The spread of Olives (Olea sp.) on Wagga

Transcription

THE JOHNSTONE CENTRE
REPORT Nº 100
Nathan Cobb's Laboratory
Conservation & Interpretation Project
The spread of Olives (Olea sp.)
on Wagga Wagga Campus
I. Biology and History
by
Dirk H.R. Spennemann
Albury Australia
1998
© The author and the Johnstone Centre of Parks, Recreation and Heritage, 1998.
All rights reserved. The contents of this study are copyright in all countries subscribing
to the Berne Convention. No parts of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or
by any information storage and retrieval system, without the written permission of the
author, except where permitted by law.
CIP
Spennemann, Dirk H.R. 1958—
Nathan Cobb's Laboratory Conservation & Interpretation Project.
The spread of Olives (Olea sp) on Wagga Wagga Campus.
volume I. Biology and history Albury, NSW: Charles Sturt University, The Johnstone Centre, 1998.
1 v., - (Report / Johnstone Centre of Parks, Recreation & Heritage, no. 100)
ISBN 1-875758-67-4
DDC 583.87099448
1. Olive--History--Australia--Wagga Wagga (NSW). I. Charles Sturt University. Johnstone Centre of Parks, Recreation & Heritage.
II. Title. III. Series.
PDF Version 2004.
Dirk H.R. Spennemann,
The spread of Olives (Olea sp.) on Wagga Wagga Campus. I. Biology and history
Contents
Appendices ............................. 79
Appendix A — Point data
for feral olives in
Australia ........................ 80
Contents ............................. iii
Introduction ............................. 5
The location......................... 5
Victoria......................................80
Appendix B — Olive
varieties currently
planted at Wagga Wagga . 81
Biology of Olives....................... 3
Olive species in Australia ...... 3
Olea europaea..............................4
Propagation & growth
conditions ........................ 6
Seed propagation .........................6
Vegetative propagation................9
Growth conditions .....................10
Seed availability ..................14
Use of olive trees .................15
Current Distribution.................18
New South Wales and the
ACT ...............................20
Norfolk Island............................21
Australian Capital Territory ......21
Victoria..............................22
South Australia ...................22
Queensland & Western
Australia.........................23
Western Australia......................23
Status.................................23
Olives in Australia ...................26
Introduction of olives to
Australia.........................28
Olive oils shown at
International Exhibitions ......29
The Protagonists........................31
Olives in Wagga.......................33
Wagga Wagga.......................35
Extending the collection............42
Rootstock Trials ........................51
Reducing the collection.............51
Acknowledgments.....................53
Bibliography ...........................54
Personal Communications.........78
iii
1
Introduction
olives (Olea ssp.) be investigated . To ensure that a proposed management action
was successful, it was important to understand the vectors involved in the
spread of feral olives and the speed of the
spread (Spennemann 1997). This gave
rise to the present study. This document
represents the findings of the research
w.r.t. the history of olive grove and its
management. It combines both a compilation of data published in the scientific
and horticultural literature, and new data
collected in the field, as well as unpublished archival data.
Wagga Wagga Agricultural College, the
predecessor institution of Charles Sturt
University, Wagga Wagga Campus, celebrated its centenary in 1996. As part of
these celebrations it had been planned to
adequately manage and interpret the ruins
of Nathan Cobb’s Laboratory, as well as
the associated concrete base of a granary.
Observation had shown that olive trees
were contributing to the decay of the
sites. A draft conservation management
plan of the resource had been developed
which recommended inter alia that the
extent and nature of an infestation with
The location
grounds of the Wagga Wagga Campus of
Charles Sturt University (Grid reference
5326 61199).
The study area is bounded by McKeown Drive on the east and north, Nathan
Cobb Drive in the west. The southern and
southeastern boundary is provided a dirt
road leading from the roundabout at the
entrance of Charles Sturt University
Campus to the winery (figure 1.1).
The heritage sites which gave rise to this
assessment are located within the Riverina Campus of Charles Sturt University,
Wagga Wagga, located north of the Murrumbidgee River, approx. 5km northwest
of the town centre. The sites are situated
at the eastern slope of the eastern hill of
the Two Sisters, traditionally known as
“Bald Hill” and now colloquially addressed as “Winery Hill,” within the
v
The spread of Olives on Wagga Wagga Campus
Figure 1.1. Aerial Photography showing the study site on Wagga Wagga Campus of
Charles Sturt University. Scale approx. 1: 6000. Date: April 1971. (Source: Orthophotomap 1:4000 Wagga Agricultural College 2717-VIII).
2
Biology
2
Biology of Olives
Table 2.1. compiles some of the
known olive species. The domestic olive
(Olea europaea) is a cluster of cultivars
that has evolved most likely through hybridisation from range of wild forms still
occurring on the southern and eastern
periphery of the Mediterranean: Olea
chrysophylla, O. excelsa and O. laperrini
(Turill 1951; Levison and Levison 1984;
Zohary 1992). A feral form (O. europaea
ssp. sylvestris) has also developed from
escapees from orchards. O. europaea ssp.
sylvestris and O. europaea ssp. europaea
are fully interfertile.
The genus Olea comprises about 35
species with a distribution throughout
Africa, India, Malaya, Australasia and
western China. It does not occur as a wild
species in the Americas (Levison and
Levison 1984).
Cultivated olives are basically only a
few generations removed from ‘wild’
land races (Rugini and Lavee 1992; Turrill 1952). While up to 2,600 cultivars
have been recorded, most of them are
heterozygous clones selected from spontaneous, uncontrolled crosses.
Olive species in Australia
regions, with dry and hot summers and
winter-dominant rainfall. In South Australia the 500mm annual rainfall isohyet
seems to be defining the boundary of its
distribution (Parsons & Cuthbertson
1992, p. 523). Olea can occur on a wide
range of soils.
Olea are evergreen shrubs or trees.
The leaves are opposite, simple in form,
with non serrated margins. The lower
surface of the leaves usually shows a
dense covering of scale.
Two olive species occur on the Australian mainland and offshore islands.
Australia, two introduced varieties of the
same species and one native. Introduced
are Olea europaea ssp. europaea and
Olea europaea ssp. africana, while Olea
paniculata is deemed native to Australia.
The European native olive, Olea europaea ssp. sylvestris was never transplanted to this continent.
In their habitat Olea ssp. occur in
semi-arid to subhumid warm-temperate
3
Table 2.1. Taxonomy of some members of the genus Olea
(after various sources –see text)
Division SPERMATOPHYTA
Subdivision ANGIOSPERMAE
Class DICOTYLEDONAE
Family OLEACEAE
Tribe OLOEOIDAE
Subtribe O LEINEAE
Genus Olea
Olea europaea
O.e. africana Miller
O.e. cerasiformis (Webb & Berth.).
O.e. europaea L.
O.e. maderensis
O.e. sylvestris L.
Olea paniculata R.Br.
(O. apetala Vahl.)
Olea capensis L.
Olea dioica Roxb.
Olea exasperata Jacq.
Olea excelsa
Olea fragrans
Olea glandulifera Wall.
Olea lancea Lamarck
Olea laperrini Batt. et Traut
Olea laurifolia Lamarck
Olea paniculata R. Br.
Olea verrucosa Link.
The leaves commonly abscise in the
spring at an age of 2-3 years, but older
leaves can be present.
Domatia are absent. Venation is obvious on the upper surface, but obscure on
the lower surface. The flowers are borne
on an inflorescence of 15 to 30 small
flowers in the axil of each leaf. The petiole is up to 100mm long, the racemes 4060mm.
The fruit, ripening in summer, is a
drupe, globose to ellipsoid, 10-30mm,
commonly only 15-25mm long and approx 6mm in diameter, fleshy and glaucous. Depending on the tannin content,
especially in feral olives, the fruit can be
very bitter. The fruit have a thin smooth
hairless skin, green when immature and
purple-black to black in colour when
ripe. The oil content in the fruit varies
Olea europaea
Olea europaea is a much-branched evergreen tree of variable size, glabrous and
ranging from 2 to 15m in height with a
dense, round crown; the most common
height is 5-10m, and 15m is rarely
reached. The stems of the tree are greenish-black with a rough bark. The root is
well branched and woody. The root system is very wide and generally shallow.
The leaves are set opposite are narrow
oblong (lanceolate) to elliptic, 30-70mm
long, 8-25mm wide. The apex is acute
with a small hook or point, the base attenuate to cuneate, margins entire and recurved. The upper leaf surface is greygreen in colour and glossy, while the
lower surface is covered with a dense
cluster of silvery, golden or brown scales.
4
Biology
Olea europaea L. ssp. africana (Miller)
between varieties (it can reach up to
20%) and even on an annual basis in the
same variety. The fruit contains a bony
endocarp with 1-2 seeds. The seeds are
10-15mm long and oily.
Common names: African olive, Wild olive,
Golden olive; Olienhout (South Africa),
Smallfruit, Russian Olive (in Hawai’i) *) .
Synonyms: Olea lancifolia; Olea cuspidata
Link.; Olea europaea L. ssp. cuspidata.
Description: Leaves mainly 60-100mm length,
10-25mm wide, apex often with hooked tip,
upper surface often dark green and glossy,
lower surface green or yellowish brown.
(Hardin 1992, p. 472; Beadle 1984, p. 700;
Hartley 1979, p. 168; Turrill 1951).
Olea europaea ssp. sylvestris (Mill.)
Hegi
Common names: Wild olive, Olivastro, Oleaster
Synonyms: Olea oleaster, Olea europaea ssp.
oleaster (Hoffmanns et Link.); Olea africana;
Olea ferruginea; Olea chrysphylla Lam.; O.c.
somalensis.
Description: The wild olive (not introduced to
Australia) has often a more bushy appearance,
a ‘tortuous growth’ and thorny branches. Its
leaves are much smaller and the fruit is
overall drier. The tannin content of wild
olives is reported to be higher than in cultivated varieties (Maiden 1887). Wild olives
(feral? olives: Turill 1951) tend to grow alone
or in small clusters (Espais Naturales 1996).
Figure 2.1 Olea europaea (Drawing:
Dirk H.R. Spennemann 1997).
In addition to the Australian native
olive, the following three subspecies of
the European olive are worth noting:
Olea paniculata (R. Br.)
Olea europaea ssp. europaea L.
Common names: Native olive; Marble wood,
Iron wood, Maire (NZ)
Common names: European olive, Edible olive,
Table olive.
Synonyms: Olea apetala
Synonyms: Olea gallica, Olea sativa, Olea
europaea ssp. sativa.
Description: O. paniculata is an up to 30m tall
tree, with trunk up to 0.9m diameter. The
leaves are ovate to elliptic, usually 50-100mm
long and 15-60mm wide, with an acuminate
apex, a rounded to cuneate base, margins
entire. The leaves have a green and glossy
upper surface and a pale underside with small
hollow domatia along the mid-vein. The
panicles are many flowered and from 40 to
100mm long. The drupe are ovoid, 8-12mm
long, scarcely succulent and of bluish black
colour. The tree flowers from October to
December and grows in or near riverine, dry
or littoral rainforest north from the Hunter
Valley as well as in New Zealand (Hardin
1992, p. 472; Kirk 1881; Macdonald 1911).
Description: Leaves mainly 30-70mm length, 810mm wide, apex without hooked tip, lower
surface whitish or silvery. In Australia the
tree flowers from October to November.
Among the domesticated/cultivated olive
varieties the leaf size varies, with Spanish
varieties having larger leaves and Italian and
French varieties possessing long and narrow
leaves (Allen 1902a; Hardin 1992, p. 472;
Robertson 1965, p. 685; Jessop & Toelken
1986, p. 1037; Martin 1994; Parsons &
Cuthbertson 1992, p. 522-524; Beadle 1984,
p. 700; Cooke 1989).
*) Not to be confused with the Russian olive on
the American mainland (Eleagnus
angustifolia).
5
Endocarp
(hard)
Seed
3'
Epicarp
(thin)
Mesocarp
(soft)
Polar diameter
Transversal
diameter
.
2'
Transversal
diameter
a)
Polar
diameter
b)
c)
Figure 2.2. Nomenclature of the parts of the olive drupe (a) and the measurements
taken on the drupe (b) and the endocarp (c).
Propagation & growth conditions
ages the growth of suckers (Emerson
1997; Thomas 1995).
Propagation occurs via seeds or vegetatively via cuttings. A 19th century source
lists the following methods of propagation: “seeds, cuttings, layers, suckers,
truncheons or estacas and old stumps, the
latter split” (Anonymous 1873). Seeds
generally germinate in autumn and
seedlings grow at a moderate rate during
winter. As moisture is reduced during
summer the growth slows down. Growth
continues over several years until flowering begins. Under normal circumstances
olives will bear their first fruit after 10-12
years, but in irrigated areas trees have
been known to produce after 4-5 years
(Anonymous 1952).
In established trees flowers develop on
the previous year’s growth in the presence of sunlight. The development of
flowers depends on sufficient chilling,
yet not too much frost, in the preceding
winter (Hartmann 1962). A life expectancy of 40-50 years for wild (feral)
olives is assumed. Domesticated and
tended, ie. unpruned, olives appear to
have a life expectancy of up to 1,000
years. Heavy pruning of the tree encour-
Seed propagation
In California seed propagation is claimed
to be slow and unreliable for horticultural
purposes (Thomas 1995). This has been
reported elsewhere as well , such as
Queensland (Benson 1899), South Australia (Fowler 1940) and Victoria (1911),
and appears to be a by-product of the
domestication process (Zohary and
Spiegel-Roy 1975). O.e. ssp. africana on
the other hand appears to be a good and
successful seed disperser, if the South
African (Manders and Richardson 1992)
and Norfolk Island experiences are any
guide (Stevenson 1997).
Olives grown from seed do not come
true to variety (Fowler 1940) and revert
“to more or less wild and worthless
types” (Macdonald 1911). Because of
this tendency they are usually only used
as root stock (Marvin 1888, p. 60). The
oil yield of trees grown from seedlings
was found to be smaller than that of the
original cultivated stock (Barnard 1882).
6
Biology
Figure 2.3. Olea europaea spp. sylvestris (Marvin 1888).
7
Figure 2.4. Olea europaea spp. europaea var. Frantoio (Marvin 1888).
8
the seed, freed of the flesh and the oily
film (Boothby 1878, p. 11).
Germination is affected by both internal dormancy requirements (inhibitors in
the embryo or seed coat) and mechanical
inhibitors (inability of the embryo to
penetrate the hard endocarp; Sutter
1994). The sclerous endocarp also inhibits the hydration and oxygenation of
the embryo (Leon & Altisent 1992). To
obtain ideal germination conditions, the
seed should be cracked or clipped without injuring the embryo (Macdonald
1912a; Wickson 1900; Dal Pero Bertini
1960a, p. 92, Rallo et al. 1992; Sutter
1994). Fowler (1940) recommended to
soak the endocarps for a day in a caustic
soda solution to soften them up. Regardless of pretreatment, however, the germination of olives is poor in the year following harvesting, good in the year
thereafter, and then declines rapidly in
subsequent years (Wickson 1900; Dal
Pero Bertini 1960a, p. 92).
Variaty in germination ability was repeatedly observed between cultivars
(Leon & Altisent 1992). Seed germination trials in Wagga showed that the varieties Sevillano, Palermo and Lucques
had comparatively poor germination capabilities (Mort 1949).
While seed germination is slow and
unreliable, rootstock grown from seed
rather than truncheons were found to be
more desirable (Cole 1911). Further, not
all varieties produce the same quality
root stocks. In the Wagga Wagga setting
the best stocks were obtained from
seedlings of the Verdale variety (Dal
Pero Bertini 1960a, p. 92).
However, the potential that seedlings
could produce new varieties with desirable traits was recognised early and some
attempts were made at Wagga, Pera Bore
and Hawkesbury in NSW (see chapter 5)
as well as in South Australia. The most
successful selection was Hardy’s Mammoth (Hardy 1901; 1902).
According to Martin (1994) the seed is
(horticulturally) mature some five
months after flowering. If harvested at
that time, the seed will achieve maximum
germination. If the drupe is allowed to
fully ripen (eight months after flowering)
then seed germination is greatly reduced.
A similar observation was made by
Rinaldi et al. (1992) who also found that
the speed of germination increases with
increased ripening.
The germination of seeds from mature
fruit is uncertain (ranging from 5% to
90%) and slow (from one to six months,
or even longer), mainly due to the oily
nature of the flesh of the drupe which
prevents the access of moisture to the
seed (Browne 1883; Anonymous 1899d).
Olives with flesh attached rarely
germinate in natural conditions (Wickson
1900). According to Mort (1949) the
ideal time for seed propagation in
Australia (at Wagga Wagga) is in June
and early July.
In order to facilitate germination, it is
necessary to remove the oily film covering the endocarp. If fresh olives are to be
used, the endocarp, once freed of flesh,
needs to be washed in a solution of soda
(Dal Pero Bertini 1960a, p. 92); strong
lime or caustic soda (Fowler 1940; Macdonald 1912a), or dipped in hot water
(Anonymous 1899d). At the turn of the
century experiments were carried out
showing that warm water (40°-70°C)
would enhance germination, while near
boiling water (90°C) would be detrimental (Anonymous 1900b). In the south of
France, seed olives were traditionally fed
to chicken, which eventually would pass
Vegetative propagation
Olives are known to be capable of vegetative propagation; accordingly, the use
of layers and truncheons has been the
primary means of reliable propagation
(Benson 1899; Fowler 1940; Macdonald
9
1912a; Marvin 1888; Mort 1950). Trials
at Wagga in 1948 and 1949 showed
differences between varieties (table 2.2).
1873). They prefer well-drained neutral
or alkaline soils with a pH in the range of
6.5 to 8.2 (Hobham 1995c).
Table 2.2. Ease of vegetative propagation of various varieties at Wagga
Wagga in 1948-49 (Mort 1950)
Growth conditions
Olives prefer a Mediterranean climate
comprising of a relatively cool, but not
too frosty winter, and a long, hot growing
seasons (Connell 1994). While they prefer a sandy loam of moderate depth,
olives are very hardy plant and will grow
on sandy and calcareous soils. Olives tolerate limey and slightly saline soils
(Connell and Catlin 1994; Hall 1972, p.
397) as well as moderate salinity in the
air (cf. Davey 1873). A 19th century
source claims that proximity to the sea is
in fact a beneficial location (Anonymous
Degree
Variety
Very difficult Sevillano, Macrocarpa,
Lucca
Difficult
Hardy’s Mammoth,
Manzanillo Nº 14
Less difficult Corregiola, Manzanillo
Nº 2, Large Spanish,
Bouquettier
Fairly easy
Verdale, Boutillan,
Nevadillo Blanco
Figure 2.5. Grove of Olea europaea ssp. europaea with some old-growth Eucalypts at
CSU-Wagga Wagga (Photo: © Dirk H.R. Spennemann 1997).
10
Biology
Figure 2.6. Grove of Olea europaea ssp. europaea at CSU-Wagga Wagga (Photo: ©
Dirk H.R. Spennemann March 1997).
Figure 2.7. Grove of Olea europaea ssp. europaea at CSU-Wagga Wagga after substantial pruning (Photo: © Dirk H.R. Spennemann September 1997).
1888, p. 60). They are reported to be less
susceptible to wind fall (Chaffey quoted
in Allen 1901b). The plant is overall
A tree grown from seed will have a
long and strong taproot and, commonly, a
straight stem (Thompson 1891; Marvin
11
shallow rooting, however, with a depth of
0.5 to 1.2m (Martin 1994).
Once established, olives are very
drought resistant, even to prolonged
droughts. It is reported to be limited by
the 500mm annual isohyet in South Australia (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992, p.
523), but if planted, or seeded under ideal
conditions and established it can survive
even lower annual rainfall. Growth and
propagation experiments carried out by
NSW Agriculture at the turn of the century have shown that olives can be
planted in marginal areas (too hot, too
dry, too cold, too wet), but that the plant
would not fruit well (Allen 1901a).
In Broken Hill it exists without watering in an area of 23 mm of rain per annum (Hall 1972, p. 393). Olives grow
best, however, in an area of 500-800mm
annual rainfall. Growth experiments and
cultivation tests have shown that overwatering will lead to the death of olive
trees.
The plant requires winter chilling for
successful floral development(Rallo et al.
1992; Voyiatzis and Pritsa 1992). Olives
can withstand frosts for a short time
“provided the thawing takes place under
fogs or mild rain” (Anonymous 1873),
but not below -8°C. Spring frosts are
damaging to the bloom and the seed development (Hartman 1962). Madonald
(1911) drawing on a variety of sources
maintains that a temperature of -4.5°C
(24°F) or less is injurious to fruit and a
temperature of -8 to -10°C (14-18°F) or
less causes severe damage to trees, especially in late winter and early spring,
when the tree has grown new wood.
Temperatures of -12°C (10°F) and below
are reported as lethal (se also Antognozzi
et al. 1992). Apparently many olive
groves in France were killed during abnormal frosts in January 1820
(Macdonald 1911). Some severely frost
damaged trees can be saved if they are
cut back to the ground, allowing the roots
to push up new shoots.
Some olive varieties are very poor
self-pollinators. Thus the presence of
other varieties is required to successfully
produce harvestable crops (California:
UCCE 1997; Italy: Climato et al. 1993).
Bryden (1939) conducted an assessment of the fruiting of olive trees at the
Wagga Wagga orchard and found that 3.3
to 3.9% of all flowers were self pollinating and had set. Mort (1952) in a similar
study found that the varieties Sevillano
and Verdale are particularly poor setters.
Figure 2.8. Example of the root distribution of a mature plant at the olive grove
(after Connell and Catlin 1994)
12
Biology
Table 2.3 Documented alternate bearing of unpruned olive trees at Wagga Wagga
(Source: Mort 1953b).
Variety
Alternate bearing
Ascalona
Atro Rubens
Attica
Big Spanish
Blanquette
Blanquette (early)
Blanquette (late)
Bouquettier
Boutillon
Bucchine
Corregiola
Cucco
Dr. Fiaschi
Fantago
Gros Redondou
HAC
Large Fruited
Lucca
Macrocarpa
Manzanillo Nº 2
Manzanillo Nº 14
Mission
Nevadillo Blanco
O de Gras
Oblonga
Pera Bore 1
Pera Bore 2
Piccholine
Picholine St. Chamais
Pigali
Regalis
Sevilliano
Tarasacoa
Verdale
pronounced
pronounced
tendency
alternate
pronounced
pronounced
pronounced
pronounced
pronounced
tendency
limited
limited
tendency
pronounced
pronounced
pronounced
limited
limited
pronounced
limited
limited
pronounced
pronounced
pronounced
pronounced
pronounced
pronounced
pronounced
pronounced
pronounced
pronounced
very pronounced
tendency
tendency
Use of olive Crop
oil
oil
heavy
light
light
oil
oil
Drupe size
light
very heavy
small
medium
small
small
oil
oil
oil
light
very light
very light
oil
oil
oil
pickling
pickling
pickling
oil
pickling
oil
oil
13
small
heavy
very heavy
medium
very light
heavy
heavy
very light
medium
light
light
small
small
medium
small
small
small
Seed availability
out the amount of fruit and thus the
amount of nutrients used. Mort (1953)
could demonstrate in an experiment conducted at the Wagga orchard that pruned
Manzanillo olive trees bore more fruit
overall and that the production was more
even (table 2.4).
It would appear that alternate bearing
holds true for both the domesticated/
cultivated plants and for ferals. For
example, according to an 19th century
source, a great variability has been observed, with untended/unpruned trees
which have ample seeds in one year and
scarcely any the next (Davey 1873).
Overall, unpruned trees not only tend to
produce less, but also produce smaller
(drupes? and) seeds (Barnard 1881).
Substantial growth of olives, however,
increases leaf litter generation and fire
risk (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992, p.
523). While flammable, due to the thin
and well aerated branch network, mature
olives cannot be destroyed by fire. W.
Frogatt mentions an example from Crete,
where mature olive orchards had been
burnt in a civil feud. For practical purposes the trees appeared to be dead. yet
they grew new shoots and suckers the
following year (Frogatt quoted in Beverly
1935).
The availability of seeds depends on the
season and life cycle of a plant. Commonly large olive crops in one year are
followed by smaller crops in the next.
This “alternate bearing” has been observed in California (UCCE 1997); Italy
(Chapman 1896); the Spain (Jordano
1987); and in Australia (Anonymous
1873; Allen 1902b). Alternate bearing is
well developed among Sevillano where
the interval between heavy crops can be
three to four years (Mort 1953, p. 257).
Table 2.3. compiles the experiential data
for the Wagga Wagga orchard. Allen
(1902b) argues that the alternate bearing
is more pronounced among unpruned
trees than in well tended orchards. Even
though, the productivity is known to
fluctuate.
According to Dal Pero Bertini (1960a,
p. 32) the plant uses up selected nutrients
in a heavy crop year and cannot establish
enough flowers in the next (see also
Rallo et al. 1992). Alternate bearing is
more pronounced in warmer climates
where the required number of dyas of
chilling to develop the floral buds cannot
always be guaranteed (Lavee and Aida
1992).
Pruning merely acts as a method of
fruit thinning and thus tends to balance
Table 2.4. Effect of pruning on the annual yield (in lbs) of Manzanillo olives
(Mort 1953).
Year
Pruned (n=2)
Unpruned (n=2)
1950
184
275
1951
137
7
14
1952
85
164
1953
180
4
Total
586
450
Biology
Use of olive trees
The use of olive oil and pickled olives as
items of food are culturally conditioned,
with a high consumption in the
traditional olive countries, such as
Greece, Spain, Italy and southern France.
In the United Kingdom, on the other
hand, olive oil was only rarely consumed
as table or salad oil.
While today olive oil is primarily an
alimentary product, it was also used for
industrial purposes in the 19th century,
mainly as a lubricant, but also in woollen
manufacture (Anonymous 1865b, p. 78)
and as an emulsifier in the drying of
raisins (Anonymous 1937).
Machinery oil, commonly traded as
“Gallipoli oil” in the mid 19th century,
was often produced from overripe drupes
that had been gathered up from the
ground (Macarthur 1871). Oil from such
fruit tended to have a rancid taste that
made it unpalatble for human consumption, a factor irrelevant in industrial applications. In 1899/1900 the Royal Navy
inquired whether olive oil could be procured from the Australian colonies
(Anonymous 1900a; 1900e) as both the
Navy and the merchant marine had a high
consumption of the oil as a lubricant.
In addition to the common use of olive
trees as producers of fruit for pickling
and table oil production, olives are grown
as ornamentals, hedge plants, windbreaks
and shelter plants (Beadle et al. 1982;
Hall 1972; Simpfendorfer 1975). Anderson (1931) in an assessment of the use of
trees on farms comments that on the
western slope of NSW and along the
coast olives would be suitable plants to
provide a shelter belt and windbreak, especially for orchards (figure 2.6). This
had also been advocated in South Australia (Perkins 1916; 1918b; 1921),
Queensland (Benson 1899) and Victoria
(Pye 1917). Mort (1950), however, coun-
selled that olives would take 20 years to
grow into large and dense shade trees. A
dual use of shade tree and production
tree, while theoretically possible, was not
practical as the unpruned trees would
show alternate bearing and would grow
too tall to allow effective harvesting.
Mort (1950), based on trails at Wagga
Wagga, recommended the Corregiola,
Nevadillo Blanco, Mission and Sevillano
varieties as ideal shade and shelter trees.
Both Hall (1972) and Simpfendorfer
(1975, p. 232) suggested the use of olives
as a hedge and windbreak as the plant
can be trimmed to a hedge if required.
According to Hardin (1992, p. 412) the
subspecies Olea e. europaea is predominantly used for fruit production, while
Olea e. africana serves as the main ornamental plant.
Barnard (1882) recommended to use
(cheep) seedlings as hedge plants as the
yield would be of no consequence, and to
plant a high quality, grafted trees every
9m (30ft) which should be allowed a
clear stem above the hedge. This would
maximise fruit production while at the
same time check the growth of the hedge.
Olives had also been planted at
property boundaries at regular intervals
with wires put through the stems, not
only produceing fruit but also serving as
permanent and fireproof fence posts (cf.
Th. Hardy’s property at Bankside, SA:
Crompton 1899).
Because of their drought resistance
and generally low demands on water
olives have been advocated as landscape
plants in other dry countries, such as the
southwest of the USA. Because they are
heavy pollen producers, the fruit bearing
varieties have been banned in some areas
and the planting of fruitless varieties is
recommended (cf. Plantadviser 1996;
Emerson 1997).
15
Figure 2.10. Olea europaea ssp. europaea as a windbreak for an orange orchard at
Yanco Agricultural Research Station (Photo: © Dirk H.R. Spennemann 1997).
Figure 2.11. Row of mature Olea europaea ssp. europaea at the southern boundary of
the Agricultural Research Institute Paddock at Wagga Wagga
(Photo: © Dirk H.R. Spennemann 1997).
16
cause of its longevity, it had been used in
the 19th century in lieu of brass for bearings in sawmills, especially for circular
saws (Maiden 1887). Although the use of
the wood had been advocated at the time
of olive introduction (Anonymous 1870),
olives have not been grown for this purpose in Australia. On Norfolk Island,
however, Olea europaea ssp. africana
has been grown during the period of the
convict settlement for fence post timber
(Stevenson 1997).
In the Mediterranean olives have been
grown also as fodder for goats since
Classical Greek times. Cremer (1990, p.
381) advocates olives as browse and fodder plants suitable for broad scale planting in subtropical to temperate Australia
(listed as an economic plant by Hartley
1979, p. 168).
The wood of the olive is very hard and
marbled and has been traditionally used
for wood carving. The heartwood of the
olive is hard, oily and cross-grained. Be-
17
3
Current Distribution
during bloom and seed development are
also detrimental. if these conditions are
not met, olives can still grow, if tended,
but do not tend to fruit and thus are not
likely to be dispersed by birds and other
vectors. This normal distribution is altered during El Niño/Southern
Oscillation years when the climatic belts
shift marginally with drier conditions in
the interior and warmer conditions in
Southern Australia.
Drawing on the botanical literature the
approximate distribution of exotic olives
(Olea europaea ssp. europaea and Olea
europaea ssp. africana ) in Australia can
be determined. In addition to the distribution shown on the maps (figures 3.1
and 3.2) and in the discussion, olives occur in gardens, and especially in Catholic
convents and orphanages run by nuns, as
the olive is associated with the Mother
Mary concept (Moldenke 1953). Both
because of its longevity and its frequent
mention in the bible, inc. the Garden of
Gethsemane (Jerusalem), olives are frequent ornamentals in cemeteries
(Standish 1960) and occur in the gardens
of Catholic convents and orphanages.
Figure 3.1 compiles the distribution of
Olea europaea ssp. europaea and Olea
africana ssp. europaea in Australia based
on the distribution map provided by Parsons and Cuthbertson (1992, p. 522) with
additional data. The fact that the early
clusters of olive distribution centre on
Perth, Adelaide, Melbourne and Sydney
suggest that the spread is mainly due to
escaped garden and orchard plants.
The parameters limiting the natural dispersal of Olea europaea europaea in
Australia are the annual rainfall with the
500 isohyet being the boundary, and the
required night chilling in winter. Frosts
18
Figure 3.1 Distribution of Olea europaea ssp. europaea and Olea europaea ssp.
africana in Australia in the 1960s
Figure 3.2 Distribution of Olea europaea ssp. europaea and Olea europaea ssp.
africana in Australia in the 1990s.
19
New South Wales and the ACT
et al. 1987; Cuneo pers. comm. 1997)
and in the Windsor districts (Parsons &
Cuthbertson 1992, p. 523). In Camden
Olea europaea ssp. africana showed a
100% increase in area covered since
1985. On the drier ridge areas on Mount
Annan Botanic Gardens the olives have
become a significant weed problem
(Cuneo pers. comm. 1997).
In urban bushland around Sydney
(Sydney Harbour National Park) Olives
Olea europaea ssp. africana) is found
scattered throughout the parkland (Smith
1984). Olea europaea ssp. africana is
also reported in patches from all three
coastal areas and the and central western
slopes. Its coverage is patchy, however.
For example, it was not found during a
systematic flora survey of Eurobedalla
National Park on the NSW South Coast
(Lockwood et al. 1997).
Jacobs and Pickard (1981) in their census
of NSW plants mention that Olea europaea ssp. europaea is distributed on
the northern and central western slopes,
while O. europaea ssp. africana is distributed on the north and central coast.
Hardin (1992, p. 472) states that Olea
europaea grows in disturbed sites, often
along roadside and river banks. It occurs
south from Lismore area. Olea europaea
ssp. europaea, planted as a fruit tree, is
occasionally naturalised in the inland
districts from Inverell to Grenfell, and is
reported on the northern and central
western slopes. Olea europaea ssp.
africana, planted as an ornamental, has
often become naturalised and an invasive
weed, occurring chiefly in the coastal districts from Lismore to Milton. Particularly dense populations have been reported around the Camden area (Dellow
Figure 3.3 Large, self seeded Olea europaea var. europaea on the northern slopes of
“Winery Hill” Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga NSW.
(Photo: © Dirk H.R. Spennemann 1997).
20
ssp. africana on the other hand, has become a major invasive weed in all
cleared areas of the Norfolk Island forest,
as much of its seed crop germinates
(Skeat 1984; Stevenson 1997). An almost
identical situation exists on Hawai’i,
where Olea europaea ssp. europaea is
confined to the original plantings (Green
1997) and where Olea europaea ssp.
africana has spread (pers comm. Tunison
1997). Olives will propagate vegetatively
even in near tropical environments
(Connell 1994).
Olea europaea ssp. europaea is not
mentioned in Western New South Wales
(Cunningham et al. 1981), but reported
for Broken Hill (Hall 1972, p. 393).
Norfolk Island
Olea europaea ssp. africana had been
transplanted to Norfolk I. during its use
as a convict settlement from 1788 onwards, mainly for use as fencepost timber
(Hermes 1987; Stevenson 1997). The
subtropical oceanic climate with for
olives comparatively high rainfall (mean:
1325mm) is not suitable for the self
propagation of Olea europaea ssp. europaea (due to the absence of cold winters), even though it is present on the island as an introduced cultivar (Stevenson
1997). Eradication campaigns in 1987
(Hermes 1987) were only partially successful (Stevenson 1997). Olea europaea
Australian Capital
Territory
The plant is not listed in the 1979 flora of
the ACT (Burbridge & Gray 1979), but
occurs in as cultivated planting in private
gardens.
Figure 3.4 Olea europaea var. europaea at a former homestead., now Charles Sturt
University, Thurgoona Campus NSW. (Photo: © Dirk H.R. Spennemann 1997).
21
34°S
36°S
38°S
140°E
142°E
144°E
146°E
148°E
150°E
Figure 3.5. Point data of the distribution of feral Olea europaea ssp. europaea in
Victoria (Source: Victorian Flora Database )
Victoria
The distribution in Victoria is not well
published. Willis (1972, p. 518) mentions
olives as spontaneous or long-persistent
in parts of Victoria. He reports Olea europaea as appearing on the steep escarpments of the Yarra River at Studley Park.
The Victorian Flora Database was
queried, which furnished a print out
showing the point data for feral Olea europaea ssp. europaea (figure 3.5.).
Carr et al (1992, p. 51) state that Olea
europaea ssp. europaea occurs as a severe threat distributed widely but in small
populations. The vegetation formation
predominantly invaded by olives are low
grassland and woody grassland, dry sclerophyll forest and open woodland, riparian vegetation and rock outcrop vegetation.
In the Grampians olives from neighbouring olive orchards have infested
parts of the national park (Doyle pers.
comm 1997). A similar infesttaion of the
Warby Ranges State Park in north-eastern Victoria in the 1980s was combatted
by cutting off the olives and posisoning
the stumps (McDonald pers comm.)
Abandoned orchards have been
docuemmnted as the source of incipient
roadside infestations, such as Chiltern
(MacDonald pers. comm).
Dookie Agricultural College had an
olive grove as an orchardry teaching tool
since 1879 (Thompson 1891). Little is
known about the spread of olives from
that source. An olive plantation near
Wangaratta was left to go feral in the
1880s (Thompson 1891).
South Australia
Cultivated since the early days of settlement, Fuller (1942) reports that the olive
had spread into the Adelaide hills.
Robertson (1965, p. 685) mentions that
22
the olive has spread spontaneously not
only on the Adelaide foothills but also
into the sandhills at Encounter Bay. The
1986 edition of the Flora of South Australia mentions that Olea is distributed
on the Eyre peninsula, the Yore peninsula
the Murray Region, Kangaroo Island, the
Southern Lofty Region and the southeastern region (Jessop & Toelken 1986,
p. 1037). It is not totally clear whether
the spread is solely due to vectors or
whether incomplete reporting in the earlier period contributed to this massive
spread in distribution. Cooke (1989)
shows that feral olives are now abundant
around Clare as self-sown plants around
road sides, mainly close to old planted
olive trees, confined by the 500mm isohyet, and that the olives had spread into
the Northern Lofty and Flinders Ranges
Regions.
Given the reported figures of olive oil
production in South Australia, and the
number of official trees in the census
(30,000), it appears that some 20,000
feral olive trees are also harvested
(Cooke n.d.)
Figure 3.6. Point data of the distribution
of feral Olea europaea ssp. europaea in
South Australia (Source: Cooke n.d.)
Queensland & Western Australia
Vegetation surveys of South and Central
Western Queensland as well as South
Central Queensland have not yet reported
the presence of feral Olea sp. (cf. Boyland 1984; Jessop 1981; Neldner 1984;
1991; 1992). Domesticated olives grew
well at the turn of the century in the
southern and central parts of Queensland
(Anonymous 1907), and along the coast,
especially on St. Helena, fruiting well in
the coastal areas and the Darling Downs
(Anonymous 1909).
Western Australia
Olea europaea ssp. europaea is reported
to occur as feral plants from Perth and
the Dale Region (Hnatiuk 1990, p. 408).
Status
declared a community pest species for
three areas 1980, which was extended
other areas in 1990 (SAAPCC 1990;
Cooke n.d.). Consequently, the olive has
been classified in South Australia as a
noxious weed, class 5, unless planted for
domestic or commercial use (Parsons &
Cuthbertson 1992, p. 552). In Victoria
Once established, Olea europaea forms a
dense and permanent canopy under
which olive seedlings can grow, but native trees cannot regenerate. This characteristic was not only observed in South
Australia (Cooke 1991), but also in South
Africa (Manders and Richardson 1992).
In South Australia Olea europaea was
23
too its is considered to be an environmental weed (Carr et al 1992, p. 51).
In Sydney Harbour National Park
Olea europaea ssp. africana is found
scattered throughout the area and recognised as a plant pest potentially capable
of creating a much greater problem
(Smith 1984). In the Camden area of
NSW olives have invaded remnant bushland (Dellow et al. 1987) and pose a
major problem in Mt. Annan Botanical
Garden (Cuneo 1997). Eradication was
conducted on Norfolk Island (Hermes
1987; Stevenson 1997).
The importance of olives as a woody
weed is increasingly recognised. It is, for
example, not included in Lamp and Collet’s Field guide to weeds in Australia
(1976; 1989), but treated extensively in
Parsons and Cuthbertson (1992, p.
522ff.).
In South Australia a number of weed
eradication programs were conducted (cf.
Bellette 1993; Hawkins 1994; Stafford
and Venning 1984; Robertson 1984).
All over the world olives have proven
themselves to be successful invaders of
marginal land and disturbed lands, for
example along road sides, riparian strips
and so forth such as in California (Maslin
1996), Hawai’i (pers. comm. Tunison
1997) and South Africa (Manders and
Richardson 1992; Richardson and Fraser
1995). In the South African example
olives had been found in all survey
squares of scrubland, indicating that Olea
europaea var. africana successfully
spread on a wide front and was posed to
dominate the bushland.
Clearly, the new thrust to develop an
Australian olive industry in the 1990s has
meant the proliferation of new olive orchards, both on a commercial and a small
hobby scale. The trend continues at present. All of these plantations now form
focal points of new weed invasions
throughout much of New South Wales,
Victoria and South Australia. The problem will become exacerbated if the new
ventures become uneconomic and the orchards are let up to run feral. Olives may
well become the major woody weed of
the next decade.
24
Figure 3.7. Self seeded olives along a road side verge. CSU Wagga Wagga Campus
(Photo © Dirk H.R. Spennemann 1997).
Figure 3. 8. Self seeded olives in remnant bushland. CSU Wagga Wagga Campus
(Photo © Dirk H.R. Spennemann 1997).
25
4
Olives in Australia
Alcalá in Southern California, the
“Mission” variety of olives became wide
spread in California, and the southern
USA (Louisiana, Mississippi, Florida,
Arizona, and New Mexico) and was introduced overseas, among them Australia
(Marvin 1888; Connell 1994). The Portuguese introduced olives to Brazil,
British enterprise carried them to India,
South Africa, New Zealand, Australia
and HongKong, and from there through
western China (Allen 1901a; Coates
1902). Because of its apparent use as a
not very demanding plant, various
governments provided financial
incentives to grow olives (cf. US
Department of the Treasury 1818a-b;
Anonymous 1921a).
British trading interests owned large
olive plantations in Italy and Spain. The
Estate of the Duke of Wellington at
Granada, for example, comprised in addition to vineyards of an olive grove of
36,000 trees (deCastella 1908). It was
from plantations such as this that the demand for olive oil in the British colonies
was met—at least until such time when
own plantations had been developed.
Traditionally, olives are widespread cultivars throughout the Mediterranean, with
subfossil seeds occurring commonly in
the Bronze Age (Metcalfe 1966; Zohary
and Spiegel-Roy 1975), with the to date
oldest samples obtained from
archaeological contexts in Spain dated to
7410±70BP associated with late
Epipalaeolithic material culture (Barton
et al. 1990). During the Greek Classical
period olives were predominant crop in
the Near East (Syria, Lebanon,
Palestine), spreading through Greece and
Italy, and during the Roman times
becoming an important crop in the south
of France and especially in Spain and
northern Africa. Olive cultivation was of
great importance in ancient Greece and
Rome with sixteen varieties known
(Hehn 1902, pp. 102-121; Groß 1975).
The usefulness of the plant, especially
as a source of oil, saw its rapid spread to
the Spanish colonies in Chile (1560) and
Peru (early 1600s), Argentina (La Rioja,
1600s), Mexico (early 1700s), and California. (Allen 1901a; CPJ 1884; Titarelli
1997). Introduced in 1769 by Spanish
missionaries to the Mission San Diego de
26
Table 4.1 Mentions of olives in Sydney and Melbourne Newspapers until 1855
Year
Date
1812
1822
May 23
November 29
Newspaper
Sydney Gazette
Sydney Gazette
Item
1824
February 26
Sydney Gazette
1826
January 9
Sydney Gazette
1827
1827
January 15
October 5
Sydney Gazette
Sydney Gazette
1829
February 14
Sydney Gazette
1829
1829
February 14
February 23
Sydney Gazette
Sydney Monitor
George Suttor introduces olive and date palm plants
Medals offered by the Society of the Arts for olive oil from
NSW. Gold medal for 10 gals of first oil in British colonies
of Africa or NSW, Silver medal more than 6 gallons of fine
oil in ditto, specimens to be produced on the last Tuesday in
February of the years 1825, 1826 or 1827
Premium offered by the Society of the Arts for olive oil
from NSW. Conditions as above, but extended to 1828
Premium offered by the Society of the Arts for olive oil
from NSW. Conditions as above, but extended to 1829
Olives now bearing in the Botanical Gardens, Sydney
Description of an olive tree in the Botanical Garden,
Sydney, flowering for the first time, six years after planting
Editorial on the need to improve the olive production in
NSW. The history of the olive introduction and its potential
are described
Free cuttings to be had at the Botanical Gardens, Sydney
Editorial criticising the views of the Sydney Gazette
1829
March 3
Sydney Gazette
Editorial criticising the views of the Sydney Monitor
1829
March 3
Sydney Gazette
Letter criticising the views of the Sydney Monitor
1829
March 9
Sydney Monitor
Editorial criticising the views of the Sydney Gazette
1830
January 23
Sydney Gazette
1831
1836
May 11
August 11
Sydney Monitor
The Colonist
1836
1836
1836
1841
August 11
December 15
December 22
August 7
The Colonist
The Colonist
The Colonist
Australian
1842
September 21
Australian
1842
October 11
1842
1842
1843
October 17
November 30
April 27
1843
August 23
1843
June 5
1844
March 21
1853
May 18
Sydney Morning
Herald
Australian
Sydney Gazette
Sydney Morning
Herald
Sydney Morning
Herald
Sydney Morning
Herald
Sydney Morning
Herald
Argus
Article mentioning an abundant crop of olives in the Botanic
Gardens
Article by Thomas Sheppard on olive culture
Advertisement for olive oil and pickled French olives (J.B.
Bossley)
List of commodity prices, inc. olive oil
Advertisement for pickled French olives (J.B. Bossley)
Advertisement for pickled French olives (Lipscomb & Co.)
Prizes for olive oil offered by the Floral and Horticultural
Society
Editorial on the resources of the colony, arguing for the production of olive oil, then retailing at 2/6 per gallon
Advertisement for imported olive oil, first quality 12s/gal,
second quality 9s/gal.
Editorial on the olive
Letter to the editor by J.W. of Jamberoo, proposing wide
propagation of olives
Letter to the editor by J.W. of Jamberoo, on colonial productions’, inc. olives
Letter by EW.S. Hall, in response to previous item. Provides
a discussion of imports and import substitution opportunities
Article on olive cultivation
Stating that olives were not successful in Victoria
27
Introduction of olives to Australia
Olives were among the earliest exotic
plants brought to Australia. George
Suttor introduced an olive in 1800 to
New South Wales. Since then olives have
been introduced on several occasions to
Australia and are now cultivated in most
states. Without doubt, however, the most
successful olive industry was established
in South Australia.
Olive growing was seen by many as a
suitable means to make the most of the
dry land encountered inland of the settled
coast. In the early period of the colonies
in Australia a number of pamphlets were
written that set out the methods of olive
cultivation in the traditional olive
countries of Spain, Portugal, Italy and
France, and which provided
recommendations for the successful
transplantation of the olive to the
Australian environments (cf. Busby
1839; Duncan 1844; Mitchell 1849). Others advocated the same for a local, rather
than colonial audience (cf. Waugh 1851).
Occasionally articles appeared that advocated the cultivation and use of olives as
evidence of a cultured society. “J.W.” of
Jamberoo, in a letter to the editor of the
Sydney Morning Herald of April 1843,
for example, wrote a three-column item
discussing the antiquity of the olive and
its suitability for Australia, replete with
Latin quotes.
The trend to draw upon at overseas examples for guidance continued even after
Australian experiences had been made
not only in South Australia but also in
NSW (Bernays 1872; Browne 1883). E.
Neville-Rolfe, British consul at Naples,
provided a report on the olive industry of
Italy for the British Parliament. Excerpts
from this report were reprinted in both
the Agricultural Gazette of New South
Wales and the Queensland Agricultural
Journal (Neville-Rolfe 1898a-b).
When the South Australian olive crop
had borne fruit and had provided
commercial quantities, the South
Australian experience was paraded to the
other colonies by the South Australian
‘protagonists’ Samuel Davenport (1864;
1870; 1871a-b; 1892), William Boothby
(1878) and J.Brown (1884), often
combining Australian and European data
(Villanis 1884). The nursery trade also
weighed in, providing some handy hints
in the back pages of their trade
catalogues (cf. Shepherd 1851). William
Macarthur, producer of olive oil since the
1820s, also commented on olive cultivation, but did so only rarely and then in
not well publicised places (Macarthur
1871).
In the period of the 1820s to 1840s
Sydney, Melbourne and Perth papers
commented on the desirability of
cultivating the olive. The London-based
Society for the Encouragement of the
Arts, Manufactures and Commerce
offered prizes for colonial olive oil as
early as 1822, with the deadline being
expanded to 1829 (table 4.1). Further
encouragement occurred. In 1842, for
example, the Australian editorialised that
“the cultivation of the olive may be
undertaken with profit to individuals and
the greatest positive advantage to the
colonies”(Australian 17 October 1842, p.
2).
It is of interest to note that little communication seems to have taken place between the British settlement in Western
Australia and the eastern colonies. Attempts to develop an Western Australian
olive oil industry seem to have been
made in isolation (Anonymous 1929).
The 1860s to 1880s saw a continual
stream of small articles, mainly letters to
the editors, suggesting recipes for the
28
Olives in Australia
pickling of olives as well as general hints
on the culture of olives Bartee 1871;
Howitt 1871; Davenport 1871b; Anonymous 1879a-b; Sangar 1866). Despite repeated attempts by the governments of
NSW and Victoria to develop a viable
olive industry, the production of olive oil
was essentially confined to South Australia until the 1930s.
At the turn of the century formal government involvement occurred, following
the formation the Departments of
Agriculture in New South Wales (1890),
Victoria (1889), Queensland (1887),
South Australia (1888) and Western
Australia. In addition to the ongoing
research into propagation, interest
developed in the establishment of an
organised industry. A number of articles
appeared in the journals of the various
Departments of Agriculture describing
and assessing the olive oil and pickling
industries of Spain, Italy and France (cf.
deCastella 1908).
Research and observation had shown
that most of temperate Australia was suitable for olive production, assuming the
locality was neither too wet nor to too
dry, and that olives could even be grown
in tropical Queensland, but would not
produce any fruit on a reliable basis. The
influence of the soils on the quality of the
olive oil was also discussed (Pye 1917).
Systematic observations made at
Dookie College in Victoria, for example,
showed that each sample of olive oil
pressed there from growers in the area
not only varied in texture, colour and
taste between the olive varieties use, but
also within the varieties also between the
areas it came from (Pye 1917). Little was
made of this observation until the recent
advent of ‘designer labelled” olive oils.
Olive oils shown at International Exhibitions
Australian olive oils were shown at a
number of international and intercolonial
exhibitions, with the aim of
demonstrating to potential buyers that
high quality oils could be procured
regionally and locally. Table 4.2
compiles the available evidence for olive
oils exhibited, while table 4.3 presents
the data for the pickled olives.
Figure 4.1 plots the number of Australian papers written on the topic of
olive propagation and the use of the
drupes. The histogram reflects the overall
interest in the topic. The frequency of
papers on olives shows a cyclical pattern.
The rationale for the olive oil production,
mainly as a means of import substitution,
is determined in one or more papers, followed by a flurry of papers on the topic.
Then the issue of the olive industry dies
down, mainly due to economic failure,
only to be resurrected one or two decades
later.
In the 1870s olives were heavily advocated as a means of import substitution
and consequently a number of papers and
treatises was published. This continued,
on a lesser scale, in the 1880s. The
formation of the departments of
agriculture in the 1890s meant the
renewed effort to utilise olives as an
alternative means of income, especially
in the drier areas. This resulted in a
number of experimental papers published
in the first decade of this century. Then
the interest in the topic flagged,
resurfacing in the late 1940s and the
1950s, following the war effort and especially the post-war immigration of
Italians and Greeks which resulted in
both a real and a perceived demand for
the fruit.
In the 1980s and 1990s interest again
surfaced, driving once more by the ideas
29
of import substitution and the provision
of a local alternative to expensive food
items. To a degree the revived impetus in
olives mirrors the success of the
Australian wine industry in the 1980s and
1990s.
Olive plantations were established in
most Australian states with the exception
of Tasmania.
Table 4.2. Origin of Australasian olive oil samples exhibited at intercolonial and international exhibitions
Exhibition
Great International
Exhibition
International Exhibition
New Zealand Exhibition
Year
London
1851
London
Dunedin
1862
1865
S.A. NSW Vic. W.A. N.Z. Source
■
Maiden 1888
■
Knight 1865
Anonymous
1865a
Anonymous
1866a
Anonymous
1870b
Davenport 1892
Scott 1888
Boothby 1878
■
Intercolonial Exhibition of Melbourne
Australasia
Intercolonial Exhibition
Sydney
1866
■
■
1870
■
Universal International
Exhibition
Vienna
Philadelphia
Paris
1872
1876
1878
■
■
■
Sydney
1879
■
Indian Exhibition
Colonial and Indian Exhibition
Centennial International
Exhibition
New Zeal. & South Seas
Exhibition
Franco-British Exhibition
Melbourne
Calcutta
London
1880
1883
1886
■
■
■
Melbourne
1888/89
■
■
Dunedin
1889/90
■
■
London
1908
■
■
■
Anonymous
1879a
Scott 1888
Scott 1888
Scott 1888
■
■
■
Anonymous
1890b
Hastings 1891
Anonymous 1908
Table 4.3. Origin of Australasian samples of pickled olives exhibited at intercolonial
and international exhibitions
Exhibition
New Zeal. & South Seas
Exhibition
Franco-British Exhibition
Year
S.A. NSW Vic.
Melbourne 1880
Sydney
1879
Dunedin
1889/90
■
London
■
1908
■
30
Qld
■
■
N.Z. Source
Anonymous 1880
Anonymous 1879b
Hastings 1891
Anonymous 1908
Olives in Australia
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1830
1850
1870
1890
1910
1930
1950
1970
1990
Figure 4.1. Number of papers written on olives (by decade)
The Protagonists
• George Chaffey (1848-1932),
irrigation
pioneer
and
entrepreneur in Canada and
Victoria;
• George Suttor (1774-1859), settler
and horticulturalist in New
South Wales; and
• John Morphett (1089-1892), land
owner and politician in South
Australia.
Data on the olive oil production of the
various Australian colonies and States is
either non-existent, as the industry was
too small and insignificant to be enumerated, or patchy. The most complete data
set comes from South Australia. With the
formation of the Commonwealth annual
statistics exist, but they, too, are quite
patchy. There are no data specifically for
the volume of pickled olives imported to
Australia.
Various authors discussed the economic prospects of developing an olive
oil industry in various colonies/states of
The protagonists of the olive introduction
to Australia were mainly viticulturists,
for whom olives were a side line. Among
the protagonists were:
• Samuel Davenport (1818-1906),
landowner and parliamentarian
in South Australia;
• Thomas Hardy (1830-1912), vigneron in South Australia;
• James Busby (1901-1871), viticulturist and civil servant in New
South Wales;
• William Boothby (1829-1903), Sheriff of Adelaide and returning
officer for South Australia;
• Thomas Henry Fiaschi (1853-1927),
medical practitioner and vigneron in New South Wales;
• John Ignatius Bleasdale (1822-1884),
Catholic clergyman and educator
in Victoria;
31
Australia. The main hurdle was the comparably high costs of collecting/picking
the drupes in Australia, compared to the
cheap labour available in the Mediterranean countries. This observation was
made throughout the life of the industry,
from Macarthur in 1871 to Macdonald in
1917 and Beverly in 1935.
The Queensland Agricultural Journal
commented on this and argued that the
low wages paid in Spain and Italy were
exploitation and that Australian produced
oil should be preferred on these grounds.
Other argued that the Commonwealth
tariff of 2 shillings per gallon on
imported olive oil could be increased to
protect a budding local olive oil industry
(cf. Macdonald 1911).
The main reason why the olive
industry did not expand in the 1920s and
1930s was that olive oil and pickled fruit
were not staple diet items for the majority
of Australians and because mineral oils
had replaced olive oil as a lubricant for
machinery (Macdonald 1911; Fowler
1939b).
The interruption of shipping in WWII
and the events of the war in the olive producing countries of France, Spain, Italy
and Greece, saw the volume of olive imports drop from 358,000 gallons in 1938
to 14 gallons in 1942. Correspondingly
the prize for imported oil climbed from
10-13 s/gal to 28-30 s/gal in 1942
(Hartmann 1962).
The price development and the
shortage of imported oil, coupled with a
war ministry objective to improve the
production of oils and other fats brought
about a renewed interest in the
development of an Australian olive
industry.
Following the end of the war the
acreage of olive plantations increased
dramatically from 340 acres in 1943 to
7233 acres in 1959. The main expansion
of the industry occurred in Victoria. A
factor which aided the development of
the olive industry in Australia following
World War II was the large influx of migrants from the Mediterranean countries,
which created a new domestic market for
both olive oil and pickled olives.
By 1961 olive processing in Australia
was limited. No table olive processing
(pickling) plants existed in the country
and all oil was pressed at five mills in
Adelaide, Renmark, Mildura, Robinvale
(since 1954) and Leeton (Hartmann
1962).
32
5
Olives in Wagga
societies but to take a central and leading
role, the New South Wales government
formally established in 1890 the NSW
Department of Agriculture. The main aim
of the new department, placed under the
direction of H.C.L. Anderson, was to engage in the collection and dissemination
of ‘all useful information in regard to
agriculture in its many branches … [to]
introduce and distribute new seeds and
cuttings’ and so forth. The Department
was to analyse soils, investigate
orchardry and animal husbandry, and
send samples of wheats and other cereals
and crops to a number of farmers as field
trials.
In addition, along the lines of Victoria’s Dookie College (founded in 1876 as a
farm, 1886 as a college) and South Australia’s Roseworthy College, the NSW
government decided to establish one or
more agricultural colleges and, at the
least, farm schools integrated into the
research farms. Each farm was to be in a
different area of the state and had been
allocated different research directions. In
1891 the Department of Agriculture
planned for the establishment of four
experimental farms and farm schools,
one of them in Wagga Wagga
(Agricultural Gazette of New South
Wales 2[7], 1891, 429; 2[12], 1891, 814).
The 1860s saw the development of agriculture of New South Wales expand and
the ‘wheat frontier’ being pushed further
and further away from Sydney. In the late
1870s and early 1880s the inland
districts, such as the Riverina had
become a major grain producer (Butler
1959). The development of the railway,
reaching Albury in 1881, and here
especially the establishment of branch
lines in the 1890s made increased wheat
production a viable option (Dunsdorfs
1956; Robinson 1976). Despite the extension of the arable land, and increased
acreage of land under wheat, the average
wheat yields quickly declined due to an
exhaustion of the soil and increased
infestation with weeds and plant diseases.
The 1889 wheat season in NSW almost
failed when most of the harvest was destroyed by an outbreak of wheat rust (a
fungal disease). Millers were even forced
to import wheat from abroad for the first
time in many years. Similar trends had
been observed in the other colonies as
well, and ominous sign for the future
economic development of the Australian
economies.
In view of this disaster, and in view of
over five years of pressure from rural
lobby groups not just to fund agricultural
33
Figure 5.1. View of the experimental farm (orchards) seen from the top of the granary
(Photo taken about 1903)
Figure 5. 2 View of Bald Hill from the east. Note the experimental orchards in the
foreground. Photo taken about 1903.
Due to the recession of 1890-93 only
the Agricultural College and research
farm at Hawkesbury was begun (in
1891).
It had been intended to commence
work on the Wagga Wagga Experimental
Farm in December 1891 (initially called
the Murrumbidgee Experimental Farm),
34
Olives in Wagga Wagga
but the legalities of the excise of the area
required for the farm from the Wagga
Wagga temporary Commons could not be
accomplished as quickly as anticipated.
Eventually dedicated in October 1892,
the land chosen for the farm was in many
respects this was not the best land in the
area, and thus suitable to demonstrate
farming in adverse conditions. The initial
agricultural development of the farm began in April 1893 with forty acres of
bushland and wood land being cleared,
grubbed and ploughed. Sample crops
were sown and planted. In the middle
May 1893, for example, Nathan Cobb
went to Wagga Wagga to sow over a period of four days some 200-300 varieties
of wheat in drills side by side to test their
qualities and to select the best returns for
future sowing (Coleman 1894).
In a parallel fashion a major orchard
was established, comprising, among
other trees, olives.
Agriculture, in April it was announced an
orchard was to be established
(Anonymous 1894). Shortly after
development progressed (Wagga Wagga
Advertiser 14 June 1894, p. 3).
Wagga Wagga
Figure 5.3. A Nevadillo Blanco variety
at the Wagga Wagga Experimental
Farm in 1901 (Allen 1901).
During August and September 1891 the
NSW Department of Agriculture
obtained 500 olive truncheons from Sir
Samuel Davenport’s olive grove in South
Australia. Obtained were truncheons
from four varieties originally from the
south of France: Verdale, Bouquettier,
Blanquette, and Pigale.
The Wagga Wagga orchard was established in January 1894 with the planting
of pears, plums, prunes, mulberries,
quinces, persimmons, chestnuts and other
fruit trees (figures 5.1 and 5.2). A row of
olive varieties had also been planted with
an eye on a complete collection of
varieties available in Australia (Pelc
1980). Seeds and cuttings had been
obtained from Sir Samuel Davenport’s
crop in Beaumont, South Australia, as
well as Dookie Agricultural College in
Victoria. The olive orchard had been
planted by June 1894. In the same year
the orchardist Benson wrote:
These had been split and distributed
“to a large number of applicants in all
parts of the colony”, many of which had
struck root by the time a report was
written in late 1892 (Anonymous 1892).
The Department of Agriculture also
planted olives on its experimental farms
of Hawkesbury, and Wollongbar.
During a visit to the Wagga
Experimental Farm by H.Wood,
Undersecretary for Agriculture and W.S.
Campbell, Chief Clerk, Dept of
“Amongst the trees from
California was a very fine
collection of olives, so that
now we have at Wagga the
finest collection and the
best varieties in Australia,
35
as in addition to the
Californian trees we have
specimens of the best trees
that are at present growing
in this colony and also in
South Australia” (Benson
1894, p. 853-854).
Figure 5.4. Aerial view of the Olive orchard, Wagga Wagga Campus of Charles Sturt
University. Scale approx. 1: 5500. Date: April 1971. (Source: Orthophotomap 1:4000
Wagga Agricultural College 2717-VIII).
36
Figure 5.5. Cover of the olive extension booklet published by W.J. Allen based on his
Wagga Wagga research
37
Figure 5.6. Example of a descriptive plate (I) contained in Allen's 1902 extension
booklet. 1 Amellau, 2 Blanquette, 3 Regalis
38
Figure 5.7. Example of a descriptive plate (VII) contained in Allen's 1902 extension
booklet. 19-Verdale, 20 Atro violacea, 21 Gros Redondou, 22 Boutillon
39
Figure 5.8. The experimental olive oil yield of 1901 (Allen 1902)
40
Table 5.1. The first oil results from the Wagga Wagga Orchard (Allen 1902)
Variety
Macrocarpa
Amelan
Pleureur
Pigale
Dr. Fiaschi
Gros Redondou
Bouquettier
Corregiola
Boutillan
Blanquette
Cucco
Date of Harvesting
4 June 1900
6 June 1900
8 June 1900
10 June 1900
12 June 1900
19 June 1900
23 June 1900
28 June 1900
3 July 1900
5 July 1900
10 July 1900
Nº to
lb
179
78
160
90
254
129
308
132
200
248
104
In a simultaneous move an orchard
had been started at Pera Bore also in
1894, which produced some fruit in
1901 (Allen 1901) and, shortly afterward (1897) an orchard at Native
Dog Bore (Coghlan 1899, p. 382).
The government statistics for 1895
show that 30 acres of olives had been
planted at the Murrumbidgee
Experimental Farm (Coghlan 1895, p.
442). Later this figure was reduced to 8
acres (Coghlan 1897b, p. 359). An
article on the 1897 open day of the
Wagga Wagga Farm mentions that an
additional 10 acres were being prepared
for the cultivation of olives in an
orchard (Wagga Wagga Advertiser 27
November 1897). This area was established in addition to the official
collection of olive varieties already
planted along Bomen Road (now
McKeown Drive).
The olive grove is now reputedly the
single largest olive gene pool in
Australia. Approximately a total of 60
varieties had been introduced to
Australia at the turn of the century
(Hobham 1995a) and a large percentage
of these are represented in the
Wagga Wagga Orchard.
The orchard book (SA 24/2) shows
the list of olives planted along the
Average Oil (g)/kg
weight of olives Crop load Oil (oz)
2.53
93.75
Heavy
1.5
5.82
125.00
Heavy
2
2.84
875.01
Small
14
5.04
687.50
Small
11
1.79
562.50
Medium 9
3.52
375.00
Small
6
1.47
125.00
Heavy
2
3.44
875.01
Heavy
14
2.27
703.13
Medium 11.25
1.83
62.50
Medium 1
4.36
93.75
Heavy
1.5
southern side of McKeown Drive from the
managers house towards the east (starting
with modern tree nº 70). All these trees had
been planted in 1897 and pruned in 1921
(p. 200). Of these all but the eastern-most
tree (ex nº 26, Arecrizza variety) survive.
Figure 5.9. Oil press used at the Wagga
Wagga Experimental Farm in 1901
(Source: Allen 1901)
The history of alternate bearing is documented for the Wagga orchard, with 1902
being a good, and 1903 being a weak year.
41
The same was observed for the
Hawkesbury Orchard (Agricultural
Gazette 14, 1903, 822).
In 1901 the Wagga olive trees had
come into bearing for the first time. The
orchardist W.J.Allen prepared a formal
description of the varieties planted at
Wagga and their potential for pickling
and oil production. This series of papers
in the Agricultural Gazette of NSW
formed the basis for a formal extension
document produced by the NSW Department of Agriculture (Allen 1902).
This document formed the peak of
development of olive research in
Wagga Wagga. Most of the data were
reproduced over time, with only
minimal amendments until 1919.
Based on the Wagga experiments
Allen (1919) recommended the varieties
Bouquettier, Gros Rendonneu, Hardy’s
Mammoth, Blanquette, Verdale, and
Silver Verdale as the most suitable olive
varieties for non-irrigated orchardry in
New South Wales.
Extending the collection
Another emphasis on olive production
occurred in the 1930s. In 1932 a
number of varieties were obtained as
!
Row
Tree 6
1
2
truncheons from Navara (Spain). These
were planted in orchard block nº 8, and
then replanted along McKeown Drive in
1935 (Orchard book SA 24/2 p. 199).
The orchard books provide some information on the original layout of the orchard and on the varieties planted in areas
1 and 8 (see figures 5.4 to 5.6). The olive
trees planted in area 1 and 8 all had originally been planted from truncheons in
1932 and those in area 8A had been moved
to new locations in 1935. All trees in area
1 and area 8 stem from a consignment of
olive truncheons from Navara (Spain).
Two olives (row 1, trees 2 and 3) had
arrived in Wagga Wagga without
packaging labels and their variety could
not be ascertained at the time of planting.
A 1955 orchard map claims them to be
Boucchine. Figures 5.10 to 5.12. show the
layout of the olive plantations as shown in
the orchard books. Figure 5.14. shows the
arrangement of the orchard plots as shown
in the orchard books. Figure 5.8 provides
shows the current orchard layout, based on
an orchard map put together in 1963. The
current species list has been reproduced in
Appendix B2, together with data on
planting and introduction. It is to be noted
that the species identification as given in
the orchard map of 1963 as at odds with
the identification given in the original
orchard books.
South
Tree 5
Tree 4
Regalaise Borregiola
Languedoc
Oji blanco
Barouni
doncel
Large
Large
fruited
fruited
"
Tree 3
North
Tree 2
Tree 1
label lost
label lost
Bouchine
Barouni
Salome
Corregiola
Sevillano
Manzanillo Manzanillo
Nº 2
Nº 14
3
Oblitza
4
Apple
Apple
Apple
Apple
Apple
Apple
5
Apple
Apple
Apple
Apple
Apple
Apple
6
Apple
Apple
Apple
Apple
Apple
Apple
Figure 5.10. Layout of olive planting in area 1 in 1934 (plants shown in italics are no
longer present). (Source: NSW Riverina Archives Wagga Wagga SA 24/2, page 2.
42
Figure 5.11. The Wagga Farm looking east as seen from the olive orchard. The row of
trees in the right background, running northward (left) from the street) is the remains
of large scale olive planting in the 1890s.
Tree 1
Tree 2
Tree 3
Tree 4
Tree 5
Tree 6
Tree 7
Tree 8
Tree 9
Tree 10
Tree 11
Tree 12
Tree 13
Tree 14
Tree 15
Row 1
Dr. Fiaschi
Lucca
Macrocarpa
Sevillano
Macrocarpa
Pecholine St. Chamis
Olive de Gras
Nevadillo Blanco
Nevadillo Blanco
Cucco
Cucco
Hardy’s Mammoth
Pera Bore
Pera Bore
Pera Bore
Row 2
Lucca
Verdale
Pigale
Olive de Gras
Olive de Gras
Belle d’Espagne
Seedling 1934
Manzanillo Nº 14
Pendulina
Lucca
Olive de Gras
Hardy’s Mammoth
Boutillan
Artro Rubens
Row 3
Attica
Rubra
Peccholine
Frantojo
Oblonga
Big Spanish
Columella
Polymorpha
Atro Violecea
Regalis
Gros Redoneau
Amelau
Verdale
Verdale
Boutillan
Figure 5.12. Layout of olive planting in area 8A in 1934 (plants shown in italics are
no longer present). Notes: A-Almond tree; P-Peach tree. (Source: NSW Riverina
Archives Wagga Wagga SA 24/2, page 187-190.)
43
!
Row
Tree 8
South
Tree 7
Tree 6
Tree 5
Tree 4
Tree 3
North
Tree 2
1A
"
Tree 1
P
1
2A
P
Palermo
P
Barouni
P
P
P
P
P
P
2
P
Bouchine
P
Bouchine
P
Regalaise
Langued
oc
P
Regalaise
Langued
oc
3A
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
3
P
Salome
P
Oji
blanco
doncel
P
Lucques
P
Lucques
4A
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
4
P
Blanquette
early
P
Blanquette
late
P
Borregiolo
P
Rubra B.
d'Aise
5A
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
5
A
Oji
blanco
doncel
A
Mission
A
Corregiola
A
Barouni
6A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
6
A
Manzanillo
Nº 14
A
Manzanillo
Nº 14
A
Manzanillo
Nº 2
A
Manzanillo
Nº 2
7A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
7
A
Oblitza
A
Large
Fruited
A
Large
Fruited
A
Large
Fruited
8A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
8
A
Oblitza
A
Corregiola
A
Corregiola
A
Gaeta
9A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
Ascalano
9
10A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
10
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
11A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
Figure 5.13. Layout of olive planting in area 8 in 1934 (plants shown in italics are no
longer present). Notes: A-Almond tree; P-Peach tree. (Source: NSW Riverina Archives
Wagga Wagga SA 24/2, page 187-190.).
44
Figure 5.14. Layout of the main orchard areas 1941
(Source: NSW Riverina Archives Wagga Wagga SA 24/2)
45
46
Figure 5.15. Phylogeny of the feral olive stock derived from the olice collection at the
Wagga Wagga Experimental Farm.
47
Original layout 1897
1935 expansion
1
2
3
4
5
6
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
67
66
68
69
7
8
51
9
36 37
10
15 20
11
16 21
12
17 22
13
14
38
39
40
41
52
42
53
43
54
44
55
45
46
56
57
48
47
50
49
35
34
18 23
10 24
70
25
33
71
32
72
31
73
30
74
75
29
76
77
78
79
28
80
81
82
27
83
84
85
86
26
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
Rootstock trails (1948) and reduction in 1961
Current Layout (1998)
Figure 5.16. Variations in the layout of the olive orchard
48
Table 5.2 Olive varieties represented at Wagga Wagga Campus
(see table B2. for ID Nos.)
Variety
Amelon (Amellau)
Atro Rubens
Atro Violacea
Attica
Barouni
Belle d’Espagne (Bella
di Spagna)
Big Spanish
Blanquette
Blanquette (Early)
Blanquette (Late)
Borregiolla
Bouchine
Bouquettier
Boutillon
Columella
Corregiola
Cucco
Dr Fiiaschi
Frantojo/ Fantago
Gaeta
Gros Redoneaux
HAC [*]
Hardy’s Mammoth
Large Fruited
Lucca
Lucques
Manzanillo No 2
Manzanillo Nº 14
Marcocarpa
Mission
Nevadillo Blanco
O de Gras
Oblitza
Oblonga
Obtained
from
Year
acquired
1897
Dookie College
1894
California
1914?
Davenport
Davenport
Tizzana Vineyard
1897
1897
1897
1897
Italy
Spain
France
1894
1894
1897
Davenport ?
1897
1894
Davenport (SA)
Dookie College
Originally
from
France
France
France
Greece
Tunisia
Spain
Spain
France
France
France
Italy
France
France
France
Italy
Tuscany, It.
Italy
Sicily, Italy
Hawkesbury
Hardy’s (SA)
Davenport
California
Introduced via
1894
49
Spain (?)
Spain
Italy
France
Spain
Spain
Italy
Spain
Spain
France
Italy
France
Allen Mort
1902 1953b
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
Table 5.2 Olive varieties represented at Wagga Wagga Campus (cont.
Year
Introduacquired ced via
1932
Originally
from
Spain
Italy
France
France
Italy
Allen Mort
1902 1953b
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
Variety
Obtained from
Oje Blanco Doncel Navara
Palermo
Pecholine
Pecholine de St Chamis
Pendulina
Pera Bore No 1
Pera Bore Exp Farm 1932
Pera Bore No 2
Pera Bore No 3
Pigale
Davenport
1894
France
❖
Polymorpha
Dookie College
1894
France
❖
❖
Praecox
❖
Regalaise de Languedoc
France
❖
Regalis
Dookie College
1894
France
❖
❖
Rubra
❖
Rubra d’Aix [**]
France
❖
Salone [***]
Greece
❖
❖
Sevillano
Spain
❖
Tarascon
France
❖
Verdale
Davenport
1894
France
❖
Wagga Seedling
Wagga Farm
[*]– Hawkesbury Agricultural College. In addition two trees of unknown provenance;
[**]- also known as Rubra B. de Aixe; [***] Synonyms: Salome, Salonica.
Table 5.3 Olive varieties no longer represented at Wagga Wagga Campus
Variety
Obtained from
Arecluzzo/Arecrizza
Ascolano/Ascolana
Columbaro
Pleureur
Ragialo
Regati
Silver Verdale
Year
Introduacquired ced via
The extension of the collection also allowed to trial seedlings obtained from
other experimental farms such as Pera
Originally
from
Italy
Italy
Italy
France
Italy
Italy
France
Allen Mort
1902 1953b
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
Bore (three seedlings) and Hawkesbury
Agricultural College, as well as a
seedling from Wagga itself.
50
The extension of the collection gave
rise to a new series of experiments and a
new push for olive culture to be established in NSW (cf. Bryden 1936a-b).
During World War II the war effort demanded that all sectors of the Australian
economy contribute. As a result the olive
oil production in Wagga Wagga was
analysed. This was not confined to NSW,
as documents from South Australia show
(Fowler 1940; Steer 1940).
The Wagga orchardist H.C. Mort was
the main protagonist following the war,
publishing a variety of papers on olive
propagation (Mort 1949; 1950a-b; 1951;
1953a-b; 1956) and utilisation (Mort
1951).
Figure 5.16 shows the phylogeny of
the feral trees on the Wagga Wagga Winery Hill. As can be seen, the flow of
cultivars is quite complex. The important
element is that the stock used in Wagga
has gone through several stages of
acclimatisation in Australia, in Dookie
College, at Camden Park, Parramatta,
and at Samuel Davenport’s estate and
other localities in South Australia. Some
stock was directly imported to
Wagga Wagga.
Reducing the collection
Olive oil production picked up during
World War II but fell again after the war.
An economic assessment of in 1947
argued that while there was a demand for
olive oil, the market was not sufficient to
make an expansion of the olive industry
viable (Ballantyne 1947a-b).
J.R. Davison, manager of the
Agricultural research farm in 1959,
recommended that most of the olive trees
be removed, as there was no market for
olive oil (unless the harvest failed
elsewhere), and only a limited market for
pickled olives. According to Davison, a
that time three distinct groups of olives
existed:
1) original plantings, the more than 60
years old, comprised of 644 trees;
2) plantings of Navara olives, then 32
years old, comprised of 48 trees; and
3) rootstock trials using Manzanillo Nº
14, grafted on various root stocks,
comprised of 70 trees.
Rootstock Trials
In 1950 a number of rootstock and grafting trials was conducted when
Manzanillo Nº 14 were grafted onto a
variety of rootstocks. These rootstocks
had also formed the basis of a vegetative
propagation experiment two years earlier
(Mort 1950a). The remains of these
rootstock trials survive as a row of olives
running north-south just east of the
winery building. Figure 5.13 shows the
lay-out of the rootstock trials of 1948-49
conducted in sections Ia and Ib. These
data have been gleaned from orchard
maps dating to 1955, 1960 and 1961.
The lay-out of the present collection can
be seen from figure 5.15. In addition, two
rows of mature olive trees set at right angles to each other, exist at the eastern end
of McKeown Drive, bounding paddock
nº 18 of the Agricultural Research
Institute’s research plots. These trees
seem to be the remnants of an orchard.
from the overall size of the trees it
appears likely that the olives would date
to the phase of initial planting in 1897.
It was recommended “to retain the line of
trees along the avenue [=McKeown
Drive] and such trees elsewhere as are
required to maintain one of each of the
51 varieties. (Davison 1959).”
51
!
Row
Tree 6
1935
1
2
3
Oblitza
South
Tree 5
Tree 4
Tree 3
North
Tree 2
"
Tree 1
Reglaise
label lost
label lost
Languedoc Borregiola (Bouchine?) (Bouchine?) Bouchine
Oji blanco
Barouni
Barouni
Salome
Corregiola
doncel
Large
Large
Manzanillo
Sevillano Manzanillo
fruited
fruited
Nº 2
Nº 14
1962
1
2
3
Oblitza
Regalaise
label lost
label lost
Languedoc Borregiola (Bouchine?) (Bouchine?) Bouchine
Ascolano
Rubra d’Aix Mission
Gaeta
Salome
(Oblitza !)
Large
Blanquette
Lucques
Palermo Manzanillo
fruited
Nº 2
(early)
Figure 5.17 . Layout of olive planting in area 1 before and after the reworking of
1962). (Source: NSW Riverina Archives Wagga Wagga SA 24/2 and orchard plan
1963).
Figure 5.18 The 1935 trials as seen in 1953 (Source: Mort 1953).
52
useable. This affected trees nº 8, 15, 17,
18, 19, 20, 22,and 23.
Some doubt surrounds the
identification of Ascolano (tree nº 15),
however, because the tree identified as
Ascolano on the 1960 and 1961 orchard
plans is the variety Oblitza according to
the orchard book. As the 1951, 1960,
1961 and 1963 plans do not identify trees
nº 47 and 55, which the orchard book
identifies as Hardy’s Mammoth, it is
likely that a transcription error occurred
and that the wrong tree had been kept.
Today, in total five varieties, almost
all Italian varieties imported before 1897,
have been lost as a result of the orchard
reduction and subsequent mix-ups in the
1950s. These are Arecluzzo/Arecrizza,
Ascolano, Columbaro, Ragialo, Regati,
and Silver Verdale.
Some time between the completion of the
orchard book and the numbering of the
tress some transcription errors must have
occurred. Table B2 spells out the
varieties as shown on the 1963 orchard
map with deviations in the orchard book
shown in brackets. Inconsistencies occur
in numbers 8, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, and
23. In addition trees 47 and 55, both
labelled as ‘unknown on the 1963 map,
could be identified as ‘Hardy’s
Mammoth’. Following the removal of
most of the trees in te olive orchard some
isolated olive trees had been retained to
maintain the varietal collection. According to a hand drawn orchard map the
collection was rearranged in 1962 and
some olives in the western part of block I
were ‘reworked’ to maintain the varietal
collection, but to make block VIII more
Acknowledgments
Doyle (Pest Control Officer, Grampians
National Park, Department of Natural
Resources and the Environment,
Victoria); Noel MacDonald (Pest Control
Officer, Chiltern, Department of Natural
Resources and the Environment,
Victoria); Derek Moore (School of Agriculture, CSU Wagga Wagga); Petina Pert
(Department of Natural Resources and
the Environment, Victoria); Tim Tunison
(U.S. National Park Service, Hawai’i).
The study reported here was made
possible by a number people through
their assistance in the field and
laboratory, as well as through the provision of data and information. Their
contribution is gratefully acknowledged:
Don Boadle (Riverina Archives, Wagga
Wagga). David Cooke (Animal and Plant
Control Commission, South Australia,
Adelaide); Peter Cuneo (Mt. Annan
Botanical Gardens); Jim Dellow (NSW
Dept of Agriculture, Orange); Karen
53
Bibliography
Bulletin Nº. 167. Sydney: Charles
Potter, Government Printer.
Adelaide Chamber of Commerce (1875)
South Australian Industries.
Cultivation of the olive and
manufacture. Adelaide: Adelaide
Chamber of Commerce. [not seen]
Anonymous (1830a) The olive.
Chronology of introduction into New
South Wales. Agricultural Gazette 29
March 1830, p. 3. [not seen]
Allen, F.W. (1901a) Olive culture. New
South Wales Department of
Agriculture Miscellaneous
Publication Nº 421. Sydney: Charles
Potter, Government Printer.
Anonymous (1830b) The olive.
Chronology of introduction into New
South Wales. Agricultural Gazette 1
June 1830, p. 3. [not seen]
Allen, F.W. (1902a) Olive culture.
Agricultural Gazette of New South
Wales 11(10), 829-836.
Anonymous (1833) Introduction of plants
to Western Australia [Letter to the
editor] Perth Gazette and Western
Australian Journal 9 March 1833, p.
2.
Allen, F.W. (1902b) Olives. Agricultural
Gazette of New South Wales 11(11),
1020-1022.
Anonymous (1843a) The olive tree.
[letter to the editor by J.W.,
Jamberoo]. The Sydney Gazette 27
April 1843, p. 2.
Allen, F.W. (1902c) Olive culture.
Wales 11(12), 1059-1074.
Allen, F.W. (1920) Olive culture. New
South Wales Department of
Agriculture Miscellaneous
Publication Nº 421. 2nd edition.
Sydney: Charles Potter, Government
Printer.
Anonymous (1843b) Colonial
Productions. [letter to the editor by
J.W., Jamberoo]. The Sydney Gazette
23 August 1843, p. 3.
Allen, W.J. (1901b) Fruit culture.
Wales 12:144-148.
Anonymous (1845) Editorial of the
ecouragement of wine and olive
production. Inquirer nº 269, 24
September 1845.
Anonymous (1844) Olive oil. Inquirer
no, 187, 28 February 1844, p 3.
Allen, W.J. (1919) Varieties of olives.
Wales 30(7), 522.
Anonymous (1847) The vine and the
olive Inquirer 8 Septmeber 1847, p. 3.
Alridge, R. and Kneen, T. (1986) Dookie
College the first 100 years. Dookie:
Dookie College.
Anonymous (1865a) Official catalogue
of the New Zealand Industrial
Exhibition, Dunedin. Dunedin: Mills,
Dick and Co.
Anderson, H.C. (1931) Tree planting on
the farm. New South Wales
Department of Agriculture Farmers
Anonymous (1865b) New Zealand
Exhibition, 1865. Reports and awards
54
of the jurors. Dunedin: Mills, Dick
and Co.
Exhibition, Sydney 1879, with a short
essay descriptive of the Colony of
Queensland., Brisbane.
Anonymous (1866a) Intercolonial
Exhbition, 1866: offical catalogue:
Victoria, New South Wales,
Queensland, South Australia,
Tasmania, New Zealand, Western
Australia, Mauritius, New Caledonia,
Batavia. Melbourne: Blundell and
Ford.
Anonymous (1879b) Pickling olives. The
Australasian 17 May 1879, p. 633.
Anonymous (1880) Catalogue of the
Queensland Court of the International
Exhibition Melbourne 1880, with
essay descriptive of the colony of
Queensland. Brisbane.
Anonymous (1866b) Western Australia.
Descriptive catalogue of the collection
of products contributed by that colony
to the Intercolonial Exhibition of
Australasia held at Melbourne in
1866. Melbourne: Blundell and Ford.
Anonymous (1883) Olives in South
Australia. The Australasian 18 August
1883, p. 219.
Anonymous (1887a) Olive culture in
South Australia. The Australasian 11
June 1887, p. 1115.
Anonymous (1870) Exotic trees and
Plants suitable for Australia Nº 2. The
Olive. Australian Town and Country
Journal 15 January 1870, 15.
Anonymous (1887b) The olive as a
hedge. The Australasian 8 October
1887, p. 684
Anonymous (1890) Olives and Wines in
South Australia. The Australasian 9
August 1890, p. 249.
Anonymous (1871) The industrial
progress of New South Wales, being a
report of the Intercolonial exhibition
of 1870, at Sydney, together with a
variety of papers illustrative of the
industrial resources of the colony.
Sydney: Thomas Richards,
Government Printer.
Anonymous (1890b) Official record of
the Centennial International
Exhibition Mebourne 1888-1889.
Melbourne: Sands and McDougall.
Anonymous (1892) A summary of the
reports on the growth of various
economic plants, the seeds and roots
of which were distributed by the
Department last year (1891).
Wales 3: 648-652.
Anonymous (1872) The olive and its
products. Australian Town and
Country Journal 2 November 1872, p.
555.
Anonymous (1873) Plants eligible for
cultivation in Australia. Australian
Town and Country Journal 15 March
1873, p. 332.
Anonymous (1892b) Grafting. Grafting
the olive. Agricultural Gazette of New
South Wales 3(9), 670-680.
Anonymous (1874) Albury District
Vineyards. 5. The Corowa Vineyard.
Border Post 28 March 1874.
Anonymous (1894a) Rules for picking
and pickling olives. Border Post
(Albury) 20 February 1894, p. 3.
Anonymous (1879a) How are olives
preserved. The Australasian 11
January 1879, p. 58.
Anonymous (1894b) Wagga
Experimental Farm. Wagga Wagga
Advertiser 26 April 1894, p. 3.
Anonymous (1879a) Official record of
the Sydney International Exhibition,
1879. Sydney: Thomas Richards,
Government Printer.
Anonymous (1899a) New Apparatus for
crushing olives. Agricultural Gazette
of New South Wales 10, 468-469.
Anonymous (1879b) Colony of
Queensland. Catalogue of the
Queensland Court, International
Anonymous (1899b) Olives and
manufacture of olive oil. Journal of
55
Agriculture and Industry of South
Australia 2(12), 972-974.
Anonymous (1908) Official catalogue of
exhibits in South Australian Court.
Franco-British Exhibition, London,
1908. Adelaide: C.E. Bristow.
Anonymous (1899c) Production of Olive
Oil. Journal of Agriculture and
Industry of South Australia 1(8), 644645.
Anonymous (1908a) How to make olive
oil for domestic use. Queensland
Agricultural Journal 29(5), 242.
Anonymous (1899d) Olive cultivation.
Queensland Agricultural Journal 5(4),
368-375.
Anonymous (1908b) Pickling olives for
home use. Queensland Agricultural
Journal 29(6), 290.
Anonymous (1900) Olive oil for H.M.
Navy. Agricultural Gazette of New
South Wales 11, 234-235.
Anonymous (1909) Olive tree scarcity.
Queensland Agricultural Journal
23(2), 84.
Anonymous (1900b) Germinating olive
seeds. Queensland Agricultural
Journal 7(5), 470.
Anonymous (1911) Pickling Olives.
Journal of Agriculture of South
Australia 14(10), 979.
Anonymous (1900c) Cost of olive oil.
231.
Anonymous (1913) Extracting Olive Oil.
Australia 16(12), 1341.
Anonymous (1900d) Olives in Italy.
230.
Anonymous (1919) The pickling of
olives. Agricultural Gazette of New
South Wales 30(6), 427.
Anonymous (1900e) Production of olive
oil. Queensland Agricultural Journal
6(5), 431.
Anonymous (1901a) A modern device
for extracting oil. Agricultural Gazette
of New South Wales 12, 734.
Anonymous (1921) Encouraging Olive
tree planting; suggested regulations
relating to the award of special bonus.
Journal of Agriculture and Industry of
South Australia 24(7), 597-598.
Anonymous (1901b) Pickling Olives.
Anonymous (1921a) Encouraging olive
tree planting. Journal of Agriculture
of South Australia 24(7), 597-598.
Anonymous (1901c) Pickling Olives.
405.
Anonymous (1921b) Olive planting on
Parilla Forest Reserve. Journal of
Agriculture of South Australia 24(10),
856.
Anonymous (1903) New process in olive
oil making. Queensland Agricultural
Journal 13(1), 71.
Anonymous (1922) Bonus for olive tree
planting. Journal of Agriculture of
Anonymous (1904) Preserving olives.
14(3), 185-186.
Anonymous (1927) Olive oil tariff
exemptions. Journal of Agriculture of
South Australia 30(7), 674.
Anonymous (1906) Olive Oil.
17(4), 209.
Anonymous (1928) Production of olive
oil in Australia. Agricultural Gazette
of New South Wales 39(11), 867.
Anonymous (1907) Olive Growing.
19(4), 198-199
Anonymous (1937) Emulsification of
olive oil in dipping solutions for
sultanas. Journal of the Department of
Agriculture, Victoria 35(2), 103.
56
Australian Geographical Society. Pp.
2158.
Anonymous (1952) Young olive trees
croipping well on M.I.A. Agricultural
319.
Bailey, F. Manson (1895) A half-century
of notes for the guidance of amateur
fruit-growers: to which is appended a
comprehensive list of the fruit-bearing
plants from time to time introduced
into Queensland. Brisbane:
Department of Agriculture.
Antognozzi, E., Famiani, F, Proietti, P.,
Panelli, G. and Alfei, B. (1992) Frosr
resistance of some olive cultivars
during the winter. in S.Lavee and I.
Klein (eds), Second International
Symposium on Olive Growing. Acta
Horticulturae 356. Pp. 152-155.
Ballantyne, J.A. (1947) The growing of
olives. Possibilities for the industry.
Wales 58(10), 540-543.
Archer, T.C. (1853) Popular economic
botany or description of the botanical
and commercial characters of the
principal articles of vegetable origin,
used for food, clothing, tanning,
dyeing, building, medicine, perfumery
etc. London: Reeve & Co.
Baptist, John (1864) A catalogue of
bulbous-rooted, flowering and
ornamental trees and plants, fruit
trees, &c. cultivated and sold at the
City Nursery and Market Garden,
Bourke Street Sydney, John Baptist &
Son. Sydney: Joseph Cook Printers.
Arizona (1997) University of Arizona
Plant Walk—Olive. Facilities
Management, University of Arizona,
Tuscon.
URL:
http://128.196.151.178/fmpages/GRO
UNDS/phot52.htm
Baptist, John (1871) Catalogue of trees,
shrubs, fruit trees, bulbs, &c. &c.
cultivated for sale by John Baptist &
Son. Sydney: Gibbs and Shallard.
Barnard, G.L. (1881) Olive. Its present
condition in South Australia, mode of
pruning. Adelaide Observer 1 October
1881, p. 11.
Arnold, V.H. (1959) Victorian Yearbook,
1954-58. Melbourne: A.C.Brooks,
Government Printer.
1962. Melbourne: Commonwealth
Bureau of Census and Statistics.
Barnard, G.L. (1882) The olive.
Proceedings of the Royal Agricultural
and Horticultural Society of South
Australia 1881-1882, p. 15-19.
Bartee (1871) Receipe for pickling green
olives. The Australasian 8 April 1871,
p. 441.
Barton, C. Michael, Rubio Gomis,
Federico, Miksicek, Charles A. (1990)
Domestic olive. Nature 346: 518-19.
Bayley, L.H. (1902) Cyclopedia of
American horticulture comprising
suggestions for cultivation of
horticultural plants, descriptions of
species of fruits, vegetables, flowers
and ornamental plants sold in the
United States of America, together
with geographical and biographical
sketches. Toronto: Virtue.
Australian Encyclopedia (1958) The
Australian Encyclopedia in ten
volumes. Sydney: Angus and
Robertson.
Australian Geographical Society (1988)
Olive. in: The Australian
Encyclopedia Vol. VI. 5th ed. Sydney:
Beadle, N.C.W. (1984) Student’s Flora
of North Eastern New South Wales.
57
Part V. Angiosperms, Families 137170. Armidale: Botany Department,
University of New England.
Bioletti, F.T. (1900) Olive pickling
[Extract from University of California
Experimental Station Bulletin Nº
123]. Agricultural Gazette of New
South Wales 11(12) 1072-1074.
Beadle, N.C.W., Evans, O.D., and
Carolin, R.C. (1982) Flora of the
Sydney Region Sydney: Reed.
Bioletti, F.T. (1902a) Experiments with
pickling olives. Agricultural Gazette
Beaumont, C.H. (1921) To make olive oil
at home. Journal of Agriculture of
Bioletti, F.T. (1902b) Pickling olives.
Wales 13, 190.
Bell, M. (1870?) Catalogue of fruit trees,
ornamental trees, flowering shrubs,
roses, herbaceous plants, garden and
farm seeds. Moruya: Strawberry Hill
Nursery Moruya.
Birmingham, Judy (1979) Grapes, Hops,
Olives, Tobacco and Timber. in: Judy
Birmingham, Ian Jack and Dennis
Jeans (eds), Australian Pioneer
technology. Sites and relics. Sydney:
Heinemann Educational. Pp. 157-189.
Bellette, S. (1993) Folland Park
management plan for the Enfield City
Council, Adelaide. Adelaide:
University of Adelaide, Spertment of
Applied Science.
Black, J.M. (1957) Flora of South
Australia Part IV. Adelaide:
Government Printer.
Benson, A.H. (1894) Wagga Wagga
Experimental Orchard. Agricultural
852-856.
Black, J.M. (1980) Flora of South
Australia Part IV. 2nd ed. (Revised by
Enid L. Robertson) Adelaide:
Government Printer.
Benson, Albert H. (1899) Notes on Olive
cultivation. Queensland Agricultural
Journal 5(6), 575-576.
Bleasdale, J.I. (1871) New Industries. No.
1 The olive. Published under the
direction of the Royal Commission for
Foreign Industries and Forests.
Melbourne: Government Printer.
Bernays, Lewis A. (1872) The olive and
its products: a treatise on the habits,
cultivation, and propagation of the
tree, and upon the manufacture of oil
and other products therefrom.
Brisbane: James C. Beale,
Government Printer.
Bleasdale, J.J. (1872) The culture of the
olive. Australian Town and Country
Journal 6 January 1872, p. 14.
Blundell, D.R. (1985) Memorandum by
the Manager Viticulture Research
Station Murray and Riverina Region,
dated 30 May 1985. Reprinted in:
Mark Brennan and Robert Harris, The
Olive Grove. Wagga Wagga: Four W
press, Booranga Writers Centre.
Beverly, G.W. (1935) Why not plant
olives? Profitable, useful and
ornamental plants. Agricultural
451-454.
Beverly, G.W. (1935) Why not plant
olives? Profitable, useful and
ornamental plants.Agricultural
Gazette of New South Wales 46(8)
451-454.
Bolton, G.C. (1967) John Morphett
(1809-1892). in: A.G.l. Shaw and
C.M.H. Clark (eds), Australian
Dictionary of Biography Vol. 2: 17881850. I-Z. Melbourne: Melbourne
University Press.pp. 261-262.
Bigge, T.J. (1823) Report on the
commissioner of inquiry on the state
of agriculture and trade in the Colony
of New South Wales. The House of
Commons, 13 March 1823.
Boothby, Josiah (1878) Paris Universal
International Exhibition, 1878.
58
Catalogue of the South Australian
Court. London: Waterlow Printers.
Bryden, J.D. (1936a) Olive Culture.
Wales 47(2), 108-110.
Boothby, William R. (1878) The olive:
its culture and products in the south of
France and Italy. Adelaide:
Government Printer.
Bryden, J.D. (1936b) Olive Culture.
Wales 47(4), 209-213.
Bossley, J.B. (1836) A list of genuine
drugs and groceries prepared and sold
by John Brown Bossley (late A. Foss),
18 Pitt Street [Advertisement] The
Colonist (NSW) II(85) 11 August
1836, p. 253.
Bryden, J.D. (1936c) Olive Culture.
Department of Agriculture New South
Wales Sydney: Alfred J. Kent.
Bryden, J.D. (1939) Fruitfulness in
olives. Agricultural Gazette of New
South Wales 50(8), 449-450.
Bowden, N. (1974) Victorian Yearbook,
Burbridge, N.T. & Gray, M. (1979) Flora
of the Australian Capital Territory.
Canberra: Australian National
University Press.
Burgess, H.T. (1909) The cyclopedia of
South Australia. Vol. II. An historical
and commercial review. Adelaide:
The Cyclopedia Company.
Burill, G.H (1979) Agriculture in
Western Australia: 150 years of
development and achievement, 18291979. Perth: University of Western
Australia Press.
Boyand, D.E. (1984) Vegetation survey
of Queensland. South Western
Queensland. Queensland Botany
Bulletin Nº 4. Brisbane. Queensland
Department of Primary Industries.
Burr, M. (1996) Australian olives. A
guide for growers and producers of
virgin olive oils. Betaloo: Betaloo
Olive Orchard.
Broadbent, J. (1995) Elisabeth Farm,
Paramatta. A history and a guide.
Sydney: Historic Houses Trust of
NSW.
Burr, M. (1997) Australian olives. A
guide for growers and producers of
virgin olive oils. 2nd ed. Betaloo:
Betaloo Olive Orchard.
Broadbent, J. and Hughes, J. (1984)
Elisabeth Farm, Paramatta. A history
and guide. Parramatta: Macarthur
Press.
Busby, James (1839) The Australian
farmer and land owner’s guide to the
profitable culture of the vine in New
South Wales, and the manufacture of
the various wines of that country to
rival those of France, Spain and
Portugal, also a guide to the
successful culture of the olive with
useful remarks on the preparation of
raisins, figs, and other dried fruits,
with an estimate of their profits as
articles of merchandise. London:
Smith, Elder & Co.
Brown, J.E. (1884a) Olive growing. The
Australasian 1 November 1884, p.
827.
Brown, J.E. (1884b) Report on planting
olives on mallee lands. Adelaide: [not
seen]
Browne, John Harris (1883) The
cultvation of the olive: notes.
Hastings: F.J. Parsons.
Bruni (1884) Olive oil making in South
Australia. The Australasian 21 June
1884, p. 826-827.
Butler, F.C. (1959) 128 years of
development. Agriculture in southern
59
New South Wales 1830-1958.
Wales 70(6), 281-288.
CNR.
URL:
http://www.ara.fi.cnr.it/olivo/indiceng
.htm
Byrne, G. (1981) Valiant women. Letters
from the foundations of the Sisters of
Mercy in Western Australia, 1845-49.
Melbourne: The Polding Press.
Coates, Leonard (1902) Olive. in: L.H.
Bayley, L.H. (ed.), Cyclopedia of
American horticulture comprising
suggestions for cultivation of
horticultural plants, descriptions of
species of fruits, vegetables, flowers
and ornamental plants sold in the
United States of America, together
with geographical and biographical
sketches. Toronto: Virtue. Pp. 11251127.
Callaghan, V.E. (1981) Matthew Gibney
(1835-1925). in: Bede Nairn and
Geoffrey Serle (eds), Australian
Dictionary of Biography Vol. 8: 18911939. Cl-Gib. Melbourne: Melbourne
University Press. Pp. 649-651.
Campbell, W.S. (1901) From Colony to
Commonwealth. Agricultural Gazette
Coghlan, T.A. (1895) The wealth and
progress of New South Wales 1895.
8th issue. Sydney: W.A. Gullick.
Carr, G.W., Yugovic, J.V. and Robinson,
K.E. (1992) Environmental weed
invasions in Victoria. Conservation
and Management implications.
Melbourne: Department of
Conservation and Natural Resources.
Coghlan, T.A. (1897a) The wealth and
progress of New South Wales 1895-6.
Coghlan, T.A. (1897b) The wealth and
Castles, Alex C. (1969) Benjamin
Boothby (1803-1868). in: Bede Nairn,
Geoffrey Serle, Russel Ward (eds),
Australian Dictionary of Biography
Vol. 3: 1851-1890. A-C. Melbourne:
Melbourne University Press. Pp. 194196.
progress of New South Wales 190001. 13th issue. Sydney: W.A. Gullick.
Central Mapping Authority (1972)
Orthophotomap 1:4000 Wagga
Agricultural College 2717-VIII.
Sydney: Central Mapping Authority,
Department of Lands.
Cole, C.F. (1911) Propagation of Fruit
Trees. Journal of the Department of
Agriculture, Victoria 9(9), 522-529.
Coleman, John (1894) Murrumbidgee
Experimental Farm, North
Wagga Wagga. Agricultural Gazette
of New South Wales 5:634-639.
Chaffey, Charles (1900) Olive culture.
Wales 11(12), 1068-1072.
Chapman (1896) Report on the olive tree
and olive oil of Tuscany. Queensland
Department of Agriculture Bulletin.
Ser. 2. nº 10. Brisbane: Edmund
Gregory.
Connell, Joseph, H. (1994) History and
scope of the olive industry. in L.
Ferguson, G.S. Sibbett and G.C.
Martin (eds), Olive Production
Manual. Davis: Division of
Agriculture and Natural Resources,
University of California. Pp. 1-4.
Cleland, G.F. (1907) Olives for Profit.
Australia 11(1), 2.
Connell, Joseph, H. and Catlin, Peter B.
(1994) Root physiology and rootstock
characteristics. in L. Ferguson, G.S.
Sibbett and G.C. Martin (eds), Olive
Production Manual. Davis: Division
Climato, A., Cantini, C, Sani, G. and
Marranci, M. (1993) Il germoplasma
dell’olivo in Toscana. Scandicci:
Istituto Propagazione Specie Legnose60
of Agriculture and Natural Resources,
worms, mulberry, olives, tobacco
etc.etc. Adelaide: W.C.Rigby.
Cooke, D.A. (1989) New records in the
naturalised flora of South Australia II.
South Australian Naturalist 63: 100106.
Davenport, Samuel (1870) On the
cultivation of the olive and
manufacture of its fruit: a paper read
before the Chamber of Manufacturers,
July 19 1870. Adelaide: Andrews,
Thomas and Clark.
Cooke, D.A. (1991) Olives-feral fruit
banishing bluegums. Save the bush
from weeds Nº 11. Adelaide: South
Australian Animal and Plant Control
Commission.
Davenport, Samuel (1871) The Olive.
The Australasian 8 April 1871, p. 441.
Davenport, Samuel (1892) Olive culture
and the manufacture of olive oil.
Wales 3: 160-166.
Cooke, D.A. (n.d.) Olive policy.
Adelaide: South Australian Animal
and Plant Control Commission.
CPJ (1884) Olive. Encyclopedia
Britannica Vol. XVII. 9th edition.
Edinburgh: Adam and Chrales Black.
Pp. 761-763.
Davenport, Samuel (n.d.) Notes on the
olive and its values to country suitable
for its growth. [not seen]
Davey, Thomas (1873) The cultivator.
Olive Cultivation. Australian Town
and Country Journal 18 October
1873, p. 492.
Cremer, K.W. (1990) Trees for rural
Australia. Sydney: Inkhata Press.
Crompton, A. Robert (1958) Olive,
cultivation. in: A. Chisholm (ed.), The
Australian Encyclopedia Vol. VI.
Sydney: Angus and Robertson. Pp.
397-399.
Davidson, J.W. (1968) James Busby
(1801-1871). in: A.G.l. Shaw and
Dictionary of Biography Vol. 1: 17881850. A-H. Melbourne: Melbourne
Crompton, Owen (1899) The cultivation
of the olive. Journal of Agriculture
and Industry of South Australia 2(12),
974-976.
Davison, J.R. (1959) “Olive and Olive
Plantings at Wagga Agricultural
College”. Memorandum to Chief of
Agriculture 16 August 1959.
Contained in NSW Riverina Archives
Wagga Wagga File RW 31/6/232
‘Disposal of Olive oil, olives and
almonds.’
Cunningham, G.M., Mulham, W.E.,
Milthorpe, P.L. & Leigh, J.H. (1982)
Plants of Western New South Wales
Sydeny: NSW Government Printer.
Dal Pero Bertini, G.V. (1960a) Olive
growing and processing, Part I.
Melbourne: CSIRO.
deCastella, F. (1908) Olive industry. in:
Fifth Progress report on viticulture in
Europe. Journal of the Department of
Dal Pero Bertini, G.V. (1960b) Olive
growing and processing, Part II.
Melbourne: CSIRO.
Dellow, J.J., Sargeant, M. and Rose, S.
(1987) Control of olive, Olea ssp.
Proceedings of the 8th Australian
Weeds Conference. Sydney. Pp. 461463.
Daniels, J.G. (1988) John Arthur Perkins
(1878-1954) in: Geoffrey Serle (ed.),
Vol. 11: 1891-1939. Nes-Smi.
Melbourne: Melbourne University
Press. Pp. 201-202
Dobroyde New-Plant Nursery (1873)
General descriptive catalogue of
plants and fruit trees cultivated for
sale at the Dobroyde New-Plant
Davenport, Samuel (1864) Some new
industries for South Australia: silk
61
Nursery, Ashfield, Sydney, N.S.W.
1873-4. Sydney: F. Cunninghame.
Freeman, W.C. (1886) Olive oil Industry.
Letter to the editor. Argus
(Melbourne)16 April 1886, p. 10.
Duncan, W.A. (1844) A practical treatise
on the culture of the olive tree from
the most approved French writers
upon the subject. Sydney.
French, J. (1911) A scale insect
destructive to citrus trees. Olive scale.
Journal of the Department of
Dunsdorfs, Edgar (1956) The Australian
wheat-growing industry 1788-1948.
Press.
Friedman, J. (195?) A future for you in
olives. Melbourne: Mount Olive
Verdalion Plantations Limited.
Elbert, George (1989) The age of the
olive. Horticulture 67(4), 20-26.
Fuller, O. (1942) English starling eating
olives. South Australian Ornithologist
16: 44.
Espais Naturals (1996) Wild Olive Tree
(Olea europaea sylvestris). Les Medes
Flora.
URL:
http://www.ddgi.es/espais/illustro.htm
.
Gawler, O. (1936) Victorian Yearbook,
1934-35. Melbourne: H.J.Green,
Government Printer.
1938-39. Melbourne: T.Rider,
Government Printer.
Fenton, James J. (1901) Victorian YearBook, 1895-1898. Melbourne: Robert
S. Brain Government Printer.
1944-45. Melbourne: J.J.Gourley,
Government Printer.
Ferguson, Francis (18--) Catalogue of
fruit trees &c, Australian Nursery,
Camden, New South Wales. Sydney:
Gibbs, Shellard & Co.
1946-47. Melbourne: J.J.Gourley,
Government Printer.
Ferguson, L., Sibbett, G.S. and Martin,
G.C. (1994) Olive Production
University of California.
1950-51. Melbourne: W.M.Houston,
Government Printer.
Glyde, S.D. (1895) Mildura
horticulturalist. Discussion
contributions. in: Proceedings of
Conference of Representatives of
Fruit-grower’s Associations 25
January 1895. Department of
Agriculture, Victoria. Melbourne:
Robert S. Bain, Government Printer.
Fowler, Rodney (1939a) The olive in
South Australia. Radiobroadcast on
5CL on 27 March 1939.
Fowler, Rodney (1939b) The olive in
South Australia. Journal of the
Department of Agriculture of South
Australia 42(4), 812-814.
Golden, G.D. (1977) Olive production in
Victoria: Melboune: Department of
Agriculture.
Fowler, Rodney (1940) Cultivation of the
olive. Journal of the Department of
197-199.
Government Statistician South Australia
(1862) Statistical Register of South
Australia for the year 1861. Adelaide:
W. C. Cox, Government Printer.
Fraser, Charles (1829) Catalogue of fruits
cultivated in the Government
Botanical Garden at Sydney, New
South Wales (dated 1 April 1828).
The Gardener’s Magazine (London)
5: 280-284.
62
year 1878. Part IV. Interchange.
Adelaide: E.Spiller, Government
Printer.
(1880a) Statistical Register of the
Province of South Australia for the
year 1879. Part III. Production.
Printer.
(1880b) Statistical Register of the
Printer.
Printer.
Adelaide: W. C. Cox, Government
Printer.
Printer.
Adelaide: W. C. Cox, Government
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
63
Printer.
Adelaide: H.F.Leader, Government
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
(1889c) Statistical Register of the
Printer.
Printer.
(1889d) Statistical Register of the
Printer.
Printer.
Adelaide: C.E.Bristow, Government
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
(1892c) Statistical Register of the
Printer.
Printer.
(1892d) Statistical Register of the
Printer.
Printer.
64
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
65
State of South Australia for the year
1904. Part IV. Interchange. Adelaide:
C.E. Bristow, Government Printer.
Printer.
1905. Part III. Production. Adelaide:
Printer.
R.E.E.Rogers, Government Printer.
66
Adelaide: R.E.E.Rogers, Government
Printer.
1914 - 15. Part III. Production.
Printer.
1914 - 15. Part IV. Interchange.
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
67
Printer.
1922 - 23. Part V. Production.
Printer.
Printer.
Printer. V Production
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
Printer.
68
Printer.
Green, P.S. (1994) Vegetation ecology of
the Central Mount Lofty Ranges.
Adelaide: Department of Botany:
University of Adelaide.
Grigsby, J.R.J. (1969) John Ignatius
Bleasdale (1822-1884). in: Bede
Nairn, Geoffrey Serle, Russel Ward
(eds), Australian Dictionary of
Biography Vol. 3: 1851-1890. A-C.
Press. Pp. 183-184.
Groß, Walter H. (1975) Öl, Ölbaum. in:
K.Ziegler and W. Sontheimer (eds),
Der Kleine Pauly. Lexikon der Antike.
Vol. 4 Nasidius – Scuarus. München:
Artemis. Pp. 244-246.
Printer.
Hall, N. (1972) Use of trees and shrubs
in the dry country of Australia.
Canberra: AGPS.
Hall, W.H. (1906) The official year book
of New South Wales 1904-5.
Government of New South Wales,
Sydney: W.A. Gullick, Government
Printer.
Printer.
Handasyde, McMillan & Co. (1862)
Catalogue of fruit trees. Melbourne:
[not seen]
Hardin, D.W (1992) Oleaceae. in: G.J.
Harden, (ed.), Flora of New South
Wales. Vol. 3. Sydney: Universty of
New South Wales Press. Pp. 470-477.
Hardy, Thomas (1872) On olives.
Australian Town and Country Journal
6 January 1872, p. 14
Hardy, Thomas (1901) Hardy’s
Mammoth Olive. Journal of
Grasby, W. Catton (1910) Picking green
and ripe olives. Queensland
Agricultural Journal 24(2), 56-57.
Hardy, Thomas (1902) Olives and Olive
Oil. Journal of Agriculture and
Industry of South Australia 5(11),
928.
Gray, George (1866) Letter to J.M.
Sangar. reprinted in The Australasian
15 September 1866, p. 762-763.
Green, P. (1997) Olea europaea L. ssp.
africana (Mill). Honolulu: University
of Hawaii Department of Botany.
URL:
http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculy/
cw_smith/ole-eur.htm.
Harold, J. (1891) National Prize
competition 1891. Agricultural
408-416.
Harris, J. (1895) Member horticultural
board of advice. Discussion
69
contributions. in: Proceedings of
Conference of Representatives of
Fruit-grower’s Associations 25
January 1895. Department of
Agriculture, Victoria. Melbourne:
Robert S. Bain, Government Printer.
Hayter, Henry H. (1882) Victorian YearBook for 1881-2. Melbourne: John
Ferres Government Printer.
Hartley, W. (1979) A checklist of
Economic Plants in Australia.
Melbourne: CSIRO.
Hartmann, H.T. (1962) Olive growing in
Australia in 1962. Economic Botany
16(1), 31-44.
Hayter, Henry H. (1887) Victorian YearBook for 1886-7. Melbourne: Robert
S. Bain Government Printer.
Hastings, D. Harris (1891) Official
record of the New Zealand and South
Seas Exhibition held at Dunedin,
1889-90. Wellington: George
Didsbury.
Hayter, Henry H. (1888) Victorian YearBook for 1887-88. Melbourne: Robert
S. Bain Government Printer.
Hayter, Henry H. (1889) Victorian YearBook for 1888-89. 2 vols. Melbourne:
Sands & McDougall Government
Printer.
Hawker, G,N. (1969) William Robinson
Boothby (1829-1903). in: Bede Nairn,
Vol. 3: 1851-1890. A-C. Melbourne:
Melbourne University Press.pp. 196197.
Hayter, Henry H. (1890) Victorian YearBook for 1889-90. Melbourne: Sands
& McDougall Government Printer.
Hayter, Henry H. (1891) Victorian YearBook for 1890-91. Melbourne: Sands
& McDougall Government Printer.
Hawkins, M. (1994) Removal of olive
trees in Tea Tree Gully. in: The role
of local government in the
conservation of threatened species.
Adelaide: National Threatened
Species Network SA, Conservation
Council of SA,: p27-30.
Hayter, Henry H. (1892) Victorian YearBook for 1892. 2 vols. Melbourne:
Printer.
Hayter, Henry H. (1893) Victorian YearBook for 1893.2 vols. Melbourne:
Printer.
Hayter, Henry H. (1873) Victorian YearBook containing a digest of the
statistics for the colony for the year
1873. Melbourne: John Ferres
Government Printer.
Hehn, V. (1902) Kulturpflanzen und
Hausthiere in ihrem Übergang aus
Asien nach Griechenland und Italien
sowie in das übrige Europa. Berlin:
Borntraeger.
Hayter, Henry H. (1876) Victorian YearBook for 1875 Melbourne: John
Hayter, Henry H. (1877) Victorian YearBook for 1876-7 Melbourne: John
Hermes, N. (1987) Rare and endangered:
Philip Island hibiscus. Australian
Natural History 22(6), 274-275.
Hill, E. (1946) Water into gold.
Melbourne: Roberston and Mallens.
Hnatiuk, R.J. (1990) Census of
Australian Vascular Plants. Bureau of
Flora and Fauna, Australian Flora
70
and Fauna Series Nº 11. Canberra,
A.G.P.S.
Jones, G. (1988) There was time. A
Wangaratta Shire Bicentennial
Celebration. Wangaratta: Shire of
Wangaratta.
Hobman, Farnell R. (1995a) An economic
study into dryland olive growing and
oil processing in southern Australia.
Barton, ACT: Rural Industries
Research and Development
Corporation.
Jordano, Pedro (1987) Avian fruit
removal: effects of fruit variation,
crop size, and insect damage. Ecology
68: 1711-23.
Hobman, Farnell R. (1995b) An
economic study into irrigated olive
growing and oil processing in
southern Australia. Barton, ACT:
Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation.
Jose (1908) Olive Truncheons. Journal of
973.
Kailis, S.G. (1997a) Olives, Salvado and
the Sacred Oil in Western Australia.
in: S. Kailis (comp.), Olive cultural
and scientific Symposium New Norcia
22-24 August 1997. Symposium
Workbook. Perth: The University of
Western Australia. Pp. 3-20.
Hobman, Farnell R. (1995c) Olives (Olea
europaea). The Australian New Crop
News Letter Nº3, January 1995.
URL:
http://wwww.uq.edu.au/~gagkrego/ne
wslett/ncnl3-93.htm.
Kailis, S.G. (1997b) Growing Olives. S.
Kailis (comp.), Olive cultural and
scientific Symposium New Norcia 2224 August 1997. Symposium
Workbook. Perth: The University of
Western Australia. Pp. 30-41.
Hooker, William (1871) The olive.
Adelaide Register 11 March 1871.
Howitt, E (1871) Receipe for preserving
green oilves. Letter to the editor. The
Australasian 7 January 1871, p. 24.
Kailis, S.G. (1997c) Olive oil. S. Kailis
(comp.), Olive cultural and scientific
Symposium New Norcia 22-24
August 1997. Symposium Workbook.
Perth: The University of Western
Australia. Pp. 54-69.
Jacobs, S.W.L. and Pickard, J. (1981)
Plants of New South Wales: a census
of the cycads, conifers and
angiosperms. Sydney: National
Herbarium of New South Wales,
Royal Botanic Gardens
Kelly, W. (1901) Olive Culture. Journal
of Agriculture and Industry South
Australia 4(9), 750-751.
Jensen, H.I. (1912) Soils of the Cowra
and Wagga Experiment Farms, and of
the south-western slopes. Department
of Agriculture NSW Science Bulletin
8. Sydney: Department of Agriculture
Kirchauff, F.E.H.W. (1899) Olives.
Jessop, J.P. (1981) Flora of Central
Australia. Sydney: Reed.
Kirk, J.W. (1881) New Zealand Olives.
New Zealand Insitute Transactions
1881, 375-378.
Jessop, J.P. and Toelken, H.R. (1986)
Flora od South Australia Part II
Leguminosae - Rubiaceae. Adelaide:
South Australian Government Printing
Division.
Knibbs, G.H. (1920) Official yearbook of
the Commonwealth of Australia
conatining comparative statitics for
the period 1901-1919. Nº 13-1920.
Melbourne: Albert J. Mullet,
Government Printer.
Johnson, L.A.S. (1957) A review of the
family Oleaceae. Contributions from
the New South Wales National
Herbarium 2(6), 395-418.
Knight, J.G. (1865) The Australasian
colonies at the International
Exhibition, London, 1862. Extracts
71
from the Reports of the Jurors.
Melbourne: John Ferres.
Leon, E.M.S. amd Altisent, J.M. D.
(1992) Breaking of dormancy in olive
(Olea europaea L. ) seeds. in S.Lavee
and I. Klein (eds), Second
International Symposium on Olive
Growing. Acta Horticulturae 356.
137-141.
Laffer, H.E. (1905) Pickling Olives.
Australia 8(11), 647-648.
Laffer, H.E. (1914) Pickling Olives.
Australia 17(11), 1142-1143.
Levinson, H.Z. and Levinson, A.R.
(1984) Botanical and chemical aspects
of the olive tree with regards to fruit
acceptance by Dacus oleae (Gmelin)
and other frugivorous animals.
Zeitschrift für angewandte
Entomologie 98:136-149.
Laffer, H.E. (1917) Oil percentage in
different varieties of olives. Journal of
548-549.
Lamp, C. & Collet, F. (1976) Field guide
to weeds in Australia. Melbourne:
Inkata Press
Liddiard, W. (1902) Olives. Journal of
Lamp, C. & Collet, F. (1989) Field guide
to weeds in Australia. 3rd. ed.
Sydney: Inkata Press.
Lockwood, M., Wise, P., Lane, M.,
Williams, J., Gadd, L. and Costello,
D. (1997) Eurobedalla National Park
Flora Surveys. Johnstone Centre of
Parks, Recreation & Heritage Report
no. 84. - Albury, NSW: The Johnstone
Centre of Parks, Recreation and
Heritage, Charles Sturt University.
Laughton, A.M. (1913) Victorian
Yearbook, 1912-13. Melbourne:
Albert J. Mullett, Government Printer.
Albert J. Mullett, Government Printer.
Macarthur, J and MacArthur, W. (1843)
Catalogue of plants cultivated at
Camden. Camden: D.L. Welch
Printer.
H.J.Green, Government Printer.
Macarthur, W. (1871) Olive oil. in: The
industrial progress of New South
Wales, being a report of the
Intercolonial exhibition of 1870, at
Sydney, together with a variety of
papers illustrative of the industrial
resources of the colony. Sydney:
Thomas Richards, Government
Printer. Pp. 336-339.
Macdonald, I. (1911) The olive. Journal
of the Department of Agriculture,
Victoria 9(12), 832-839.
Lavee, S. and Avidan, N. (1992) Protein
content and composition of leaves and
shoot bark in relation to alternate
bearing of olive trees (Olea europea
L.). in S.Lavee and I. Klein (eds),
Second International Symposium on
Olive Growing. Acta Horticulturae
356. 143-147.
Macdonald, I. (1912a) The olive. Journal
Victoria 10(1), 69-71.
Macdonald, I. (1912b) The olive. Journal
Victoria 10(2), 1127-130.
Legg, J.H. (1938) The olive crop-a link
with the Greeks. BankNotes June
1938, 50-51. [not seen]
72
Macdonald, I. (1912c) The olive. Journal
Victoria 10(3), 196-198.
Manders P.T. and Richardson D.M.
(1992) Colonisation of Cape fynbos
communities by forest species. Forest
Ecology and Management 48: 277293.
Macdonald, I. (1912d) The olive. Journal
Victoria 10(4), 212-217.
Martin, G.C. (1994) Botany of the Olive.
in L. Ferguson, G.S. Sibbett and G.C.
Martin (eds), Olive Production
Macdonald, I. (1912e) The olive. Journal
Victoria 10(7), 404-408.
Macdonald, I. (1912f) The olive. Journal
Victoria 10(8), 465-471.
Marvin, Arthur Tappin (1888) The olive.
Its culture in theory and practice. San
Francisco: Payot, Upham and Co.
Macdonald, I. (1915a) The olive. Journal
Victoria 13(3), 154-160.
Maslin, Paul (1996) Exotic Riparian
Plants common in the Sacramento
Valley. Californian State University at
Chico.
URL:
http://www.csuchico.edu/~pmaslin/Cr
.Manag/exotic.html
Macdonald, I. (1915b) The olive. Journal
Victoria 13(4), 221-228.
Macdonald, I. (1915c) The olive. Journal
Victoria 13(8), 499-503.
McGillvray, K.D. (1944) Harvesting and
pickling olives. Agricultural Gazette
of New South Wales 55(4), 150-151.
Mackaness, G. (1977) Memoirs of
George Suttor, F.L.S., Banksian
Collector (1774-1859). Dubbo, NSW:
Review Publications, 1977.
Milennan, W. (1979) Victorian
Yearbook, 1979. Melbourne:
Australian Bureau of Statistics.
Maiden, J.H. (1887) The Olive and olive
oil being notes on the culture of the
tree and extraction of the oil as
carried out in South Australia and the
Continent of Europe. New South
Wales Commission, Adelaide Jubilee
International Exhibition, 1887.
Sydney: Charles Potter, Government
Printer.
Mitchell, Thomas (1833) Three
expeditions into the interior of
Eastern Australia with description of
the recently explored region of
Australia Felix and of the present
Colony of New South Wales. London.
Mitchell, Thomas (1849) Notes on the
cultvation of the vine and the olive:
and on the methods making vine and
oil etc. etc. in the southern parts of
Spain, taken during a tour through
Andalusia, in September and October
1847. Sydney: D.L. Welch.
Maiden, J.H. (1917a) The Olive. Its
introduction to Australia. Agricultural
859-866.
Maiden, J.H. (1917b) The Grapevine. Its
introduction to Australia. Agricultural
427-433
Moldenke, Harold C. (1953) Flowers of
the Madonna. Horticulture December
1953. Reproduced at: URL:
http://www.mgardens.org/HMFOTM-HO.html.
Makinson, A.M. (1915) Practical
irrigation farming in Australia with
special reference to fruit and fodder
crops. Pt. III. Agricultural Gazette of
New South Wales 26(9), 793-804.
Moltoni, E. (1934) Uccelli catturati ed
osservati nei dintrni di Tripoli il 10
e;11 Novembre 1933.Rivista Italiana
Inintologica 4:16-23.
73
Moore, Charles (1850) Sydney Botanic
Gardens Report for 1850.
Neldner, V. J. (1991) Vegetation survey
of Queensland. Central Western
Bulletin Nº 9. Brisbane, Queensland
Moore, Charles (1856) Sydney Botanic
Gardens Report for 1856.
Morgan, W. (1891) Olive Culture. New
Zealand Country Journal July 1891,
p. 328-331.
Neldner, V. J. (1992) Vascular Plants of
Western Queensland. Queensland
Botany Bulletin Nº 11. Brisbane,
Queensland Department of
Environment and Heritage.
Mort, C.H. (1949) Olive tree
propagation. Review of exploratory
trails conducted at Wagga
Agricultural College and
Experimental Station. Agricultural
633-634.
Neville-Rolfe, E. (1898b) Olive culture.
371-378.
Nicks, Beverly A. (1972) Samuel
Davenport (1818-1906). in: Bede
Nairn, Geoffrey Serle, Russel Ward
(eds), Australian Dictionary of
Biography Vol. 4: 1851-1890. D-J.
Press. Pp. 25-26.
Mort, C.H. (1950) Olive tree
propagation. Review of exploratory
trails conducted at Wagga
Agricultural College and
Experimental Station. Agricultural
26-29.
O’Hea, William Joseph (19871) The
introduction of new rural industries
into Victoria. Melbourne: J&A.
McKinley.
Mort, C.H. (1950) Olive trees for shade.
Wales 61(10), 533.
O’Neill, Sally. (1972) Thomas Hardy
(1830-1912). in: Bede Nairn,
Vol. 4: 1851-1890. D-J. Melbourne:
Melbourne University Press. Pp. 344345.
Mort, C.H. (1951) Olive pickling.
Wales 62(9), 462-466; 472.
Mort, C.H. (1952) Fruitfulness in olives.
Wales 63(7), 371-372.
Mort, C.H. (1953a) Olive tree pruning.
Wales 64(10), 529.
Oldham, J. (1997) Olive oil, cooking and
the Mediterranean diet. S. Kailis
(comp.), Olive cultural and scientific
Symposium New Norcia 22-24
August 1997. Symposium Workbook.
Perth: The University of Western
Australia. Pp. 21-26.
Mort, C.H. (1953b) Olive varieties.
Wales 64(5), 227-228; 257-258.
Mort, C.H. (1956). Olive tree
propagation. Agricultural Gazette of
New South Wales 67(5), 238-242.
Olivares (1860) On the history and use of
olives. Letter to the editor. Argus 12
October 1860. Page S2.
Nash, R.W. (1845) Vins and olives (?).
Perth: Vineyard Society [not seen]
Parsons, Vivienne (1967) George Suttor
(1774-1859). in: A.G.l. Shaw and
Dictionary of Biography Vol. 2: 17881850. I-Z. Melbourne: Melbourne
University Press.pp. 498-500.
Neldner, V. J. (1984) Vegetation survey
of Queensland. South Central
Bulletin Nº 3. Brisbane, Queensland
74
Jonkershoek Valley, Stellenbosch: A
mountain fynbos habitat. Southern
African Ornithological Society,
Southern Birds 18. Greenside:
Southern African Ornithological
Society.
Parsons, W.T. and Cuthbertson, E.G.
(1992) Noxious weeds of Australia
Melbourne: Inkata Press.
Pelc, Joan (1980?) The founding of the
Wagga Experiment Farm 1892-1918.
MS typescript, held at CSU Wagga.
Rinaldi, L.M.R., Menabeni, D.,
Lambardi, M. and Cimato, A. (1992)
Changes of carbohydrates in olive
seeds (Olea europaea L.) during fruit
maturation and their correlation with
germination. in S.Lavee and I. Klein
(eds), Second International
Symposium on Olive Growing. Acta
Horticulturae 356. 58-61.
Perkins, A.J. (1916a) Breakwinds.
Perkins, A.J. (1916b) On the scope in
South Australia for the extension of
olive groves: an opening for the
employment of returned soldiers.
Journal of the Department of Agriculture of South Australia 20: 443462.
Roberts, R. (1942) Olive Culture.
Journal of Agriculture, Victoria 40(6),
295-300.
Perkins, A.J. (1918a) Olives. Journal of
2-3.
Robertson, E.L. (1965) Flora of South
Australia Part IV: OleaceaeCompositae (Final Part). Adelaide:
W.L. Hawkes, Government Printer.
Perkins, A.J. (1918b) Olives and Carobs.
Australia 22(2), 124-125.
Robertson, Enid (1984) The Watiparinga
Experience-Weed control by
persistent effort in an urban reserve.
in: G.M. Rowberry and P.M.Kloot
(eds), Management of weeds of
recreation areas, particularly
bushland and national parks.
Proceedings of a workshop intiated by
the Australian Weeds Committee.
Adelaide, South Australia:
Department of Agriculture. Pp. 84-88.
Perkins, A.J. (1930) The value of the
agricultural department to primary
producers. Journal of Agriculture of
Perkins, A.J. (1931) Olive growing.
Plantadviser (1996) Olea europaea.
Olive. Southwestern deserts edition.
URL:
www.plantadviser.com/plants/oleaeur
o.htm.
Robinson, M.E. (1976) The New South
Wales Wheat Frontier 1851-1911.
Department of Human Geography
Publication HG/10 (1976), Research
School of Pacific Studies, Australian
National University, Canberra.
Pouget, J. (1902) Rapid method of testing
the percentage of oil in olive
[Reprinted rom the Bulletin Agricole
de l”Algerie et de la Tunesie].
Wales 13, 687-689.
Robinson, W. (1874) Report by William
Robinson, superintendent of the
Colonial Section of the Vienna
Exhbition, 1873, upon the British
colonies represented there, with
particular reference to their produce.
London: George E. Eyre and William
Spottiswoode.
Pye, H. (1917) Sidelight on the olive
industry. Journal of Agriculture,
Victoria 15(3), 158-165.
Read (1877) Olive Culture. Adelaide.
[not seen]
Rugini, E. and Lavee, S. (1992) Olive.
in: F.A. Hammerschlag & R.e.Litz
(eds), Biotechnology of perennial fruit
Richardson D.M. and Fraser M.W.
(1995) Birds of the Swartboskloof,
75
crops.Biotechnology on Agriculture
Nº. 8. Walingford: C.A.B. International.
Simpfendorfer, K.J. (1975) An
introduction to trees for southeastern
Australia. Melbourne: Inkhata Press.
SAAPCC (1990) South Australian
Animal and Pant Control Commission
Proclaimed Plant Policies. Adelaide:
South Australian Animal and Pant
Control Commission.
Skeat, Hilary E.J. (1984) Weeds and
weed control: Mount Pitt Rserve,
Norfolk Island and Christmas Island
National Park, Christmas Island. in:
G.M. Rowberry and P.M.Kloot (eds),
Management of weeds of recreation
areas, particularly bushland and national parks. Proceedings of a
workshop intiated by the Australian
Weeds Committee. Adelaide, South
Australia: Department of Agriculture.
Pp. 15-18.
Sangar, J.M. (1866) On the culture of the
vine, wine making and the olive. The
Australasian 15 September 1866, p.
762-763.
Scott, H.J. (1888) South Australia in
1887-88. A handbook for the
Centennial International Exhbition,
Melbourne, 1888. Adelaide: H.F.
Leader, Government Printer.
Skerman, P.J., Fisher, A.E. and Lloyd,
P.L. (1987) Guiding Queensland
Agriculture 1887-1987. Brisbane:
Shepherd, Thomas (1835) Lecture on the
Horticulture of New South Wales.
Delivered at the Mechanic’s School of
Arts, Sydeny, by Thomas Shepherd, of
the Darling Nursery. Sydney.
Smith, A. (1920) The official year book
of New South Wales 1918.
Government of New South Wales,
Sydney: W.A. Gullick, Government
Printer.
Shepherd, Thomas W. (1851) catalogue
of plants cultivated at the Darling
Nursery, Sydney, New South Wales,
arranged at the natural system as
pointed out by Dr. Lindley,
comprising the names habits &c of
upwards of 2500 species and varieties
with a complete alphabetical index
forming a reference to the whole, to
which is added a few practical
remarks on the cultivation of the
orange and the olive in Australia.
Sydney: W. and F. Ford.
Smith, Clifford W. (1997) Impact of
alien plants on Hawai’is native biota.
Honolulu: University of Hawaii
Department of Botany.
URL:
http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculy/
cw_smith/impact.htm.
Smith, L.W. (1984) Weeds in Urban
bushland around Sydney. in: G.M.
Rowberry and P.M.Kloot (eds),
Management of weeds of recreation
areas, particularly bushland and
national parks. Proceedings of a
workshop intiated by the Australian
Weeds Committee. Adelaide, South
Australia: Department of Agriculture.
Pp. 92-99.
Sheppard, Thomas (1831) To the land
holders in New South Wales. III: The
grape, the olive, mulberry, figs, bitter
and sweet almonds, loquet. Sydney
Monitor VI(372), 30 April 1831.
Shillinglaw, John J. (1888a) The
cultivation of the olive in Victoria.
The Australasian 27 March 1886, p.
587.
Spennemann, Dirk H. R. (1997) Nathan
Cobb's Laboratory Conservation &
Interpretation Project. A conservation
management plan for Nathan Cobb's
Laboratory Johnstone Centre of
Parks, Recreation & Heritage Report
no. XX. - Albury, NSW: Charles Sturt
University, The Johnstone Centre of
Parks, Recreation and Heritage.
Shillinglaw, John J. (1888b) The
cultivation of the olive in Victoria.
The Argus (Melbourne) 16 March
1886, p. 5.
76
Stafford, J.L. and Venning, J. (1984)
Revegetation: a long-term means of
weed control. in: G.M. Rowberry and
P.M.Kloot (eds), Management of
weeds of recreation areas, particularly bushland and national parks.
Proceedings of a workshop initiated
by the Australian Weeds Committee.
Adelaide, South Australia:
Department of Agriculture. Pp. 59-62.
Thompson, J.L. (1891) Olive culture.
Wales 2: 467-479.
Standish, R. (1960) The first of trees: the
story of the olive. London: Phoenix
House.
Turner, F. (1890) New crops.
Wales 1: 129-130.
Steer, N. (1940) The uses of olive oil.
Journal of the Department of
911.
Turrill, W.B. (1951) Wild and cultivated
olives. Kew Bulletin pp.437-442.
Titarelli, L.P. (1997) Argentinia.
Australian Olive Grower 1(3), 14-15.
Tome, F. (1987) Pictorial history of
Agricultural Research at
Wagga Wagga. Wagga Wagga:
Agricultural Research Institute.
UCCE (1997) Olive Notes (January
1997). University of Californa
Cooperative Extension, Tulare
County.
URL:
http://www.ucce.tualre.ca.us/pub/olOl
97.htm.
Stevenson, Paul (1997) African Olive on
Norfolk Island.
URL:
http://155.187.10.12/norfolk.gardens/o
live.html.
Ullrich (1907) Olives on unused roads.
Sutherland, J. (1996) From Farmboys to
PhD's: Agricultural education at
Wagga Wagga, 1896-1996.
Wagga Wagga: Charles Sturt
University.
United States, Department of the
Treasury (1818a) Letter from the
treasury, transmitting information on
the progress that has been made
under the act of Congress of the 3d
March, 1817 entitled “An Act to set
apart and dispose of certain public
lands for the encouragement of the
cultivation of the vine and the olive.
Dated 4 December 1818. Washington:
E.DeKrafft (Shaw-Shoemaker Nº
46357).
Sutter, Ellen G. (1994) Olive cultivars
and propagation. in L. Ferguson, G.S.
Sibbett and G.C. Martin (eds), Olive
Production Manual. Davis: Division
of Agriculture and Natural Resources,
Suttor, George (1843) The culture of the
Grape Vine and the Orange in
Australia and New Zealand. Sydney.
Thomas, J. (1995) Olive Fact Sheet. UC.
Fruit and Nut Research and
Information Centre, Dept. of
Pomology, University of California at
Davis.
URL:
http://pom44.ucdavis.edu/olive3.html.
United States, Department of the
Treasury (1818b) Message from the
President of the United States,
transmitting a statement of
proceedings which have been had
under the act of Congress of the 3d
March, 1817 entitled “An Act to set
apart and dispose of certain public
lands for the encouragement of the
cultivation of the vine and the olive.
Dated 16 March 1818. Washington:
E.DeKrafft (Shaw-Shoemaker Nº
46423).
Thompson, J.L. (1888) The olive. in:
Alfred Midley, The Queensland
Illustrated Guide for the use of
farmers, fruit-growers, vignerons, and
others. Brisbane: James C. Beal,
Government Printer. Pp. 107-111.
77
Villanis, P. (1884) The cultivation of the
olive and the methods of making oliveoil as recommended by the best Italian
and French authors, together with the
results obtained after long practice.
Adelaide: Webb, Vardon & Pritchard.
Wickson, Edward J. (1900) The
California fruits and how to grow
them: a manual of methods which
have yielded greatest sucess: with lists
of varieties best adapted to the
different districts of the state. 3rd
edition. San Francisco, CA: Pacific
Rural Press.
Voyiatzis, D.G. and Pritsa, T. (1992) The
onset and disappearance of relative
dormancy of olive embyos as affected
by age. in S.Lavee and I. Klein (eds),
Second International Symposium on
Olive Growing. Acta Horticulturae
356. 148-151.
Willis, J.H. (1972) A handbook to plants
in Victoria. Volume III Dicotyldons
Press.
Walden, N.K. (1928) Olive growing: a
South Australian Industry. BankNotes
1928, 34-35. [not seen]
Young, K. (1996) Study of significance in
relation to St.Hilaire Homestead.
Albury: Ken Young Conservation
Architect.
Walsh, G.L. (1981) Thomas Henry
Fiaschi (1853-1927). in: Bede Nairn
and Geoffrey Serle (eds), Australian
Dictionary of Biography Vol. 8: 18911939. Cl-Gib. Melbourne: Melbourne
Zohary, D. (1992) The wild genetic
resources of the cultivated olive. in
S.Lavee and I. Klein (eds), Second
International Symposium on Olive
Growing. Acta Horticulturae 356. 6264.
Warnock, P. and Pendleton, M. (1994)
Pollen analysis of Roman and Iron
Age plaster floors in the great temple
of Amman, Jordan. Abstracts of the
Proceedings of the Twenty-Seventh
Annual Meeting of the American
Association of Stratigraphic
Palynologists 27th Annual Meeting,
College Station, Texas, 1994.
URL
http://opal.geology.utoronto.ca/AASP/
Abstr27AnMtg.html.
Zohary, D. and Spiegel-Ray, P. (1975)
Beginnings of fruit growing in the Old
World. Science 187: 319-327.
Personal Communications
Cooke, David A (1997) South Australian
Animal and Plant Control
Commission, phone dicussion on
olive spread and eradication, 27 June
1997.
Waugh, James (1851) The cultivation of
the olive tree. For distribution to
members of the Kiama Agricultural
and Horticultural Society. Sydney: W.
Nation.
Cuneo, Peter (1997) Horticultural
Development Officer Royal Botanic
Garden Sydney—Mount Annan
Botanic Garden. letter 26 August
1997.
Westkott, Peter (1979) George Chaffey
(1848-1932). in: Bede Nairn and
Geoffrey Serle (eds), Australian
Dictionary of Biography Vol. 7: 18911939. A-Ch. Melbourne: Melbourne
Doyle, Karen (1997) Pest Control
Officer, Grampians National Park. 27
September 1997.
McDolnald, Noel (1998) Pest Control
Officer, Chiltern Work Station. 28
March 1998.
Wheeler (1877) Olive Culture. Reprinted
from the South Australian Advertiser.
Adelaide 1877. [not seen]
Tunison, Tim (1997) US National Park
Service Hawaii, e-mail on olive
spread and eradication, 27 June 1997.
78
Appendices
79
Appendix A — Point data for feral olives
in Australia
Victoria
Date
04 May 1992
03 Sep 1992
01 Jan 1991
07 Oct 1993
01 Jan 1991
05 Oct 1993
05 Oct 1993
06 Oct 1993
27 Aug 1987
01 Jan 1990
01 Dec 1984
01 Mar 1987
04 Apr 1995
23 Jan 1987
26 Ju1 1984
20 Sep 1989
01 Jan 1992
31 Aug 1992
07 Mar 1995
19 Ju1 1989
26 Sep 1990
28 May 1990
09 May 1990
15 May 1990
Location
141°49'44”
142°06'53”
143°20'48”
143°31'50”
143°32'14”
143°32'15”
143°32'20”
143°33'20”
143°48'00”
144°00'00”
144°47'32”
144°47'58”
144°50'08”
145°00'47”
145°35'00”
145°35'00”
145°41'03”
145°41'21”
145°41'26”
145°45'00”
146°30'37”
148°09'55”
148°10'00”
148°12'00”
36°45'49”
36°45'35'
36°16'03”
36°10'32
36°10'28”
36°10'30”
36°08'40”
36°09'28”
36°35'50”
38°15'00”
37°55'33”
37°38'34”
37°42'24”
37°48'10”
36°15'00”
36°25'00”
36°24'12”
36°21'33”
36°05'20”
36°25'00”
36°12'56”
37°30'58”
37°30'00”
37°28'00”
80
Altitude
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
110
110
n/a
280
0
n/a
140
20
020
n/a
n/a
180
n/a
n/a
n/a
360
n/a
n/a
n/a
Olives in Australia
Appendix B — Olive varieties currently
planted at Wagga Wagga
Table B.1. Current list of olive varieties planted at Wagga Wagga Campus (nos refer to
trees in the orchard)
Tree
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
Old
ID
No.
12
14
46j
12a
91
11
1L
1i
50
40
?
?
13a
42
48
43
49
45
44
9e
47
41
52
50a
51
46
27
46a
28
46b
29
46c
Variety (Orchardbook)
Oje Blanco Doncel
Corregiolla
Manzanillo Nº 14
Oje Blanco Doncel
Blanquette (Late)
Barouni
Sevillano
Sevillano
Large Fruited
Bouchine
Unknown (Bouchine?)
Unknown (Bouchine?)
Borregiolla
Regalaise de Languedoc
Ascolano
Salone
Gaeta
Mission
Rubra d’Aix
Blanquette (Early)
Manzanillo No 2
Palermo
Lucques
Large Fruited
Oblitza
Manzanillo Nº 2 on
Nevadillo Blanco
Manzanillo Nº 2 on
Nevadillo Blanco
Manzanillo Nº 2 on
Nevadillo Blanco
Manzanillo Nº 2 on own
roots
Place of Origin
Seeds/cutting
obtained from
Year of
planting
rootstock trial
Navara
Navara
Navara
Navara
Navara
Navara
Navara
Navara
Navara
Navara
Navara
Navara
Navara
Navara
Navara
Navara
Navara
Navara
Navara
Navara
Navara
Navara
Navara
Navara
Navara
Wagga Wagga
1932-34
1932-34
1932-34
1932-34
1932-34
1932-34
1932-34
1932-34
1932-34
1932-34
1932-34
1932-34
1932-34
1932-34
1932-34
1932-34
1932-34
1932-34
1932-34
1932-34
1932-34
1932-34
1932-34
1932-34
1932-34
1950
rootstock trial
Wagga Wagga
1950
rootstock trial
Wagga Wagga
1950
rootstock trial
Wagga Wagga
1950
81
Table B.2 Current list of olive varieties planted at Wagga Campus
Tree Old ID
No. No.
30
46d
Variety (Orchardbook)
31
46e
32
46f
33
46g
34
46h
35
46i
36
16
roots
roots
roots
Manzanillo Nº 2 on Oje
Blanco Doncel
Blanco Doncel
Blanco Doncel
Dr Fiiaschi
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
15
17
1j
17a
18
3a
19
19
20
20a
unknown
21
22
23
24
25
46k
26
unknown
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
21
Lucca
Marcocarpa
Sevillano
Marcocarpa
Pecholine de St Chamis
Olive de Gras
Nevadillo Blanco
Nevadillo Blanco
Cucco
Cucco
(Hardy's Mammoth)
Pera Bore No 1
Pera Bore No 2
Pera Bore No 3
Belle d’Espagne
Wagga Seedling 1934
Manzanillo Nº 14
Pendulina
(Hardy's Mammoth)
Boutillon
Atro Rubens
Attica
Rubra
Pecholine
Frantojo
Oblonga
Big Spanish
Place of Origin Seeds/cutting
obtained from
rootstock trial
Wagga Wagga
Year of
planting
1950
rootstock trial
Wagga Wagga
1950
rootstock trial
Wagga Wagga
1950
rootstock trial
Wagga Wagga
1950
root graft trial
Wagga Wagga
1950
root graft trial
Wagga Wagga
1950
Tirazza
Vineyard
1950
Pera Bore Farm
Pera Bore Farm
Pera Bore Farm
Wagga Wagga
82
1935
1950
1935
1935
1935
1935
1935
1935
1935
1935
1935
1935
1935
1935
1935
1935
1935
1935
1935
1935
1935
1935
1935
1935
1935
1935
1935
Olives in Australia
Table B.2 Current list of olive varieties planted at Wagga Campus
Tree
No.
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
Old ID
No.
34
35
36
37
38
39
1h
1g
1f
1e
1d
1c
2
1b
1a
1
3
4a
5a
5
6c
1k
6b
6a
6
7
8
91
92
93
94
4
9
10
8a
Variety (Orchardbook) Place of origin
Columella
Polymorpha
Atro Violacca
Regalis
Gros Redoneaux
Amelon
Sevillano
Sevillano
Sevillano
Sevillano
Sevillano
Sevillano
Big Spanish
Sevillano
Sevillano
Sevillano
O de Gras
Verdale
Bouquettier
Bouquettier
Tarascoa
Sevillano
Tarascoa
Tarascoa
Tarascoa
Pigale
Hawkesbury Agricult.
College
Verdale
Blanquette
Praecox
Hawkesbury Agricult.
College
Seeds/cutting
obtained from
Hawkesbury
Ag Coll
Hawkesbury
Ag Coll
83
Year of
planting
1935
1935
1935
1935
1935
1935
1897
1897
1897
1897
1897
1897
1897
1897
1897
1897
1897
1897
1897
1897
1897
1897
1897
1897
1897
1897
1897
1897
1897
1897
1897

The spread of Olives (Olea sp.) on Wagga

Transcription

Similar documents

- Olive Communications

File - Holy Trinity Primary School

PDF - Monex Europe

PDF

Marvel: Ultimate Alliance

Olive country life

Paula Brennan, Greater Dandenong