A Content Analysis of Music Placement in Prime

A Content Analysis of Music Placement in
Prime-Time Television Advertising
DAVID ALLAN
Saint Joseph's
Music is very popular in advertising. You can hear as much music in commercials as
you can on some commercial radio stations. This research analyzed 3,456 prime-time
University
[email protected]
television commercials to not only quantify, but qualify the placement of music in
advertising. Overall, 94 percent of the total advertisements (3,456) and 86 percent of
the unique advertisements (715) contained some type of music. Of the unique music
advertisements, 14 percent contained popular music, 8 1 percent used needledrop,
and 5 percent utilized jingles. Popular music (primarily pop and rock) was observed
more often in automotive, audio/video, and food commercials than any other product
category. Popular music was more likely to be relevant to the narrative in the
commercial than the product or service. This study facilitates future trending and
encourages further investigation of the role of music in advertising effectiveness.
it is almost impossible not to be inundated by a profusion of popular music in advertising. This research analyzed
one week of prime-time television commercials
from ABC, CBS, FOX, and NBC (N = 3,456) to
determine not only the frequency with which popular music is placed in commercials, but also,
when employed, various aspects of the relationship between the advertised product and the type
of music accompanying it. Centrally, then, this
research examines how popular music is currently
being used in prime-television commercials, and
whether or not there are patterns for the inclusion
of this music, especially with respect to how it
may be contextualized. In terms of contextualization, attention is paid to several variables, particularly those examining the extent to which the
selections have relevance to the brand and/or the
narrative.
WHEN WATCHING TELEVISION,
BACKGROUND
Since the early days of television, music has been
one of the most frequently used executional cues
in advertising. It is surprising then that more
4 0 4 JOüBflllL DF HDÖERTISIUG RESEIIBCH September 2 0 0 8
attention has not been paid to just how frequently
music is used in advertising. Stewart and Furse
(1986, p. 160) lamented the absence of its systematic measurement and set out to provide such
documentation. They found music featured in
slightly more than 40 percent of 1,000 television
commercials they studied, but that only 12 percent of those placing music used lyrics directly to
convey the advertising message. Similar frequencies were obtained in a follow-up study (Stewart
and Koslow, 1989, p. 29). In a later report, Stewart,
Farmer, and Stannard (1990) recommended that
additional research was needed in this area. Nonetheless, only Appelbaum and Halliburton (1993,
p. 237) heeded this recommendation by analyzing
international commercials and finding music placed
in 89 percent of their sample.
In addition to not knowing definitively how
many commercials utilize music placement, there
is also no definitive explanation of how music
works. Gom (1982), using a classical conditioning
approach, suggested that feelings generated from
hearing liked or disliked music in combination
with a product can positively or negatively affect
DOI:
10.2501/S0021849908080434
MUSIC PLACEMENT IN PRIME-TIME TV ADVERTISING
product choices. Others have suggested
that music creates moods that could affect
product choice (Alpert and Alpert, 1990;
Bruner, 1990). As to what music elements
generate feelings and affect moods, Kellaris
and Kent (1991) suggested it was tempo
(pace) and modality (pitch); Kellaris and
Rice (1993) found some support for tempo,
loudness, and gender responses to the
music; and Kellaris and Kent (1993) argued for tempo, tonality (intervals between pitches), and texture (timbre and
orchestra). In contrast, Brooker and Wheatley (1994) found that tempo had no effect
on consumer behavior (e.g., recall, attitude, and purchase intention) toward the
product in radio advertising.
Moving away from exclusive concern
with music, the issue of the music's relevance to the product would seem to be an
obvious concern in conceiving commercials, but again, relatively little scholarly
attention has been paid. Maclnnis and
Park (1991, p. 162) identified the music
characteristic "fit" and defined it as "the
consumers' subjective perceptions of the
music's relevance or appropriateness to
the central ad message." They found that
music's relevance had an equally strong
effect on both low- and high-involvement
subjects' attention to the advertising message. Kellaris, Cox, and Cox (1993) suggested that music's relevance to the
product (i.e., music-message congruency)
interacted with its attention-gaining value
to influence message reception. Assuming
that music has attention-gaining value,
attention is only the first step in the hierarchy of advertising effects and must lead
to memory. It has been claimed for decades that music increases recall (Hecker,
1984; Wallace, 1994). Here, again, a number of treatments and variables pertain,
e.g., in addition to standard music-genre
distinctions, questions of instrumentais versus vocals, original recordings versus new
versions of older songs (covers), or si-
The increasing empioyment
of popular
music in
commerciais does not just eniiance advertising's
function, but reaps benefits for tiie recording industry
as weil.
lence versus background, generic music
beds or needledrop ("music that is prefabricated, multipurpose, and highly conventional," Scott, 1990, p. 223), jingles
("unique, novel lyrics written for a particular ad," Wallace, 1991, p. 239), and
lyric replacement (changing the original
lyrics of a song with new lyrics carrying
the advertiser's message). Roehm (2001)
argued that instrumentais are more effective in evoking advertising message recall if the song is already familiar;
however, absent that familiarity, the vocal version was more effective. AUan (2006)
found that song vocals, either original or
altered, are more effective stimuli of advertising effects than instrumentais or no
popular music. Additionally, silence combined with music has been observed to
be more attention-getting and can increase listener retention (Olsen, 1995). Additionally, Park and Young (1986) found
that the effect of vocals on brand attitude depends on the level of involvement of the individual. With regard to
jingles, Wallace (1991) found that jingles
can facilitate advertisement recall because they are easily recalled even when
not heard for long periods of time. Yalch
(1991) agreed, especially when individuals are presented with few cues to aid
retrieval or have minimal exposures to
the advertising. Finally, a growing technique in advertising is lyrical replacement. While this type of advertising has
not been researched specifically, some focus has been given to the general impor-
tance of the original lyrics with the
original melody. Serafine, Crowder, and
Repp (1984, 1986) suggested that an original melody or text is better recognized
when paired with the original melody or
text. Of course, it should be pointed out
that it has never been verified that the
most attention-getting or recalled commercials alone positively affect sales.
In spite of the dearth of academic research, advertisers have always spoken
enthusiastically about the power of popular music in advertising. For instance.
Ken Kunze, marketing director for Heineken Brewery, observes that music is "relevant with consumers across boundaries
whether ethnic, geographic, or age" (Howard, 2001). Similarly, Vinny Picardi, vice
president and associate creative director
of Deutsch, Inc. in Los Angeles, suggests
that "We use music as our universal language and it pays off" (Scott, 2002, p. Y06;
see also Ives, 2002, p. C3; Morris, 1998,
p. 1; Patton, 2002, p. 1; and Vanderbilt,
2002, p. W13 for similar observations).
Advertisers' enthusiasm for music is
manifested in what is seen as an increasing placement of popular music in commercials, although the bulk of these
observations come from the trade publication perspective. Many have simply
noted that music placement is a trend on
the rise (see, e.g., Bessman, 2003; Boehler,
1999, p. 27; Buyikian, 1999, p. SIO; Howard, 2003, p. 6B; Marks, 1998, p. 51; Melillo, 2004, p. 17; Patton, 2002, p. Cl; Seay,
2000, p. S8; Shea, 2004, p. 16). Others have
September 2 0 0 8 JOÜROBL OF (iflüERTISIIlG RESEBRCH 4 0 5
MUSIC PLACEMENT iN PRiME-TIME TV ADVERTiSiNG
been a little more specific, with estimates
of 60 percent (Bellaire, 1979, p. S4), 75
percent (Michlin, 1984, p. 66), and 90 percent (Garfield, 1988, p. 46).
Finally, another issue that has also been
more theorized than studied is the function of popular music placement for the
recording industry. Melillo (2004) suggests
that the increasing employment of popular music in commercials does not just
enhance advertising's function, but reaps
benefits for the recording industry as well.
Not that long ago, artists were reluctant
to have their work licensed for use in
advertisements. Even though popular music is invariably a commercial enterprise
(successful or not), its writers and performers often viewed an overt association with commercialism as a breach of
artistic integrity—"selling out" (see, e.g.,
Allan, 2005, p. 2; Boehler, 1999, p. 27;
Burns, 1996, p. 133; de Mesa, 2005, p. 1;
Kot, 2002, p. 1; Lubrano, 2004, p. C2;
Marks, 1998, p. 51; Morford, 2004, p. 1;
Reilly, 1998, p. Bl; Shea, 2004, p. 16; Vanderbilt, 2002, p. W13; Waldman, 2000,
p. 18). This much-observed attitude is
not unlike earlier movie stars categorically rejecting advertising work. More recently, actors, too, have become more
involved in commercial work and that
involvement seems to have become increasingly overt—moving from voiceovers to work in foreign (most notably,
Japanese) advertisements to the most recent, straightforward appearances of "Alist" actors such as Robert De Niro or
Catherine Zeta-Jones in U.S. commercials. Whether actors, sports figures, or
musical performers, the incentive is likely
financial. With specific respect to music,
there has been a 13 percent decline in
worldwide album sales since 2001 (Howard, 2003, p. 6B). This decline probably
reflects the impact of new technology allowing consumers to construct their own
CDs, and it is a force with which music
406
Music placement in advertising becomes an economic
boon in two ways: first, a commercials' use of music
provides a new venue for collecting royalties, and
second, the widespread and repeated exposure of
commercials provides either for revival of or new interest
in the particular songs and/or artists featured—which
is music-sales promotion and very much a variation on
the phenomenon of product placement.
producers must reckon. In that reckoning, music placement in advertising, then,
becomes an economic boon in two ways:
first, a commercials' use of music provides a new venue for collecting royalties, and second, the widespread and
repeated exposure of commercials provides either for revival of or new interest
in the particular songs and/or artists
featured—which is music-sales promotion and very much a variation on the
phenomenon of product placement (see
Nelson, 2003 for examples of basic research on product placement). It may also
be suggested that music employed in TV
commercials functions similarly to the use
of extant recordings in movie soundtracks
(see Gupta and Lord, 1998, for examples
of basic research on the use of popular
music in film soundtracks). This linking
of particular groups and songs with films
or products has indeed "demonstrated
the value of cross-media marketing and
the symbolic relationship between film
and song" (Garofalo, 2002, p. 384). It certainly appears that the artists "need advertising as much as advertising needs
L DFflDDEBTISIDDBESEflBCB September 2 0 0 8
them" (Melillo, 2004, p. 17). (See Block,
2003 and Howard, 2003 for a richer discussion of the economic mutualism resulting from the use of popular music in
commercials.)
The previously described work is interesting and provides important background to this study. However, in addition
to updating the limited available data,
there are additional, important questions
that have thus far been overlooked in the
extant literature. As will be described in
the following section, the present study
begins with a broad look at many of the
music variables just reviewed and then
narrows into more detailed observations
of popular music variables so to provide
a more robust analysis.
METHODS
All commercials aired on ABC, CBS, FOX,
and NBC during the week of May 3-9,
2004 (sweeps week) during prime time
(8:00-11:00 PM) constituted the sample for
this study. Using this sweeps period is in
keeping with related studies in the literature, likely because this period is reputed
MUSIC PLACEMENT IN PRIME-TIME TV ADVERTISING
to be that in which new advertising cain-
TABLE 1
paigns are launched (see, e.g., Avery and
Distribution of Total Advertisements by Programming
Ferrare 2000; Calkott and Lee, 1994; Elliott, 1995; Roy and Harwood, 1997; Wilkes
V^HableS
J
and Valencia, 1989). In all, then, this sampie consisted of 3,456 total and 715 unique
Total
commercials, totaling 84 hours of advertisements. Of these commercials 3,239 to-
J°*^|
tal and 617 unique advertisements used
Network
some type of music; 404 total and 86
....ABC.;
Muslo
fa
fa
Popular
Music
Needledrop
••-
••-
'•-'
^-^
.3,456
3,239
404
2,387
884
836
lip
Jingle
'-^^
448
612
ii4
unique advertisements utilized some type
NBC
839
789
117
565
1O7
of popular music (broadly defined for the
Ç8S
838
803
96
6.io
97
purposes of this study as music of all
genres that was created for "ordinary peo-
ppx
^, ^^^^
895
8II
^3g,,
81
^„^^
epp
^3,
13p
3 _^;,;'
pie," Shuker, 2001, p. 5); 2,387 total and
^.^^ ^^^
501 unique advertisements had some type
of needledrop; and 448 total and 30 unique
*^
^
8:pp^:po.PM
1,276
1,2p2
159.
88p
163
....9-Q0-10:.9.0.™
1,.18?
1,.13.4
.155.
8.3.2
147
9p
675
138
advertisements used a jinele. Each com"
lp:pO^ll:pp PM
mercial constituted a unit of analysis.
A code sheet was developed to record
information on the placement of music
991
X^ ya|ue
9p3
8.6***
9.4*
0.9***
12***
Monday
489
464
48
351
65
Tuesday
479
446
66
322
58
ables used in previous contest analyses of
-^^'^''^^-
591
467
ep
347
ep
(quantitative and qualitative) in the com. ,
rr,
,
.
J
•
, J J
.
mercials. The extensive code mcluded vantelevision advertising (Alexander; Ben-
...J^^'^M
515
473
58
339
76
jamin, Hoerrner, and Roe, 1998; Avery
....™ax
486
.460
.66.
330
64
and Ferraro, 2000; Callcott and Lee, 1994;
....Sa.turday.
4.87
.45.6
.47
3.5p
.59
Elliott, 1995; Roy and Harwood, 1997; Un-
....Sunday
499
473.
59
348
66
ger, McConocha, and Faier, 1991; Wilkes
and Valencia, 1989), as well as variables
....x.^..xa!ue
Surrounding program
appropriate to the analysis of music (Al-
....P.S.')?.ati.Ç..serial
Ian, 2006; Alpert and Alpert, 1991; Brooker
and Wheatley, 1994; Kellaris, Cox, and
Cox, 1993; Kellaris and Kent, 1991; Macinnis and Park, 1991; Olsen, 1995; Roehm,
2001; Wallace, 1991).
Action/adventure
....Famjlx.drama
sitcpm
y^,-,^^^
lO.Z.*.*.*.
495.0***
.7-2***
2.6***
55p
517
72
258
34
82
77
13
32
9
.82
78
11
6p
7
656
89
62p
gg
94
^^
443
gp
83
^^
4.94
479
59
356
64
853
799
88
6pp
111
5p
47
6
32
9
I^e.s/mZZZZ^^^^^^^^^^^
The coding instrument consisting of
„, .
....lyi.P.y.ie
31 variables was applied to each commercial. These variables were organized
Reality show
Cartoon
around five areas: programming, com. ,
,
,
. ,.
,
, .
X2 value
mercial characteristics, demographics,
J
.
,
. . .
J
. 1
product characteristics, and music char-
20.6***
15.3**
9.4***
6.5***
Advertiser
Na.tion.al
3,.1.64
2,985
404
2,314
267
280
242
0
61
181
acteristics. Five variables constituted the
^^
,.
,
,
.
.
programming area, attending to basic issues like network and time aired. Commercial characteristics accounted for seven
standard variations among television
Local
....CS<'R.(national/.bcai¡
12
12
p
....^!.!(^l^^
E^:ll
'Significant at the O.Ol level; "significant at the 0.05 level; '"not significant
12
322.9*
p
722.0*
September 2 0 0 8 JDÜRURL DF RDDERTISIRG RESEflRCH 4 0 7
MUSiC PLACEMENT IN PRIME-TiME TV ADVERTISING
advertisements such as the type of com-
TABLE 2
merciai with or without voice-over (i.e.,
Djstribution of Unique Advertisements by Commercial
generic voice w h o is heard reading
.,
.
A•(-. • ^AA
_,
. . . , • , ,
Characteristic Variables
commercial copy), and if it included celebrities, humor, animation, animals, or
Popular
humans. The third area, demographics.
Music
Needledrop
Jingie
(n)
(n)
(n)
(n)
gj^y
gg
501
30
115
^r,^
191
96
.,-,0
173
9
A^^
42
81
.,^^0
123
6
o
8
Spokesperson
55
41
0
39
2
Testimoniai
55
49
3
46
0
9
8
3
5
0
coded the gender, age, and race of the
people featured in the advertisement, and
the fourth area, products, recorded what
^
the commercial was selling. This area was
grouped into 30 product and service cator
f
egories for more efficient analysis. Finally, the fifth category attended to
, ^,
^
.
J
J -r
whether or not music was used and, if
so, the variations in the music used. These
Jg^g^
„
Total
Music
(N)
7-^5
.,
Commercial type
Narrative dramatization
.,
^. .
^. ^.
Nonnarrative dramatization
....í'.':°.ííí^';l^.°":!P^r'Son
variations included popular music, nee-
Collage of use
72
62
11
43
8
dledrop, and jingles. In the case of pop-
Conceptual
10
9
1
7
1
ular music, the commercials (N = 404)
were those that not only used music in
^
part or all of the commerical, but that
^
particularly employed songs that either
,
il
w J 1N
,.
were (or were overtly related to) mate-
ciips/footage
„.,,.
,,.
Biliboard/teaser
162
.,,
46
155
0,1
24
16
.1
1
135
no
22
4
^
1
638
562
77
459
189
1.2***
174
3.2***
O.Ol***
18
1.5***
9.9*
149
9.4***
0.2***
7
0.2***
149
1.2***
73
23
o.2***
10
121
0.5***
60
5
1.1***
3
rial that had been mass distributed prior
^ .^
. ^,
• 1 TU
,.uto its use m the commercial. Thus, this
sample consisted not only of recording
^, . ,
, ,
1 . . .
u i
that have had mass-market status, but
also covers or lyrical alterations of those
. . .
,.
c
• .
A 1
original recordings. For instance, Apple0
o
rr
bee's use of the Toby Keith's "Talk About
, , ,,
1J u • 1 J J • .u1
Me would be included in this sample,
^
even though in the Applebee advertise.
. 11 M T . T^ -.1.
ment it was not actually the Toby Keith
•^
-^
version. If there were overt verisimilitude between an exact or altered cover
X2 value
Voiceover
X" value
Celebrity
X2 value
Humor
^2 value
Animation
50.1*
178
80
x^ value
Animate
0.1***
45
X2 value
Humans
X^ value
42
1.5***
583
516
3.5***
39.1*
0.01***
8
1.5***
66
1.5***
36.8*
1.0***
33
0.2***
424
10.6*
.
14.2***
26
0.05***
1
0.5***
26
0.5***
'Significant at the om level: "significant at the 0.05 level; "'not significant
song, it was included along with original
recordings. Of course, the analysis did
code for such distinctions within this
ables above the minimal agreement level
sample.
(Riffe, Lacy, and Fico, 1998).
These variables were recorded by one
vised context of each advertisement. Table 1
shows the overall total advertisements (N =
3,456) with the presence of music (any-
trained coder (the author). Reliability was
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
where) in a commercial in terms of all the
established using the coefficient of relia-
What follows is the presentation of data
five production variables: network, time,
bility (Cohen's Kappa). To ascertain relia-
for these five variable areas and a discus-
day, surrounding program, and advertiser
bility, 10 percent of the one coder's sample
sion of their implications.
(national, local, or co-op). As can be seen,
resulting in an overall reliability coeffi-
Programming variables
tained in the actual use of music in com-
cient of 94.3 percent. Coder agreement
As indicated earUer,fivevariables were used
mercials, there is not yet much interpretation
was greater than 80 percent for all vari-
to collect basic information about the tele-
that can be inferred by these numbers.
was reanalyzed by another trained coder
although significant differences were ob-
4 0 8 JDUBnBL DF BDDEBTISinD BESEBBCB September 2 0 0 8
MUSIC PLACEMENT IN PRIME-TIME TV ADVERTISING
Commercial characteristic variables
TABLE 3
Table 2 shows the unique advertisements
Disthbution of Unique Advertisements by Demographic
with the presence of music (anywhere)
Vsr ab es
in a commercial in terms of the seven
commercial characteristic variables: type
Popular
of commercial, and if it included a
Total
Music
Music
Neediedrop
Jingie
voiceover, celebrity, humor, animation, an-
(N)
(n)
(n)
(n)
(n)
Jo^^^
7^5
g^7
gg
^^^
3Q
Humans
583
516
66
424
26
^^
85
56
76
3
16
48
57
5
3
imals, or people. As can be seen, significant differences were obtained in the use
of music and these commercial character-
Gender
^^^^
Female
istics. As for commercial type, nonnarrative dramatizations made up the most
, ,
,
,
,
total advertisements (N = 191) and music advertisements (n = 191). Of the music advertisements, the most popular music
{n = 42) and jingle (n = 8) advertise-
...^^"^
....^l^i^lue
Age
ments were also nonnarrative dramatizations, but the most advertisements with
....^9.t
35-59
i*:,?.
85
,?
66
.-f:
3
7
56
^.
7
needledrop were of clips/footage. The sub-
20-34
88
78
16
59
3
stantial use of nonnarrative dramatizations suggests that the music, especially
13-19
8
7
3
4
0
Mixed
384
351
42
294
15
in the case of popular music, is being
, ,
_,
.
,
. ,
used by advertisers to play a significant
1 •
1 •
J
1
1-
iu
role m supplymg and supplementmg the
narrative in the commercial.
Analysis of the executional elements
shows that at least 90 percent of the total
^23
X^ value
19.6**
Race
....*".Caui=a^an
....^][!^1^.]^.^.'}:!^!:^.^.':]^.^'}.
advertisements (N = 638) and music
All Hispanic
advertisements (n = 562), popular music
All Asian
(n = 77), needledrop {n = 64), and jingle
(n = 26) contained a voice-over. As for
^-^^^^ Caucasian and African-American
... '„
celebrities overall, a needledrop (n = 149)
Mixed Caucasian and Hispanic
Mixed Caucasian and Asian
384
9.1***
47
8.8***
15 1*
319
5.8***
18
1.1***
97***
44***
:....
r:;.^
367
^.l
325
^l
37
i
276
H
12
?
3
3
0
2
1
2
2
0
2
0
149
138
22
107
9
2
2
1
1
0
11
9
1
8
0
22
20
4
15
1
1.9,7*
8.9**
13.4***
or Jingle (n = 7) advertisement was the
most likely to have a celebrity, and an
., J'í^f^.^^her
advertisement with popular music (n =
....^^.lya.lHe
104) was the least likely to have a celeb-
»significant at the 0.01 level; "significant at the 0.05 level; ***noi significant
11.5***
rity. This suggests that the music is to
at least some extent utilized as the
"star" of the commercial or the use of
both a familiar song and celebrity might
cent of each of the advertising types uti-
Demographic variabies
interfere with each other or at least
lized
animation or animals in the
Table 3 shows the unique advertisements
be considered overkill. With regard to
commercial. The most used executional
with the presence of music (anywhere) in
humor, approximately 25 percent of
cue was predictably people with be-
a commercial in terms of the three demo-
each of the advertising types contained
tween 77 percent and 87 percent of all
graphic characteristic variables: gender, age,
some type of comedy appeal with the
the advertising types utilizing humans.
and race. As can be seen, some significant
exception of jingle advertisements, which
In the next section will analyze their
differences were obtained in the use of
only contained 17 percent. About 10 per-
demographics.
music and demographic characteristics. It
septerr^ber 2008 JOUROHL OF (IDUERTISinG RESERRCH 4 0 9
MUSIC PLACEIVIENT IN PRIME-TIME TV ADVERTISING
is clear from a macro perspective, and
TABLE 4
probably not that surprising, that an ad-
DJstributJon of Unjque Advertisements by Product Variables
vertisement with or without music is most
likely to include mixed genders, ages, and
,,,,,,
,
,
^ ,
,,
Popular
r
Total
Music
Needledrop
Jingle
(n)
(n)
(n)
86
501
30
23
12
10
,1
66
49
11
33
5
Baby: fpqd/s.uppl.ies
4
4
0
4
0
....Ba.nk/in.su.rance/legal
33
26
9
15
2
8
7
. . 9
7
0,
.7.
.?.
2
3,
1
Computers
7
7
2
4
1
Department stores
6
6
2
6
0
.Discount stor?.?.
.7
7
2
5
p
.....Education/jobs
5
3
0
3
0
.Entertainrrient
12
12
5
7
0
Food
82
74
13
57
4
Health: beauty
44
43
6
34
3
Health: medical/fltness,
95.
84
4
79
1
\\ome: cleaners/supplies
27
21
3
17
1 ,
Horne: improyenient
20
17
1
14
0
Jnternet
2
2
0
2
0
Jeyyelry
6
2
0
1
1
Lottery
2
2
0
1
1
178
158
Organizations
Oyernight delivery
8
3
5
2
0
0
5
2
0
0
Pets: food/supplies
4
4
2
2
0
Political
3
2
0
2
0
16
11
1
10
0
3
0
3
0
races. While an analysis or the results or
^
the demographics of the people in these
,
,
„
„
,
commercials does not really tell us a lot
, ,^ J
^„
about popular music, it does tell us some^ ^
thine about advertisine. It appears that
°
o
rr
advertisers are utilizing a large propor"
o
r
r
tion of mixed aees, races, and genders,
°
°
This suggests that they are either appeal°°
^
^^
ine to broad demographics a n d / o r are
°
^ ^
attempting to be politically correct. More
'^
°
^
'
Totai
Music
,.„
W
, >
(n)
715
617
24
Product category
....Mi?/.yM?.9
Autos, trucks, SUys, etc.
Cellphones
....Clothe?
research is necessary to determine if the
use of mixed aees, races, and eenders is
"
"
increasing. From a micro perspective, an
^
r
r
advertisement with any type of music
without mixed genders is more likely to
°
^
have females than males, without mixed
aees is more likely to have people be°
'
'^ ^
tween the ages of 20-59, and without
mixed races is more likely to have all
Caucasians, With regard to race, an advertisement without mixed races or all
Caucasians was more likely to have all
African-Americans (27) than Hispanics (3)
^
or Asians (2),
>^e'wo:y.l%].tí(mr\ Rromptiori
5
148
5
Product variables
Table 4 shows the unique advertisements
with the presence of music (anywhere) in
'^
V J
/
a commercial in terms of the product cat-
....PSAs
Real e
s
t
a
t
e
4
eeory variables. As can be seen, sienifi°
'
°
Restaurants (fast; food)
12
11
.0
.8
3
Restaurants (all others)
7
6
3
3
0
Stationary/office supplies
2
2
0
2
0
20
18i
3
14
1
142.6*
101.8*
cant differences were obtained in the use
of music and product characteristics. The
most total advertisements (N = 178) and
Traye|
music advertisements (n = 158) promoted
^
network or local entertainment and news
programs. The second most observed product type of total and music advertise-
X2 value
77,1*
40.4***
*S««'/íc«"í ai ti,e om level; "significant at the O.OS level; *"not significant
ments was for "Health: medical/fitness"
followed by "Food,"
observed advertisements for popular mu-
Of the music advertisements, the most
sic were for audio/video products and
mercials
observed
4with
1 0 popular
JOURnm
involving
product
music
OF HDUERTI
type
"Food,"
(n S=Iof
OG13)
advertisements
RE6ERRCH
The
wasnext
for September
commost
autos,
ing
tinue
2that
0 0to
trucks,
8 car
useand
popular
and
truck
SUVs,
music.
advertisements
It isThis
not product
surpriscon-
category has collectively fueled its advertising with popular music since at least
Fire"
also
1970 indicate
when
to Buick
thethat
(Patton,
Doors
the licensed
networks
2002), The
"Light
andresults
local
My
MUSIC PLACEMENT IN PRIME-TIME TV ADVERTISING
TABLE 5
oí music, most of the advertisements with
'^limmarv
music (n = 583) contained music throughout the advertisement.
Music
Network
13.8**
Popular Music
10.7*
Needledrop
Jingie
Table 7 shows the unique advertise-
8.3*
3.4***
9.4*
0.9***
1.2***
l?^-.9.***
7.2***
2.6***
.?•!***
.?•?.***
Time (EST)
'.
Day
8.6***
^9-1***
Surrounding program
20.6***
1.5.3**
Commercial type
50.1*
39.1*
36.8*
14.2***
ments with the presence of popular music (anywhere) in a commercial in terms
Í m f tu
• u
^ • ..•
of 10 of the music characteristic vanables: genre, artist, artist gender, artist
age, artist number, artist shown performing, music video, choreographed, edited.
y?)cewer
1.2***
0.01***
9.9*
0.2***
product relevance, and narrative relevanee. As can be seen, significant differ-
Celebrity
3.2***
1.5***
9.4***
0.2***
enees were obtained in the use of music
Humor
1.2***
o.2***
0.5***
1.1***
Animation
0.1***
0.01***
l.O***
0.05***
.:.."..
^'^'^ ^^^^'^ commercial characteristics. For
the advertisements with popular music.
.u most,. observed
u
A genre was pop I(n =
the
AniiTials
.1-.5.*.*.*
^;.5.***
0.2***
.9-5***
32) being the most observed followed by
Humans
3.5***
1.5***
0.5***
Gender
9.1***
8.8***
"^^^ (" ^ ^'^)- ^ ^o^ cases, the artist
was most likely male, adult, and part of
•'
^
a group. Very few of these artists were
f;.é6
::?.•.„
Race
19.7*
Product category
142.6*
...„;...
8.9**
101.8*
10.6*
5.8***
1.1***
.?;.T
.7!:!^...*.*
in the advertisements performing live or
13.4***
11.5***
in a music video.
77.1*
40.4***
^ ' ^"^ * ^ P'-oduction of these advertisements, over 90 percent of advertise^^^^^ contained popular music that was
>Síjmyic««í at the ^0.01 level; '^significant at the 0.05 level; '"not significant
edited. Approximately 25 percent of these
advertisements were at least partially choreographed. The choreography of adverstations are more likely to use a jingle or
used popular music, 81 percent (n = 501)
tisements with jingles (e.g., "I am stuck
needledrop than popular music. A sum-
used needledrop, and 5 percent (n =
on Band-aids") has historically been an
mary of programming, commercial char-
30) used jingles. Of the advertisements
advertising executional technique. It is not
acteristics, demographics, and product
with popular music, 63 were original vo-
surprising then that the movement from
characteristics including significances are
cals, 13 were original instrumentais, 5 were
jingles to popular music in advertising
provided in Table 5.
altered vocals, and 5 were cover vocals.
(Berman, 2000) has also resulted in at
As for the prominence of the music in
least the partial choreography of popular
Music variables
the advertisements with music, it was most
music to the narrative in some advertise-
Table 6 shows the unique advertisements
often in the background in advertise-
ments. Examples of this in this study
with the presence of music (anywhere) in
ments with needledrop and jingles. But
include the partially choreographed adver-
a commercial in terms of four of the mu-
popular music was most often observed
tisements for The Gap ("Summer Breeze"
sic characteristic variables: type, promi-
in the foreground and most likely the
by Seals and Crofts) and the fully choreo-
nence, amount, and if it is seasonal. As
primary rather than secondary part of the
graphed
can be seen, significant differences were
advertisement. These results indicate that
("Talk About Me" by Toby Keith). In re-
Applebee's
advertisements
obtained in the use of music and these
when advertisers use music it is usually
gard to the relevance of the music to the
music characteristics. Of the total unique
some type of generic unfamiliar (needle-
product or service in the advertisement,
advertisements (N = 715), 86 percent (n =
drop) in the background, but when famil-
about 28 percent had some type of rele-
617) contained music. Of these unique
iar music is used, it is usually original
vanee, but 91 percent had some type of rel-
music advertisements, 14 percent (« = 86)
vocals in the foreground. As for the amount
evance to the narrative in the advertisement. '
September 2 0 0 8 JDÜBOIIL OFflDÜERTISlIlGBESEHRCH 4 1 1
MUSIC PLACEMENT IN PRIME-TIME TV ADVERTISING
TABLE 6
Distribution of Unique Advertisements by Music
Characteristic Variables
„ ,
.
TABLE 7
Distribution of Unique
Advertisements by Music
Characteristic Variables
Popular
Totai
Total
Music
Music
Neediedrop
Jingie
Popular
(N)
(n)
(n)
(n)
(n)
Music
(n)
715
617
86
501
30
Total
Music'gßnre
Music version
86
Original vocal
63
63
Pop
Original instrumental
13
13
.....'?.?.9.':^.
.23
Cover vocal
5
5
....R&B/hÍP.hoR
Dance/disco
i^
3
Altered vocal
5
5
„„Needledrop
501
Jingle
Music prominence
Background
Foreground—primary
32
501
30
30
Movie
1
..,.î^9!h
....Ja?.?
....^^!!r}?.
,?
.4
I
516
37
18
29
479
4
19
4
64
39
18
7
583
73
480
30
33
13
20
0
1
0
6
O
Artist: gender
Foreground—secondary
Music amount
Througiiout
Siience/music
Silence/jingle
,.,,S??sonal
1
8
0
2
f?!)?.?.
Mixed
.^.?
13
Artist: age
Adult
84
^9H'^.ê ^CÍH'Í/^I?.?'^
Içhildrer'''"'"]""'''"]^^^'"^^^
i
Art/st; number
Single
40
Í.?
Table 8 shows the distribution of the artists, titles, and brands for some of the ad-
analyzing music placement in prime-time
television advertising. Based on the re-
• ••^•^•°
....^.'.9."P.
vertisements with popular music. The most
suits it appears that this executional cue
^!'.'¡'.?.':-..R^íf.9!'!}?.'.'?.$..iíy?.
.?
observed artist w a s Greenwheel ("Breathe")
h a s increased drastically since t h e 1980s,
^!'^'^iP^ÍÍ9':!J^!M.yJ<M
,4
in the Frasier network/station teases, fol-
Overall, 94 percent of the total advertise-
^^iM
lowed by The Intruders ("I'll Always Love
ments (3,456) and 86 percent of the unique
Ct)oreographed
.7,?
My Mama") in the K-Mart Mother's Day
advertisements (715) contained some type
....^!^^}.'f.^y.
.?
commercials, Nikka Costa ("Everybody's
of music. This is considerably higher than
....?.^!}:\^\^ï
.?.?:
Got Their Something") and The Flaming
the 42 percent that Stewart and Furse
Product relevance
Lips ("Do You Realize") in Mitsubishi com-
(1986) observed, but comparable to the 89
,P,'.,®i?,
mercials, and Iggy Pop ("Lust For Life") in
percent that Appelbaum and Halliburton
....\^^'!'^.9!;
the advertisements for Carnival cruises,
(1993) reported. Of the unique music ad-
.,.,.'^,9,r!i
vertisements, 14 percent contained popu-
Narrative relevance
CONCLUSION
lar music, 81 percent had needledrop, and
....9}:'.?.9:^.
.5?
.?.?
This study w a s designed to supplement
5 percent utilized jingles. Because this is
....\"^!!^.9!:
and update the limited quantitative data
the first study to observe specifically the
....f!*.?!]^
4 1 2 JOÜRRRL OF RDUERTISIHG RESERRCH September 2 0 0 8
,?,^
.9
?.?
.?
MUSIC PLACEMENT IN PRIME-TIME TV ADVERTISING
TABLE 8
placement of popular music in advertis-
Disthbution of Total Popular Music Advertisements by Artist,
^^' '^ '^ in^poss^ie to conclude that it is
Title a n d Brand
increasing as was suggested in the back-
'-
——
ground. It is now possible, however, to
Artist
Title
Brand
(n)
Greenwheel
"Breathe"
Frasier
24
The Intruders
".}!}}..^^y^^^^.}rP^^..^Ï..!^^!^?.''.
^'j!^.?!!}
.1.?
^° provide a more robust qualitative analy-
Nikka Costa
"Everybody's Got"
Mitsubishi Endeavor
17
The Flaming Lips
"Do You Realize"
Mitsubishi Galant
16
^^^ °^ "^^^^^ placement in television advertising. The results provide a glimpse
c .
•
ot how advertisers are currently usmg
Iggy Pop
"Lust For Life"
Carnival
14
popular music in commercials. If an ad-
Seals & Croñs
"Summer Breeze"
The Gap
14
Toby Keith
"Talk About Me"
Applebee's
••••
14
vertisement had popular music, it was
most likely to be a nonnarrative dramati..
,.„
^. -..
,
.
zation (47 percent). Most advertisements
C. W. McCall
".P.9!}y.9ï."
^^9.
^^
^ ' * music contained a voice-over (91
Eyanesence
"My Immortal"
Friends
12
Steppenwolf
"Born To Be Wild"
The Simple Life 2
••.
11
percent). Celebrities (28 percent), animation (12 percent), and animals (7 percent)
i
n i •
j
..•
• u
were less likely in advertisements with
Devo
"Whip It"
Raising Helen
10
popular
KC& Sunshine; Band
;;i;rTi Your Boogie Man"
Scary Movie 3
10
Bananarama
"Venus"
Venus Divine
9
"^'^^ needledrop or jingle. Most music
advertisements of all types had people in
^u
/OA
.N J
r • J
them (84 percent) and were of mixed gen-
Foghat
"Slow Ride"
True Value
9
ders (62 percent), ages (57 percent), and
Modest Mouse
"Gravity Rides Everything"
Nissan Qwest
8
Buscom Lunsord
"Dry Bones"
•
Pedigree Jumbone
'^
7
races (27 percent). Additionally, there was
more likely to be a popular song in a food
.ir
.N
-• / •.
^A
^^
(15 percent), audio/video (14 percent), or
Dick Dale
"Miserlou"
Nissan Armada
7
automotive (13 percent) advertisement; a
Johnny Rogers
"Secret Agent Man"
Wal-Mart
7
My Morning Jacket
•••••
Rick James
"It Still Moves"
"Give It To Me Baby"
Aspen
::r:^
Chevy Equinox
7
;
6
jingle in a fast food advertisement (10
percent); and needledrop in a health or
c - ^
A ,.•
^ i-^r
^\ K c
fitness advertisement (16 percent). As for
the prominence of the music in the adver-
Romantics
"VVhat I Like About You"
T;G.I. Friday's
6
I^^.^in?^
":^:.
iP°^
6
tisements, if the music was in the foreground, it was more likely to be popular
^^gi^ (67 percent). It was also more likely
Ace of Base
"I Saw The Sign"
Bally's
5
to be the primary rather than secondary
Billy Joel
"Movin'Out"
Mastercard
5
?^'?n.M?nd
::it!y.B^?y .T^^^^y .Weeny.Bikirii;
Voplait
5
part of the advertisement (78 percent). If
it was in the background, it was more
^kely to be an advertisement with needle-
5
Deep Purple
"Smoke on the Water"
HP/Fender
^„,,„,
Go-Gos
„., j.. „
Vacation
r, -^ > r^
Capitol One
4
SPi^il^f:^
Steven Tyler
::i:[LB^.Afi^4^d"
"The Grind"
Al^enguest
Sony
4
4
T-u «« u 4.4.
The Manhattans
..our-^ ,.
Shinning Star
r,
Song
4
::ihe Way You Move;;
Breakin; Ail the Rules
4
trend popular music integration in primetime television advertising.
AJJ-- n
iAdditionally, this study was designed
music
than
advertisements
drop (93 percent). More commercials with
^
any type of music had it throughout the
-' -"^
&
advertisement (94 percent) and it was edited (91 percent). Some of the advertisements had the action in the advertisement
choreographed to the popular music (28
" ^
^ ^
percent), and the majority of these were
^^ly partially choreographed (88 percent).
September 2 0 0 8 JDURHIIL DF BDÜERTISIOG RESEBRCH 4 1 3
MUSIC PLACEMENT IN PRIME-TIME TV ADVERTISING
A very important observation from this study is tiiat
popuiar music is more iiiceiy to be reievant to tiie
advertisement narrative (91 percent) tiian the product
or service (28 percent). This suggests that popuiar music
is being utiiized by some advertisers to provide some
type of reievance or perspective to the action in the
advertisement for the consumer with the purpose of increasing the consumer's invoivement in the commerciai.
A very important observation from this
study is that popular music is more likely
to be relevant to the advertisement narrative (91 percent) than the product or service (28 percent). This suggests that
popular music is being utilized by some
advertisers to provide some type of relevance or at least perspective (e,g,, time,
place) to the action in the advertisement
for the consumer with the purpose of
increasing the consumer's involvement in
the commercial. Past research suggested
that product relevance to the music can
be an important determinant of the music
as an executional cue. It appears that advertisers and advertising agencies are selecting music to "fit" the action rather
than the product. This contradicts past
research that concluded that a commercial is more effective when the music, in
some way, pertains to the product (Alpert
and Alpert, 1991; Brooker and Wheatley,
1994; Maclnnis and Park, 1991), It does
suggest, however, that advertisers are using popular music to stimulate some type
of personal relevance of the narrative to
the consumer to stimulate involvement
(Zaichkowsky, 1994), possibly resulting in
a more central route to persuasion (Petty
and Cacioppo, 1986),
LIMiTATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH
While content analysis provides a thorough and objective report on how music
is being used in prime-time television advertising and how much, it is limited in
its ability to provide any explanation for
why it is used or its effectiveness. An
understanding of the context in which
music is being utilized or confirmation of
an increase or decrease use of music in
commercials by advertisers does not necessarily mean that music has been determined by advertisers to be more or less
effective than other executional cues. Additionally, although this study utilized a
comparatively large sample of commercials, it was still just a snapshot of one
week from one year. Additional studies
and samples will allow more generalizations and conclusions.
Despite its limitations, this study provides a foundation for future research
into the potential of music, especially pop-
4 1 4 JOÜRRRL DF RDÜERTISIRG RESERRCR September 2 0 0 8
ular music, to enhance advertising effectiveness. The next step is to build upon
this foundation in each of the variable
categories (programming, commercial characteristics, demographics, product characteristics, and music characteristics). For
instance, does the time of day or surrounding program (programming) provide for greater or lesser effectiveness of
advertising with music? Do nonnarrative
dramatizations (commercial characteristics) interact most effectively with music
or are most commercials now of that type?
Is it a coincidence or by design that certain ages and races (demographics) are
used with certain types of music? Why
are automotive advertisements (product)
more likely to contain (popular) music
than other product categories? And what
types of music most effectively interact
with what other variables? Further research should also be completed to compare such areas as the effectiveness of
popular music's relevance to the advertisement narrative versus the product. Finally, it has been over 20 years since
Stewart and Furse (1986) completed their
widely cited research that included the
percentage of music in television advertising. Future research can now continue
the process of trending its use longitudinally to quantify how much is being used
and to qualify how it is being used. Included in this is the continued discussion of the societal effects of using a
cultural product like popular music in
advertising,
DAVID ALLAN (Ph.D., Temple University) is an assistant
professor of marketing In the Erivan K. Haub School
of Business at Saint Joseph's University in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He has published articles in journals such as the Journal of Advertising Research, the
Journai of Advertising and Society, the Journal of Media
Psychology, and Popular Musicology in the area of
advertising and music. He has been quoted in publications such as The Washington Post. Chicago Tribune,
MUSIC PLACEMENT IN PRIME-TIME TV ADVERTISING
and The Philadelphia Inquirer. He has taught exten-
European Food and Beverage Sector." Inter-
sively in the area of marketing communications. Prior
national Journal of Advertising 12,3 (1993): 223-41. trayal of Blacks: A Content Analysis of General
to his academic career, Dr. Allan spent over 20 years
in the radio industry.
ELLIOTT, MICHAEL T. "Differences in the Por-
Media Versus Culturally-Targeted CommerAvERY, ROSEMARY ]., and ROSELLINA FERRARO.
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"Verisimilitude or Advertising? Brand Appear-
Advertising 17, 1 (1995): 75-86.
ances on Prime-Time Television." Journal of ConACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This article was presented on August 3 at the
2006 Association for the Education of Journalism and Mass Communication Conference in
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BELLAIRE, ARTHUR. "Getting Creative Money's
GAROFALO, REEBEE. Rockin' Out. Upper Saddle
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