depending on their localization, accessibility and connection to the main transport roads. Another Mária Bihuňová, Alexandra Takáčová, Martina Verešová: Analyses of the brownfields use in the Nitra city and its surrounding, pp. 152–155 – 154 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Figure 2 Benefits of brownfield redevelopment Source: Regional Analytics, 2002 important role plays the historical background as a relic of culture, hint of previous generations and the development of continuity. Views on this issue see authors in three positions, they are following: economic, social and environmental one (Figure 2). We brought an overview and comparison of selected brownfield sites before and after reconstruction. We can find the origin of the Brownfields in the restructuring of the economy after 1989 – beginning of period of transition to a market economy. Part of the privatization process, followed by a process of change and production base. Slovakia landscape is mainly used for agricultural production. The great potential is still hidden in disused and dilapidated campuses. Form of their future use and the reconstruction depends primarily on the number of economic facts as well as the extent and manner of their future use. As mentioned by various researches in this fields for incorporation of the social and cultural dimensions of sustainable revitalization it is necessary to: analyse the costs and benefits arising from the inclusion of these objectives into the revitalization scheme of brownfield sites, find or develop the specific tools that can be utilized for the implementation of these objectives (specific policy direction, regulations, detailed methods of social parti- cipation, creation of new coalitions, fiscal measures, the improvement of skills and education, etc.) (Petríková, Finka and Ondrejička, 2013). Conclusion This comparison brought several question marks regarding the method of evaluation and Brownfield categorization in Slovak conditions. We have looked on the methods of brownfield assessment, based on the methodologies used in foreign countries (Czech Republic and the countries of Western Europe). Slovakia has the potential for development of such sites, confirming attendance reconstructed facilities. Despite of this fact there is high pertcentage of creation and buiding of the new architectural complexes. This situation can be solved by elaborating of the methodology of the Brownfield assessment, which will be followed by brownfield program. This is the first step in the redevelopment process, which is key factor in its revitalization. Old industrial sites represent a great potential for tourism, recreation sport and cultural development. Acknowledgement Paper was prepared with the support of the grant VEGA 1/0769/12. References BIHUÑOVÁ, M. 2011. Krajinárska výstava – BUGA Koblenz 2011. In: Komunálna technika, roč. 3, 2011, č. 5, s. 10–13. ISSN 1337-9011 BIHUÑOVÁ, M. – ŠTĒPÁNKOVÁ, R. 2012. Trendy a prístupy v podpore a rozvoji vidieckeho cestovného ruchu. In: Životné prostredie, roč. 46, 2012, č. 4, s. 204–208. ISSN 0044-4863 CABERNET, 2012. Definícia pojmu brownfield podľa CABERNET [online] Available at: <http://www.cabernet.org. uk/index.asp?c=1134> cit. 10.03.2014 COLLECTIVE of authors. 2007. Wetland Brownfield Strategy. 46 p. [online] Available at: http://www.welland.ca/development/ BrownfieldStrategy.pdf 15.03.2014 CUNNINGHAM, S. 2002. The Restoration Economy: The Greatest New Growth Frontier. San Francisco, CA: BerrettKoehler Publishers, Inc. KYSEĽOVÁ, K. 2010. Projekty pre brownfields a ich mapovanie. Internetový článok In uzemneplany.sk. [online] available at: < http://www.uzemneplany. sk/ sutaz/projekty-pre-brownfield-a-ichmapovanie> cit. 15.03.2014 HRUBÝ, K. – MANDIČÁK, T. – MESÁROŠ, P. 2013. Values and possibilities of reuse brownfields. In: Business Trends 2013. Reviewed conference proceedings. Plzeň : Západočeská univerzita v Plzni, 2013, 1. vydání. ISBN 978-80-261-0321-9. http:// www.tvp.zcu.cz/cd/2013/PDF_sbornik/20.pdf PETRÍKOVÁ, D. 2011. Klasifikácia a hodnotenie možností regenerácie brownfieldov. In: Urbanita, roč. 23, 2011, č. 3, s. 10 – 13. ISSN 0139-5912. PETRÍKOVÁ, D. – FINKA, M. –ONDREJIČKA, V. 2013. Brownfield Redevelopment in the Visegrad Countries. Ostrava : VŠB – TU, 2013. 90 s. ISBN 978-80-248-3125-1 REGIONAL ANALYTICS. 2002. A Preliminary Investigation into the Economic Impact of Brownfield Redevelopment Activities in Canada”, prepared for the National Roundtable on the Environment and the Economy. Burlington, Ontario. VANHEUSDEN, B. 2007. Brownfield Redevelopment in the European Union. In Boston College Environmental Affairs Law Review. Ročník 34, číslo 3, 559–575. [online]. Available at: <http://lawdigitalcommons. bc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?ar ticle=1079 &context=ealr> cit. 10.3.2014 URBION. 2002. Metodická príručka pre obstarávateľov a spracovateľov územnoplánovacej dokumentácie. Avalaible at: http://telecom.gov.sk/ index/open_file.php?file cit.10.3.2014. HREBÍKOVÁ, D. – HAUPTVOGL, M. – TAKÁČOVÁ., A. 2008. Zhodnotenie vybraných environmentálnych ukazovateľov v urbanizovanom prostredí. In: Mladí vedci 2008 : vedecké práce doktorandov a mladých vedeckých pracovníkov. Nitra : UKF, 2008. s. 303–310. ISBN 978-80-8094-285-4 Mária Bihuňová, Alexandra Takáčová, Martina Verešová: Analyses of the brownfields use in the Nitra city and its surrounding, pp. 152–155 – 155 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Georadar Research of Parterre in Historic Park in Palarikovo Richard Kubišta Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Slovakia This work is a part of a wider research project of historic greenery in south-western region of Slovakia. As a model object was chosen garden parterre of a 19th century landscape park in the village of Palarikovo in Nove Zamky district. As a working method was chosen non-invasive underground research with the use of georadar X3M equipped with 500 MHz shielded antenna of Swedish company MALÅ. Research results were processed by software Rad Explorer 1.41 and GroundVision 2. Planar scanning of the eastern half of parterre in range 30 × 50 m was chosen with the goal to verify presumption on an existence of a formal parterre design preserved in graphic plans dated 1794. Decision was made due to expectation of symmetry in composition of classicistic parterre. A set of 100 scans in a perpendicular direction to the main parterre axis (each 25 to 30 m long repeated each 50 cm). As controls were made 5 scans parallel with the main parterre axis (each 50 m long repeated each 5 m). The research itself was made during the summer months in 2012 as the best scanning results can be reached only in dry and warm conditions. According the research results we come to the conclusion that historic garden parterre proposals of a formal design were never realised. There were readable only marks of the composition from the turn of the 19th and 20th century. Keywords: historic greenery, underground research, georadar, Palarikovo Introduction Historic greenery is an important part of a cultural heritage of each nation; that’s why it is necessary it’s detailed knowing and preservation. Research of historic greenery objects completes missing information, verifies presumptions and disproves suppositions. The nature of research lies first of all in detailed mapping of historic greenery objects, their evaluation and categorisation. A part of this process is stock-taking of biotic and abiotic elements of natural and anthropogenic origin. The term historic greenery object concerns not just historic parks and gardens, but also spa parks, some older orchards, vineyards, even solitaire trees, sacral greenery and not finally also larger landscape designs. Their integral part is not just the biotic part as a trees, shrubs, perennials, annuals and lawns but even built elements as the main building, other buildings, garden inventory as benches, statues, pergolas, pavilions or other. Not the last parts of the historic greenery objects are natural but abiotic elements as water features, rocks, caves or others. Historic greenery objects have also their time periods which can overlay themselves and which are not just a subject of the research but even a subject of cultural heritage what determines their renewal possibilities. Materials and methods The material is in this case the garden parterre of classicistic manor of the Karolyi family lying in front of the garden facade of the manor. The park was rebuilt into landscape style at the beginning of the 20th century together with the parterre. The change of the parterre was necessary to reach a unity in the parterre and garden design; up to this change had the parterre formal appearance. According to photos from the beginning of 20th century there was a symmetric composition with four cone shaped yew trees (Taxus baccata L.) with low cut hedge in octagonal shape made of boxwood (Buxus sempervirens L.) with an octagonal pink marble fountain in the middle. This fountain is the only element surviving till these days; the design of the garden parterre was very similar to existing one on the opposite side of the manor at the court d’honour. The selection of the research method was conditioned to the design of historic plans for the parterre planting out. Two variants were preserved, both rectangular, that’s why planar scanning method was chosen to increase the probability of confirmation of a rectangular underground shapes existence. Non-invasive research made by Ground Penetration Radar (GPR) or just georadar X3M equipped with 500 MHz shielded antenna of Swedish company MALÅ would be able to confirm assumed designs thanks to the historic materials use as sand, gravel or maul. Different density of the material in rectangular shapes would be visible in separate radargrams. Change of the soil structure causes changes in the profile density; this would be visible in the scans after their processing *Correspodence:Richard Kubišta, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering, Department of Garden and Landscape Architecture, Tulipánová 7, 94976 Nitra, Slovakia, e-mail: [email protected] Richard Kubišta: Georadar research of parterre in historic park in Palarikovo, pp. 156–160 – 156 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering in softwares Rad Explorer 1.41 and GroundVision 2. The georadar research offers an advantage of very quick checking of larger areas without invasive interventions in greenery. Possible existence of underground objects would have to be confirmed by invasive archaeological research. Using non-invasive sub-surface and surface mapping methods can document the basic structure and layout of site (Watters, 2012). Comparison of historic plans with the present ones is possible thanks Figure 1 to the digital maps and still existing manor. There is an expectation of small map inaccuracy as the original plans were made manually. That is why planar method was chosen in the area of the south-eastern half of the parterre in range 30 × 50 m. Decision was made due to expectation of symmetry in composition of classicistic parterre. A set of 100 scans in a perpendicular direction to the main parterre axis (each 25 to 30 m long repeated each 50 cm). As controls were made 5 scans parallel Design of the Court d’honour in from of the Count Karolyi’s Manor House in today’s Palarikovo Source: http://www.forestportal.sk/ForestPortal/volny_cas/turistika vyznamne_ miesta/prehlad_vlm/04_kastiel_palarikovo/04_kastiel_palarikovo.html Figure 2 Design of the garden parterre behind the Count Karolyi’s Manor House in today’s Palarikovo Source: http://www.forestportal.sk/ForestPortal/volny_cas/turistika/vyznamne_ miesta/prehlad_vlm/04_kastiel_palarikovo/04_kastiel_palarikovo.html with the main parterre axis (each 50 m long repeated each 5 m). The research itself was made during the summer months in 2012 as the best scanning results can be reached only in dry and warm conditions. Results and discussion The manor house was built in 1730 by Count Karolyi on the place of older house of family Kounic from Moravsky Slavkov. Originally baroque manor house was in 1866 redesigned in classicistic style by architect Mikulas Ybl. A part of the complex was also palm glasshouse, later standing separately (lapsed in 1937), baroque church, theatre (lapsed in 1803), outhouses, horse stables, brewery (lapsed), wooden water tower with a well. Till these days is important pheasantry founded in 1752, enlarged during the socialism era to approximately 3000 ha. Almost 60 ha large park is together with the pheasantry an important area of greenery in intensively used agricultural land of south-western Slovakia. Originally smaller baroque garden design in manor house surroundings was after the classicistic reconstruction of the building redesigned in English landscape style. The only baroque remaining can be considered formal main parterre in front of the manor house at the court d’honour together with the lonely octagonal fountain in the middle of the garden parterre behind the manor house or the baroque church neighbouring with the park. Park elements like tennis courts, beer cellar, rose hill, garden pavilions have stepwise disappeared. There still exists small lake with an island lying in a romantic composition in the middle of natural oak wood enriched by dendrological attractions as gigantic Platanus × acerifolia (Ait.) Willd., Ginkgo biloba L. and Maclura pomifera (Raf.) C.K.Schneid. During the wider research were found in Archive of The Monuments Board of the Slovak Republic two Richard Kubišta: Georadar research of parterre in historic park in Palarikovo, pp. 156–160 – 157 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Figure 3 Historic cadastral map from the turn of the 19th and 20th century showing the formal design of both parterres. Red line marks surveyed area Source: Archive of the Geodetic and Cartographic Institute Bratislava graphics of garden parterre plans in formal baroque style. Both were simple geometric compositions of several rectangles circumscribed by hedges probably of boxwood (Buxus sempervirens L.) with incorporated tennis court and peach orchard (Persica vulgaris Mill.). Today is the parterre non-formal with poor quality lawn but with still readable marks of formal design from the turn of the 19th and 20th century. It is the mentioned fountain and 4 not very visible roundish terrain elevations (approximately 15 cm high and 4 m in diameter) positioned around the fountain in corners of a square shape. These elevations are with high level of probability identifiable as original positions of 4 cone cut yew trees (Taxus baccata L.) from historical photos. Another 8 yew trees still exist on opposite parterre in front of the manor house at the court d’honour. According to assumed arrangement of the axial symmetric design of historic parterre was chosen planar scanning on one side of the parterre; it was not necessary to scan both sides of the parterre as it should be symmetric with other side. It is still time-consuming to scan large areas, although much faster than invasive methods, just one half of the parterre was chosen as material of the research. In effort to catch any fragments of historic structures lost in sediments of the time was needed the planar scanning. This type of scanning allows catching any remaining of former linear elements like paths, hedges or others. Readable marks arise also after long lasting use of separate areas in the same way (lawn cutting, maintaining of the paths, flower beds and so on); the soil in these areas rises up or is always kept is the same level and just the terrain around changes the height. Even out planting of the linear hedges leaves marks readable particular time by geoscanning; it is due to the changes in soil layers. The rise of the terrain is based on atmospheric processes, soil and dust is removed by the wind and absorbed by vegetation. There is also an influence of the vegetation itself; more massive vegetation uses all organic material to produce its body. Deconstruction of such vegetation is usually sudden by out cutting or fire, so there is no biomass remaining on the place. In the abandoned section of a park with no maintenance is the terrain rise up very significant; on more or less nutritious plots it can be about 1 m in 100 years. These organic layers then cover all artificial elements. With the exception of four roundish terrain elevations there were no significant marks of other terrain changes. After the software processing of 105 terrain profile scans made by georadar where these interpreted. Several types of underground features were detected; first of all tree root systems creating shallow concave changes in radargrams; seconds engineering nets producing deep concave changes; thirds any other underground features were producing flat changes in radargrams. Problem of optical shortening of the radargrams caused by terrain roughness did not caused illegibility of the separate radargrams. For our purposes is sufficient the recognition of underground features; to prove Richard Kubišta: Georadar research of parterre in historic park in Palarikovo, pp. 156–160 – 158 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Figure 4 Historic garden parterre proposal plans dated 1794 Source: Archive of the Monuments Board of the Slovak Republic Bratislava their existence it is still necessary invasive probation. Terray (2012) says that georadar scanning has an advantage of catching all visible objects in surveyed area, not just today’s engineering nets, but even old paths, fences, basements. It is easy to identify and interpret everything what is necessary for an archaeological research. With a sufficient profile scan density it is possible to identify also smaller Figure 5 objects like graves, gravestones and so on. Clark (2008) made a similar research in Amache in Granada Relocation Centre, located in south-eastern Colorado, USA. The investigations were designed to further assess the archaeological resources of the site, especially the gardens documented by historic photographs and site survey. These locations were subjected to ground Garden parterre today Source: authors archive penetrating radar (GPR) survey, which confirmed the presence of features with ornamental and vegetable garden. The GPR results in vegetable garden were inconclusive. Compared to our research Clark (2008) makes also soil chemistry analysis from each stratum following the standard protocol for garden archaeology (Currie 2005). Soil was sampled, as well from the fill of internal garden features (such as planting holes). These samples were floated and their contents analyzed for macrobotanical remains. Watters (2012) made a GPR research in the residence of poet Henry W. Longfellow in Cambridge in Massachusetts, USA. It was a part of wider research using not just GPR but also other techniques as Magentometry, Resistance and Conductivity/Magnetic Susceptibility. At the front parterre he came to a conclusion that resistance data suggest there may be compacted surfaces between these ‘garden beds’, based upon the higher resistance value along what appears to be a central pathway in the GPR data. GPR data however, shows the garden ‘beds’ as a stronger anomaly than the ‘pathways’. If the ‘pathways’ were a compacted surface, in theory, they should show as a strong anomaly in the GPR data. Different geophysical survey methods provide detailed information as to what is buried beneath the ground. We are able to integrate this information for a more insightful interpretation of the buried features, but to truly know what remains, archaeologists must ground truth these features through auguring or excavation. These result shows that even a flower bed can be easily recognizable in GPR research thanks the long lasting change of the soil structure compared to neighbouring parts of the plane. Conyers (2012) writes in his e-book that inability to interpret GPR results within the broader context of the surrounding landscape is analogous Richard Kubišta: Georadar research of parterre in historic park in Palarikovo, pp. 156–160 – 159 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Time in ns Distance in m Figure 6 An example of a control scan parallel with the main axis of the garden parterre showing no marks of formal design Source: author to what happens to excavation archaeologists who spent all their time in a few holes in the ground and fail to look around to get the bigger picture. This could be a memento for all garden archaeologists or geophysicists making any GPR research in historic landscapes, parks or gardens. According to our research results it is possible to come to the conclusion that historic garden parterre proposals of a formal design (dated 1794) were never realised. There were readable only marks of the composition from the turn of the 19th and 20th century. Possible mistakes can be disproved by an invasive archaeological research; they could be caused in case of gradual sedimentation of mould paths to the state aligning the density of the soil and former path. Or in case of out planting stripes the soil could be compressed during the time since the change happened. According the research results we do not assume these cases. Conclusion On a model case – Manor and Park in Palarikovo was made a non-invasive research of the garden parterre with the use of the georadar X3M equipped with 500 MHz shielded antenna of Swedish company MALÅ. We have assumed an existence of baroque or classicistic features remaining only under the soil surface as the parterre was restored at the turn of 19th and 20th century. These assumptions were conditioned by existence of historic out planting plans of the garden parterre in two variants dated 1794. The research needed warm and dry conditions so the research came true in July 20th–21st 2012 (temperature 25–30 °C). The soil had to be dry, even the morning dew had to fall down (research started at 10:00 and lasted to 15:00, both days). 105 scans were made, 100 in perpendicular direction to the main axis of the parterre (each 25 to 30 m long repeated each 50 cm) and 5 control ones in parallel direction to the main axis of the parterre (each 50 m long repeated each 5 m). These georadar scans were processed by software Rad Explorer 1.41 a GroundVision 2 compatible with the georadar. In separate radargrams were readable tree root systems, engineering nets expressed by graphic change of fluent radargram flow. According to the interpretation of radargrams it is possible to come to the conclusion that any of both historic garden parterre proposals were on the site never realised. Acknowledgements This contribution was supported by grant VEGA 1/0769/12 Tvorba udržateľných verejných priestorov vidieckych sídiel modernými metódami. References CLARK, B. 2008. The Archaeology of Gardening at Amache: A Synthesis of results from University of Denver Field Investigations, University of Denver, Department of Anthropology. https:// portfolio.du.edu/portfolio/getportfoliofile?uid=148099 CONYERS, L. B. 2012. Interpreting Ground-penetrating Radar for Archaeology. Left Coast Press, Inc. Walnur Creek. 220 p. ISBN 978-1-61132-653-6 http://books.google.sk/bo oks?id=PK0XxAneQckC&pg=PA9&lpg=PA9&dq=garden+a rchaeology+gpr&source=bl&ots=VQHVm4Mgvv&sig=7uu ok-LB6CJC7XDd2-xVyruZazg&hl=sk&sa=X&ei=JHvRUfOgE Yv4sga3lYCoCg&ved=0CHAQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=garden %20archaeology%20gpr&f=false CURIE, Ch. 2005. Garden Archaeology: A Handbook. Practical handbooks in archaeology (No. 17) Council for British Archaeology, York, 2005. 80 p. ISBN 978-1902771489 http://www.forestportal.sk/ForestPortal/volny_cas/turistika/ vyznamne_miesta/prehlad_vlm/04_kastiel_palarikovo/04_ kastiel_palarikovo.html SUPUKA, J. – FERIANCOVÁ, Ľ. 2008. Vegetačné štruktúry v sídlach – parky a záhrady. Nitra : SPU, 2008. 499 s. ISBN 978-80-552-0067-5 TERRAY, M. 2012. Georadarové merania v archeológii. http:// www.terray.sk/file/aplikacie_gpr_file115.pdf WATTERS, M. S. 2012. Geophysical and Laser Scan Surveys at the Longfellow House – Washington’s Headquarters National Historic. Joukowsky Institute of Archaeology and the Ancient World, Brown University. 49 p. http://ncptt.nps.gov/wpcontent/uploads/MT-2210011-NC-04-Geophysical-Laser-ScanReport.pdf Richard Kubišta: Georadar research of parterre in historic park in Palarikovo, pp. 156–160 – 160 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering The method of evaluation of public space in the village of rural settlements Banov Jana Šimuneková Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Slovakia The work deals with the completion of the public spaces of the rural areas by operational improvement methodology of public space. The analyses which are contained in the methodology, are useful as a resource for the creating, respectively for the completion of the public spaces, there is analyzed the situation and development of rural areas of the countryside. Metodology deals with the evaluation and quality of particular areas, with the mapping of citizens` activities at these public areas. This type of methodology is useful for garden and landscape architects in the completion of existing public spaces. By this method, it can be found out how the area is living, what type of activities and functions are needed that it becomes attractive for visitors and citizens of rural areas. Keywords: public space, countryside, street, people, acitivities Introduction Currently, global trends of increasing quality and culture of internal natural places are reflected in our conditions. Attention does not focus only to the centers, but also to the entire system of public urban areas (Kováč, 2003). Public rural areas relate to each of us. They are an important and indispensable element of any municipality. Unless they are working as they should, they promote social lives of citizens. On how these spaces look like in reality spaces depends on involvement of citizens and on their proactive approach, on their choice in elections and how they are involved in public affairs. It is the mirror of each municipality. In recent years, interest in public areas increases in the Slovak Republic. The reason of this interest can be seen in the changing lifestyle of modern society. On these spaces are placed There is a great demand to these areas and therefore,they become in the centre of many local politicians, experts, architects, urban planners. People evaluate the municipality according to the quality of public spaces, according to the amount of opportunities that take place in these areas. Through these factors, they evaluate and perceive the countryside and life in it. It is very difficult to define the good public space in the village. On one hand, it can be a place with plenty of activities where different groups of people can find their place. Furthermore, t can be an area where we like to meet or where we spend our leisure time. The term „public space“ is understood as external, publicly accessible open space where different types of activities are realized (organized and unorganized) of various groups and individual citizens. For example *Correspodence: :gardens and small parks, green spaces, spaces in housing estates, small squares, areas around public buildings.T he term „public space“ comes from the English translation of „public space“ it is the space that is not private and it belongs to everyone. Equivalent of the English term „public space“ is the term „open space“. It is a phrase that is understood as a space that is not built-up with buildings and it replaces the natural environment (Goodall, 1987) The aim of the work verification of the methodology for operational improvement of public space (Šilhánková, 1996) in practice Material and methods Methodology of operational improvement of public space Vladimíra Šilhánková It is a technique of field information collection, where the considerable data about the behavior of people are noticed into the pre-prepared forms on the basis of own observation. Technique of maping and behavoir is divided into 2 parts: yy Part Analysis of the nature and quality of the area, yy Evaluation and maping of the activities. This method can help to determine and define the actions of people in public areas. What type of human activities are realized there, which conditions are needed to enable activities that serve to revitalize area are detected by the analysis of these activities. According to the results, it is defined what kind of furniture should be used in the space (benches, litter bins, clocks, posters, etc.) and also the distribution of this furniture due to human activities and needs. Furthermore, we can find out the Jana Šimuneková, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering, Department of Garden and Landscape Architecture, Tulipánová 7, 94976 Nitra, Slovakia, e-mail: [email protected] Jana Šimuneková: The method of evaluation of public space in the village of rural settlements Banov, pp. 161–163 – 161 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Results and discussion Site selection The municipality of Banov is located in the Danube plain, between the city of Nové Zámky and Surany. The river Nitra flows through the village. The origin of population is Slovak. The first written information about village is from 1113. On the basis of territorial – administrative division Banov together with 61 other municipalities belongs to the district of Nové Zámky. Banov occupies an area of 1976 hectares and it belongs to the medium-sized villages of district Nove Zámky. It concentrates 3,731 of the population and significantly exceeds the average of communities in the district. The selection of public spaces in the selected locations: yy Public space 1 the Church square. yy Public space 2 the Sturova Street. yy Public space 3 the small square at the community center. yy Public space 4 Poľná Street. Figure 1 use and non-use of public space. Through the analysis of space in terms of its use by humans, iwe can find out which type of areas are attractive – visited by people and vice versa, which in turn are empty.t is determined by points in the study area are among the appealing – people visited and vice versa, which in turn are empty. According to the analysis of results, we can define the places which have to be re- equipped so that they become attractive to people again. Project preparation: yy Site selection Bánov. yy Selection of public spaces in the village of Banov. Part 1 – Analysis of the nature and quality of the municipality of Banov. Part 2 – Evaluation and mapping activities of municipality Banov. Colection and Processing of information To the mapping of public spaces in Banov were used public areas: the Church square, the Small square at the community center, and Sturova Street. These public spaces are the most used public areas which are characterized by amenities, so their use is greater than the other locations. Based on the methodology we found that the activities taking place in the village of Banov are: shopping, talking, cycling, standing, sitting and other activities. Most of these activities were recorded in public places such as the Church Square, Small Square, the cultural center and Sturova Street. The groups of young people used to meet at the public space Sturova Street during the summer months, where they devoted to various activities such as: cycling, skateboarding, roller-skating and sitting on the benches. During assessing of the public spaces some free spaces were located. It should invigorate these areas with other outdoor activities. Based on the implementation of this methodology, we found that observation of public spaces, their assessment and gathering of information are important for garden and landscape architect. Based on this knowledge the architect can reshape area to articulate the functional and aesthetic properties and thereby create the perfect public space for which these characteristics are „functional and aesthetic“ and very important. Methodology of operational improvement of public space has been carried out in the summer and autumn months. It is understandable that in these months the number of people entering and activities taking place in these places is higher: PEOPLE + FUNCTIONAL SPACES + ATTRACTIVENESS OF AREA = AREA SUCCESS Jana Šimuneková: The method of evaluation of public space in the village of rural settlements Banov, pp. 161–163 – 162 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering space greenery arrangement in the form of alleys. yy In this work was used a methodology that has been validated in public places in the village of Banov. These assessments that have been created provide an overview of the specific use or of possibly abandoned public spaces. The analyses show that public spaces could play an important role in creating, respectively reshaping towns and villages and improve the quality of the site. Acknowledgement Article was processed based on the financial support MŠSR VEGA 1/0769/12. References Figure 2 Sample colection and processing of information (Locality the church square) Conclusion Based on the development of methodologies we found which public spaces are attractive for people in the village Banov and which spaces need to shape and reshape to become more interesting and exploited for the citizens and visitors of the village. The village was reconstructed under the supervision of a landscape architect. We found that the reconstruction is on the spot. This results in the appearance of the village. The village is in terms of attractiveness and aesthetic premises in good condition. It is necessary to strengthen the activities that take place in public places. Therefore, we propose a methodology based on evaluation of the following procedure: yy Develop active areas for young people because there is an evidence that young people aged 7–18 years use public spaces more than other people (Build multifunctional playgrounds, chestables,seating). yy Create spaces for the youngest in the form of playgrounds that are materially suited to the rural environment and shape the surface components of movables Poľná Street – create a reinforced communication, then build a trail to the standards and fitted the GOODAL. B. 1987. Dictionary of human geography. Penquin books : London, 1987. 335 s. ISBN 0-14-051 095-8. KOVÁČ, B. 2003. Minulosť a perspektívy peších zón na Slovensku. Zborník konferencie SAS : Banská Bystrica 2003. 131 s. ISBN 80-88-757-25-8. ŠILHÁNKOVÁ, V. 2003. Verejné prostory v územne plánovacím procesu. 1. vyd Brno : Vysoké učení technické, 2003. s. 16–19. ISBN 80-214-2505-9. ŠILHÁNKOVÁ, V. – KOUTNÝ, J. 2001. Metodika verejných prostorú města Brna. TILLEY, J. – ŠILHÁNKOVÁ, V. – NAVRÁTILOVÁ, J. 1996. Metodika operatívneho zlepšenia veřejného prostoru. US Peace Corps : Magistrát mesta Brno. 1996. ISBN 80-239-0614-3 Jana Šimuneková: The method of evaluation of public space in the village of rural settlements Banov, pp. 161–163 – 163 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Ginkgo biloba L. in Krakow green areas Małgorzata Frazik-Adamczyk University of Agriculture in Krakow, Poland Keywords: Maidenhair Tree, Krakow, green areas Ginkgo biloba L. is an endemic and relict species from the borderland of Chinese provinces Anhui and Zhejiang. In Europe, the species was first introduced in 1730 to Utrecht (Bartels, 1995) and the oldest mention of the Ginkgo cultivation in Krakow can be found in the directory of plants from 1808 kept at the Botanic Garden of the Jagiellonian University (Seneta, 1991). The author has been conducting observations of Ginkgo specimens in Krakow since 1998. The inventory made in 2013, revealed 67 specimens of Ginkgo biloba located in 21 places (Figure 1). Many trees of this species grows in district I – the Old Town (47.76%), followed by II – Grzegórzki (20.89%), VII – Zwierzyniec (16.41%), single specimens can be found in district Table 1 Figure 1 The area of Krakow covered by the inventory – divided into administrative quarters III – Prądnik Czerwony, V – Łobzów, VIII – Dębniki, XI – Wola Duchacka. No specimens of the taxon were registered in the other areas of Krakow. The most stately trees of Ginkgo biloba in Krakow Localization Trunk circumference (cm) Crown diameter (m) Height (m) 350 7,5 8,5 ♂ PP Nr 126101-007 08. 1974 119; 120; 180; 190 12 11,5 ♀ Chi-chi 295 11 24,5 ♀ PP Nr 126101-021 16. 11. 1998 275; 203; 175 13 20 ♂ PP Nr 126101-004 23. 09. 1968 ul. Kopernika 27 Botanic Garden UJ quarter 2 265 18 26,5 ♂ ul. Kopernika 27 Botanic Garden UJ quarter 6 273 (h = 64 cm) 13 18,5 ♀ ul. Kopernika 27 Botanic Garden UJ quarter 41 223; 104 (przygłuszony cisem) 11,5 19,5 ♂ ul. Franciszkańska 3 195 12 18,5 ♀ ul. Stefana Batorego 8 192 6 11 ♀ ul. Batorego 12 ul. Kopernika 27 Botanic Garden UJ quarter 19 pl. Wszystkich Świętych 5 ul. Garncarska 3 *PP – monument of nature Abstracts, pp. 164–167 – 164 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Old specimens with significant dimensions of the stem circumference are especially valuable (Tab. 1). In addition to specimens found in the Botanic Garden of the Jagiellonian University, three specimens growing in district I – the Old Town are the monuments of nature. The 200 year – old female specimen growing in the 19th quarter of the Jagiellonian University Botanical Garden is a unique with its chi-chi, of which one has a leafy branch growing out of an unrooted chi-chi, which is an extremely rare phenomenon (Frazik-Adamczyk and Muras, 1999). A variety of conformation and the form of crowns, regardless of gender and age of the trees were found among the investigated older specimens. In the worst health status are specimens at Batory Street 12 and Garncarska Street 3, both of which were subjected to comprehensive tending measures at the beginning of the 1990s. The resource tree specimens comprise 10 female, 9 male flowers, the remaining were not blooming yet. Among the 67 specimens of Maidenhair Tree, 47 (70.14%) are the young ones planted in the last 10 years. The young specimens in Zwierzyniecka Street grow in places with limited biologically active surface. References Bartels, A. 1995. Ginkgobaume in Japan. Dtsch. Gartenb, 1995, no. 7, p. 430–433. Frazik-Adamczyk, M. – Muras, P. 1999. Jeszcze raz o czi-czi na dwóch okazach miłorzębu (Ginkgo biloba L.) w Polsce. In. Rocznik Dendrologiczny, 1999, no. 47, p. 203–205. Seneta, W. 1991. Drzewa i krzewy iglaste. Warszawa : Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, 1991, p.196–201. Valuation of trees – nature monuments in Tarnow Magdalena Kulig, Agnieszka Jarmuła University of Agriculture in Krakow, Poland Trees had always been important for humans. They had provided food, wood, shelter, shade and satisfying the needs of humans and animals alike. It is understandable that they were worshiped or praised in every civilization. For the first time the term ‘nature monument’ had been used by Alexander von Humboldt at the turn of the XVIII and XIX century. Since then not only resources of the nature were preserved but also the old and valuable trees as well. Table 1 The first legal Polish document concerning property protection was decree by Kazimierz Wielki in 1347. Kings had changed law during centuries but always the preservation of the nature was the most important. In the XX century people concentrated on retaining nature monuments. Minister of Education issued decree about principles of operation National Department for Protection of Nature Monuments on 22 October 1906. At present act from 16 April 2004 is valid. The biggest trees – nature monument according to the trunk‘s circumference in Tarnow Taxon Trunk‘s circumference Date of admitance as nature monument Location in the Tarnow Platanus xhispanica ’Acerifolia‘ 650* 1987 park/south Quercus robur 538* 1993 west Populus alba 460* 1987 near river/south-east Fraxinus excelsior 474* 1987 centre Tilia cordata 431** 1993 north Acer platanoides 342** 2004 centre Ulmus leavis 330** 1997 south-east Acer pseudoplatanus 280** 2004 centr Quercus palustris 280* 2005 west Quercus petrea 270** 2010 west Fagus sylvatica 175** 2010 west * data from 2013, ** data from 2005 Abstracts, pp. 164–167 – 165 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering According to the law every Polish city register all monuments of nature including trees. Tarnow is medium town, located on the south of the Poland in Malopolska voivodeship. Investigation were carried out in 2013. There were 28 registered trees – nature monuments belonged to 11 taxa: Acer platanoides L., A. pseudoplatanus L., Fagus sylvatica L., Fraxinus excelsior, Platanus xhispanica ’Acerifolia’, Quercus robur L., Q. palustris Muenchh., Q. petrea Liebl., Populus alba L., Tilia cordata Mill. and Ulmus leavis Pall. Location, dates of admittance as a nature monument, trunk‘s cirumferences and decorative values in four seasons of the biggest nature monuments in Tarnow were compared. The circumference of the investigated trees varied from 650 to 175 cm (Platanus xhispanica ’Acerifolia’ and Fagus sylvatica, respectively). Other tree monuments had the circumference from 538 to 270 cm (Table 1). Trees were in different age. Most of them were in good health condition, noted ascertain health cuts. Only Tilia cordata enquires nurturing. Roundabouts in Małopolska – conformity assessment between actual development and design guidelines Magdalena Pypeć, Piotr Muras University of Agriculture in Krakow, Poland Keywords: roundabout, roundabouts development, plants on roundabout In Poland, roundabouts as a new solution of communications junctions are running over for 15 years. Their popularity mainly due to: increasing traffic safety, reducing the number Table 1 of collisions and providing greater throughput intersections. They are also an important element of the local landscape. They fulfil many functions, for example: a city square, Development analysis of 20 examined roundabouts central islands Roundabout size s s s m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m xs Roundabout location K K K K L L O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Object number 17 18 20 19 15 16 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 2 Diameter of central Island (m) 44 40 33 18 26 26 25 15 26 27 20 18 23 23 17 17 14 20 11 10 Lp. Design guideline: 1 Passability 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 2 Transparency 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 3 Good visibility 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 - 4 Obstacles on the track road 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 - 5 Transient ring - - - 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 - 6 Refer to the surrounding landscape 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 - 7 Paved surface - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0 8 The material of the surface - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0 9 Lack of the vertical signs on the island - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 10 6 cm high curb around the island - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0 3 3 4 3 5 5 5 5 4 5 4 5 5 5 4 5 5 4 5 1 Sum xs – mini roundabout, m – medium roundabout, s – small roundabout; K – Kraków, O – Oświęcim, L – Libiąż; 1 – fulfilled criterion 0 – criterion not fulfilled Abstracts, pp. 164–167 – 166 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering landmark or signs designating the direction of traffic. The study included 20 roundabouts located in the province of Małopolska: 5 roundabouts from the Kraków city, 2 from the Libiąż community and 14 from the Oświęcim town. Depending on the diameter of the roundabouts central island, with accordance to the Regulation of the Minister of Transport and Maritime Economy from 2. 03.1999, objects have been divided in three groups: mini roundabouts (diameter of island from 3 to 10 m), a small roundabouts (diameter from 10 to 28 m) and a medium roundabouts (diameter between 28 to 50 m) (tab.1). The data about roundabouts were collected between 2011 and 2012, they included: dendrological inventory and photographic documentation. The actual objects composition was compared with design guidelines outlined in the “Guidelines for design of intersections, part I and II”. The lowest rates, from all examined objects, mini roundabout obtained (tab. 1). It only fulfilled 1 from 6 criteria’s. The main design guideline, about passable for cars was not fulfilled. Recommended hard surface cower of an island has been replaced with plant composition consisting of: Acer platanoides ’Globosum‘, Berberis thunbergii ’Atropurpurea‘, ’Golden Ring‘, ’Rose Glow‘, ’Green Carpet‘, Spiraea japonica ’Little Princess‘, ’Goldflame‘ and Euonymus fortunei ’Emerald‘ n ’Gold‘. In general, most of the small roundabouts islands has met all of the development criteria’s (tab. 1). Almost all of them meet three basic guidelines: non passable, transparency and good visibility. On average objects fulfils 4.6 of 6 adopted criteria’s. The best managed roundabouts were in Libiąż and Oświęcim, the worst one were in Kraków. It is worth to emphasize that only one small roundabout (object number 13) development has refer to local landscape and environment (table 1). The medium roundabouts on average fulfilled 3.3 out of 5 adopted criteria’s. All the objects meets basic guidelines of: non passable, transparency, good visibility. The best developed of this size roundabout was in Krakow (object number 20). Again, as in the small roundabouts case, none of the objects development has refer to the surrounding landscape or buildings. Abstracts, pp. 164–167 – 167 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Contents Jacek Borowski, Małgorzata Pstrągowska, Tatiana Swoczyna Manifestations caused by salt aerosol on shoots and buds of street side limes.................................................................................... 3 Márk Steiner, Endre György Tóth, Ágota Juhász, Magdolna Sütöriné Diószegi, Károly Hrotkó Stomatal responses of drought and heat stressed linden (Tilia sp.) leaves...................................................................................... 7 Ewa Muszyńska, Katarzyna Kałużny, Ewa Hanus-Fajerska Phenolic compounds in Hippophaë rhamnoides leaves collected from heavy metals contaminated sites...................11 Tatiana Swoczyna, Jacek Borowski, Stefan Pietkiewicz, Hazem M. Kalaji Growth and physiological performance of young urban trees of eight taxa in Warsaw.........................................................15 Renata Wojciechowska, Katarzyna Skowronek, Anna Kołton, Monika Czaja Some physiological changes in autumn leaves of Parthenocissus inserta growing in urban conditions.............20 Károly Hrotkó, Márk Steiner, Mihály Forrai, György Endre Tóth, Máté Vértesy, Ádám Leelőssy, Levente Kardos, Magdolna Diószegi Sütöriné, Lajos Magyar, Róbert Mészáros Investigations on environmental benefits of urban trees at Corvinus University of BudapesT.............................................24 Vilmos Szaller, Veronika Szabó, Magdolna Sütöriné Diószegi, Lajos Magyar, Károly Hrotkó Urban Alley Trees in Budapest.......................................................27 Gabor Schmidt, Magdolna Sütöriné Diószegi, Veronika Szabó, Károly Hrotkó Cypress borer (Lamprodila festiva), a new urban pest in hungary.................................................................................................31 Izabela Krzeptowska-Moszkowicz, Łukasz Moszkowicz Selected problems of Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle presence in urban spaces: the case of the city centre of Kraków....................................................................................................56 Maryam I. S. Alkurdi, Jan Supuka Evaluation of the sugar and starch content in the leaves of some Mediterranean woody shrubs growing in different conditions.............................................................................................63 Ladislav Bakay Fruitmap and Falling fruit – tools for mapping urban fruit trees in the city of Nitra..........................................................67 Ján Kollár Alien pest species on woody plants in urban conditions of Slovakia..................................................................................................70 Tivadar Baltazár, Ildikó Varga, Gergő Gábor Nagy, Miloš Pejchal Examination of the relationship between different dendrometric quantities of hosts and mistletoe bush number..................................................................................................74 Marcel Raček, Helena Lichtnerová, Jana Černá Comparison of development of chlorophyll in the leaves of Ginkgo biloba L. using destructive and non-destructive analysis...................................................................................................78 Katarína Rovná Site evaluation and tree selection for urban environment.......80 Edward Meller, Ryszard Malinowski, Adam Sammel, Marcin Kubus, Andrzej Łysko Assesment of possibilities of the use of structural soils with addition of municipal waste for planting trees and shrubs......84 Edyta Rosłon-Szeryńska, Piotr Sikorski, Ewa Zaraś-Januszkiewicz The effectiveness of the visual method of hazard tree assessment (WID method) in the management of urban trees.........................................................................................................88 Ewa Zaraś-Januszkiewicz, Barbara Żarska, Beata Fornal-Pieniak, Edyta Rosłon-Szeryńska Phenological observations of Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle at different urban areas...................................................34 Endre Gy. Tóth, Máté Vértesy, Magdolna Sütöriné Diószegi, Lajos Magyar, Márk Steiner, Károly Hrotkó Growth and phenological observations on hungarian ND foreign linden varieties....................................................................93 Helena Lichtnerová, Viera Šajbidorová, Daniela Bartošová Krajčovičová Evaluation of physiological responses of plants Cornus mas L. to water deficit.........................................................................................39 Michaela Spěváčková, Lukáš Štefl, Miloš Pejchal Methodology of clipped woody vegetation elements assessment...........................................................................................96 Viera Šajbidorová, Daniela Bartošová Krajčovičová Helena Lichtnerová Adaptation of Spiraea japonica L. ´Little PRINCESS´ to water deficiency in soil.................................................................................43 Viera Paganová, Zuzana Jureková, Helena Lichtnerová Adaptability of Pyrus pyraster and Sorbus domestica to drought as prerequisite of their utilization in urban environment........................................................................................46 Dagmar Hillová, Magdaléna Takácsová, Helena Lichtnerová Stomatal response to water stress in herbaceous perennials . 51 Beata Fornal-Pieniak, Ewa Zaraś-Januszkiewicz, Barbara Żarska Evaluation of vegetation as useful method of classification trees values in agricultural landscape...................................... 100 Ekaterina N. Zyankina, Olga G. Baranova Classification of urban habitats of towns of the Udmurt Republic (Russia).............................................................................. 104 Lukáš Štefl Quality indicators of status and maintenance of urban greenery............................................................................................. 107 Contents, pp. 168–169 t – 168 – Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Dominika Titková, Monika Jančovičová, Lukáš Štrba, Roberta Štěpánková, Ľuboš Moravčík Terestrical laser scanning applied to analyses of public spaces.................................................................................................. 111 Ľuboš Moravčík Use of terrestrial laser scanning in the precise determination of geometrical features changes of Ginkgo biloba L........... 115 Zuzana Ďuránová, Viera Paganová Current methods of assessment and evaluation of urban trees in Slovakia............................................................. 118 Katarína Kristiánová, Katarína Gécová, Eva Putrová Trees in urban structure of rural residential suburbs – the case of Bratislava, Slovakia........................................................... 121 Katarzyna Kałużny, Anna Zając, Ewa Hanus-Fajerska, Anna Pindel Noteworthy examples of greenery in the town with a great touristic potential............................................................. 125 Peter Kurz Planting sustainability? On the management of hedgerows in Alpine bocage landscapes...................................................... 129 Jan Supuka Landscape structure changes with regard to landscape architecture and ecological values........................................... 135 Ľubica Feriancová Revitalisation of the park at the school in Cerveny Hradok...140 Shoufang Liu, Lin Li, Tomasz W. Bralewski Culture landscape within recreational landscape park in China.................................................................................................... 143 Attila Tóth, Ľubica Feriancová Analysis tools for green infrastructure in urban areas and open land........................................................................................... 148 Mária Bihuňová, Alexandra Takáčová, Martina Verešová Analyses of the brownfields use in the Nitra city and its surrounding....................................................................................... 152 Richard Kubišta Georadar research of parterre in historic park in Palarikovo.156 Jana Šimuneková The method of evaluation of public space in the village of rural settlements Banov................................................................ 161 Abstracts: Małgorzata Frazik-Adamczyk Ginkgo biloba L. in Krakow green areas................................. 164 Magdalena Kulig, Agnieszka Jarmuła Valuation of trees – nature monuments in Tarnow............. 165 Magdalena Pypeć, Piotr Muras Roundabouts in Małopolska – conformity assessment between actual development and design guidelines....... 166 Contents, pp. 168–169 – 169 –